Water Purification

Water Purification
Mechanisms for water purification using a membrane-based process, such as ul-
trafiltration and microfiltration, involve size-sieving filtration which removes small
solids from water.

From: Comprehensive Membrane Science and Engineering, 2010

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while distillation involves the transformation of the liquid (water) into a vapor phase,
process which is based on the difference in the volatility of the compounds.
 while distillation involves the transformation of the liquid (water) into a vapor phase,
process which is based on the difference in the volatility of the compounds.

Slow sand filters represent

Slow sandone
filters
example
represent
of biological
one example
approaches
of biological
used inapproaches
water used in water
purification, whichpurification,
implies usingwhich
1–2 m
implies
deep tubes
using filled
1–2 mwith
deepsand,
tubes
which
filledretain
with sand,
the which retain the
impurities presentimpurities
in the filtered
present
water.
in Activated
the filtered
carbon
water.(charcoal),
Activated another
carbon (charcoal),
utilized another utilized
approach, is a microporous
approach,carbon
is a microporous
with high surface
carbonarea
withand
highenhanced
surface area
adsorption
and enhanced adsorption
properties. properties.

In scientific terms,Inflocculation
scientific terms,
is a process
flocculation
in whichis acolloids
processininsuspension
which colloids
becomein suspension become
destabilized after the
destabilized
addition of
after
a clarifying
the addition
agent;
of regarding
a clarifyingtheagent;
water
regarding
purificat-the water purificat-
ion process, the flocculation
ion process,phenomenon
the flocculation
can refer
phenomenon
to the destabilization
can refer to the
anddestabilization and
coagulation of contaminants
coagulationpresent
of contaminants
in the water.
present
Waterinchlorination
the water. Water
is commonly
chlorination is commonly
encountered in theencountered
treatment ofin water
the treatment
supply andofconsists
water supply
in the and
addition
consists
of chlorine
in the addition of chlorine
or hypochlorite to kill
or hypochlorite
microbes andtotokill
prevent
microbes
the spreading
and to preventof waterborne
the spreading
diseases.
of waterborne diseases.

The use of electromagnetic

The use oflight,
electromagnetic
especially with
light,
short
especially
wavelengthwith(in
short
ultraviolet
wavelength (in ultraviolet
range) is commonly range)
used isincommonly
disinfection,
used
dueintodisinfection,
the fact thatdue
it produces
to the fact
gaps
thatinit produces gaps in
the structure of nucleic
the structure
acids of ofmicroorganisms
nucleic acids ofdisabling
microorganisms
their cellular
disabling
functions.
their cellular functions.
This method is often
This
used
method
in water
is often
decontamination.
used in water decontamination.

This chapter focusesThis

mainly
chapter
on focuses
the mostmainly
investigated
on the physical
most investigated
methods which
physical methods which
involve the filtration
involve
process.
the Compared
filtration process.
to the other
Compared
approaches
to the used
otherinapproaches
water used in water
treatment, membrane treatment,
water filtration
membrane presents
water some
filtration
advantages,
presents some
such as:
advantages,
(1) the such as: (1) the
continuity of the operation;
continuity(2)
ofitthe
does
operation;
not require(2) itthe
does
usenot
of any
require
chemicals;
the use(3)of itany chemicals; (3) it
does not imply high does
energy
not imply
consumption;
high energy(4) the
consumption;
possibility of(4)scaling
the possibility
up, be inte-
of scaling up, be inte-
grated/integrate other
grated/integrate
processes and other
possibility
processesof automation
and possibility
(Street
of automation
et al., 2014).(Street et al., 2014).

There are several parameters

There are several
influencing
parameters
the properties
influencingandthe
efficiency
properties
of the
and efficiency of the
membranes used in membranes
water filtration:
used in
(1)water
the size
filtration:
of membrane
(1) the size
pores/the
of membrane
size of the
pores/the size of the
contaminant molecules/particles;
contaminant molecules/particles;
(2) the positive/negative
(2) thecharge
positive/negative
of the membrane
charge of the membrane
surface, respectively
surface,
the polarity
respectively
of the contaminant
the polarity ofmolecules;
the contaminant
and (3) the
molecules;
adsorbingand (3) the adsorbing
capacity of the membrane
capacity surface
of the membrane
(Street et al., 2014).
surface (Street et al., 2014).

Depending on the Depending

pore size ofon thethe
used
porefilters
size (membranes),
of the used filters
contaminants
(membranes),
withcontaminants with
different sizes can different
be removed sizes
and
cana be
better
removed
purification
and a better
can bepurification
achieved while
can be achieved while
decreasing the pore decreasing
size; thus,the
thepore
available
size; thus,
methodsthe available
are: (1) microfiltration
methods are: (pore
(1) microfiltration (pore
size about 0.1 μm),size
which
about
removes
0.1 μm),
bacteria
whichandremoves
suspended
bacteria
solids
andin
suspended
the water;solids
(2) in the water; (2)
ultrafiltration (poreultrafiltration
size about 0.01 μm),
(pore size
which
aboutin 0.01 μm),
addition towhich
microfiltration
in additionremoves
to microfiltration removes
viruses; (3) nanofiltration
viruses;(pore
(3) nanofiltration
size about 0.001 μm),
(pore sizewhich
aboutremoves
0.001 μm),
most
which
of the
removes most of the
organic molecules organic
and some molecules
multivalent
andions
some (divalent
multivalent
ions from
ions (divalent
hard water);
ionsand
from (4)hard water); and (4)
reverse osmosis (pore
reverse
size osmosis
about 0.0001 μm),
(pore size about
which0.0001 μm),
removes all which
organicremoves
moleculesall organic molecules
and minerals in water,
and minerals
resulting inultrapure
water, resulting
water (Fig. 12.1).
ultrapure water (Fig. 12.1).
Figure 12.1. Different
Figure
types
12.1.
of membranes
Different types
andoftheir
membranes
filtering principles
and their filtering
depending
principles depending
on the pore. on the pore.
Regarding the membranes
Regarding with
theadsorbing
membranes properties,
with adsorbing
the retaining
properties,
of contaminant
the retaining of contaminant
molecules is also based
molecules
on electrostatic
is also based interactions:
on electrostatic
due tointeractions:
the fact thatduethetomem-
the fact that the mem-
brane surface is negatively
brane surface
charged,is negatively
positivelycharged,
ions in water
positively
are adsorbed,
ions in water
forming
are adsorbed, forming
an electrical doubleanlayer
electrical
at thedouble
surfacelayer
of theat membrane
the surface (Street
of the membrane
et al., 2014).(Street
Thereet al., 2014). There
are several factors are
influencing
several factors
the adsorption
influencingability
the of
adsorption
the contaminants,
ability of the
likecontaminants,
their like their
nature, concentrationnature,
and concentration
mass distribution. and mass
Also, Ca
distribution.
2+ concentration
Also, Cainfluences
2+ concentration
the influences the
filtering propertiesfiltering
becauseproperties
the interaction
because
withthe
theinteraction
negativelywith
charged
the negatively
surface ofcharged surface of
the membrane is preferentially
the membrane favored,
is preferentially
comparedfavored,
to the contaminant
compared tomolecules,
the contaminant molecules,
which are usually bigger
which in aresize
usually
and have
biggerdifferent
in size and
spatial
have
conformations.
different spatial Also,
conformations.
the Also, the
physical and chemicalphysical
properties
and chemical
of the membrane
properties areof the
important
membranefor the
are process
important for the process
(Street et al., 2014).(Street et al., 2014).

Depending on their Depending

structure andon their
chemical
structure
composition,
and chemical
membranes
composition,
can also
membranes
be can also be
grouped as: (1) isotropic,
grouped having
as: (1)uniform
isotropic,physical
havingnature
uniformandphysical
chemical nature
composi-
and chemical composi-
tion in cross-section;
tionand
in cross-section;
(2) anisotropic,and which
(2) anisotropic,
are nonuniform which inare
cross-section.
nonuniform in cross-section.
Examples of anisotropic
Examplesmembranes
of anisotropic
for water
membranes
filtration for
arewater
givenfiltration
by layer-by-lay-
are given by layer-by-lay-
er approaches (Wang er approaches
et al., 2015, 2016a;
(Wang et al., 2015, 2016a;
Qin et al., 2016; XuQin et al. 2015;
et al., 2016;
ZhangXu et al. 2015; Zhang
et al., 2015a; Diep et al., 2015a;
et al., 2015; Gu Diepet al., 2015;
et al., 2015;
Kaner
Gu et al., 2015;
et al., 2015).Kaner
The main
et al., 2015).
advan- The main advan-
tage of this type oftage
membranes
of this type
is given
of membranes
by the antifouling
is given property
by the antifouling
determined property
by determined by
different approaches different
in surface
approaches
modification
in surface
(see Section 12.3
modificationfor (see
details).
Section 12.3 for details).

The progress in water

The purification
progress in has
waterbeen
purification
mainly conditioned
has been mainly
by theconditioned
scientific by the scientific
progress made in theprogress
identification
made inof
thepathogens
identification
and other
of pathogens
contaminants
and other
in water,
contaminants in water,
the introduction ofthenewintroduction
regulationsofregarding
new regulations
water quality,
regarding
but also
water
thequality,
devel-but also the devel-
opment of materials opment
science, of smart
materials
materials,
science,and
smart
nanomaterials.
materials, andToday,
nanomaterials.
there are Today, there are
many examples of manycommercial
examples
membranes
of commercial
for water
membranes
purification;
for water
however,
purification;
there however, there
is still a permanentisneed
still afor
permanent
improvement
needregarding
for improvement
their properties,
regardingsuch
theiras:properties,
(1) such as: (1)
antifouling properties;
antifouling
(2) chemical
properties;
stability;
(2) (3)
chemical
mechanical
stability;
stability;
(3) mechanical
and (4) thermal
stability; and (4) thermal
stability. stability.
industry, but also for a wide range of other industrial branches. This also covers
wastewater treatment, which is becoming of increasing interest to reduce the
organic loads of industrial effluents accruing in huge amounts. In addition, nu-
merous biotechnological processes have been described making use of resin-based
technologies for the enrichment and purification of valuable components, such as
polyphenols, which may then be used in enriched foods, beverages, cosmetics, and
pharmaceuticals (Kammerer et al., 2011a; Soto et al., 2011).
> Read full chapter
biodegradability of such wastewaters. Thus, adsorption onto activated carbon has
been suggested to reduce phenolic contents of the effluents, which can subsequently
be used among others for bioethanol production. Under optimal process conditions,
sorption capacities of around 36 mg phenolic compounds/g activated carbon were
obtained, indicating this sorbent to be suitable for wastewater treatment [27].
most prominent example is the bitterness of grapefruits and navel oranges, which is
observed prestorage and caused by both limonin and either naringin or hesperidin,
respectively [32–34]. Such unwanted bitterness can be effectively mitigated by se-
lective binding of the bitter compounds onto the surface of adsorbent resins as a
final step of juice production. Consequently, off-tastes and off-flavors developed
during storage remain unaffected by sorptive treatment. Such phenomena may be
observed, when precursors, which themselves do not negatively affect the sensory
properties of the products, are degraded, or form undesired reaction products with
other juice components. The aforementioned precursor compounds may result from
heating steps performed for thermal preservation of the juices or from degradation
processes such as the Strecker reaction. This has been demonstrated for ferulic acid,
a hydroxycinnamic acid frequently occurring in plant materials, which may give rise
to an enhanced release of para-vinylguajacol, the latter contributing to an “old fruit”
or “rotten” flavor. Thus, strategies to cope with such problems have been developed,
which are based on selective binding of the precursor compounds from juices using
macromolecular resins. In such cases, resin-based technologies may significantly
enhance the sensory quality of the juices without affecting their nutritional values
and, at the same time, extending the shelf life of the products [35,36].
 most prominent example is the bitterness of grapefruits and navel oranges, which is
observed prestorage and caused by both limonin and either naringin or hesperidin,
respectively [32–34]. Such unwanted bitterness can be effectively mitigated by se-
lective binding of the bitter compounds onto the surface of adsorbent resins as a
final step of juice production. Consequently, off-tastes and off-flavors developed
during storage remain unaffected by sorptive treatment. Such phenomena may be
observed, when precursors, which themselves do not negatively affect the sensory
properties of the products, are degraded, or form undesired reaction products with
other juice components. The aforementioned precursor compounds may result from
heating steps performed for thermal preservation of the juices or from degradation
processes such as the Strecker reaction. This has been demonstrated for ferulic acid,
a hydroxycinnamic acid frequently occurring in plant materials, which may give rise
to an enhanced release of para-vinylguajacol, the latter contributing to an “old fruit”
or “rotten” flavor. Thus, strategies to cope with such problems have been developed,
which are based on selective binding of the precursor compounds from juices using
macromolecular resins. In such cases, resin-based technologies may significantly
enhance the sensory quality of the juices without affecting their nutritional values
and, at the same time, extending the shelf life of the products [35,36].

Kiwi fruit is another

Kiwi
prominent
fruit is another
exampleprominent
of a fruit matrix
example characterized
of a fruit matrix
by high
characterized by high
polyphenol contents,polyphenol
which may contents,
cause problems
which may upon
cause juice
problems
processing
uponwith
juice
regard
processing with regard
to objectionable browning
to objectionable
and astringency
browning of and
the juice.
astringency
Amongofothers,
the juice.
resin
Among
adsorp-
others, resin adsorp-
tion is a process allowing
tion is athe
process
reduction
allowing
of polyphenol
the reductioncontents,
of polyphenol
thus overcoming
contents, thus overcoming
the aforementioned theproblems.
aforementioned
Statistical
problems.
analysesStatistical
were applied analyses
to systematically
were applied to systematically
optimize process parameters,
optimize process
such as
parameters,
feed flow rate
suchandas feed flow
volume,
rate which
and feedmayvolume, which may
be treated with a certain
be treated
amount
withofa certain
adsorption
amount
resin.ofAtadsorption
the same resin.
time, such
At thetools
same time, such tools
allowed deduction allowed
of the optimal
deduction
process
of the
conditions
optimal process
for polyphenol
conditions
recovery
for polyphenol
from recovery from
the resin upon desorption
the resin[37].
upon desorption [37].

Moreover, proteinsMoreover,
may also affect
proteinsstability
may also
of processed
affect stability
foods,offor
processed
example,foods,
by for example, by
unwanted haze formation
unwanted upon
hazestorage.
formationFor this
uponreason,
storage.fining
For this
is a reason,
process fining
step is a process step
commonly performed commonly
during performed
vinification,during
aimingvinification,
at reduced aiming
proteinatcontents,
reduced protein contents,
which may otherwise which
precipitate,
may otherwise
also asprecipitate,
a result of interaction
also as a result
withofphenolic
interaction
com-with phenolic com-
pounds. For that purpose,
pounds.bentonite
For that purpose,
is frequently
bentonite
applied.
is frequently
Alternatively,
applied.
ultraf-
Alternatively, ultraf-
iltration processes iltration
may be performed
processes may to diminish
be performed
proteintocontents.
diminishMoreprotein
recent
contents. More recent
developments comprise
developments
the application
comprise of polymeric
the application
membranes
of polymeric
with embedded
membranes with embedded
micro- or nanosized micro-
particles,
or nanosized
the latterparticles,
responsible
the for
latter
protein
responsible
adsorption.
for protein
Conse-adsorption. Conse-
quently, such membranes
quently,allow
such simultaneous
membranes allow adsorption
simultaneous
and filtration
adsorption
in oneand
single
filtration in one single
process step. In summary,
process step.
wine In
fining
summary,
with the wine
aforementioned
fining with themembranes
aforementioned
was membranes was
demonstrated to reduce
demonstrated
processingto reduce
times andprocessing
to producetimeslower
andamounts
to produceof wastes
lower amounts of wastes
[38]. Polyphenols are
[38].
the
Polyphenols
second major are compound
the second class
majorsignificantly
compound contributing
class significantly contributing
to haze formation upon
to hazewine
formation
aging and uponarewine
also aging
responsible
and are foralso
browning
responsible
reactions.
for browning reactions.
Their contents are commonly reduced by treatment with PVPP. Unsurprisingly, color
loss upon treatment of rosé wines with PVPP also indicates that desired compounds,
that is, anthocyanins, are bound by this polymer. Detailed investigations revealed
the degree of interaction with PVPP depended on the structure of the phenolic
compounds. Fining mostly affected flavanols (64% reduction) with oligomeric f-
lavanols showing higher adsorption rates compared with monomeric ones, followed
by flavonols (42%), whereas only 12% of anthocyanins were bound onto the polymer
surface. Computational methods calculating interaction energies were successful in
interpreting the aforementioned differences in reduction rates [39].
 Their contents are commonly reduced by treatment with PVPP. Unsurprisingly, color
loss upon treatment of rosé wines with PVPP also indicates that desired compounds,
that is, anthocyanins, are bound by this polymer. Detailed investigations revealed
the degree of interaction with PVPP depended on the structure of the phenolic
compounds. Fining mostly affected flavanols (64% reduction) with oligomeric f-
lavanols showing higher adsorption rates compared with monomeric ones, followed
by flavonols (42%), whereas only 12% of anthocyanins were bound onto the polymer
surface. Computational methods calculating interaction energies were successful in
interpreting the aforementioned differences in reduction rates [39].

The behavior of contaminants,

The behaviorsuch of contaminants,
as polycyclic aromatic
such as polycyclic
hydrocarbonsaromatic
(PAH),
hydrocarbons (PAH),
upon food contact upon with adsorbents
food contact has
with
alsoadsorbents
been studied
has inalso
detail.
beenAs studied
an example,
in detail. As an example,
sesame oil was treatedsesame
withoilclay
wasand
treated
activated
with carbon,
clay andrespectively,
activated carbon,monitoring
respectively,
the monitoring the
effects of this treatment
effectsonof PAH
this treatment
contents but on also
PAHon contents
genuine butoilalso
components.
on genuine oil components.
Expectedly, PAH significantly
Expectedly,interacted
PAH significantly
with bothinteracted
sorbent materials,
with both sorbent
with activated
materials, with activated
carbons being more carbons
effectivebeing
in lowering
more effective
PAH contents
in lowering
thanPAHclay.contents
Fatty acids,
thantria-
clay. Fatty acids, tria-
cylglycerols, and tocopherol
cylglycerols,
profiles
and tocopherol
were insignificantly
profiles wereaffected
insignificantly
by this measure.
affected by this measure.
However, such treatment
However, of such
edibletreatment
oils also affects
of edible
their
oilscontents
also affects of secondary
their contents of secondary
metabolites, such as metabolites,
phenolics andsuchphytosterols,
as phenolicsthusand phytosterols,
also impairingthus the also
oxidative
impairing the oxidative
stability of the oils stability
[40]. of the oils [40].
– freezers (− 80 °C/−20 °C)
– freezers
and refrigerators
(− 80 °C/−20 °C)
(4 °C) and refrigerators (4 °C)

– hot-plate (Heidolph,
– ref.hot-plate
no MR3001)
(Heidolph, ref. no MR3001)

– micropipettes–0.1–2 μL,micropipettes
1–10 μL, 20–200 μL
0.1–2 μL,
(Gilson)
1–10 μL, 20–200 μL (Gilson)
dynamic research fields in recent years with significant impact on the medical and
environmental research with near 5000 papers.
 dynamic research fields in recent years with significant impact on the medical and
environmental research with near 5000 papers.

Following a scientometric
Following overview
a scientometric
of the research
overview
in nanomaterials
of the researchandin nanomaterials and
nanoprocesses, as well
nanoprocesses,
as water purification,
as well as water
the brief
purification,
informationtheon
brief
a selected
information
set of on a selected set of
25 citation classics 25
in the
citation
fieldclassics
of the water
in thenanopurification
field of the watermaterials
nanopurification
and processes
materials and processes
were presented in were
this paper
presented
to inform
in this
thepaper
key stakeholders
to inform theabout
key stakeholders
the influentialabout the influential
papers in this dynamic
papersresearch
in this field
dynamic
as the
research
first-ever
field
study
as the
of its
first-ever
kind. study of its kind.

It was found that the

It was
major
found
research
that the
area
major
in these
research
classical
areapapers
in these
wasclassical
the water
papers was the water
NF materials and processes.
NF materials
Theand
other
processes.
studies on
Thethe
other
water
studies
nanopurification
on the waterin-nanopurification in-
cluded water dechlorination,
cluded water
water
dechlorination,
decontamination,
water water
decontamination,
disinfection,water
and w/odisinfection, and w/o
emulsions. emulsions.

As these citation classics

As these
dealcitation
with the
classics
important
deal with
health
theand
important
environmental
health and
research
environmental research
issues, the researchissues,
in thisthe
field
research
has strong
in this
public
field policy
has strong
implications
public policy
providing
implications providing
strong incentives for
strong
the key
incentives
stakeholders
for theinvolved
key stakeholders
in this research
involved
field.
in this research field.

Further research isFurther

recommended
researchfor
is recommended
the detailed studies
for the
including
detailedscientometric
studies including scientometric
studies and citationstudies
classicand
studies
citation
for each
classic
of studies
these topical
for each
areas,
of these
as well
topical
as theareas, as well as the
underlying research underlying
fields. research fields.
alysts are most promising. Although, these technologies have been commercialized,
their potential has not been reached for large-scale use in wastewater treatment.
 alysts are most promising. Although, these technologies have been commercialized,
their potential has not been reached for large-scale use in wastewater treatment.

Risk assessment ofRisk

recovered
assessment
pollutants
of recovered
and exhausted
pollutants
nanoparticles
and exhausted
still remains
nanoparticles still remains
significantly unexplored.
significantly
Therefore,
unexplored.
ecofriendly
Therefore,
waste management
ecofriendly waste
methods
management
are methods are
required to avoid hazards
requiredand
to avoid
toxicities.
hazards
The and
future
toxicities.
of the nanoparticles
The future of inthewater
nanoparticles in water
treatment is quite treatment
progressive,is but
quiteit progressive,
requires collaborative
but it requires
effortscollaborative
of academicefforts
and of academic and
industrial resourcesindustrial
to materialize
resources
a fast,
to economical,
materialize aandfast,feasible
economical,
water-treatment
and feasible water-treatment
technology. It will be
technology.
possible byIt will
working
be possible
together
by to
working
solve water
together
contamination
to solve water contamination
globally. globally.
is redistributed in the landscape and reduces its ecosystem impacts. In contrast to a
filtering mechanism, dissolved reactive nitrogen forms ( and ) can be transformed by
microbes, where in some cases up to 90% of the inorganic nitrogen is removed via
denitrification. However, even in this case, some proportion of microbial processes
might generate , an ozone-depleting compound, and , a greenhouse gas.
 is redistributed in the landscape and reduces its ecosystem impacts. In contrast to a
filtering mechanism, dissolved reactive nitrogen forms ( and ) can be transformed by
microbes, where in some cases up to 90% of the inorganic nitrogen is removed via
denitrification. However, even in this case, some proportion of microbial processes
might generate , an ozone-depleting compound, and , a greenhouse gas.

Constructed wetlands
Constructed
mimic somewetlands
of themimic
filtration
someof natural
of the filtration
systems.ofIf natural
designedsystems. If designed
and constructed properly,
and constructed
they can dramatically
properly, theyimprove
can dramatically
water quality
improve
(Fig. 10.13).
water quality (Fig. 10.13).
However, they do not
However,
replacethey
natural
do not
wetlands
replaceand
natural
rarelywetlands
provide and
otherrarely
wetland
provide other wetland
services, such as flood
services,
control
such
and
ashabitat.
flood control and habitat.

Figure 10.13. Cross-section

Figure 10.13.
of constructed
Cross-section
wetland
of constructed
designed for
wetland
subsurface
designed
flowfor subsurface flow
and to process agricultural
and to process
discharges.
agricultural
(Source:
discharges.
Copyright(Source:
© 2011Copyright
Regents of©the
2011 Regents of the
University of California.
University
UsedofbyCalifornia.
permission.)
Used by permission.)
membranes can be produced by the same nonsolvent-induced phase separation
process discussed above for gas separation membranes, except that the polymer
dope solution is extruded directly into or closer to the coagulation bath. Pore
size dimensions can be controlled by the air gap length (if any), polymer solution
concentration, addition of water-soluble polymers (such as poly(ethylene glycol) or
poly(N-methyl pyrrolidone), or even addition of solvent-soluble salts (e.g., LiCl).
 membranes can be produced by the same nonsolvent-induced phase separation
process discussed above for gas separation membranes, except that the polymer
dope solution is extruded directly into or closer to the coagulation bath. Pore
size dimensions can be controlled by the air gap length (if any), polymer solution
concentration, addition of water-soluble polymers (such as poly(ethylene glycol) or
poly(N-methyl pyrrolidone), or even addition of solvent-soluble salts (e.g., LiCl).

The thermal phaseThe inversion

thermal
process
phase isinversion
also employed
processfor
is also
ultra-employed
and microfiltra-
for ultra- and microfiltra-
tion membranes. Crystalline
tion membranes.
polymersCrystalline
such as polyethylene
polymers such and aspolypropylene
polyethylene and are polypropylene are
generally preferredgenerally
as solutions;
preferred
theseascan
solutions;
be prepared
theseatcan
temperatures
be prepared above
at temperatures
the above the
melting point, but melting
cooling point,
below but
the melting
cooling below
point will
the yield
meltingrapid
point
crystallization
will yield rapid crystallization
and phase separation.
and These
phase membranes
separation. These
are often
membranes
employedare in often
microfiltration
employedand in microfiltration and
dialysis applications.
dialysis applications.

For ultra- and microfiltration

For ultra- and
membranes,
microfiltration
characterization
membranes, ofcharacterization
the pore size is of the pore size is of
primary concern. Oneprimary
of the
concern.
easier methods
One of the is commonly
easier methods
referred
is commonly
to as the ‘bub-
referred to as the ‘bub-
ble-point test’. A membrane
ble-point test’.
is wetted
A membrane
with a liquid
is wetted
on one
with
side
a liquid
of the on
membrane,
one side of the membrane,
and gas pressure isand
applied
gas pressure
to the opposite
is applied
side.
to The
the opposite
point at which
side. The
bubbles
pointappear
at which bubbles appear
on the liquid side determines
on the liquidtheside
effective
determines
largestthepore
effective
diameter
largest
as defined
pore diameter
by the as defined by the
following relationship:
following relationship:

where p is the bubblewherepoint

p ispressure,
the bubbleispoint
the surface
pressure,
tension
is the
of surface
the liquid
tension
and of the liquid and
is the liquid–solid contact
is the liquid–solid
angle. As the
contact
pore angle.
diametersAs the
have
porea size
diameters
distribution,
have a size distribution,
it is desirable to determine
it is desirable
the range
to determine
of diameters
the range
and the
of diameters
mean diameter.
and the
Themean diameter. The
method involves increasing
method involves
the gas increasing
pressure until
the gas
the gas
pressure
flow isuntil
equivalent
the gas to
flow
theis equivalent to the
dry-membrane gasdry-membrane
flow. This methodgas flow.
is illustrated
This method
in Figure
is illustrated
8. in Figure 8.

Figure 8. Experimental
Figure
data
8. representation
Experimental data
of the
representation
bubble pointof
method
the bubble
to determine
point method to determine
pore diameter. pore diameter.
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Principles
Principles
of Water of
Purification
Water Purification
Mikko Nikinmaa, in
Mikko
An Introduction
Nikinmaa, in
toAn
Aquatic
Introduction
Toxicology,
to Aquatic
2014 Toxicology, 2014

Abstract Abstract
This chapter describes
This the
chapter
principles
describesof water
the principles
purification. of water
An important
purification.
pointAntoimportant point to
observe is the difference
observebetween
is the difference
purifying between
drinking purifying
water anddrinking
purifyingwater
waterand purifying water
optimal for life of organisms.
optimal for In lifethe
of former
organisms.
case,Init the
is important
former case, thatitorganisms,
is important that organisms,
prokaryotes and protists,
prokaryotes
are effectively
and protists,killedare
ineffectively
the water killed
treatment.
in theInwater
the latter
treatment. In the latter
instance, the purified
instance,
water must
the purified
allow all water
organisms
must allow
to live.
all Chlorination
organisms toand live. Chlorination and
other treatments that
other
aretreatments
used to purifythat drinking
are used water
to purify
are drinking
toxic to allwater
organisms.
are toxic to all organisms.
Water treatment firstWater
mechanically
treatment removes
first mechanically
large objects,
removes
whereafter
large objects,
much ofwhereafter
the much of the
organic material isorganic
biodegraded
materialvia isdigestion
biodegraded
by anaerobic
via digestion
and aerobic
by anaerobic
bacteria.
and aerobic bacteria.
When wastes are biodegraded,
When wastesproduction
are biodegraded,
of biogasproduction
and heatof occurs.
biogasA and
finalheat
stepoccurs.
in A final step in
wastewater treatmentwastewater
involvestreatment
the removal involves
of certain
the compounds,
removal of certainsuch as
compounds,
phospho- such as phospho-
rus by precipitationrus
as,byforprecipitation
example, insoluble
as, for example,
iron phosphate,
insoluble andiron
of phosphate,
some metals and of some metals
by hyperaccumulatingby hyperaccumulating
plants. plants.

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> Read full chapter