materials
Article
Study on the Influence of Selected Fabrics and Stitching on the
Strength of Upholstery Covers
Julia Lange * , Agata Ciura, Adam Majewski
Citation: Lange, J.; Ciura, A.;
Majewski, A.; Wojnowska, M. Study
on the Influence of Selected Fabrics
and Stitching on the Strength of
Upholstery Covers. Materials 2022, 15,
3854. https://doi.org/10.3390/
ma15113854
Academic Editors: Alberto
Campagnolo and Alberto Sapora
Received: 24 December 2021
Accepted: 21 May 2022
Published: 28 May 2022
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Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
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This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Materials 2022, 15, 3854. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15113854
and Marlena Wojnowska
Department of Furniture Design, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Poznan University of Life Sciences,
60-637 Poznan, Poland; ciura.agata@wp.pl (A.C.); adam.majewski@up.poznan.pl (A.M.);
marlena.wojnowska@up.poznan.pl (M.W.)
* Correspondence: julia.lange@up.poznan.pl
Abstract: So far, no coherent and comprehensive method has been elaborated allowing investigation
of tensile strength of upholstery seams dedicated to upholstered furniture. Producers of this type of
furniture are interested in the assessment of the quality of upholstery material joints, which seems to
be particularly important for ensuring the appropriate quality of products. Therefore, the objective of
this research was to investigate the influence of the type of material used and the direction of the
fabric cut on the strength of upholstery covers. Static tensile testing of selected upholstery fabric
samples was performed, and an attempt was made to identify the most optimal fabric–seam joints.
It was stated as a conclusion that the fabric tensile strength was the highest for Secret 10 fabric.
In addition, the strength of upholstery covers is not influenced by the direction of the fabric die
cut. For each fabric, a different configuration is preferable, as shown by results (Power 13: A-B,
Secret 10: B-B, Soft 10: A-A). The method, implemented for upholstered furniture, allows for an
objective assessment of the strength of upholstery covers and the selection of the most advantageous
fabric–seam combination for future furniture designs.
Keywords: upholstery; sewing; furniture; seam; strength; design
1. Introduction
Furniture is a basic object for everyday use and is both practical and functional in
character, providing also decorative value to residential interiors. Upholstered furniture,
apart from the main relaxation aspect, is designed to make the interior more attractive.
The complexity of upholstered furniture construction allows freedom in designing forms
and shapes, and thus creation of unique and unrepeatable objects. The aesthetic appear-
ance of furniture is mainly affected by the quality of workmanship. However, during
the production process there is a risk of defects appearing, which significantly reduces
the aesthetic value of the furniture and decreases the product’s impact on the customer.
Moreover, upholstered products should be characterized by durability in both construc-
tion and cover elements, which are in direct contact with the human body, maintaining
comfort and safety of use. Such technologically and structurally complicated products
as upholstered furniture are subjected to detailed quality control, especially in terms of
fabrics. When considering only the textile aspect, it must be stated that textile production
is one of the oldest worldwide industries, with a production volume exceeding 88.5 million
tons per year. It is a matter of great importance, especially for developing countries whose
share reached 58.6% of the global textile market [1]. Fabrics, as a fundamental material for,
e.g., clothing, provide an extended research field, including: types, structure, mechanical
and acoustic properties, comfort, and the manufacturing production process, as well as
environmental impact. Thus, in the literature of the subject, comprehensive research on
textile physical testing methods and advanced characteristics can be found [2,3]. In general,
the quality of the fabric is, on the one hand, described based on such parameters as tensile
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials
Materials 2022, 15, 3854 2 of 11

strength, elongation percentage, rupture, texture and breathability. On the other hand, it is
also affected by the manufacturing method and environmental conditions. It is also stated
that fabric strength results from the type of raw materials, yarn characteristic, spinning
technique, fabric geometry, yarn crimp during processing, and weaving conditions (includ-
ing temperature, humidity, and yarn tensions during weaving) [4]. Researchers examined
textiles, taking into consideration numerous intersecting aspects. Some of them tested tex-
tiles experimentally [5–9]. Ramasamy et al. [10] investigated the effects of the composition
of tencel fiber in a cotton/tencel blend based on yarn-on-yarn strength, elongation, yarn
diameter, packing fraction, hairiness, and frictional properties. They concluded that the
addition of tencel fibers increases the strength of the blend yarn to a significant level, with
higher tencel composition. Elongation of the blend yarn increases slightly with the increase
in tencel composition. Others assessed pilling—one of the most common surface defects
in polyester–cotton blended fleece fabrics [11]. Authors concluded that singeing and heat
setting are the most effective methods for reducing pilling in polyester–cotton-blended,
three-thread fleece cloth. Inspiring findings were presented by Witczak et al. [12]. Authors
tested, i.a., the acoustic properties (sound absorption coefficient) of flat, relief and jacquard
textiles. As a conclusion, it was mentioned that the more loosely woven the fibrous struc-
ture, the better acoustic absorption occurs. A similar effect was observed for yarn creating
the fabric. The lower the yarn linear density and thinner the fibers, the better the sound
absorption. It must be also emphasized that there is a significant connection between the
environment and the apparel industry; hence, textile production can cause significant dam-
age to the environment [13]. As was discovered by Wang et al. [14], the textile companies
of developing countries should responsibly choose the appropriate technology that results
in emission reduction, reduces their cost of emission reduction and reduces the product
differences with the developed country firms. Ranasinghe and Jayasooriya [15] presented a
comprehensive literature review on textile ecolabelling by accessing the “Ecolabel Index”
database. A total of 107 ecolabels existing in the textile industry were studied. Authors
exhibited the importance of focusing on regional or ‘gate-to-gate’ ecolabelling frameworks,
due to the outspread nature of the product manufacturing life cycle that covers a range of
geographical regions. Others performed a life-cycle assessment of textiles made of cotton,
polyester, nylon, acryl, or elastane [16]. In terms of waste, a promising outcome was also
revealed [17]. The authors concluded that 100% of textile waste can be used for making
yarn, in order to reduce environmental impact and to achieve a product at a low cost.
These yarns can be used for manufacturing denim, towels and chino cloth for trousers.
The presented brief literature review shows that many researchers analyzed textiles in
the context of a finished product. Apart from the fabric itself, the aspect of seams is also
important. Some researchers tested seam stiffness and strength efficiency along with the
draping behavior and seam puckering. Samples were made from three types of commer-
cially available fabrics of medium weight construction, varying in the blend composition
of polyester and cotton components [18]. Bhavesh et al. [19] investigated the impact of
weft knitted fabric structures, sewing thread types and stitch types on seam strength and
efficiency of the superimposed type of seam for cotton apparel. They proved that higher
strength of thread results in higher seam strength and better functional performance of
seam. Seam strength increases with the increase in sewing thread linear density. The effect
of stitch length was also studied [20]. The authors concluded that sewability (indicated
by penetration force) of 100% cotton, single-jersey fabric is inversely proportional to its
stitch length. Moreover, fabrics with coarser yarn counts and shorter stitch lengths have
better functional performance characteristics. Yesmin et al. (2014) [21] reported, e.g., that
the bursting strength of tested fabric gradually decreases with the increase in stitch length.
Therefore, maximum bursting strength is achieved in small stitch lengths.
The covering material, a structure built from connected pieces of fabric, is a key element
in the aesthetics and appearance of upholstered furniture. The quality of the stitching
and the way the fabric fits on the cover are crucial for the overall external appearance
of the product. Testing the strength of upholstery covers requires consideration of many
Materials 2022, 15, 3854 3 of 11

aspects that build the fabric–joint system. The strength of upholstery covers is influenced
by several factors, such as: the type of fabrics used, cover type of construction and direction
of cutting, the type of threads used, the type of stitching and seam density. Unfortunately,
it was observed that the cover, as the outer layer of upholstery systems, is frequently
neglected during testing. Quality checking is often limited to applying force simply by
hand and through seam observation. This method is insufficient to more extensively
counteract potential defects in cover stitching. In everyday use, the reliability of the cover’s
connections is just as crucial as the internal construction of the entire piece of furniture
since the cover is in direct contact with the user. Thus, it is exposed to the greatest damage.
Furniture producers are looking for test methods that allow them to obtain the best possible
configuration in terms of strength, which also would minimize the occurrence of potential
customer complaints.
In addition, the need for research development concerning the strength of uphol-
stery covers is a consequence of the scarce number of publications covering fabrics in
general (considered as the outer layer of upholstery systems). From the literature review,
it is evident that available scientific works concern mainly the analysis of upholstery sys-
tems: springs [22,23] and foams [24–35]. Publications dealing with fabrics used in the
production of upholstered furniture most often concern fire safety of housing and furniture
flammability [36–40]. The most related publication to this research deals with a different
characteristic—abrasion [41]. However, this publication does not consider upholstery
fabrics in terms of seam strength.
Determining the influence of selected factors on the strength of furniture covers will
allow the proper selection of materials at the early stage of the upholstered furniture design
process and the elimination of manufacturing defects of finished products. The knowledge
gained may be particularly useful in increasing the quality of upholstered furniture, thus
reducing the number of complaints in the field of sewing work and increasing the durability
of products and safety of use. Therefore, the aim of the study was to investigate the effect
of the direction of the fabric die cut and the type of material used on the seam strength and
failure form.

2. Materials and Methods

Samples were prepared in such a way to consider how different components affect the
strength of fabric–seam joints. The fabric samples were paired in different configurations.
A fabric is a flat textile product formed from two arrangements of threads oriented perpen-
dicularly to each other and interwoven according to a specific order [42]. When a fabric is
made, an arrangement network of threads is formed, arranged alternately in an orderly
manner. The longitudinal threads are the warp, the transverse threads are the weft, and the
way they are connected is the weave [43]. The fabric, as in the case of wood, has a different
structure depending on the direction of cutting. Therefore, the specimens were related to
the direction of cutting, as follows: A-A, B-B and A-B (where A—along the warp direction;
B—across the warp direction, along the weft).
The following fabrics were chosen for the study (Table 1): Power 13, Secret 10, Soft 10,
as types popularly used in the furniture industry. The most common type of thread used in
upholstery furniture production is type 20 thickness thread. In industrial and commercial
practice, the gravimetric method is used, which means that the thickness is indicated by a
number (e.g.: 20; 40). The number determines the ratio of the thread weight to its length [39].
The higher the designation, the thinner the thread, as follows: coarse threads—10–24 Nm;
medium threads—30–50 Nm; fine threads—60 or more Nm.
When selecting threads for individual sewing operations, attention should be paid
to their thickness. For sewing upholstery covers, which are used directly and are exposed
to heavy loads (e.g., backrest, seat), thicker threads are used, whereas in decorative seams
(e.g., for sewing decorative cushions) threads of smaller thickness are chosen—the seam
looks more aesthetic and does not require as much strength as in the case of seat or backrest
covers. An important parameter of yarn structure is also its twist degree, i.e., the number of
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Fabric
Fabric
Fabric Name
Name
Name
Fabric Name Table
Table Secret
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Secret
Secret 10 10 10
1.Characteristics
Characteristics
1. Characteristics
10
Secret of
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Power
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13
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13 types. SoftSoft
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FabricName
Fabric
NameName Secret
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Name
NameName Secret
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10
10 10 Power
Power
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13
13 13 Soft
SoftSoft
10
10 10

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Fabric
Fabric samples—
samples—
Fabric samples—
Fabric
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seamseam samples—
Fabric
visible
seam samples—
samples—
visible
on on left
visible
left on left
Fabric
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samples—
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PilePile
fabric fabric
Pile with with
fabric textile
textile
with cover
textilecover(vel- (vel-(vel-
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TypeType Type No No pilepile
Nofabric fabric
pile fabric Pile fabric
PilePile
fabric with
fabricwith textile
with textile
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cover (vel-
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Type
TypeType No
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No fabric
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fabric
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with
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Type
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No
pile pile
fabric
fabric fabric Pile fabric with vet)
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textile cover Skaic/artificial
Skaic/artificial
Skaic/artificial leather
leather
weave
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Type weave Nocanvas
pile canvas
fabric canvascanvas
vet)
vet) vet)canvas Skaic/artificial - -leather - leather
weaveweave
weave canvas
canvascanvas (velvet)
canvas
canvascanvas -- -
Material
Material
weave
weave Material
weave 100% 100%
canvas
canvas polyester
polyester
100%
canvas polyester 100% 100%
canvas polyester
polyester
100%
canvascanvas polyester 100% 100% polyurethane
polyurethane
100% - polyurethane
weave
Material
Material
Material 100%
100% canvas
polyester
100% polyester
polyester 100%
100% canvas
polyester
100% polyester
polyester 100%
100% --polyurethane
polyurethane
100%polyurethane -
Grammage
Grammage
Material
MaterialGrammage
Material 100%
100%400
100%400
g/m
polyesterg/m
400
polyester
2
polyesterg/m
2 2
100%
100%320
100%320
g/m
polyesterg/m
320
polyester
2
polyester g/m
2 2
100%
100% 390
100% 390g/m
polyurethane
polyurethane g/m
390
2
polyurethane g/m
2 2
Grammage
Grammage
Grammage
Material 400
400
100%g/m
400
g/m 2g/m
2
polyester 2 320
100%320 g/m
320
g/m
polyester2g/m
2 2 100%390 390 g/m
390
g/m
polyurethane 2g/m
2 2
Thickness
Thickness
Grammage
GrammageThickness
Grammage [mm] [mm] [mm] 400
4001.00
400
g/m1.00
g/m 22 1.00
g/m 2 320
320 1.00 1.00
320
g/m
g/m 22 1.00
g/m 2 390
3900.95 390
g/m0.95
g/m 22 0.95
g/m 2
Thickness
Thickness
Thickness
Grammage [mm]
[mm] [mm] 1.004001.00
1.00 g/m2 3201.00
1.00
g/m 1.002 3900.95
0.95
g/m 0.95
2
Abrasion
Abrasion
ThicknessAbrasion
Thickness re-
Thickness[mm]re-
[mm] [mm]re- 1.00
1.00 1.00 1.00
1.00 1.00 0.95
0.95 0.95
Abrasion
Abrasion
Abrasion re-
re- re- 100,000
100,000 100,000 100,000
100,000 100,000 100,000 100,000100,000
sistance
sistance
Thickness
Abrasion
Abrasion
Abrasionre-[cycles]
sistance
[cycles]re-[cycles]
[mm]
re-[cycles] 100,000 1.00
100,000
100,000 1.00
100,000
100,000100,000 0.95
100,000
100,000 100,000
sistance
sistance [cycles]
sistance
[cycles] 100,000
100,000
100,000 100,000
100,000100,000 100,000
100,000 100,000
SeamSeam
type
Abrasion
sistance
sistance type
Seam
sistance type
resistance
[cycles]
[cycles]
[cycles] straight
straight straightlockstitch
lockstitch lockstitch straight
straight straightlockstitch
lockstitch lockstitch straight
straight straight lockstitch
lockstitch lockstitch
Seam
Seam type
Seam
type type straight
straight 100,000
lockstitch
straight lockstitch
lockstitch straight
straight 100,000
straightlockstitch
lockstitch
lockstitch straight 100,000
straight
straight lockstitch
lockstitch
lockstitch
[cycles]
Thread
Thread Thread
type type type 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Seam
SeamSeam
Thread
Threadtype
type type
type
Threadtype type straight
straight
straight
lockstitch
20lockstitch
20 lockstitch
20 straight
straight
straightlockstitch
20lockstitch
20 lockstitch
20 straight
straight
straightlockstitch
20
20 lockstitch
lockstitch
20
Seam
Thread
Thread type
Thread
type
typetype straight
20
20 20 lockstitch straight 20lockstitch
20 20 straight lockstitch
20
20 20
Thread type StitchStitch
20typeStitchtype
and and
type stitch
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and length—straight
length—straight
stitch length—straight
20 lockstitch lockstitch
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with with a stitch
a stitch
with alengthlength
stitch 20 of 3ofmm—were
length 3 ofmm—were
3 mm—were
the theStitch
Stitch
constant
constant
the type
Stitchtype
constant and
type stitch
and
andparameters
stitch
parameters
parameters inlength—straight
stitch length—straight
length—straight
in the
the in conducted
conducted
the conducted lockstitchlockstitch
lockstitch
research.
research. research.
The with
with
The asamples
astitch
with
samples
The asamples
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sewn
were of 33sewn
mm—were
of
oftogether
sewn 3 mm—were
mm—were
together on aon aon a
together
the Stitch
Stitch
constant
the
theJuki Stitch
type
constant
constant type type
and
and
parameters and
stitch
stitch
parameters
parameters stitch
ininlength—straight
length—straight
thein
the length—straight
conducted
the conducted
conducted lockstitch
lockstitch
research.
research. lockstitch
research. TheThewith
with with
aasamples
samples
The
samplesstitch
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werelength
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sewn
were sewn of
oftogether
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mm—were
mm—were
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together on aaon
onmost a
Juki sewing sewing
Juki
Stitch sewing
machine
type machine
and machine
(JUKI (JUKI
stitch Corporation,
Corporation,
(JUKI Corporation,
length—straight Tokyo, Tokyo, Tokyo,
lockstitchJapan) Japan) using
Japan)
with using
a a a
using
100
stitch 100 needle,
needle,
a
length100 needle,
which
of 3 which is
mm—werewhich is
most is most
the
the
Juki
Juki constant
the
constant
sewing
Juki constant
sewing sewing parameters
parameters
machine
machine parameters
machine (JUKI
(JUKIin
in the
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in conducted
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(JUKI conducted
Corporation,
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research.
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Tokyo, research.
Tokyo, Japan)The
Japan) The
Japan)The
samples
samples
using samples
a
using were
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100 a were
sewn
sewn
needle,
100 needle,sewn
together
together
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of upholstered
inCorporation,
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conducted furniture
furniture
research. andusing
furniture
The and a 100
universal
universal
samplesand needle,
universal
werefor for
sewing
sewn
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sewing
for the the
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together
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fabricsfabrics
the
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Juki
Juki
often
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sewing
sewing
used
often
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usedin
inmachine
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the machine (JUKI
(JUKI
production
the (JUKI
production
production Corporation,
of
of Corporation,
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of Tokyo,
upholstered
upholstered Tokyo, Tokyo,
furniture Japan)
Japan)
furniture
furniture Japan)
and
andusing
using using
auniversal
a100
universal
and
universal 100a 100
needle,
needle,
for
for needle,
sewing
for
sewing which
which
sewing which
the
the is
is most
most
fabrics
the is
fabrics most
fabrics
mentioned
mentioned
Juki mentioned
sewing above. above.
machine above. (JUKI of Corporation, Tokyo, Japan) using a 100for needle, which is most
often
oftenoften
mentionedused
used
mentioned
mentioned usedin
in the
above.the
above. in production
the
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above. production ofupholstered
upholstered
of upholstered furniture
furniture
furniture and
and and
universal
universal
universal for sewing
for
sewing sewing the
thefabrics
the
fabricsfabrics
often Samples
Samples
used Samples
in ofthe ofproduction
dimensions
dimensions
of dimensions 50of×50 200×50200
mm
upholstered mm
× 200
2 were 2 were
mm cut
2 were
furniture cut according
according
cut universal
and according
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requirements
for the
sewing requirements
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ISO
fabrics of ISO
mentioned
mentioned
mentioned
Samples
Samples above.
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dimensions
of
ofindustrydimensions
dimensions 50 ××(Figure
50[45] 200
50200× mm
200
mm mm
2 2were
were 2 cut
were cut according
cut according
according toto the toofrequirements
the the requirements
requirements ofof ISO of ISO
ISO
[44] [44]
and
mentioned and
[44] industry
industry
and
above. standard
standard standard
[45] (Figure
[45] (Figure
1a). 1a).
Due Due
1a).to Dueto
the the
lack
to lack
theof of
lack standards
standards standards
for for
seam seam
for tensile
seamtensile
tensile
[44] Samples
Samples
and
[44] Samples
industry
and ofofdimensions
industrydimensions
ofstandard
dimensions 50
50×[45]
×50
200
200×(Figure
200
mmmm mm
22were
were 2 were cut
cut according
cut
according
according totoofthe
the
to requirements
the
requirements
requirements of
ofISOISO
of ISO
[44]strength
strengthand industry
strength
testing
Samples testing ofstandard
of standard
testing
of residential
dimensions
[45]
residential[45]
of residential (Figure
(Figure
furniture
furniture
50 ×
1a).
1a).
furniture
200 fabrics,
mm
Due
1a).
2Due
fabrics, to
itDue
to
fabrics,
were itthe
was to
the
was
cut
lack
the
lack
decided
it of
lack
decided
was
according
standards
ofdecided
to standards
standards
to
useto use
the
to use
the
for
forseam
the for
seam
upholstery
upholstery
the
requirements
tensile
seam
upholsterytensile
tensile
ma- ma-ma-
of
[44]
[44] [44]
and
strengthandand
strength
strength industry
industry
testing
testing industry
testingof
ofstandard
standard
standard
residential
of [45]
[45]
residential
residential [45]
(Figure
(Figure
furniture (Figure
furniture
furniture 1a).
1a).
fabrics,
fabrics,1a).
DueDue
fabrics, Due
it to
itto
was
wasthe
the
ittowas lack
the
lack
decided
decided lack
of
ofstandards
decided standards
toofuse
to standards
to
use the
use
the for
for seam
for
seam
upholstery
the seam
tensile
upholstery
upholstery tensile
ma-tensile
ma- ma-
ISOterials
terials test
[44] test
terials
and standard
standard
test
industry for for
standard the the
for automotive
automotive
standard the[45]automotive
(Figure industry.
industry. industry.
1a). The Due The
fabric fabric
The
to specimens
specimens
fabric
the lack specimens
ofuse were
standardswerecut cut
were foralong
along cut the
seam the the
along
strength
strength
strength
terials test
terials testing
testing testing
standard
test of
of
standardresidential
residential
of
for residential
the
for furniture
furniture
automotive
the furniture fabrics,
fabrics,
industry. fabrics, itit was
was
The it was
decided
decided
fabric decided to
to
specimens use
use
to the
the
were upholstery
the
upholstery
cut upholstery
along ma-
ma-
the ma-
terials
warp warp
tensile
test
warp standard
direction
direction
strength direction
(specimen
testing
for(specimen
(specimentheA)
of A)automotive
automotive
and
residential and
A)
acrossacross
and the industry.
industry.
across
furniture the
warp theThe
warp
fabrics,
The
fabric
direction
warp it
fabric
direction
wasdirection specimens
specimens
(specimen
(specimen
decided
were
(specimen
to B),
use
were
B),
and
the
cut
and
B), cut
along
then and along
then
upholstery
the
right
then the
rightright
terials
terials
warp
warp terials
warp test
testdirection
direction test
directionstandard
standard
standard for
forthefor
theA)
(specimen
(specimen
(specimen automotive
the
A)automotive
A)
andautomotive
and and
across
across industry.
industry.
across
the
the industry.
the
warp
warp The
The
warp The
fabric
directionfabric fabric
direction
direction specimens
specimens
specimens
(specimen
(specimen
(specimen were
were
B),
B),and were
cut
B),
and cut along
cut
along
then
andthen along
the
the
right
thenright the
right
warp
warp warpdirection
direction
direction (specimen
(specimen
(specimen A)
A)and and
A) and across
acrossacross
the
thewarp the
warp warpdirection
direction
direction (specimen
(specimen
(specimen B),
B),and and
B), and then
thenthen right
right right
Materials 2022,15,
Materials2022, 15,3854
x FOR PEER REVIEW 55 of 11
11

Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 11

materials
sides weretest standard
sewn forThe
together. the seam
automotive
line wasindustry.
drawn 10 The
mm fabric
fromspecimens
the edge of were
bothcut along
samples.
the
Thewarp direction
test was (specimen
conducted based A) on
andthe across the warp
industry direction
standard [45](specimen B),The
(Figure 1b). and specimens
then right
sideswere
sides were sewn
sewn together.
together. The seam line
linewas
wasdrawn 1010
mm from thethe
edge of both samples.
were subjected to a staticThe seamtest
tensile until drawn
complete mm from
failure. It is aedge
The test was conducted based on the industry standard [45] (Figure 1b). The specimens
basicofexperiment
both samples.
of
The test
material was conducted
mechanical based
properties, on the
which industry
allows standard
the [45]
observation (Figure
and 1b).
recordingThe specimens
of the tensile
were subjected to a static tensile test until complete failure. It is a basic experiment of
were subjected
process tomoment
a static tensile test until complete failure. It is a basic experiment of
materialfrom the
mechanical of specimen
properties, which allowsloading
the to failure
observation[46].
and recording of the tensile
material mechanical properties, which allows the observation and recording of the tensile
process from the moment of specimen loading to failure [46].
process from the moment of specimen loading to failure [46].

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 1. (a)—fabric cutting method, (b)—fabric strength test method.
Figure 1. (a)—fabric
Figure1. cuttingmethod,
(a)—fabric cutting method,(b)—fabric
(b)—fabricstrength
strength test
test method.
method.
Thetests
The tests were performed
performedusingusingaa Zwick
Zwick 1445
1445 numerically
numerically controlled
controlledtesting
testingmachine
machine
The tests were
were performed using a Zwick 1445 numerically controlled testing machine
(Zwick
(Zwick Roell GmbH and Co.KG, Ulm, Germany). Ten specimens from each group (A-A,
(Zwick Roell
Roell GmbH
GmbH and and Co.KG,
Co.KG,Ulm, Ulm,Germany).
Germany). TenTen specimens
specimens from
from eacheach group
group (A-A,
(A-A,
B-B,
B-B, A-B) were subjected to tensile tests with identical parameters (Table 2). Each speci-
B-B,A-B)
A-B)were
weresubjected
subjected tototensile
tensile tests
tests with
with identical
identical parameters
parameters (Table 2). 2). Each specimen
speci-
men
was was positioned
menpositioned so that
was positioned so
so that
the seam
that theseam
the seam
was was
inwas in
thethe
theincenter ofcenter of
thethe
theofworking
center working andarea,
area, area,
working andand
equal equal
sections
equal
sections
of of
material
sections material
were placed
of material were
werein placed
the grips
placed in the grips
in theongrips on
eachonside each
eachtosideside
achieve to achieve
a uniform
to achieve a uniform force
force force
a uniform dis- dis-
distribution
tribution
(Figure (Figure
2).(Figure
tribution 2).The
The specimens
2). Thespecimens
specimens were
were stretched
were stretched
until until
theuntil
stretched thethe
fabric-sewn fabric-sewn
systemsystem
fabric-sewn system
ruptured. ruptured.
ruptured.

Figure 2. Sample testing station.

Figure2.2. Sample
Figure Sample testing
testing station.
station.
Table 2. Zwick 1445 testing parameters.
Table2.2.Zwick
Table Zwick1445
1445testing
testingparameters.
parameters.
Test Type Tensile
Test
Test Type
mode Type Tensile
Tensile
damaging
mode
Max.
modeforce loss damaging
100 N damaging
Max.
Max. force
Force loss speed
stabilizing
force loss 10100 N
mm/min
100 N
Force
Force stabilizing
System stabilizing speed
speed
reset force 5N10 mm/min
10 mm/min
System
System
Max. reset force
reset
deflectionforce 5N
100 mm5N
Max. deflection 100 mm
Max.
Max. deflection
working speed 100
100 mm
mm/min
Max. working speed 100 mm/min
Max.
Max. force
working
Max. force speed 10100
kN mm/min
10 kN
Testing
Max. speed
force
Testing speed 1010
mm/min
kN
10 mm/min
Testing speed 10 mm/min
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 11
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 11
Materials 2022, 15, 3854 6 of 11

3. Results
3. Results
3. Results
During the tensile test, the failure force F(max) (N) and displacement ΔF(max) (mm) were
During
measuredDuringforthe tensile
each
the test,
fabric
tensile type
test,the
thefailure
(Tables
failure force
3–5). ItFF
force (max) (N) and displacement ΔF(max) (mm) were
is worth(N)noting that for sample
and displacement ∆F(max)
no.6 (mm)
of Power were
(max)
measured
13measured for
fabric, the each fabric
formaximum type
each fabricforce (Tables
type reached 3–5). It is worth
extraordinary
(Tables 3–5). noting
It is worthvalues that
noting both for sample
in sample
that for no.6
force andno.6of Power
displace-
of Power
1313fabric,
ment. the
It was
fabric, theamaximum force
force reached
result of having
maximum extraordinary
denser extraordinary
reached sewing and double valuesfinishing
values bothininforce
both force
in one and
and displace-
sample side,
displacement.
ment.
which It
It waswas was a result
not noticed.
a result of having
Thisdenser
of having denser
sample sewing
test was
sewing and and double
eventually finishing
excluded
double finishing infrom in one sample
side, side,
further analysis.
one sample which
which wasnoticed.
wasFigure
not not noticed.
3 shows This This
averaged
sample sample
fabric
test test
was was eventually
rigidity
eventually excluded
with excluded
the standard from
fromdeviation
furtherfurther analysis.
of the
analysis. results
Figure
taking Figure 3 shows averaged
3 shows averaged
into consideration fabric rigidity
fabriccutting
the sample’s rigidity with the standard
with theFigure
direction. standard deviation
deviation
4 gathers of
values the
ofof
theresults
results
sample
taking
taking into consideration
into consideration the
displacement during tensile tests. thesample’s
sample’s cutting
cutting direction.
direction.Figure
Figure4 gathers
4 gathers values
valuesof sample
of sample
displacement
displacement during
duringtensile
tensile tests.
tests.
500 451.29
500 451.29 427.55
377.91 427.55
400 377.91
400 326.13 329.95
326.13 303.18 329.95
[N]

300 275.82 303.18 272.65

[N]

300 275.82 243.05 272.65

Force

243.05
Force

200
200
100
100
0
0
A-A B-B A-B
A-A B-B A-B
POWER 13 SEKRET 10 SOFT 10
POWER 13 SEKRET 10 SOFT 10

Figure 3. 3.
Figure Fabric rigidity
Fabric inin
rigidity cutting direction:
cutting A-A,
direction: B-B,
A-A, A-B.
B-B, A-B.
Figure 3. Fabric rigidity in cutting direction: A-A, B-B, A-B.

0.040 0.0358
0.040 0.0351
0.035 0.0327 0.0351 0.0358
0.035 0.0327 0.0299 0.0293 0.0302 0.0310
[m]

0.0282 0.0299 0.0279 0.0302 0.0310

0.030 0.0293
[m]

0.0282 0.0279
0.030
0.025
Displacement

0.025
Displacement

0.020
0.020
0.015
0.015
0.010
0.010
0.005
0.005
0.000
0.000
A-A B-B A-B
A-A B-B A-B
POWER 13 SEKRET 10 SOFT 10
POWER 13 SEKRET 10 SOFT 10
Figure 4. Fabric displacement during test in cutting direction A-A, B-B, A-B.
Figure 4. Fabric displacement during test in cutting direction A-A, B-B, A-B.
Figure 4. Fabric displacement during test in cutting direction A-A, B-B, A-B.
Table 3. Power 13 fabric test results.

Sample 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
F(max) [N] 306.35 338.35 288.35 322.35 286.35 1367.4 * 352.35 370.35 378.35 292.35
A-A
∆F(max) [m] 0.0613 0.0293 0.0264 0.0268 0.0265 0.1198 * 0.0334 0.0325 0.0320 0.0258
F(max) [N] 330.35 320.35 258.35 208.68 324.35 296.35 302.35 334.35 324.35 332.35
B-B
∆F(max) [m] 0.0349 0.0371 0.0323 0.0218 0.0393 0.0327 0.0366 0.0408 0.0385 0.0371
F(max) [N] 334.35 312.35 326.35 364.35 296.35 334.35 352.35 356.35 324.35 298.35
A-B
∆F(max) [m] 0.0334 0.0335 0.0364 0.0392 0.0325 0.0348 0.0390 0.0369 0.0331 0.0388
* result was excluded.
Materials 2022, 15, 3854 7 of 11

Table 4. Secret 10 fabric test results.

Sample 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
F(max) [N] 130.68 266.35 306.35 338.35 406.35 418.35 418.35 476.35 440.35 330.35
A-A
∆F(max) [m] 0.0134 0.0205 0.0233 0.0242 0.0271 0.0304 0.0317 0.0342 0.0268 0.0358
F(max) [N] 545.70 452.35 436.35 444.35 488.35 452.35 502.35 462.35 346.35 382.35
B-B
∆F(max) [m] 0.0321 0.0248 0.0313 0.0264 0.0308 0.0294 0.0333 0.0318 0.0271 0.0255
F(max) [N] 456.35 486.35 446.35 452.35 426.35 400.35 424.35 456.35 386.35 340.35
A-B
∆F(max) [m] 0.0312 0.0348 0.0339 0.0274 0.0301 0.0318 0.0272 0.0321 0.0279 0.0251

Table 5. Soft 10 fabric test results.

Sample 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
F(max) [N] 266.35 246.68 306.35 238.68 314.35 262.35 288.35 252.35 280.35 302.35
A-A
∆F(max) [m] 0.0077 0.0287 0.0373 0.0289 0.0346 0.0330 0.0341 0.0322 0.0294 0.0335
F(max) [N] 256.35 223.68 250.68 232.68 180.68 256.35 241.68 266.35 227.68 294.35
B-B
∆F(max) [m] 0.0241 0.0289 0.0278 0.0299 0.0254 0.0316 0.0289 0.0292 0.0220 0.0311
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 11
F(max) [N] 270.35 237.68 296.35 274.35 292.35 284.35 246.68 225.68 296.35 302.35
A-B
∆F(max) [m] 0.0294 0.0263 0.0344 0.0337 0.0316 0.0309 0.0295 0.0296 0.0326 0.0317

4.
4. Discussion
Discussion
Static
Static tensile
tensiletests
testsexposed
exposedhow howvarious
variousfactors affect
factors thethe
affect strength of upholstery
strength covers.
of upholstery co-
The tests showed the relationship between the different parameters in terms
vers. The tests showed the relationship between the different parameters in terms of sew- of sewing
technique
ing techniqueandand
the the
type of fabric
type used.
of fabric Depending
used. Depending ononthe
thefabric
fabrictype
typeand
anddirection,
direction, the
the
failure of the samples within the seam is different (Figure
failure of the samples within the seam is different (Figure 5). 5).

Figure 5.
Figure 5. Summary
Summaryof offailure
failuretest:
test:(1)
(1)Power
Power1313A-A,
A-A,(2)(2)Power
Power 1313 B-B,
B-B, (3)(3) Power
Power 13 13 A-B,
A-B, (4) (4) Secret
Secret 10
10 A-A,
A-A, (5) Secret
(5) Secret 10 B-B,
10 B-B, (6) Secret
(6) Secret 10 A-B,
10 A-B, (7) Soft
(7) Soft 10 A-A,
10 A-A, (8) Soft
(8) Soft 10 B-B,
10 B-B, (9) Soft
(9) Soft 10 A-B.
10 A-B.

Based on the analysis of the results, it might be stated that destruction is the least for
samples stitched in the warp direction (A-A) for all fabric types (Figure 5 subsections 1, 4,
7), particularly for Power 13. The seam of Power 13 and Soft 10 samples was ripped mainly
from the sides, causing relatively little fabric damage. Interesting is the fact that despite
Materials 2022, 15, 3854 8 of 11

Based on the analysis of the results, it might be stated that destruction is the least for
samples stitched in the warp direction (A-A) for all fabric types (Figure 5 subsections 1, 4, 7),
particularly for Power 13. The seam of Power 13 and Soft 10 samples was ripped mainly
from the sides, causing relatively little fabric damage. Interesting is the fact that despite the
strongest damage to the fabric, the biggest value of damaging force and at the same time
the smallest displacement were noted for Secret 10—377.91 N and 0.0282 m—while force
values for Power 13 and Soft 10 were less than 16% and 37% and displacement greater than
16% and 6% respectively.
Analyzing the B-B cutting direction results (across the warp direction), one can see a
greater destruction of the seam and a significant violation of the fabric along the seam on
both sides (Figure 5, subsections 2, 5, 8). In the case of the Power 13, the destruction occurs
mainly within the fabric. The Secret 10 and Soft 10 samples had little fabric destruction
and mainly the seam was destroyed. Again, Secret 10 exposed the biggest damaging
force (451.29 N), being 49% and 86% bigger than Power 13 and Soft 10, respectively. The
displacement of Soft 10 was the smallest—0.0279 m—but in comparison to Secret 10, this
was only 5% (0.0293 m).
In relation to the A-B direction, it can be stated that Secret 10 fabric showed the biggest
value of damaging force (427.55 N) and the smallest displacement (0.0302 m), similarly to
the two other cutting configurations (Figure 5, subsections 3, 6, 9). Values for Power 13 and
Soft 10 were less, for nearly 30% and 57%, respectively. In contrast to force values, there
is a smaller difference in displacement—Power 13 had 18.5% and Soft 10 had 2.6% bigger
values than Secret 10. In all die-cut direction cases, the damage was observed rather within
the seam.
In general, when considering the samples tested in terms of fabric type, certain correla-
tions can be observed. In the case of Power 13 fabric, which is an elastic material with pile,
the most visible is the variation of damage depending on the direction of the sample cutting.
These are, in each case, large damages, together with violation and displacement of the
material along the seam. Taking the results into consideration, it can be noticed that average
values of force F(max) (A-A: 326.13 N, B-B: 303.18 N, A-B: 329.95 N) and displacement (max)
(A-A: 0.0327 m, B-B: 0.0351 m, A-B: 0.0358 m) during the tensile test are comparable. The
Power 13 fabric has similar strength in all directions, but due to its high stretch ability, the
nature of the damage is different depending on the direction of the specimens.
The most durable fabric in all directions with the least amount of destruction is
Secret 10. This is a knitted fabric, with an even weave, where the weft and warp are made
of the same thread, so the direction of the cut-out has little influence on the seam destruction
during the tensile test. It has the greater grammage among tested fabrics (400 g/m2 ). In
each case, Secret 10 reached the highest rigidity and behaved in a fairly similar manner,
with slight deviations. However, the mean displacement values for all cutting groups are
comparable. This demonstrates the relatively equivalent tensile behavior of the material,
regardless of the direction of the specimens’ die-cut.
The Soft 10 fabric behaves similarly to the Power 13 fabric, where the seam failure is
determined by the direction of the specimen’s die-cut. In both fabric types, the weft and
warp are significantly different; hence, the variable form of destruction is closely related to
the cutting direction of the samples. Soft 10 fabric showed the lowest strength of all the
materials tested. This might result from the fact that it is a skaic fabric, commonly called
“eco-leather”. Its unusual structure has a significant impact on its strength. The artificial
coating made of polyurethane on a thin backing does not have any weave to reinforce
the structure of the material, hence such low F(max) results. However, the damage takes a
different form depending on the direction of the tensile force. The displacement, as in the
case of the Power 13 fabric, is comparable; the mean values are similar (A-A: 0.0299 m, B-B:
0.0279 m, A-B: 0.0310 m).
Materials 2022, 15, 3854 9 of 11

5. Conclusions
On the basis of the strength analysis of upholstery cover tests, the following conclu-
sions can be formulated:
1. The strength of upholstery covers is influenced by the type of fabric. A knitted ma-
terial with an even weave, where the weft and warp are made of the same thread
is characterized by better tensile rigidity. Furthermore, in this case the seam failure,
form does not depend on the die-cut direction. The aforementioned statement was
illustrated in the presented study, where Secret 10 fabric was the strongest one, achiev-
ing a damaging tensile force of 377.91 N (A-A), 451.29 N (B-B) and 427.55 N (A-B),
while displacement was 0.0282 m, 0.0293 m and 0.0302 m, respectively.
2. A sample’s die-cut direction affects the seam failure form, but does not influence the
averaged tensile damaging forces and observed displacements. When comparing
extreme damaging forces within the same fabric samples, but in different die-cut
methods (A-A, B-B, A-B), it might be mentioned that differences are as follows: for
Power 13–9%, Secret 10–19% and Soft 10–14%. For displacement, value differences for
Power 13, Secret 10 and Soft 10 are 9%, 7%, and 11%, respectively.
3. The seam failure form in different die-cut directions is closely correlated with the
fabric construction, where the weft and warp can be made of different thread types.
In the case of Power 13 and Soft 10 fabrics, it is evident that, e.g., A-A die-cut direction
results in relatively small fabric damage and mainly from sides, while for B-B direction,
the seam was greatly damaged.
4. This work can serve as an aid to the industry in the design of soft furnishings and
construction of upholstery layouts, contributing to the rational and informed selection
of materials to produce upholstery furniture. Based on the analysis of seam damages,
it is possible to recognize whether the nature of the damage to the seam-fabric com-
bination is a result of the cover being sewn together incorrectly or is caused by the
fabric structure.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.L. and A.C.; methodology, J.L. and A.M.; software, J.L.
and M.W.; validation, J.L. and A.M.; formal analysis, A.C. and M.W.; investigation, A.C. and M.W.;
resources, J.L.; data curation, J.L.; writing—original draft preparation, J.L. and M.W.; writing—review
and editing, A.M. and J.L.; visualization, J.L., M.W. and A.M.; supervision, J.L.; project administration,
J.L.; funding acquisition, J.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the
manuscript.
Funding: Publication was financed within the framework of the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher
Education’s program: “Regional Initiative Excellence” in the years 2019–2022 (No. 005/RID/2018/19),
financing amount 12 000 000,00 PLN.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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