Journal of Polymers and the Environment

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10924-021-02169-4

REVIEW

Natural Fibre‑Reinforced Composite for Ballistic Applications:

A Review
Kazeem Olabisi Odesanya1,2 · Roslina Ahmad1 · Mohammad Jawaid3 · Sedat Bingol4 · Ganiyat Olusola Adebayo5,6 ·
Yew Hoong Wong1 

Accepted: 5 May 2021

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2021

Abstract
The need to provide a better and stronger protection against various kinds of ballistic impacts and threats has necessitated the
continuous exploration and utilization of high-performance fibres, especially those that are derived from renewable sources
for ballistic applications. The development of ballistic protection materials with improved performance and low weight has
received much concerns in the past few decades due to the rising cases of threats and insurgencies. Owing to the necessity
of improving the ballistic performance of body armour and protective wears especially for military personnel, with a huge
consideration for eco-friendly requirement, a review of relevant studies in this area is necessary. Present review article
aims to present an overview of the progress and the outstanding advances that have been witnessed in the development of
natural-based anti-ballistic composites in the past few years. The article covers the type and selection of the fibre/matrix,
failure modes, Impact energy absorption and ballistic simulation of NFRCs. It also highlights the economic cost analysis of
replacing synthetic fibres with natural ones in a ballistic composite, and the methods of enhancing the composites for high
performance and greater ballistic efficiency. The utilization of natural fibres in PMCs have shown their great potentials as
substitutes to the existing advanced fibrous materials that are mostly dominated by synthetic fibres.

Keywords  Natural fibres · Polymer Matrix Composites · Synthetic fibres · Ballistic applications

Introduction

The processing of biodegradable and renewable materials

* Yew Hoong Wong
yhwong@um.edu.my
1 products from the utilization of materials that exist natu-
Centre of Advanced Materials, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Malaya,
50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty
of Engineering, Lagos State University, Epe campus, Lagos,
Nigeria
3
Laboratory of Biocomposite Technology, Institute of Tropical
Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra
Malaysia, Seri Kembangan, Malaysia
4
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dicle University,
Diyarbarkir, Turkey
5
Polymer and Composite Materials Research Laboratory,
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Universiti
Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
6
Standards Organisation of Nigeria, Operational Headquarters,
Lekki, Lagos, Nigeria
is presently on the increase as a result of continuous search
for feasible solutions to environmental issues, and the ris-
ing demand for the development of high energy absorption
rally [1]. There have been ongoing researches/studies on the
fabrication of novel products to substitute the petroleum-
based materials [2–5]. The past few decades have witnessed
the utilization of natural fibres as suitable alternatives for
conventional materials in polymeric composite system. The
sources of these bio-fibres are variety of materials that occur
naturally, which include readily available plants, animals and
mineral resources. However, owing to low processing costs
and abundant availability, plant fibres are majorly used as
bio-fibres in natural fibre reinforced polymer composites
(NFRCs) [6, 7].
The continued interest in the use of NFRCs includes their
abilities to replace conventional fibres at cheaper rate while
sustainability and modification are being improved upon [8].

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Previous studies have shown that commercial fibres, such as
aramid are commonly utilized for various purposes which
range from engineering and industrial applications to materi-
als used in personal protective devices [9]. However, these
products are fairly expensive to produce because of the com-
plexity of their manufacturing processes. Currently, continu-
ous efforts on the substitution or decrease of the contents of
synthetic fibre in natural composites for various applications
and the conservation of the environment are strongly being
investigated by researchers. Wambua et al. [10]. studied the
application of the combined usage of conventional and natu-
ral fibres for high impact resistance [11, 12]. The importance
of natural fibre as a promising material for reinforcement in
ballistic impact performance (such as personal protective
wears) in order to considerably lessen the use of synthetic
fibres, and the benefits of its availability and abundant quan-
tity in nature was exhibited.
In recent times, attention of researchers is being drawn
to the processing and characterization of ballistic protection
composite materials that are commonly obtainable and less
expensive, so that it can be readily available as suitable pro-
tective wears for the safety of military and vulnerable civil-
ians that are susceptible to attacks from terrorists. This is
why natural-based materials are necessary for the reduction
of dependency on synthetic fibres. In addition, core knowl-
edge of some features such as ballistic and impact charac-
teristics should be given much attention so as to be techni-
cally and economically established. Utmost consideration
will be given to the protection strength and manufacturing
cost during the selection of materials for the development
of anti-ballistic systems. These are regarded as the main fac-
tors, therefore, a more abundant and cheaper ballistic protec-
tion panel will be produced, thereby lowering the integral
impacts of petroleum-based devices without undermining
the efficiency of ballistic outcome.
Although, there are reports from several articles on the
ballistic studies of NFRCs [11, 13–21]; some of them with
emphasis on the damage assessment and energy absorp-
tion capacity of these fibres [19, 20, 22–27]. Quintero et al.
[28] investigated the response of Manicaria saccifera/PLA
to ballistic impacts, they discovered that the resistance of
the ballistic composite to penetration is not dependent on
the layering sequence of the constituent materials. Benzait
and Trabzon [29] also carried out a review on components
of polymer matrix composites (PMCs) used for personal
body armour, they reported some novel materials that are
promising. Although, some natural composites were men-
tioned in the previous reviews, but greater emphasis was
made on the synthetic ones. Nevertheless, considering the
huge significance of developing NFRCs for high-velocity
impacts, it is expected that the research gap in these areas
can be filled. Therefore, this review is aimed at bringing
to the fore, the progress that has been made so far, in the
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Journal of Polymers and the Environment
past few years on the applications of plant fibres for ballistic
purposes. Although, there is a great similarity between the
method of processing adopted for the fabrication of NFRCs
and the ones used for the production of composites that are
reinforced with conventional fibres [30], it is necessary for
the equipment to be modified when manufacturing NFRCs,
especially for high impact and ballistic applications. In
addition, the general knowledge and understanding of these
modifications’ principles is of great importance/value to
researchers.
Commonly Used Fibres of Natural Origin
Generally, some of the mostly utilized natural fibres in com-
posites are coir, pineapple leaf fibre (PALF), kenaf, hemp,
flax, sisal, sugar cane, jute, oil palm and wood. The annual
production rates of these fibres are presented in Table 1.
They are commonly used as support in PMCs [31–33].
Naveen et al. [34] worked on hybrid laminated composite,
they used analytical hierarchy process (AHP) in selecting
the types of natural fibres that are suitable for the study.
They recommended cocos nucifera sheath as an appropriate
candidate to be used as reinforcement alongside Kevlar in
the development of Personal body armour. More works on
ballistic application of NFRCs are Ramie-Epoxide compos-
ite [35], Natural curaua fibre-reinforced composites [36],
Epoxy composite reinforced with sisal fibres [37], wood
plastic composite [38]. Recent researches include sugarcane
bagasse, curaua, fique, cocos nucifera, guaruman, kenaf,
jute and others [25, 26, 39–45]. Actually, the attraction of
researchers towards this development is not new, it was dated
back to 1923 when Basalt fibre was discovered. This led to
its adoption as a replacement and was later categorized as a
choice component for armour and protective devices. It was
majorly utilized during world war II [29, 46].
In a recent research, an abundant, recyclable, renewable,
bio-degradable and less expensive material which is also
regarded as environmentally friendly was used as reinforc-
ing material by Rohen et al. [37] In that study, sisal fibre
was inserted as intermediate layer in an epoxy resin plate.
The results of ballistic performance showed that the fibre is
more effective compared to aramid fibres. Monteiro et al.
[47] also replaced aramid fibre with curaua natural fibre in
a multilayered armour that is comprised of polyester matri-
ces, ceramic tiles and aluminium alloy as a backing plate.
The result of ballistic tests confirmed the efficiency of the
curaua fibre as an armour component. Monteiro et al. [39]
used sugarcane bagasse in the development of a multilay-
ered ballistic composite. The bagasse is a residue or waste
generated after the production of juice, sugar and ethanol
from sugarcane. The report from their study indicates that
the ballistic performance of the bagasse-based composite
Journal of Polymers and the Environment

Table 1  Annual production of Fibre source World produc- Origin Ref Fibre source World produc- Origin Ref
natural fibres and their sources tion (10,000 tion (10,000
Tons) Tons)

Abaca 70 Leaf [2] Grass 700 Leaf [50]

Bamboo 30,000 Stem [50] Oil Palm Fruit 62,600 Fruit [51]
Banana 200 Stem [2] Ramie 100 Stem [2]
Broom 15,200 Stem [52] Roselle 250 Stem [2]
Coir 100 Fruit [2] Rice Husk 422,000 Fruit/grain [53]
Cotton Lint 18,500 Stem [2] Rice Straw 14,300 Stem [54]
Elephant Grass 80,000 Stem [55] Sisal 378 Stem [2]
Flax 830 Stem [50] Sun Hemp 70 Stem [2]
Hemp 214 Stem [2] Wheat Straw 6000 Stem [56]
Jute 2300 Stem [50] Wood 1,750,000 Stem [2]
Kenaf 970 Stem [50] Henequen 300 Leaf [50]
Linseed 2491 Fruit [2] Bagasse 75,000 stem [57]
Pineapple 219 Leaf [50]

satisfied the National Institute of Justice (NIJ) test stand-
ard, with clay being made the fourth layer in the multilayer
armour system (MAS). Filho et al. [48, 49] also investigated
the use of piassava fibre as a second layer in a MAS, their
results showed that the ballistic behaviour of the piassava
composite is similar to the ones possessed by commercial
aramid fibres, with 70 and 80% lower in cost than Dyneema
and Kevlar, respectively.
considerably with proper bio-filler selection and surface
modification. Environmental surface coating has also shown
encouraging results in reducing degradation and aging from
natural, thermal and mechanical sources on biocomposites
[61].
Matrix and its Role in Energy Dissipation

Distribution of stresses between the fibres is the main pur-

Mechanical Characteristics of Natural Fibres
The mechanical characteristics of a material are the prop-
erties of that material that respond to changes under cer-
tain connected loads. They are some of the most important
properties that must be considered during the selection of
natural fibres for high impact applications. These proper-
ties vary considerably in fibres and are largely dependent
on the chemical composition, structural strength, growth
conditions and the type of plant fibre. They include impact,
bending ability (flexural) and tensile strength of the fibres
[43, 44, 58]. These features are relatively lower in plants
when compared to other synthetic fibres (Table 2). However,
due to several advantages, such as low density, recyclabil-
ity, reduced cost, high strength-to-weight ratio and stiffness,
natural fibres are being used as a suitable alternative for
conventional fibres. The combination of natural and glass
fibres also decreases the rate of utilization of the latter, and
could be an effective solution to the development of soft
armour systems [59].
The durability of fibre-reinforced polymer composites is
mostly controlled by the resilience of each constituent in
the composite i.e., reinforcing fibres and the resin matrix
[60]. Its performance on biocomposites can been enhanced
pose of a matrix in a ballistic composite. The matrix also
offers some level of protection against adverse effect from
the environment and also provide a kind of shield to the
fibres’ surface against mechanical abrasion. One of the major
role it plays is in the load bearing of the composite struc-
ture. Generally, matrices can be categorized into four main
types, namely; thermoplastic or thermosetting polymer,
metal, ceramic and carbon matrices [67]. Typically, polymer
matrix composites (PMCs), including carbon fibre, kevlar
and fibre glass include two main parts; the substrate and the
resin. Although, there are significant effects of interfacial
adhesion between fibres and the matrices on the mechani-
cal and dynamic response of NFRCs. One of the ways of
improving the adhesion is to subject the natural fibres to
some surface treatments or modification. Costa et al. [68]
introduced a novel technique of modification, they used
mechanical treatment on the fibres’ surface before apply-
ing graphene oxide coat to improve the matrix/fibre inter-
face for high impact energy dissipation. Another method of
enhancing the interfacial strength is to apply adhesive bond
between the fibre and the matrix. This method is mostly
preferred when two dissimilar materials are required to be
joined rather than employing fasteners. A unique method of
interfacial improvement was also employed by Naveen et al.

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 Journal of Polymers and the Environment

Table 2  Mechanical characteristics of natural and some conventional fibres

Fibre Density (g/cm3) Elongation (%) Tensile strength Specific tensile strength Young’s modulus Ref
(MPa) × ­102 (MNm/kg) × ­10–3 (GPa) × ­102

Abaca 1.50 2.00–8.00 4.00–9.80 2.67–6.53 0.08–0.20 [62, 63]

Bamboo 0.60 -1.10 4.10 1.4–10.0 2.33–1.67 0.11 -0.89 [64–66]
Banana 1.35 5.30 3.55 2.63 0.34 [6, 63]
Coir 1.20 30.00 1.75 1.46 0.04 -0.0 6 [2, 63]
Cotton 1.50–1.60 7.00–8.00 2.87–5.97 1.91–3.98 0.06–0.13 [2]
Flax 1.50 2.70–3.20 3.45–10.35 2.3–6.9 0.28 [2]
Hemp 1.50 1.60 5.50–11.10 3.67–7.4 0.58–0.78 [8]
Henequen 1.40 3.00–4.70 4.30–5.80 3.07–4.14 0.10–0.16 [6, 63]
Jute 1.30 1.50–1.80 3.93 -7.73 3.03–5.94 0.27 [2]
Kenaf 1.50–1.60 1.60 3.50–9.30 2.33–5.81 0.40–0.53 [2]
Pineapple 1.50 1.00–3.00 1.70–16.72 1.13–11.15 0.82 [6, 63]
Ramie 1.50 3.60 -3.80 4.00–9.38 2.67–6.25 0.61–1.28 [2, 12]
Sisal 1.50 2.0—2.50 5.11–6.35 3.41–4.23 0.09–0.22 [2]
E-glass 2.50 2.50 20.00–35.00 8–14 0.70 [2]
S-glass 2.50 2.80 45.70 18 0.86 [2]
Aramid 1.40 3.30–3.70 30.00–31.50 21.4–22.5 0.63–0.67 [2]
Carbon 1.40 1.40–1.80 40.00 28.57 2.30–2.40 [2]

[69] by incorporating graphene platelets to the epoxy matrix.
The dynamic/ballistic response of some of the effects of this
adhesion was demonstrated by Costa et al. [68], Ahmed et al.
[70] and Luz et al. [71].
The impact behaviour of ballistic composites may be
enhanced by using matrices with degraded properties. Liu
et al. [72] developed a dynamic model to analyze the energy
dissipation through viscid matrix materials in NFRCs. Due
to the uncertain nature of the transient process of energy
dissipation in high impact composites subjected to high
velocity loading, and its relationship with the geometries
and features of other constituents, they suggested that shear
modulus and viscosity of a matrix should be adjusted to
enhance its energy dissipation capacity in order to protect
its material integrity.
The way and manner at which Matrices absorb the kinetic
energy of projectiles differ in terms of mechanisms. Ductile
materials exhibit plastic deformation during absorption of
energy. Dissipation of energy by ceramics are done through
fracture mechanisms. This includes initiation of small cracks
and deformation of the projectile, leading to expansion of
crack and fragmentation of the material. In most cases,
matrix deformation begins with propagation of cracks until
load is completely transferred to the length of fibre. In the
second stage, the fibres are under strain and the cracks are
formed with slower growth than before. The debonding
between the matrix and the fibres occur steadily starting
from the fibres. Lastly, catastrophic failure of the material
occurs when the cracks spread quickly due to breakage of the
fibres [73]. The result of basic quantitative characterization
of intrinsic energy dissipation from the study of Mohammed
et al. [73] indicates that the released energy was the highest
at 30 kJ/m and amplitude of 0.1, but the energy range of
2–16 kJ/m3 have an amplitude of 0.3, and 0.5 for 2–5 kJ/m3
released energy range. The ability of ceramics to offer bal-
listic protection depends on both physical and mechanical
properties such as hardness, elastic modulus, density, poros-
ity, mechanical strength and fracture toughness. There is no
single property that correlates with ballistic performance due
to the interaction of various stress factors during impact and
the short time associated with the initiation and propagation
of cracks [74]. The relationship between specific absorption
energy of the hybrid and non-hybrid kenaf/kevlar compos-
ites as observed by Yahaya et al. [75] is shown in Fig. 1. The
change in energy absorption recorded is between 15.05 and
30.18% for the hybrid and non-hybrid kenaf composites,
respectively. The schematic diagram of the different layering
sequence is presented in Fig. 2.
Haro et al. [76] studied the effects of arrangement, lay-
ering and combination of materials by hybridization on
dissipation of energy during ballistic impacts. In a bid to
identify the level of protection achieved by hybrid lami-
nates, the initial impact energy of low calibre weapons
was compared with the energy dissipation capability of the
composite targets. The results of penetration and deforma-
tion analysis behaviour of the targets at different stages i.e.
the initial (front target), intermediate (cross-section), and
final stages (rear target) indicated that the laminate fulfil
the NIJ standard requirement for level II, IIA and IIIA
protective devices.

13
Journal of Polymers and the Environment

Fig. 1  Energy absorption
capacity of the kenaf laminates
[75]. Material specifications:
9A: Kevlar, with 9 layers [­ A9].
9B: Kenaf/Kevlar with layering
sequence of [­ A3, ­k1, ­A3, ­k1, ­A3].
15A: Kevlar, with 15 layers
­[A15]. 15B: Kenaf/Kevlar with
layering sequence of ­[A5, ­k1,
­A5, ­k1, ­A5]. 21A: Kevlar, with
21 layers [­ A21]. 21B: Kenaf/
Kevlar with layering sequence
of ­[A7, ­k1, ­A7, ­k1, ­A7]. Type A
consist of Kevlar/epoxy layers
and type B consist of Kevlar/
epoxy with additional layers of
woven kenaf. Type A consist
of 9, 15 and 21 layers Kevlar/
epoxy composites while the
type B consists of Kevlar hybrid
layers with additional 2 layers
of woven kenaf

Fig. 2  The layering sequences of the hybrid and Kevlar in different form [78]

Rajole et al. [77] investigated the ballistic impact of Jute/ the impact velocity and the energy absorbed. The study shows
Rubber and glass/Epoxy sandwich. The ballistic properties; that for minimum impact velocities of 80 and 100 m/s, an
such as material thickness, and impact velocities, energy absorbed energy of 400 J was recorded. Also, for maximum
absorption, fracture behavior and ballistic limit are predicted values of 180 and 200 m/s impact velocities, absorbed energies
using finite element analysis. The results of the simulation of 500 and 600 J were recorded for the hybrid and non-hybrid
when compared to the analytical showed better correlation. kenaf composites, respectively.
Also, better energy absorption of the Jute/Rubber sandwich
was recorded when compared to other simulated composites.
The effect of velocity impact on the absorbed energy of some
laminates reported by Yahaya et al. [75] is shown in Fig. 3. In
their report, they demonstrated the direct relationship between

13

Fig. 3  Effect of velocity impact
on the absorbed energy of the
hybrid and non-hybrid kenaf
laminates [75]
Composites and Hybrid Composites
Hybridization of Composites
Functionalization of fibre, such as chemical modifica-
tion, selection of proper manufacturing technique, fibre
volume ratio and matrix fibre orientation are some of the
processes of enhancing natural fibre-reinforced compos-
ites for greater performance.[67]. All of these have been
discussed in previous literatures [79–81]. Another good
method of improving the ballistic performance of NFRCs
is hybridization [75]. It is strategically used to improve
the toughness of composite materials. This strategy offers
better features in terms of mechanical strength compared
to non-hybrid composites [82]. Apart from maintaining the
major features of the main constituents, the composite also
exhibits new features which are not possessed by any of
the individual component [83]. The combined advantages
that are derived from the synergy of different types of fibre
as a result of their individual properties, and at the same
time reducing their less desirable properties is referred to
as Hybridization [75]. The development of hybrid com-
posites and related researches have been witnessed with
tremendous improvements over the past few decades [83].
Results from recent studies indicated that hybridization is
promising in NFRCs [8]. various studies on hybrid NFRCs
include investigation of flax/basalt laminate and fracture
toughness of the composite structure [84]; influence of
layering sequence on hybrid flax/jute [85]; impact of
13
Journal of Polymers and the Environment
hybridization on properties coir fibre [86]; study of kevlar/
kenaf laminated yarn for high impact performance [15].
The major challenge that is being experienced in hybridi-
zation is the “hybrid effect”. This is the resultant effect of
the synergy between the components of the composite. It
involves the hybrid ratio, mode and fibre type. The moisture
absorption and aspect ratio depends largely on the over-
all mechanical features of hybrid natural composites [87,
88]. Furthermore, the process is still faced with issues of
interface and manufacturing techniques. From a wider per-
spective, some challenges in relation to composite design,
fracture and strength of materials are still required to be
resolved. In recent years, composite materials of lower cost
and multiple applications manufactured from the combina-
tion of different fibres of different proportion were success-
fully developed. This, to an extent is an indication of a sig-
nificant development towards hybrid composites.
Failure Modes of Composites
The kinetic energy of the projectile is dissipated through
several ways during ballistic impact. The mechanism for
absorption of energy in composites under high and small
impact energy are; kinetic energy applied to the material,
namely; spall formation, cone formation on the side of the
laminate and absorption of energy due to failure of the fibre
and shear plugging of the primary yarns [89]. Impact dam-
age may lead to several types of failure. Some of the targets
will be penetrated by high velocity material and some of
Journal of Polymers and the Environment

them will only receive minor damage at the surface area. In Table 3  Ballistic Performance of different natural fibre-reinforced
the case of damage; several failure modes must occur, such composites [26]
as; cracking of matrix and breakage, fibre breakage or pull Natural fibre polymer composites Depth of indenta- Ref.
out and delamination. The failure modes of the composites tion (mm)
will depend on the material properties, matrix properties,
20% fique fabric/polyester 15 ± 3 [95]
impact velocity, project nose shape and target geometry.
30% jute fabric/polyester 17 ± 2 [24]
Delamination is a crack that occurs in the matrix area
30% non-woven mat/polyester 24 ± 7 [39]
between resin and the fibre layers of different fibre orienta-
30% sisal fibre/polyester 22 ± 3 [96]
tion. Matrix failure is the first failure that occurs before the
30% curaua non-woven fabric/epoxy 28 ± 3 [99]
failure of the fibre. The cracks in the matrices occur due to
30% aligned mallow fibre/epoxy 22 ± 1 [22]
inadequate matches between the fibre and the matrices, and
30% curaua fibre/polyester 22 ± 2 [97]
core micro-cracks may be formed due to the presence of
30% curaua cross-grid fibre/polyester 18 ± 3 [97]
openings in the matrix, or the de-bonding between the fibre
30% ramie fabric/epoxy 17 ± 1 [98]
and the matrix owing to manufacturing defects and residual
30% sugarcane bagasse fibre/epoxy 21 ± 1 [98]
stress [90]. Their orientation is usually in uni-directional
Kevlar laminate 23 ± 3 [39]
layer arranged parallel to the fibre-direction. The failure of
fibres (natural and synthetic) generally occur after the matrix
failure and delamination due to high stress impact which
may lead to catastrophic penetration modes [91]. [98] and sugarcane bagasse [39] displayed highly competi-
Hajer et al. [92] examined the mechanical behavior of tive and encouraging results when compared with the Kevlar
flax fibre composites with and without an interleaved natu- laminate. Figure 4 also presents some pictorial images of
ral visco-elastic layer in static and fatigue. They performed hybrid and non-hybrid kenaf/Kevlar composites after bal-
uni-axial static loading tests on the composite with different listic performance tests.
stacking sequence. The results of AE analysis obtained from
the different damage mechanisms shows the various classes
of damage according to the stacking sequence of elastic and Ballistic Energy Absorption of NFRCS
visco-elastic laminates, and the effect of the later on the
heterogeneity of the material. Reports from previous literatures showed that the fibre
The development of NFRC laminates may exhibit high properties, their number of layers, the structure of fabric,
degree of plasticity, especially in high performance cases. areal density, features of the projectile and impact are the
A study by David-west et al. [93] revealed that the ballis- major factors in energy absorption and ballistic protection
tic response of the combination of sisal and flax fibres to composite systems [28]. The parameters of the projectiles
nominal strikes and higher impact energies depend on many include target material properties and geometry, density
factors, including the stacking sequence, thickness of the and strike velocity [100]. Alternate hybrid layers of kenaf
laminate, degree to which the material is supported against and Kevlar, was reported to have shown low energy absorp-
bending, the shape and the kinetic energy of the impactor. tion when compared to other hybrid laminates of the same
In a situation where different modes of energy dissipation amount of layers and thickness. Although, higher delamina-
are desired, it is preferable to reduce the brittleness of the tion was seen at the surface of alternate Kevlar/kenaf layers
composite. This can be achieved by modifying the mode of when both laminates bulged out. In the study of Cruz ­v60,
failure of the laminate by introducing other fibres. Although the bamboo-reinforced composite was observed to display
the preventive measures of the properties of the hybrid from more delamination and fragments compared to aramid fab-
those of the originating laminates may not always be obvi- ric composite (Fig. 5). Also, Randjbaran et al. [101] exam-
ous. This can be determined in studies involving impact ined the impact of alternate layering and its sequence on the
damage by accidental events or ballistic application [94]. absorption capacity of Kevlar/carbon/glass ballistic compos-
The performance of different natural fibres in polymer ites. Their results show that the rate at which the composites
composites as reported by previous researchers is presented dissipate energy increased with rising depth of material and
in Table 3. Their performance in terms of depth of indenta- the projectile diameter.
tion was compared with Kevlar laminate. The results of their Rajole et al. [77] carried out a study on energy impact
mode of failure showed that most of the natural fibres are analysis of a natural fibre sandwich composite. They com-
promising; with fique/polyester indicating an outstanding pared the ballistic behaviour of Jute/Epoxy and Glass/
performance, a depth of indentation of 15 ± 3 mm at a vol- Epoxy composites to that of Jute-Rubber-Epoxy composite
ume ratio of 20% in the composite [95]. Other fibres, such (JREC). The results of the absorption energy capability of
as Jute [24], Sisal [96], Mallow [22], curaua [97], ramie the composites showed that the JREC has better ballistic

13

Fig. 4  Images of failure modes of hybrid and non-hybrid Kenaf/Kev-
lar composites after ballistic tests [11]. a shows failure of Aramid
fibre in the damaged surfaces of the aramid 29 composite. b depicts
the damaged surfaces of the hybrid composite of woven kenaf and
Fig. 5   The image of ballistic fracture of (a) bamboo fibre-reinforced and (b) aramid fibre under scan electron microscopy (SEM)60
efficiency, but has a poor response to fracture which is
followed by delamination and de-bonding.
Roy et al. [102] demonstrated in their study that a con-
siderable improvement in the impact energy absorption
of a natural rubber reinforced composite was achieved by
increasing the rubber coatings on a high strength and high
modulus fibre. Greater impact performance were recorded
when compared to a Kevlar/UHMWPE (Ultra High Weight
Polyethylene) fabric composite.
13
Journal of Polymers and the Environment
aramid 29 layers. c presents the hybrid composite consisting of alter-
nating layers of kenaf and aramid layers showing a combination of
delamination and bulging out of the kenaf layers
In the study of Elias et al. [103], an increment of 20%
in the specific absorption energy was observed when the
combination of woven flax, hemp and kenaf fibres were used
as reinforcing fibres in composites comprising of high den-
sity polyethylene (HDPE) and polylactic acid (PLA) matri-
ces differently. The effect of weave configuration was also
observed to be more stable against the influence of buckling
at loading rates of 10% higher than the values of the specific
absorption energy. The PLA-matrix based composite was
Journal of Polymers and the Environment
reported to record about 72% increase in specific energy
absorption when compared to HDPE matrix. Although, PLA
is a brittle polymer, while HDPE is expected to exhibit better
toughness behaviour than PLA, and by implication possess a
higher energy absorption upon impact than the PLA-matrix.
This could be as a result of the differences in material con-
figuration of the reinforcing fibre and that of the layering
technique. The effect of different material properties on
the energy absorption behaviour of natural fibre reinforced
composites (Fig. 6) indicates an energy absorption range of
23–38 kJ/g for different material combination of flax, hemp
and kenaf, with HDPE and PLA, respectively [103].
Assessment of Damage Mechanism of nfrcs
One of the significant roles of the ballistic performance of
NFRCs is the assessment of damage part of the composites.
The reason for conducting damage assessment is to exam-
ine the influence of hybridization and the failure modes of
the laminates under high loading [75]. Ramakrishna et al.
[104] used ultrasonic scan, visual inspection and NDI (Non-
destructive inspection) techniques to evaluate the impact
damage assessment of NFRC made of flax fibre and poly-
propylene. The results of real-time scan show that there is
correlation between the force–displacement data obtained
from the imaging sensor and the transient failure crack. The
loss of stiffness and the subsequent fall in the force history
is as a result of macro-cracks initiation that occur during
the impact. However, it was shown by the imaging device
that the creation of damage is not always common and so a
less sophisticated method was suggested for the assessment
of damage.
Saidane et al. [105] investigated a hybrid flax-glass fibre
composites and its damage mechanisms, using acoustic
Fig. 6  Evaluation of Specific
energy Absorption on different
fibre/matrix combination [103].
Material configuration: V5 &
V6 denotes (flax twill/PLA) and
(flax Hopsack/PLA) respec-
tively, while a, b and c denotes
the index for different strain
rates; namely low, intermedi-
ate and the highest crash speed
employed
emission (AE) method. An AE technique is used to iden-
tify the type of mechanisms of damage that exists in a
material, after which the contributed destruction of each
mechanism can be estimated [106–108]. The microscopic
inspection combined with classification method were
used in the identification of the first set of material failure
properties from the AE signals, namely; matrix cracking,
fibre failure, and fibre-matrix de-bonding. The involve-
ment of each material failure property in the total damage
was determined from the AE energy and the number of
impacts. The results of AE indicated that each impact that
is associated with the damage of fibre was regarded as the
smallest, although their involvement in the total damage of
the composites was based mainly on the summation of all
energy of the AE (Fig. 7). An optimal value of 32 dB was
recorded which matches with the optimum point where
most of the noise signals were absorbed as shown in Fig. 8
[105].
The different damage mechanisms that occurred on the
specimen of NFRCs under tensile loading are well known
i.e. delamination, fibre/matrix interfacial de-bonding, matrix
crack, and fibre breakage. Figure 8 shows the impact of
amplitude on the features of material failure of some hybrid
composites, while the waveform of the acoustic emission is
displayed in Fig. 9. Report from Saidane et al. [105] shows
that the matrix cracking caused by AE signals is about 35 dB
and was also characterized by low amplitude, while the sig-
nals that caused de-bonding between the fibre and matrix is
40 db, for aged and unaged materials. The frequency of the
signal that caused fibre failure is between 60 and 70 db for
the unaged materials only (Fig. 8). The values of the param-
eters HLT (Hit Lockout Time), HDT (Hit Definition Time)
and PDT (Peak Definition Time) obtained, as displayed in
Fig. 9 are 300, 200, and 30 µs, respectively.
13
 Journal of Polymers and the Environment

Fig. 7  Experimental device for

AE measurement [105]

Fig. 8  The four damage mecha-

nisms versus ranges of ampli-
tude of AE signals for aged and
unaged hybrid composites [105]

13
Journal of Polymers and the Environment
Fig. 9  Waveform of the AE
[105]
Liang et  al. [109] studied the damage assessment
and Quasi-static behaviour of flax fibre/epoxy compos-
ites. Fracture of brittle matrix and de-bonding of fibres
from the matrix were the main failure modes observed.
Although, the interlayer matrix cracking that occurred
in between the layers is the main cause of damage as
a result of reduction in stiffness of cross-ply laminates
under tensile loading.
Sarasini et al. [110] examined the damage tolerance
of carbon/Flax hybrid composites. He used a barely vis-
ible impact damage (BVID) device and a 4-point bending
apparatus to compare the impact damage tolerance and
flexural performance, respectively between a Flax/car-
bon/Flax (FCF) and a Carbon/Flax/Carbon (CFC) lami-
nate. The results showed that the CFC laminate possess
better flexural properties, while the FCF showed higher
impact damage tolerance. Part of their observation was
that the arrangement of flax fibre on the outer layer of
the laminate acted as hinderance to propagation of crack.
Petrucci et al. [111] investigated the damage charac-
terization of hybrid composite. The laminate is comprised
of Basalt fibre combined with other natural and synthetic
fibres such as hemp, flax and glass fibres. The results of
performance between the basalt fibre and flax/hemp fibre
reinforced laminate placed the previous laminate on the
high side, and the later on the low side.
Ballistic Simulation of NFRCs
The cost of experiment for evaluating the extent of damage
that occurred on targets during ballistic impacts can be
very high. However, performance evaluation and behavior
of ballistic protection composites under different impact
loading can be predicted by applying new technologies in
the field of numerical simulation [89]. For the develop-
ment of new advanced defence systems, it is suggested
that better analytical models and numerical simulations
be used, followed by experimental evaluation to provide
material and structural solutions. To capture the perfor-
mance of NFRCs accurately, good simulation models and
software tools must be utilized [30].
Although, there are different methods of analysis,
namely; experimental, Numerical and experimental anal-
ysis. Numerical methods are mostly preferred because of
their organized and established models that can offer sig-
nificant and valuable information regarding the longitu-
dinal and the transverse distribution of stress during high
impact . The method also helps to save time, energy and
cost compared to experimental analysis. Some researchers
have used some commercial softwares, such as LSDYNA,
DYNA, ANSYS & ABACUS, etc [112–120].
13
 Journal of Polymers and the Environment

Many researchers have tried to simulate and evaluate the

[124]

[125]

[126]

[127]

[123]

[128]
Refs. ballistic behaviour of synthetic fibre reinforced composites
[121, 122], but natural fibre reinforced composites are sel-

cates good agreement with a percentage error of

ballistic limits, residual velocity, and absorption

Simulation and numerical analysis are instrumen-
The results of analytical and numerical data indi-

Results show that the size of the damaged area is

without significantly reducing the ballistic pro-

dom studied for ballistic application (Table 4). Rajole et al.

Numerical results show a very good correlation

performance and a good replacement for con-
Biodegradable impellers displayed competitive

largely reduced by segmentation after impact

tal in determining various properties such as;
Very suitable for load-carrying components in

[77] carried out simulation in their work. They compared

the results of simulation to that of analytical. Both results
showed consistency and agree with each other. Another bal-
listic simulation of NFRC was done by Ravishankar et al.
[123], much emphasis was made on the energy absorption

capability of the materials

tection in centred impacts

with experimental results
and ballistic limit in the analysis of their results.
aerospace application

ventional impeller

Wound Ballistics
less than 8%
Observation

The study of wound ballistics is mainly comprised of physi-

ological and medical effects of high impact materials and
weapons such as bullets on human body. It is the study of
phenomena that occurs when humans or animals are struck
and penetrated by projectiles [129]. Computational and
Fragment simulating projectiles (FSP) using the

engineering simulations are now playing significant roles

Determination of thrusts, mass flow rate and

Ballistic impact and Energy absorption tests

in making predictions and drawing valid conclusions, due to

Energy absorption and ballistic limit test

different degree of injuries and wounds sustained from pro-

Johnson–Holmquist damage model

jectiles. “Back-spatter”, a term used to describe the physi-

ological component that is removed from the entrance of a
Simulation of stress–strain behavior using Abacus/ Uni-axial compression water

bullet in the direction that is opposing the line of shoot, is

Flexural and Tensile test

an important characteristic of wound ballistics [130, 131].

Although, the phenomenon of back-spatter is most com-
monly seen in contact gunshot wounds of the head, it is
Table 4  Simulation, numerical analysis and experimental models of natural fibre composites [32]

however well-documented, that its mechanics include mul-

Experiment

velocities

tiple factors involving high deformation of biological mate-

rial, quick gas expansion and transfer of kinetic energy. The
relationship between bullet, spatter patterns and tissue char-
acteristics will enhance the predictive value of the deforma-
Modeling and Simulation of Wind Tunnel using

Analytical and ballistic impact modelling using

tion as a result of the understanding of the mechanism of

Simulation of von-misses stress using ANSYS

Jute/Epoxy/rubber/sandwich Modelling and Simulation of Ballistic impact

Finite element simulations using ABAQUS/

back-spatter [132].
The study of back-spatter offers a lot of information on
a real event that might have occurred in cranial wounds by
linking the surrounding objects to the materials as a result
of a gunshot. Das et al. [131] studied the technique of back-
Solid works and ­CCM+

spatter from the impact of a high velocity. They evaluate the

simulation of different materials using impact tests. In their
Simulation method

work, they combined medium density fibre with natural fibre

Abacua/CAE

(MDF-R). The results of their simulation showed that the

Explicit

Explicit

behavior of natural rubber under high velocity impact differs

using

from a patched skin, because of the nature of its elasticity.

The combination of the composites used in the experiments
are presented in Table 5.
Elasto-viscoplastic material
Abs, PLA/Woodfill Glass
Banana fibre/Epoxy resin

Cost Analysis
Jute/Epoxy/rubber
fibre, Bronze fill

Apart from the need to improve performance and pay

Kenaf fibre
Composite

utmost attention to environmental issues, the economic

and weight analysis of replacing synthetic fibres with
natural ones especially in ballistic composites is of great

13
Journal of Polymers and the Environment

Table 5  Natural fibre-reinforced No Material Description

composites used in back-spatter
experiments [131]
1 MDF MDF panel (MDF 1 & 2)
2 MDF-R MDF panel and natural riubber (MDF-R1 & R2)
3 MDF-SR MDF panel, soaked sponge layer, and lorica leather (MDF-SRI and MDF-SR2)
4 MDF-SL MDF panel, soaked sponge layer, and lorica leather (MDF-SLI and MDF-SL2)
5 PC Polycarbonate sheet (PC1 and PC2)
6 PC-R Polycarbonate sheet and natural rubber (PC-R1 and PC-R2)

MDF medium-density fibre board

PC Polycarbonate sheet

Table 6  Cost analysis of recent Natural Fibre-reinforced Ballistic

Multilayered Armour Systems
Composites (in comparison with aramid fibre)
A typical Multilayered Armour System (MAS) is used in
Fibre/Matrix Reduction in % Decrease Year Ref
cost (US $) in cost
the design and development of ballistic protection device.
It is described as one of the best options in developing pro-
Curaua/Polyester 20.15 31.2 2015 [47] tection systems against high energy impact [135] because
Ramie/Epoxy 9.82 95 2016 [98] of the synergy derived from the combination of properties
Bagasse/Epoxy 12.95 64.17 2016 [39] of different materials. It is usually comprised of a compos-
Sisal/Epoxy 12.62 62.5 2017 [133] ite, preceded by a ceramic and followed by ductile metal
Sisal/Polyester 14.8 73.3 2017 [133] as a backing plate. NFRCs have been proved to be suitable
Mallow/Jute/Epoxy 9.97 29.91 2017 [134] as second layers in MAS, because of their features known
Coir/Epoxy 11.51 26 2017 [16] to be light weight, low cost and environmentally friendly
[14]. The ever-increasing and rising war in troubled regions
necessitates effective ballistic protective systems against
high velocity impact projectiles. An armour that is com-
significance. A lower cost favours the substitution of nat- prised of only one component may not possess the ability
ural fibre in several previous studies. Braga et al. [133] to protect the user from a dangerous impact or even stop the
evaluated the cost and weight analysis of replacing aramid projectile from penetration [136]. This type of armour can
with sisal fibre in a multilayered armour composite. The be regarded as soft body armour. MAS is a ballistic shield
results of the analysis indicated that there is 275% reduc- that was produced as a composite for protection against high
tion in cost, due to the replacement. Another cost saving energy impacts of such magnitude, from low-weight and effi-
analysis was shown by Monteiro et al. [98] In their study, cient materials [137–139]. Some common types of personal
ramie fibre was substituted for Kevlar as front ceramic body armour are presented in Fig. 10
backing plate in a multilayer ballistic armour system The MAS that contains materials that are comparatively
((MBAS). The cost analysis of the substitution is presented lighter and has the strength to offer resistance against high
in Table 6 with the materials and the corresponding cost ballistic impact was examined and developed for ballistic
that is associated with the MBAS unit. From the result of shield [16]. Another significant study on the development of
the study, it can be deduced that about 95% is saved from MAS and its impact performance was conducted by Braga
the overall production cost of the MBAS by the replace- et al. [133] using sisal fibre and polyester resin in the com-
ment. Monteiro et al. [47] also realized a cost saving of posite. The outcome of the NIJ performance test showed that
31.2% by replacing aramid fibre with Natural curaua fibre the sisal fibre reinforced laminate is appropriate to be used
in a MAS. in a MAS as a second layer.
Although, the costs of synthetic fibres vary in any A ballistic backface signature tests was conducted on a
period, but will fall most especially during the fall in the Multilayered Ballistic Armour System (MBAS) by Monteiro
prices of petroleum products. This price reduction is likely et al. [98] Ramie fibre was used as a natural fibre in the
to increase with technical progress. But, the essence of armour system. The results of the tests and the post-impact
economic analysis of these fibres is to enable research- observation indicate that the fibre is very significant in the
ers select the best natural fibres with less expensive cost, massive capturing of the fragmenting ceramic tiles used as
lighter weight and environmental-compliant features backing backing plates in the system. Recent studies in this
for ballistic application, not undermining their ballistic area include Braga et al. [25], Pereira et al. [26], Costa et al.
efficiencies. [68], De Assis et al. [140] and Braga et al. [141].

13

Fig. 10  Images of typical personal body armour [59]
Conclusion and Future Trend
As the technologies involved in the manufacture of NFRCs
are progressing, and the development of natural-based
composites for various applications are increasing, there
is also continuous interest for it in ballistic applications
because of its promising mechanical properties. These
mechanical properties vary considerably in fibres and are
largely dependent on the chemical composition, structural
strength, growth conditions and the type of plant fibre.
This review article has revealed the potentials of renew-
able resources, effectiveness of plant fibres in PMCs and
their use as a suitable substitute for conventional fibre
in ballistic protection and armour systems. Far-reaching
studies have been conducted on the progress made so far
by previous researchers on the use of NFRCs for ballistic
purposes. The development of ballistic composites from
natural fibres has witnessed tremendous improvements in
the last few years, with applications ranging from aircraft,
automobile to military protective devices.
NFRCs are very promising and effective in replacing
the synthetic-based composites. Various researches and
studies on bio-polymer composites show that future mate-
rials will be more environment-friendly. Much emphasis
was laid on impact energy absorption properties, assess-
ment of damage mechanism and simulation of these
fibres under ballistic loading in order to reduce the cost
of development and production. In an effort to improve
the strength and the properties of interlayer between the
fibres and matrices, several adaptations are employed.
Another significance approach for increasing the tough-
ness of NFRCs is hybridization because of its promising
13
Journal of Polymers and the Environment
feature of providing relatively higher enhanced mechanical
properties than non-hybridized composites.
The attention towards NFRCs is increasing especially
for replacement of synthetic-reinforced fibres in the manu-
facturing sector due to their low weight, cost and com-
pliance to environmental regulations. Recently, there is
a renewed interest in NFRCs for Multilayered Armour
Systems due to various reasons, such as simplicity of fab-
rication, low cost, high specific strength and stiffness, and
increased eco-friendly awareness, especially on the issue
of biodegradability of materials. Therefore, in terms of
stacking design, the multilayered armour system described
as one of the best options in developing protection sys-
tems against high energy impact because of the synergy
derived from the combination of properties of different
materials. It is usually comprised of a composite, preceded
by a ceramic and followed by ductile metal as a backing
plate. The performance and efficiency of a NFRC is largely
dependent on the fibre properties and the interlayer fea-
tures between fibre and matrix for distribution of stresses
through within the layers.
Generally, this article was able to show that apart from
improving environmental sustainability, there is a signifi-
cance reduction in cost due to the use of natural fibres
in ballistic composites. Although, few challenges, such
as improper adhesion with conventional matrices, dimen-
sional instability, interlayer problems, delamination,
strength of materials, fracture and design of composite
structures are still being experienced in NFRCs. These are
some of the current challenges that are needed to be tack-
led. Further research for a better understanding of NFRCs
will provide much interest and uptake in these natural
Journal of Polymers and the Environment
fibre-based products to industries that will produce bal-
listic protection materials of higher quality in the future.
Acknowledgements  The authors would like to thank University of
Malaya for providing financial support via Faculty Research Grant
(GPF017A-2018).
Declarations  epoxy composite for ballistic armor against class III-A
Conflict of interest  The authors declared no potential conflict of inter-
est.
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