POWDER METALLURGY

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 Powder Metallurgy
➢ Essentially, Powder Metallurgy (PM) is an art & science of producing metal
or metallic powders, and using them to make finished or semi-finished
products.
➢ Particulate technology is probably the oldest forming technique known to
man.

➢There are archeological evidences to prove that the ancient man knew
something about it.

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 Powder Metallurgy
➢ An important point that comes out :
➢ The entire material need not be melted to fuse it.
➢ The working temperature is well below the melting point of the major
constituent, making it a very suitable method to work with refractory
materials, such as: W, Mo, Ta, Nb, oxides, carbides, etc.
➢ It began with Platinum technology about 4 centuries ago… in those days,
Platinum, [MP = 1774°C], was "refractory", and could not be melted.

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 Powder Metallurgy Process

➢ Powder production
➢ Blending or mixing
➢ Powder compaction
➢ Sintering
➢ Finishing Operations

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 Powder Metallurgy Process

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 Powder Metallurgy Processing
Powder fabrication

POWDER Size and shape characterization

Microstructure (e.g.. dendrite size)
Chemical homogeneity, and ppt. size

Compaction
Sintering
PROCESSING
Forging/Hot pressing

Density, Porosity
Ductility, Strength

PROPERTIES Conductivity
Other functional properties

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 Usual PM production sequence
Blending and mixing (Rotating drums, blade and screw
mixers)
Pressing - powders are compressed into desired shape to
produce green compact
Accomplished in press using punch-and-die
tooling designed for the part
Sintering – green compacts are heated to bond the particles
into a hard, rigid mass.
Performed at temperatures below the melting point of the
metal

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 Production of Metallic Powders
➢ In general, producers of metallic powders are not the same companies as those that
make PM parts
➢ Any metal can be made into powder form

➢ Three principal methods by which metallic powders are commercially produced

➢ Atomization (by gas, water, also centrifugal one)

➢ Chemical

➢ Electrolytic

➢ In addition, mechanical methods are occasionally used to reduce powder sizes

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 Particle Shapes in Metal Powders

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 Conventional powder
metallurgy production
sequence:
➢ blending
➢ compacting
➢ Sintering

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 Blending and Mixing of Powders
For successful results in compaction and sintering, the starting
powders must be homogenized (powders should be blended
and mixed).

➢ Blending - powders of same chemistry but possibly different particle

sizes are intermingled
➢ Different particle sizes are often blended to reduce porosity

➢ Mixing - powders of different chemistries are combined .

PM technology allows mixing various metals into alloys that would be difficult
or impossible to produce by other means.
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 Blending or Mixing
➢ Blending a coarser fraction with a finer fraction ensures that the interstices between large
particles will be filled out.
➢ Powders of different metals and other materials may be mixed in order to impart special
physical and mechanical properties through metallic alloying.
➢ Lubricants may be mixed to improve the powder’s flow characteristics.

➢ Binders such as wax or thermoplastic polymers are added to

improve green strength.

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 Blending
To make a homogeneous mass with uniform distribution of particle size and
composition.
➢ Powders made by different processes have different sizes and shapes
➢ Mixing powders of different metals/materials
Combining is generally carried out in
➢ Air or inert gases to avoid oxidation
➢ Liquids for better mixing, elimination of dusts and reduced explosion hazards

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 Bowl Geometries for Blending
Powders

Some common equipment geometries used for

blending powders
(a) Cylindrical, (b) rotating cube, (c) double A mixer suitable for blending metal
cone, (d) twin shell
powders.
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 Compaction
Application of high pressure to the powders to form them into the
required shape.

Conventional compaction method is pressing, in which opposing punches

squeeze the powders contained in a die.
➢ The work part after pressing is called a green compact, the word green
meaning not yet fully processed.

➢ The green strength of the part when pressed is adequate for handling but far
less than after sintering.

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 Compacting
 Press powder into the desired shape and size in dies using a hydraulic or
mechanical press
 Pressed powder is known as “green compact”
 Stages of metal powder compaction:

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 Compacting
Powders do not flow like liquid, they simply compress until an equal and opposing
force is created.
– This opposing force is created from a combination of
(1) resistance by the bottom punch and
(2) friction between the particles and die surface

Compacting consolidates and dandifies the component for transportation to the

sintering furnace.

Compacting consists of automatically feeding a controlled amount of mixed powder into

a precision die, after which it is compacted.

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 Compacting

Compacting is usually performed at room temperature. Pressures range from 10 tons

per square inch (tons/in2) (138 MPa) to 60 tons/in2 (827 MPa), or more.

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 Compaction Sequence

Figure: Typical compaction sequence for a single-level part, showing the

functions of the feed shoe, die core rod, and upper and lower punches. Loose
powder is shaded; compacted powder is solid black.

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 Isostatic Pressing
• Isostatic pressing is a powder metallurgy (PM) forming process that
applies equal pressure in all directions on a powder compact thus
achieving maximum uniformity of density and microstructure without the
geometrical limitations of uniaxial pressing.
• Isostatic pressing is performed "cold" or "hot.“
• Cold isostatic pressing (CIP) is used to compact green parts at ambient
temperatures, while hot isostatic pressing (HIP) is used to fully consolidate
parts at elevated temperatures by solid-state diffusion.
• HIP can also be used to eliminate residual porosity from a sintered PM
part.
 Cold Isostatic Pressing (CIP)
Cold isostatic pressing has the advantage for producing parts where the high initial cost of
pressing dies cannot be justified or when very large or complex compacts are needed.
A variety of powders can be pressed isostatically on a commercial scale, including metals,
ceramics, plastics, and composites.
Pressures required for compacting range from less than 5,000 psi to more than 100,000 psi
(34.5 to 690 MPa).
Powders are compacted in elastomeric molds in either a wet or dry bag process.
In the cold isostatic pressing process, a mold is placed into a chamber that is filled with a
working fluid, usually water with a corrosion inhibitor, which is pressurized by an external
pump.
The pressure chamber must be designed to withstand the severe cyclic loading imposed by
rapid production rates and must take into account fatigue failure.
Cold Isostatic Pressing Cycles
 Cold Isostatic Pressing Cycles
Insert compact: The mold that has been filled with powder to be pressed is sealed and placed in the partially filled vessel. This
causes the water level in the vessel to rise.
Fill and vent: The upper closure is installed and locked. Water is added to the vessel at low pressure through a fill and drain
system to vent air through a valve in the upper closure. All air remaining above the fluid level must be removed since air is highly
compressible and would consume great quantities of energy before the vessel reaches operating pressure.
Pressurize: After all air has been vented, the high-pressure-pumping system pressurizes the water to the operating pressure.
Water is added during pressurization to equal the amount of volume reduction of the powder being pressed and to compensate
for the compressibility of water at these pressures. Pressurization times are an important consideration in total system-cycle time
and are a function of the pumping system flow rate. Faster pressurization rates require more expensive pressurization systems.
The maximum desired pressure is usually maintained for no longer than a few minutes since particle deformation is not time
dependent.
Depressurization: During depressurization, the volume of water that was added because of the compressibility of the powder
and water is expelled from the vessel. The simplest decompression control consists of hand-operated depressurization valves.
There are also sophisticated automatic depressurization systems capable of almost any decompression profile to help eliminate
compact breakage that may occur by too rapid depressurization.
Remove compact and drain system: The mold is removed from the pressure vessel. Molds are usually washed and dried prior to
opening. Part handling operations can be done manually or automated for production applications.
 Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP)
• Hot isostatic pressing is a manufacturing process which utilizes elevated
temperature and isostatic gas pressure to eliminate porosity and increase density
in metals, ceramics, polymers, and composite materials.
• This improves the material's mechanical properties and potentially workability.
Primary applications are the elimination of micro shrinkage in castings, the
consolidation of powders and diffusion bonding, often referred to as cladding.
• Hot isostatic pressing is also used as part of a sintering (powder metallurgy)
process, for pressure-assisted brazing and for fabrication of metal matrix
composites.
• A hot isostatic pressing system usually consists of five major components:
pressure vessel, internal furnace, gas handling, electrical, and auxiliary systems.
Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP)
 Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP) Cycles
• The hot isostatic pressing unit is evacuated to minimize contamination of the
pressurizing gas, and then the pressure and temperature are usually raised
simultaneously.
• After reaching the desired pressure and temperature levels, the system is kept
at a "hold" or "soak" condition to ensure that the center of the load has
reached the set conditions.
• Thermocouples placed in the load indicate completion of the minimum soak
time.
• Finally, pressure and temperature are allowed to drop. Normally the furnace is
merely shut off completely, and the temperature is allowed to decrease at its
maximum rate.
 Sintering
Heat treatment to bond the metallic particles, thereby increasing strength and
hardness.

Usually carried out at between 70% and 90% of the metal's melting point (absolute scale)

– Generally agreed among researchers that the primary driving force for sintering is
reduction of surface energy

– Part shrinkage occurs during sintering due to pore size

reduction

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 Sintering

➢ Parts are heated to ~80% of melting temperature.

➢ Transforms compacted mechanical bonds to much stronger metal
bonds.
➢ Many parts are done at this stage. Some will require additional processing.

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 Sintering Sequence
➢ Parts are heated to 0.7~0.9 Tm.
➢ Transforms compacted mechanical bonds to much stronger
metallic bonds.

Figure: Sintering on a microscopic scale: (1) particle bonding is

initiated at contact points; (2) contact points grow into "necks"; (3) the
pores between particles are reduced in size; and (4) grain boundaries
develop between particles in place of the necked regions.
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 Sintering
Third stage:
Sintered product is cooled in a controlled atmosphere.
– Prevents oxidation and thermal shock

Gases commonly used for sintering:

H2, N2, inert gases or vacuum

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 Sintering Cycle and Furnace

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 Powder Rolling

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 Powder Metallurgy Merits
➢ Near Nett Shape is possible, thereby reducing the post-production
costs, therefore:

 Precision parts can be produced

 The production can be fully automated, therefore,

 Mass production is possible

 Production rate is high

 Over-head costs are low

 Break even point is not too large

 Material loss is small

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 Advantages of P/M
➢ Virtually unlimited choice of alloys, composites, and associated
properties
➢ Refractory materials are popular by this process

➢ Can be very economical at large run sizes (100,000 parts)

➢ Long term reliability through close control of

dimensions and physical properties
➢ Wide latitude of shape and design
➢ Very good material utilization

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 Limitations and Disadvantages
➢ High tooling and equipment costs.

➢ Metallic powders are expensive.

➢ Problems in storing and handling metal powders.

➢ Degradation over time, fire hazards with certain metals

➢ Limitations on part geometry because metal powders do not readily flow laterally in
the die during pressing.
➢ Variations in density throughout part may be a problem,
especially for complex geometries.

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 Powder Metallurgy Disadvantages
➢ Porous !! Not always desired.
➢ Large components cannot be produced on a large scale.
➢ Some shapes are difficult to be produced by the conventional
p/m route.

Whatever, the merits are so many that P/M, as a forming

technique, is gaining popularity

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 PM Parts

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 Powdered Metal Transmission Gear Connecting Rods:
➢ Warm compaction method with 1650-ton Forged on left; P/M on
press right
➢ Teeth are molded net shape: No machining
➢ UTS = 155,000 psi
➢ 30% cost savings over the original forged part

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