ROCK DEFORMATION Metamorphism Mineralogical, chemical, structural adjustments of solid rocks to new physical and chemical conditions.

. Rotation - Physical arrangements of minerals. Recrystallization - Internal structures of minerals. Rock Deformation - structural adjustments of solid rocks and rock sequences to new physical conditions. Stress the force acting on a surface per unit area. Strain the change in shape or volume of a rock in response to stress. Uniform Stress change in volume Differential Stress change in shape DIFFERENTIAL STRESS Tension Compression Actsa surface. Perpendicular to and away from Perpendicular to and towards Parallel rock Pulls or stretches Squeezes or shortens Changes shape by bending, flowing or breaking.

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY - The study of stress and strain, the processes that cause them and the types of structures that result. Rock attitude: Strike and Dip Strike line of intersection between a rock layer and a horizontal plane. Dip angle of inclination between the rock layer and the horizontal plane. FRACTURES cracks in rocks, indicate brittle deformation. Microfractures microscopic breaks in mineral grains. Macrofractures rock fractures that are a meter to tens of meters in length. FAULTS fractures in rocks along which measurable movement has occurred. Hanging Wall rock mass above the fault. Foot Wall rock mass below the fault. TYPES OF DIP-SLIP FAULTS Normal Fault caused by tension. - Horst two faults are dripping toward - Graben two fault are dripping away Reverse Fault caused by compression. - Have dips greater than 45 Thrust a low angle reverse fault. - Have dips less than 45 Strike-slip Fault Oblique slip Fault Hinge Fault Joints fractures in rocks along which no measurable movement has occurred Exfoliation Joints release of confining stress from uplifted plutons. Columnar Joints cooling and shrinking of lava flows. Folds - bent or warped layers of rocks Geometry of a fold - Axis of anticline - Axis of syncline - Axial Plane - Limb - Plunge Common types of Folds Anticline arched rock layers Syncline rock troughs - Symmetrical - Asymmetrical - Recumbent (overturned fault) - Plunging

Shear

TYPES OF DEFORMATION Elastic temporary change in rock volume or shape Elastic Limit degree of stress beyond which material is permanently deformed. Ductile permanent change in rocks stressed beyond their elastic limit. Fracture/Rapture permanent change in which rock fractures or breaks. FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE DEFORMATION Temperature Higher T, material is more ductile and less brittle Confining Pressure Higher confining P, material forms less fractures Rate of Deformation faster deformation, material is more brittle Composition Very Brittle: Quartz, garnet, olivine Ductile: mica, clay, calcite, gypsum GENARALITIES Low T, low confining stress and high strain rate - Enhance brittle properties - Common in upper crust - Failure by fracture common High T, high confining stress and low strain rate - Enhances ductile properties - Common in deeper crust and mantle

Monoclines step like folds in horizontal sedimentary strata Domes Upwarped circular structure. Oldest rock in the centre, younger rocks outside. Basins Downwarped circular structure. Youngest rocks near centre, oldest rocks on the flanks. MASS WASTING - Downslope movement of soil, rock or debris under the influence of gravity without the direct aid of water, air or ice. Gravity controls the movement of slope materials - holds objects in place by pulling on them in a direction perpendicular to the surface. Shear Stress downslope component of the total stress involved; drives downward motion. Normal Stress perpendicular component; resist downward motion. Slope Failure: Shear Stress >>> Normal Stress Resisting forces 1. Characteristics of slope materials 2. Internal friction between grains 3. External slope support Shear strength of slope is dependent on 1 and 2. Triggers for mass wasting 1. Saturation with water 2. Oversteepened slopes 3. Vegetation 4. Vibrations from earthquakes 5. Volcanic eruptions 6. Alternating expansion and contraction. Water Content water can increase the cohesion and shear strength of fine materials. Too much water can cause failure of unconsolidated materials. Weathering and Climate mass wasting is more likely to occur in loose or poorly consolidated slope material than in bedrock. The deeper the weathering zone, the greater the like hood of slope failure. Tropics: weathering zone is deeper. Arid and Semi-arid regions: zone is shallower. Slope Angle the steeper the slope, the less stable it is. Classification of Mass Wasting depends on - Nature of material Rock Unconsolidated Materials (debris, mud) - Velocity - Nature of Movement

Types of Mass Wasting 1. Fall, slides, slumps a. Fall movement involving free fall of detached individual pieces of any size Talus body of rock debris that slope outward from the cliff that supplies it. b. Slides occur whenever materials remain coherent and moves along a well-defined surface that is approximately parallel to slope. c. Flows when materials move downslope as a viscous fluid. Depends on: The relative proportion of solids, water, air and the physical and chemical properties of the sediment. CLASSIFICATION OF FLOWS Slurry Flow moving mass of water-saturated sediment - Solifluction - Debris Flow - Mud Flow Granular Flow mixture of air and water. - Creep - Earth Flow - Grain Flow - Debris Avalanche RATE OF MASS MOVEMENTS - Avalanche Fast (5+ km/hr) - Slide- Moderate to Fast (>1 km/hr) - Flow Moderate (~1 km/hr) - Creep Slow (1cm/year or less) Human Presence and Slope Failures Landslides are a growing problem. 1. Increasing Population in landslide-prone areas/ 2. Human Activities affects magnitude and frequency of landslides. 3. Prevention against Mass Wasting 1. Slope material excavated 2. Loose bedrock slabs removed 3. Stable slopes with terraces