JAYAWANT SHIKSHAN PRASARAK MANDAL’s

JAYAWANTRAO SAWANT POLYTECHNIC

Sr. No. 58, Handewadi Road,
Hadapsar, Pune- 4110 28.
Mechanical Engineering Department

A Micro Project on
“PREPARE MODELS TO DEMONSTRATE P-TYPE AND N-TYPE
SEMICONDUCTOR”

Course: - Mechanical Engineering (ME1I)

Academic year: - 2019-20 Institute Code:-1088

Semester:-First Subject Code: - 22102

Scheme: - ‘I’ Group:- E

Subject: - Basic Physics Total Students:- 06

Prepared By Group
1) POUL HINDAVI RAJABHAU -1910880167
2) QURESHI MOHD KAIF RAFIQUE -1910880170
3) RATHOD AMIT MADHUKAR -1910880174
4) SATAV OMKAR SACHIN -1910880189
5) SHAIKH FIZA JAVED -1910880171
6) SHINDE OMKAR GANESH -1910880159

Guided By
Prof. Chavan S. A.
(Lecturer in Physics)

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 MAHARASHTRA STATE BOARD OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION

Certificate

This is to certify that Mr. / Ms _______________________________________________________________.

Roll No. ______________________ of First Semester of Diploma in Mechanical Engineering

of Institute, Jayawantrao Sawant Polytechnic, Institute Code: 1088 has completed the

Micro Project satisfactorily in Subject–Basic Science (Physics) (22102) for the

academic year 2019- 20 as prescribed in the curriculum.

Place: Hadapsar Enrolment No:______________________

Date: ……………………… Exam. Seat No:_____________________

Subject Teacher Head of the Department Principal

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 Annexure –IV
Teacher Evaluation Sheet
Name of Student: ……………………………………………………… Enrollment No: …………………

Name of Programme:-Mechanical Engineering Semester:- First

Course Title:-Basic Science (Physics) Code:-22102

Title of Micro Project: Prepare Models to Demonstrate P-Type and N-Type

Semiconductor

Course Outcomes Achieved:- Apply The Principle Of Electricity And Magnetism To

Solve Engineering Problem

Evaluation as per suggested Rubric for Assessment of Micro Project

Characteristic Excellent
Poor (1-3) Average (4-5) Good (6-8)
to be assessed (9-10)
The project is The project
The project is The project is
partly some part is
Relevance Relevance to Relevance to the
Relevance to Relevance to
to the course the course and course and
the course and the course and
accurate. excellent
many mistakes. some mistakes.
All collected All collected All collected All collected
Literature
Information is Information is Information is Information is
Survey /
partly accurate. accurate and accurate and accurate and
Information
and major No major concern to perfectly with
collection
errors errors topic topic
The proposal The proposal
The proposal The proposal of
of Project does of Project
of Project Project Shows a
Project not show shows a
Shows a good Excellent
Proposal partly limited
understanding understanding
understanding understanding
of project of project
of Project of project
Completion of Completion of Completion of Completion of
Completion of
project as per project as per project as per project as per
the Target as
given proposal given proposal given proposal given proposal
per Project
target is not up target is not up target is up to target is before
Proposal
to the target to the target the target the target
Analysis of Analysis of Analysis of Analysis of data
Analysis of
data and data and data and and
data and
representation representation representation representation
representation
is very poor is Average is Good is excellent
Quality of The Quality of The Quality of The Quality of
The Quality of
Prototype/ project is Project is project is
project is good
Model imperfect median Superior

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 Preparation of
Prepared Prepared
Report with
Report of Report of Preparation of
Report additional
project not as project is Report as per
preparation information as
per piece of average as per piece of advice
per piece of
advice piece of advice
advice
Presentation of Presentation of Presentation of Presentation of
project is poor project is project is good project is
Presentation with some average with with Quality Outstanding
concept small concept concept with excellent
mistake mistake knowledge knowledge
Viva voce Viva voce Outstanding
Viva voce
Defense depended depended Viva voce
depended good
ordinary average depended

Micro Project Evaluation Sheet

Process Assessment Product Assessment

Part A - Total
Project Part B - Project Individual Marks
Project
Methodology Report/ working Presentation/Viva 10
Proposal
(2 Marks) Model (2 Marks) (4 Marks)
(2 Marks)

Comment/Suggestion about team work/leadership/interpersonal Communication

(If any)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
.…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...

Any other comment:

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Name and Designation of the Faculty Member: - Mr. Chavan S. A. (lecturer in Physics)

Signature: - ……………………………………

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 INDEX

Sr. No. Content Page No.

01 Brief Description 07 To 07

02 Aim of Micro project 07 To 08

03 Course Outcomes 08 To 08

04 Actual Procedure followed 08 To 14

05 Actual Resources used 15 To 15

06 Outcomes of Micro project 15 to 15

07 Skill Developed/Learning Outcomes 15 To 16

08 List of reference’s 16 To 16

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

At the outset, we would also like to thank my project guide Prof. Chavan S. A. for his
guidance and motivation while undertaking this micro project. It would be only a dream
to complete this micro-project without the keen supervision of our guide, Prof. S. A.
Chavan.
We are indebted to all the staff and teachers who directly or indirectly motivated and
helped me to complete this project.
We also express our heartfelt gratitude to Dr. S. M. Deokar, the Principal, who provided us all the
necessary resources for the completion of this micro-project. This is a great opportunity for us to
express my gratitude for all those who have directly or indirectly helped us in the completion of
this project.

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 Annexure –II A
PART B
(Outcomes after Execution)
Micro Project Report

Title of the Project

“Prepare Models to Demonstrate P-Type and N-Type Semiconductor”

1.0 Brief Information

A semiconductor material has an electrical conductivity value falling between that of a
conductor, such as copper, and an insulator, such as glass. Their resistance decreases as
their temperature increases, which is behaviour opposite to that of a metal. Their
conducting properties may be altered in useful ways by the deliberate, controlled
introduction of impurities ("doping") into the crystal structure. Where two differently-
doped regions exist in the same crystal, a semiconductor junction is created. The
behaviour of charge carriers which include electrons, ions and electron holes at these
junctions is the basis of diodes, transistors and all modern electronics.
Semiconductor devices can display a range of useful properties such as passing current
more easily in one direction than the other, showing variable resistance, and sensitivity
to light or heat. Because the electrical properties of a semiconductor material can be
modified by doping, or by the application of electrical fields or light, devices made from
semiconductors can be used for amplification, switching, and energy conversion.
The modern understanding of the properties of a semiconductor relies on quantum
physics to explain the movement of charge carriers in a crystal lattice. Doping greatly
increases the number of charge carriers within the crystal. When a doped
semiconductor contains mostly free holes it is called "p-type", and when it contains
mostly free electrons it is known as "n-type". The semiconductor materials used in
electronic devices are doped under precise conditions to control the concentration and
regions of p- and n-type dopants. A single semiconductor crystal can have many p- and
n-type regions; the p–n junctions between these regions are responsible for the useful
electronic behaviour.

2.0 Aim of Micro Project

Extrinsic semiconductors are components of many common electrical devices. A
semiconductor diode (devices that allow current in only one direction) consists of p-
type and n-type semiconductors placed in junction with one another. Currently, most
semiconductor diodes use doped silicon or germanium.
N-type semiconductors are created by doping an intrinsic semiconductor with an
electron donor element during manufacture. The term n-type comes from the negative
charge of the electron. In n-type semiconductors, electrons are the majority carriers and
holes are the minority carriers. A common dopant for n-type silicon is phosphorus or

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arsenic. In an n-type semiconductor, the Fermi level is greater than that of the intrinsic
semiconductor and lies closer to the conduction band than the valence band.
P-type semiconductors are created by doping an intrinsic semiconductor with an
electron acceptor element during manufacture. The term p-type refers to the positive
charge of a hole. As opposed to n-type semiconductors, p-type semiconductors have a
larger hole concentration than electron concentration. In p-type semiconductors, holes
are the majority carriers and electrons are the minority carriers. A common p-type
dopant for silicon is boron or gallium. For p-type semiconductors the Fermi level is
below the intrinsic Fermi level and lies closer to the valence band than the conduction
band.

3.0 Course Outcome Integrated

Apply the principle of electricity and Magnetism to Solve Engineering Problem

4.0 Actual Procedure Followed.

Step-1 Collect information regarding History of Semiconductors
The history of the understanding of semiconductors begins with experiments on the
electrical properties of materials. The properties of negative temperature coefficient of
resistance, rectification, and light-sensitivity were observed starting in the early 19th
century.
Thomas Johann Seebeck was the first to notice an effect due to semiconductors, in
1821.[13] In 1833, Michael Faraday reported that the resistance of specimens of silver
sulphide decreases when they are heated. This is contrary to the behaviour of metallic
substances such as copper. In 1839, A. E. Becquerel reported observation of a voltage
between a solid and a liquid electrolyte when struck by light, the photovoltaic effect. In
1873 Willoughby Smith observed that selenium resistors exhibit decreasing resistance
when light falls on them. In 1874 Karl Ferdinand Braun observed conduction and
rectification in metallic sulphides, although this effect had been discovered much earlier
by M.A. Rosenschold writing for the Annealed der Physic und Chemise in 1835, [14] and
Arthur Schuster found that a copper oxide layer on wires has rectification properties
that ceases when the wires are cleaned. Adams and Day observed the photovoltaic effect
in selenium in 1876.[15]
A unified explanation of these phenomena required a theory of solid-state physics which
developed greatly in the first half of the 20th Century. In 1878 Edwin Herbert Hall
demonstrated the deflection of flowing charge carriers by an applied magnetic field, the
Hall effect. The discovery of the electron by J.J. Thomson in 1897 prompted theories of
electron-based conduction in solids. Karl Baedeker, by observing a Hall effect with the
reverse sign to that in metals, theorized that copper iodide had positive charge carriers.
Johan Koenigsberger classified solid materials as metals, insulators and "variable
conductors" in 1914 although his student Josef Weiss already introduced the term
Halbleiter (semiconductor in modern meaning) in PhD thesis in 1910.[16][17] Felix Bloch
published a theory of the movement of electrons through atomic lattices in 1928. In
1930, B. Gudden stated that conductivity in semiconductors was due to minor

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concentrations of impurities. By 1931, the band theory of conduction had been
established by Alan Herries Wilson and the concept of band gaps had been developed.
Walter H. Schottky and Nevill Francis Mott developed models of the potential barrier
and of the characteristics of a metal-semiconductor junction. By 1938, Boris Davydov
had developed a theory of the copper-oxide rectifier, identifying the effect of the p–n
junction and the importance of minority carriers and surface states.[18]

Step-02 Semiconductor
Semiconductors: A semiconductor material is one whose electrical properties lie in
between those of insulators and good conductors. Examples are: germanium and silicon.
In terms of energy bands, semiconductors can be defined as those materials which have
almost an empty conduction band and almost filled valence band with a very narrow
energy gap (of the order of 1 eV) separating the two.

Steps-03 Collect information of Types of Semiconductor

Semiconductor

Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor

'P' Type 'N' Type

Silicon Germanium
Semiconductor Semiconductor

Intrinsic semiconductor,
An intrinsic semiconductor, also called an undoped semiconductor or i-type
semiconductor, is a pure semiconductor without any significant dopant species present.
The number of charge carriers is therefore determined by the properties of the material
itself instead of the amount of impurities. In intrinsic semiconductors the number of
excited electrons and the number of holes are equal: n = p. This may even be the case
after doping the semiconductor, though only if it is doped with both donors and
acceptors equally. In this case, n = p still holds, and the semiconductor remains intrinsic,
though doped.
The electrical conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors can be due to crystallographic
defects or electron excitation. In an intrinsic semiconductor the number of electrons in
the conduction band is equal to the number of holes in the valence band. An example is
Hg 0.8Cd 0.2Te at room temperature.
An indirect band gap intrinsic semiconductor is one in which the maximum energy of
the valence band occurs at a different k (k-space wave vector) than the minimum energy
of the conduction band. Examples include silicon and germanium. A direct band gap
intrinsic semiconductor is one where the maximum energy of the valence band occurs at

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the same k as the minimum energy of the conduction band. Examples include gallium
arsenide.
A silicon crystal is different from an insulator because at any temperature above
absolute zero, there is a finite probability that an electron in the lattice will be knocked
loose from its position, leaving behind an electron deficiency called a "hole". If a voltage
is applied, then both the electron and the hole can contribute to a small current flow.
The conductivity of a semiconductor can be modelled in terms of the band theory of
solids. The band model of a semiconductor suggests that at ordinary temperatures there
is a finite possibility that electrons can reach the conduction band and contribute to
electrical conduction.

Electrons And Holes

In an intrinsic semiconductor such as silicon at temperatures above absolute zero, there
will be some electrons which are excited across the band gap into the conduction band
and which can support charge flowing. When the electron in pure silicon crosses the gap,
it leaves behind an electron vacancy or "hole" in the regular silicon lattice. Under the
influence of an external voltage, both the electron and the hole can move across the
material. In an n-type semiconductor, the dopant contributes extra electrons,
dramatically increasing the conductivity. In a p-type semiconductor, the dopant
produces extra vacancies or holes, which likewise increase the conductivity. It is
however the behavior of the p-n junction which is the key to the enormous variety of
solid-state electronic devices.

An extrinsic semiconductor is one that has been doped, that is, into which a doping agent
has been introduced, giving it different electrical properties than the intrinsic (pure)

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semiconductor. This doping involves adding dopant atoms to an intrinsic
semiconductor, which changes the electron and hole carrier concentrations of the
semiconductor at thermal equilibrium, the temperature at which two adjacent
substances exchange no heat energy. Dominant carrier concentrations in an extrinsic
semiconductor classify it as either an n-type or p-type semiconductor. The electrical
properties of extrinsic semiconductors make them essential components of many
electronic devices.

Steps-04 Semiconductor Doping

Semiconductor doping is the process that changes an intrinsic semiconductor to an
extrinsic semiconductor. During doping, impurity atoms are introduced to an intrinsic
semiconductor. Impurity atoms are atoms of a different element than the atoms of the
intrinsic semiconductor. Impurity atoms act as either donors or acceptors to the
intrinsic semiconductor, changing the electron and hole concentrations of the
semiconductor. Impurity atoms are classified as donor or acceptor atoms based on the
effect they have on the intrinsic semiconductor.

Donor impurity atoms have more valence electrons than the atoms they replace in the
intrinsic semiconductor lattice. Donor impurities "donate" their extra valence electrons
to a semiconductor's conduction band, providing excess electrons to the intrinsic
semiconductor. Excess electrons increase the electron carrier concentration (n0) of the
semiconductor, making it n-type.
Acceptor impurity atoms have fewer valence electrons than the atoms they replace in
the intrinsic semiconductor lattice. They "accept" electrons from the semiconductor's
valence band. This provides excess holes to the intrinsic semiconductor. Excess holes
increase the hole carrier concentration (p0) of the semiconductor, creating a p-type
semiconductor.
Semiconductors and dopant atoms are defined by the column of the periodic table in
which they fall. The column definition of the semiconductor determines how many
valence electrons its atoms have and whether dopant atoms act as the semiconductor's
donors or acceptors.

Step-05 Formation of N-type Semiconductor

N-Type Semiconductors

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N-type semiconductors have a larger electron concentration than hole concentration.
The term n-type comes from the negative charge of the electron. In n-type
semiconductors, electrons are the majority carriers and holes are the minority carriers.
N-type semiconductors are created by doping an intrinsic semiconductor with donor
impurities (or doping a p-type semiconductor as done in the making of CMOS chips). A
common dopant for n-type silicon is phosphorus. In an n-type semiconductor, the Fermi
level is greater than that of the intrinsic semiconductor and lies closer to the conduction
band than the valence band.

N-type Semiconductor Doping:

If group 5 element, such as Antimony impurity is added to the silicon crystal, the
Antimony atom builds four covalent bonds with four silicon atoms by bonding the
valence electrons of antimony with the valence electrons within the silicon outermost
shell, leaving one free electron. Therefore the impurity atom has donated a free electron
to the structure so these impurities are referred to as donor atoms.

Charge Carriers
There are two recognized types of charge carriers in semiconductors. One is electrons,
which carry a negative electric charge. In addition, it is convenient to treat the traveling
vacancies in the valence band electron population (holes) as the second type of charge
carrier, which carry a positive charge equal in magnitude to that of an electron.

Donor (Semiconductor)
N semiconductor physics, a donor is a dopant atom that, when added to a
semiconductor, can form a n-type region.
For example, when silicon (si), having four valence electrons, needs to be doped as a n-
type semiconductor, elements from group v like phosphorus (p) or arsenic (as) can be
used because they have five valence electrons. A dopant with five valence electrons is
also called a pentavalent impurity. [1] other pentavalent dopants are antimony (sb) and
bismuth (bi).
When substituting a si atom in the crystal lattice, four of the valence electrons of
phosphorus form covalent bonds with the neighbouring si atoms but the fifth one

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remains weakly bonded. At room temperature, all the fifth electrons are liberated, can
move around the si crystal and can carry a current and thus act as charge carriers. The
initially

Step-06 Formation of P-Type Semiconductors

As opposed to n-type semiconductors, p-type semiconductors have a larger hole
concentration than electron concentration. The term p-type refers to the positive charge
of the hole. In p-type semiconductors, holes are the majority carriers and electrons are
the minority carriers. P-type semiconductors are created by doping an intrinsic
semiconductor with acceptor impurities (or doping an n-type semiconductor). A
common p-type dopant for silicon is boron. For p-type semiconductors the Fermi level is
below the intrinsic Fermi level and lies closer to the valence band than the conduction
band.

This type of semiconductor is obtained when traces of a trivalent like boron (B) are
added to a pure germanium crystal. In this case, the three valence electrons of boron
atom form covalent bonds with four surrounding germanium atoms but one bond is left
incomplete and gives rise to a hole as shown in Fig. below. Thus, boron which is called
an acceptor impurity causes as many positive holes in a germanium crystal as there are
boron atoms thereby producing a P-type (P for positive) extrinsic semiconductor. In this
type of semiconductor, conduction is by the movement of holes in the valence band

P-type Semiconductor Doping:

If group 3 elements such as such as boron, gallium and indium are added to the
semiconductor crystal, the impurity atoms having three valence electrons form three
strong covalent bonds with the silicon crystal valence electrons leaving one vacancy.
This vacancy is called as a hole and it is diagrammatically represented by a small circle
or positive sign due to the absence of a negative charge.

Acceptor (Semiconductor)
In semiconductor physics, an acceptor is a dopant atom that when added to a
semiconductor can form a p-type region.

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For example, when silicon (Si), having four valence electrons, needs to be doped as a p-
type semiconductor, elements from group III like boron (B) or aluminium (Al), having
three valence electrons, can be used. The latter elements are also called trivalent
impurities. Other trivalent dopants include indium (In) and gallium (Ga).

When substituting for a Si atom in the crystal lattice, the three valence electrons of
boron form covalent bonds with three of the Si neighbours but the bond with the fourth
neighbour remains unsatisfied. The unsatisfied bond attracts electrons from the
neighbouring bonds. At room temperature, an electron from a neighbouring bond will
jump to repair the unsatisfied bond thus leaving a hole (a place where an electron is
deficient). The hole will again attract an electron from the neighbouring bond to repair
this unsatisfied bond.

Step-07 Majority And Minority Carriers into P-type and n-type Semiconductor
The more abundant charge carriers are called majority carriers, which are primarily
responsible for current transport in a piece of semiconductor. In n-type semiconductors
they are electrons, while in p-type semiconductors they are holes. The less abundant
charge carriers are called minority carriers; in n-type semiconductors they are holes,
while in p-type semiconductors they are electrons.

In an intrinsic semiconductor, which does not contain any impurity, the concentrations
of both types of carriers are ideally equal. If an intrinsic semiconductor is doped with a
donor impurity then the majority carriers are electrons; if the semiconductor is doped
with an acceptor impurity then the majority carriers are holes.

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5.0 Actual Resources Used (mention the actual resources used.)

Sr.
Name of resource / material Specification Quantity Remarks
No

1 Plastic balls Diameter-04 cm 09 ---

2 Wooden sticks Long - 25 cm 30 ---

3 Fevicol 25gm 01 ---

6.0 Outputs of the Micro Projects

7.0 Skill Developed/ Learning out of this Micro project

N-type materials are type of materials formed by adding group 5 elements (pentavalent
impurity atoms) to the semiconductor crystals and conduct the electric current by
movement of electrons.
In N-type Semiconductors:
 The impurity atoms are pentavalent elements.
 Impurity elements with solid crystal give a large number of free electrons.
 Pentavalent impurities are also called as donors.
 Doping gives the less number of holes in relation to the number of free electrons.
 Doping with group 5 elements results in positively charged donors and negatively
charged free electrons.
P-type materials are a type of materials formed when group 3 elements (trivalent
impurity atoms) are added to the solid crystal. In these semiconductors the current flow
is mainly due to the holes.

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In P-type Semiconductors:
 The impurity atoms are trivalent elements.
 Trivalent elements results in excess number of holes which always accepts electrons.
Hence trivalent impurities are called as acceptors.
 Doping gives the less number of free electrons in relation to the number of holes.
 Doping results in negatively charged acceptors and positively charged holes
Both p-type and N-type are electrically neural on their own because the contribution of
electrons and holes required for conducting electrical current are equal due to electron-
hole pair. Both boron (B) and antimony (Sb) are called metalloids because they are the
most commonly used doping agents for the intrinsic semiconductor to improve the
properties of conductivity.

List of reference’s
 http://www.optique-
ingenieur.org/en/courses/OPI_ang_M05_C02/co/Grain_OPI_ang_M05_C02_1.html
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrinsic_semiconductor
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charge_carrier
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extrinsic_semiconductor#Semiconductor_doping
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extrinsic_semiconductor#Semiconductor_doping
 http://www.uotechnology.edu.iq/dep-laserandoptoelec-
eng/branch/lectures/electronic1/pdf
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acceptor_(semiconductors)
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donor_(semiconductors)

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