GENES4/ANP2003, Sep.

15-19, 2003, Kyoto, JAPAN

Paper 1055

Evaluation of Hydrogen Production System

with High Temperature Gas-cooled Reactor

Masuro Ogawa* and Shusaku Shiozawa

Department of Advanced Nuclear Heat Technology, Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute,
Oarai, Ibaraki, 311-1394, Japan

The present paper describes hydrogen demand, energy flux of various energies, thermal
efficiencies and costs in hydrogen production systems such as an existing methane steam
reforming process with fossil fuel, electrolysis process with wind and solar power,
thermochemical IS process with a High Temperature Gas-cooled Reactor (HTGR) to evaluate a
HTGR systems for hydrogen production. It is found that higher temperature of heat energy
makes higher theoretical efficiency in hydrogen production methods, and a hydrogen
production system with HTGR is one of the most promising systems for stable and mass
production of hydrogen with little emission of carbon dioxide to the environment. In addition,
a realization procedure for hydrogen production systems so as to decrease social and
economical loads is considered from the viewpoint of social infrastructure such as storage,
transportation, and supply of hydrogen. In the HTTR (High Temperature Engineering Test
Reactor) project, research and development are being carried out mainly on three technologies;
reactor technologies, connection technologies of heat application process to the reactor, and
hydrogen production technologies on thermochemical IS process. A research and development
plan with the HTTR is proposed aiming at deployment of a commercial HTGR plant for
hydrogen production expected in around 2020.

KEYWORDS: High Temperature Gas-cooled Reactor (HTGR), Hydrogen production system, HTTR,
Hydrogen demand, Energy flux, Thermal efficiency, Production cost of hydrogen, Market price of
hydrogen, Thermochemical IS process, Steam reforming process, Electrolysis, High temperature steam
electrolysis, R&D plan with HTTR

I. Introduction and fossil fuels (CmHn) such as natural gas, oil and coal.
Hydrogen is in the spotlight as a future energy carrier Consequently energy is required to decompose raw materials
because it can solve the global warming problem, namely of water and fossil fuels. This is the reason why hydrogen is
even if it burns it emits no carbon dioxide to the called an energy carrier as well as electricity. Table 1 shows
environment because it returns to water after burning. So far, various methods for hydrogen production.
hydrogen is used as raw material for various chemical
products and reducing agents for oil refinery. Recently,
development of fuel cells (FCs) is being performed in many Table 1 Hydrogen production methods
countries, and some car companies have announced that they Renewable
Energy Atomic power Fossil fuel
aim at commercialization of FC vehicles (FCVs). Fuel for energy
FCVs is just hydrogen. Atomic power is one of the most Energy conversion system
promising energy resources to produce hydrogen. Electricity
Demand of hydrogen, features of atomic power for Raw Electricity Heat
+
hydrogen production, especially features of High material (Electrolysis) (Pyrolysis)
Heat
Temperature Gas-cooled Reactors (HTGRs), cost of energy Fossil fuel ▪CB&H
system and subjects of research and development are studied - -
(CmHn) method
in the present paper to evaluate a hydrogen production Fossil ▪Steam
system with a HTGR. fuel - - reforming
+ Water process
II. Features of Atomic Power for Hydrogen Production ▪Alkali ▪High-temp. ▪Thermo-
A large quantity of hydrogen does not exist as a natural electrolysis steam chemical
resource in the world. Hydrogen is included in water (H2O) Water
▪Solid polymer electrolysis process
(H2O)
*
Corresponding author, Tel. +81-29-264-8716, electrolyte
Fax. +81-29-264-8608, E-mail: ogawa@spa.oarai.jaeri.go.jp electrolysis

1
1. Emission of Carbon Dioxide LWR are 75% and 90 % respectively, and the efficiency of
Taking into consideration the reason why hydrogen thermochemical process for water splitting and the rate of
deserves attention in the world, hydrogen must be produced operation of the HTGR are 50% and 90% respectively. In
with no emission of carbon dioxide. Figure 1 shows amount addition, it was aimed that hydrogen amount of ten times
of carbon dioxide per unit electricity in various commercial comparing with that for five million H2-FCVs are demanded
plants for electricity generation1). Atomic and renewable for hydrogen stationary fuel cells (H2-SFCs) for domestic
energies discharge little carbon dioxide comparing with and business uses in 20203). Thus total hydrogen demand
fossil fuels. amounts to 106 Mm3/d corresponding to about 2% of the
primary energy3) in Japan 2000 and is expected to increase
rapidly after 2020. Such a large quantity of hydrogen
300 demand needs some energy conversion systems.
CO2 Emission (g-C/kWhe)

200 3. High Energy Flux,

Atomic power, renewable energy and fossil fuels can
produce hydrogen. Raw materials for hydrogen production
100
such as coal, natural gas and water exist plentifully at the
present. In case of use of fossil fuels as raw material and/or
0 as energy resource, research and development of
combine
thermal
LWR

Hydro

Solar
Wind

technologies on disposal and fixation of carbon dioxide

Coal
LNG
Geo-

Oil
LNG

should be performed because a large quantity of carbon

Atomic Renewable　 　 Fossil dioxide is emitted to the environment as shown in Fig.1. On
the other hand, in case of use of water as raw material and
Fig.1 Emission of carbon dioxide from various plants
use of atomic power and/or renewable energy as an energy
for electricity generation 1)
resource, little amount of carbon dioxide is emitted.
It is very important that hydrogen production systems can
meet not only a large quantity of demand but also
2. Hydrogen Demand
high-density demand. Table 3 shows energy flux of various
At the present, mostly hydrogen is used as raw material
energy resources.
for chemical products such as a nitrogenous fertilizer in
chemical industry and its demand is constant and accounts
for only a few percents of the primary energy in Japan. But
Table 3 Energy flux of various energy resources
recently a target that hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (H2-FCVs)
of five million should be introduced in 2020 was announced Energy Efficiency Electricity
in the committee report2) as shown in Table 2. flux; Φ of flux; Φe
(kW/m2) electricity (kWe/m2)
generation
Table 2 Introduction target of hydrogen fuel cell ; η (%)
into Japanese market in 2020 Atomic power
▪PWR + Steam 450 33 150
Demand Supply
Introduction target turbine (300°C)
of H2-FC into Amount LWR HTGR
▪HTGR +Helium 200 50 100
market in 2020 2) of (1000MW (600MW
turbine (950°C)
hydrogen Electricity) Thermal)
Solar power 4) 0.13
Five million
-0.16
H2-FCVs
10 Mm3/d 2 plants 6 plants ▪Photovoltaic 10-14 0.013-0.022
(7% of total
crystal silicon
number of cars)
Wind power 5) 0.21
10 GW H2-SFCs
▪Small windmill 30-60 0.06-0.13
(8% of domestic 96 Mm3/d 20 plants 60 plants
+turbine
and business uses)
▪Large windmill 50-70 0.11-0.15
+turbine
The five million H2-FCVs correspond to about 7% of total
Thermal power 2500
number of cars in Japan. Two Light Water-cooled Reactors
(Steam boiler)
(LWRs) with electric output of 1000MW (1000MWe) or six
▪LNG combined 50- 1300-
HTGRs with thermal output of 600 MW are necessary to
cycle (1450°C)
produce hydrogen for five million H2-FCVs, which is
Small windmill; Nominal powers of 0.6-3.2 kWe
approximately 10 Mm3/d as shown in Table 2. Here, the
Large windmill; Nominal powers greater than 500 kWe
efficiency of electrolysis and the rate of operation of the

2
 Here, the solar energy flux is an average value a year in commercial windmill has nominal values of 2 MWe for
Japan. A solar energy flux of 1.0 kW/m2 is a value for wind speed of 14 m/s with 72 m blade-diameter. It is said
ground incidence at culmination as known well. For that an area of ζ*10*(Blade-diameter)2 m2 is necessary for a
example, electric power generated from a photovoltaic cell large windmill. Here, ζ is 3 or 10 5). An area of 160-520*103
with a nominal value of 4kW is about 4500kWh/year (=0.51 m2 is necessary for the 72m-blade diameter of a large
kW) a year on average, namely the energy flux is calculated windmill.
to be 0.13 kW/m2 4). The energy flux Φ of wind power in Thus, it is found that solar or wind power is enough to
Table 3 is calculated by Eq. (1): supply electricity to one family as residential use even
1 though these low energy fluxes, but a very wide area is
Φ= ρ air V 3 (1) necessary for photovoltaic cells or large windmills to supply
2
5) electricity to an H2-station. Atomic power having high
Here, 7m/s is used for V as an average value a year . The
energy-flux can provide electricity to about 0.27 million
efficiency of electricity generation for wind power in Table
families or about 270 H2-stations as shown in Table 4.
3 is defined as a product of efficiency of windmill and
efficiency of electricity generation. It should be also noted
that a nominal electricity power of windmill is generally
Table 4 Scales of photovoltaic cells and windmills to
indicated for a nominal wind speed, which ranges from 11
provide energy to one residential house and one H2-station
m/s to 17m/s, while the wind speed a year on average is
about 7m/s where most of windmills are placed in Japan. In One H2-station:
One family:
normal residential area, average wind speed ranges from 2 1300 kW
1.0 kW electricity
m/s to 2.5 m/s and it is said that use of windmill is not electricity
economically feasible in the area with average wind speed Area of
a year less than 5 m/s. The ratio of an average electric power photovoltaic 45-77 m2 60-100 *103 m2
to a nominal one is about 22-27% for large windmills 5). cells
Atomic power and fossil fuels have high energy flux but One small Two large
renewable energies such as solar and wind powers are Number of windmill windmills
generally low energy flux as shown in Table 3. The windmills (3.1-4.6m blade (75-88 m blade
electricity flux of a HTGR is about 4 kWe/m2 even for the diameter) diameter)
site area of 250 m x 250 m. Let’s look at the influence of the One HTGR About 0.27 About 270
energy flux. One family uses about 1.5kW with 600MW million families H2-stations
(=68GW/(4.7*107 families)) in the primary energy and
actually consumes 0.91 kW (electricity; 0.63 kW, heat; 28
kW) as a net value excluding energy loss, a year on average III. Necessity of High Temperature for Hydrogen
in Japan3). One hydrogen station (H2-station) for FCVs Production
requires hydrogen production rate of about 300m3/h, which 1. Fossil-fuel Originated Hydrogen
is equal to 1.0 MW. Table 4 shows scales of photovoltaic Commercial chemical plants of about 90% for hydrogen
cell and windmill necessary to provide energy with production are using steam-reforming process. In the steam
electricity of 0.63 kW and hydrogen of 0.28 kW to one reforming process, hydrogen and carbon monoxide are
family, and hydrogen of 1 MW to one H2-station. produced from methane and steam as raw materials by Eq.
Considering conversion efficiency from hydrogen energy to (2).
electricity, electricity of 1.0 kWe.(=(0.63 kWe+0.28kW
/0.75) and 1300 kWe (=1 MW/0.75) is demanded for one CH4+H2OÆ3H2+CO (2)
family and one H2-station respectively. Here, electricity flux In this endothermic chemical reaction, the temperature that
is used in Table 3, and efficiency of electrolysis of 75% is the differential of Gibbs free energies; ∆G becomes zero is
used. 620°C. All of heat supplied to the chemical reaction is
One family can easily have area of 45-77 m2.(=1.0/0.022 theoretically consumed at temperatures higher than 620°C,
or 0.013 kWe/m2) for photovoltaic cells on the roof of their namely the theoretical efficiency is 100%. Chemical reaction
house or one small windmill with a 3.1m to 4.6m blade- velocity becomes generally faster at higher reaction
diameter for own use although it should be noted that temperature, but materials used in a steam reformer have a
average wind speed in residential area ranges from 2 m/s to certain temperature limitation. From the viewpoint of
2.5 m/s lower than economically feasible speed of 5 m/s. For chemical reaction velocity and material limitation, the steam
example, a windmill with nominal values of 3.2 kWe for 12 reforming process is optimized and is actually operated at
m/s and a 4.6m blade-diameter appears on the market. On near 800 °C. Thus, higher temperature is preferable if
the other hand, one H2-station needs a very wide area of 60 materials have no temperature limitation.
to 100 times of that of a H2-station (about 1000 m2) is
necessary to place photovoltaic cells, or two large windmills 2. Water Originated Hydrogen
with 75 m to 88 m blade-diameter. For example, a (1) Theoretical Efficiency

3
 Theoretical efficiency is very important because it directly For a fundamental thermochemical method consisting of
affects economy of hydrogen production in water splitting as two chemical reactions; endothermic and exothermic
shown in evaluation of costs later. reactions, Eq. (4) can be derived from Eqs. (8) and (9);
Decomposition of water expressed by Eq. (3) is also an
endothermic chemical reaction and the ∆G becomes zero at
∆H H 2 ∆H 2 − ∆H 1
4309 K. η= = (8)
∆H 1 ∆H 1
2H2OÆ2H2+O2 (3)
As well as steam reforming chemical reaction described ∆G L T − TL ∆ G L TH − TL
= d , = (9)
above, the theoretical efficiency of pyrolysis of water is ∆H H 2 Td ∆H 1 TH
100% at temperatures higher than 4309 K. On the other hand,
at temperatures lower than 4309 K, the theoretical efficiency Here, ∆GL is ∆G1 at TL. Similarity in two triangles of
of water splitting method as shown in Eq. (4) is derived (0-TH-∆H1) and (0-Td-∆HH2) in Fig. 2(b) is used in Eq. (9). It
commonly for any methods such as electrolysis methods, is found that the theoretical efficiency of thermochemical
high-temperature steam electrolysis methods and method depends on the ∆G-T characteristics of the
thermochemical methods. endothermic and exothermic chemical reactions but doesn’t
depend on operational temperatures of the chemical reactors.
TH − TL Td
η= (4) It is concluded that in any methods for water splitting at
TH Td − TL temperatures lower than Td, the theoretical efficiency can be
expressed by Eq. (4) under conditions of the same input and
Here, η is theoretical efficiency of water splitting defined as output, namely conditions that TH and TL are taken to be
a ratio of ∆H of water splitting to total energy provided. H common for all methods of hydrogen production. Here, TH
and L of suffixes designate high-temperature and low- for electrolysis and high temperature steam electrolysis is
temperature in a certain system respectively. Td is 4309K. temperature of high temperature heat source, and TH for
Figure 2(a) shows the relations of ∆H-T and ∆G-T in thermochemical process is temperature of ∆G1=0.
thermodynamics of water splitting as known well, and Fig.
2(b) shows the ∆H-T and ∆G-T of a fundamental
two-reaction thermochemical method. For electrolysis and ΔH＝ΔG＋TΔS ;ΔH, ;ΔG ΔG<0: Spontaneous
progress
high temperature steam electrolysis, theoretical efficiency is H; Enthalpy, G; Free energy, S; Entropy
ΔH
calculated by Eq. (5). ΔG Heat
Heat
TΔS ΔH
∆H
η= (5) Electricity
∆G ΔG Pyrolysis
+ (∆H − ∆G )
ηe 0
TH Td Temperature （K）
TL High temperature
Electrolysis Steam electrolysis (=4309 Ｋ)
The first term of the denominator of Eq. (5) is heat provided (a) Electrolysis, high-temperature steam electrolysis and
for electricity generation, the ηe is an efficiency of Carnot pyrolysis
cycle and the second term is heat corresponding to T∆S
(=∆H-∆G).
For electrolysis, Eq. (4) can be derived from Eqs. (5) and
(6); ΔH1
;ΔH, ;ΔG
∆ G Td − T L T − TL ΔHH2
= , ηe = H , ∆H − ∆G = 0 (6)
∆H Td TH ΔG2 ΔHH2 = ΔH1 + ΔH2
ΔGL ΔGH2 = ΔG1 + ΔG2
ΔGH
Here, TH and TL are temperature of high-temperature heat ΔGH2
source and atmospheric temperature respectively. It is 0
TL TH ΔG1 Temperature (K) Td
assumed that the heat of (∆H-∆G) is zero because all the ΔH2
heat is provided from the environment. H2O + A Æ H2 + AO + ΔH1 ； Endothermic
For high temperature steam electrolysis, Eq. (4) can be AO Æ A + 1/2O + ΔH2 ; Exothermic
+ 2
derived from Eqs. (5) and (7); H2O Æ H2 + 1/2O2 + ΔHH2 ； Endothermic

∆ G Td − T H T − TL (b) Thermochemical method with two chemical reactions

= , ηe = H (7)
∆H Td TH
Fig. 2 Thermodynamic relations in water splitting
It is assumed that the heat of T∆S is used at efficiency of
Very high theoretical efficiency of η=81% is obtained at
100 %.

4
TH =950°C and TL =25°C from Eq. (4).
(2) Theoretical Efficiency for Concrete Systems
At the present, actual efficiency of hydrogen production is
about 25% for a commercial system like [Electricity
generation in LWR + Electrolysis] with little emission of
carbon dioxide. Here, the efficiencies of electricity
generation in LWR and electrolysis are 33% and 75%
respectively.
To compare theoretical efficiencies between concrete
processes of water splitting, let’s decide the conditions that
the temperature of the environment is 25 °C, working fluid
of HTGR is helium gas, and the inlet and outlet temperatures
of the HTGR are 650°C and 950°C respectively. Concrete
systems are picked up as follows;
(A) For electrolysis:
HTGR with helium gas turbine system (GT-HTGR)
(B) For high temperature steam electrolysis:
GT-HTGR system with IHX to supply heat to steam
generator (GT&Steam-HTGR)
(C) For thermochemical IS process:
HTGR system with IHX to supply heat to
thermochemical IS process (H2-HTGR)
Here, a helium gas turbine is placed in the primary helium
gas loop of HTGR, and a steam generator and
thermochemical IS process are placed in the secondary
helium gas loop connected with the primary helium gas loop
through IHX (Intermediate heat exchanger). The
thermochemical IS process consists of the following three
chemical reactions.
H2SO4 ÆSO2+H2O+O2
2HI ÆH2+I2 (10)
SO2+2H2O+I2ÆH2SO4+2HI (Bunsen reaction)
A helium gas turbine system is Brayton cycle and its
theoretical efficiency is expressed with temperatures as
follows:
TL T
η =1− =1− 3 (11)
T2 TH
Here, the cycle starts from L at the lowest temperature and
turns LÆ2ÆH at the highest temperature Æ3, then returns
to L in an entropy-temperature (S-T) figure. Output power
per unit mass flow rate; Pm is expressed by Eq. (12).
c P M {(TH − T3 ) − (T2 −TL )}
Pm = (12)
M Table 5 Theoretical efficiency of hydrogen production
The maximum power per unit mass flow rate in Brayton
cycle can be obtained at T 2=T3 by solving ∂Pm/∂T2=0 using
the relation of T3=THTL/T2 and the maximum theoretical
efficiency is derived in the following.
TL
ηmax = 1 − (13)
TH
This maximum theoretical efficiency does not change even
5
if Brayton cycle has a recuperater.
For electrolysis of Case (A), the theoretical efficiency is
49% (=1/2.03). The ηmax of Eq. (13) is calculated to be 0.51
at TL=298K (=25°C) and TH=1223K (=950°C). It is said that
actual efficiency of future electrolysis approximates to 90%.
The ratio of ∆G/∆H is 0.93 at temperature of 25°C. Heat
necessary for electricity generation is calculated to be 2.03
(=0.93/0.9/0.51). Here it is assumed that the rest; (∆H-∆G)
of 0.07 (=1-0.93) is supplied from environment as well as
the assumption used in Eq. (6). It should be noted that the
effect of evaporation energy of water is not considered in
Fig.2. (a) and (b).
For high-temperature steam electrolysis of Case (B), the
theoretical efficiency is 54% (=1/1.85). The ratio of ∆G/∆H
is 0.72 at temperature of 950°C. Total heat necessary for
hydrogen production is calculated to be 1.85, which is
obtained by sum of 1.57 (=0.72/0.9/0.51) for electricity
generation as well as the Case (A) and 0.28 (=1-0.72)
corresponding to the heat of (∆H-∆G) on the assumption that
heat of 100% is perfectly absorbed. If all the heat necessary
for high temperature steam electrolysis is supplied with one
HTGR, 85% of thermal power of the HTGR is used for
electricity generation and the rest of the thermal power; 15%
is supplied as high-temperature heat for high temperature
steam electrolysis. In case of products of 50%-electricity and
50%-hydrogen with one HTGR, heat of 93% supplied from
HTGR is used for electricity generation and the rest of 7% is
used as a part of heat for high temperature steam
electrolysis.
For thermochemical IS process of Case (C), the
theoretical efficiency is 67% (=286/430). Here, ∆HH2 of
hydrogen is 286 kJ/mol, total heat provided is 430 kJ/mol
(=326+10+94). ∆H of the endothermic chemical reaction of
H2SO4 decomposition is 326 kJ/mol, ∆H of the endothermic
chemical reaction of HI decomposition is 10 kJ/mol, and
heat necessary for phase change in the HI decomposition is
94 kJ/mol. 144 kJ/mol of the difference between 430
kJ/mol and 286 kJ/mol corresponding to heat loss consists of
100 kJ/mol , which is ∆H of the exothermic Bunsen reaction,
and 44 kJ/mol, which is heat for phase change of water.
Actual efficiencies decrease furthermore from the values
shown in Table 5 because of heat loss to the environment
due to high temperature, heat loss due to electrical resistance
and so on. These theoretical efficiencies are target values of
R&D in concrete hydrogen production systems.
with water in concrete systems
(A) (B) High-temp. (C) IS
Electrolysis steam electrolysis Process
Efficiency 49% 54% 67%
IV. Evaluation of Economy
1. Costs for Production, Transportation and Storage
As discussed above, an atomic power system for
hydrogen production suits stable and mass production Total hydrogen cost for production, transportation, gas
without emission of carbon dioxide as a centralized compression or liquefaction, storage and supply at H2-station
production system and with high efficiency. In such a mass should be taken into consideration to compare an atomic
production system, hydrogen must be transported from power system with others. A larger plant for hydrogen
production place to consumption place as shown in Fig.3. production can achieve cheaper hydrogen but cost for
transportation must be added while a smaller facility for
on-site production is more expensive but there is no
transportation cost.
Off-site Production Transportation Consumption
Figure 5 shows production cost with H2-HTGR, gas
Gas
H2-HTGR system Hydrogen station
compression or liquefaction cost, transportation cost,
Hydrogen Lorry hydrogen station cost, and profit and tax in cases of
Atomic power high-pressure hydrogen gas and liquid hydrogen12). The
On-site Production
market price is calculated on the following assumptions.
Fossil fuel system Hydrogen ▪ Market price of hydrogen is calculated so that one can
+ CO2 Fixation Pipe line consumption arrive at the same place by a FCV with the same
Liquid Windmill Photovoltaic payment for hydrogen fuel as by a gasoline car.
Fossil fuel Biomass, etc. ▪ Efficiency of a FCV is about twice to three times of that
Renewable energy of a gasoline car as shown in Table 613).
Fig.3 Hydrogen flow diagram ▪ Mileage of a gasoline car is 10km/litter.
from production to consumption place ▪ Market price of gasoline is 100 Japanese Yen/litter
(3.2$/gal. with 120 Japanese Yen/1$).

On the other hand a renewable energy system suites an

on-site production at consumption (refueling) place as a Table 6 Efficiencies of FCV and gasoline car*)
distributed system and does not need transportation systems. Present Future
Generation costs of electricity are 1.1, 1.7, 2.8-8.4 and FCV 47% 50%
17-19 Japanese-Yen/MJ (4, 6, 10-30 and 60-70 Gasoline car 15% 23%
Japanese-Yen/kWh) in GT-HTGR, thermal power plants, Ratio of efficiency 3.1 2.2
windmill, and photovoltaic cells respectively 6). Production
costs of hydrogen in a commercial plant with steam
reforming process7), H2-HTGR with thermochemical
High pressure H2
IS-process8), windmill with electrolysis9) and photovoltaic
cells with electrolysis10) are calculated as shown in Fig.4.
Here, each cost is normalized with the cost of the
commercial plant with steam reforming process. The Compression
production rate of hydrogen in the windmill and
Production Transportation H2 Station
photovoltaic cells is assumed to be 300 m3/h for H2-station. Profit and Tax
The cost of the commercial plant with steam reforming liquefaction
process consists of costs of CO2 disposal and fixation11) of
54%, energy of 13%, methane of 18%, H2-facility of 15%.
The cost of the H2-HTGR is energy of 63% and H2-facility
of 37%. The cost of windmill is energy of 71% and Liquid H2
H2-facility of 29%. The cost of photovoltaic cells is energy 0 　　　　　　　　　 　50 　　　　　　　　　　　　100
of 88% and H2-facility of 12%. Ratio of cost to market price (%)
Fig.5 Ratio of various costs to market price of hydrogen

6
Ratio of production cost

The market price is 74 Japanese Yen/m3-H2 for the ratio of

4 efficiency of 2 corresponding to ‘Future case’ shown in
Table 6 and 110 Japanese Yen/m3-H2 for the ratio of
2 efficiency of 3 corresponding to ‘Present case’9). The 100%
1.0 of the ratio of cost to market price shown in Fig.5
0
corresponds to 110 Japanese Yen/m3. It is found from Fig.5
Fossil fuel H2-HTGR Windmill Photovoltaic cell that profit and tax is up to 50% of the market price.
Steam reforming IS process Electrolysis Electrolysis
Commercialization of hydrogen would start from, for
Fig.4 Production cost of various systems normalized by example, steam reforming systems using town-gas or
that of steam reforming process with fossil fuel electrolysis systems using night electricity or electricity

6
provided by renewable energies as onsite systems. Then it
would move to co-production systems of steam reforming
process and iron manufacturing process (hydrogen as
by-product) as offsite systems accompanied by
establishment of transportation system like transportation by
hydrogen lorries. Finally, it would reach H2-HTGR systems
with transportation by hydrogen lorries and/or by pipelines
because transportation cost of pipeline can be cheep for a
large quantity of hydrogen and long-distance transportation.
V. R&D Target
Time target for development of H2-HTGR system is 2020
when FCVs of five million will run in Japan. Economy
target is to have competitiveness for other hydrogen
production systems. To establish reactor technology,
production technology of hydrogen and coupling technology
between a nuclear reactor and chemical process,
(A) HTTR operation test, safety demonstration test etc. and
Design study of a commercial H2-HTGR plant,
(B) Coupling test of hydrogen production process to HTTR
(C) Pilot test of IS process for hydrogen production,
are carried out or planed in JAERI. Now, subject (A) is in
demonstration stage of reactor technology. Subject (B) is in
performance stage and is expected to proceed to a
demonstration stage from around 2008. Subject (C) is in
viable stage by 2004 and is expected to proceed to the next
performance stage of a pilot plant test from 2005 after check
and review. Hydrogen production technology will hopefully
grow to demonstration stage around in 20106). These results
will be transferred to construction of a commercial
H2-HTGR plant, which is expected to start from around
2015 and then the commercial H2-HTGR plant will be
operated from around 2020 as shown in Fig.6.
2005 2010
D; Design
Commercial development C; Construction
of H2-HTGR O; Operation
T; Test, L; Licensing
Research and Development
・Reactor technology
O
- Operation
Phase-1 Phase-2
- Safety test with HTTR
T T
- Coupling test
D L C T
D C T
・ Hydrogen production
technology (IS Process) T
D C T Performance test
Fig.6 Research and development plan
VI. Conclusion
It is likely that hydrogen society comes in nearer future
beyond our anticipation. In Japan, hydrogen demand will
account for approximate 2 % of the primary energy supply if
the target of FC manufacture is attained in 2020, and is
expected to increase rapidly after 2020. Hydrogen is
produced from raw material by using the primary energy
because hydrogen is a kind of products, namely an energy
carrier as well as electricity. Taking into consideration of
primarily object that we should reduce carbon dioxide
emitted to the environment, water as raw material and
atomic power and renewable energy as the primary energy
suites hydrogen production. Atomic power has
characteristics of little emission of carbon dioxide and meet
requirement of high-density demand of hydrogen in stable
and mass production.
High efficiency of conversion from the primary energy to
hydrogen leads to high economy in hydrogen production
because cost of energy conversion system accounts for large
proportion to production cost in water splitting. A High
Temperature Gas-cooled Reactor system for hydrogen
production (H2-HTGR) is one of most promising systems
because higher temperatures result in higher theoretical
efficiency. First, hydrogen is supplied from steam reforming
processes and electrolysis process in onsite-production.
Secondarily, hydrogen would be supplied from mass
production process such as H2-HTGRs and advanced fossil
fuel systems with process for CO2 disposal and fixation in
offsite-production including establishment of transportation
system like hydrogen lorries to H2-stations and residual
houses. In parallel, electrolysis systems using solar and wind
powers in onsite-production are popularized for low-density
demand such as sparsely populated area or islands. Finally,
pipeline networks would be established for high density and
a large quantity demand in H2-HTGR systems.
JAERI is developing reactor technology, connection
technology of heat utilization process to a nuclear reactor in
H2-HTGR systems and hydrogen production technology
aiming at operation of commercial H2-HTGR plants
expected in around 2020.
Nomenclature
2020 cp; specific heat S; entropy
G; Gibbs free energy T; absolute temperature
D C O H; enthalpy V; wind speed
M; mass flow rate
Pm; output power per unit mass flow rate
Td; =4309 K at ∆G =0 in water splitting
Demonstration test Φ; energy flux
ρair; air density (=1.2 kg/m3)
Demonstration
test η; efficiency,
ηe; Carnot efficiency
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