Phys 3104 1

CHAPTER I
ARTIFICIAL TRANSMUTATION OF ELEMENTS
14 4 17 1
7N + 2 He → 8O + 1H + Q
Example 1.1: Consider the reaction , where Q denotes
the energy absorbed or evolved during the nuclear reaction.

Example 1.2: Determine the product nuclei and Q values in the following reactions
27 25 27 25
Al (d, ∞) Mg ( α , d) Al, Mg, α
and . Masses of and d are 26.9901, 24.9936,
4.0039 and 2.0147 amu respectively. Comment on your results.
23 20
Na (n, α ) −5 . 4 MeV
Example 1.3: The Q value of the F reaction is . Determine
the threshold energy of the neutrons for this reaction.

Questions & Problems

1. What is meant by nuclear reaction?

2. What are the conservation laws to occur a nuclear reaction?
3. Write an essay on the artificial transmutation of elements.
4. What is Q value of a nuclear reaction and explain its significance.
5. Derive the expression for Q value for the case where the particle is emitted at right
angle with the direction of the incident particle.
6. What is the difference between exoergic and endoergic reactions?
7. Define the threshold energy and derive an expression for it.
8. Give with examples nuclear reactions using different projectiles in which isotopes
are produced.

9. Give one example each of (α , n), (p, α ), (d, α ), (d, p ), (n, α ) and (d, n)
reactions. What is photo-disintegration?
10. Complete the following nuclear reactions:
35 32 4
(i) 17 Cl + ? → 16 S + 2 He .
10 7 4
( ii ) 5B + ? → 3 Li + 2 He .
31 32
( iii ) 15 P + ? → 15 P + γ.
27
11. The rest mass of 13 Al is 26.98154 u. Find the mass of the product nuclei for the
following reactions:
27 28
(i) Al (n, γ ) Al ; Q = 7 . 722 MeV .
 Phys 3104 2

27 24
( ii ) Al (p, α ) Mg ; Q = 1 . 594 MeV .
27 28
( iii ) Al (d, p ) Al ; Q = 5. 497 MeV .
2 4
M ( H ) = 2. 01473 u M (He ) = 4 .002604 u .
14 11
12. Find the threshold energy for the reaction 7 N (n, α ) 5B .
11 14 4
M ( B) = 11.009305 u M ( Na ) = 14 .003074 u M ( He) = 4.002604 u .

13. When heavy water ( D2 O) is bombarded with 0.5 MeV deuterons, neutrons with
maximum energy of 2.54 MeV are observed at an angle of 90∘ with the direction
of deuterons. Write down the reaction equation and find the Q-value of the
reaction.
12
14. C (d, α ) 10 B has a Q-value of −1. 35 MeV . (a) What is the minimum energy of
deuterons required for this reaction. (b) If the deuterium gas is bombarded with
12 12 12
C nuclei, find the minimum energy of C C required for the reaction. (c)
Why are these two values different?
15. One of the reactions which occurs when boron is bombarded with 1.51 MeV
11 9 ∘
deuterons is B (d, α) Be . The α -particle coming off at an angle of 90 with
the direction of the deuteron beam have an energy of 6.37 MeV. What is the Q-
value of the reaction?
6 3
16. Q-value for the reaction Li ( p, α ) He is 3 .945 MeV . Find the mass of the
3
He isotope.
6 4
M ( Li ) = 6 . 015125 u M ( He) = 4 . 002604 u .
19 19
17. The Q-value for the reaction F (n,p ) O is −3.9 MeV . What is minimum
energy of neutrons required for this reaction?

18. Find the threshold energy for the reaction 17O ( n, α ) . Assume the target nucleus
is at rest.
17 4 14
M ( O ) = 16 . 9914 u M (He ) = 4 . 002604 u M ( C ) = 14 . 00332 u .
9
19. The reactions Be (p,γ ) 10 B, 13
C (p, n ) 13 N and 18
O (p, n ) 18 F were found to have
the threshold energies 2. 059 MeV, 3 .236 MeV and 2.59 MeV respectively.
What are the Q-values for these reactions?
 Phys 3104 3

14 17
N (∞, p) O
20. Balance the nuclear reaction and find its Q-value. The masses of
M ( N ) = 14 .00753 u, M ( 17 O ) = 17.0045 u,
14

the nuclei are given as

4 1
M ( He) = 4 .00387 u, M ( H ) = 1.00184 u
.

CHAPTER II
PARTICLE ACCELERATORS

Example 2.1: In a linear accelerator, proton accelerated thrice by a potential of 40 kV

leaves a tube and enters an accelerating space of length 30 cm before entering the next
tube. Calculate the frequency of the r.f. voltage and the length of the tube entered by the
proton.
2
1.4 weber/m
Example: 2.2: A cyclotron in which the flux density is employed to
accelerated protons. How rapidly should the electric field between the dees be reversed?

Example: 2.3: Deuterons in a cyclotron describe a circle of radius 0.32 m just before
emerging from the dees. The frequency of the applied e.m.f. is 10 MHz. Find the flux
density of the magnetic field and the velocity of deuterons emerging out of the cyclotron.

Example: 2.4: In a certain betatron the maximum magnetic field at orbit was
0. 4 W b/m2 50 Hz
, operating at with a stable orbit diameter of 1.524 m. Calculate the
average energy gained per revolution and the final energy of the electrons. In the betatron,
the electron velocities are nearly c.

Example: 2.5: What radius is needed in proton synchrotron to attain particle energies of
2
1.8 Wb/m
10 GeV, assuming that a guide field of is available?

Questions and Problems

1. Describe with diagram the construction and action of Van de Graaff generator.
Mention its uses.
2. Can a Van de Graaff generator be used to accelerate electrons and protons?
3. Give the construction and working of a linear accelerator.
4. Describe the construction and action of a cyclotron. Discuss its limitations.
 Phys 3104 4

5. Describe giving necessary theory the working of a betatron. Show that to keep the
electron in a constant radial motion, the magnetic induction in the area enclosed by
the path has to be maintained at any instant equal to double the induction over the
circular orbits.
6. Give an account of the theory, construction and working of a modern synchrotron.
Give its uses.
7. A linear accelerator for the acceleration of protons to 45.3 MeV is designed so that
between any pair of accelerating gaps, the protons spend one complete radio-
200 Mc/sec
frequency cycle inside a drift tube. The r.f. frequency used is
( i ) What is length of the final drift tube?
( ii ) If the first drift tube is 5.35cm long, at what K.E are the protons injected into
the linac?

1.49 × 106 volts

( iii ) If the peak accelerating potential , calculate the total length
of the accelerator.
8. Assume that in the 70 MeV betatron of the stable electron orbit is 28 cm. Calculate
( i ) the angular velocity of the electron ( ii ) the frequency of the applied electric
field and ( iii ) the value of the magnetic field intensity of the orbit for this energy.
9. Show that the radius of curvature R of the path of a particle inside the dees of a
1
2
N
cyclotron is proportional to the , where N is the number of times the particle
has been accelerated across the space between the dees.
10. Deuterons are accelerated in a fixed frequency cyclotron to a maximum dee orbit
2
1.4 weber/m
radius of 88 cm. The magnetic field is . Calculate the energy of the
emerging deuteron beam and the frequency of the dee voltage. What change in
magnetic flux density is necessary if doubly charged helium ions are accelerated?
2 4
H = 2. 014102 u . He = 4 . 002603 u
Given atomic masses: .
11. A fixed frequency cyclotron has an oscillator frequency of 12 MHz and a dee radius
of 0.55 m. It is used to accelerate deuterons. Calculate (a) the magnetic flux
density needed and (b) energy to which deuterons are accelerated.
frequency = 50 Hz
12. A betatron has the following parameters Magnet current supply .
−2
at the orbit = 0 . 4 Wbm
Peak magnetic flux density, . Electron orbit radius
= 0 .75 m
. Calculate (a) the final energy of the electrons (b) energy gained per
revolution and (c) total time of flight of the electrons.
 Phys 3104 5

13. 0.5 MeV protons are injected into a 50 MeV linear accelerator powered by a 200
MHz radio-frequency supply. Find the approximate lengths of the first and the last
drift tubes.
14. Calculate the average energy per revolution and final energy gained by electrons in
a betatron to which is applied a maximum magnetic field of 0.5 tesla operating at
60 Hz in a stable orbit of diameter 2 meters.
15. What total accelerator voltage will impart protons a velocity of 95% of the speed of
−27
(Rest mass of proton = m 0 = 1 . 672 × 10 kg )
light? .
−2
1. 5 Wbm
16. In a synchrocyclotron, the magnetic flux density decreases from at
centre of the magnet to 1.43 Wbm at the limiting radius of 2.06 m. Calculate the
-2

range of frequency modulation required for deuteron acceleration and the maximum
−27
3.34 × 10 kg
kinetic energy of the deuterons. The rest mass of the deuteron is ;
−19
1.6 × 10 C
the electronic charge is .

CHAPTER III
ELEMENTARY PARTICLES

EXAMPLE 3.1: Determine which of the following decay schemes can occur on the
basis of conservation of lepton number.
− − + +
μ →e +υ e +υ μ π → μ +υ μ +υ e
(i) (ii)

EXAMPLE 3.2: Determine whether or not each of the following reactions can occur
based on the law of conservation of baryon number.
→ →
(i) p + n p + p + n +p- (ii) p + n p + p + p-

EXAMPLE 3.3: Determine whether the following processes are possible by applying
the law of conservation of leptons.
+ − + +
n→ p +e +υ p + υ→n+ e
(i) (ii)

EXAMPLE 3.4: Determine whether or not each of the following reactions can occur
based on the law of conservation of baryon number.
 Phys 3104 6

+ − + − + − 0 − +
p + p →Ξ +Ξ γ →e +e Λ → p +π
(i) (ii) (iii)

EXAMPLE 3.5: Check whether the following reactions can occur using the law of
conservation of strangeness.
− + 0 − + − +
π + p →n+ Λ π + p →Σ +K
(i) (ii)
+ +
π → μ +υ
EXAMPLE 3.6: The π+ meson decays by the process .
(i) To what lepton family does this neutrino belong?
(ii) Is this neutrino a particle or an antiparticle?
(iii) What is its lepton number?
+ −
π Ω
EXAMPLE 3.7: Find the quark compositions of a a .

EXAMPLE 3.8: A Σ+ particle has these quantum numbers: strangeness S = -1, charge
Q= +1, and spin s = ½. To which of the following quark combinations does it belong: (i)
s̄ s̄
dds (ii) s (iii) uus (iv) ssu (v) uu ?

Questions & Problems

1. Write short notes on (a) Elementary particles (b) Conservation laws in elementary
particles (c) Weak nuclear interactions (d) Strange particles.
2. Which of the following reactions can occur? State the conservation laws violated
by the others.
+ +
p+ p → n+ p+π p + p → p +∧ + ∑ ¿¿
0
(a) (b)

(c) e + + e+ → μ + + π − (d) ¿0 → π + + π−
− 0
(e) π → n + π .
3. If the pion decays from rest to give a muon of 4.05MeV energy, what is the kinetic
energy of, the accompanying neutrino? What is the mass of the neutrino in this
process?
4. When an antiproton of energy 72MeV comes to rest in a nuclear emulsion, it is
annihilated by a proton to form two pairs of positive and negative pions and a
neutral pion. Calculate the average K.E. of each pion. assuming they all have the
same energy.
p− p+ = 938.3 MeV π + π − = 139.6 MeV π 0 = 135 MeV
(rest energy of , , , , )
5. Using the law of conservation of lepton numbers, find which of the following
+ +
p + ν̄ e → n + μ p + ν̄ e → n + e
reactions is possible: (a) (b) .
 Phys 3104 7

6. Using the baryon number and the strangeness number conservation laws, find
which of the following reactions is allowed:
− 0 0 − 0 0
π +p→∧ +K π +p→∧ +π
(a) (b) .
7. Find the maximum kinetic energy of the electron emitted in the beta decay of the
free .neutron. The neutron-proton mass difference is 1.30 MeV .
Q = M n − M p − me = (1.30 MeV ) − (0.51 MeV ) = 0.79 MeV
.

μ−
8. A , meson collides with a proton, and a neutron plus another particle are
created. What is the other particle?
9. Why must the quarks in a hadron have different colors? Would they have to
1
2
different colors if their spins were 0 or 1 rather than ?
+ +

10. What would be the structure of and

K ∑ ¿¿
in terms of the quark model? The
strangeness quantum number of each of the quarks u and d is zero and that of the
−1
quark s is .
−
11. A particle called xi-minus and having the symbol Ξ decays as follows:
Ξ − → ∧0 + π− .
0 −
The ¿ particle and the π particle are both unstable. The following decay
processes occur in cascade until only stable products remain:
− − − −
¿0 → p + π − ; π → μ + ῡ μ ; μ → e + υμ + ῡ e .
− −
Ξ Ξ
(i) Write the overall decay scheme for the particle. (ii) Is the particle a
meson or a baryon? (iii) Are lepton numbers conserved in the overall decay
scheme?
ū
12. A particle is a combination of a down quark (d) and an antiquark ( ). Is the
π0 π− π+
particle (i) a meson, (ii) a proton, (iii) a meson, (iv) a meson, or
(v) a neutron?
ῡ τ
13. Consider the neutrino whose symbol is (i) Is it a boson or a fermion? (ii) Is it
a particle or antiparticle? (iii) Is it a quark, a lepton, a meson, or a baryon?

CHAPTER IV
HEALTH PHYSICS
 Phys 3104 8

−5
5.16 × 10
EXAMPLE 4.1: A particle is given an X ray exposure X, of coulombs per
−4
1 R = 2.58 × 10
kg. Convert this exposure into roentgens (R), given that coulombs per
kg.

EXAMPLE 4.2: Calculate the energy carried by one photon of radiation produced in a
diagnostic X-ray generator at a wavelength of 10 pm.

EXAMPLE 4.3: A 2.0 mCi source of Au-198 is permanently implanted into a patient.
Determine the emitted radiation (1 day = 8.64×104 s).

EXAMPLE 4.4: A beam containing 103 photon is incident on a 16 cm slab of

material for which  = 0.10 cm-1. Determine the number transmitted.

EXAMPLE 4.5: A cobalt 60 unit gives an exposure rate of 80 R/min at 1 meter

when the source is “on”. Protection regulations require that, when the source is “off”, the
radiation level at 1 meter distance be less than 2 mR/h (0.002 R/h). Estimate the
thickness of lead shielding required if the attenuation coefficient is 66.0 m-1.

QUESTIONS & PROBLEMS

1. How does EPA use the concept of time in radiation protection?

2. Why does exposure change more rapidly than the distance?
3. How does EPA use the concept of shielding in radiation protection?
4. How are people exposed to radiation?
5. What is radiation?
6. How does EPA use the concept of distance in radiation protection?
7. A particle is given an x ray exposure of 200R.Calculate this exposure in Ckg-1.
8. After a full course of treatment, a tumor received a dose of 4000 rads. Express this
dose in grays, in MeV per g.
9. A tumor containing 106 cells is inactivated by radiation with a mean lethal dose of
Do=1.50Gy. Find the number of survivors after a dose of 45Gy.