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Micro- and
WATER TREATMENT
ultrafiltration
permeate
membrane
concentrate
colloïds
dissolved substances
water
pre-treatment filtration
2 1
Framework
This module explains micro- and ultrafiltration.
Contents
This module has the following contents:
1. Introduction
2. Principle
2.1 Membrane material
2.2 Membrane module
2.3 Dead-end filtration mode
2.4 Inside-out filtration
3 Theory
3.1 Mass balance
3.2 Kinetics
3.3 Membrane fouling
3.4 Cleaning
4 Practice
4.1 Module design
4.2 Choosing a module design
5 Operation
5.1 Constant pressure or constant flux mode
5.2 Cross-flow filtration
5.3 Fouling prevention
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water treatment micro- and ultrafiltration
Membrane filtration can be divided into two catego- The removal of microorganisms is referred to in
ries based on the pore sizes of the membrane: log units. A removal of one log unit corresponds
- micro- and ultrafiltration (MF and UF) remove to a 90% removal. The removal of 4 log units cor-
colloidal substances and microorganisms responds to a 99.99% removal.
- nanofiltration and reverse osmosis (NF and In Table 1 the log removal capacity of MF and UF
RO) remove colloidal substances and microor- is shown for different microorganisms.
ganisms but also dissolved substances like
micropollutants and ions. The so-called molecular weight cut-off (MWCO)
can also be used as an indication of the ability
Micro- and ultrafiltration remove substances from of membranes to reject compounds. MWCO is
the water phase by a sieve mechanism. defined as the molecular weight of spherical mol-
size, µm
0.001 0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100 1,000
approximate
molecular 100 200 1000 10,000 20,000 100,000 500,000
weight
viruses bacils
relative
size of dissolved salts algae
materials
in water metal ions humic acids cysten sand
clay
silt
∆P (bar)
conventional filtration processes 0.01
microfiltration 0.05
treatment ultrafiltration 0.1
nanofiltration 5
reverse osmosis 30
ED and EDR
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micro- and ultrafiltration water treatment
Bacteria
- E.coli 0.5 - 2 5 5
- Pseudomonas 0.5 - 1.5 5 5
Viruses
- Enterovirus 0.02 0 4
- MS2 - virus 0.025 0 4
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water treatment micro- and ultrafiltration
pre-treatment filtration
2 1
Figure 3 - Possibilities for the use of MF and UF for drinking water production
The treatment steps used are aeration and rapid 2.1 Membrane material
sand filtration. The backwash water of the rapid Most of the membranes used are synthetic mem-
sand filters is loaded with high concentrations of branes made of organic polymers (also called
iron hydroxide and biomass. polymeric membranes).
The backwash water can be concentrated by The thermal, chemical and mechanical proper-
ultrafiltration. The permeate of ultrafiltration can ties of the polymer determine the properties of
then be used directly as drinking water or it can be the material.
treated further in the existing groundwater treat- There are several techniques to produce mem-
ment process. In this way a significant amount of brane materials. The production of membranes,
valuable water is saved. however, will not be discussed here.
2 Principle
2.2 Membrane module
The membrane is the barrier responsible for If a membrane was produced as a single, flat hori-
the separation of compounds out of the water zontal plate, a very large area is needed for the
phase. water production resulting in very high investment
The membrane is semi-permeable. The pore size costs. Therefore, membranes are purchased as
determines the removal of different compounds.
The removed compounds remain at the raw wa-
terside of the membrane and accumulate on the permeate
membrane.
membrane
Three water streams can be distinguished:
concentrate
- the dirty water or raw water is called feed
water
colloïds
- the water passing the membrane is called
the permeate or product water. This water is dissolved substances
particle free water
- the water with the rejected particles is called
concentrate or retentate. Figure 4 - Membrane and the different flows
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micro- and ultrafiltration water treatment
inlet permeate
resistance
flux
time
Figure 5 - Membranes put together in modules Figure 6 - Principle of dead-end filtration modules
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water treatment micro- and ultrafiltration
Vp - Vbw
γ=
Vp
in which:
γ = recovery (-)
Vp = volume of produced permeate (m3)
Vbw = volume used for backwash (m3)
feed
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micro- and ultrafiltration water treatment
in which:
∆Phydr
Jcor = flux corrected for temperature TMP = Pf − − Pperm
2
(l/(m2.h))
Jmeasured = flux measured at temperature T
(l/(m2.h)) in which:
Tref = reference temperature (°C) Pf = feed pressure (Pa)
Tmeasured = measured temperature (°C) Phydr = hydraulic pressure loss (Pa)
Pperm = permeate pressure (Pa)
In order to compare fluxes of different installa-
tions, the flux is also normalized for the applied The hydraulic pressure loss in an ultrafiltration
pressure (TMP). module is small and can be ignored.
The permeate pressure needed to transport the
Because the flux is linear, depending on the pres- permeate is rather small (0.1 bar).
sure, the normalized flux is: The pressure on the feed side of the MF/UF mem-
brane is typically 0.5 bar.
Pr ef
Jnorm = Jcor ×
Pmeasured
3.3 Membrane fouling
in which: During filtration the resistance increases as a result
Jnorm = normalized flux (l/(m .h))
2
of fouling of the membrane surface. The resis-
Pref = reference pressure (bar) tance increases because the pores in the mem-
Pmeasured = actual pressure (bar) brane are blocked and because caked suspended
matter is built up on the membrane surface. This
Trans membrane pressure resistance increase is referred to as fouling.
The trans membrane pressure (TMP) is the pres- The definition of fouling, given by the IUPAC, is: the
sure difference between permeate and the feed deposition of suspended or dissolved substances
on the membrane surface or in front of the pores
side of the membrane expressed in bar (Figure
or in the membrane pores.
8).
From this definition it is clear that fouling can be
subdivided into different mechanisms. In Figure 9
different resistances are defined:
dead-end filtration - membrane resistance
- pore blocking
Pf Pc - adsorption in the pores
- cake resistance
- high concentration of dissolved substances
near the surface.
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water treatment micro- and ultrafiltration
in which:
Rc = cake resistance (m)
lc = thickness of the cake layer (m)
rc = specific cake resistance (m-2)
(1- ε)2
rc = 180 ×
ds 2 × ε3
in which:
ε = porosity of the cake layer (-)
Figure 9 - Resistance processes ds = diameter of a particle (m)
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micro- and ultrafiltration water treatment
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water treatment micro- and ultrafiltration
Table 2 - Needed cross-flow rate in order to get turbu- Table 3 - Cross-flow rate at the rear end of a 1 meter
lence (L = 1 m) module with a back flush flux of 250 l/(m2•h)
Diameter Cross-flow rate Pressure difference
Rear flow at the Required time
(mm) (m/s) (Pa)
d (mm) end of a module for flushing a
5.2 0.58 1473 (m/s) module (s)
1.5 2.01 61,370 5.2 0.05 19
1.0 3.01 207,120 1.5 0.19 5
0.7 4.3 603,850 1.0 0.28 4
0.7 0.40 3
Back flush
The back flush or backwash resembles the back- decreases because permeate is used to remove
wash of a rapid sand filter in the conventional the accumulated compounds.
treatment. The filtration direction is reversed so
the filtration is now outside in (Figure 11). Perme- Air/water flush
ate is used for the backwash in order to keep the An air/water flush can be used to clean the mem-
permeate side of the membrane free of particles. brane wall from adhering fouling. The air/water
With permeate the dirt is removed from the pores flush is commercialized as AirFlush and is actually
and from the membrane surface. The backwash a forward flush with a combination of air and water
flux is 2 to 2.5 times the flux during filtration. (Figure 12). The air is used to create a turbulent
flow in the membrane under process conditions
After removing the particles from the pores and where no turbulence is attained with the water
the membrane surface, the particles and the cake flow.
have to be transported out of the module. Because
the amount of permeate used for a backwash is The cleaning efficiency depends on the kind of two-
limited (because of the recovery), the transport phase flow obtained in the membranes (Figure 13).
of dirt may be insufficient. A combined back flush If the water/air ratio is high, only small air bubbles
and forward flush can be used to overcome this
problem. First, a back flush is used to clean the
pores and to lift the cake. Then, a forward flush is
used to transport the dirt out of the module.
back flush
flush water
product
air
product
water
inlet
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micro- and ultrafiltration water treatment
4 Practice
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water treatment micro- and ultrafiltration
185
micro- and ultrafiltration water treatment
membrane
feed
membrane transport
support plate
Figure 17 - Cushion module
membrane
A permeate tube is fixed through the membrane
and the spacer.
spacer Feed water is forced outside-in through the mem-
branes and is collected on the inside of the cushion
Figure 16 - Plate membranes and transported through the permeate tube.
The specific surface area of a cushion module is
Plate membranes are alternately piled together 100 to 400 m2/m3, depending on the distance be-
with spacers (membrane, feed spacer, membrane, tween cushions. The distance can be adapted to
permeate spacer, membrane, etc.). The feed the quality of the feed water.
spacer is also used to create turbulence in the A cushion module can be cleaned with both a
feed channel to prevent fouling. forward flush and with a back flush.
In a module a large number of membranes are
put together, but the specific surface area remains Spiral-wound membranes
rather low (about 100-400 m2/m3), resulting in high In spiral-wound membranes several flat sheet
investment costs. membranes are wound around a central perme-
The sealing of the membranes in the modules is ate tube. The distance between two membranes
also a weak point in this membrane design. is small (0.25 to 1.0 mm), and membrane clogging
Plate membranes are seldom used in drinking is a serious problem in the feed spacer.
water production or wastewater treatment. Spiral-wound membranes are not backwashed.
This module design, therefore, is not used in MF/
Cushion membranes UF, but only in NF/RO.
A modification of the plate membrane is the
cushion membrane. A spacer is placed between
two membranes; the edges of the membranes
are glued together resulting in a cushion shape. 4.2 Choosing a module design
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water treatment micro- and ultrafiltration
time time
Figure 18 - Constant pressure versus constant flux Figure 19 - Flows in cross-flow filtration
mode
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micro- and ultrafiltration water treatment
flux
1200
600
400
fouling
200
0
19-02 26-02 5-03 12-03 19-03 26-03 2-04 9-04 16-04 23-04 30-04 7-05
no flocculation aid added FeCl3 added date
time
Figure 22 - Flux decline with and without FeCl3-dosing
Figure 20 - Flux decline with cross-flow filtration
crease as fast as in the dead-end mode. particles incapable of penitrating the membrane
Critical flux is the flux achieved at a certain cross- and can, therefore, be removed more easily.
flow rate. At this rate the cake layer has a certain In Figure 22 the flux decrease is shown (constant
thickness. If the cross-flow rate is increased, the pressure mode) for two UF modules. One is fed
cake layer decreases as a result of the high shear with coagulated water and the other with non-
stresses and the flux increases (Figure 21). The coagulated water. Because the smaller particles
increase in flux is rather small. Above a certain are captured in the iron flocs, the production is
cross-flow rate the flux will become constant. higher in the module with coagulant compared to
the module without coagulant.
Membrane systems with cross-flow mode are also
cleaned. Backwash and chemical cleaning are
used in the same way as in a dead-end system.
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
vcr= 1 m/s vcr= 2.4 m/s time (min)
Further reading
188