Exogenic Processes – happens near or at the
surface that changes the landscape, shape, or the
form of the topography of the earth.
2 things that control the exogenic processes
- Solar Energy
- Gravity
Human Activities – affects the rate of the
exogenic process.
Degradation – the quality of rocks in destroyed
or degraded.
- There is decrease in base level.
Aggradation – accumulation of rocks
- There is an increase in base level
Degradation Processes – weathering, mass
wasting, erosion, and transportation.
Weathering – physical breakdown and/or
chemical alteration of rocks at or near the
surface.
Physical/Chemical Weathering – breaking up of
large rocks into smaller fragments without
changing the chemical composition.
Frost Wedging – occurs in regions where
temperature fluctuates above and below freezing
point resulting in a freezethow cycle.
- There must be a fracture in the rock.
Insolation Weathering – results from the
expansion and contraction of rocks caused by
temperature changes.
Exfoliation – process of “PEELING OFF”
Unloading or Pressure Release – happens mainly
because of pressure.
- Occurs when the overlying rock is
eroded away, causing the outer rock
layer to expand more than the layers
underneath.
Sheeting – exfoliation due to the pressure
release.
Oxidation – Rusting, weathering agent is
oxygen, and rocks/strata that is rich in iron.
Hydrolysis – water and most common type
of chemical weathering.
Carbonation and Solution – chemical agent
is carbon dioxide and water or carbonic acid.
Biological action – plants and animals may
create chemical weathering by releasing
chelating.
Mass Wasting – Moves of rocks, soil, and
regolith.
Regolith – unconsolidated rocks, rock
fragments, minerals, or mineral fragments.
Angle of Repose – steepest angle at which
materials remain stable and do not move
down slope.
- If slope angle is less than angle of
repose, then it is stable.
Types of mass wasting
- Types of material that will move.
- Velocity.
- Nature of movement.
Rock and Debris Falls – free movement of
regolith.
Talus – accumulation of fallen materials at the
base of the cliff.
Landslide – sudden movement of cohesive
mass of soil, rock or regolith.
Translational Slides – involve the movement of
a mass of materials along a well defined surface.
Rotational Slides – Occur when the descending
materials move and masses along a concave.
Flows – same with landslide but with more
amount of water.
Slurry Flows – satured with 20 to 40% of water.
Granular flows – not saturated with 0 to 20% of
water.
Solifluction flow – moves at around 1cm/year
and occurs in areas saturated with water.
Debris flow – move at around 1m/year to
100m/h these results to heavy rain.
Mudflows – high velocity mixtures of sediment
and water.
Creep – slow movement down a slope, as
observe in bent trees and fences.
Earthflows - 1cm/year to less than 100 m/h
Grain flows – 9 to 100 m/h to less than 100km/h
and dry material.
Debris avalanche – high velocity
- Large Volume
Vegetation Removal – logging (illegal)
- Kaingin
Oversteepening slopes – due to quarrying,
mining, and home building.
Adding Moisture – lawn watering, leabage.
Erosion – associated with weathering
- Movement/removal of material from its
original place.
Water – primary agent of erosion on earth.
Splash erosion – raindrops cause tiny particles of
soil to be detached and to move out.
Sheet erosion – raindrops break apart the soil
structure which moves down the slope as water
flows overland as a sheet.
Gully Erosion – after heavy rain, waterflows in
narrow channels, eroding gullies into great
depth.
Valley erosion – continuous water flow
alongside land and move downward, which
deepens valley.
Bank erosion – continuous flow of water wears
out stones along the bank of streams and rivers.
Coastline Erosion – waves from the ocean and
seas crash against the shore.
Seaside cliff erosion – the striking of ocean
waves erodes seaside cliffs.
Glacier – thick large mass of ice
- Plucking and abrasion
Plucking – Process in which fractured bedrocks
are incorporated into the ice.
Abrasion – smoothens and polishes the surface
where the ice and its load of rock fragments
slide over.
Glacial Striation – with scratches.
Transportation – materials are transported in
four distinct ways.
Solution – dissolved in water and carried along.
Suspension – suspended particles are carried by
a medium
Traction – particles moved by rolling, sliding
and shuffling along the eroded surface.
Saltation – particles move from the surface to
the medium in quick repeated cycles.
Aggradation Process – landform is created.
Deposition – aggradation or accumulation of
weathered sediments to create different
landforms.
Alluvium – base
- Weathered sediments deposited and
carried by water.
Deltas – river that splitted into smaller rivers.
- Only happens if a river is connected to a
body of water.
Alluvial Fans – formed when a flowing water in
a mountain or hill reaches the bottom.
Inverted alluvial fan – lower part of the
mountain.
Normal alluvial fan – Junction
Apex – Narrow point
Apron – wide part
Food plain – happen to flat lands next to a river.
Floodway – main channel of the river
Floodway fringe
Levees – formed by successive floods over
many years.
Glacial till – sediments carried and deposited by
ice.
Moraines – layers of ridges of till
Medial – middle
Lateral – edge/side
Terminal – end
Esker – elongated and it happens when glaciers
are deposited in channels.
Kames – steep – sided hills.
Drumlins – oval/ elongated and asymmetrical
Loess – accumulation of clay
Sand dunes – accumulation of sands.
Rock cycle – shows the origin of the igneous,
sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks and their
relationship.
Igneous rocks – can be extrusive igneous rock or
intrusive igneous rocks.
extrusive igneous rock – solidifies at the surface.
intrusive igneous rocks – formed at depth.
 From the latin word ignis meaning fire.
 May be characterized by their texture
and composition.
Texture – overall appearance based on size,
shape, and arrangement of their interlocking
crystals.
Slow cooling – large crystals
Rapid cooling – small crystals
Coarse grained – seen with bare eyes.
Medium grained – seen with a hand lens.
Fine grained – seen through microscope.
Light colored – (granite and rhyolite)
Medium colored – (diorite and andesite)
Dark colored – (gabbro and basalt)
Sedimentary rocks – sediments result from uplift
and weathering, which transported and deposited
in different areas.
Lithification – process by which sediments are
transformed into solid sedimentary rocks.
Compaction – one of the most common process
in rock cycle.
Cementation – gluing, spaces are filled with
chemical.
- Common cements: calcite, silica, iron
oxide.
Detrital sedimentary rocks – physical
- Come from weathered rocks such as
igneous rocks made of small rock
fragments.
Chemical sedimentary rocks – chemical and
weathering.
Grain size:
Coarse, medium, fine, and very fine.
Composition:
Calcite
Quartz - Naturally occurring
Gypsum Mineral composition:
Halite Silicates
Metamorphic rocks – came from pre existing Oxides
rocks called parent rocks.
Sulfides
Metamorphism – process of transformation of
parent rocks. Sulfates

Foliation – horizontal pattern in rocks. Halides

Igneous rocks: Metals

- There is arrangement of mineral crystals Mineralogy – study of minerals.

- There are no fossils and foliation Crystal structure – arrangement of atoms
Sedimentary rocks: Crystal habit – overall shape of a minerals
- Has visible sedimentary layer Needlelike (acicular)
- Not foliated and generally weak
Plantlike (dendritic)
- May contain fossils
Kidney – shaped (reniform)
Metamorphic rocks:
Elongated in one direction (prismatic)
- May be foliated
- Has no mineral crystals Broad and plat (tabular)
- No layers and fossils
Hardness – minerals resistance to scratch
Minerals – is a solid inorganic compound,
Color – first impression
represented by a chemical formula.
Streak – color when it powderized
Rock – is an aggregate of one or more minerals
Transparency – allows the passing of light
Rocks:
Luster – indicates how light is reflected of a
- Does not have definite chemical
surface of a mineral
composition
- Can be organic, inorganic, or both Cleavage – resistance to being broken.
- No definite shape
Fracture – irregular rock
- For construction
- Naturally occurring Specific gravity – describes a minerals density in
comparison to the density of a standard like
Minerals: water.
- Have a definite chemical composition Magnetism – property of minerals to be attracted
- Inorganic by magnet.
- Have definite shape
- No fossils Fluorescence – minerals can produce their light
- For our body through the help of UV radiation
- Lot of nutrients
Double refraction – the refraction will become
double
Minerals and piezoelectric – they can generate
electric from pressure
Endogenic processes – shapes and changes the
earth but happen beneath the surface
2 driving force:
Plate boundaries
Heat energy
Continental drift:
- Alfred Wegener
- All the continents are moving apart
Plate tectonic:
- Supported by: paleomagnetism – study
of the fossils formed millions of years
ago
- Study showed that earths magnetic field
periodically reverses polarity.
Distribution of earthquakes – earthquake often
occur along faults.
Plate boundaries – fracture separating one plate
from another
Convergent boundary – moves toward each
other
Divergent boundary – two plates move away
Transform fault boundary – plates slide
horizontally past one another and move
separately in opposite direction
Ocean basin – can be crated through seafloor
spreading and tectonic plate movements
Continental shelf – shallow gently sloping part
of the continental crust that borders the continent
Continental slope – leads to deep water/sudden
drop (steepest)
Continental break – boundary between
continental slope and shelf
Continental rise – more gradual incline
Deformation – change in the original shape and
size of rock.
Folding – occur when rocks are pushed towards
each other from opposite sides
Tensional stress (stretching), Compressional
stress (squeezing), and shear stress (side to side
sheering)
Types of folds
- Anticline – upward arch
- Syncline – downward arch
Upwarping – uplifting of rocks where it
produces arch
Limbs – side of a fold
Dome – circular anticline in which the limbs dip
away in all directions
Basin – circular syncline in which the limbs dip
toward the center.
Faulting – fracturing and displacement of brittle
rocks strata along a fault plane
Faults – fractures along the crust in which the
displacement has occurred
Normal fault – hanging wall block moves down
relative to the footwall block
Reverse fault – hanging wall moves up relative
to the foot wall block
Oblique fault – combination of dip slip and
strike slip fault
Volcanism – phenomenon in which materials are
ejected from the earths interior into the surface
through volcanoes.
Volcano – vent or a series of vents on the crust
Vent – like a chimney, it is were magma, ash,
and gases are released.
Crater – mouth of the vent.
Magma production conditions:
 - Increased temperature due to a friction
- Addition of water to the asthenosphere
- Pressure relief melting
Gases – mixture of gases, it affects the color of
magma
Lava – refers to magma that flows out of the
earth’s surface
Lava may be classified
- Granitic
- Andesitic
- Basaltic
Viscosity – it solidifies within the crust before
reaching the surface, resulting explosive
eruptions.
Pyroclasts – solid particles thrown out during
volcanic eruption.
Depending on the size and shape, they may be
named:
Volcanic blocks
Cinders or lapilli
Volcanic ash
Volcanic dust
Lahar – ash clouds may cause rains that bring
out mudflow.
Granitic lava – more viscous
Republic act 10121 – Philippine disaster risk
reduction and management act of 2010
Disaster – serious disruption of the functioning
of a community
Disaster mitigation – lessening the adverse
effects of hazard
Disaster preparedness – knowledge and
capabilities needed by an institution to anticipate
and respond to and recover from the impacts of
hazard
Disaster response – short term relief
Hazard – dangerous phenomenon and potential
cause of harm
Rehabilitation – ensures that the affected
community is able to restore their normal
functioning ability
Risk – combination of the probability of an
event and it’s negative consequences.
Risk management – systematic approach and
practice of managing uncertainly to minimize
potential harm and loss
Vulnerability – characters and circumstances of
a community, system, or asset that make it
susceptible to the damaging effects of hazard
Office of the civil defense (OCD) – tasked in
formulating and implementing the national
disaster risk reduction and management plan
(NDDRMP)
NDDRMP – aims to strengthen the capability of
both national and local government with partner
stake holders on how to build disaster resilient
communities and shall be in conformity with the
national disaster risk reduction and management
framework (NDRRMF)
National disaster risk reduction management
council (NDRRMC) – people behind disaster
management.
Disaster preparedness – establish and
strengthens capacities of communities to
anticipate, cope, and recover from the negative
effects impacts of emergency occurrences and
disasters
- DILG (Department of interior and local
government)
Disaster response – DSWD
Disaster prevention and mitigation – DOST
Rehabilitation and recovery – NEDA AND
DPWH
Geologic processes and hazards
1. Fault related/seismic
 2. Mass movements assigns local names to these
3. Volcanic tropical storms in
Geologic mapping – assessing vulnerability alphabetical order

- Shows geologic hazard prone areas Low Pressure Area- due to high
temperature that causes evaporation.
1. Monsoon- is a seasonal reversal of a. Tropical Depression (group of
wind. The Philippines is strongly thunderstorm)
affected by monsoon winds. b. Tropical Storm (group of
a. Habagat- southwest monsoon. tropical depression)
Habagat season is characterized
by hot and humid weather that 4 CONDITIONS FOR THE
brings frequent rainfall. It usually FORMATION OF CYCLONE
starts in May and ends in
a. Continuous Evaporation
October. It is referred as wet
b. Differences in Air Pressure
monsoon.
c. Enough Coriolis Effect- refers
b. Amihan- northeast monsoon.
to the circling motion of the
Amihan is characterized by
wind.
moderate temperature with little
*if above the equator, movement
to no rainfall. It is experienced as
is counterclockwise
cool northeast wind drawing cold
*if below the equator, movement
air from Siberia. It usually starts
is clockwise
in November and ends in
d. Convergent Winds
February. It is referred as dry
(Intertropical Convergence
monsoon.
Zone)
2. Typhoons, Cyclones, Hurricanes
3. Tornado- locally known as ipo-ipo.
-They only differ in the location
It is a violently rotating column of
where they come from
wind extending from the ground up
a. Typhoons- form in the Northwest
to the atmosphere which is
Pacific
accompanied by a thunder. It
b. Cyclones- form in the Indian
develops in low heavy
Ocean and Southwest Pacific
cumulonimbus clouds. There is a
c. Hurricanes- form in the Atlantic
collision of cool dry air and warm
 In accordance to international most air. It lasts about five minutes.
agreement, the term “tropical
cyclone” is used by most
countries to describe cyclonic
HYDROMETEOROLOGIAL DISASTER
storms that originate over
MITIGATION
tropical oceans.
 Bagyo- local term used for Project NOAH- a technologically-based
tropical cyclone. Around 19 system intended to prevent and mitigate
to 20 tropical storms enter the disaster especially in high-risk areas
Philippines. PAGASA throughout the country.
 Components: 2. Storm Surge Color-Coded System
A storm surge is a coastal flood or
a. Distribution of
tsunami-like phenomena of rising
hydrometeorological devices
water commonly associated with a
b. DREAM-LIDAR- flood 3D map
tropical cyclone. It is locally known
hazard
as daluyong. The stronger the winds
c. Enhancing Geohazards Mapping
brought by the storm, the higher the
through LIDAR identifies exact
surge.
areas prone to landslide
3. Color-Coded Rainfall and Flood
d. CHASSAM- generates wave
Warning
surge, wave refraction, and
a. Yellow Warning- possible
coastal circulation model to
flooding (monitor)
understand and recommend
b. Orange Warning- flooding is
solutions to costal erosion
threatening (alert)
e. FloodNET- provides timely and
c. Red Warning- evacuate
accurate information for flood
4. Weather Forecasts and Warning
early warning system
a. PSWS 1 – 30 to 60 km/hr
f. LaDDeRS- develops local
b. PSWS 2 – 60 to 100 km/hr
capacity to design and operate
c. PSWS 3 – 100 to 185 km/hr
subsystem of Doppler radars
d. PSWS 4 – 185 to 220 km/hr
g. Landslide Sensors Development
e. PSWS 5 – more than 220 km/hr
Project- develops low-cost
season-based early monitoring COASTAL ECOSYSTEM AND
and warning system for HAZARDS
landslides, shape failures, and
The Philippines has about 7100 islands and
debris flow in local setting
has one of the longest coastlines in the
h. WHIP- utilizes different
world, approximately 36, 289 km.
platforms such as DOSTv
Coastlines comprise the natural boundary
2012-2017 (managed by DOST)
zone between the land and the ocean. The
2017-onwards (managed by UP) coastal ecosystem consists of sand beach,
sand dunes, coral reefs, estuaries, delta,
lagoons, mangroves, and sea grass beds,
DISASTER WARNING SYSTEM among others.

1. Flood and 3D Hazard Map COASTAL PROCESSES AND HAZARDS

1. Coastal Erosion- It is the wearing wave currents, which dissolve

away of rocks at the crust. It is chemicals in rocks
caused by wave action and tidal and 2. Salt Intrusion- It is the movement of
salt water into freshwater aquifer.
WAYS TO MITIGATE 8. WHIP- Weather Hazard Information
Project
1. Political- through legislations. These
9. NRRMC- National Risk Reduction
are the ordinances about proper
Management Council
zoning, better land use planning and
10. PSW- Public Storm Warning
conversion, proper wastes disposal,
11. PSWS- Public Storm Warning Signal
and regulated mining and quarrying
12. UNESCO – United Nations
2. Structural- through the use of hard
Educational, Scientific and Cultural
and soft structures such as
Organization
breakwater, seawall, groyne, and
13. NRRMC – National Risk Reduction
dikes.
Management Council
3. Beach Nourishment- involves adding
14. NDRRMP – National Risk
large volumes of sand to the beach
Reduction and Management Plan
4. Coastal Revegetation- recommended
15. NDRRMF – National Risk
to muddy coastal environment or
Reduction and Management
within the tidal wave of estuaries
Framework
where mangrove forests and other
16. DRR – Disaster Risk Reduction
indigenous shrub species are
17. OCD – Office of the Civil Defense
commonly found.
18. DPWH – Department of Public
 Estuaries- where river meets Works and Highways
the sea 19. DSWD – Department of Social
Welfare and Development
20. LGU – Local Government Unit
1. PAGASA- Philippine Atmospheric 21. NEDA – National Economic and
Geophysical and Astronomical Development Authority
Services Administration 22. PIA – Philippine Information
2. DOST- Department of Science and Agency
Technology 23. DILG – Department of Interior and
3. Project NOAH- Nationwide Local Government
Operational Assessment of Hazards
4. DREAM-LIDAR – Disaster Risk
Exposure Assessment for Mitigation-
Light Detection and Ranging
5. CHASSAM- Coastal Hazards and
Storm Surge Assessment and
Mitigation
6. FloodNET- Flood Information
Network
7. LaDDeRS- Local Development of
Doppler Radar System