COMPUTER

NETWORKS
REPORT

By-
Anshulj
oshi(
2K19/
CO/
066)
Abhi
sheksor
en(
2K19/
CO/
025)

1|
Page
 I
NDEX

S.
no Ti
tl
e PageNo

CGR-BF:Aneffi
cientcont
actut
il
izat
ion
1 schemeforpredi
ctabledeepspaceDelay 3
Toler
antNet
wor k

A4-st
epBlockchainEqui
ppedApproach
t
oEnergyEffi
ciencyandRout
ingin
2 HomingPi
geonBasedDel ayToler
ant
8
Net
work

Energyconsumptionanal
ysi
sofdiff
erent
3 rout
ingprotocol
sinaDelayTol
erant 13
Network

ACognit
iveAnycastRout
ingMet
hodf
or
4 Del
ay-
TolerantNet
works
17

APerformanceCompar
isonofDelay-
5 Tol
erantNetwor
kRouti
ngProtocol
s
22

Cooper
ati
vet
ransmi
ssi
oni
ndel
ayt
oler
ant
6 net
work
27

7 Ref
erences 32

2|
Page
 1.
CGR-BF:Aneff
ici
entcont
actuti
li
zati
onschemefor
predi
ctabl
edeepspaceDelayToler
antNetwor
k
 
  
 
  
  
-  
Sangi
taDhar
a,Scot
tBur
lei
gh,
Act
aAst
ronaut
ica, ume151 
Vol

I
ntr
oduct
ion

DeepSpaceNet
wor
k(DSN)orI
nter
-Pl
anet
aryNet
wor
k(I
PN)i
susedf
or
communi
cat
ionser
vicesandsci
ent
if
icdat
adel
i
ver
yamongEar
th,
spacecr
aft
s,
andr
emot
epl
anet
s.Duet
oincr
easi
ngi
nter
esti
nspaceexpl
orat
ionandsci
ent
if
ic
exper
iment
sindeepspace,
int
erpl
anet
arynet
wor
ktr
aff
ici
sincr
easi
ngata
si
gni
fi
cantr
ate.Theex
ist
ingt
err
est
ri
alTCP/
IPpr
otocol
stacki
sincompet
entt
o
handl
edat
ainsuchnet
wor
ks.Del
ayTol
erantNet
wor
k(DTN)Ar
chi
tect
ure
i
ntr
oducesanov
erl
aypr
otocol
tocopewi
tht
hechal
l
engesi
mposedbyspace
communi
cat
ion.EachDTNNodepr
ovi
dest
hest
oragenecessar
yfordat
athati
s
i
ntr
ansi
tonapat
hfr
om sour
cet
odest
inat
ionbef
oref
orwar
dingi
ttot
henext
node.

 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
Fig.1.Anexampl
eofI
nter
-pl
anet
arynet
wor
k.

3|
Page
Thebundl
epr
otocoli
sakeyel
ementoft
heDTNar
chi
tect
ure,
wher
ethebasi
c
uni
ttot
ransf
err
eddat
aisabundl
e.Abundl
eisamessaget
hatcar
ri
es
appl
i
cat
ionl
ayerpr
otocol
dat
auni
ts,
senderanddest
inat
ionnames,
andany
addi
ti
onal
dat
arequi
redf
orend-
to-
enddel
i
ver
y.Fr
agment
ati
onandr
eassembl
y
ofbundl
esar
emanagedbyt
heBundl
ePr
otocol
Agent
.Bundl
epr
otocol
modi
fi
es
t
hepr
imar
ybl
ock(
header
)toi
ndi
cat
ethatt
hebundl
eisnowaf
ragment
. The
f
ragment
sofabundl
ear
edel
etedi
ncaset
hebundl
e'
sTTLex
pir
esbef
oreal
lthe
f
ragment
soft
hatbundl
ear
eabl
etor
eacht
hedest
inat
ionnode.

Theal
  gor
it
hm:CGR-
BF

Thepseudo-
codeofCGRwi
thBundl
eFr
agment
ati
on(
CGR-
BF)showni
n
Al
gor
it
hm 1consi
stsoft
wof
unct
i const
ons: ruct
_pat
h(ms)and
bundl
e_t
ransmi
ssi
on(
).
 Thei
nputt
othi
sal
gor
it
hm i
sthedet
ail
edcont
actpl
ans
henodes.TheCGR_
oft BF(
)isexecut
edwhenev
erabundl
eisf
orwar
dedf
rom
onenodet
otheot
her
.Thef
unct
ionconst
ruct
_pat
h(ms)i
sexecut
edt
ogener
atea
pat
hhav
ingear
li
estdel
i
ver
yti
mer
egar
dlessoft
hef
actwhet
herornoti
tcoul
d
t
ransmi
tei
therawhol
ebundl
eoraf
ragmentofi
t hebundl
.Thent e_t
ransmi
ssi
on
(
)isi
nvokedt
ofor
war
dthebundl
ethr
ought
hechosenpat
h.I
ntheal
gor
it
hm,
const
ruct
_pat
h(ms)i
susedt
ocomput
eapat
hhav
ingt
heear
li
estdel
i
ver
yti
me
bet
weenal
ocal
nodeandt
hedest
inat
ion.I
tcomput
espossi
bler
out
es(
ser
iesof
successi
vecont
act
s)bet
weenasour
ceanddest
inat
ionandt
hent
he
r
out
e_capaci
tyasshowni
nli
ne9oft
heal
gor
it
hm.Ther
eaf
ter
,theExpect
ed
Del
i
ver
yTi
me(
EDT)i
scal
cul
atedi
nvoki
ngf
unct
ionEDT(
)ei
therconsi
der
ingt
he
bundl
esi her
zeort out
e_capaci
tybasedont
hecondi
ti
onsment
ionedi
nli
nes10
t
o14oft
heal
gor
it
hm.
 Ifabundl
ear
ri
vesi
nani
nter
medi
atenodewhent
he
pr
edi
ctedcont
actwi
tht
henextnodei
sal
readyov
er,
thent
her
out
ewi
l
lbe
consi
der
edi
nval
i
d.Howev
er,
asment
ionedi
nli
nes18t
o20,
theal
gor
it
hm keeps
onl
ythepat
hhav
ingear
li
estEDTi
nt hepselectedt
ot ofor
war
dthebundl
e.Asshown

4|
Page
i
nli
nes38t
o50oft
heal
gor
it
hm,
i her
ft out
e_capaci
tyi
sgr
eat
ert
hanabundl
e
si
ze,
thent
hewhol
ebundl
ewi
l
lbeenqueuedt
othenode'
sout
duct
.Ot
her
wise,
t
hebundl
eisdi
vi
dedi
ntot
wof
ragment
s:oneequal
t her
ot out
e_capaci
tyandt
he
ot
herwi
tht
her
est
.Fur
ther
,wef
lagt
her
out
e,wher
ewehav
eassi
gnedabundl
e
f
ragment
,ast
empor
ari
l
yunav
ail
abl
eforanysubsequentr
out
ecomput
ati
onunt
il
t
hel
astf
ragmentoft
heor
igi
nal
bundl
ehasbeenqueuedf
ort
ransmi
ssi
on.Thi
sis
becauset
hebestcandi
dat
erout
eforwhi
chaf
ragmenthasbeenenqueued
shoul
dnotbeconsi
der
edf
orot
herf
ragment
soft
hatbundl
e.I
tmaybenot
edt
hat
f
easi
bil
i
tyofr
estoft
hebundl
ecoul
dal
sobecheckedbef
oresendi
ngany
f
ragment
.Butwehav
enotconsi
der
edt
hisbecausesuchcasesar
erar
e.

Al
gor
it
hm 1
5|
Page
I
mpl
ement
ati
onofCGR-
BFandt
imi
nganal
ysi
s
6|
Page
CGRusesDi
j
kst
ra'
s(orasi
mil
ar)al
gor
it
hm t
ocomput
etheopt
imal
rout
efor
f
orwar
dingabundl
e.Her
ethenet
wor
kisconv
ert
edi
ntoaLi
neGr
aph(
LG)wher
e
eachcont
acti
sconsi
der
edasanode(
sayLGnode)
.Ther
eisanedgebet
ween
2LGnodesi
fthef
rom-
nodeofacont
acti
ssameast
hatoft
het
o-nodeoft
he
pr
evi
ouscont
acti
napat
h.Appl
yi
ngDi
j
kst
ra'
sal
gor
it
hm ont
hist
ransf
ormedl
i
ne
gr
aphwecangett
heear
li
estEDTpat
hconsi
der
ingonl
ythewhol
ebundl
e. I
n
CGR-
BFt
ooDi
j
kst
ra'
sal
gor
it
hm canbeusedt
ofi
ndt
heear
li
estEDTpat
h.
Howev
er,
int
hiscase,
CGR-
BFconsi
der
sthecont
act
signor
edbyt
heCGRear
li
er
duet
oinsuf
fi
cientcapaci
ty.Her
e,bot
hCGRandCGR-
BFal
gor
it
hmspr
ogr
essby
updat
ingt
hear
ri
val
timesofnewcont
act
stocomput
epat
hsf
rom asour
cet
oa
dest
inat
ion(
CGR-
BFal
soconsi
der
sfr
agment
swhi
l
ecomput
ingt
hear
ri
val
time)
. 

 
  
  
  
  
Fig.2.Appl
yi
ngDi
j
kst
ra'
sal
gor
it
hm t
ocomput
ethepat
hhav
ingear
li
estEDT.

2.
A4-
stepBl
ockchai
nEquippedAppr
oacht
o

7|
Page
 EnergyEf
fi
ciencyandRouti
nginHomi
ng
PigeonBasedDelayTol
erantNet
wor
k

 Pr
iyankaDas,
TanmayDe,
Wir
elessPer
sonalCommuni
cat
ions(
2021)

I
ntr
oduct
ion

TheHomi
ngPi
geonBasedDTN(
HoP-
DTN)
,av
ari
antofDTN,
wasspeci
fi
cal
l
y
concept
ual
i
zedt
oser
vesomeoft
hesenet
wor
kswhosechar
act
eri
sti
csar
e
di
ff
erentf
rom t
hegener
aldel
ayordi
srupt
iont
oler
antnet
wor
ks.HoP-
DTNuses
speci
almessagecar
ryi
ngnodes,
pigeons,
topr
oact
ivel
yrout
emessagesar
ound
t
henet
wor
k.Asi
twor
ksi
nar
easl
i
kedi
sast
err
esponseormi
l
itar
y,ener
gy
conser
vat
ioni
simper
ati
veher
e.Thi
spaperpr
oposesa4-
stepmechani
sm t
o
addr
essbot
hoft
hesei
ssues.I
nvi
ewoft
hat
,somechangest
othecl
assi
cal
model
l
ingofHoP-
DTNhasbeendonet
oaccommodat
ethev
ari
ati
ons.The
depl
oymentar
eahasbeendi
vi
dedi
ntozoneswi
thpi
geonsf
oll
owi
nga4-
step
det
ail
edcour
sepl
anandschedul
i
ngst
rat
egyt
oachi
evebet
terr
out
ingandmor
e
ener
gyef
fi
ciency
.Tof
urt
herenhanceener
gyef
fi
ciencyaBl
ockchai
ninspi
red
ener
gyshar
ingschemewasused.
 
Thef
oll
owi
ngar
etheobj
ect
ivesoft
hisr
esear
chwor
k:
 1.Todesi
gnanener
gyef
fi
ciental
ter
nat
ivet
otheex
ist
ingHoP-
DTN.
 2.Tobr
ingani
mpr
ovementi
ntheTSPr
out
ingbyut
il
izi
ngandt
aki
ng
adv
ant
ageofsomef
eat
uresi
ntr
insi
ctoHoP-
DTN.
 3.Todev
elopandappr
opr
iat
easchedul
i
ngt
echni
quet
hatcansuppor
tthe
abov
etwoobj
ect
ives.

Pr
oposedAppr
oach:Zoni
fi
edHoP-
DTN

8|
Page
Thi
spaperai
mst
opr
ovi
deasol
uti
ont
obot
hthepr
obl
emsofr
out
ingandener
gy
ef
fi
ciencyi
nHoP-
DTNbyi
mpl
ement
inga4-
stepmechani
sm.I
nthi
s4-
step
cour
sepl
an,
wewoul
dmodi
fyt
heschedul
i
ngst
rat
egy
,segr
egat
ethedepl
oyment
ar
ea,
appl
yBl
ockchai
nandi
ntr
oducenewr
ulesi
nabi
dtowor
kar
oundt
heTSP
r
out
ingandmaket
henet
wor
kmor
eener
gyef
fi
cient
.The4st
epmechani
sm i
sas
f
oll
ows(
Fig1)

 
  
  
  
  
 
   
 
   
 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
Fig1Depl
oymentar
eapar
ti
ti
onedi
nto4zones

St
ep1:Pi
zzaBoySt
rat
egy
 
Itdi
vi
dest
heappl
i
cat
ionar
eai
ntozones.Pi
geonsnowwi
l
lsetoutt
odel
i
ver
messagest
onodesbasedonz
ones.Soi
nst
eadofhav
ingt
otr
avel
toscat
ter
ed
dest
inat
ions,
api
geoni
nmostcaseswi
l
ltr
avel
toapar
ti
cul
arl
ocal
i
tyandbeback
t
oit
shomenode.So,
onanav
eragei
ttr
avel
sfarl
esst
hani
thadt
oot
her
wise.
 
Thedepl
oymentar
eai
sar
ect
angl
ewi
thuni
for
mlydi
str
ibut
ednodes,
from Fi
g.2
wenot
ethatxm andy
m.ar
ethemaxi
mum v
aluesoft
hexandycoor
dinat
esoft
he
depl
oymentar
ear
espect
ivel
y.XcandYc ar
ethecoor
dinat
esoft
hecent
roi
doft
his
depl
oymentar
ea.

9|
Page
 
  
  
  
  
 
   
 
   
 
  
  
  
Fig2Par
ti
ti
oni
ngofdepl
oymentar
eai
ntozonesw.
r.
t.t
hecent
roi
d
 

St
ep2:Fr
iendZone
I
fweobser
veanumberofr
unsandcal
cul
atet
heav
eragedi
stancer
equi
redt
o
t
rav
elt
otheot
herzones,
wecoul
dcomet
oausef
ulconcl
usi
ont
hatwoul
d
f
urt
herenhancet
heef
fi
ciencyofourscheme.Thezonewhi
chi
squi
ckestt
o
r
eachf
rom ownz
onecoul
dbet
ermedast
heFr
iendZone,
andhencef
ort
h
messagest
othi
szonecoul
dbecl
ubbedwi
tht
hoseofownzoneduet
oobv
ious
r
easons.

St
ep3:Hi
gh-
LowPi
geons

Al
gor
it
hm 1

10|
Page
St
ep4:Condi
ti
onalPi
ckup

Cl
assi
cal
l
yapi
geononl
ycol
l
ect
smessagesf
rom i
tsdesi
gnat
edhomenode.To
opt
imi
zet
hewhol
esi
tuat
ioni
nter
msofener
gyconser
vat
ion,
wecanal
l
ow
condi
ti
onal
pickupbypi
geonsf
rom nodesot
hert
hani
tshomenode,
consi
der
ing
t
her
ear
easmanyf
reespacesi
nit
sbuf
fer
.

I
mplementingBl
ockchai
nTechni
quet
oEnhanceEner
gy
Ef
fi
ciency

Recentlysomecount riesinEuropedidat esttri

alofimpl ementingthi
s
strat
egyt oshar eener gybet weenhomesandel ectriccar s.Todosoi n
ZHoP, eachCl usterHead( CH)mustbeapr osumer( pr oduceraswel l
asconsumer )ofener gy.I
fthereisaCHt hatproducest oomuch
energyint ermsofsol arenergysucht hatitdoesn’tneedal l
ofit,i
tcan
thenagr eet osell/sharethisenergyt
oi ncomi ngforeignpi geons.
Thesef oreignpi geonsgetchar gedupher eandreducet her i
skof
dyingduet oener gyshor t
ageandmi ghtal sonotneedt ochar ge
themselv esagai nwhenbackhome, therebysav i
ngi t
shomenode’ s
energy.Sot hei ncentiveschemet hathav eproposedf orenablingand

11|
Page
pr
omot i
ngBlockchai ninZHoP/ HoP- DTNar easf ol
lows:
 1.ServiceIncentive:Thepi geoncanagr eetodeliversomeof
thisCH’smessagesconsi deringt herearefreebuf ferspaceand
thedest i
nati
onoft hemessagei satl eastinthesamez oneas
thiszoneort hepigeon’shomez one.
 2.TokenI ncentive:Atokensy stem canbeused.At okenoft he
amountofener gythatisbei ngt akenf rom aCHbyt hi
spigeon
wouldbei ssued.Thi stokencanbel aterusedbyt hisCH’s
pigeonst obuyener gyfrom t hehomenodeoft hatf or
eign
pigeon.Inawaywear eagai ncr eatingaBl ockchainoft okens
wheret hetransactionisallaboutener gyinsteadofmoney .Bot
h
parti
eswi ll
hav eacopyeachoft histransacti
onf orsafekeeping
andv eri
fi
cation.Additi
onal l
y,theset okenscanbepr otect
ed
usingcryptographicaltechniques.

Si
mul
ati
onAnal
ysi
s
I
mpactofSchedul
ing

Fi
g3.Av
eragedel
ayofmessagesinpi
geonbuf
ferbef
oret
ake-
offi
nal
esst
alkat
ive
net
work(s=7,
NoM=10)

I
mpactonEner
gyEf
fi
ciency

12|
Page
 Fi
g3.No.ofdeadpi
geons,
blockchai
nappl
i
ed(
s=5,
NoP=5,
Pmax=10)

3.
Ener
gyconsumpti
onanaly
sisofdif
fer
entrout
ing
pr
otocol
sinaDelayToler
antNetwor
k
 Evj
olaSpaho,
Jour
nalofAmbi
entI
ntel
li
genceandHumani
zedComput
ing

I
NTRODUCTI
ON

I
nthi
spaper
,Oppor
tuni
sti
cNet
wor
kEnv
ironmentenv
ironmentt
osi
mul
ateadat
a
col
l
ect
ionappl
i
cat
ionusi
ngaDel
ayTol
erantNet
wor
k(DTN)
.Agr
oupofsensor
nodessensedat
afr
om t
heenv
ironmentandsendt
hesedat
atoadest
inat
ion
nodet
hatcol
l
ect
sthem f
orst
ati
sti
cal
anddat
aanal
ysi
spur
poses.Pedest
ri
ans
andcy
cli
stequi
ppedwi
thsmar
tdev
icesmov
ingi
nTi
ranaci
tyr
oads,
wil
lrel
ayt
he
senseddat
avi
aoppor
tuni
sti
ccont
act
s.Di
ff
erentsi
mul
ati
onsar
edonet
oident
if
y
amongf
iver
out
ingpr
otocol
sthemostsui
tabl
eforDTNappl
i
cat
ion.

13|
Page
Rout
ingi
nDTNs

Manydi
ff
erentr
out
ingpr
otocol
sforDTNsar
epr
oposedandi
mpl
ement
ed.DTN
r
out
ingpr
otocol
scanbecl
assi
fi
edi
nsi
ngl
e-copyandmul
ti
ple-
copypr
otocol
sor
f
orwar
dingandr
epl
i
cat
ingpr
otocol
s.I
nsi
ngl
e-copyr
out
ingpr
otocol
sor
f
orwar
dingpr
otocol
s,f
oreachmessageonl
yonecopyexi
stsi
nthenet
wor
k.I
n
mul
ti
ple-
copyr
out
ingpr
otocol
sorr
epl
i
cat
ingpr
otocol
s,t
her
ear
etwosubgr
oups:
N-
copyandunl
i
mit
edcopyr
out
ingpr
otocol
s.
I
nthi
spaper
,weconsi
derf
iveDTNr
out
ingpr
otocol
s:Epi
demi
c,Spr
ayandWai
t,
Maxpr
op,
ProphetandFi
rstCont
act.

Si
mul
ati
onSet
up
Wecr
eat
edaDTNscenar
iobasedonapar
tofTi
ranaci
tyi
nAl
bani
aforan
env
ironmentmoni
tor
ingappl
i
cat
ion.Forourenv
ironmentmoni
tor
ingappl
i
cat
ion,
wecr
eat
eaDTNwi
th300nodes.Weused21st
ati
onar
ynodesdi
vi
dedi
n7
gr
oupst
hatsenddat
atoasi
ngl
est
ati
onar
ydest
inat
ionnode.Thedi
stances
bet
weensour
cesanddest
inat
ionnodev
ari
esf
rom 800t
o2000m.St
ati
onar
y
nodescanbesensor
sthatgat
herenv
ironmenti
nfor
mat
ionandsendt
his
i
nfor
mat
iont
oadest
inat
ionnodet
hatcol
l
ect
sthesedat
aforst
ati
sti
cal
anddat
a
anal
ysi
spur
poses.Sour
ceanddest
inat
ionst
ati
onar
ynodesar
eequi
ppedwi
tha
100MBbuf
fer
.Theot
hernodesar
e120pedest
ri
ansand158cy
cli
st.Theyar
e
mobi
l
eandequi
ppedwi
thasmar
tdev
icewi
th100MBbuf
fer
.Inoursi
mul
ati
ons
pedest
ri
ansuseshor
test
-pat
hmap-
basedmov
ementmodel
andcy
cli
stusemap
basedmov
ement
.Thet
otal
simul
ati
ont
imei
s4h.Asnapshotoft
hescenar
ioi
s
showni
nFi
g.2.

14|
Page
 Fi
g1.Nodesi
nit
ial
posi
ti
ons

Thenodeener
gyconsumpt
ionmodel
isbasedonanener
gybudgetappr
oach.
Eachnodei
sgi
venanener
gybudgetwhi
chi
sspentbyener
gyconsumi
ng
act
ivi
ti
es.Scanener Se)i
gy( stheener
gyt
hatt
henodespentt
odi
scov
eri
ts
nei
ghbor
s.Scanr
esponseener Sr
gy( e)i
stheener
gyconsumedwhenr
espondi
ng
t
onei
ghbor
sdur
ingt
hedi
scov
eryphase.Tr
ansmi
tener Te)i
gy( sener
gyusedby
nodest
osendmessages.Baseener Be)i
gy( stheener
gyconsumedwhent
he
nodei
sini
dlemode
Thenodeconsumedener CE)i
gy( scal
ulat
edbyt
hef
oll
owi
ngf
ormul
a:

 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  

Si
mul
ati
onResul
ts

15|
Page
Fi
g1,
Resul
tsofdel
iv
erypr
obabi
li
ty

Fi
g2.Resul
tsofov
erheadr
ati
o

16|
Page
 Fi
g3.Resul
tsofav
eragel
atency

 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
 
Fig4.Result
sofnodesav
erager
emai
ningener
gy
4.
ACogni
ti
veAnycastRouti
ngMethodf
orDel
ay-
Tol
erantNetwor
ks

 Aut
hor
:Ri
car
doLent
,Depar
tmentofEngi
neer
ingTechnol
ogy,
Uni
ver
sit
yof
Houston,Houst
on,TX 
  77204,
USA
 Jour
nal:Network

I
ntr
oduct
ion

17|
Page
Wi
thany
castr
out
ing,
dat
acanbedel
i
ver
edt
o(orf
rom)anyoneofequal
l
y
sui
tabl
esi
nks(
orsour
ces)byest
abl
i
shi
ngaonet
oany
-of
-manyr
elat
ion.When
cor
rect
lyused,
itcanhel
ptosi
mpl
i
fynet
wor
kser
viceswhi
l
eimpr
ovi
ngt
hedat
a
del
i
ver
yper
for
mance.Pr
act
ical
usesofany
castr
out
ingt
odaycanbef
ound
mai
nlyf
ort
het
err
est
ri
aldomai
n.Acommonappl
i
cat
ioni
nvol
vesi
nfor
mat
ion
r
etr
iev
ali
ncont
ent
-del
i
ver
ynet
wor
ks(
CDN)
,wher
euserr
equest
scanbeser
ved
f
rom t
hemostappr
opr
iat
edat
acent
erhost
ingageogr
aphi
cal
l
yrepl
i
cat
ed
ser
vice.Despi
tenotbei
ngpr
evi
ousl
yexpl
oredi
ndet
ail
,any
castr
out
ingmayhel
p
t
omi
ti
gat
esomeoft
hechal
l
engesi
nvol
vedi
nspacenet
wor
ks.Fori
nst
ance,
consi
deraconst
ell
ati
onofLEOsat
ell
i
tespr
ovi
dingi
nter
mit
tentcommuni
cat
ion
ser
vicesf
oral
argenumberofsensornodesofasmar
tenv
ironment(
e.g.
,smar
t
ocean)
.Thedat
afr
om t
henodescoul
dbef
orwar
dedt
odi
ff
erentsi
nkst
hrough
di
ver
sepat
hs,
whi
chmaybeaut
omat
ical
l
ysel
ect
edbyt
heany
castser
vicebased
ont
hel
ocat
ion,
net
wor
kcongest
ionl
evel
s,andsat
ell
i
tel
i
nkav
ail
abi
l
ity
.A
cogni
ti
venet
wor
kingappr
oacht
otheany
castr
out
ingpr
obl
em f
ordel
ay-
tol
erant
net
wor
king(
DTN)i
spr
oposed.Themet
hodi
ssui
tabl
efort
hespace–gr
oundand
ot
herdomai
nswher
ecommuni
cat
ionsar
erecur
rent
lychal
l
engedbydi
ver
sel
i
nk
i
mpai
rment
s,i
ncl
udi
ngl
ongpr
opagat
iondel
ays,
communi
cat
ionasy
mmet
ry,
and
l
engt
hydi
srupt
ions.Thepr
oposedmet
hoddel
i
ver
sdat
abundl
esachi
evi
ngl
ow
del
aysbyav
oidi
ng,
whenev
erpossi
ble,
li
nkcongest
ionandl
ongwai
tti
mesf
or
cont
act
stobecomeact
ive,
andwi
thoutt
heneedofdupl
i
cat
ingdat
abundl
es.

Appr
oach

Net
wor
kgat
eway
suseaspi
ki
ngneur
alnet
wor
k(SNN)t
odeci
det
heopt
imal
out
boundl
i
nkf
oreachbundl
e.TheSNNi
sregul
arl
yupdat
edt
oref
lectt
he
expect
edcostoft
her
out
ingdeci
sions,
whi
chhel
pst
ofi
ne-
tunef
utur
edeci
sions.
Themet
hodi
sdecent
ral
i
zedandsel
ect
sbot
htheany
castgr
oupmembert
obe
usedast
hesi
nkandt
hepat
htor
eacht
hatnode.Aser
iesofexper
iment
swer
e
car
ri
edoutonanet
wor
ktest
bedt
oev
aluat
ethemet
hod.Ther
esul
ts
demonst
rat
eit
sper
for
manceadv
ant
ageov
eruni
castr
out
ing,
asany
castr
out
ing

18|
Page
i
snoty
etsuppor
tedbyt
hecur
rentDTNst
andar
d(Cont
actGr
aphRout
ing)
.The
pr
oposedappr
oachy
iel
dsi
mpr
ovedper
for
mancef
orspaceappl
i
cat
ionst
hat
r
equi
reas-
fast
-as-
possi
bledat
aret
urns.
 

Al
gor
it
hm

19|
Page
Per
for
manceMeasur
ement
s

20|
Page
 Fi
gure2.Scenari
o1:Homogeneouspropagat
iondel
aysandrandom packetdr
ops.(
a)
Aver
ageresponseti
me;(
b)averagepathl
ength;(
c)bundl
ethr
oughput;(
d)traf
fi
cspl
it.

Any
castGr
oupSi
ze

21|
Page
Resul
ts

Byt
aki
ngadv
ant
ageoft
heaut
onomousr
out
edeci
sion-
maki
ngcapabi
l
ityoft
he
cogni
ti
vespacegat
ewaymet
hod,
anany
castr
out
ingmechani
sm f
ordel
ay-
t
oler
antnet
wor
kswasdev
eloped.I
tal
l
owsnet
wor
kgat
eway
stoi
ndependent
ly
det
ermi
net
heopt
imal
out
boundl
i
nkt
obeusedt
hatl
eadst
othel
owestdel
i
ver
y
t
imet
ooneoft
hemember
soft
heany
castgr
oup.
 
Measur
ement
sobt
ainedwi
thasy
stem pr
otot
ypehav
eshownsi
gni
fi
cant
per
for
mancei
mpr
ovementov
eruni
cast
inggi
vent
hatany
cast
ingi
snotcur
rent
ly
suppor
tedbyt
hest
andar
dspaceDTNappr
oach(
i.
e.,
theCGRal
gor
it
hm)
. 

Fut
urewor
kisexpect
edt
ofur
therev
aluat
etheappr
oachusi
ngr
epr
esent
ati
ve
t
raf
fi
cofact
ual
appl
i
cat
ions.
 

22|
Page
 5.
APer
for
manceComparisonofDelay-
Tol
erant
Net
workRouti
ngProtocols
 Aut
hor
s-TamerAbdel
kader
,Kshi
rasagarNai
k,Ami
yaNayak,
Nishi
thGoel
,
andVi
neetSr
ivast
ava

I
ntr
oduct
ion:

Del
ayTol
erantNet
wor
k(DTN)i
sacl
assofnet
wor
kar
chi
tect
urest
hataddr
ess
t
hel
ackofcont
inuousnet
wor
kconnect
ivi
ty.
Toov
ercomet
hei
nter
mit
tentconnect
ivi
ty,
DTNnodesst
oreandcar
ryt
hedat
a
packet
stheyr
ecei
veunt
ilt
heycomei
ntocommuni
cat
ionr
angeofeachot
her
.In
addi
ti
on,
theyspr
eadmul
ti
plecopi
esoft
hesamepacketont
henet
wor
kto
i
ncr
easet
hedel
i
ver
ypr
obabi
l
ity
. 

DTNRout
ingPr
otocol
s

Rout
ingpr
otocol
sar
ecl
assi
fi
edaccor
dingt
otheamountandt
ypeofi
nfor
mat
ion
usedt
omaket
her
out
ingdeci
sion.
Thesepr
otocol
sdonotcol
l
ecti
nfor
mat
ion
aboutot
hernodesbecauset
heydonotusenodesel
ect
ioncr
it
eri
a. 

EPI
DEMI
CRout
ingPr
otocol

EPI
DEMI
Crout
ingi
sthef
ir
str
out
ingpr
otocol
proposedf
orspar
se
net
wor
ks.
EPI
DEMI
Crout
ingguar
ant
eest
hedel
i
ver
yofal
lthepacket
stot
hei
r
dest
inat
ions.I
naddi
ti
on,
itguar
ant
eest
hel
owestend-
to-
enddel
ay,
becauseeach
packeti
srout
edonal
lpossi
blepat
hsf
rom t
hesour
ce,
andoneoft
hecopi
eswi
l
l
beont
heshor
testpat
h. 
Themai
ndr
awbackofEPI
DEMI
Crout
ingi
sit
shugeconsumpt
ionoft
hel
i
mit
ed

23|
Page
r
esour
ces,
suchasmemor
y,ener
gy,
andcont
actdur
ati
on.
 

Spr
ayandWai
tRout
ingPr
otocol
 

DTNsusual
l
yinv
olv
edev
icest
hatar
eener
gy-
sensi
ti
vei
nwhi
chsav
ingener
gy
becomesoneofi
tsmai
nobj
ect
ives,
ifnott
hemai
none.Ener
gyconsumpt
ioni
s
most
lyi
ncur
redi
nthecommuni
cat
ionpr
ocess(
transmi
ssi
onandr
ecept
ion)
.The
i
deaofSnW i
stol
i
mitt
henumberofpacketcopi
esi
nthenet
wor
k. Howev
er,
SnW st
il
lsuf
fer
sfr
om t
hebl
i
ndsel
ect
ionoft
henext
-hopnodeswhi
chmay
degr
adet
hepacketdel
i
ver
yrat
io.

PROPHETRout
ingPr
otocol
 

Thepr
otocol
est
imat
esanodemet
ri
ccal
l
eddel
i
ver
ypr
edi
ctabi
l
ity
,P(
a,b)
,at
eachnodeaf
oreachdest
inat
ionb.Whent
wonodesmeet
,theyupdat
ethei
r
del
i
ver
ypr
edi
ctabi
l
ityt
owar
deachot
her
.Thent
het
wonodesex
changet
hei
r
del
i
ver
ypr
edi
ctabi
l
ityl
i
stusi
ngt
hef
oll
owi
ngupdat
est
echni
ques:
 Di
rectUpdat
e
 Tr
ansi
ti
veUpdat
e
 Agi
ng
Ther
efor
e,PROPHETi
sexpect
edt
oout
per
for
mthebl
i
ndpr
otocol
sindel
i
ver
y
r
ati
o.Ont
heot
herhand,
iti
sexpect
edt
hatt
heav
eragepacketdel
aymay
i
ncr
easeduet
owai
ti
ngf
oragoodnextnodei
nthepat
h. 

MAXPROPRout
ingPr
otocol
:

TheMAXPROPpr
otocol
proposesanodemet
ri
c,P(
a,b)
,si
mil
art
oPROPHET.
Whent
wonodesaandbmeet
,theyst
rengt
hent
hel
i
nkbet
weeneachot
herby
addi
ngaconst
antawhi
chi
ssett
oequal
1int
hepr
otocol
.Thent
het
wonodes
di
vi
det
hei
rdel
i
ver
ypr
edi
ctabi
l
ityt
owar
dsal
lthenodesi
ncl
udi
ngeachot
herby1
+asot
hatt
hesum ofal
ldel
i
ver
ypr
edi
ctabi
l
ityr
emai
ns1.Themai
ncont
ri
but
ion

24|
Page
ofMAXPROPi
sini
tsbuf
fermanagement
.MAXPROPf
avor
spacket
swi
thl
ower
hopcountt
ospr
eadi
nthenet
wor
k. 

Opt
imalRout
ing:

Opt
imal
rout
ingassumest
heav
ail
abi
l
ityoff
ull
knowl
edgeaboutt
henet
wor
k.
Ther
eisonl
yasi
ngl
ecopyofeachmessage.Foreachmessage,
opt
imal
rout
ing
f
indst
heopt
imal
rout
ethatmaxi
mizesacer
tai
nut
il
it
yormi
nimi
zesadef
ined
cost
.Theopt
imal
rout
ingf
ormul
ati
onwaspr
oposedandex
plai
nedi
n[11]
.We
sol
vet
heopt
imi
zat
ionpr
obl
em wi
tht
woobj
ect
ivef
unct
ions:
 
•MI
NH:
Mini
mizet
het
otal
numberofhops.
 
•MI
ND:
Mini
mizet
het
otal
end-
to-
enddel
ay.

Per
for
manceMet
ri
cs 

Weconsi
dert
hreemet
ri
cst
omeasur
etheper
for
manceoft
hedi
ff
erentpr
otocol
s
bel
ow.
 
Del
i
ver
yRat
io(
DR)
:

25|
Page
Resul
ts:

Weconduct
edf
ourset
sofexper
iment
stost
udyt
hei
mpactoft
hef
oll
owi
ng
par
amet
ers:
 
•Buf
fercapaci
ty 
•Packetl
i
fet
imeorTTL 
•Nodedensi
tybychangi
ngt
henumberofnodesi
nthenet
wor
k 
•Tr
aff
icl
oadbychangi
ngt
hepacketgener
ati
onr
atei
not
hermet
ri
cs.The
det
ail
edexper
iment
sar
edescr
ibedi
nthef
oll
owi
ngsubsect
ions.

26|
Page
Impactofv
ary
ingBuf
fercapaci
tyandno.of
nodes:

I
mpactofv
ary
ingTTLandTL:

27|
Page
 6.
Cooper
ati
vet
ransmi
ssi
onindel
ayt
oler
ant
net
work
 Aut
hor
s-WANGRong,
WUYahui
*,HUANGHongbi
n,andDENGSu

I
ntr
oduct
ion

Wi
tht
her
api
ddev
elopmentoft
echnol
ogy
,themobi
l
edat
atr
aff
ichasseent
he
maj
orunexpect
edgr
owt
handi
twi
l
lkeepgr
owi
ng at47%annual
l
y,soi
tis
i
mpor
tant
 fort
henet
wor
kpr
ovi
der
stoi
mpr
ovet
hei
rinf
rast
ruct
ure,
byl
ooki
ngat
t
hecostr
equi
redt
heyar
etr
yingt
oinst
il
ltheWI
FIsy
stem i
nsmar
tter
minal
sbut
duet
oli
mit
edcov
eraget
hecommuni
cat
ionl
i
nk hasbeenv
erydy
nami
cand
uncer
tai
nsuchcommuni
cat
ionl
i
nk/
net
wor
kisknownasDel
ayTol
erantNet
wor
k
Sot
hisnet
wor
kisgener
all
yused,
wher
ethecommuni
cat
ionl
i
nkmaydi
srupt
f
requent
ly.Tocopewi
tht
hispr
obl
em,
theDTNusest
hest
ore-
car
ry-
for
war
d(SCF)
t
ransmi
ssi
onmode.whenr
ecei
vi
ngamessage,
thenodewi
l
lfi
rstst
orei
tini
ts
buf
ferandcar
ryt
hemessagewi
thi
tsmov
ement
.Then,
ift
henodeencount
ers
wi
thanodewi
thoutt
hemessage,
itwi
l
lfor
war
dthemessage.SCFmodeneeds
t
hecooper
ati
onbet
weent
henodes.Howev
er,
int
her
eal
appl
i
cat
ions,
thedev
ice
owner
smaybesel
fi
shandmaynotbewi
l
li
ngt
ohel
pot
her
s
sot
hesour
cehast
opaycer
tai
nrewar
ds/
usecer
tai
nincent
ivepol
i
ciest
oot
her
s
f
orget
ti
ngt
hei
rhel
p.Manyr
esear
cher
shav
esuggest
edcer
tai
nincent
ivepol
i
cies
t
hatcanbeusedl
i
kei
nan i
ncent
ivepol
i
cyr
ewar
dscanbe at
tachedoneach
message.I
nthi
scase,
ifanodef
orwar
dsamessaget
othedest
inat
ion,
thenode

28|
Page
wi
l
lgetr
ewar
ds 
 
anot
heri
ncent
ivepol
i
cy,
whi
chwasobt
ainedt
hroughsol
vi
nganopt
imi
zat
ion
pr
obl
em basedont
hemean-
fi
eldappr
oxi
mat
ion,
cer
tai
nincent
ivepol
i
cieswer
e
al
sosuggest
edbasedont
hegamet
heor
yaswel
l
,
thi
spaperst
udi
est
hei
ncent
ivepol
i
cywi
tht
heepi
demi
crout
ingpr
otocol
,wher
e
anodecant
ransmi
tthemessaget
oev
erynodes.
 
Thef
ir
stst
epi
stomodel
sthemessagespr
eadi
ngpr
ocessaccor
dingt
othe
mean-
fi
eldappr
oxi
mat
ion.
 
Thenbasedont
he 
model
bui
l
t,i
tdescr
ibest
hei
ncent
ivepr
obl
em asanopt
imal
cont
rol
probl
em.Then,
itobt
ainst
heopt
imal
pol
i
cybasedonPont
ryagi
n’
s
maxi
mum pr
inci
ple.Fi
nal
l
y,i
tcheckst
heaccur
acyoft
het
heor
eti
cal
model
t
hroughsi
mul
ati  
ons.

Messaget
ransmi
ssi
onModel
li
ng

Ther
eisasour
cenoder
elaynodeanddest
inat
ionnode,
rel
aynodeswi
l
lsendt
he
dat
atot
hedest
inat
ionwi
tht
hepr
obabi
l
ityqast
hepaperneedst
ofi
ndopt
imal
i
ncent
ivepol
i
cyt
hev
alueofqi
sconst
ant
,I
nSCFmessaget
ransf
erhappensonl
y
bet
weennodesi
ncont
actwhi
chdependsont
hemobi
l
itymodel
,exponent
ial
model
hasbeenusedf
ori
t
Cur
rent
ly
I
ntheexponent
ial
model
,thei
nter
-meet
ingt
imebet
weent
woconsecut
ive
cont
act
sconf
ormst
otheexponent
ial
dist
ri
but
ion.Forexampl
e,i
nthet
ime
i
nter
val
Δt,
twonodesmeetwi
theachot
herwi
tht
hepr
obabi
l
ity1−exp(
−λΔt
),
andt
hepar
amet
erλcanbecal
l
edt
hemeet
ingr
ate.Tomaket
her
elaynodes
cooper
ati
ve,
thesour
cewi
l
lpaysomer
ewar
dswhi
chv
arywi
tht
ime.Thi
spaper
supposest
hatt
her
ewar
dsar
einpr
opor
ti
onal
wit
hthecooper
ati
vepr
obabi
l
ity
.In
par
ti
cul
ar,
att
imet
,cooper
ati
vepr
obabi
l
ityi
sdenot
edasu(
t),
andt
her
ewar
ds
t
hesour
cehast
opayi
sεu(
t).εi
saposi
ti
veconst
ant
,whi
chi
susedt
odenot
e
t
hecostf
orget
ti
ngt
henodes’
hel
p.
Thesy
mbol
u∗denot
est
heopt
imal
pol
i
cy.Thi
sequat
ionmeanst
hatt
he
opt
imi
zat
ionpr
obl
em canbechangedt
omaxi
mizet
heHami
l
toni
anf
unct
i  
on.

29|
Page
Per
for
manceanal
ysi
s

Themodel
bui
l
tusi
ngmean-
fi
eldmet
hodhasbeenanal
ysedf
ori
tsaccur
acy
,i
tis
doneusi
ngoppor
tuni
sti
cnet
wor
kenv
ironmentsi
mul
ator
 
Her
e,i
tmai
nlyconsi
der
stwodi
ff
erentmobi
l
itymodel
s,whi
char
ethePoi
sson
cont
actmodel
andaReal
mot
iont
race,
respect
ivel
y.Theabov
etwomodel
shav
e
beenusedi
nmanywor
ks.Fort
hePoi
sson-
cont
actmodel
,thi
spapergener
ates
400nodes,
andt
hecont
actr
ateβi
ssett
obe3.
71×10−6s−1.
t
hreer
andom i
ncent
ivepol
i
cies ar
econsi
der
edandwi
l
lbeappl
i
edont
he
sel
ect
edmodel
sasanex
ampl
e.I
npar
ti
cul
ar,
itset
s:Case1,
u(t
)=0,
0 t
 T;
Case
2,
u(t
)=1,
0 t
 T;
Case3,
u(t
)=0.
2,0 t
 T.I
naddi
ti
on,
itset
sq=0.
1andε=1/
T.
WhenTi
ncr
easesf
rom 0st
o2000s,

  
 

Fr
om t
hef
igur
es,
onecanseet
hatt
het
heor
eti
cal
model
isv
eryaccur
ate.For
exampl
e,t
hedev
iat
ionbet
weent
hesi
mul
ati
onandt
heor
eti
cal
resul
tsi
nFi
g.1i
s
smal
l
ert
han3.
267%,
andt
hedev
iat
ioni
nFi
g.2i
sabout7.
12%.

30|
Page
i
tcanbef
oundt
hatundert
hesamepol
i
cy,
thef
inal
uti
l
iti
esmayhav
esi
gni
fi
cant
di
ff
erencef
ordi
ff
erentv
aluesofset
ti
ngs.Forexampl
e,undert
hepol
i
cyu=1,
the
f
inal
uti
l
itydecr
easesf
rom 0t
o–1 
t
heper
for
mancemaybedi
ff
erentundert
hesamepol
i
cywhent
heset
ti
ngsar
e
di
ff
erent
.Tof
urt
hercheckt
hisphenomenon,
thi
spaperset
sT=1000s,
andl
et
t
henumberofnodesi
ncr
easesf
rom 100t
o1000.Not
ethatt
hepar
amet
erεi
sa
const
ant
Consi
der
ingt
hreedi
ff
erentpol
i
cieswi
thu=1,
u=0.
1andu=0,
respect
ivel
y.Thi
s
r
esul
tfur
thershowst
hatt
hef
inal
uti
l
itychangessi
gni
fi
cant
lyi
fthenumber
sof
nodesar
edi
ff
erent
.Ont
heot
herhand,
thi
sresul
tal
soshowst
hatf
ull
cooper
ati
onmaynotbegood.

I
tal
socompar
est
heper
for
manceoft
heopt
imal
pol
i
cywi
thsomeot
herpol
i
cies.
I
npar
ti
cul
ar,
itmai
nlyconsi
der
sfi
vedi
ff
erentpol
i
cies:
Case1,
theopt
imal
pol
i
cy
showni
n(9)
;Case2,
u(t
)=0,
0 t
 T;
Case3,
u(t
)=1,
0 t
 T;
Case4,
u(t
)=0.
2,0 t
 T;
Case5,
u(t
)=0.
8,0 t
 T.Ot
herset
ti
ngsar
ethesameast
hosei
nthef
ormer
sect
ion

31|
Page
Fr
om t
her
esul
t,onecanseet
hatt
heopt
imal
pol
i
cyobt
ainedi
sreal
l
ybet
tert
han
ot
herpol
i
cies

Concl
usi
on

Thi
spaperexpl
orest
heopt
imal
incent
ivepol
i
cyt
oimpr
ovet
heper
for
manceof
messaget
ransmi
ssi
oni
ntheDTN.I
npar
ti
cul
ar,
itmodel
sthei
ncent
ivepr
obl
em
asanopt
imi
zat
ionpr
obl
em wi
tht
hef
orwar
dingpr
obabi
l
ityast
hecont
rol
l
ing
par
amet
er.Ameanf
iel
dmodel
wit
hsev
eral
ordi
nar
ydi
ff
erent
ial
equat
ionsi
s
usedt
odescr
ibet
hemessagespr
eadi
ngpr
ocess.Themodel
ischeckedby
si
mul
ati
ons.Basedont
hePont
ryagi
n’
smaxi
mum pr
inci
ple,
thi
spaperget
sthe
opt
imal
pol
i
cy,
andmat
hemat
ical
l
ypr
ovest
hatt
heopt
imal
pol
i
cyconf
ormst
o
t
hebang-
bangst
ruct
ure.I
nfut
urewor
k,wewi
l
luset
hissi
mpl
epol
i
cyi
nsome
r
eal
scenar
ios,
suchast
hemusi
c/documentshar
ingbet
weent
hest
udent
sint
he
uni
ver
sit
y,et
c.I
naddi
ti
on,
thenodest
ransmi
tt
ingt
hemessageswi
l
lcostv
ari
ous
r
esour
ces,
suchast
hebandwi
dth,
powerandev
ent
hest
orage,
etc.Forsi
mpl
i
cit
y,
t
hispaperonl
yconsi
der
sthepowerasmostoft
hepr
evi
ouswor
ks.Thecase
wi
thhet
erogeneousr
esour
cesal
sowi
l
lbeexpl
oredi
nfut
urewor
ks

32|
Page
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