Libyan International Medical University

Faculty of Pharmacy

[Cancer]
Student Name: Kamla Awad
Student no: 2696
Tutor Name: Wafa Masoud
Block No. 6
Week No. 4
Date of Submission: 26/12/2021

Academic Year
2021-2022

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 CONTENTS

CONTENTS..........................................................................................................................2

Table of figure......................................................................................................................2

Introduction..........................................................................................................................3

THE MAIN OBJECTIVES.................................................................................................4

Identify the effect of age and heredity on cancer incidence....................................................4

Discuss the type transplant......................................................................................................5

Discuss the immunological surveillance.................................................................................5

State cancer incidence, geographic and environmental factors...............................................6

Discuss different types and action of phospholipase..............................................................8

Define drug information resources..........................................................................................8

Summary...............................................................................................................................9

REFRENCES......................................................................................................................10

Table of figure
Figure 1: Cancer incidence and mortality by site and sex..........................................................7
Figure 2: Degradation of glycerolphospholids by phospholipases.............................................8

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 Introduction:
In this report we will identify and discover how age and heredity can be a main cause of
cancer incidence; then we will discuss the different types of transplantation, after that we
will discuss the immunological surveillance and how does the immune system act against
the cancer cells; we will also state cancer incidence by the geographic and the different
environmental factors; then we will discuss the different types and action of
phospholipases; and in the end of this report we will define the drug information
recourses.

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 THE MAIN OBJECTIVES:

1) Identify the effect of age and heredity on cancer incidence:

 Age:
In general, the frequency of cancer increases with age. Most cancer deaths occur between
ages 55 and 75; the rate declines, along with the population base, after age 75. The rising
incidence with age may be explained by the accumulation of somatic mutations associated
with the emergence of malignant neoplasms.
The decline in immune competence that accompanies aging also may be a factor.
Cancer causes slightly more than 10% of all deaths among children younger than 15
years; the major lethal cancers in children are leukemias, tumors of the central nervous
system, lymphomas, and soft tissue and bone sarcomas.
 Heredity:
The evidence now indicates that for many types of cancer, including the most common
forms, there exist not only environmental influences but also hereditary predispositions.
Hereditary forms of cancer can be divided into three categories based on their pattern of
inheritance.
1. Autosomal Dominant Cancer Syndromes:
Autosomal dominant cancer syndromes include several well-defined cancers in which
inheritance of a single mutant gene; EX: Children retino blastoma.
2. Autosomal Recessive syndrome of defective DNA Repair:
A group of rare autosomal recessive disorders is collectively characterized by
chromosomal or DNA instability and high rates of certain cancers. One of the best-studied
is xeroderma pigmentosum, in which DNA repair is defective.
3. Familial Cancers of Uncertain Inheritance:
Features that characterize familial cancers include early age at onset, tumors arising in two
or more close relatives of the index case, Familial cancers are not associated with specific
marker phenotypes; Breast cancer cannot link to the BRC1 and BRC2 genes.
 Epidemiology of cancer
1. Cancer is the second thing leading death in both adults and children.
 Things which lead to death for adults are the cardiovascular disease and cancer.
 Things which lead to death for children are accidence, cancer and congenital
defects.
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2. The most common cancer incidences in adults are (breast cancer, prostate cancer, lungs
cancer and colorectal cancer).
3. Most cause cancer mortality: lung, breast, prostate, colorectal which are found in
neoplasia.
(DeLong, 2013)

2) Discuss the type transplant:

1. Autograft:
It is self-tissue transferred from one body site to another in the same individual.
2. Isograft:
It is tissue transferred between genetically identical individuals. In humans, an isograft
performed between genetically identical (monozygomatic) twins and in inbred strains of
mice, an isograft performed from one mouse to another syngeneic mouse are examples of
isografts.
3. Allograft:
It is tissue transferred between genetically different members of the same species.
4. Xenograft:
It is tissue transferred between different species (e.g. the graft of a baboon heart into a
human).
(Kumar, 2016)

3) Discuss the immunological surveillance:

The immune surveillance theory was first conceptualized in the early 1900s (1906) by
Paul Ehrlich. He suggested that cancer cells frequently arise in the body but are
recognized as foreign and eliminated by the immune system. Some 50 years later, Lewis
Thomas revived it in 1950s and was developed by Burnet. It postulates that the primary
function of cell mediated immunity is to ‘seek and destroy’ malignant cells that arise by
somatic mutation; such malignant mutations are believed to occur frequently and would
develop into tumors but for the constant vigilance of the immune system; inefficiency of
the surveillance mechanism, either as a result of ageing or in congenital or acquired

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 immunodeficiencies, leads to an increased incidence of cancer; the development of tumors
represents a lapse in surveillance.
It is evident that tumor cells must develop mechanisms to escape or evade the immune
system in immunocompetent hosts.
Several such mechanisms may be operative:
1. Weak immunogenicity:
Some tumors are weakly immunogenic, so in small numbers they do not elicit an
immune response.
2. Modulation of surface antigens:
Certain tumor-specific antigens disappear from the surface of tumor cells in the
presence of serum antibody and then to appear after the antibody is no longer present.
3. Masking tumor antigens:
Certain cancers produce copious amounts of a mucoprotein called sialomucin.
It binds to the surface of the tumor cells. Immune system does not recognize these
tumor cells as foreign since sialomucin is a normal component.
4. Induction of immune tolerance:
Some tumor cells can synthesize various immune suppressants.
5. Production of blocking antibodies:
Antitumor antibody itself acts as a blocking factor; the antibody binds to tumor-
specific antigens and masks the antigens from cytotoxic T cells. Some tumor cells
invoke immune system to produce blocking antibodies that cannot fix and activate
complement, so lysis of tumor cell is not possible. Blocking antibodies also cover the
surface of cancer cells, preventing T cells from binding to hidden receptors.
6. Low levels of HLA class I molecules:
This impairs presentation of antigenic peptides to cytotoxic T-cells.
(Kumar, 2016)

4) State cancer incidence, geographic and environmental factors:

Estimates of the worldwide incidence and mortality from 27 major cancers and for all
cancers combined for 2012 are now available in the GLOBOCAN series of the
International Agency for Research on Cancer. We review the sources and methods used in
compiling the national cancer incidence and mortality estimates, and briefly describe the

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 key results by cancer site and in 20 large "areas" of the world. Overall, there were 14.1
million new cases and 8.2 million deaths in 2012.
The most commonly diagnosed cancers were lung (1.82 million), breast (1.67 million),
and colorectal (1.36 million); the most common causes of cancer death were lung cancer
(1.6 million deaths), liver cancer (745,000 deaths), and stomach cancer (723,000 deaths).
Overall, it is estimated that about 1.5 million new cancer cases occurred in 2011, and
569,000 people died of cancer in the United States that year.
Prostate and lung are the most leading causes of cancer which may lead to death in males;
in females the breast, lung and colon are the most leading causes of cancer.
Figure 1: Cancer incidence and mortality by site and sex.

That environmental factors are the predominant cause of the most common sporadic cancers.
This notion is supported by the geographic differences in death rates from specific forms of
cancer; For example, death rates from breast cancer are about four to five times higher in the
United States and Europe than in Japan. Conversely, the death rate for stomach carcinoma in
men and women is about seven times higher in Japan than in the United States.
Liver cell carcinoma is relatively infrequent in the United States but is the most lethal cancer
among many African populations; nearly all the evidence indicates that these geographic
differences are environmental rather than genetic in origin.
 Environmental factors:
Environmental carcinogens can be found in food, in the workplace, and in personal
practices (cigarette smoking and chronic alcohol consumption).
They can be as universal as sunlight, can be found particularly in urban settings (e.g.,
asbestos), or can be limited to a certain occupation.
(DeLong, 2013)
(Ferlay, J., Soerjomataram, I., Dikshit, R., Eser, S., Mathers, C., Rebelo, M., Bray, 2015)

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5) Discuss different types and action of phospholipase:

The degradation of phosphoglycerides is performed by lipases found in all tissues

(membranes, venoms and pancreatic juice)
There are four major classes of the enzyme phospholipase A1, A2, C and D.
Figure 2: Degradation of glycerolphospholids by phospholipases.

(Hager, 2020)

6) Define drug information resources:

It is called drug information, medication information, or drug informatics. 

It’s really the discovery, use, and management of information in the use of medications.
Drug information covers the gamut from identification, cost, and pharmacokinetics to
dosage and adverse effects. 
(Drug Information Defined, 2021)

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 Summary:
In this report we have identified the effect of age and heredity on cancer incidence in
which the frequency of cancer increases with age also heredity can be an affective cause
of cancer; Hereditary forms of cancer can be divided into three categories based on their
pattern of inheritance (Autosomal Dominant Cancer Syndromes, Autosomal Recessive
syndrome of defective DNA Repair and Familial Cancers of Uncertain Inheritance);
according to the statistics cancer is the second thing leading death in both adults and
children; then we have discussed the different types of transplant for EX: Autograft (It is
self-tissue transferred from one body site to another in the same individual), Isograft
( tissue in this type transferred between genetically identical individuals), Allograft (It is
tissue transferred between genetically different members), Xenograft ( It is tissue
transferred between different species); after we have discussed the immunological
surveillance and how does the immune system act against the cancer cells; we have also
stated the cancer incidence, geographic and environmental factors; according to the
statistics death rates from breast cancer are about four to five times higher in the United
States and Europe than in Japan. Conversely, the death rate for stomach carcinoma in men
and women is about seven times higher in Japan than in the United States; after that we
have discussed the different types and action of phospholipases which degrade only the
glycerophospholipids or phosphoglycerides in which its found in all tissues (membranes,
venoms and pancreatic juice) and there are four major classes of the enzyme
phospholipase A1, A2, C and D; and at the end we have defined the drug information
resources (medication information, or drug informatics) as   the discovery, use, and
management of information in the use of medications; in which the produced information
covers the gamut from identification, cost, and pharmacokinetics to dosage and adverse
effects. 

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 REFRENCES

DeLong, L. (2013). Basic pathology. In General and Oral Pathology for the Dental
Hygienist. https://doi.org/10.1136/jcp.47.1.95-d
Drug Information Defined. (2021). https://guides.lib.uw.edu/c.php?g=99129&p=642395
Ferlay, J., Soerjomataram, I., Dikshit, R., Eser, S., Mathers, C., Rebelo, M., Bray, F.
(2015). Cancer incidence and mortality worldwide: Sources, methods and major patterns
in GLOBOCAN 2012. International Journal of Cancer, 136(5), 359–386.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25220842/
Hager, W. H. (2020). Lippincott. Hydraulicians in the USA 1800-2000, 560–561.
https://doi.org/10.1201/b18854-271
Kumar, S. (2016). No Title.

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