Mathematics Resource Guide

ALGEBRA AND TRIGONOMETRY
MATHEMATICS
Resource Guide
2022–2023
Table of Contents
Part I Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 3.7 Proof of the Factor Theorem . . . . . . . . 24

SECTION 1: BASIC PROPERTIES OF Sections 3.1–3.7: Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . .25
REAL NUMBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 3.8 Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
3.8.1 How Do We Add Complex Numbers? . . . 27
SECTION 2: LINEAR AND 3.8.2 How Do We Multiply Complex
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS . . . . . . . . .8 Numbers? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.1 Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 3.8.3 How Do We Divide Complex
Numbers? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Section 2.1: Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
2.2 Quadratic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
SKT Education - China, CH

2.2.1 Equations of the Form x2 – p = 0 . . . . . 11 SECTION 4: FUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . 31
2.2.2 Equations of the Form k(x + r)2 – p = 0, 4.1 Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
Where k ≠ 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
2.2.3 Equations of the Form ax2 + bx + c = 0, 4.2 Definition of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Where a ≠ 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2.4 The Discriminant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 4.3 Many-to-One Functions Versus
One-to-One Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.4 Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
SECTION 3: POLYNOMIAL
EQUATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Section 4: Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.1 When Are Two Polynomials Equal? . . 16 SECTION 5: GRAPHING . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.2 H
ow Do We Add and Subtract 5.1 What Does the Graph of a Linear
Polynomials? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 Function y = ax + b Look Like? . . . . . 39
3.3 How Do We Multiply Polynomials? . . 16 5.2 What Does the Graph of a Quadratic
Function y = ax2 + bx + c Look Like? . . .41
3.4 How Do We Divide Polynomials? . . . .17 5.2.1 The Case y = x2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
5.2.2 The General Case y = ax2 + bx + c . . . . 42
3.5 How Does the Division of Polynomials
Help Us with Polynomial 5.3 What Do the Graphs of Some
Equations? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Polynomials Look Like? . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.6 Proof of the Rational Root Theorem . . 23 5.4 What Does the Graph of the Exponential
Function y = ax Look Like? . . . . . . . . .46
2022–2023 Mathematics Resource Guide

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5.5 What Does the Graph of the Logarithmic 7.1 Linear Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
Function y = logax Look Like? . . . . . . 47
Sections 5.1–5.5: Exercises . . . . . . . . . . .50
7.2 Quadratic Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
5.6 Transformations of Graphs . . . . . . . . . 50 7.2.1 Inequalities of the form ax2 + bx + c
5.6.1 Graphing y = f(x + c) from the Graph > 0 and a > 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
of y = f(x) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 7.2.2 Inequalities of the form ax2 + bx + c
5.6.2 Graphing y = f(x) + C from the Graph < 0 and a > 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
of y = f(x) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.6.3 Graphing y = f(ax) from the Graph Section 7.2: Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
of y = f(x) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
SECTION 8: COORDINATE
5.6.4 Graphing y = Af(x) from the Graph
of y = f(x) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 GEOMETRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
8.1 The Pythagorean Theorem . . . . . . . . . 85
8.2 Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
SECTION 6: NON-POLYNOMIAL
EQUATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 8.3 Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
8.3.1 Slope Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
6.1 Rational Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 8.3.2 Point–Point Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
6.1.1 How Do We Solve Rational 8.3.3 Slope–Point Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94

Equations? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57 8.3.4 Mutual Positions of Lines . . . . . . . . . . .94
Section 6.1.1: Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.1.2 What Do the Graphs of Some Rational 8.4 Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Functions Look Like? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Section 6.1.2: Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 8.5 S
olving Geometry Problems Using
Coordinate Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
6.2 Exponential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.2.1 Basic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65 Section 8: Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
6.2.2 How Do We Solve Exponential
Equations? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
Section 6.2: Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67 Part II Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . 100

6.3 Logarithmic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 SECTION 9: TRIGONOMETRIC
6.3.1 Basic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68 FUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
6.3.2 How Do We Solve Logarithmic 9.1 The Sine Function for Acute Angles . 100
Equations? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
9.2 The Tangent Function for Acute
Section 6.3: Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71 Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
6.4 Radical Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72 9.3 The Cosine and Cotangent Functions
6.4.1 Method 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
6.4.2 Method 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
for Acute Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
Section 6.4: Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74 9.4 Relations Among Trigonometric

Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
SECTION 7: INEQUALITIES . . . . . . 75

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9.5 Trigonometric Functions of Special 9.8 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions . . 118
Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
9.9 Inverse Trigonometric Functions . . . .124
9.6 Trigonometric Functions of Angles of
9.10 Trigonometric Equations . . . . . . . . . 131
any Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
9.6.1 Definitions and Properties . . . . . . . . . 107 Sections 9.8–9.10: Exercises . . . . . . . . . 135
9.6.2 Negative Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
9.11 The Law of Sines and Cosines . . . . . 136
9.7 Trigonometric Identities . . . . . . . . . . .109
9.7.1 Sum and Difference Identities . . . . . . . 109 Section 9.11: Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
9.7.2 Double-Angle Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
9.7.3 Half-Angle Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 9.12 Radians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
9.7.4 Sum-to-Product Identities . . . . . . . . . . 114
9.7.5 Product-to-Sum Identities . . . . . . . . . . 116 Section 9.12: Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Sections 9.1–9.7: Exercises . . . . . . . . . . 118

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Part I Algebra
Section 1
Basic Properties of Real Numbers
We will begin this resource guide with a discussion of the real numbers—the numbers with which you are most
familiar. The set of the real numbers is denoted by ℝ. This set is equipped with two operations: addition, + ,
and multiplication, ⋅ . When two real numbers are added, the result is a real number. We often express this fact
by saying that ℝ is closed under addition. Likewise, when two real numbers are multiplied, the result is a real
number. Thus, ℝ is also closed under multiplication.
Let us now turn to the basic properties of addition and multiplication. These properties are very important for
understanding the structure of the real numbers. In high school mathematics, however, they are mainly used to
simplify computations, especially computations that involve algebraic expressions.
The numbers 0 and 1 are special—they have the following properties:
1. For any real number x , x + 0 = x

2. For any real number x , x ⋅ 1 = x
No real numbers other than 0 and 1 have these properties. The rest of the properties are as follows:
3. Additive Inverse. For any real number x there is a unique number, denoted by −x , such that x + (−x) = 0.
4. M
ultiplicative Inverse. For any real number x different from 0 , there is a unique number, denoted by x−1,
such that x ⋅ x−1 = 1.
5. Associative Law of Addition. For all real numbers x, y, and z , x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z
6. Commutative Law of Addition. For all real numbers x, y, x + y = y + x
7. Associative Law of Multiplication. For all real numbers x, y , and z , x ⋅ (y ⋅ z) = (x ⋅ y) ⋅ z
8. Commutative Law of Multiplication. For all real numbers x, y , x ⋅ y = y ⋅ x
9. Distributive Law. For all real numbers x, y, and z, x ⋅ (y + z) = x ⋅ y + x ⋅ z
10. Z
ero Factor Property. For all real numbers x and y, x ⋅ y = 0 if and only if x = 0 or y = 0 or both x and y
are equal to 0.
Note that the last property consists of two properties. The first property is: If x ⋅ y = 0 , then x = 0 or y = 0 or both
x and y are equal to 0. The second property is: If x = 0 or y = 0 , then x ⋅ y = 0.
You might be wondering, what about the operations subtraction and division? These two operations are defined
in terms of addition and multiplication, respectively, as follows:
DEFINITION
If x and y are real numbers, their difference x − y is the real number x + (−y).
And if y ≠ 0 , xy is the real number x ⋅ y−1.

5
ℝ, the set of all real numbers, includes the integers: 0, ±1, ± 2, ± 3, … . The set of all integers is denoted by
ℤ. The set of all positive integers is denoted by ℤ +, and the set of all negative integers is denoted by ℤ −. The
real numbers also include the rational numbers. A rational number is a ratio, or division, of two integers. For
example, 2 , −4, −23 , 3 , 2.13, −0.98123 are all rational numbers. Any integer n is rational because it can be
3 17 42 −18
written as n , which is a ratio of two integers. The set of all rational numbers is denoted by ℚ.
1
You can see from this description that:
a. ℤ + and ℤ − are subsets of ℤ,
b. ℤ is a subset of ℚ, and
c. ℚ is a subset of ℝ.
Figure 1–1 illustrates these relations:

Figure 1–11–1
FIGURE
Another important subset of the real numbers is the set of irrational numbers. A real number that is not rational
is called irrational. For example, �2 is irrational. Do you know why �2 is irrational?
heMATics ResouRce Guide
theorem
2 is an irrational number.
Proof
6 m
at 2 is rational. Then by definition 2= , where m and n are intege
THEOREM
�2 is an irrational number.
PROOF
1. Assume that �2 is rational. Then by definition �2 = m , where m and n are integers and n ≠ 0.
n
2. If indeed �2 = m , then we should be able to reduce this fraction to the lowest term.
n
3. Let m and n be so that m is a reduced fraction.
n
m
4. Since �2 = , 2n2 = m2. This implies that m2 is even, and, hence, m is also even (why?)
n
5. Since m is even, we can write m = 2k for some integer k.
6. Substituting m = 2k in 2n2 = m2, we get 2n2 = (2k)2, and so n2 = 2k2. This implies that n2 is even, and,
hence, n is also even.
7. Since m and n are both even, m is not a reduced fraction—a contradiction. This shows that our assumption
n
that �2 is rational is not true. Hence, �2 is irrational.
We will conclude this section with another set of properties that concern inequalities between real numbers:

11. For any two real numbers x and y, one and only one of the following is true: x < y, x = y, or x > y.
12. For any three real numbers x, y, z, if x < y, y < z, then x < z.
13. For any three real numbers x, y, z, if x < y then x + z < y + z.
14. For any three real numbers x, y, z, if x < y and z > 0, then zx < zy.
15. For any three real numbers x, y, z, if x < y and z < 0 , then zx > zy.

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Section 2
Linear and Quadratic Equations
2.1 LINEAR EQUATIONS
The simplest equations are those in the form ax + b = 0. These equations are called linear equations, because, as
we will see in Section 8, they are associated with straight lines. The following equations are all linear:
(1) 2x + 6 = 0
(2) −3x + 4 = 0
(3) − 2 x + 3.1 = 0
5
Equations (1), (2), and (3) have the form ax + b = 0. In equation (1), a = 2 and b = 6 ; in equation (2), a = −3 and
b = 4 ; and in equation (3) a = − 2 and b = 3.1. Hence, equations (1), (2), and (3) are linear.
5

Now, let’s consider the following equations:
(4) 4x = 17
(5) 2x − 9 = 34
(6) −6 + 2x = 4x + 9
These equations do not have the form ax + b = 0, but they are equivalent to equations of this form. They, too, are
considered linear equations. When are two equations equivalent? Two equations are equivalent if they have the
same solution set, that is to say, if each solution of one equation is also a solution of the second equation, and vice
versa.
EXAMPLE 2.1a: The equations 2x − 9 = 34 and 2x − 43 = 0 are equivalent.
REASON: The solution set of each equation consists of the same number: x = 21.5.
Now, let’s solve a few linear equations.
EXAMPLE 2.1b: Solve the equation 8x − 34 = 15.
SOLUTION: We can add 34 to both sides of the equation without changing the solution set of the equation.
And, in doing so, we get a simpler equation, an equation that is easier to solve. Thus:
8x − 34 + 34 = 15 + 34
8x + 0 = 49
8x = 49

8
The last equation is equivalent to the original equation and is easier to solve. To get x, we simply divide both
sides of the equation by 8.
8x = 49
8 8
x = 6.125
The solution set of the given equation 8x − 34 = 15 consists of one number: x = 6.125. Let’s check that x =
6.125 is indeed a solution to this equation: 8(6.125) − 34 = 49 − 34 = 15
EXAMPLE 2.1c: Solve the equation −5x + 4 = 3x − 1 .

7 7
SOLUTION: −5x + 4 − 4 = 3x − 1 − 4 Subtract 4 from both sides of the equation.

7 7 7 7 7
−5x + 0 = 3x − 5
7
−5x = 3x − 5
7
−5x − 3x = 3x − 5 − 3x Subtract 3x from both sides of the equation.
7
−8x = − 5
7

8x = 5 Multiply both sides of the equation by −1.
7
5
8x = 7 Divide both sides of the equation by 8 .
8 8
x= 5
56
In the next series of examples, we will present the solution process without a detailed explanation as was given in
the previous examples.
EXAMPLE 2.1d: Solve the equation 2(x − 4) + 3 = 2x − 5.
SOLUTION:
2(x − 4) + 3 = 2x − 5
2x − 8 + 3 = 2x − 5
2x − 5 = 2x − 5
Any number x is a solution to the last equation because with any number that we substitute for x, we get a
true statement. Hence, our original equation, 2(x − 4) + 3 = 2x − 5, has infinitely many solutions.

9
EXAMPLE 2.1e: Solve the equation x + 7 = 2(x + 3) − x.
SOLUTION:
x + 7 = 2(x + 3) − x
x + 7 = 2x + 6 − x
x+7=x+6
There is no number x that satisfies the last equation because if there were such a number, then we would get
7 = 6, which is absurdity. Hence, the original equation x + 7 = 2(x + 3) − x has no solution.
Section 2.1
EXERCISES
1. Solve the following equations:

a. 4 (x + 8) = 1
57 3
b. 2�x − 3 �+ 3�x + 2 �+ 4�x − 1 �= 9x + 17

4 3 5
c. 8x − 3 − 5x + 2 = 1
11 2
d. x + 3 + x − 7 = x + 11
6 3 2
e. x + 2x + 3x +…+ 33x = 51
2. S
am took a number, multiplied it by 12, added 60 to the result, and got 372. What was Sam’s initial number?
om took a number and subtracted 2 4 from it. Then, he divided 3 2 by the result and got 3 5 . What was
3. T
15 3 13
Tom’s initial number?
4. John left town A at the same time that Mary left town B. They walked toward each other and met 40 minutes
after their departure. John arrived at town B 32 minutes after he met Mary. How long did it take Mary to
arrive at town A?
5. Cities A and B are 70 miles apart. A biker leaves town A at the same time that a bus leaves town B. They
travel toward each other and meet 84 minutes after their departure at a point between A and B. The bus arrives
at City A, stays there for 20 minutes, and then heads back to City B. The bus meets the biker again 2 hours and
41 minutes after their first meeting. What are the speeds of the bus and the biker?

10
2.2 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
We have learned how to solve linear equations. In this section, we will learn how to solve a new kind of equation,
quadratic equations. These are equations of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a ≠ 0. We add the condition a ≠ 0
because if a = 0, then we would just have a linear equation, bx + c = 0, which we have already discussed. When
we say “quadratic equation,” we always assume that the coefficient of x2 is nonzero. We will begin with two
special cases of quadratic equations, and then we will deal with the general case.
2.2.1 Equations of the Form x2 – p = 0

In this case, a = 1 , b = 0 , c = − p. Equations of this form are easy to solve:
x2 − p = 0
x2 = p
x = �p or x = − �p
Or, we just write x = ± �p. Note, however, that p must be non-negative. If p < 0, there is no real solution to the
given equation.
EXAMPLE 2.2a: Solve the equation x2 − 16 = 0.
SOLUTION:

x2 − 16 = 0
x2 = 16
x = ±�16
x = ±4
2.2.2 Equations of the Form k(x + r)2 – p = 0, Where k ≠ 0

This type of equation can be reduced to the format we just discussed. To do this, we need to divide both sides of
p p p p
the equation by k. Then, we get (x + r)2 = (remember that k ≠ 0). If ≥ 0, then x + r = ±
p
k k k�, and so x = −r ± .
k�
If < 0, the equation has no real solution.
k
EXAMPLE 2.2b: Solve the equation 8(x + 3)2 − 72 = 0.
SOLUTION: 8(x + 3)2 − 72 = 0

8(x + 3)2 = 72
(x + 3)2 = 72
8
(x + 3)2 = 9
x + 3 = ± �9
x + 3 = ±3
x = −3 ± 3
x = 0 or x = −6

11
2.2.3 Equations of the Form ax2 + bx + c = 0, Where a ≠ 0
To solve this equation, we first must change it into the form we just discussed, k(x + r)2 − p = 0, which we already
know how to solve. Let’s begin with a specific example:
EXAMPLE 2.2c: Solve 2x2 − 3x + 1 = 0.
SOLUTION: We solve this equation by making it an equivalent equation of the form k(x + r)2 − p = 0.
When opening the parentheses in the last equation, we get kx2 + 2krx + kr2 − p = 0. Comparing the
coefficients of this equation with the coefficients of the given equation (see the figure below), we get:
k=2 2 x2 + −3 x + 1 = 0
� 2kr = −3
kr2 − p = 1
By substituting k = 2 in 2kr = −3, we get r = −3 . k x2 + 2kr x + kr2 − p = 0

4
And, by substituting k = 2 and r = −3 in kr2 − p = 1, we get p = 2 ⋅ � −3 � − 1 = 1 .
2
4 4 8
Thus, our equation can be written as: 2�x + � −3 �� − 1 = 0.
2
4 8

Now, we have arrived at an equation of the form k(x + r)2 − p = 0, which we know how to solve.
2�x + � −3 �� − 1
2
4 8
�x + � −3 �� = 1
2
4 16
x + −3 = ± 1
4 4
x= 3 ± 1
4 4
x = 1 or x = 1
2
Thus, the solution set of our equation consists of two numbers: x = 1 and x = 1 .
2
EXAMPLE 2.2d:
SOLUTION: This process is applicable to the general case ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a ≠ 0. As before, our aim is
to bring this equation into the form k(x + r)2 − p = 0. This form, as has just been shown, is kx2 + 2krx + kr2 −
p = 0.
k=a
Comparing the coefficients of the two equations, we get � 2kr = b
kr2 − p = c
b
Substituting k = a in 2kr = b , we get r = .
2a
Substituting k = a and r = b in kr − p = c, we get p = a ⋅ � b � − c.
2
2
2a 2a

12
Thus, our equation can be written as:
2 2
a�x + � b �� − �a � b � − c� = 0.
2a 2a
Now we can solve for x :
2 2
a�x + � b �� = a� b � − c
2a 2a
a ⋅ � b �2 − c
2 2a
�x + � b �� = a .
2a
2 2
�x + � b �� = � b � − c
2a 2a a
2
�x + � b �� = b 2 − c
2
2a 4a a
�x + � b �� = b − 4ac
2 2
2a 4a2
x + � b � = ±� b − 4ac
2
2a 4a2
x = − b ±� b − 4ac
2
2a 4a2

x = − b ±� b − 4ac
2
2a 2a
−b±�b2 − 4ac
x=
2a
We have just developed a formula for solving quadratic equations ax2 + bx + c = 0. This formula is called the
−b±�b2 − 4ac
quadratic formula: x = .
2a
2.2.4 The Discriminant

The expression b2 − 4ac tells us when a quadratic equation has a real solution, and if it does, whether it has one
or two real solutions. This expression is called the discriminant. It is denoted by the Greek letter Δ (delta).
From the quadratic formula we developed previously, we get:
−b+�b2 − 4ac −b−�b2 − 4ac

1. When Δ = b2 − 4ac > 0, the equation has two real solutions: x = or x = x = .
2a 2a
2. When Δ = b2 − 4ac = 0, the equation has only one real solution: x = −b .

2a
3. When Δ = b2 − 4ac < 0, the equation has no real solution.
It is not always necessary to use the quadratic formula to solve a quadratic equation. Quadratic equations of the
form ax2 + bx = 0 are easy to solve by factoring, as is shown below:
ax2 + bx = 0
x(ax + b) = 0

13
x = 0 or ax + b = 0
x = 0 or x = − b
a
Here we utilized the fact that the product of two numbers is zero if and only if at least one of the numbers is zero.
When using the quadratic formula, we naturally get the same solution:
−b±�b2 − 4ac −b±�b2 − 4a0 −b±�b2 − 0 −b±�b2 −b±b

x= = = = = 2a
2a 2a 2a 2a
Thus, x = 0 and x = −2b = − b is the solution set of the equation ax2 + bx = 0.

2a a
Section 2.2
EXERCISES
1. Solve the equations:

a. x2 − x − 90 = 0
b. 25x2 + 90x + 81 = 0
c. (3x − 2)(x − 3) = 20

d. 3(5x + 3)(4x2 − 1) = 8(4x2 − 1)2
e. x2 − 13x + 4 = 0
3x2 − 14x + 11 x + 9 x2 + x + 1
f. 14 = 2 − 5
g. x2 + 2(1 + �8)x + 8�2 = 0 (Do not round off the coefficients.)
2. O
ne of the digits of a two-digit number is 3 less than the other digit. When the digits are interchanged, we
get a new number. The sum of the squares of the new number and the initial number is 1877. Find the two
numbers.
3. Make up a word problem whose solution can be found by solving the equation x(x + 36) = 180.
4. Two planes start flying from the same airport at the same time. One plane flies directly north, and the other
flies directly east. After 2 hours from the time they started, the distance between the two planes is 2,000
miles. Find the speeds of each plane if the speed of one is 75% of the speed of the other.
5. A company has decided to double its production within two years. By how many percents should the company
increase its production each year if it wants the percentage increase in the first year to be equal to the
percentage increase in the second year?

14
Section 3
Polynomial Equations
So far we have learned how to solve linear and quadratic equations. Now, you may be wondering, what about
equations of similar form but with higher degrees? For example, how do we solve equations like 2x3 + 4x2 − x +
9 = 0 and −3x4 + 5x3 − 2x + 12 = 0? Equations of this kind are called polynomial equations. A polynomial is an
expression of the form anxn + an−1xn−1 +…+ a3x3 + a2 x2 + a1x1 + a0, where n is a nonnegative integer, and a0, a1, a2,
…, an are real numbers with an ≠ 0. a0, a1, a2, …, an are called the coefficients of the polynomial. n, the highest
power in the polynomial, is called the degree of the polynomial. The expressions a0, a1x1, a2 x2, a3x3, …, an−1xn−1,
anxn are called the terms of the polynomial. Expressions of the form xk, where k is a non-negative integer, are
called monomials.
EXAMPLE 3a:

The coefficients of the polynomial 4x5 − 3x4 + 2 x3 + �3x2 − 6x + 1 are:
5
a5 = 4, a4 = −3, a3 = 2 , a2 = �3, a1 = −6, a0 = 1 and the degree of this polynomial is n = 5.
5
The terms of this polynomial are: 1, −6x, �3x2, 2 x3, −3x4, and 4x5.
5
EXAMPLE 3b:
The coefficients of the polynomial 17x4 + 0 ⋅ x3 − 12x2 + 0 ⋅ x − 3 are:

4
a4 = 17 , a3 = 0 , a2 = −12 , a1 = 0 , a0 = − 3
4
This polynomial is of degree 4 .
The terms of this polynomial are: − 3 , 0 ⋅ x, −12x2, 0 ⋅ x3, and 17x4.

4
When a coefficient is zero, there is no need to write the corresponding term. For example, instead of writing
−4x5 + 0x4 + �5x3 + 0x2 − 4x + 7, we just write −4x5 + �5x3 − 4x + 7. When all the coefficients of a polynomial are
zeros, the polynomial is called the zero polynomial. For convenience, we denote polynomials by Q(x), R(x), etc.

15
3.1 WHEN ARE TWO POLYNOMIALS EQUAL?
Two polynomials Q(x) and R(x) are equal if they have the same terms.
EXAMPLE 3.1a:
The polynomials P(x) = x3 + x2 + x and Q(x) = 0 ⋅ x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 0 are equal. The polynomials R(x) = x3 +
x2 + x and S(x) = x4 + x3 + x2 + x, on the other hand, are not equal because the term x4 is in S(x) but not in R(x).
3.2 HOW DO WE ADD AND SUBTRACT POLYNOMIALS?

Naturally, the sum and difference of two polynomials are defined. We simply add or subtract the coefficients of
the like terms.
EXAMPLE 3.2a:
Q(x) = −4x5 + 3x3 + 2x2 − 6x + 9

P(x) = 2x5 + 7x3 − 2x2 + 6x + 19
Q(x) + P(x) = (−4 + 2)x5 + (3 + 7)x3 + (2 + (−2))x2 + (−6 + 6)x + (9 + 19) =

= −2x5 + 10x3 + 0x2 + 0x + 28 = −2x5 + 10x3 + 28
Q(x) − P(x) = (−4 − 2)x5 + (3 − 7)x3 + (2 − (−2))x2 + (−6 − 6)x + (9 − 19) =
= −6x5 − 4x3 + 4x2 − 12x − 10
EXAMPLE 3.2b:
Q(x) = 65x7 + 13x3 + �2x2 − 8

P(x) = 32x5 + 4x4 − 2x3 + 6x + 19
Q(x) + P(x) = (65 + 0)x7 + (0 + 32)x5 + (0 + 4)x4 + (13 − 2)x3 + (�2 + 0)x2 + (0 + 6)x + (−8 + 19) =
= 65x7 + 32x5 + 4x4 + 11x3 + �2x2 + 6x + 11
EXAMPLE 3.2c:
Q(x) = 6x4 + 23x3 + �2x2 − 3x − 8

P(x) = 32x5 − 2x3 − 18x + 19
Q(x) − P(x) = (0 − 32)x5 + (6 − 0)x4 + (23 − (−2))x3 + (�2 − 0)x2 + (−3 − (−18))x + (−8 −19) =
= −32x5 + 6x4 + 25x3 + �2x2 + 15x − 27.
3.3 HOW DO WE MULTIPLY POLYNOMIALS?

To multiply two polynomials, we multiply each term of one polynomial by each term of the second polynomial
and add like terms.

16
EXAMPLE 3.3a:
Q(x) = 5x3 − 3x2 + 2x

P(x) = −4x4 − 12x3 + 15
Q(x) ⋅ P(x) = (5x3 − 3x2 + 2x) ⋅ (−4x4 − 12x3 + 15) =
= (5x3) ⋅ (−4x4 − 12x3 + 15) + (−3x2) ⋅ (−4x4 − 12x3 + 15) + (2x) ⋅ (−4x4 − 12x3 + 15) =
= (5x3) ⋅ (−4x4) + (5x3) ⋅ (−12x3) + (5x3) ⋅ (15) + (−3x2) ⋅ (−4x4) + (−3x2) ⋅ (−12x3) + (−3x2) ⋅ (15) +
+ (2x) ⋅ (−4x4) + (2x) ⋅ (−12x3) + (2x) ⋅ (15) =
= −20x7 − 60x6 + 75x3 + 12x6 + 36x5 − 45x2 − 8x5 − 24x4 + 30x =
= −20x7 − 48x6 + 28x5 − 24x4 + 75x3 − 45x2 + 30x
Q(x) ⋅ P(x) = (5x3 − 3x2 + 2x) ⋅ (−4x4 − 12x3 + 15) = −20x7 − 48x6 + 28x5 − 24x4 + 75x3 − 45x2 + 30x
3.4 HOW DO WE DIVIDE POLYNOMIALS?

Division of polynomials is similar to the long division algorithm you learned in elementary school. Before we
show how to divide one polynomial by another, it is worth discussing a few properties of polynomials that are
analogous to those of whole numbers.

Any integer can be factored into the product of other, smaller integers, unless the integer is a prime number. For
example, 12 = 22 ⋅ 3, 60 = 22 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 5, 525 = 3 ⋅ 52 ⋅ 7, etc. 3 divides 12 because 12 ÷ 3 = 4 , or 12 = 3 ⋅ 4. On the
other hand, 5 does not divide 12, because when we divide 12 by 5, we get a remainder of 2. We can say the same
thing using different words: 5 does not divide 12 because there is no integer whose product with 5 equals 12. In
general, we say an integer a ≠ 0 divides an integer b, if there exists an integer c such that b = ac.
A similar situation exists with polynomials. Polynomials can also be factored into the product of other
polynomials with smaller degrees. For example, 3x2 + 5x − 2 = (3x −1)(x + 2). Therefore, we say that the
polynomial 3x − 1 divides the polynomial 3x2 + 5x − 2. Also, the polynomial x + 2 divides the polynomial
3x2 + 5x − 2. We note that 2(x + 2) also divides the polynomial 3x2 + 5x − 2 because 3x2 + 5x − 2 = � 3 x − 1 �
2 2
(2x + 4). The coefficients of the polynomials can be real numbers and even complex numbers in general. But, for
computational simplicity, most of our polynomials will have integer coefficients.
Similarly, each of the polynomials x − 2 and x + 2 divides the polynomial x2 − 4 because x2 − 4 = (x − 2)(x + 2).
On the other hand, the polynomial x does not divide x − 2 because there is no polynomial whose product with x
results in x − 2.
DEFINITION
A polynomial K(x) divides a polynomial P(x) if there exists a polynomial Q(x) such that P(x) = K(x)Q(x).
We will now learn how to carry out the division of polynomials.

17
EXAMPLE 3.4a: Let P(x) = 2x4 + 5x3 + 3x2 − 2x − 8 and K(x) = x − 1. Divide P(x) by K(x).
SOLUTION: As we said before, the division of polynomials is similar to the division of multidigit numbers.
Each step in the following division process is accompanied by an explanation on the right.
2x3 + 7x2 + 10x + 8

x − 1 2x4 + 5x3 + 3x2 − 2x − 8 1. Divide 2x4 by x. You get 2x3.
2x4 − 2x3 2. Multiply 2x3 by the divisor x − 1 and subtract the result from the polynomial. You get 7x3 + 3x2 − 2x − 8.
7x3 + 3x2 − 2x − 8 3. Divide 7x3 by x. You get 7x2.
7x3 − 7x2 4. M
ultiply 7x2 by the divisor x − 1 and subtract the result from the polynomial. You get 10x2 − 2x − 8.
10x2 − 2x − 8 5. Divide 10x2 by x. You get 10x.
10x2 − 10x 6. M
ultiply 10x by the divisor x − 1 and subtract the result from the polynomial. You get 8x − 8.
8x − 8 7. Divide 8x by x. You get 8.
8x − 8 8. M
ultiply 8 by the divisor x − 1 and subtract the result from the polynomial. You get 0.
0
Thus, P(x) divided by K(x) is the polynomial Q(x) = 2x3 + 7x2 + 10x + 8.
2x4 + 5x3 + 3x2 − 2x − 8
We write: = 2x3 + 7x2 + 10x + 8
x−1
or
2x4 + 5x3 + 3x2 − 2x − 8 = (2x3 + 7x2 + 10x + 8)(x − 1)

EXAMPLE 3.4b: Let P(x) = 2x3 + 7x2 +10x + 8 and K(x) = x + 2 . Divide P(x) by K(x) .
SOLUTION:
2x2 + 3x + 4
x + 2 2x + 7x2 + 10x + 8
3 1. Divide 2x3 by x. You get 2x2.
− (2x3 + 4x2) 2. Multiply 2x2 by the divisor x + 2 and subtract the result from the polynomial. You get 3x2 + 10x + 8.
3x2 + 10x + 8 3. Divide 3x2 by x. You get 3x.
− (3x2 + 6x) 4. M
ultiply 3x by the divisor x + 2 and subtract the result from the polynomial. You get 4x + 8.
4x + 8 5. Divide 4x by x. You get 4.

− (4x + 8) 6. M
ultiply 4 by the divisor x + 2 and subtract the result from the polynomial. You get 0.
0
Therefore, we get: 2x3 + 7x2 + 10x + 8 = (x + 2)(2x2 + 3x + 4).
In both of these examples, the remainder of dividing P(x) by K(x) is zero. This is not always the case, as is shown
in the following example.

18
EXAMPLE 3.4c: Let P(x) = −4x4 + 9x3 − 12x + 5 and K(x) = x2 + 2. Divide P(x) by K(x).
SOLUTION: Note, the coefficient of x2 in polynomial K(x) is one.

− 4x2 + 9x + 8
x2 + 2 −4x4 + 9x3 + 0 ⋅ x2 − 12x + 5 1. Divide −4x4 by x2. You get 4x2.
− (−4x4 −8x2) 2. Multiply 4x2 by the divisor x2 + 2 and subtract the result from the polynomial. You get 9x3 + 8x2.
9x3 + 8x2 3. Divide 9x3 by x2. You get 9x.

− (9x3 + 18x) 4. Multiply 9x by the divisor x2 + 2 and subtract the result from the polynomial. You get 8x2 − 30x.
8x − 30x
2
5. Divide 8x2 by x2. You get 8.
− (8x2 + 16) 6. Multiply 8 by the divisor x2 + 2 and subtract the result from the polynomial. You get −30x − 11.
−30x − 11
Since −30x cannot be divided by x2, we have the remainder −30x −11. Therefore, we get:
−4x4 + 9x3 + 0 ⋅ x2 − 12x + 5 −30x −11
= −4x2 + 9x + 8 +
x2 + 2 x2 + 2
or
−4x4 + 9x3 − 12x + 5 = (x2 + 2)(−4x2 + 9x + 8) + (−30x − 11)
The division of polynomials just shown is based on the following theorem, which we accept without proof.

DIVISION ALGORITHM
Let P(x) and K(x) be two polynomials, where K(x) is not the zero polynomial. Then, there exist two unique
polynomials Q(x) and R(x) such that P(x) = K(x)Q(x) + R(x); the polynomial Q(x) is the quotient, and the
remainder R(x) is either the zero polynomial or of a degree that is less than the degree of K(x).
EXAMPLE 3.4d:
In the last example, we saw that −4x4 + 9x3 − 12x + 5 = (x2 + 2)(−4x2 + 9x + 8) + (−30x −11). Here P(x) = −4x4
+ 9x3 − 12x + 5, K(x) = x2 + 2, Q(x) = −4x2 + 9x + 8, and R(x) = −30x −11. The degree of the remainder R(x) is
less than the degree of the divisor K(x).
EXAMPLE 3.4e:
We have seen in previous examples that 2x3 + 7x2 + 10x + 8 = (x + 2)(2x2 + 3x + 4)

Here Q(x) = 2x2 + 3x + 4, and the remainder R(x) is the zero-polynomial.
The following theorem relates evaluating a polynomial to the division of polynomials.

19
REMAINDER THEOREM
If R is the remainder when a polynomial P(x) is divided by x − a, then R = P(a).
PROOF
We use the Division Algorithm. Let Q(x) be the quotient and R be the remainder when P(x) is divided by
x − a. Thus, P(x) = Q(x)(x − a) + R.
Setting x = a in the above equation, we get P(a) = Q(a)(a − a) + R. That is, R = P(a).
EXAMPLE 3.4f:
When dividing the polynomial P(x) = 3x3 − 4x2 + 5 by x + 2 using the Division Algorithm, we get the
remainder −35. Using the Remainder Theorem, we obtain the same result:
P(−2) = 3 ⋅ (−2)3 − 4 ⋅ (−2)2 + 5 = −35
3.5 HOW DOES THE DIVISION OF POLYNOMIALS HELP US WITH

POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS?

Division of polynomials can be very helpful in solving polynomial equations. We have no general method of
solving polynomial equations of any degree. However, sometimes we can solve a polynomial equation of a high
degree by factoring the polynomial into the product of lower-degree polynomials.
EXAMPLE 3.5a: Solve the equation x3 + 3x2 − 18x − 40 = 0.
SOLUTION: We first factor the polynomial x3 + 3x2 − 18x − 40 (we will learn about factoring polynomials
later): x3 + 3x2 − 18x − 40 = (x + 2)(x2 + x − 20). With this factorization, we reduce the task of solving an
unfamiliar equation x3 + 3x2 − 18x − 40 = 0 into solving two familiar equations: x + 2 = 0 or x2 + x − 20 = 0.
The solution of x + 2 = 0 is x = −2.
The solutions of x2 + x − 20 = 0 are x = −5, x = 4.
Hence, the given equation has three solutions: x = −2, x = −5, and x = 4.
The question now is: How would one know how to factor the polynomial x3 + 3x2 − 18x − 40 or any other high-
degree polynomial? The following two theorems, together with the Division Algorithm, can be very helpful in
factoring certain polynomials.
THE RATIONAL ROOT THEOREM
m
Let P(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 +…+ a1x + a0 be a polynomial with integer coefficients. If a reduced fraction k is a
solution to the equation P(x) = 0, then m divides a0 and k divides an.

20
FACTOR THEOREM
The polynomial x − a is a factor of P(x) if and only if P(a) = 0. The Factor Theorem follows from the Remainder
Theorem, and a direct proof of it by using the Division Algorithm is presented in Section 3.7. But, before we
present the proofs of these theorems, we will first consider how to apply them to solve polynomial equations.
EXAMPLE 3.5b: Solve x3 − 2x − 1 = 0.
SOLUTION: Let P(x) = x3 − 2x − 1. In this polynomial, a0 = −1 and an = 1. By the Rational Root Theorem, if a
m
reduced fraction k is a solution to P(x) = 0, then m divides −1 and k divides 1.
The integers that divide −1 are m = ± 1.
And, the integers that divide 1 are k = ± 1.
m
Therefore, any fraction k with these values of m and k is a candidate to solve P(x) = 0.
m m +1 −1 +1 −1
The following are all the possible fractions k : k = +1 , −1 , −1 , +1
+1
After removing repetitions, we get two candidates for rational solutions to P(x) = 0. These are: +1 = 1 and

+1
−1 = −1
Now we only need to find out which of these two numbers is a solution to P(x) = 0.
We substitute x = 1 in P(x) = 0, and get 1 . 13 − 2 . 1 − 1 = −2 ≠ 0 Thus, x = 1 is not a solution.
We substitute x = −1 in the same equation, and get 1 . (−1)3 − 2 . (−1) − 1 = 0. Thus, x = −1 is a solution.
By the Factor Theorem, x − (−1) = x + 1 divides x3 − 2x − 1. Let’s do the division:
x2 − x − 1
x + 1 x + 0 ⋅ x − 2x − 1
3 2
− (x3 + x2)
− x2 − 2x − 1
− (−x2 − x)
−x − 1
− (−x − 1)
0
This shows that x3 − 2x − 1 = (x2 − x − 1)(x + 1)
Solving (x2 − x −1)(x + 1) = 0, we get
x+1=0 x2 − x − 1 = 0
1±�1 + 4 1±�5
x = −1 x= =
2 2
1+�5 1−�5
Thus, our polynomial equation has three solutions: x = −1, x = ,x= .
2 2
Thus, we can see how the Division Algorithm, the Rational Root Theorem, and the Factor Theorem help us to
solve a polynomial equation of degree three.

21
EXAMPLE 3.5c: Solve 2x3 − 5x + 3 = 0 .
SOLUTION: Let P(x) = 2x3 − 5x + 3. In this polynomial, a0 = 3 and a3 = 2 . By the Rational Root Theorem, if
m
a reduced fraction k is a solution to P(x) = 0, then m divides 3 and k divides 2.
The integers that divide 3 are m = ±3, ±1.
And the integers that divide 2 are k = ±2, ±1.
m
Therefore, any fraction k with these values of m and k is a candidate to solve the equation P(x) = 0.
m
The following are the possible fractions k :
m +3 , +3 , −3 , −3 m +3 , +3 , −3 , −3
= =
k +2 −2 +2 −2 k +1 −1 +1 −1
m +1 , +1 , −1 , −1 m +1 , +1 , −1 , −1
= =
k +2 −2 +2 −2 k +1 −1 +1 −1
After removing all the repetitions, we get the following eight candidates for solutions to
3 1
P(x) = 0: ± 2 , ±3, ± 2 , ±1
Now we only need to examine which of these 8 numbers are solutions to P(x) = 0 . We start with the easy

ones: ±1 and ±3.
2 ⋅ 13 − 5 ⋅ 1 + 3 ⋅ 1 = 0 x = 1 is a solution
2 ⋅ (−1) − 5 ⋅ (−1) + 3 = 6
3
x = −1 is not a solution
2 ⋅ 33 − 5 ⋅ 3 + 3 = 42 x = 3 is not a solution
2 ⋅ (−3) − 5 ⋅ (−3) + 3 = −36
3
You can check on your own that none of the other candidates is a solution to P(x) = 0.
Now we can apply the Factor Theorem. Since, P(1) = 0, x − 1 must divide P(x). After dividing P(x) by x − 1,
we get 2x3 − 5x + 3 = (x − 1)(2x2 + 2x − 3). Therefore, the problem of solving the equation 2x3 − 5x + 3 = 0 is
reduced to the problem of solving the equations x − 1 = 0 and 2x2 + 2x − 3 = 0.
−1−�7 −1+�7
Solving, we get: x = 1, ,x=
2 2
Hence, these three values are solutions of the equation 2x3 − 5x + 3 = 0.
EXAMPLE 3.5d: Solve 2x4 + 5x3 + 3x2 − 2x − 8 = 0.
SOLUTION: Let P(x) = 2x4 + 5x3 + 3x2 − 2x − 8. In this polynomial, a0 = −8 and an = 2. By the Rational Root
m
Theorem, if a reduced fraction k is a solution to P(x) = 0, then m divides −8 and k divides 2.
The integers that divide a0 = −8 are m = ±8, ± 4, ± 2, ±1. And, the integers that divide an = 2 are k = ±2, ±1.
m
Therefore, any fraction k , with these values of m and k, is a solution candidate for P(x) = 0.
m
The following are all the possible fractions k :

22
m +8 , +8 , −8 , −8 m +8 , +8 , −8 , −8
= =
k +2 −2 +2 −2 k +1 −1 +1 −1
m +4 , +4 , −4 , −4 m +4 , +4 , −4 , −4
= =
k +2 −2 +2 −2 k +1 −1 +1 −1
m +1 , +1 , −1 , −1 m +1 , +1 , −1 , −1
= =
k +2 −2 +2 −2 k +1 −1 +1 −1
After removing all the repetitions, we get the following candidates as possible solutions for P(x) = 0: ±8, ±4,
1
±2, ±1, 2 .
Now we only need to examine which of these 10 numbers are solutions to P(x) = 0.
We start with the easy ones: ±1 and ±2.
2 ⋅ 14 + 5 ⋅ 13 + 3 ⋅ 12 − 2 ⋅ 1 − 8 = 0 x = 1 is a solution
2 ⋅ (−1) + 5 ⋅ (−1) + 3 ⋅ (−1) − 2 ⋅ (−1) − 8 = −6
4 3 2
2 ⋅ 24 + 5 ⋅ 23 + 3 ⋅ 22 − 2 ⋅ 2 − 8 = 72 x = 2 is not a solution
2 ⋅ (−2) + 5 ⋅ (−2) + 3 ⋅ (−2) − 2 ⋅ (−2) − 8 = 0 x = −2 is a solution
4 3 2
You can check on your own that none of the other candidates is a solution to P(x) = 0. After dividing 2x4 +
5x3 + 3x2 − 2x − 8 by x −1, we get 2x3 + 7x2 + 10x + 8.
Therefore, we have 2x4 + 5x3 + 3x2 − 2x − 8 = (2x3 + 7x2 + 10x + 8)(x − 1).

Now we solve two equations:
1. K(x) = x − 1 = 0
2. Q(x) = 2x3 + 7x2 + 10x + 8 = 0
The first will give us x = 1. To solve the second equation, we need to factor Q(x). We have: P(x) = Q(x)K(x).
Recall x = −2 solves the equation P(x) = 0. Hence, P(−2) = Q(−2)K(−2) = 0.
Since K(−2) ≠ 0, Q(−2) = 0.
Now, we use the Factor Theorem again and divide Q(x) by x + 2 to get:
2x3 + 7x2 + 10x + 8 = (2x2 + 3x + 4)(x + 2)
The solution of equation 2x3 + 7x2 + 10x + 8 = 0 is reduced to the solution of two equations:
1. x + 2 = 0
2. 2x2 + 3x + 4 = 0
Solving the two equations, we get: x = −2 in the first one and no real solutions in the second one.
Thus, the given equation has two real solutions: x = −2 and x =1.
3.6 PROOF OF THE RATIONAL ROOT THEOREM
THE RATIONAL ROOT THEOREM

m
Let P(x) = anxn + an−1xn−1 + … + a1x1 + a0, where all the coefficients are integers, and let k be a reduced
m
fraction. If k is a solution to the equation P(x) = 0, then m divides a0 and k divides an.

23
PROOF
m
Let a reduced fraction k be a solution to the equation P(x) = 0.
m n m n-1 m 1
Then, an� k � + an−1� k � + … + a1� k � + a0 = 0.
n
m
Multiplying both sides of this equation by k we get an k + an−1mn−1 + an−2mn−2k + … + a1m1k n−2 + a0 k n−1 = 0.
n−1
Since a0, a1, a2, … , an−1, k, and m are all integers, an−1mn−1 + an−2mn−2k + … + a1m1k n−2 + a0 k n−1 is an integer.
n
m
We have: an k + �Integer� = 0.
n
m
Hence, an k must be an integer as well.
This implies that k divides anmn.
m
Since k is a reduced fraction, k and m have no common factor (other than 1), therefore k and mn have no
common factor too.
Hence, k divides an.
In a similar manner, we can prove that m divides a0. To do this, we multiply both sides of the equation
n
m n m n-1 m 1 k
an� k � + an−1� k � + … + a1� k � + a0 = 0 by m .

n
k
We get anm + an−1m k + … + a1k + a0 m = 0.
n−1 n−2 n−1
As before, anmn−1 + an−1mn−2k + … + a1k n−1 is an integer.

n n
k k
Again, since �Integer� + a0 m = 0, a0 m must be an integer as well.
Since m and k have no common factor, m and k n have no common factor either.
Hence m divides a0. This completes the proof.
3.7 PROOF OF THE FACTOR THEOREM
FACTOR THEOREM
The polynomial x − a divides a polynomial P(x) if and only if P(a) = 0.
PROOF
We have two assertions in this theorem:
1) If x − a divides P(x), then P(a) = 0.
2) If P(a) = 0, then x − a divides P(x).
PROOF OF 1
Since x − a divides P(x), there exists a polynomial Q(x) such that P(x) = Q(x)(x − a).
Substituting a for x, we get: P(a) = Q(a)(a − a) = Q(a) ⋅ 0 = 0.

24
PROOF OF 2
By the Division Algorithm for polynomials, there exist two unique polynomials Q(x) and R(x) such that: P(x)
= Q(x)(x − a) + R(x), where either R(x) is the zero polynomial or the degree of R(x) is less than the degree of
the x − a.
We will show that if P(a) = 0, then R(x) is the zero polynomial, and so x − a divides P(x).
Since the degree of the x − a is 1, R(x) must be either the zero polynomial or a number, say r.
Let’s examine these two cases:
1. Let R(x) be the zero polynomial. Then P(x) = Q(x)(x − a), and so x − a divides P(x).
2. Let R(x) = r. Substituting x = a in P(x) = Q(x)(x − a) + r, we get P(a) = (a − a)Q(a) + r.
Since P(a) = 0, we get 0 = (a − a)Q(a) + r. This implies that r = 0 and so x − a divides P(x). This completes
the proof.
Before finishing our discussion of polynomial equations, we should note that polynomials of degree three or
higher usually have rational roots when they are studied in high school.
Sections 3.1–3.7
EXERCISES

1. Solve the following equations
a. x3 + x2 − 4x − 4 = 0
b. 24x3 + 16x2 − 3x − 2 = 0
c. x3 + 1991x + 1992 = 0
2. F
ind the quotient and the remainder of the division of P(x) by K(x) for P(x) = 30x4 − 31x3 − 180x2 + 7x + 6,
K(x) = x + 1.
3. The remainder of the division of 2x5 − 3x3 + 11x2 − x + a by x + 2 is 3. Find the value of a.
4. Solve the equation ax3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6 = 0, knowing 2 is one of its solutions.
5. Find all rational solutions to the following equations:
a. 6x4 + 7x3 − 22x2 − 28x − 8 = 0
b. x3 + 3x2 −18x − 40 = 0
c. x6 − x4 − x2 + 1 = 0
6. For what values of b and c are x = −3 and x = −4 solutions to the equation x6 + bx5 + cx4 = 0?
a. (x2 + x + 1)(x2 + x + 2) = 12
b. (x + 1)(x + 3)(x + 5)(x + 7) + 15 = 0
8. P
rove that K(x) = x does not divide P(x) = x − 2 (Hint: Assume that there exists a polynomial Q(x) such that
P(x) = Q(x)K(x), and conclude that Q(x) must be a number. Proceed from there to conclude that such Q(x) does
not exist.)

25
For example, if the discriminant is −1 , there are no real solutions because there is no real number x for
which x = −1 . That is, the expression −1 does not represent a real number.
2
3.8 COMPLEX NUMBERS

Mathematicians encountered certain problems in science and mathematics that necessitated extending
Earlier we concluded that there are no real solutions to a quadratic equation when its discriminant is less than
thezero.
real What
numbers intobyathis
is meant new set there
is that of numbers called
are no real complex
solutions, numbers.
numbers This
of the set wasnumbers
of real done byℝ.defining the
For example,
if the discriminant is −1, there are no real solutions because there is no real number x for which x2 = −1. That is,
theexpression −1 does
expression �−1 not represent
as a number that asolves
real number.
the equation x 2 = −1 . They denoted this number by the letter i.
Mathematicians encountered
This new number, certain problems
in combination with thein science
real and mathematics
numbers, that
generates the necessitated
complex extending the real
numbers.
numbers into a new set of numbers called complex numbers. This was done by defining the expression �−1
asLet’s
a number that solves
consider the equation
the equation x 2 − 2xx +=5−1.
2
= 0They
. denoted this number by the letter i. This new number, in
combination with the real numbers, generates the complex numbers.
2± 4 − 4⋅5 2 ± −16 2 ± 4 −1 2 ± 4i
Let’s consider
Solving, we the x=
get:equation x2 − 2x + 5== 0. = = = 1± 2i
2 2 2 2
2 ± �4 − 4 ⋅ 5 2 ± �−16 2 ± 4�−1 2 ± 4i
Solving, we get: x =
The expressions 1 + 2i and = = = they = 1solutions
2 are ± 2i
2 1 − 2i are2complex numbers; 2 to the equation x 2 − 2 x + 5 = 0.
The expressions 1 + 2i and 1 − 2i are complex numbers; they are solutions to the equation x2 − 2x + 5 = 0.
A complex number is an expression of the form a + bi , where a and b are real numbers. The set of all
A complex number is an expression of the form a + bi, where a and b are real numbers. The set of all complex
complex
numbers numbersbyisℂ.
is denoted denoted
Clearly,by  .real
any Clearly,
numberany real
r is numbernumber
a complex r is a complex number
since it can sinceasit rcan
be written beHence,
+ 0i. written
ℝ
is as
a subset
r + 0i .ofHence,
ℂ. Withthis
is arelation,
subset weof can extend
. With Figure
this 1–1 from
relation, Section
we can extend1 ofFthe guide, as shown in Figure 3–1:
igure 1–1 from Section 1 of the
guide, as shown in Figure 3–1:

Figure 3–1
FIGURE 3–1
Figure 3–1
Properties 1–8 from Section 1 hold for the complex numbers as well.
Properties 1–8 from Section 1 hold for the complex numbers as well.
Every complex number z = a + ib corresponds to the point (a, b) in the coordinate plane, and, conversely, every
point (a, b) in the coordinate plane corresponds to the complex number z = a + ib. (See Figure 3–2 below.)
Every complex number z = a + ib corresponds to the point (a, b) in the coordinate plane, and, conversely,
y corresponds to the complex number z = a + ib . (See Figure

every point (a, b) in the coordinate plane
3–2 below.) y
b z
b z
0 a x
0 FIGURE 3–2
Figurea3–2
x
Figure 3–2
26
3.8.1 How Do We Add Complex Numbers?
Addition and subtraction of complex numbers are defined as follows:
Let z1 = a1 + b1i and z2 = a2 + b2i be two complex numbers; then z1 ± z2 = (a1 ± a2 ) + (b1 ± b2 )i.
EXAMPLE 3.8a:
1. (5 + 3i) + (4 − 5i) = (5 + 4) + (3 − 5)i = 9 − 2i

2. (3 + 15i) − (4 + 5i) = (3 − 4) + (15 − 5)i = −1 + 10i
3. � 1 + 3 i� − � 2 − 2i� + 1 i = � 1 − 2 � + � 3 − (−2) + 1 �i = − 1 + 3i
2 4 3 4 2 3 4 4 6
3.8.2 How Do We Multiply Complex Numbers?

Multiplication of complex numbers is defined as follows:
Let z1 = a1 + b1i and z2 = a2 + b2i be two complex numbers. Then
z1 ⋅ z2 = a1 ⋅ (a2 + b2i) + b1i ⋅ (a2 + b2i) = a1a2 + a1b2i + a2b1i + b1b2i2 =
= a1a2 + b1b2 (�−1)2 + (a1b2 + a2b1)i = a1a2 − b1b2 + (a1b2 + a2b1)i.

Notice that i2 = (�−1)2 = �−1 ⋅ �−1 = −1.
EXAMPLE 3.8b:
1. (4 + 15i) ⋅ (17 − 2i) = 4 ⋅ 17 + 4 ⋅ (−2)i + 15i ⋅ 17 + 15 ⋅ (−2)i2 = 68 − 8i + 255i − 30 ⋅ (−1) =

= 68 + 30 + (255 − 8)i = 98 + 247i
2. �1 + 1 i� ⋅ �4 − 1 i� = 1 ⋅ 4 + 1 ⋅ �− 1 i� + 1 i ⋅ 4 + 1 �− 1 �i2 = 4 − 1 i + 4 i − 1 ⋅ (−1) =
3 5 5 3 3 5 5 3 15
= 4 + 1 + � 4 − 1 �i = 4 1 + 1 2 i
15 3 5 15 15
3. (3 − 5i) = 3 − 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 5i + (5i) = 9 − 30i + 25 ⋅ (−1) = 9 − 25 − 30i = −16 − 30i
2 2 2
4. (12 + 3i) ⋅ (12 − 3i) = 122 − (3i)2 = 144 + 9 = 153
In the last example, we multiplied two complex numbers that differ by the sign in front of 3i. One is referred to
as the conjugate of the other. In general, we say that a − bi is the conjugate of a + bi, and vice versa: a + bi is the
conjugate of a − bi.
The product of a complex number and its conjugate is a real number:
(a + bi) ⋅ (a − bi) = a2 − (bi)2 = a2 − b2i2 = a2 + b2.
The conjugate of a complex number z is denoted by z . Therefore, we have: z ⋅ z = a2 + b2.
z zz a2 + b 2
And, z ⋅ a2 + b2 = a2 + b2 = a2 + b2 = 1
z
From the last equality, we see that a2 + b2 is the reciprocal of z because their product is 1. As with real numbers,
the reciprocal of z is denoted by z−1.

27
z a − bi a b
If z = a + bi, then z−1 = a2 + b2 = a2 + b2 = a2 + b2 − a2 + b2 i.
As with real numbers, the absolute value of a complex number z, also denoted by |z|, is defined as the distance of
z from the origin. Therefore: |z| = �a2 + b2.
3.8.3 How Do We Divide Complex Numbers?

Let z1 = a1 + b1i and z2 = a2 + b2i be two complex numbers, and z2 ≠ 0. And, let z be a complex number such that:
z1
z=z .
2
We rewrite the last expression as z = z1 ⋅ z2−1.

z2 a2 b2
Since z2−1 = 2 2 = − 2 i, we have:
a2 + b 2 a2 + b 2
2 2
a2 + b 22
z2 (a1 + b1i) ⋅ (a2 − b2i) (a1 + b1i) ⋅ (a2 − b2i) z1 ⋅ z 2
z = z1 ⋅ z2−1 = (a1 + b1i) ⋅ = = = .
a22 + b 22 a22 + b 22 (a2 + b2i) ⋅ (a2 − b2i) z2 ⋅ z 2
or
z1 z1 ⋅ z 2
z=z =
2 z2 ⋅ z 2
Substituting in the last equation z1 = a1 + b1i and z2 = a2 + b2i and multiplying, we get:
(a1 + b1i) ⋅ (a2 − b2i) a1 a2 + b1b2 a2 b1 + a1b2

z= = + i.
(a2 + b2i) ⋅ (a2 − b2i) a22 + b 22 a22 + b 22
This shows that the result of dividing two complex numbers is a complex number.
EXAMPLE 3.8c:
2 + 5i (2 + 5i) ⋅ (3 + 5i) 6 + 10i + 15i + 5i2 6 − 25 + (10 + 15)i −19 + 25i 19 25

1. 3 − 5i = (3 − 5i) ⋅ (3 + 5i) = 32 + 52 = 34 = 34 = − 34 + 34 i
�2 − i ��2 − i� ⋅ ��3 + 4i� �2 ⋅ �3 + �2 ⋅ 4i − i�3 − 4i2 �6 + 4 + �4�2 − �3�i

2. = = 2 2 = =
�3 − 4i ��3 − 4i� ⋅ ��3 + 4i� ��3� − �4i� 3+4
�6 + 4 4�2 − �3
= + i
7 7
EXAMPLE 3.8d: Solve the equation 5x2 − 6x + 5 = 0.
SOLUTION: 5x2 − 6x + 5 = 0
Δ = 36 − 5 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 = 36 − 100 = −64 The equation does not have real solutions.
6±�−64 6±�64 ⋅ �−1 6±8 ⋅ i 3 4
x= = = 10 = 5 ± 5 i
10 10
3 4
Thus, x = 5 ± 5 i.

28
EXAMPLE 3.8e: Solve the equation x3 + 3x2 + 7x + 10 = 0.
SOLUTION: x3 + 3x2 + 7x + 10 = 0
By the Rational Root Theorem, a rational solution to this equation must be one of the following:
m +10 , +10 , −10 , −10 m +5 , +5 , −5 , −5
= =
k +1 −1 +1 −1 k +1 −1 +1 −1
m +2 , +2 , −2 , −2 m +1 , +1 , −1 , −1
= =
k +1 −1 +1 −1 k +1 −1 +1 −1
After removing all the repetitions, we get the following candidates for rational solutions: ±1, ± 2, ± 5, ±10.
Of all these, only x = −2 is a rational solution of the equation.
By the Factor Theorem, the polynomial x3 + 3x2 + 7x +10 is divisible by x + 2. We get:
x3 + 3x2 + 7x + 10 = (x + 2)(x2 + x + 5)
(x + 2)(x2 + x + 5) = 0
x+2=0
or
x2 + x + 5 = 0.
Solving the first equation, we get x = −2.

−1±�−19 −1±�−1 ⋅ �19 −1±i�19
Solving the second equation, we get x = = = .
2 2 2
−1±i�19
Thus, the solutions to the given equation are: x = −2, x = .
2
EXAMPLE 3.8f: Solve the equation (�2 + i)x2 + 2x − (�2 − i) = 0.
SOLUTION: (�2 + i)x2 + 2x − (�2 − i) = 0

Δ = 4 + 4(�2 − i)(�2 + i) = 4 + 4 ⋅ (2 + 1) = 16
−2±4 −1±2
x= =
2(�2 + i) �2 + i
1
x=
�2 + i
or
−3
x= .
�2 + i
Each of these solutions can be expressed in the form of a + bi. For this, we utilize the division of complex
numbers as we learned earlier:
1 1 ⋅ ��2 − i� �2 − i �2 1
= = = − i
�2 + i ��2 + i� ⋅ ��2 − i� 2+1 3 3

29
−3 −3 ⋅ ��2 − i� −3�2 + 3i
= = = −�2 + i
�2 + i ��2 + i� ⋅ ��2 − i� 2+1
�2 1
Thus, the given equation has the solutions: x = − i and x = −�2 + i.
3 3
Section 3.8
EXERCISES
1. Find the conjugate z and the absolute value |z| of the given complex numbers z:
a. 4 − 13i
b. (1 − i)2
(3 + i)2
c.
2 − 5i
2. Given z1 = −i + 3, z2 = 3i − 1, find:
a. z1 + z2
b. z1 ⋅ z2

|z1 + z2|i
c.
z2
(2 + i)3 − (2 − i)3
3. Present the following complex number in the standard form a + bi:
(2 + i)2 − (2 − i)2
4. Solve the following equation in the set ℂ: x5 + 2x4 + 2x3 + 2x2 + x = 0

30
Section 4
Functions
4.1 PRELIMINARIES
The term function is often used in everyday language to indicate dependencies between quantities. For example,
we say “the commuting time from work to home is a function of traffic density”; “the price of gasoline is a
function of supply from oil-producing countries”; “population growth is a function of time”; etc. In order to
understand the properties of such dependencies, it is necessary to express them mathematically. For example,
to study the growth rate of a population, it is necessary to model the size of the population at a given time. The
equation P(t) = 67.38(1.026)t is an example of such a model; it models the population growth in a particular
country at any given time. The equation says that the size of the population (in millions) at a given time t is the
number P(t) = 67.38(1.026)t. For example, the initial population (when the measurement started) is 67.38 million
(P(0) = 67.38(1.026)0 = 67.38), and after 5 years, it is 76.607 (P(5) = 67.38(1.026)5 = 76.607).

Earlier we dealt with linear equations—equations of the form ax + b = 0—and quadratic equations—equations
of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0. The expressions ax + b and ax2 + bx + c are functions. We can think of the
expression 2x − 7 in terms of a dependency between quantities: the value of 2x − 7 depends on the value of x, or
we can say 2x − 7 is a function of x. For x = 3, 2x − 7 = −1; for x = 0, 2x − 7 = −7; for x = �2, 2x − 7 = 2�2 − 7 ~
−4.1716. Functions of the form y = ax + b are called linear functions, and functions of the form y = ax2 + bx + c,
where a ≠ 0, are called quadratic functions.
When thinking of an expression as a function, we use symbols such as f(x), g(x), k(x), etc. For example, the
function f(x) = 2x − 7 indicates that for any value of x, there corresponds a value f(x) (read f of x). For example,
x = 3 corresponds to f(3) = −1; x = 0 corresponds to f(0) = −7; x = �2 corresponds to f(�2) = 2�2 − 7, etc. Often,
instead of f(x) = 2x − 7 we write y = 2x − 7, meaning the value of x corresponds to the value y = 2x − 7.
4.2 DEFINITION OF A FUNCTION

The function f(x) = 2x − 7 admits any value of x. That is to say, for any real number x, there is a corresponding
value f(x) = 2x − 7. Likewise, the function u(x) = 3x2 − 2x + 4 admits any value of x. Not all functions admit all
real values. For example, the function g(x) = 1 does not admit x = 0 , because f(0) = 1 is not a number. Likewise,
x 0
the function h(x) = �x admits only non-negative numbers.
A number that can be admitted into a function is called an input, and its corresponding number under the
function is called an output. Thus, for example, for the function h(x) = x2, any real number can be an input. Can
any real number be an output for this function? The answer is obviously no. For example, –1 cannot be an output,
because there is no real number x for which x2 = −1.
The set of all possible inputs of a function is called the domain of the function; and the set of all the outputs of a
function is called the range of the function. Thus, the domain of h(x) = x2 is the set of all real numbers. The range
of this function is the set of all non-negative numbers.

31
EXAMPLE 4.2a: What are the domain and range of the function h(x) = �x ?
ANSWER: Both the domain and range of this function are the set of all non-negative numbers.
Sometimes determining the domain and range of a function requires a little more work.
2
EXAMPLE 4.2b: What are the domain and range of the function k(x) =
x−3
ANSWER: Clearly, any real number different from 3 is in the domain of this function. So, the domain
consists of real numbers x ≠ 3.
What about the range of this function?
2
By definition, a real number a is in the range if there exists x such that = a.
x−3
Multiplying both sides of this equation by x − 3, we get 2 = a(x − 3).
Clearly a = 0 is not in the range of the function because otherwise we get 2 = 0(x − 3) = 0, which is not
possible.
On the other hand, any number a ≠ 0 is in the range. To show this, we need to show that for any a ≠ 0, the
2
equation = a is solvable for x. Indeed:

x−3
2
=a
x−3
2 = a(x − 3)
2
a =x−3
2
x= a +3
2
To summarize, the domain of the function k(x) = consists of all the real numbers different from 3, and
x−3
its range consists of all the real numbers different from 0.
With this background, we can now introduce the formal definition of a function.
DEFINITION
A function f is a correspondence between two sets, A and B, that assigns to each element x in A one and only
one element f(x) in B.
This state of affairs is indicated by the following notation: f : A→B

A is called the domain of the function, and B is called the range of the function. You might think of a function f
as a machine with an input and output. The domain of f is all the numbers that can be fed into the machine, and
the range is all the numbers that come out of the machine. (See Figure 4–1.) The machine never produces two
outputs for the same input.

32
machine never produces two outputs for the same input.
x
x
ff
ff
ff ff(x)
(x)
Figure 4–1
ff(x)
(x)
Thinking of
FIGURE
Figure 4–14–1
ff(x)
(x) are composed of
a function as a machine helps us see how functions more elementary
functions. For example, the function f (x) = Figure (x + 2)2 4–1 is composed of two functions: g(x) = x + 2 and
Thinking of a function as a machine helps us see how functions are composed of more elementary functions.
Thinking ( x ) =ofx 2a.the
Forhexample, function
Any givenasinput
function a machine
f(x) = (x 2)2helps
x +corresponds us to
is composedseethe how
of twofunctions
output g ( x ) =are
functions: + composed
xg(x)2=. This andofh(x)
x + 2 output, more 2elementary
= xturn,
in . Anyis given
an input
input
for xthe
Thinking
functions. corresponds
For ofexample,
function hto. the
a function We output
theget: g(x) =f =
asfunction
ah(g(x))
machine x+
(x) 2.(x
=
h(x
This
helps +us
+ 2)
output,
2see how
= (xis+ 2)
2) in
composed
2 turn, is an
functions
= f (x) . of
input
Thus, foris the
are composed
two ffunctions: function
of
g(x) = xWe
h.
more
a composition 2get: h(g(x))
+elementary
of hand
and g:
= h(x +2 2) = (x + 2)2 = f(x). Thus, f is a composition of h 2and g: f(x) = h(g(x)). Figure 4–2 below illustrates this
xfunctions.
)= x .=Any
h (composition.
f (x) For
h(g(x)) example,
given igure x
. Finput the
4–2 function
corresponds to =
f (x)
below illustratesthe + 2)
(xthis
output isg (composed
composition.x ) = x + 2 . of two
This functions:
output, g(x)
in turn, = x input
is an + 2 and
= x 2 . Any h . given input x corresponds ) = x + f2 . isThis
for hthe( x )function We get: h(g(x)) xx= h(x + 2) =to(xthe+ 2)output
2
= f (x) g (.xThus, output, in turn,
a composition of hisandan ginput
:
for=the
f (x) function
h(g(x)) h . We
. Figure 4–2get: h(g(x))
below = h(x +this
illustrates (x + 2) 2 = f (x) . Thus, f is a composition of h and g :
2) =composition.

x below illustrates this composition.
f (x) = h(g(x)) . Figure 4–2
x
xx
g
g g(x)
g
g(x)
g(x)
h
USAD - USAD, CA
h f (x)=h (g(x))
hf(x)=h(g(x))
FIGURE 4–2
Figure 4–2
ff(x)=h(g(x))
(x)=h (g(x))
EXAMPLE 4.2c: Consider the functions g(x) = 2x − 3 and h(x) = �x . These functions can be composed in two
ways:ExamplE
h(g(x)) and 4.2c:
g(h(x)). Consider the functions
Figure
ff(x)=h(g(x))
(x)=h (g(x))
g (4–2
x) = 2 x − 3 and h(x) = x . These functions can be
Figure 4–2
1. Forcomposed in two
a given input ways:
x, we ( x)) and
h( goutput
get the ( x))− .3, which, in turn, is an input for the function h. Thus, we
g(x)g (=h2x
have h(g(x)) = �g(x) = �2x − 3.
2. F
or
1.a given
For a input we get
givenx,input x, the output
we get theh(x)
output x) = 2 x in
= �xg,(which, − 3turn, is anininput
, which, turn,foris the function
an input We have
forg.the
g(h(x))function
= 2h(x) −h3. =Thus,
2�x −we3.have h(g(x)) = g(x) = 2x − 3 .
2. For a given input x, we get the output h( x) = x , which, in turn, is an input for the function
( )
g . We have g h(x) = 2h(x) − 3 = 2 x − 3 .
33
EXAMPLE 4.2d: The function f(x) = (�x2 − 9 + 3)2 can be looked at as a composition of three functions: g(x)
= x2 − 9, h(x) = �x and k(x) = (x + 3)2.
1. Every non-negative output of the function g is an input of the function h: h(g(x)) = �g(x) = �x2 − 9;
2. Every output of the function h is an input of the function k: k(h) = (h + 3)2 = (�x2 − 9 + 3)2;
3. Finally, every output of the function k determines the function f: f(x) = k(h(g(x))) = (�x2 − 9 + 3)2.
4.3 M ANY-TO-ONE FUNCTIONS VERSUS ONE-TO-ONE FUNCTIONS

Is it possible that different inputs of a function correspond to one output of the same function? The answer is
yes. For example, for the function h(x) = x2, the inputs x = 2 and x = −2 correspond to the same output 4. Such
functions are often called many-to-one functions, meaning that more than one input corresponds to one output.
We have already learned that any quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 for which the discriminant Δ = b2 − 4ac >
−b − �b2 − 4ac −b + �b2 − 4ac
0 has two distinct solutions: x1 = and x2 = . This shows that quadratic functions
2a 2a
(for which the discriminant is positive) are many-to-one functions. Is it possible that functions are one-to-many:
that is, one input of a function corresponds to more than one output of the same function? The answer is no. This
possibility is excluded in order to avoid confusion. If we allowed, for example, f(x) = ±�x to be a function, upon

evaluating an expression such as f(x) + x + 1 at x = 4, we wouldn’t know whether the outcome is 2 + 4 + 1 = 7 or
−2 + 4 + 1 = 3.
Finally, there are functions that are one-to-one, meaning that two distinct inputs must correspond to two distinct
outputs.
EXAMPLE 4.3a: Any linear function y = ax + b, for which a ≠ 0, is one-to-one.
PROOF: Take any two distinct inputs x1 and x2; their corresponding outputs y1 = ax1 + b and y2 = ax2 + b must
be different. Assume this is not so, namely that y1 = y2. Then:
ax1 + b = ax2 + b
ax1 = ax2
ax1 − ax2 = 0
a(x1 − x2) = 0
Since a ≠ 0, x1 = x2
This, of course, is not possible since we started with two distinct inputs x1 and x2. Hence, y1 ≠ y2.
EXAMPLE 4.3b: y = �x is one-to-one
PROOF: As before, take any two distinct inputs x1 and x2. We are to show that their corresponding outputs
y1 = �x1 and y2 = �x2 are different. Assume this is not so, namely that y1 = y2. Then:
�x1 = �x2
(�x1)2 = (�x2)2

34
x1 = x2
Let
This fof be a function.
course If theresince
is not possible existswea started
functionwith g such = f ( x )x ifand
that y inputs
two distinct andx only
. Hence, if x it= isg (not
y ) ,true
thenthatwe say
Let
Let f be a function. If there exists a function g such that y = f ( x ) 1if and2only if x = g ( y ) , then we say
a function. If there exists a function g such that y = f ( x ) if and only if x = g ( y ) , then we say
y1 = yf2f. be
that is ainvertible g is the inverse g fis( xunique
Let f be function.and If there exists of f . The
a function function
g such that y = ) if and (see
only theifnext
x = gpage ( y ) , for
thena we proof)
say
that f is invertible
that f is invertible and and g inverse f function g
g is the inverse of f . The function g is unique (see the next page for a proof)
is the of . The is unique (see the next page for a proof)
and isf denoted
that by f and
is invertible
−1
. g is the inverse of f . The function g is unique (see the next page for a proof)
and is denoted by f −1 .
−1
4.4
andINVERSE
is denoted by f FUNCTIONS
and is denoted by f −1 .
.
Let f be a function. If there exists a function g such that y = f(x) if and only if x = g(y), then we say that f is
invertible
ExamplE and g is 4.4a:
the inverseThe of f. Theoffunction
inverse g is unique
the function f ( x ) (see
= x 3 the
is gnext( x) = page
3
x for
. a proof) and is denoted by f −1.
ExamplE
ExamplE 4.4a: g (( xx )) =
3
4.4a: The The inverse
inverse ofof thethe function is g
= xx 3 is
function ff (( xx )) = = 3 xx ..
3
ExamplE 4.4a: The inverse of the function f ( x ) = x is g ( x ) = 3 x . 3
EXAMPLE 4.4a: The inverse of the function f(x) = x3 is g(x) = �x. 3
proof: If y = x 3 then 3 y = x , and conversely, if 3 y = x , then y = x 3 . Thus, g(x) = f −1 (x) .

proof:
proof: If then 3 yy =
x3 3 then = xx ,, and
and conversely, if 3 yy =
if = 3xx ,, then x 3 .. −1
Thus, (x) ..
3 3
If3 yy = then yy = g(x) =
3 3 −1
=x conversely, =x Thus, g(x) = ff −1 (x)
PROOF: If y = x
proof: If y = x then then �y 3 = x,
4 and
3 y conversely,
= x if �y
3
= x,
, and conversely, if then 3 yy==x x. Thus, g(x) =4 f (x).
, then y = x . Thus, g(x) = f (x) .
3 −1
4 4
4
3
y=x 3 4
3
4
3
y=x
y=x
3
3 4
3
3
2 y=x 3
3
2 y=3: x
x
3
2
3
2 y=
y=
3
3:
: x
x
x
x
2 2
1
2
1
2 y= 3
: x
x
1 1
1 1
–6 –4 –2 1 2 4 –66 –4 –2 1 2 4 6
–6 –4 –2 2 4 –66 –4 –2 2 4 6

–6 –4 –2 –1 2 4 –66 –4 –2 –1 2 4 6
–6 –4 –2 –1 2 4 –66 –4 –2 –1 2 4 6
–1 –1
–2 –2
–1 –1
–2 –2
–2 –2
–3 –3
–2 –2
–3 –3
–3 –3
–4 –4
–3 –3
–4 –4
–4 –4
–4 –4
x−1
EXAMPLE 4.4b: The inverse of f(x) = 2x + 1 is g(x) = − 2 .
x −1
ExamplE 4.4b: The inverse of f ( x ) = 2 x + 1 is g ( x ) = x − 1 .
ExamplE 4.4b: The inverse of y − f1( x ) = 2 x + 1 is g ( x ) = 2 .
PROOF: y = 2x + 1 if and only if x = 2 . Thus g(x) = f −1(x) 2
y −1
proof: y = 2 x + 1 if and only if x = y − 1 . Thus g ( x ) = f −1 ( x )
proof: y = 2 x + 1 if4 and only if x = 2 . Thus g ( x ) = f −1 ( x ) 4
4
4 2 4
4
3
4 yy=2x
x+1 3
4
3
3
2
yyy=2x
x+
x
y=2x +1
1
3
3
2
3
2 yy=2x
x+1 3
2 y= x – 1
2 2 x– 21
y= x –2 1
y=
1 1
2 2
y= 2 1
x –
1 1
1 1
–6 –4 –2 1 2 4 –6 6 –4 –2 1 2 2 4 6
–6 –4 –2 2 4 –6 6 –4 –2 2 4 6
–6 –4 –2 –1 2 4 –6 6 –4 –2 –1 2 4 6
–6 –4 –2 –1 2 4 –6 6 –4 –2 –1 2 4 6
–1 –1
–2 –2
–1 –1
–2 –2
–2 –2
–3 –3
–2 –2
–3 –3
–3 –3
–4 –4
–3 –3
–4 –4
–4 –4
–4 –4

35
2x + 5
EXAMPLE 4.4c: Find the inverse of f(x) = .
−3x + 7
2x + 5 7x − 5 7x − 5
SOLUTION: y = if and only if x = (check). Hence the function g(x) = is the inverse
−3x + 7 3x + 2 3x + 2
2x + 5
of the function f(x) = .
−3x + 7
7
The domain of f is the set all real numbers different from , and the domain of g is the set of all real numbers
2 3
different from − .
3
THEOREM
An invertible function f can have only one inverse function.
PROOF
Let f1 and f2 be two different inverse functions of f.
Then y = f(x) if and only if x = f1(y)
and
y = f(x) if and only if x = f2(y)

This implies that x = f1(y) if and only if x = f2(y). We see then that if f1 and f2 are both inverse functions of f,
then f1 = f2 .
THEOREM
The graph of f −1 is the reflection of f in the line y = x.
PROOF
Implied from the definition of an inverse function is that A(x0, y0 ) is on the graph of f if and only if A'(y0, x0)
is on the graph of f −1. Notice that A and A' are symmetric with respect to the line y = x. This is so because
x + y0 y0 + x0
the midpoint between A and A' is M � 0 , �, and M is on the line y = x.
2 2
EXAMPLE 4.4d:
The property we have just proven can clearly be seen in the graphs of f(x) = x3 and f −1(x) = �x
3
which we
discussed earlier. This property is useful because if we know the graph of an invertible function f, then we
can graph its inverse f −1. The two graphs are symmetric with respect to y = x .

36
which we discussed earlier. This property is useful
3 because if we know the graph of an invertible
function f , 4.4d:
then we can graph its inverse f −1 . The two graphs are symmetric with
ExamplE y=3 respect to
2 :
x
y= x.
y=x3
1
The property we have just proven can clearly be4 seen in the graphs of f ( x ) = x and f −1 ( x ) = 3 x
3
which we discussed earlier. This property is useful

3
y=x
because if we y=x
know the graph of an invertible
–6 –4 –2 2 4 6
y=3:
function f , then we can graph its inverse f −1 2. The two graphs are symmetric
x with respect to
–1
y= x. 1
y=x3
–24
–6 –4 –2 2 4 6
3
y=x
y=x
–3
–1
2
–2
y=3:
x
–4
1
–3
–4
–6 –4 –2 2 4 6
–1
–2
–3
all functions are invertible of course. For example, y =2 x 2 is not invertible. To see why, we
Not all functions are invertible of course. For example, y = x is not invertible. To see why, we graph

–4
x 2 , and then
yNot 2 graph
= xall itsare
, functions
and then symmetric
invertible
graph image
of course.
its symmetric with
with respect
For example,
image to
y = x2 istonot
respect the
line yline
theinvertible. = why,
= xTo.y(See
see xF.igure
(See Figure
we graph
4–3 4–3
We belo
y = x2, and
below.)
then graph its symmetric image with respect to the line y = x. (See Figure 4–3 below.) We see that the resulting
hat the graph
see thatisthe
resulting notgraph
a function
resulting because
isgraph for one
not isanot input,because
a function
function there arefor
x,because twoone
for outputs,
oneinput,y1 xand
input, . are two outputs, y and y2 .
, there
yx
2 , there are two 1outputs, y1 an
5
Not all functions are invertible of course. For

5 example, y = x is y=x
2
ynot
= xinvertible. To see why, we graph
4
y = x 2 , and then graph its symmetric image with

yx =. (See
respect to the line y =y=x x Figure 4–3 below.) We
43
y • •
see that the resulting graph is not a function because
2
2 for one input, x , there are two outputs, y1 and y2 .
3
y2 •1
5
•
2
•& y = x•
y=x
–6 –4 –2 4 2 4 xx 6 8
1 –1
3
y-22 • •
y•12 &
• • •
–6 –4 –2 2 4 xx 6 8
–3
1
–1
–4
•& •
–6 –4 –2 2 4 xx 6 8
-2 –5
•
y1 Figure
–1
4–3 •
–3-2
y1 • •
–3
–4
–4
–5
–5
Figure
FIGURE 4–3
4–3
Figure 4–3

37
2019–2020 Mathematics Resource Guide Instructor's Manual
Section 4
EXERCISES
1. Find the domain and the range of the following functions:

3
a. f(x) =
2−x
b. f(x) = �x − 5
c. f(x) = 3+ (x − 2)2
2. Determine which of the functions have an inverse. If the function is invertible, find its inverse.
a. f(x) = x − 3
b. f(x) = x5 − 3
3. a. h(x) = x2, g(x) = 2 − x. Find h(g(x)) and g(h(x)).
1
b. h(x) = �6x − 1, g(x) = x + 1, k(x) = . Find h(g(x)), h(g(k(x))) and k(g(h(x))).
x
2
− 5.7x
4. Find the range and domain of f(x) = 7 1 .
�23 + x

6

38
Graphing
Section 5
The graph of a function f is the set of all ordered pairs ( x, f ( x )) , where x belongs to the domain of f .
Graphing
In this section, we will learn what the graphs of different functions look like.
5 .1 WHAT DOES THE GRAPH OF A LINEAR FUNCTION

5.1 y =What
ax +
5 .1 What Does
b LOOK
Does theofGraph
LIKE?
the Graph a Linear of a
Function yaxb Look Like?
Linear
The Function
graph of a function yaxb
f is the set of all ordered pairs Look Like?
(x, f(x)), where x belongs to the domain of f. In this
section, we will learn what the graphs of different functions look like.
5.1 W
In S HAT DOES THE GRAPH OF A LINEAR FUNCTION y = ax + b
ection 8 we will prove that the graph of a linear function y = ax + b is a line. The coefficients a
andLOOK LIKE?
b determine the form of the graph. For x = 0 , y = b . Therefore, (0,
(o, b)
b) is the point where the line
Inintersects
Section 8 the
we will prove
y-axis. that
This the graph
number b isofcalled
a linear
thefunction y = axThe
y-intercept. + bgraph
is a line. The coefficients
is shown and b
in Figurea5–1.
determine the form of the graph. For x = 0, y = b. Therefore, (0, b) is the point where the line intersects the
y-axis. This number b is called the y-intercept.
yy The graph is shown in Figure 5–1.
yy
(0, b)
b)

(0, b)
b)
y=ax+b
y = ax + b
y=ax+b
y = ax + b
x
○
x
○
Figure 5–1
FIGURE 5–1
Figure 5–1
When a = 0 , we have y = 0 ⋅ x + b = b . We see that the output value for any x is b . Hence, the graph is
When a = 0, we have y = 0 ⋅ x + b = b. We see that the output value for any x is b. Hence, the graph is simply a
simply
When
line aa=line
parallel parallel
0to, the
we have ytoIts
x-axis. =the ⋅ xx-axis.
+ b = bIts
0y-intercept y-intercept
.isWe see that
b. (See theb
is
Figure . (See Fvalue
output
5–2.) 5–2.)
igure for any x is b . Hence, the graph is
yy y-intercept is b . (See Figure 5–2.)
simply a line parallel to the x-axis. Its
yy
(0, b) yy=b
=b
2019–2020 Mathematics
(0, b) Resource
yy=b
=b Guide Instructor's Manual
50 x
○
x
○
FIGURE 5–2
Figure 5–2
Figureb5–2
When a ≠ 0 , the graph intersects
2022–2023 at x = − (why?).
the x-axisMathematics Resource Guide
This point is called the x-intercept. (See
39ba
When ≠ 0 ,below.)
Figurea5–3 the graph intersects the x-axis at x yy= − (why?). This point is called the x-intercept. (See
a
Figure 5–2
Figure 5–2
b
When a ≠ 0 , the graph intersects the x-axis b atb x = − (why?). This point is called the x-intercept. (See
Whenaa≠≠00, ,the
When the graph
graph intersects
intersects the x-axisatat– ax (why?).
thex-axis Thisapoint
= − (why?). Thisis point
called isthecalled
x-intercept. (See Figure
the x-intercept. 5–3
(See
F
below.) igure 5–3 below.) a yy
Figure 5–3 below.) yy
y =y=ax+b
ax + b
USAD - USAD, CA
y =y=ax+b
ax + b
USAD - USAD, CA
– –b , 0
– –b , 0 a xx
a ○
xx
○
Figure 5–3
FIGURE 5–3
Figure 5–3
When When > 0function

a > 0 ,athe y = ax +y b= isaxincreasing.
, the function This means
+ b is increasing. Thisthe following:
means For any numbers
the following: 1
and x2, x1 and x2 ,
For any xnumbers
When a > 0 , the function y = ax + b is increasing.
if x1 ≥ x2, then ax1 + b ≥ ax2 + b (See Figure 5–4.). This means the following: For any numbers x1 and x2 ,
if x1 ≥ x2 , then ax1 + b ≥ ax2 + b (See Figure 5–4.).
if x1 ≥ x2 , then ax1 + b ≥ ax2 + b (See Figure 5–4.). y

y
y =y=ax+b
ax + b
y =y=ax+b
ax + b
axax ++b
2 2
b
axax ++b
2 2
b
ax1 1++b
ax b
ax1 1++b
ax b
x
○ xx1 xx22
1 x
○ xx1 xx22
1
FIGURE 5–4
Figure 5–4
Figure 5–4
2019–2020 Mathematics PROOF Resource Guide Instructor's Manual

2019–2020 Mathematics Resource
Since a > 0 and x1 ≥ x2, a(x1 − x2) ≥ 0. Therefore,
ProoF
Guide Instructor's Manual
ax1 − ax2 51
≥ 0. Therefore, ax1 ≥ ax2. Adding b to both sides of
ProoF 51
this inequality, Since
we get:a ax
> 01 +and
b ≥xax
1 ≥
+ b.
2 x2 , a ( x1 − x2 ) ≥ 0 . Therefore, ax1 − ax2 ≥ 0 . Therefore, ax1 ≥ ax2 .
Since a > 0 and x1 ≥ x2 , a ( x1 − x2 ) ≥ 0 . Therefore, ax1 − ax2 ≥ 0 . Therefore, ax1 ≥ ax2 .
Adding b to both sides of this inequality, we get: ax1 + b ≥ ax2 + b .
Adding b to both sides of this inequality, we get: ax1 + b ≥ ax2 + b .
When a < 0 , the function y = ax + b is decreasing. This means the following: For any numbers x1 and x2,
if x1 ≥ x2, then ax1 + b ≤ ax2 + b.
When a < 0 , the function y = ax + b is decreasing. This means the following: For any numbers x1 and x2 ,
When a < 0 , the function y = ax + b is decreasing. This means the following: For any numbers x1 and x2 ,
if x1 ≥ x2 , then ax1 + b ≤ ax2 + b .
if x1 ≥ x2 , then ax1 + b ≤ ax2 + b .
ProoF
ProoF
Since a < 0 and x12022–2023
≥ x2 , a ( x1 Mathematics
− x2 ) ≤ 0 . Therefore,
Resource − ax2 ≤ 0 . Therefore, ax1 ≤ ax2 .
ax1Guide
Since a < 0 and x1 ≥ x2 , a ( x1 − x2 ) ≤ 0 . Therefore, ax1 − ax2 ≤ 0 . Therefore, ax1 ≤ ax2 .
Adding b to both sides of the 40 inequality, we get: ax1 + b ≤ ax2 + b .
Adding b to both sides of the inequality, we get: ax1 + b ≤ ax2 + b .
PROOF
Since a < 0 and x1 ≥ x2, a(x1 − x2) ≤ 0. Therefore, ax1 − ax2 ≤ 0. Therefore, ax1 ≤ ax2. Adding b to both sides of
the inequality, we get: ax1 + b ≤ ax2 + b.
y
y=ax+b
ax 1+ b
ax 2+ b
○ x
x1 x2
FIGURE 5–5
5.2 W HAT DOES THE GRAPH OF A QUADRATIC FUNCTION

y = ax2 + bx + c LOOK LIKE?
5.2.1 The Case y = x2
We can observe several properties of the graph of the function y = x2.
PROPERTY 1: The graph has a minimum at x = 0.
It is easy to see that (0, 0) is the lowest point in the graph of this function. It is so because for any real number x,
x2 ≥ 0.
PROPERTY 2: The graph is symmetric.
The graph of y = x2 is symmetric with respect to the y-axis. This means that any line parallel to the x-axis that
intersects the graph will intersect it in two points that are equidistant from the y-axis.
Let y = d be such a line, and let P and Q be the intersection points of the line with the graph. Also, let Y be the
intersection of the line with the y-axis. We are to show that PY = QY. Clearly the coordinates of Y are (0, d). To
find the coordinates of P and Q, we solve the system
y = x2
�
y=d
Solving the system, we get
x2 = d
x = ±�d
y=d
Thus, P = (�d, d) and Q = (−�d, d). From this, we get that PY = QY = �d. Hence, the graph y = x2 is symmetric.

41
PROPERTY 3: The function y = x2 is increasing on the positive side of the x-axis and decreasing on the
negative side of the x-axis. This means:
A. If x1 > x2 ≥ 0, then x12 > x22 (the function is increasing)
And
B. If 0 ≥ x1 > x2, then x12 < x22 (the function is decreasing)
PROOF OF A:
Since x1 and x12 >
x2 are x22 if and only
non-negative andifdifferent,
x12 − x22 > 0 if and only if (x1 − x2)(x1 + x2) > 0.
(1) x1 +x1xand
Since 2 > 0x2. are non-negative and different:
(1) x1 + x2 > 0.
Since x1 > x2 ≥ 0 , (2) x1 − x2 > 0
Since
From x(1) > x2 ≥(2),
1 and
0: ( x − x )( x + x ) > 0 .
(2) x1 − x2 > 0
1 2 1 2
From (1) and

Therefore, − x(x
x12(2), 2 1>−0x.2)(x
2
+ x1x) 1> >0.x2 .
Hence,
1
2 2
Therefore, x12 − x22 > 0 . Hence, x12 > x22.

Proof of B: The proof for B is similar to the Proof of A, and you can complete the proof for B on
PROOF
your ownOFas anB: exercise.
The proof for B is similar to the Proof of A, and you can complete the proof for B on your own
as an exercise.
The
The three
threeproperties
propertiesjust
justdiscussed
discusseddetermine
determinethe
thegraph
graphofof
thethe
function y =yx=2. xThe
function 2
graph
. The is shown
graph in Figure
is shown in 5–6:

Figure 5–6: yy
yy=x
= x22
yy=d
=d
○ (0, 0) x
( d, 0) (:
d, 0)
FIGURE 5–6
Figure 5–6
5.2.2 The General Case y = 2ax2 + bx + c

5 .2 .2 The General Case y = ax + bx + c
b 2 b2 − 4ac
In Section 2, we showed that y = ax2 + bx + c = a �x + � 2 − 2
 b  b −4a4ac
2a
4acshowed that y = ax b+ bx 2 + c = a x +  −
2
In Section b22,− we
Let k = − b2 − 4ac . Then, y = a �x + �2 + k.  2a  4a
4a  2a
b 
Let k = − . Then, y = a  x +  +k .
4 a  2 a  b 2
As before, we can observe several properties of the graph of y = a �x + b �2 + k.
As before, we can observe several properties of the graph of y = a  x + 2a  + k .
USAD - USAD, CA
b 2a 
PROPERTY 1: When a > 0, the graph has a minimum at x = − .
b2a
ProPerty 1: When a > 0 , the graph has a minimum at x = − .
b 2a
PROOF: We are to show that for any x, y�− � ≤ y(x).
 2ab 
Proof: We b are to show b thatb 2for any x , y  −  ≤ y ( x ) .
(1) y�− � = a�− + � + k = a ⋅ 0 + k 2=ak
2a 2a 2a 2
 b   b b 
(1) y  −  = a  − +  + k = a⋅0 + k = k
 2a   2a 2a  2022–2023 Mathematics Resource Guide
2
 b  42
(2) y ( x) = a  x +  +k
 2 a 
2 2
b 2
(2) y(x) = a�x + � +k
2a
b 2 b 2
Since a > 0 and �x + � ≥ 0, a�x + � ≥ 0.
2a 2a
Therefore:
b 2
(3) k ≤ a�x + �+k
2a
b
From (1), (2), and (3), we get y�− � ≤ y(x).
2a
b
PROPERTY 2: When a < 0, the graph has a maximum at x = − .
2a
PROOF: The proof is very similar to the proof of Property 1, and you can complete it on your own as an
exercise.
b
PROPERTY 3: The graph is symmetric with respect to the line x = − .
2a
PROOF: We are to show that any line parallel to the x-axis that intersects the graph will intersect it at two
b
points that are equidistant from the line x = − .
2a
Let y = d be such a line, and let P and Q be the intersection points of the line with the graph. Also, let Y be the
b
intersection of the line y = d with the line x = − . We will show that PY = QY.
2a

b
Clearly, the coordinates of Y are �− , d�.
2a
To find the coordinates of P and Q, we solve the system
b 2
y = a�x + �+k
� 2a
y=d
Solving the system, we get
b 2
a�x + �+k=d
2a
√
b d−k
x=− ± a
� 2a
y=d
√ √
b d−k b d−k
Thus, P = �− + a , d� and Q = �− 2a − a , d�.
2a
Now we calculate PY and QY, using the distance formula (which we will prove in Section 8):
√
2
√ √
b d−k b d−k
PY = ��− + a � + � + (d − d)2
= a
2a 2a
√
2
√ √
b d−k b d−k
QY = ��− − a � + 2a � − (d − d) =
2
a
2a

43
Hence: PY = QY . This completes the proof that the graph of the function y = ax 2 + bx + c is symmetric
b
with respect to the line x = − .
Hence: PY = QY. This completes 2the a proof that the graph of the function y = ax2 + bx + c is symmetric with
b
respect
Note tothat
the Property .
line x = − 3 implies that the quadratic function has no inverse since it is not a one-to-one
2a
Note that Property 3 implies that the quadratic function has no inverse since it is not a one-to-one function.
function.
b
PROPERTY 4: When a > 0, the function y = ax2 + bx2 + c is increasing on the right of x = − and decreasing
b
ProPerty 4: When b a > 0 , the function y = ax + bx + c is increasing on the right 2a
of x=− and
on the left of x = − . b 2 a
decreasing on the2aleft of x = − .
2a
y
= ax2+bx+c
yy=ax + bx + c b
xx=
=–
2a
– b ,0
2a
2a x
x
○ (0, 0)
0, – bb –– 4ac
22
4ac
4a
FIGURE 5–7
Figure 5–7
USAD - USAD, CA SKT Education - China, CH

PROOF: We are to prove:
Proof: We are to prove:
bb 2 2
A. For
A. Forany anyx1x1≥≥x2x≥2 ≥− −2a , ax , 1ax+1 bx
+ 1bx+1 c+≥c ax
≥ 2ax+2 2bx
2
+ c+ c
+ 2bx 2
2a
b
B. For any x1 ≥ x2 ≥ − ,bax12 + 2bx1 + c ≤ ax22 + 2bx2 + c
B. For any x1 ≥ x2 ≥ − 2a , ax1 + bx1 + c ≤ ax2 + bx2 + c
We will prove A here. The 2proof a for B is similar, and you can complete it on your own as an exercise. As before,
we write:
We will prove A here. The proof for B is similar, and you can complete it on your own as an exercise. As
b 2
(1) ax12 + bx1 + c = a �x1 + � + k
before, we write: 2a
2
 bb  2
(1) ax2122 ++ bx
(2) ax bx21 + cc = aa �xx21 + 2a � + kk
 2a 
b 2
Since x1 >2 x2 > − ,  b 
(2) ax2 + bx2 +2a c = a  x2 +  + k
b 2  b 22a 
(3) �x1 + � > �xb2 + �
2a 2a
Since x1 > x2 > − ,
Since a > 0 2a
2 2
 bb  2  b b 2
(3)  x11 ++ � >> a�x
(4) a�x x2 + 
 a   2 +2a2a �
22a
Adding k to both sides of this inequality, we get
Since a > 0
b 2 b 2
(5) a�x1 + b� 2+ k > a�x2 +b 2� + k
 2a   2a
(4) a  x1 +  > a  x2 + 2 
From (1), (2), and2a (5), we get ax 2a1 + bx1 + c ≥ ax22 + bx2 + c, as desired.
The graph of
Adding a quadratic
k to both sidesfunction
of this is called a parabola,
inequality, we get and the minimum or maximum point is called the vertex
of the parabola.
22 22
 bb   bb 
(5) aaxx11++  ++kk >>aaxx22 ++  ++kk
(5)
 22aa  22aa
From
From(1),(1),(2),
(2),and
and(5),
(5),we
weget ax1122022–2023
getax 2
bx11++cc≥≥Mathematics
++bx bx22 ++ccResource
ax2222 ++bx
ax ,,as Guide
asdesired.
desired.
44
PROPERTY 5: The domain of the quadratic function y = ax2 + bx + c is the set of all real numbers. If a > 0,
b 2 b
the range of the quadratic function is the set of all numbers y for which y ≥ a�− � + b�− � + c. If a < 0, the
2a 2a
b 2 b
range of the quadratic function is the set of all numbers y for which y ≤ a�− � + b�− � + c.
2a 2a
You can complete the proof of this property on your own as an exercise.
5.3 W HAT DO THE GRAPHS OF SOME POLYNOMIALS LOOK

LIKE?
EXAMPLE 5.3a: Graph the polynomial y = x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6.
SOLUTION: We first find where the polynomial intersects the x-axis. To do this, we need to solve the
equation x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6 = 0.
We use the Rational Root Theorem to find that this equation has three solutions: x = 1, x = −2, and x = 3.
Also, substituting x = 0 in the polynomial, we find that the polynomial intersects the y-axis at y = 6.
We also note that as x gets larger moving toward infinity, y gets larger moving toward infinity; and as x gets
smaller moving toward negative infinity, y gets smaller moving toward negative infinity.

We can use this information to sketch the graph of the polynomial:
y = x3 – 2x2 – 5x + 6
nt is called the
mbers. If a > 0 ,
 b 
 −  + c . If
 2a 
 b 
b−  + c .
 2a 
EXAMPLE 5.3b: Graph the polynomial y = x3 + 1.

ExamplE 5.3b: Graph the polynomial y = x 3 + 1 .
SOLUTION: We first find where the polynomial intersects the x-axis. To do this, we need to solve the
equation x3 + 1 = 0. solution:
This equation We first find where the polynomial intersects the x-axis. To do this, we need to solve
has one solution: x = −1. The polynomial intersects the y-axis at y = 1.
the equation x 3 + 1 = 0 . This equation has one solution: x = −1 . The polynomial intersects the
We also note that as x gets larger toward infinity, y gets larger toward infinity; and as x gets smaller toward
d to solve y-axis at y = 1 . We also note that as x gets larger toward infinity, y gets larger toward infinity;
negative infinity, y gets smaller toward negative infinity. We can use this information to sketch the graph of
and as x gets smaller toward negative infinity, y gets smaller toward negative infinity. We can use
the polynomial:
this information to sketch the graph of the polynomial:
1 , x = −2 ,
y-axis at
y = x3 + 1
d infinity;
negative
45
y = x3 + 1
5.4 W HAT DOES THE GRAPH OF THE EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION

y = ax LOOK LIKE?
The function y = ax is called the exponential function. The exponential function is only defined for a > 0 since if

a > 0, y = ax is positive for any real number x, and so its graph is above the x-axis.
Another feature of this function is that when a > 1, the function is increasing, and when 0 < a < 1, the function is
decreasing.
x
1
Consider
EXAMPLE the functions
5.4a: y = 2 and y =
x
:
2
1 x
Consider the functions y = 2x and y = � � :
2
7
In y = 2 , as x gets larger, 2 gets larger.
x x
x
6 y = 2x
2 2
4
In y = 2 x , as x gets larger, gets larger.
37
x
2 1
x
26 y = 2x
2 2
15
4
–8 –6 –4 –2 x1 2 x2 4 6 8 10
–13
x
2 1
–22
1
Resource Guide
1 46
y = ( )x
2
–1
–2
That is: if x1 > x2, then 2x > 2x . For example, 24 > 23.
1 2
1
1 x )1x 1 x
In y = �y =� ( = , on the other hand, as x gets larger, � � gets smaller.
2 22 x
2
1 x
1 1 x 2 1 3 1 2
That is: if x1 > x2, then � � < � � . For example, � � < � � .
2 2 2 2
y=
x
1
x
2

x1 x2
The domain of the exponential function is the set of all real numbers, whereas its range is the set of all positive
real
Thenumbers.
domain Since
of thethe exponentialfunction
exponential functionisisthe
increasing,
set of allitreal
is one-to-one, and thusits
numbers, whereas hasrange
an inverse. Theofinverse
is the set
of the exponential function is called the logarithmic function, which we will study next.
all positive real numbers. Since the exponential function is increasing, it is one-to-one, and thus has an
5.5 W HAT DOES THE GRAPH OF THE LOGARITHMIC

FUNCTION y = LOG ax LOOK LIKE?
The properties of the logarithmic function can be derived from the properties of the exponential function
because the logarithmic function is the inverse of the exponential function, as the following definition indicates.
DEFINITION
c = logab if and only if ac = b.

47
a is always positive (as we showed earlier), x must be positive. Thus, the domain of the logarithmic
function consists of the positive real numbers.
The function y = logax is called the logarithmic function. a is called the base of the logarithm.
ProPerty 2: Another important condition to observe is that a , the base of the logarithm, must be
PROPERTY 1: The expression y = logax is equivalent to ay = x. Since ay is defined only for a > 0, and ay is
different from 1. This is so because for a = 1 , log a x is not a function. Recall, a function cannot be one-to-
always positive (as we showed earlier), x must be positive. Thus, the domain of the logarithmic function consists
ofmany. If a = 1real
the positive the input x = 1 would have infinitely many outputs. For example, log1 1 = 4 because
numbers.
, then
14 = 1 ; log1 12: 1−3 = 1condition =a,1 ;the 1 1 = of 5 1 5 =must
6.9
PROPERTY −3 because
= Another important ; log1 1 = 6.9 becauseis 1that
to observe logbase thebecause
logarithm, 1 , etc. Thus, the
be different
from 1. This isfunction
logarithmic so becausey for a = x1,islog
= log x is not a function.
meaningful
a only for Recall,
x > 0 and a function
1 ≠ a > cannot
0. be one-to-many. If
a
a = 1, then the input x = 1 would have infinitely many outputs. For example, log11 = 4 because 14 = 1; log11 = −3
because 1−3 = 1; log 1 = 6.9
thebecause 16.9admits
= 1; logonly
1 = positive
�5 because 1 =its 1, graph
etc. Thus, the logarithmic
in the halffunction
�5
ProPerty 3: Since
1 function 1 inputs, is located plane to the
y = logax is meaningful only for x > 0 and 1 ≠ a > 0.
right of the y-axis.
PROPERTY 3: Since the function admits only positive inputs, its graph is located in the half plane to the right
ofProPerty
the y-axis. 4: Next, we can observe that the x-intercept of the logarithmic function is x = 1 , because
PROPERTY 4: Next,
log a 1 = 0 . Recall weycan
that observe
= log that the x-intercept
is defined only for x of
> 0the logarithmic
. Hence, therefunction
is no y-intercept—the loga1 = 0.
is x = 1, becausefunction
a x
Recall that y = logax is defined only for x > 0. Hence, there is no y-intercept—the function does not intersect the
does not intersect the y-axis.
y-axis.
PROPERTY
ProPerty5:5:Finally, y =ylog
Finally, = log
a
x is xincreasing whenwhen
is increasing a > 1aand
> 1decreasing when when
and decreasing 0 < a <1.
0 < a < 1.
a
Putting all these properties together, we can see that the graph of y = logax when a > 1 is of the following form:
Putting all these properties together, we can see that the graph of y = log a x when a > 1 is of the following

form:
y = log2x
log2x2
log2x1
x1 x2
USAD - USAD, CA
FIGURE 5–8
Figure 5–8
And, the graph of y = log a x when 0 < a < 1 is of the following form:
y = log Resource Guide
1x
2 48
Figure 5–8
USAD - USA
And,
And,thethe
graph of yof= log
graph x when
y =alog aa x
0 < a 0< <1 ais<of1 the
when is offollowing form: form:
the following
y = log 1 x
2
x11 x22
log11x11
22
log11x22
22
FIGURE 5–9
Figure 5–9

xx
1
The graph of y = log 11 x is symmetric to the graph 1ofx y =   as is shown in Figure 5–10. This is
The graph of y = log x is 22symmetric to the graph of y = � � as is shown
 in Figure 5–10. This is because the two
1
2019–2020 Mathematics 2 Guide2Instructor's

Resource Manual
functions are the inverse of one another.
because the two functions are the inverse of one another.
2
61
x
y
y = log 1 x
2
FIGURE 5–10
Figure 5–10
The
Thedomain
domain of of
thethe
logarithmic function
logarithmic is the
function is set
theofsetallofpositive real numbers,
all positive whereas
real numbers, its range
whereas is the set
its range of all
is the set
real numbers.
of all real numbers.
In science, the most frequently used base is the number e = 2.71828182845904523536… . Logarithms with base
e are called natural logarithms. The number e is irrational since it cannot be expressed as a repeating decimal.
In science, the most frequently used base is the number e = 2.718281828459045 23536 …. . Logarithms
The natural logarithm is written ln x and is defined to be the inverse function of ex.
with base e are called natural logarithms. The number e is irrational since it cannot be expressed as a
repeating decimal. The natural logarithm is written ln x and is defined to be the inverse function of e xx .

49
Sections 5.1–5.5
EXERCISES
1. Determine the maximum or minimum and axis of symmetry of the following quadratic functions. Graph each
parabola including the vertex and the axis of symmetry.
a. f(x) = x2 − 6x + 8
b. f(x) = −x2 + 6x − 9
c. f(x) = 2x2 − 3x − 3
2. Graph the following functions:
1 x
a. f(x) = � �
3
3 x
b. f(x) = � �
2
3. Sketch the graphs of the following functions:
a. f(x) = 4x3 − 8x2 − 15x + 9
b. f(x) = x4 − 6x3 − 4x2 + 54x − 45
4. Let f(x) = x2 + px + q. Find the values of p and q if the minimum of this function is (1, −2).

5. Find the inverse of the following functions.
a. f(x) = 3 − 22−x
3+x
b. f(x) = 2 − log3� �
x
5.6 TRANSFORMATIONS OF GRAPHS

It is recommended that you review the section on the composition of functions (Section 4) before studying this
section.
If we know the graph of a function y = f(x), we are able to construct the graphs of the functions y = f(x + c),
y = f(x) + C, y = f(ax), and y = Af(x), where a, c, A, and C are constants.
5.6.1 Graphing y = f(x + c) from the Graph of y = f(x)

The function y = f(x + c) is the composition of two functions: y = x + c and y = f(x). For any input x, we first get
the output x + c. This output, in turn, becomes an input for the function y = f(x), giving the output f(x + c).
EXAMPLES:
(1) y = (x + 2)2 is the composition y = x + 2 and y = x2: to any given x, we first add the 2, and then we square
the resulting sum.
(2) y = 2x−4 is the composition of y = x − 4 and y = 2x: to any given x, we first subtract 4, and then we raise 2 to
the power of x − 4.
(3) y = log2(x − 5) is the composition of y = x − 5 and y = log x: to any given x, we first subtract 5, and then we
take the log of x − 5.

50
Notice that the two functions y = f(x) and y = f(x + c) have the same output for any two inputs that differ by c. For
the inputs x and x − c, we have f(x) = f((x − c) + c). On the basis of this fact, we can now construct the graph of
y = f(x + c) from the graph of y = f(x).
For any point (x0, y0) on the graph of y = f(x), we have y0 = f(x0). What input x of the function y = f(x + c) gives the
output y0? The answer is x = x0 − c because f(x + c) = f(x0 − c) + c) = f(x0) = y0. Conversely, if (x0 − c, y0) is on the
graph of y = f(x + c), then (x0 , y0 ) is on the graph of y = f(x).
The conclusion that we can draw from this is that to construct the graph of the function y = f(x + c) from the
graph of y = f(x), we simply shift each point of the graph y = f(x) by c units along the x-axis. We move the graph
by c units to the left if c > 0 and by c units to the right if c < 0 .
EXAMPLE 5.6a: Construct y = 2x−4.
The function y = 2x−4 is of the form y = f(x + c) where f(x) = 2x and c = −4 < 0. Therefore, the graph of y = 2x−4
is the result of shifting the graph of y = 2x along the x-axis to the right by 4 units.
x–4

5.6.2 Graphing y = f(x) + C from the Graph of y = f(x)
The function y = f(x) + C is the composition of two functions: y = f(x) and y = x + C. For any input x, we get the
output f(x). This output, in turn, becomes an input for the function y = x + C, giving the output f(x) + C.
EXAMPLES:
(1) y = x2 − 3 is the composition of y = x2 and y = x − 3: We first square an input x, and then add −3 to the
result.
1 x 1 x 1
(2) y = � � + 2 is the composition of y = � � and y = x + 2: We first raise to the power x and then add 2 to
3 3 3
the result.
1 1
(3) y = log2 x − is the composition of y = log2 x and y = x − : We first compute the log of an input x and then
3 3
1
add − to the result.
3
Notice that for any input x, the outputs y = f(x) + C and y = f(x) differ by C units. This fact helps us construct the
graph of y = f(x) + C from the graph of y = f(x). For any point (x0 , y0 ) on the graph of y = f(x), we have y0 = f(x0).
x x
1 1 1
(2) y =   + 2 is the composition of y =   and y = x + 2 : We first raise to the power x and th
3  3Mathematics
2022–2023  Resource Guide 3
add 2 to the result. 51
Clearly, the point (x0 , y0 + C) belongs to the graph of y = f(x) + C (because y0 + C = f(x0) + C).
Conversely, if the point (x0 , y0 + C) belongs to the graph of y = f(x) + C, then the point (x0 , y0 ) is on the graph of
y = f(x).
The conclusion that we can draw from this is that to construct the graph of the function y = f(x) + C, we simply
shift the graph y = f(x) by C units along the y-axis. The graph moves up by C units if C > 0, and it moves down
by C units if C < 0.
EXAMPLE 5.6b: Construct the graph of y = log2 x − 3.
The function y = log2 x − 3 is of the form y = f(x) + C where f(x) = log2 x and C = −3 < 0. Therefore, moving
f(x) = log2 x down the y-axis by 3 units results in the graph of y = log2 x − 3.

5.6.3 Graphing y = f(ax) from the Graph of y = f(x)
The function y = f(ax), a ≠ 0, is the composition of y = ax and y = f(x). For any input x, we first get the output ax.
This output, in turn,y becomes
The function = f (ax) , aan
≠ input forcomposition
0 , is the the functionofy y==f(x), giving
ax and y =the
f ( xoutput = f(ax).
) . For yany input x , we first get the
EXAMPLES:
output ax . This output, in turn, becomes an input for the function y = f ( x) , giving the output y = f (ax) .
x 2 x
(1) y = � � is the composition of y = and y = x2 (How?)
2
exAmPles: 2
(2) y = 23x is the composition
2
of y = 3x and y = 2x (How?)
x x
(1) y1=   is the composition of 1y = and y = x 2 (How?)
(3) y = log2 xis2 the  composition of y = 7 x and 2 y = log2 x (How?)
7
, y0 y) be
Let (x0(2) = 2a3 x point
is the on the graph of
composition of yy== f(x), thenyy=0 =
3 x and 2 xf(x ). What input x for the function y = f(ax) gives the
(How?)
0
x x
output y0? Clearly, 1the answer is x = 0. Indeed: 1f(ax0) = f�a 0� = f(x0) = y0.
a
(3) y = log 2 x is the composition of y = x and y = log a x (How?)
2
7 7 x
This shows that if the point (x0 , y0 ) belongs to the graph of y = f(x) , then point � 0 , y0� belongs to the graph of
a
Let ( x0 , y0 ) be a point on the graphxof y = f ( x) , then y0 = f ( x0 ) . What input x for the function y = f (ax)
y = f(ax). And, conversely, if the point � 0 , y0� belongs to the graph of y = f(ax), then the point (x , y ) belongs to
gives the output y ? Clearly, the a is x = x0 . Indeed: f (ax ) = f  a x0  = f ( x ) = y . 0 0
answer
the graph of y = f(x). 0 a
0   0 0
 a
The relation between  x0 of a:
This shows that the graph
if the pointof( xy0 ,=yf(ax) and the graph of y = f(x) depends on the value
0 ) belongs to the graph of y = f ( x ) , then point  , y0  belongs to the
6 If a > 1, then we get the graph of y = f(ax) by “shrinking” x  the graph of y = f(x) aalong the
 x-axis by a factor
graph of y = f (ax) . And, conversely, if the point  0 , y0  belongs to the graph of y = f (ax) , then the
a 
point ( x0 , y0 ) belongs to the graph of y = f ( x ) .
52
The relation between the graph of y = f (ax) and the graph of y = f ( x) depends on the value of a :
1
by a factor of .
a
You can investigate the cases a < −1 and −1 < a < 0 on your own as an exercise. (Hint: note that for any
1
k If 0 < a < 1 , then we get the graph of y = f (ax) by “expanding” the graph of y = f ( x) along the x-axis
of .
a by a factor
function 1 graphs of y = g ( x ) and y = g ( − x ) are symmetric with respect to the y-axis.)
y = g ( x ) the
of .
6 If 0 < a < 1, then wea get the graph of y = f(ax) by “expanding” the graph of y = f(x) along the x-axis by a
1
factor
You of .
can investigate the cases a < −1 and −1 < a < 0 on your own as an exercise. (Hint: note that for any
a
You can investigate the
g (cases < −1 of
and
aConstruct −1 < <of
x ) aand0yon
y =gyour
(2− x.) own as an exercise. (Hint:tonote that for any function
3x
ExamplE
function y= x5.6c:
) the graphs y=the
g (graph = are symmetric with respect the y-axis.)
y = g(x) the graphs of y = g(x) and y = g(−x) are symmetric with respect to the y-axis.)
The function y = 23 x is of the form y = f (ax) , a ≠ 0 , where f ( x) = 2 x and a = 3 > 1 . To get the
EXAMPLE 5.6c: Construct
ExamplE the graph ofthey graph
= 23x. of y = 23 x .x 1
graph of y =5.6c:
23 x , weConstruct
“shrink” the graph of f ( x) = 2 by a factor of along the x-axis toward the
The function y = 23x is of the 3form y = f(ax), a ≠ 0, where f(x) = 2x and a = 3x > 1. To get the graph of y = 23x,
The function y = 2
x
is of the form y = f (ax) , a ≠ 0 , where f ( x) = 2 and a = 3 > 1 . To get the
1 1 the y-axis.
we “shrink”graph
the graph
of y = of , we =“shrink”
23 xf(x) 2x by athe
factor ofof falong the x-axis toward
3 ( x) = 2 by a factor of along the x-axis toward the
x
graph

EXAMPLE 5.6d: Construct the graph of y = 2−3x.
The function y = 2−3x is of the form y = f(ax), a ≠ 0, where f(x) = 2x and a = −3 < −1. We first obtain the graph
1
of y = 23x by expanding the graph f(x) = 2x by a factor of along the x-axis toward the y-axis. Following this,
3
we reflect the graph of y = 2 with respect to the y-axis to obtain the graph of y = 2−3x.
3x

53
5.6.4 Graphing y = Af(x) from the Graph of y = f(x)
To obtain the graph of the function y = Af(x), A ≠ 0, from the graph of the function y = f(x), we reason as before:
1. (x0 , y0 ) is on the graph of y = f(x) if and only if (x0 , Ay0 ) is on the graph of y = Af(x) (Why?)
2. T
herefore, to plot the graph of y = Af(x), we simply transform each point (x0 , y0 ) on the graph y = f(x) to the
point (x0 , Ay0 ).
From there:
3. I f A > 1, then we get the graph of y = Af(x) by “expanding” the graph of y = f(x) along the y-axis by a factor
of A.
4. If 0 < A <1, then we get the graph of y = Af(x) by “shrinking” the graph of y = f(x) along the y-axis by a
factor of A.
5. If A = −1, we get the graph of y = Af(x) by simply reflecting the graph of y = f(x) with respect to the x-axis.
You can work out the cases −1 < A < 0 and A < −1 as an exercise on your own. (Hint: note that for any function
y = g(x), the graphs of y = g(x) and y = −g(x) are symmetric with respect to the x-axis.
EXAMPLE 5.6e: Construct the graph of y = −log x. 1

3

The function y = −log x is of the form y = Af(x) where f(x) = log x and A = −1. Therefore, the graph of
1 1
3 3
y = −log x is to the graph of f(x) = log x with respect to the x-axis.

1 1
3 3
1
EXAMPLE 5.6f: Construct the graph of y = − x2.
4
1 2 1 1
The function y = − x is of the form y = Af(x) where f(x) = x2 and A = − . Therefore, the graph of y = − x2
4 4 4
1 1
is obtained
ExamplE in two steps:Construct
5.6f: first we shrink the graph
the graph of yof=f(x)
− =xx2 . along the y-axis by a factor of 4 , and then we take
2
4
the reflection of the latter graph with respect to the x-axis.
1 1
The function y = − x 2 is of the form y = Af ( x) where f ( x) = x 2 and A = − . Therefore, the
1 24 4
graph of y = − x is obtained in two steps: first we shrink the graph of f ( x) = x 2 along the
4 1
2022–2023
y-axis by a factor of , and Mathematics
then we take Resource
the reflection of theGuide
latter graph with respect to the
4 54
x-axis.
Section 5.6
EXERCISES

1. Construct the graphs of the following functions:
a. y = −(x + 3)2 − 6
1
b. y = log2(x + )
2
c. y = −log3x + 4
2. Find the inverse of the following functions and sketch both the function and its inverse in the same graph:
1
a. f(x) = ln2x
3
b. f(x) = e−2x + 2
In the previous sections, we learned how to solve linear equations, quadratic equations, and some
techniques for solving higher-degree polynomial equations. In this section, we will learn how to solve a
new type of equation that is not a polynomial equation.
55
Section 6
Non-Polynomial Equations
In the previous sections, we learned how to solve linear equations, quadratic equations, and some techniques for
solving higher-degree polynomial equations. In this section, we will learn how to solve a new type of equation
that is not a polynomial equation.
6.1 RATIONAL EQUATIONS

The first non-polynomial equations we will learn about in this section are called rational equations. A rational
equation is an equation that involves only polynomials or rational expressions. By “rational expression,” we
mean a fraction whose numerator and denominator are polynomials.
EXAMPLES:
1 1
1. − x = 0 is a rational equation. It involves the polynomials x and 0 and the rational expression .

x x
2. �x + x3 − 2 = x is not a rational equation since �x is not a rational expression.
x−3
3. + �7x2 + 10 = 5x is a rational equation since it involves only polynomials (�7x2 + 10 and 5x) and a
(x − 4)2
x−3
rational expression .
(x − 4)2
4. 2 x(x − 4)2 = 0 is a polynomial equation, but we can view it as a rational equation since we can write it as
2x(x − 4)2
= 0.
1
17
5. (x − 5)(x − 4) − (x − 2)(2x + 9) = is a rational equation for the same reason given in 1 and 3.
�2x + 1.9
(x + 3)(x + 5) �11x + 13 x−2
6. − =4+ is not a rational equation (why?)
3 10 7
A polynomial admits any real number x ; that is, its domain is the set of all real numbers. A rational expression,
17
on the other hand, may not admit all real numbers. For example, the rational expression 2 + 1 does not
x −8
admit the values x = ±2�2 because the denominator x2 − 8 = 0 is zero for these values. We say that the rational
17
expression is not defined for x = ±2�2 or the domain of the rational function f(x) = 2 + 1 is the set of all real
x −8
1
numbers x ≠ ±2�2. On the other hand, the expression 2 − 4 is defined for all real numbers because there is
5x + 1
1
no real number x for which the denominator 5x2 + 1 is zero. So, the domain of the rational function f(x) = 2
5x + 1
− 4 is the set of all real numbers.

56
6.1.1 How Do We Solve Rational Equations?
When solving rational equations, often we need to simplify rational expressions. Rational expressions are dealt
with like fractions. However, since they involve variables, we must pay attention to their domains. Consider, for
x2 − 1
example, the rational expression A(x) = .
(x − 1)(x + 3)
x+1
One might hastily simplify this expression into B(x) = by factoring the numerator into (x − 1)(x + 1) and
x+3
canceling the expression x − 1, which appears in both the numerator and denominator.
1
Is A(x) = B(x) for all x? The answer is no because while for x = 1, B(x) = , A(x) is not defined for x = 1. The
2
lesson we learn from this is that before we simplify an expression, we must pay attention to the domain of the
expression. Thus, for example, we can say A(x) = B(x) for all x ≠ 1.
x2 − 4x + 4 (x2 − 2)2
Likewise, = = x − 2 for all x ≠ 2.
x−2 x−2
Let us now turn to solving rational equations.
5
EXAMPLE 6.1a: Solve the equation − 4x = 0.
x−2
SOLUTION:
1. We first exclude the numbers that cannot be solutions. Since x −2 appears in the denominator, x = 2

cannot be a solution.
2. N
ext, as we do with fractions, we write all expressions in equivalent forms with the same denominator.
5 4x(x − 2)
In this case, x − 2 is a common denominator. We write: − = 0.
x−2 x−2
5 − 4x(x − 2)
3. N
ow we add the two rational expressions as we do with fractions: = 0.
x−2
4. Since a fraction is zero if and only if its numerator is zero, we get 5 − 4x(x − 2) = 0.
5. Now we proceed to solve this familiar equation:
5 − 4x2 + 8x = 0
4x2 − 8x − 5 = 0
x = 8±�64 + 80
8
8±12
x=
8
5 1
6. The solutions to the equation are: x = , x = − .
2 2
6x
EXAMPLE 6.1b: Solve the equation = 4.
x−9
SOLUTION:
6x
1. x ≠ 9 since the expression is not defined for x = 9.
x−9
6x
2. =4
x−9

57
6x
3. − 4 = 0 Subtract 4 from both sides.
x−9
6x x−9
4. −4 = 0 Write all expressions in an equivalent form with the same denominator.
x−9 x−9
2x + 36
5. = 0 Add the rational expressions.
x−9
6. 2x + 36 = 0 A rational expression is zero if and only if the numerator is zero.
7. 2x = −36 Solve
8. x = −18
9. The equation has one solution: x = −18.
In the next set of examples, you are expected to explain most of the steps on your own.
x2 + 1 − 2x
EXAMPLE 6.1c: Solve the equation − x = 0.
x−1
SOLUTION: Condition: x ≠ 1.
x2 + 1 − 2x

1. −x=0
x−1
x2 + 1 − 2x − x(x − 1)
2. =0
x−1
3. x2 + 1 − 2x − x(x − 1) = 0
4. x2 + 1 − 2x − x2 + x = 0
5. 1 − x = 0
6. x = 1.
Since x = 1 was excluded as a solution, there is no solution to this equation. You can see how important it is
to specify the domains of the expressions involved beforehand.
x+1 x−3
EXAMPLE 6.1d: Solve the equation = .
x−5 x+6
SOLUTION: Condition: x ≠ 5 and x ≠ −6.
x+1 x−3
1. =
x−5 x+6
x+1 x−3
2. − =0
x−5 x+6
3. A common denominator here is (x − 5)(x + 6). Hence:
(x + 1)(x + 6) (x − 3)(x − 5)
4. − =0
(x − 5)(x + 6) (x + 6)(x − 5)
(x + 1)(x + 6) − (x − 3)(x − 5)
5. =0
(x − 5)(x + 6)
6. (x2 + 7x + 6) − (x2 − 8x + 15) = 0

58
7. x2 + 7x + 6 − x2 + 8x − 15 = 0
8. 15x − 9 = 0
9
9. x =
15
9
10. The solution to the given equation is x = .
15
2x − 9 2x + 1 1
EXAMPLE 6.1e: Solve the equation + = .
1−x x+1 1 − x2
SOLUTION:
2x − 9 2x + 1 1
1. + − =0
1−x x+1 1 − x2
2. First, we factor 1 − x2.
3. 1 − x2 = (1 − x)(1 + x)
4. Thus, (1 − x)(1 + x) is a common denominator for the three rational expressions in the given equation.
5. Condition: x ≠ 1 and x ≠ −1.
6. C
hanging rational expressions into equivalent forms that have the same common denominator, we get
(2x − 9)(x + 1) (2x + 1)(1 − x) 1
+ − =0

(1 − x)(x + 1) (x + 1)(1 − x) (1 − x)(x + 1)
(2x − 9)(x + 1) + (2x + 1)(1 − x) − 1
7. =0
(1 − x)(x + 1)
8. (2x2 + 2x − 9x − 9) + (2x − 2x2 + 1 − x) − 1 = 0
9. −6x − 9 = 0
9
10. x = − = −1.5
6
11. The given equation has only one solution: x = −1.5.
2x 1 1
EXAMPLE 6.1f: Solve the equation − = .
x2 − 9x + 14 x2 − 3x + 2 x − 1
SOLUTION: As before, we find a common denominator to the rational fractions in this equation. For this, as
we did in the previous examples, we factor the given denominators into unfactorable expressions.
1. x − 1 is unfactorable.
2. Next we factor the other two denominators:
3. x2 − 9x + 14 = (x − 2)(x − 7)
4. x2 − 3x + 2 = (x − 1)(x − 2)
2x 1 1
5. Thus, our equation can be written as − − =0
(x − 2)(x − 7) (x − 1)(x − 2) x−1
6. (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 7) is a common denominator of the three rational expressions in our equation because
each denominator of the rational expressions divides it.
7. Thus, we have the condition: x ≠ 1 , x ≠ 2 , x ≠ 7 .

59
8. W
riting these rational expressions in equivalent forms that have this common denominator, we get
2x(x − 1) x−7 (x − 2)(x − 7)
− − =0
(x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 7) (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 7) (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 7)
x2 + 6x − 7
9. Adding, we get =0
(x − 2)(x − 7)(x − 1)
10. Solving, we get (x + 7)(x – 1) = 0
11. x = –7 or x = 1
12. Since x = 1 cannot be a solution, the only solution to the equation is x = –7.
x−3
EXAMPLE 6.1g: Solve the equation = 0.
x − 5x + 6
2
SOLUTION 1: First we find the values of x for which the denominator x2 − 5x + 6 is 0, and we exclude these
values.
1. Solving x2 − 5x + 6 = 0, we get x = 2, x = 3.
2. Condition: x ≠ 2 and x ≠ 3.
3. Now we proceed to solve the equation:
x−3
4. 2 =0

x − 5x + 6
5. x − 3 = 0
6. x = 3
7. Since x = 3 was excluded as a solution, our equation has no solution.
x−3
SOLUTION 2: Factoring out the denominator, we get 2 =0
x − 5x + 6
x−3
1. =0 x≠3
(x − 3)(x − 2)
1
2. =0
(x − 2)
3. Since the denominator is different from zero for all x, the equation has no solution.
Section 6.1.1
EXERCISES
3x − 2 x + 2
a. =
x−3 x+3
x + 0.5 8x2 + 3 x+2
b. + =
9x + 3 9x2 − 1 3x − 1
x2 − 2x + 1 x+1
c. + =4
x−3 3−x
1 − 2x 2x + 1 8
d. 2 + =
6x + 3x 14x2 − 7x 12x2 − 3

60
2x + 7 3 1
f. 2 x + 7 + 3 = 1
f. x22 + 5 x − 6 + x22 + 9 x + 18 = x + 3
x + 5 x − 6 x + 9 x + 18 x + 3
x+3 3−x 2
e.
2. Find4xthe − =
2
− 9domain of the
4x + 12x
2
+ 9 following
2x − 3 functions:
2. Find 2x
the+ 7domain of3 the following
1 functions:
f. 2 + =
x + 5x −26 x2 + 9x + 18 x + 3
a. y = 2
y =thexdomain
2.a.Find
2
+ 2 of the following functions:
x2 + 2 x − 3
2
b.a. yy== 2 3 x2− 3
b. y = x2+x32+ x2 − 13 x + 6
2 x +xx− 3− 13 x + 6
b. y = 3
2x + x2 − 13x + 6
6 .1 .2 What Do the Graphs of Some Rational Functions Look Like?

6.1.2 What Do the Graphs of Some Rational Functions Look Like?
y
y x
x

Figure 6–1
FIGURE 6–1
Figure 6–1
1
The graph of the function f ( x) =1 1 is shown in Figure 6–1.
The graph of the
The graph function
of the f ( x=) = isx is
function f(x) shown
shown in Figure
in Figure 6–1. 6–1.
x x
Note Note
thatthat
thethe function is not
function notdefined
defined for for x=
x = 0. As0x. gets
As closer
x getstocloser
zero along the positive
to zero alongx-axis, y gets larger;
the positive x-axis, y gets
Note and
thatasthe function
x gets closer to is not
zero defined
along for x =
the negative 0 . As
x-axis, x gets
y gets closer
smaller, and to zerocases,
in both along thethe positive
graph approaches the y gets
x-axis,
larger; and
y-axis. as x gets closer to zero along the negative x-axis, y gets smaller, and in both cases, the graph
larger; and as x gets closer to zero along the negative x-axis, y gets smaller, and in both cases, the graph
approaches
Also, as the
x getsy-axis.
farther from zero along the x-axis, y gets closer to zero, and the graph approaches the x-axis. The
approaches the y-axis. the x-axis or the y-axis. In general, rational functions can approach, without intersecting,
graph never intersects
1
certain lines. These lines are called asymptotes. The lines x = 0 and y = 0 are asymptotes of the function f(x) = .
x

77
61
x
EXAMPLE 6.1h: Graph the function f(x) = .
x−3
SOLUTION:
3
1. We first note that f(x) = 1 + .
x−3
x (x − 3) + 3 3
2. You can get this by the Division Algorithm or by noting that f(x) = = =1+
x−3 x−3 x−3
1
3. From this, we see that f(x) is of the form f(x) = Ag(x) +C where g(x) = , A = 3, and C = 1.
x−3
4. We can graph this function in three steps:
1 1
STEP 1: Graph the function g(x) = . We can graph this function by shifting the graph of along the
x−3 x
x-axis by 3 units.
y
x

3 1
STEP 2: Graph the function . We can graph this function by expanding the graph of by a factor
x−3 x−3
of 3 along the y-axis to the right.
y
x

62
3 3
STEP 3: Graph the function 1 + . We graph this function by moving the graph of up by 1 unit
x−3 x−3
along the y-axis.
y
x
2x + 5
EXAMPLE 6.1i: Graph the function f(x) = .
x+4

3
SOLUTION: We first note that f(x) = 2 − .
x+4
1. You can get this by the Division Algorithm or by noting that
2x + 5 2(x + 4) − 3 3
f(x) = = =2−
x+4 x+4 x+4
1
2. From here we see that f(x) is of the form f(x) = Ag(x) + C where g(x) = , A = −3, and C = 2.
x+4
We can graph this function in four steps:
1 1
STEP 1: Graph the function g(x) = . We graph this function by shifting the graph of along the
x+4 x
x-axis by 4 units to the left.
6
1
y= 4
x+4
2
-5 -4
-2
-4

63
3 1
STEP 2: Graph the function . We graph this function by expanding the graph of by a factor of 3
x+4 x+4
along the y-axis.
y
x

3 3
STEP 3: Graph the function − . We graph this function by reflecting the graph of with respect
x+4 x+4
to the y-axis.
y
x
3 3
STEP 4: Graph the function 2 − . We graph this function by moving the graph of − up by 2
x+4 x+4
units along the y-axis.
y
2022–2023 Mathematics xResource Guide
64
y
x
Section 6.1.2

EXERCISES
1. Graph the following functions:
1
a. f(x) = −
x−2
1 3
b. f(x) = −
2 following
1. Graph the x+1 functions:
x+1
c. f(x) =
x−3
6.2 EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS

6.2.1 Basic Properties
Recall the meanings of expressions of the form an. For example:
25 = 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2
9 = �9
1
2
27 = �27
1
3
3
1
6−2 =
62
The expression an is called a power. a is called the base of the power, and n is called the exponent of the power.
Recall the following important properties of powers: For any real numbers a > 0, b > 0, a ≠ 0, and real numbers
m and n, the following properties, 1 through 6, hold true:

65
1. a0 = 1;
2. am ⋅ an = am+n
3. am ÷ an = am−n
4. (ab)n = an ⋅ bn
n
a an
5. � � = n
b b
6. (an)m = an⋅m
When m and n are integers, the above properties, 1 through 6, hold true for all real numbers a ≠ 0, b ≠ 0.
And, for a > 0 and n a natural number,
7. a = �a
1
n n
We note that (−2)x = −8 has the solution x = 3.
6.2.2 How Do We Solve Exponential Equations?

The basic idea for solving exponential equations of the form ax = b is to write b as the power with the base a.
Consider, for example, the equation 3x−4 = 81. We write 81 = 34, and accordingly our equation becomes: 3x−4 = 34.
Since ab = ac if and only if b = c, we get x − 4 = 4. Hence, the solution to the equation is x = 8.

Let’s now turn to solve more complicated exponential equations.
EXAMPLE 6.2a: Solve 32x+1 − 2 ⋅ 9x = 5 − 32x−1
SOLUTION:
Simplify all exponential terms to the same number base, raised to a f(x) exponent.
1 2x
32x+1 = 32x ⋅ 31  3 ⋅ 32x 2 ⋅ 9x = 2 ⋅ (32)x  2 ⋅ 32x 32x–1 = 32x ⋅ 3–1  ⋅3
3
Notice that each term contains the expression 32x:
Substitute the simplified forms back into the original equation to get
1 2x
3 ⋅ 32x – 2 ⋅ 32x = 5 –
⋅3
3
Solve equation and add coefficients.
1 2x 1 4 2x
3 ⋅ 32x – 2 ⋅ 32x + ⋅ 3 = 5  (3 – 2 + ) ⋅ 32x = 5  ⋅3 =5
3 3 3
15
Giving us: 32x = = 3.75
4
To solve for x we need to use ln (natural logarithms)
ln(3.75)
We get: ln(3)2x = ln(3.75)  2x ⋅ ln(3) = ln(3.75)  x =
2 ⋅ ln(3)
= 0.601557...

66
EXAMPLE 6.2b: Solve the equation 4x+1 − 5x− = 5x+ − 22x−4
3 1
2 2
SOLUTION: Notice 4x = 22x

Hence, our equation can be written as 4x+1 − 5x− = 5x+ − 4x−2
3 1
2 2
We separate between the powers of 4 and the powers of 5:

4 ⋅ 4x + 4−2 ⋅ 4x = 5 ⋅ 5x + 5− ⋅ 5x
1 3
2 2
Factoring out 4x, we get: (4 + 4−2)4x = (5 + 5− )5x

1 3
2 2
4x 5 + 5−
1 3
2 2
=
5x 4 + 4−2
We will compute the part on the right of the equation separately:
1
5 +
1
5 �5 ⋅ 5 + 1�4
1 3
2
(25 + 1)42 26 ⋅ 42 2 ⋅ 42 4 ⋅ 42 42+ 4 4
2 1 5 5
1
5 + 5−
1 3 3 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
= = = = = = = 1+ = = � �
4 + 4−2 (64 + 1)5 65 ⋅ 5 5⋅5 5⋅5 5 5 5
3 5
1
3 3 3 3
2 2
4 + 2 5 �4 ⋅ 4 + 1�
3 2 2 2 2
2 2
4
x 5
4 4
2
We have � � = � �
5 5
5
Hence: x = .
2

5
The solution to the given equation is x = .
2
Section 6.2
EXERCISES
x –5
3 7
a. � � = � �
7 3
b. 2x +x−0.5 = 4�2
2
c. 101+x − 101−x = 99
2 2
1 1
d. 5 x2 −x
⋅ 0.2 = �25
x
3
e. 4x − 3x−0.5 = 3x+0.5 − 22x−1

f. 27x − 13 ⋅ 9x + 13 ⋅ 3x+1 − 27 = 0
g. 3 ⋅ 16x + 36x = 2 ⋅ 81x

67
6.3 LOGARITHMIC EQUATIONS
6.3.1 Basic Properties
The simplest logarithmic equation is of the form logax = b. Its solution is x = ab. For example, the solution to the
equation log2 x = 4 is x = 24 = 16. Logarithmic equations can, however, be more complicated. For example, to
solve the equation log2 x + log4x2 = 17 we need to apply some properties of logarithms.
Before we do so, recall that the function logax is meaningful only for a > 0 and a ≠ 1, and its domain is the
positive real numbers. Also, before proceeding, you should make sure that you understand the meaning of
logac = b. Here are a few identities that will help you review this meaning:
log232 = 5 is the same as saying 25 = 32.
1 1
log4 = −3 is the same as saying 4−3 = .
64 64
1
log82�2 = is the same as saying �8 = 2�2.
2
log6(−36) is not meaningful because there is no real number b such that 6b = −36.
We will turn now to the basic properties of logarithms. In the following, 1) through 8), let a be a positive real
number different from 1. Then,

1) loga1 = 0
2) logaa = 1
Let b be a positive real number. Then
3) alogab = b
Let b be a positive real number and p be any real number. Then,
4) logabp = plogab
Let b be a positive real number and q be any real number different from zero. Then,
1
5) logaq b = log b
q a
Let b and d be positive real numbers. Then,
6) logabd = logab + logad
b
7) loga = logab − logad
d
Let b be a positive real number different from 1, and let c be any positive real number. Then,
logbc
8) logac =
logba
Property (8) is called the Change of Base Formula.
In the next section, you will be guided as to how to prove these properties.

68
6.3.2 How Do We Solve Logarithmic Equations?
EXAMPLE 6.3a: Solve the equation log5x = 3.
SOLUTION: By the definition of a logarithm, log5x = 3 if and only if 53 = x. Hence, x = 53 = 125 is the
solution to this equation.
EXAMPLE 6.3b: Solve the equation log10 (x2 − 9x + 10) = log10(x − 6).
SOLUTION: Recall that the domain of the logarithmic function is the set of the positive real numbers. Hence,
we must state the following two conditions:
1. x2 − 9x + 10 > 0
2. x − 6 > 0
Since the logarithmic function is one-to-one, log10 (x2 − 9x + 10) = log10(x − 6) if and only if
x2 − 9x + 10 = x − 6.
Solving the last equation, we get two solutions: x = 8 or x = 2.
Now, we check whether these values satisfy inequalities 1 and 2 above.

Substituting x = 8 in these inequalities, we get:
82 − 9 ⋅ 8 + 10 = 2 > 0
8−6=2>0
x = 8 satisfies conditions 1 and 2, and hence it is a solution.
Substituting x = 2 in inequality 1, we get 22 − 9 ⋅ 2 + 10 = −4 < 0
Since x = 2 does not satisfy at least one of conditions 1 and 2, it is not a solution.
EXAMPLE 6.3c: Solve the equation log3x + log3(x + 8) = 2.
SOLUTION: log3x + log3(x + 8) = 2

Condition:
1. x > 0
2. x + 8 > 0
log3x(x + 8) = 2 By Property 6
x(x + 8) = 32
x2 + 8x = 9
x2 + 8x − 9 = 0
−8±�64 + 36
x=
2

69
−8±10
x= 2
x = −9, x = 1
Since x = −9 violates condition 1, the only solution our equation has is x = 1.
EXAMPLE 6.3d: Solve the equation log3x + 2log3(x + 8) = 4
SOLUTION:
Condition:
1. x > 0
2. x + 8 > 0
log3x + 2log3(x + 8) = 4
log3x + log3(x + 8)2 = 4 By Property 4
log3x(x + 8) = 4
2
By Property 6
x(x + 8)2 = 43
x3 + 16x2 + 64x = 81
x3 + 16x2 + 64x − 81 = 0

By the Rational Root Theorem, since x = 1 is a solution to the last equation, the polynomial x3 + 16x2 + 64x −
81 is divisible by x −1.
When dividing x3 + 16x2 + 64x − 81 by x − 1, we get x2 + 17x + 81.
Hence, the last equation can be written as (x − 1)(x2 + 17x + 81) = 0.
Equation x2 + 17x + 81 = 0 has no real solution (verify).
Therefore x = 1 is the only solution to the last equation.
Since x = 1 satisfies conditions 1 and 2, it is the (only) solution to the given equation.
EXAMPLE 6.3e: Solve the equation log32 (x − 1) − log3(x − 1) − 2 = 0
SOLUTION:
Condition: x − 1 > 0.
We note that log32 (x − 1) = (log3(x − 1))2.
Let log3(x − 1) = t.
We have the quadratic equation t2 − t − 2 = 0.
Solving for t we get t = −1 or t = 2.
Hence: log3(x − 1) = −1 or log3(x − 1) = 2.
Solving each of these two equations, we get: 3−1 = x − 1 or 32 = x − 1
4
x = 3 or x =10.
Since these two values satisfy the condition x −1 > 0 , they are both solutions to the given equation.

70
EXAMPLE 6.3f: Solve the equation ln x + ln 2x = eln1
SOLUTION:
Condition: x > 0.
First we note that eln1 = 1 (why?)
ln x + ln2x = eln1
ln x ⋅ 2x = 1 (why?)
2x2 = e
e
x2 = 2
e
x=± 2 √ e
√
Since x > 0 , the equation has only one solution: x = 2 .
Section 6.3
EXERCISES

1. Simplify the following expressions:
a. log3 �3 �3
3
58
b. log�325 − log37 81
log 8 + log 18
c. 2log10 2 + log10 3
10 10
d. log32 ⋅ log43 ⋅ log54 ⋅ log65 ⋅ log76 ⋅ log87 (Hint: Use the Change of Base Formula.)
2. U
se the Change of Base Formula and a calculator to evaluate the following logarithms, correct to four decimal
places:
a. log319
b. log23
a. log0.5x = −1
b. log22(x + 1) − log (x + 1) = 5
1
4
c. log2 x + log4x + log8 x = 11

4
d. log2 x + log 2 = 5
x
e. 2log10x − log104 = −log10(5 − x2)

f. lnx + logxe = 2

71
6.4 RADICAL EQUATIONS
The following are examples of radical equations:
6 �x + 5 = 2
6 �x − 4 + �2 − x = 1
6 �5x − 1 − x = 1
2
6 x + �x = 7
3 3
In all these equations, the variable x appears under the radical sign, and none of them is of the types we have
learned about so far. In this section of the resource guide, we will learn how solve such equations.
The fact that an equation includes a radical does not necessarily make it a radical equation. For example, the
following equations are not radical equations:
6 x − �2 = �5
6 x2 + 3�3 = 5
6 �x − 2x = 3
2
The first two are not radical because the variable x does not appear under the radical sign. The third equation is
not radical because it is equivalent to |x| − 2x = 3, which is not radical.
6.4.1 Method 1

One useful method for solving a radical equation of the form �u n
= �v
n
is to raise both sides of the equation to
the power n. In this way, we get a simpler equation of the form u = v. We must be careful, however, for the two
equations may not be equivalent. This is the case because not every solution to the second equation is necessarily
a solution to the first equation. For example, consider the following equation: �x + 2 = x.
1. Squaring both sides, we get x + 2 = x2
2. Solving this quadratic equation, we get two solutions: x = −1 and x = 2.
3. Note that while x = 2 is a solution to our equation, x = −1 is not.
Let’s demonstrate this method further by working through several examples:
EXAMPLE 6.4a: Solve the equation �5x − 1 − �3x − 2 = �2x + 1
SOLUTION: �5x − 1 − �3x − 2 = �2x + 1.

��5x − 1�2 − 2�5x − 1 ⋅ �3x − 2 + ��3x − 2�2 = ��2x + 1�2. Square both sides
5x − 1 − 2�(5x − 1)(3x − 2) + 3x − 2 = 2x + 1
8x − 3 − 2�(5x − 1)(3x − 2) = 2x + 1
− 2�(5x − 1)(3x − 2) = −6x + 4
2�(5x − 1)(3x − 2) = 6x − 4
�15x2 − 13x + 2 = 3x − 2
15x2 − 13x + 2 = 9x2 − 12x + 4 Square both sides
6x − x − 2 = 0
2

72
2 1
x = 3, x = − 2
1
x = − 2 cannot be a solution to our original equation because some of the expressions in the original equation
1
are not defined for this value. (For example, when x = − 2 is substituted in the expression �5x − 1, we get a
square root of a negative number.) On the other hand, all the expressions in our original equation are defined
2
for x = 3 .
2
Hence x = 3 is the only solution to our original equation.
EXAMPLE 6.4b: Solve the equation �x − 5 + �3 − x = 1.
SOLUTION:
��x − 5�2 + 2�x − 5 ⋅ �3 − x + ��3 − x�2 = 1 Square both sides
x − 5 + 2�x − 5 ⋅ �3 − x + 3 − x = 1
2�−x2 + 8x − 15 = 3

3
�−x2 + 8x − 15 = 2
9
−x2 + 8x − 15 = 4
4x2 − 32x + 69 = 0
This equation has no solution. Hence, our original equation too has no solution.
6.4.2 Method 2
Now we will learn a second method for solving radical equations. It is called solution by substitution.
EXAMPLE 6.4c: Solve the equation �(x

3
− 1)2 − �x
3
− 1 = 12.
SOLUTION: Note that if we let �x

3
− 1 = t, we will get the quadratic equation: t2 − t = 12.
Solving for t, we get that t = 4 or t = −3.
Therefore, �x
3
− 1 = 4 or �x
3
− 1 = −3.
Raising both sides of each equation to the third power, we get x − 1 = 64 or x − 1 = −27
x = 65 or x = −26.
By checking each of these values in the original equation, we can conclude that both x = 65 and x = −26 are
solutions to our equation.

73
Section 6.4
EXERCISES
a. �3 − 2x2 =1
b. �5 + 2x = 10 − 3�5
4
+ 2x
c. (x + 1)�x2 − x − 6 = 6x + 6
d. �x − 3 + �6 − x = �3
e. �x + �x + 11 + �x − �x + 11 = 4
f. �3x − 15 − 2x = 3 − �5 − x

74
Section 7
Inequalities
7.1 LINEAR INEQUALITIES
In Section 1, we listed the important set of properties of the real numbers concerning inequalities. These are:
1. For any two real numbers x and y, one and only one of the following is true: x < y , x = y , or x > y.
2. For any three real numbers x, y, and z, if x < y, y < z, then x < z.
3. For any three real numbers x, y, and z, if x < y then x + z < y + z.
4. For any three real numbers x, y, and z, if x < y and z > 0 , then zx < zy.
5. For any three real numbers x, y, and z, if x < y and z < 0 , then zx > zy.
These properties are needed to solve inequalities. Let’s consider a few examples:

EXAMPLE 7.1a: Solve the inequality 3x − 4 > 5.
We are asked to find the set of all numbers x that satisfy this inequality.
SOLUTION:
3x − 4 > 5 Add 4 to both sides of this inequality to get the following inequality:
3x > 9 Divide both sides of the inequality by 3 to get the following inequality:
x>3
The solution set consists of all the numbers that are greater than 3. For example, x = 4 satisfies the inequality
because 3 ⋅ 4 − 4 = 8 > 5. On the other hand, 2 does not satisfy the inequality because 3 ⋅ 2 − 4 = 2 < 5.
EXAMPLE 7.1b: Solve the inequality 8x − 2 > 2x − 3.
SOLUTION:
8x − 2 > 2x − 3 Add 2 to both sides of this inequality to get the following inequality:
8x > 2x − 1 Add −2x to both sides of this inequality to get the following inequality:
6x > − 1 Divide both sides of this inequality by 6 to get the following inequality:
1
x>−6
1
Thus, the solution set of the given inequality consists of all the numbers that are greater than − 6 .

75
EXAMPLE 7.1c: Solve the inequality −3x + 12 > 45.
SOLUTION:
−3x + 12 > 45 Add −12 to both sides of this inequality to get the following inequality:
−3x > 33 Divide both sides of the inequality by −3 to get the following inequality:
x < −11
If you feel you understand the process of solving an inequality, there is no need to explain each step. Nor is
there a need to say explicitly the meaning of the last expression. The answer x < −11 is understood to mean
“the solution set of the given inequality consists of all the numbers that are smaller than −11.”
1
EXAMPLE 7.1d: Solve the inequality 4(x − 12.5) ≤ 8x − 8 .
SOLUTION: You should justify each step in the following process on your own:
1
4(x − 12.5) ≤ 8x − 8
1
4(x − 50) ≤ 8x − 8
32x − 400 ≤ 64x − 1

−32x − 400 ≤ − 1
−32x ≤ 399
399 15
x ≥ − 32 = −12 32
EXAMPLE 7.1e: Solve the inequality 2(−x + 3) > −2x + 19.
SOLUTION:
2(−x + 3) > −2x + 19
−2x + 6 > −2x + 19
Look carefully at this inequality. Clearly, there is no number that satisfies it because if there were such a
number, then we would get 6 > 19 , which is not true. Thus, the given inequality has no solution.
EXAMPLE 7.1f: Solve the inequality −22(3x − 3) > −6(11x + 1) − 35.
SOLUTION:
−22(3x − 3) > −6(11x + 1) − 35
−66x + 66 > −66x − 6 − 35
−66x + 66 > −66x − 41
Since 66 > −41, the given inequality has infinitely many solutions: any number x satisfies it.

76
5(x − 3) > 3x − 7
EXAMPLE 7.1g: Solve the system of inequalities �
2x + 3 > 36 − x
SOLUTION: This time, we are looking for the set of all the numbers that satisfy two inequalities. We
maintain the two inequalities together while solving each separately:
5x − 15 > 3x − 7
�
2x + 3 > 36 − x
5x − 3x > −7 + 15
�
2x + x > 36 − 3
2x > 9
�
3x > 33
x > 4.5
�
x > 11
The solution set of the given system consists of all the numbers that are greater than 4.5 and greater than
11. Clearly, any number that is greater than 11 is also greater than 4.5. Thus, the solution set is the set all the
numbers x that are greater than 11. Or we simply write: x > 11.
Some linear inequalities involve absolute values. The absolute value of a number is the distance of the number
from zero on the number line. For example, the absolute value of 5, is 5, and the absolute value of −5 is also 5.
The absolute value of zero is obviously zero.

The absolute value of a number x is denoted by |x|. The absolute value of a number x depends on where x is
located on the number line: if x is located to right of 0, then |x| = x ; if x is located to left of 0, then |x| = −x; and if
x is zero, then |x| = 0 .
The above paragraph can be written in more compact form:
x if x > 0
|x| = � 0 if x = 0
−x if x < 0
The outputs of the absolute-value function y = |x| are always non-negative. Its graph consists of two linear
functions: y = x for x ≥ 0, and y = −x for x < 0. (See Figure 7–1.)
y=|x|
FIGURE 7–1
Figure 7–1
Let’s now solve a few linear inequalities involving absolute values.

77
D, CA
Let’s now solve a few linear inequalities involving absolute values.
EXAMPLE 7.1h: Solve |x| < 3.

–3 0 3
SOLUTION: We are looking for all the numbers x whose distance from zero is smaller than 3. The only
numbers x that satisfy this inequality are −3 < x < 3.
–3 0 3
EXAMPLE 7.1i: Solve |x| ≥ 6.
SOLUTION:
We are looking for all the numbers x whose distance from zero is greater than or equal to 6. The only
numbers x that satisfy this inequality are: x ≥ 6 or x ≤ −6.
–6 0 6

EXAMPLE 7.1j: Solve x + |x| < 2 .
–6 0 definition of absolute
SOLUTION: This inequality is a bit harder. The algebraic 6 value can be very helpful in
solving this kind of inequality. We will deal with two cases:
CASE 1: x ≥ 0.
1
In this case |x| = x , and so the given inequality is: x + x < 2
Solving:
1
2x < 2
1
x<4
1
So, when x ≥ 0 the solution of the given inequality is x < 4 .
1
Hence, any x where 0 ≤ x < 4 is a solution to the inequality.
CASE 2: x < 0.
1
In this case, |x| = −x , and so the given inequality is: x − x < 2 .
Solving:
1
0⋅x<2
1
We are looking for all the numbers x for which 0 ⋅ x < 2 . Obviously, any multiple of zero is zero, which is
1 1
less than 2 . Therefore, any number x satisfies the inequality 0 ⋅ x < 2 .

78
But, remember that we are dealing with the case x < 0. Hence the solution in this case is x < 0.
SUMMARIZING:
The solution to the given inequality consists of two sets of numbers:
1
The set of all the numbers x for which 0 ≤ x < 4
The set of all the numbers x for which x < 0.
Combining these two sets, we get:
1
The solution to the given inequality is x < 4 .
Section 7.1
EXERCISES
1. Solve the inequalities:
a. −3x + 21 > 0
b. 2(x − 2) − 5(1− 3x) < 2
c. �6(2 − x) ≥ 5 − 2x

2x
d. 3 − 1 < 3 − 2(1 − 2x)
3 − 7x x + 1 7 − 8x
e. 13 − 10 + 2 < 14 − 2
x 7 5x 7
2−4> 2 −8
f. �
2x + 1 1 − 2x
4 <5− 3
g. |x − 2| ≤ 5 − x
7.2 QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES

The following are examples of quadratic inequalities:
6 x2 − 3x + 6 < 0
6 5x2 < 125
6 (x − 3)(x + 5) > 0
6 −x2 − 3x ≤ 0
6 (−x + 5)(3 − x) ≤ 6

79
For example, the inequality −2 x 2 + 3 x − 9 > 0 can be changed into the second form by multiplying both
Any
Forquadratic
exampleinequality can be−brought
, the inequality 2 x 2 + 3 xby
− 9algebraic
> 02 can operations
be changed into onethe
into of second
two forms:
form by multiplying both
sides 2of the inequality by −1 . It becomes: 2 x − 3 x − 9 < 0 . (Note that , the coefficient of x 2 , is positive).
a
1. ax + bx + c > 0 and a > 0
sides of the inequality by −1 . It becomes: 2 x 2 − 3 x − 9 < 0 . (Note that a , the coefficient of x 2 , is positive).
2. ax2 + bx + c < 0 and a > 0
7 .2 .1 Inequalities of the Form ax + bx + c > 0 and a > 0
2
7 .2 .
For 1 Inequalities
example, of the
the inequality −2x2Form
+ 3x − ax
9 >20+canbxbe+ changed
c > 0 and intoathe
> second
0 form by multiplying both sides of
the inequality by −1 . It becomes: 2x − 3x − 9 < 0. (Note2 that a, the coefficient of x2, is positive).
2
We first observe that when a > 0 , the function ax + bx + c has a minimum. Next we ask: Does the
7.2.1 Inequalities
observe thatofwhen > 0 , the function
the aForm +axc +>
2
0 +and
And, ifax + bx a >does
We first 2 bx c has a0minimum. Next we ask: Does the
parabola intersect the x-axis? it does, at how many points it intersect the x-axis?
parabola intersect the x-axis? And, if it does,2 at how many points does it intersect the x-axis?
We first observe that when a > 0, the function ax + bx + c has a minimum. Next we ask: Does the parabola
intersect
Recall the
thatx-axis? And, to
the answer if itthese
does,questions
at how many pointsondoes
depends the itvalue
intersect thediscriminant
of the x-axis? ∆ = b2 − 4ac .
Recall that the answer to these questions depends on the value of the discriminant ∆ = b2 − 4ac .
Recall that the answer to these questions depends on the value of the discriminant Δ = b2 − 4ac.
Case1:1:
CASE When
When Δ =∆b=2 − − 4ac
b24ac < 0<and
0 and a >the
a > 0, 0 ,parabola
the parabola
does notdoes not intersect
intersect the and
the x-axis, x-axis, and like
it looks it looks
this: like
Case 1: When ∆ = b2 − 4ac < 0 and a > 0 , the parabola does not intersect the x-axis, and it looks like
this:
this:
- USAD,
Education
USAD CACACH
- China,
- USAD,
Figure 7–2
FIGURE 7–2
SKTUSAD
Figure 7–2
This implies that for any value of x , ax 2 + bx + c > 0 . Hence: When ∆ = b2 − 4ac < 0 and a > 0 , the
This implies
This thatthat
implies for any
for value of
any valuex, axof
2
+x bx
, ax+2 c+>bx0.+Hence:
c > 0 . When
Hence:Δ =When
b2 − 4ac
∆ =< b02and a ><0,0 the
− 4ac andsolution
a > 0 , tothe
the
2 the inequality ax + bx + c > 0 is −∞ < x < ∞ .
2
solution to
inequality ax + bx + c > 0 is −∞2 < x < ∞.
solution to the inequality ax + bx + c > 0 is −∞ < x < ∞ .
b b
CASE
Case2:2:When
When Δ ∆= =
b2b−2 4ac = 0,
− 4ac = 0the parabola
, the parabola touches the x-axis
touches at oneatpoint:
the x-axis x = − 2a
one point: x=− b
Case 2: When ∆ = b2 − 4ac = 0 , the parabola touches the x-axis at one point: x = − 2a
2a
bb
bb
2a
2a
2a
FIGURE 7–3
Figure 7–3
2a
Figure 7–3
2019–20202022–2023 Mathematics
Mathematics Resource Resource Guide
102 Guide Instructor's Manual
80
102
b b
This
This implies
implies thatthat forvalue
for any any of
value x that is
x thatofis different different
from + bx− +
− 2a , axfrom
2 , ax 2 + bx + c > 0 . Hence: When
2ac > 0. Hence: When Δ = b −b4ac = 0
2
∆ = b2 − 4ac = 0 and a > 0 , the solution to the inequality ax 2 + bx + c > 0b is any number x ≠ − .
and a > 0, the solution to the inequality ax2 + bx + c > 0 is any number x ≠ − 2a . 2a
CASE
Case3: When Δ = b2∆−=4ac
3: When b2 −> 40ac
and
> 0a >and
0, the
a >parabola
0 , the intersects
parabolatheintersects
x-axis at two
thepoints:
x-axis at two points:
−b − b2 − 4ac −b + b2 − 4ac
=
x1 −b−�b 2
− 4ac and x =
−b+�b
2
2
− 4ac .
x1 = 2a and x2 = 2a.
2a 2a
x < x1 x > x2
x1 x2
CA CH
FIGURE 7–4
- China,
Figure 7–4
This implies that for any value of x for which x > x2 or x < x1, ax2 + bx + c > 0.
- USAD,
0 andofa >x 0,for +2 + ++c >c >
2
This implies
Hence: When Δthat
= b2for any>value
− 4ac thewhich x >tox2the
solution x < x1 , axax
orinequality bxbx 0 .0 is x < x or x > x .
Education
1 2
Hence: When ∆ = b2 − 4ac > 0 and 2a > 0 , the solution to the inequality ax 2 + bx + c > 0 is x < x1 or
SKTUSAD
EXAMPLE 7.2a: Solve the inequality x + 6x > −10.
x > x2 .
SOLUTION: First we bring this inequality into standard form ax2 + bx + c > 0 by adding 10 to each side:
x2 + 6x + 10 > 0
We find the value Δ for x2 + 6x +10:
ExamplE 7.2a: Solve the inequality x 2 + 6 x > −10 .
Δ = 62 − 10 ⋅ 4 = 36 − 40 = −4 < 0.
Since a =1, the quadratic function has a minimum, and its graph is above the x-axis. Therefore, any real
number x satisfies the
Solution: given
First inequality.
we bring this inequality into standard form ax 2 + bx + c > 0 by adding 10 to
To show
each this,
side:we
x 2 +write: −∞><0x < ∞.
6 x + 10
We find the value ∆ for x 2 + 6 x + 10 :

EXAMPLE 7.2b: Solve x2 + 6x + 9 > 0.
∆ = 62 − 10
SOLUTION: We⋅ 4find
= 36
the− value
40 = −of4 < . x2 + 6x + 9
Δ 0for
Δ = 62 − 9 ⋅ 4 = 36 − 36 = 0.
Since a = 1 , the quadratic function has a minimum, and its graph is above the x-axis. Therefore,
Since a = 1, the graph of the quadratic function touches the x-axis from above at one point.
any this
To find realpoint,
number x satisfies
we solve: the+given
x2 + 6x 9 = 0.inequality.
Solving, we get x = −3.
To show this, we write: −∞ < x < ∞ .
This implies that any x ≠ –3 satisfies the given inequality.
2019–20202022–2023 Mathematics
Mathematics Resource
Resource Guide Guide Manual
Instructor's
103
81
EXAMPLE 7.2c: Solve x2 + 6x + 5 > 0.
SOLUTION: The value of Δ for x2 + 6x + 5 is Δ = 62 − 5 ⋅ 4 = 36 − 20 = 16 > 0

Since a = 1, the function has a minimum, and it intersects the x-axis at two points. These points are the
solutions to the equation x2 + 6x + 5 = 0.
Solving, we get:
−6±4
x= 2
x = −5
or
x = −1.
For x < −5 or x > −1, y = x2 + 6x + 5 is positive. –5 –1
7 .2 .2 Inequalities
Thus, the solution of thegiven
to the Form ax + bx
2
inequality + cset:< x0<and
is the −5 orax>> 0− 1.
Recall that when a > 0 the function ax 2 + bx + c has a minimum. As before we ask: Does the parabola
7.2.2 Inequalities of the Form ax + bx + c < 0 and a > 0
2
intersect the x-axis, and if it does, at how many points does it intersect the x-axis?
Recall that when a > 0 the function ax2 + bx + c has a minimum. As before we ask: Does the parabola intersect
the x-axis, and if it does, at how many points does it intersect the x-axis?

The answer to this question depends on the value of the discriminant ∆ = b2 − 4ac . As before, we have
The answer to this question depends on the value of the discriminant Δ = b2 − 4ac. As before, we have three
three cases:
cases:
CASE
Case 1: 1: When∆Δ==b2b2−−4ac
When 4ac<<00, the parabola
, the parabola does
doesnot
notintersect
intersectthe
thex-axis, asas
x-axis, is is
shown in in
shown Figure 7–5.7–5.
Figure
USAD - USAD, CA
FIGURE 7–5
Figure 7–5
This implies that there is no x for which ax2 + bx + c < 0. Hence: When Δ = b2 − 24ac < 0 and a > 0, the inequality
2 implies that there is no x for which ax + bx + c < 0 . Hence: When ∆ = b − 4ac < 0 and a > 0 , the
2
This
ax + bx + c < 0 has no solution.
inequality ax 2 + bx + c < 0 has no solution.
b
CASE 2: When Δ = b2 − 4ac = 0, the parabola touches the x-axis at one point: − 2a
b
Case 2: When ∆ = b2 − 4ac = 0 , the parabola touches the x-axis at one point: x = −
2a

82
2a
b
Case 2: When ∆ = b − 4ac = 0 , the parabola touches the x-axis at one point: x = −
2
2a
b
–
2a
b
Figure
– 7–6
2a
This implies that there is no x for which ax 2 +FIGURE Figure

bx .7–6
+ c < 07–6Hence: When ∆ = b2 − 4ac = 0 and a > 0 , the
Case 3: When
This implies ∆=
that b −is4no
2
there ac x> for
0 , the
whichparabola
ax2 + bxintersects the x-axis
+ c < 0. Hence: Whenat two
Δ = bpoints:
2
− 4ac = 0 and a > 0, the inequality
inequality ax 2 + bx + c < 0 has no solution. 2
ax
This
2
+ bx + c 2< that
implies 0 hasthere is no x for which
no solution. ax + bx + c < 0 . Hence: When ∆ = b2 − 4ac = 0 and a > 0 , the
−b − b − 4ac −b + b2 − 4ac
x1 = 3: When2∆ = band x2 => 0 , the parabola. intersects the x-axis at two points:
b2−c−4<ac
2
Case
CASE 2aax +Δbx
3: When
inequality =+ 0 has
4ac > 0no solution.
, the
2aparabola intersects the x-axis at two points:
b − b2−−4ac
−−b−�b −b+�b2 −b4ac
2
=2 = −b + Mathematics
− .4ac
2
4acand x2019–2020
xx1 1== 2a and 2 x 2a . Resource Guide Instructor's Manual
2a 2a 105

x1 < x < x2
x1 x2
x1 < x < x2
x1 x2
Figure 7–7
This implies that for any value of x between FIGURE and x27–7
xFigure
1 ax 2 + bx + c < 0 . Hence: When ∆ = b2 − 4ac > 0
, 7–7
and > 0 , thethat
Thisa implies solution
for anytovalue
the inequality ax x2 +and
of x between bx +x c, ax
< 02 +isbx
x1 +< cx << 0.x2Hence:
. When Δ = b2 − 4ac > 0 and a > 0,
1 2
This implies that for any value of x between x and
the solution to the inequality ax + bx + c < 0 is 1x < x <2 x .
2 x , ax 2
+ bx + c < 0 . Hence: When ∆ = b2 − 4ac > 0
1 2
and a > 0 , the solution to the inequality ax 2 + bx + c < 0 is x1 < x < x2 .
USAD - USAD, CA
EXAMPLE
ExamplE 7.2d: Solve
7.2d: the inequality
Solve x2 + 8x
the inequality x 2 + 818x +<18
0. < 0 .
SOLUTION: Δ = 82 −18 ⋅ 4 = 64 − 72 = −8 <2 0

ExamplE 7.2d: Solve the inequality2 x + 8 x + 18 < 0 .
Solution:
Therefore, ∆ = 8of
the graph
2
−the ⋅ 4 = 64 −y72
18 function == x −+88x< 0+ 18 does not intersect the x-axis. Since a = 1, the graph is
above the x-axis.
Therefore,the
Therefore,
Solution: thegiven
graphinequality
of the function
∆ = 82 − 18 ⋅ 4 =has
y==−x82 <+ 08 x + 18 does not intersect the x-axis. Since a = 1 , the
64 −no72solution.
graph is above the x-axis.
Therefore, the graph of the function y = x 2 + 8 x + 18 does not intersect the x-axis. Since a = 1 , the
Therefore, the given
graph is above inequality has no solution.
the x-axis.
Therefore, the given inequality has no solution.

ExamplE 7.2e: Solve the inequality x 2 + 8 x + 1683
< 0.
EXAMPLE 7.2e: Solve the inequality x2 + 8x + 16 < 0.
Solution: Δ = 82 − 16 ⋅ 4 = 64 − 64 = 0
Therefore, the graph of the function y = x2 + 8x + 16 touches the x-axis at one point.
Since a = 1, the graph is above the x-axis.
Hence, the given inequality has no solution.
EXAMPLE 7.2f: Solve the inequality x2 + 8x + 7 < 0.
SOLUTION: Δ = 82 − 7 ⋅ 4 = 64 − 28 = 36 > 0
Therefore, the graph of the function y = x2 + 8x + 16 intersects the x-axis at two points. These points are the
solutions to the equation x2 + 8x + 7 = 0.
Solving, we get
−8±6
x= 2
x = −7
or

x = −1
Since a = 1, the function y = x2 + 8x + 16 has a minimum.
Hence, for −7 < x < −1 the inequality holds.
Section 7.2
EXERCISES
1. Solve the inequalities:
a. x2 − 5x + 6 < 0
b. 4x2 − 4x + 1 ≤ 0
c. 81 − (3 + 2x)2 < 0
d. 3 + 2x ≤ x2
e. 5 − x2 ≥ − 4x
3
f. 2x − 1 > 0
2x − 9
g. x − 6 < 1
2. Find the domain of the following functions:
a. y = �(3x − 2)(x − 5)
1
b. y =
�112x + 64 + 49x2

84
enting a geometric object can reveal important properties of the geometric object. The m
tric object is the point. A basic idea of coordinate geometry is the creation of a corresp
en the set of all ordered pairs of real numbers and the set of all points in the plane: For a
Section 8
plane, there corresponds exactly one ordered pair of real numbers ( x, y ) , and, conversely
Coordinate Geometry
d pair of real numbers ( x, y ) , there corresponds exactly one point in the plane.
THE PYTHAGOREAN THEOREM

The goal of coordinate geometry is to describe geometric objects, such as lines and circles, algebraically
through equations (and sometimes through inequalities). In this way, an investigation of an equation representing
a geometric object can reveal important properties of the geometric object. The most basic geometric object
is the point. A basic idea of coordinate geometry is the creation of a correspondence between the set of all
we startordered
withpairs
coordinate geometry,
of real numbers we
and the set of all will
pointsfirst
in the prove
plane: Foran
anyancient
point in thetheorem, called the
plane, there corresponds Pyth
exactly one ordered pair of real numbers (x, y), and, conversely, for any ordered pair of real numbers (x, y), there
em. We will needexactly
corresponds this theorem toplane.
one point in the prove the distance formula.
8.1 THE PYTHAGOREAN THEOREM
gorean Theorem: Inwith
Before we start a right triangle,
coordinate geometry,the square
we will ofanthe
first prove hypotenuse
ancient theorem, calledisthe
the sum of the squar
Pythagorean
Theorem. We will need this theorem to prove the distance formula.

wo sidesPythagorean
of the triangle.
Theorem: In a right triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is the sum of the squares of the other
two sides of the triangle.
PROOF: Consider a right triangle with sides a and b and hypotenuse c as shown in Figure 8–1 below. We are to
of: Consider a right
prove that a2 + b2 =triangle
c2. with sides a and b and hypotenuse c as shown in Figure 8–
e to prove that a 2 + b 2 = c 2 .
c
a
b
FIGURE 8–1
Figure 8–1
Four copies of the right triangle are assembled to form Figure 8–2. In this figure we have two squares: the outer
square with side a + b, and the inner square with side c.
copies of the right triangle are assembled to form Figure 8–2 .below.
In Figure 8–2figure
In this we have
we
es: the outer square with side a + b , and the inner square with side c .
2019–2020 Mathematics ResourceResource

2022–2023 Mathematics GuideGuide
Instructor's Manual
85
109
c
Four copies of the right triangle are assembled to form Figure 8–2 below. In this figure we have two
a
squares: the outer square with side a + b , and the inner square with side c .
a c b b
b
b c a
a
Figure 8–2 c
Let A be the area of the outer square: On the one hand, A = (a + b) 2 . On the other hand, A is the sum
c
1 
of the areas of the four triangles anda the area of the inner square. That is: A = 4  ab  + c 2
c 2 
b
1 
Therefore, (a + b) 2 = 4  ab  + c 2 .
2  b a
This leads to: a 2 + 2ab + b 2 = 2ab + c 2 FIGURE 8–2
Figure 8–2
Let A be the area of the outer square: On the one hand, A =2 (a + b) 2 . On the other hand, A is the sum
LetaA2 be
Hence: + bthe
2 area
= c 2 ,ofasthe outer
was square: On the one hand, A = (a + b) . On the other hand, A is the sum of the areas
required.
of the areas of the four triangles and the area of the inner square. 1 That is: A = 4  1 ab  + c 2
of the four triangles and the area of the inner square. That is: A = 4� 2 ab�+ c2. 2 
The Converse of the Pythagorean2 1 1  2 Theorem: If the square of one side of a triangle is equal to the sum of
(a +(ab)+2 b=)4�=24ab�+
Therefore,
Therefore,  ab c2. + c .
the squares of the other two  2sides,
 then the triangle is a right triangle.

This leads to: a2 + 2ab + b 2
= 2ab + c2
This leads to: a 2 + 2ab + b 2 = 2ab + c 2
Hence: a2 + b2 = c2, as was required.
Proof: Let ABC be a triangle such that
The Converse
Hence: a 2 + bof2 =the
c 2 Pythagorean Theorem: If the square of one side of a triangle is equal to the sum of the
, as was required.
(1) AC 2
+ BC
squares
2
= other
of the AB 2 .two sides, then the triangle is a right triangle.
PROOF: Let ABC
The Converse of be
thea Pythagorean
triangle such Theorem:
that If the square of one side of a triangle is equal to the sum of
(1)
toAC
We arethe 2
prove+ BC 2
that=CAB=2.90° .
squares of the other two sides, then the triangle is a right triangle.
We are to prove that C = 90°.
Construct
Construct a triangle
Proof: AB
a triangle
Let ABC ′C asuch
AB′C
be such that B′Cisthat
thatB′C
triangle such perpendicular
is to ACtoand
perpendicular ACB′C
and B′Cas=isBC
= BC, shown
, as in
is Figure
shown8–3:
in Figure 8–3:
(1) AC 2 + BC 2 = AB 2 . A
We are to prove that C = 90° .
Construct a triangle AB′C such that B′C is perpendicular to AC and B′C = BC , as is shown in Figure 8–3:
A
B' C B
FIGURE 8–3
Figure 8–3
Since triangle AB′C is a right triangle, according to the Pythagorean Theorem,

(2) AC2 + B'C2 = AB'2 B' C B
Since B′C = BC, we get Figure 8–3

(3) AC + BC = AB'2
2 2
110
2022–2023
Mathematics ResourceResource Guide
Guide Instructor's Manual
86110
SoluTion: In Figure 8–4, QL ⊥ PR
SoluTion: In Figure 8–4, QL ⊥ PR
From (1) and (3), we get AB′ = AB. 2 2
By the
The triangles ABC and AB′C arePythagorean Theorem,
congruent by the side-side-side = QLcongruence
PQtriangle 2 + PL 2 theorem (SSS).
By the Pythagorean Theorem, PQ = QL + PL
Hence C' = C = 90°.
QL = x1 − x2
This completes the proof.
QL = x1 − x2
8.2 POINTS PL = y1 − y2
PL = yGiven
Distance between two points: 1 − y2 two points P(x , y ) and Q(x , y ), find the distance d between them.
1 2 2 2
SOLUTION: In FigureTherefore d=
8–4, QL ⊥ PR ( x1 − x2 ) 2 + ( y1 − y2 ) 2
2 2
Therefore d = 2 ( x1 −2 x2 ) + ( y1 − y2 )
By the Pythagorean Theorem, PQ = � QL + PL
QL = x1 − x2 This is called the distance formula.
PL = y1 − y2 This is called the distance formula. yy
yy
Therefore d = �(x1 − x2)2 + (y1 − y2)2
This is called the distance formula.
xx 1
xx 1
1 P
1 P
dd
d
yy11
xx22 yy

xx22 Q
L11
L
yy22
Q
yy22
0 xx
0 R xx
R
FIGURE
Figure 8–4 8–4
Midpoint: Given two points P ( x1 , y1 ) and Q( x2 , y2 ) , find the midpoint M (Figure
x, y ) between
8–4 them.
Midpoint: Given two points P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) , find the midpoint M(x, y) between them.
SoluTion:
SOLUTION: WeWe solve
solve thisthis problem
problem for the the2019–2020
forcase case where
where Mathematics
the
the segmentsegment not Resource
PQ is PQ is Guide
not parallel
parallel to the Instructor's
to the
y-axis y-axis
(see (see Manual
Figure
8–5). You can
Figure pursue
8–5). You the
cancase where
pursue thePQ is where
case parallelPQ
to the y-axis on
is parallel toyour own ason
the y-axis
111 own as an
anyour
independent exercise.
independent
exercise. yy
xx
O
P
P1 (x
(x 1,, 0)
0) M
M11 (x,
(x 0)
, 0) Q
Q1 (x(x2, 0)
, 0)
1 1 1 2
FIGURE 8–5
Figure 8–5
y-axis, x1 ≠Mathematics
Since PQ is not parallel to the 2022–2023 x2 . Resource Guide
87
From the points P, Q, and M, drop lines parallel to the y-axis, and let P1 ( x1 , 0) , Q1 ( x2 , 0) , and M 1 ( x, 0)
be the intersections of these lines with the x-axis, respectively.
Since PQ is not parallel to the y-axis, x1 ≠ x2.

From geometry, we know that the point M 1 is the midpoint of PQ 1 1 . This implies that PM 1 1 = M 1Q1 .
From the points P, Q, and M, drop lines parallel to the y-axis, and let P1(x1 ,0), Q1(x2 ,0), and M1(x, 0) be the
intersections of these lines with the x-axis, respectively.
Therefore, x − x1 = x − x2 .
From geometry, we know that the point M1 is the midpoint of P1Q1 . This implies that P1M1 = M1Q1 .
Therefore,
Solving |x
for−xx,1|we
= |xget
− xeither
2
|. x − x1 = x − x2 , which is not possible since x1 ≠ x2 , or x − x1 = −( x − x2 ) , which
Solving for x , we getx1 either
+ x2 x − x1 = x − x2, which is not possible since x1 ≠ x2, or x − x1 = −(x − x2), which implies
implies that x = .
x1 + x2 2
that x = 2 .
y + y2  x + x2 y1 + y2 
In a similar way, we find that y = 1 . Thus, M  1 ;  is the midpoint between P ( x1 , y1 )
y1 + y2 2 x + x y1
+ y22 2 
In a similar way, we find that 2 . Thus, M� 2 , 2 � is the midpoint
1 2
between P(x1 , y1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 ).
and Q( x2 , y2 ) .
Dividing a Segment into a Given ratio: Given two points P(x1 , y1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 ), find the point C on the
Dividing a SegmentPC into amGiven ratio: Given two points P ( x1 , y1 ) and Q( x2 , y2 ) , find the point C on the
segment PQ such that = n , where m and n are two positive integers.
CQ PC m
segment PQ such that = , where m and n are two positive integers.
CQ n P1C1 m
SOLUTION: Let C(x, y) be the point on the segment PQ such that = (see Figure 8–6).
C1Q1 nPC m
SoluTion: Let C ( x, y ) be the y point on the segment PQ such that = (see Figure 8–6).
CQ n
y parallel to the y-axis, and let P (x , 0), Q (x, 0), C (x, 0) be the
From the points P, C, and Q, drop lines 1 1 1 1
From the points P, C, and Q, drop lines parallel to the y-axis, andPlet C x1 , 0), Q1 ( x2 , 0), C1 ( x, 0) be the
1 1 P1 (PC
intersections of these lines with the x-axis.
y From geometry, we know that = .
C1Q1 PC CQ PC

intersections of these lines with the x-axis. From geometry, we know that 1 1
= .
Q C1Q1 CQ
Q
C
C
Q
P
P C
P xx
PP1 (x1, 0) C1 (x,
(x 0)
, 0) Q
Q1 (x2, 0)
1
(x 1 , 0) 1
1
(x , 0)
2 xx
PP1 (x1, 0) C1 (x,
(x 0)
, 0) Q
Q1 (x2, 0)
1
(x 1 , 0) 1 (x , 0)
1 2
Figure 8–6 xx
PP1 (x1, 0) C1 (x,
(x 0)
, 0) Q
Q1 (x2, 0)
1
(x 1
, Figure
0) 1 8–6
1
(x , 0)
2
Therefore, FIGURE 8–6

Figure 8–6
Therefore,
x − x1 m
Therefore, =
xxx2−−xx1m= m
x +Therefore, n
1
=
x2 −x2x− xn n
nx(−x −x x )m = m( x − x )
n(x − x1)1 ==1 m(x2 − 2x)
nx( x−−xx1 ) n= m( x2 − x)
nx −2 nx1 = mx2 − mx
x(nnx − nx=1 nx
= mx − mx
USAD - USAD, CA
n+( xm)
− x1 ) =1m+(2mx
x2 −2 x)
nx − nx1 = mx2 − mx
nx + mx
x = n1 + m 2
x(n + m) = nx + mx
nx − nx1 = mx21 − mx2 ny + my
x(n + m) = nx + mx2
In a similar way,1 we find that y = n1 + m 2 .
nx + mx
x = nx1 + mx2
x(n + m ) = nx + mx2
x = n1 + m 2 1
n+m
ny1 + my2
In a nx1 + mxway,
similar we find that y =2022–2023
nyn1 ++ my .Mathematics Resource Guide
x= 2
m 2.
In a similar
n+m way, we find that y = 88
n+m
 nx1 + mx2 ny1 + my2 
nx + mx ny + my
Thus, C� n1 + m 2 , n1 + m 2 �.
8.3 LINES
In the previous section, we dealt with points in the plane. In this section, we will deal with straight lines. We will
begin with the following problem:
Perpendicular Bisector: Let P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) be two points in the plane, and let l be the perpendicular
bisector of the segment PQ.1 Find the equation of l.
yy
l
P (xx11,, yy11 ) A (xx,, yy)
Q (x
(x2, yy22))

O
xx
FIGURE 8–7
Figure 8–7
SOLUTION:
SoluTion: AnyAny pointAA(x,
point ( x, yy))isisonon
thethe
perpendicular bisectorbisector
perpendicular l ifif and
l if and only it is equidistant
only if itfrom P and Q.
is equidistant from
P andByQthe
. distance formula,
AP = �(x − x1)2 + (y − y1)2
By theAQ
distance
= �(x − xformula,
)2 + (y − y )2
2 2
AP = Thus, x1 ) 2y)+is(on
( x −A(x, y −l ify1and
) 2 only if
�(x − x1)2 + (y − y1)2 = �(x2 − x2)2 + (y − y2)2 .
AQ = ( x − x2 ) + ( y − y2 )
2
Squaring both sides and expanding, we get x2 − 2x1x + x12 + y2 − 2y1 y + y12 = x2 − 2x2 x + x22 + y2 − 2y2 y + y22. The
last equation is equivalent to 2(x2 − x1)x + 2(y2 − y1)y = x22 + y22 − x12 − y12.
Thus, A( x, y ) is on l if and only if
Thus, we have obtained a formula for the equation of the perpendicular bisector of a segment given by its
( x −endpoints − y1, y)12) and
x ) 2 + ( yP(x ( x −2, xy2).) 2The
= Q(x + ( formula
y − y ) 2is.2(x2 − x1)x + 2(y2 − y1)y = x2 + y2 − x1 − y1 .
2 2 2 2
1 1 2 2
Squaring both sides and expanding, we get x 2 − 2 x1 x + x12 + y 2 − 2 y1 y + y12 = x 2 − 2 x2 x + x2 2 + y 2 − 2 y2 y + y2 2.
The last equation is equivalent to 2( x2 − x1 ) x + 2( y2 − y1 ) y = x2 2 + y2 2 − x12 − y12 .

1
The perpendicular bisector of the segment PQ is the line that goes through the midpoint of PQ and is perpendicular to PQ.
Thus, we have obtained a formula for the equation of the perpendicular bisector of a segment given by its
x2 − x1 ) x + 2( y2 − y1 ) y = x2 2 + y2 2 − x12 − y12 .
endpoints P ( x1 , y1 ) and Q( x2 , y2 ) . The formula is 2(89
1
EXAMPLE 8.3a: Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of P(2,− 3) and Q(− 2 , 5).
SOLUTION: The equation of the perpendicular bisector of the given segment PQ is:
1 1
2(− 2 − 2)x + 2(5 − (−3))y = (− 2 )2 + 52 − 22 − (−3)2.
49
Simplifying, we get −5x + 16y = 4 .
Multiplying both sides by 4, we get that the equation of the perpendicular bisector of PQ is −20x + 64y = 49.
The formula we have obtained for a perpendicular bisector will help prove several important theorems. The first
of these theorems concerns the equation of a line in the plane:
THEOREM 1: A line in the plane has the equation ax + by + c = 0, where a, b, c are real numbers, and a and b
are not both zero.
PROOF: Let l be a line in the plane, and regard l as the perpendicular bisector of a certain segment, say, PQ. Let
(x1, y1) and (x2, y2) be the coordinates of P and Q, respectively.
By the Perpendicular Bisector Formula, l has the equation 2(x2 − x1)x + 2( y2 − y1 )y = x22 + y22 − x12 − y12.

Let a = 2(x2 − x1), b = 2( y2 − y1 ), and c = −(x22 + y22 − x12 − y12).
We get that l has the equation ax + by + c = 0.
Now, we must show that a and b are not both zero. This is easy: notice that since P and Q are different points,
x2 − x1 ≠ 0 or y2 − y1 ≠ 0. Hence, a and b cannot both be zero.
EXAMPLE 8.3b: Find the equation of the line that goes through the points A(−2, 3) and B(0, 4).
SOLUTION: Let ax + by + c = 0 be the equation of the line through A and B. Recall that a and b are not both
zero.
Since A and B are on the line, their coordinates satisfy this equation. Namely:
(1) −2a + 3b + c = 0
(2) 0 + 4b + c = 0
Solving for a and b in terms of c, we get the following equation:
c c
(3) 8 x − 4 y + c = 0.
Multiplying both sides of the equation (3) by 8 and then dividing both sides by c, we get that the equation of
the line that goes through the points A(−2, 3) and B(0, 4) is x − 2y + 8 = 0.
Since we divided both sides by c, we must show that that c ≠ 0. Indeed, if c = 0 then from equation (2) we get
b = 0, and so from equation (1) a = 0. But a and b are not both zero. Hence, c ≠ 0.

90
8.3.1 Slope Form
a c
When b ≠ 0, we can write the equation of a line ax + by + c = 0 as y = − b x − b .
a c
If we denote − b = m and − b = d, we get the equation y = mx + d.
A line whose equation is of the form y = mx + d cannot be vertical; that is, it cannot be parallel to the y-axis. The
reason is simple: there are no two distinct points with the same x -coordinate that satisfy this equation. Take two
distinct points with the same x -coordinate: A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ). Since y1 ≠ y2 , it is not possible that y1 = mx1 +
d and y2 = mx1 + d.
The equation y = mx + d is called the slope-intercept form of a line. The reason for this name has to do with the
geometric meanings of the coefficients m and d.
Take any two distinct points A(x1, y1 ) and B(x2, y2 ) on the line whose equation is y = mx + d. Clearly,
(1) y1 = mx1 + d
(2) y2 = mx2 + d
First note that x1 ≠ x2. It is so because if x1 = x2 , then from equations (1) and (2), y1 = y2 , which implies that
A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ) are the same points. But, we are given that they are distinct points.
Now, subtracting equation (1) from equation (2), we get
(3) y2 − y1 = m(x2 − x1 ).

y −y
Since x1 ≠ x2 , we divide both sides of equation (3) by x2 − x1 to get m = − x2 − x1 .
2 1
Thus, m is independent of the choice of the points A(x1 , y1) and B(x2 , y2 ) on the line. m is called the slope of the
line. It is also called the rise over run. Geometrically, m represents the “steepness” of the line: the larger |m| is,
the steeper the line is.
Now, in the equation y = mx + d what does d represent?
Note that for x = 0 , y = d. Thus, d is the y-intercept—it is the point where the line intersects the y-axis. The
equation y = mx + d has an advantage over the equation ax + by + c = 0: the values m and d tell us how the line is
positioned in the coordinate system. The equation y = mx + d is called the slope form of a line.
8.3.2 Point–Point Form

Determining a line by two points. The equation of a non-vertical line that goes through two distinct points
y −y
P(x1 , y1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 ) is y − y1 = x2 − x1 (x − x1).
2 1
PROOF: Let l be the line through P(x1 , y1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 ). We have seen that l has the equation y = mx + d,
y −y
where m = x2 − x1 . Hence l has the equation:
2 1
y −y
(1) y = x2 − x1 x + d.
2 1
Since P(x1 , y1 ) is on l, its coordinates satisfy equation (1). Namely:
y −y
(2) y1 = x2 − x1 x1 + d
2 1

91
y −y
(3) d = y1 x2 − x1 x1
2 1
Substituting for d in equation (1), we get

y −y y −y
(4) y = x2 − x1 x + y1 − x2 − x1 x1
2 1 2 1
y −y
Moving y1 to the left-hand side and factoring out x2 − x1 , we get
2 1
y2 − y1
(5) y − y1 = x − x (x − x1).
2 1
Theorem 1 asserts that any line in the plane has an equation of the form ax + by + c = 0. What about the converse
of this theorem? Namely: Does every equation of the form ax + by + c = 0 represent a line?
The following theorem answers this question affirmatively.
THEOREM 2: The graph of the equation ax + by + c = 0, where a and b are not both zero, is a line.
PROOF: Consider first the case where b ≠ 0 .
a c
Recall that in this case the equation ax + by + c = 0 had the form y = mx + d, where m = − b and d = − b .
A graph of an equation is the set of all points (x, y) that satisfy the equation. Let γ be the graph of the equation
y = mx + d.

We will show that there exists a line l that has this equation. This will prove that γ and l are identical.
Hence, γ is a line.
c a c
Take any two distinct points on γ. For simplicity’s sake, we will take the points A�0, − b � and B�1, − b − b �.
(Check that these points are indeed on γ.)
Let l be the line between A and B. Using the Point-Point Form, the equation of l is
a c c
�− b − b � − �− b �
c
y= x− b .
1−0
a c
Simplifying, we get y = − b x − b .
So, the graph γ and the line l have exactly the same equation.
You can work through the case where b = 0 as an exercise on your own.
Position of a line. How does the position of the line whose equation is ax + by + c = 0 depend on the coefficients
a, b, and c?
SOLUTION: We will distinguish among several cases:
CASE 1: a = 0 and b ≠ 0.
c
In this case, the equation of the line is y = − b . (See Figure 8–8.) This line is parallel to the x-axis and passes
c
through the point (0, − b ). (Why?)

92
c bb
passesthrough
passes throughthe
thepoint (0,−−c ) )(Why?)
point(0, (Why?)
bb
yy
O
xxxx
O
yy==–c/b
–c/b
B (0,–c/b)
–c/b)
–c/b)
B (0, –c/b)
Figure 8–8
FIGURE 8–8
Figure 8–8
CaSe
CaSeCASE a ≠ 0 and
2:2:a ≠2:0a ≠and bb=b=0=0. 0.
0 and .
c c
In this case, the equation of the line is x = −
lineisisxx==−a−c. (See Figure 8–9.) This line is parallel to the y-axis and passes

Inthis
In thiscase,
case,the
theequation
equationofofthe theline . .(See
(SeeFFigure
igure 8–9.) This line is parallel to the y-axis and
8–9.) This line is parallel to the y-axis and
c c a a
through the point (− a , 0). c(Why?)
passes
passes through
through thepoint
the point (−(− , 0), 0)(Why?)
(Why?)
aa yy
= – c/a yy Resource Guide Instructor's Manual
2019–2020x Mathematics
x = – c/a 118
O x
A O
(–c/a, 0)
(–c/a, x
A (–c/a,
(–c/a, 0)
Figure 8–9
FIGURE 8–9
Figure 8–9
CaSe 3: c =
CASE 3: 0c .= 0.
CaSe 3: c = 0 .
In this case, the equation of the line is ax + by = 0. (See Figure 8–10.) This line goes through the origin. (Why?)
In this case, the equation of the line is ax + by = 0 . (See Figure 8–10.) This line goes through the origin
(Why?) yy
(Why?) yy

93
(Why?) yy
(Why?) yy
ax + by = 0
ax + by = 0
O
O x
x
Figure 8–10
FIGURE
Figure 8–10
8–10
8 .3 .3 Slope–Point
8.3.3 Form
Slope–Point Form
Determining
Determining a line
a line by by slope
slope and and onepoint.
one point.The
The equation
equation ofofa line withwith
a line slopeslope
m thatm
passes
thatthrough
passesthe point the
through
P (x , y ) is y − y = m(x − x ).

Determining
1 1 1 a line by 1 slope and
1 one point. The equation of a line with slope m that passes through the
point P1 ( x1 , y1 ) is y − y1 = m( x − x1 ) .
pointPROOF:
P1 ( x1 , yRecall that the slope of a line is independent of the two distinct points we choose on the line to
1 ) is y − y1 = m( x − x1 ) .
calculate it.
Proof: Recall that the slope of a line is independent ofythe − y1two distinct points we choose on the line
Let P(x,
Proof: y) be any
Recall thatpoint
the on the line
slope of aother
linethan P1(x1 , y1 ). Then
is independent ofxthe = m. distinct points we choose on the line
− x1two
to calculate it.
Multiplying
to calculate it. by x − x1 we get: y − y1 = m(x − x1 ).
y − y1
Let 8.3.4
P ( x, y )Mutual Positions
be any point on the of Lines
line other than P1 ( x1 , y1 ) . Then
2019–2020 Mathematics Resource Guide Instructor's y − y = m . Manual
Let P ( x, y ) be any point on the line other than P1 ( x1 , y1 ) . Then x − x11 = m .
119
If we are given two lines by their equations, can we determine whether
x −the
x1 lines are parallel to each other? Can
we determine whether they are perpendicular to each other? The following two theorems answer these questions.
THEOREM 4: Let l1 and l2 be two distinct lines, whose equations are y = m1x + d1 and y = m2 x + d2,
respectively. l1 and l2 are parallel if and only if m1 = m2 .
PROOF: Let m1 = m2 = m. Then, the equations of l1 and l2 are, respectively, y = mx + d1 and y = mx + d2.
Since the two lines are different, d1 ≠ d2.
Clearly, there is no ordered pair (x, y) that satisfies both equations. (Why?)
Hence, l1 and l2 have no point in common.
This proves that l1 and l2 are parallel.
Now let l1 and l2 be two distinct parallel lines. Therefore, the equations of these lines do not have any common
solution.
Therefore, when subtracting the two equations, we get that the equation 0 = (m2 − m1 )x + (d2 − d1 ) has no solution.
Since this equation has no solution, m1 = m2.

94
1 2 1 1
Proof: Let P1 ( x1 , y1 ) and P2 ( x2 , y2 ) be two distinct points on l1 . Then, the slope of l1 1is
y = m2 x + d 2 , respectively. l1 and l2 are perpendicular to each other if and only if m2 = − .
m1
y −y d1 − d2
m1 = 2 1 (Note that x2 − x1 ≠ 0 .)
This Proof:
is so because
x1 if
x2 −Let P1 (mx11 ,≠y1m) 2and
, thenP2this
( x2 ,equation does
y2 ) be two have apoints
distinct solution.
on lIt
1 . Then, m m . of l1 is
is x = the−slope
2 1
THEOREM 5: Let l1 andthe l2 beperpendicular
two lines withbisector
non-zero
l ' slopes whose equations are y = m1x + d1 and
We havey − yseen that of P1 P2 has the equation 2( x2 − x1 ) x + 2( y2 − y1 ) y =
m1 2= 2 2 1 (Note that x 2 − x1 ≠ 0 .) 1
y = m2xx2 ++dx2y2,2−respectively.
−x1 x12 − y12 . l1 and l2 are perpendicular to each other if and only if m2 = − .
m 1
We have seen that the perpendicular2(bisector x − x1 ) l 'points
x −Px11P2 lhas
of 1 the equation 2( x2 − x1 ) x +y2( − y1 y1 ) y =
2 y2 −
PROOF: From Let P1(xthe, yslope
) andofP2l(x
' 2is, ym2 ')=be− two2 distinct= − 2 on = 1−. Then,
. the slope of l1 is m1 = x − x (Note that
2here,2 1 12
x2 − xx12 ≠+0.)y2 − x1 − y1 .
2
2( y2 − y1 ) y2 − y1 m1 2 1
We have Fromseen geometry, we can conclude

that the perpendicular that l1l'isofperpendicular
bisector to l2 if and
2(x2only if +l ' is
2(parallel
y2 − y1 )to l2 .x 2 + y 2 − x 2
2( x2 − x1 )P1P2 has
x2 − the
x1 equation
1 − x1)x y= 2 2 1
− y12.From here, the slope of l ' is m ' = − 2( y − y ) = − y − y = − m . 1
On the other hand, l ' is parallel to l2 if 2 and 1 only if
2
m2 1= m2′ =1 − .
From geometry, we can conclude 2(x2 −that x1 ) l1 is perpendicular
x2 − x1 1 to l2 if and
m1 only if l ' is parallel to l2 .
From here, the slope of l' is m' = 2(y − y ) = − y − y = − m .
2 1 2 1 1
8 .4
FromOn theCIRCLES
geometry,
otherwe can conclude
hand, thatto
l ' is parallel l' isl2 perpendicular to2 l=2 if
if and only if m ′ = −only. if l' is parallel to l2.
m2and
1
m1
1
On theAother
circlehand, is parallel
is thel'set to l2 ifinand
of all points theonly
planeif that
m2 =are ' = − m . from a given point in the plane. What is
m2equidistant
8 .4 CIRCLES 1
the equation of the circle? Let’s begin with a simple case where a circle with radius r is centered at the
8.4 CIRCLES
Aorigin. Bythe
circle is theset
Pythagorean Theorem
of all points (see Fthat
in the plane are8–11),
igure for anyfrom
equidistant A( x, ypoint
pointa given ) on the circle,
in the x 2 +What
plane. y 2 = ris2 .
A circle is the set of all points in the plane that are equidistant from a given point in the plane. What is the
the equation of the circle? Let’s begin with a simpleyy case where a circle with radius r is centered at the
equation of the circle? Let’s begin with a simple case where a circle with radius r is centered at the origin. By the
. circle, x + y = r .
2 2 2
Pythagorean
origin. ByTheorem (see Figure
the Pythagorean 8–11), for
Theorem (seeany point 8–11),
Figure on any
A(x, y)for the circle,
point A x2( x+, yy2) =onr2the
yy

( 0, yy ) A ((x,
x, yy))
rr
A ((x,
x, yy)) x
( 0, yy )
O x
((x,
x, 00))
USAD - USAD, CA
rr
O
x
x
((x,
x, 00))
USAD - USAD, CA
Figure 8–11
FIGURE 8–11
Thus, x 2 + y 2 = r 2 is the equation of a circle with radius r centered at the origin.
Thus, x2 + y2 = r2 is the equation of a circle with radiusFigure 8–11 at the origin.
r centered
Now let’s
Nowtake
let’satake
circle with awith
a circle center at anyatarbitrary
a center point C(m,
any arbitrary C (in
pointn) m,the
n) inplane, and let
the plane, r be
and r be
letthe radius of the of
the radius
Thus, x 2 + y 2 = r 2 is the equation of a circle with radius r centered at
2 the2 origin.
circle.the
(See Figure
circle. 8–12.)
(See FigureBy 8–12.)
the distance
By theformula,
distance(x − m) + ((xy−−mn)
2
formula, ) +=(ry − n) = r
22 2
yy point C (m, n) in the plane, and let r be the radius of

Now let’s take a circle with a center at any arbitrary
the circle. (See Figure 8–12.) By the distance formula, ( x − m) 2 + ( Ay (x,
− ,) y =
( xny)
2
) r
2
yy rr
A (x,
( x y)
,y)
C (m,
( m n)
,n)
rr
O C (m,
( m n)
,n) x
O x
FIGURE 8–12
Figure 8–12Resource Guide
95
Thus, ( x − m) 2 + ( y − n2019–2020
) 2 = r 2 is the equation ofResource
Mathematics a circle with radius
Guide r centered
Instructor's at C (m, n) .
Manual
8 .5 SOLVING GEOMETRY PROBLEMS USING COORDINATE
Thus, (x − m)2 + ( y − n)2 = r2 is the equation of a circle with radius r centered at C(m, n).
GEOMETRY
8.5 S
OLVING GEOMETRY PROBLEMS USING COORDINATE
GEOMETRY
TheoreM: The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
THEOREM: The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
Proof: We are given a parallelogram ABCD . To prove this theorem using coordinate geometry, we
PROOF: We are given a parallelogram ABCD. To prove this theorem using coordinate geometry, we must first
must first introduce a coordinate system. We choose the coordinate axes so that AB is on the x-axis and
introduce a coordinate system. We choose the coordinate axes so that AB is on the x-axis and the point A is at the
origin (see Figure
the point A is at8–13).
the origin (see Figure 8–13).
y
D(c, d) C(x, d)
- USAD,
CH CA
x
- China,
B(b, 0)
SKT Education USAD

FIGURE 8–13
Figure 8–13
Therefore, B = (b, 0).

Therefore, B = (b, 0) .
Let D = (c, d).
Since D =is(cparallel
Let CD , d ) . to AB, the y-coordinate of C is d.
Let C = (x, d).
ToSince
find x,CD
weisuse the fact
parallel tothat theisy-coordinate
AB,BC parallel to AD.
ofWe
C iswill
d. consider two cases:
CASE 1. AD and BC are not parallel to the y-axis.
Let C = ( x, d ) . d d
Since they are parallel to each other, their slopes must be equal. Hence, c = x − b .
From this we
To find getuse
x, we x = the
b + fact
c. that BC is parallel to AD. We will consider two cases:
CASE 2. AD and BC are parallel to the y-axis.
CaSe 1. AD and BC are not parallel to the y-axis.
In this case, c = 0 and x = b = b + c.
So, in both cases we get C = (b + c, d). d d
Since they are parallel to each other, their slopes must be equal. Hence, = .
c x −of
To show that the diagonals bisect each other, it is sufficient to show that the midpoint b AC is the same as the
midpoint of BD.
From this we get x = b + c .
1 1 1 1
The midpoint M1 of AC has the coordinates: x = 2 ⋅ (0 + (b + c)) = 2 (b + c), y = 2 (0 + d) = 2 d.
CaSe 2. AD and 1 BC are1 parallel to the y-axis.
Therefore, M1 = � 2 (b + c), 2 d�.
In this case, c = 0 and2019–2020
x = b = b +Mathematics
c. 1 1 1 1
The midpoint M2 of BD has the coordinates: x = 2 ⋅Resource
(b + c) = 2Guide Instructor's
(b + c), Manual
y = 2 (0 + d) = 2 d.
122
So, in both cases we get C = (b + c, d ) .

96
1 1 
Therefore, M 2 =  (b + c), d  .
2 2 
Hence: M = M1 . 1
Therefore, M1 2 = � 22 (b + c), 2 d�.
Hence: M1 = M2that
This implies . the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
This implies that the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
TheoreM: The three perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle are concurrent.
THEOREM: The three perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle are concurrent.
USAD - USAD, CA
PROOF:
Proof:LetLet
ABC be be
ABC anyany
triangle positioned
triangle in a coordinate
positioned system
in a coordinate as shown
system in Figure
as shown in F8–14:
igure 8–14:
C(c, 0)
K(x, y)
x
A(a, 0) B(b, 0)

FIGURE 8–14
Figure 8–14
A = (a, 0), B = (b, 0), C = (0, c).

A = (a, 0) , B = (b, 0) , C = (0, c) .
Let us find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of AB.
Letany
Take us find
pointtheK =equation
(x, y) on of
thethe perpendicular
perpendicular bisector
bisector of Then,
of AB. AB. since it is equidistant from A and B, we have:
(x − a) + ( y − 0) = (x − b) + ( y − 0)
2 2 2 2
Take any point K = ( x, y ) on the perpendicular bisector of AB. Then, since it is equidistant from A and
Opening parentheses and simplifying, we get:
B, we1 have: ( x − a ) 2 + ( y − 0) 2 = ( x − b) 2 + ( y − 0) 2
(1) x = 2 (a + b).
The equations
Opening of the other
parentheses twosimplifying,
and perpendicular
2019–2020 we bisectors can beGuide
get: Resource
Mathematics found Instructor's
in a similar way. They are
Manual
2ax − 2cy =1a − c and 2bx − 2cy = b − c .
2 2 2 2
123
(1) x = (a + b) .
2
To find the point of intersection of the last two bisectors, we solve their system of equations by subtracting the
second from the first. We get:
2ax − 2bx = a2 − b2,
2x(a − b) = a2 − b2,
1
(2) x = 2 (a + b).
From (1) and (2) we get that the point of intersection lies on the first perpendicular bisector. Hence, the three
perpendicular bisectors are concurrent.
THEOREM: The three medians of a triangle are concurrent, and the distance from any vertex to the
intersection point is two-thirds the length of the median drawn from that vertex.

97
roof: Let P1 P2 P3 be a triangle in a coordinate system as shown in Figure 8–15:
PROOF: Let P1P2P3 be a triangle in a coordinate system as shown in Figure 8–15:
1 = ( x1 , P
y11 =) ,(xP , y=),(P
1 2 1
x22 ,=y(x2 2) ,,y2P),3 P=3 (=x(x3 ,3 y, y3 3) )..
x1+x2+x3 y1+y2+y3
x
FIGURE 8–15
Figure 8–15

x +xx + yx + y y + y2 
he midpoint of P1ofP2P1has
The midpoint the
P2 has thecoordinates
coordinates � 1 2 1 2 , 1 22, 2 �.1 .
 2 2 
Thus, the point that is two-thirds the way down the median from P3 has the coordinates
hus, the point that1is two-thirds the way down the1 median from P3 has the coordinates
x + 2 ⋅ (x + x )
1 ⋅1 1 ⋅ y3 + 2 ⋅ 2 (y
1 1 + y2) y1 + y2 + y3
1 ⋅ x3x+= 2 ⋅ 3 ( x1 +2x2 )1 2x =+x1x+ +x2 + x3
,y = 1 ⋅ y + 2 ⋅ ( y + =y2 ) y .y y
2 3 2 3 x3
3
3 2 1 3 + + 3
= = 1
, y= = 1 2 .
To find3the corresponding point3 for P1 , we can simply interchange
3 indices. (Replace
3 3 by 1, 1 by 2, and 2 by 3.)
We do the same for 2019–2020
P2. Mathematics Resource Guide Instructor's Manual
o find the corresponding
But the above expressions point for yPare
for x and , we can simply
invariant
124interchange
under a permutation
1 indices.
of the indices.(Replace
This proves3the
bytheorem.
1, 1 by 2, and 2
y 3.) We do the same for P2 .
Section 8
EXERCISES
1. W hich of the given points A(3,− 4), B(1,0), C(0,5), D(0,0), and E(0,1) belong to the following circles?
a. (x − 1)2 + ( y + 3)2 = 9
b. x2 + y2 = 25
2. F
ind which of the following equations represent a circle. If it is a circle, identify the radius and the center of
the circle.
a. x2 + y2 + 8x − 4y + 40 = 0
b. x2 + y2 − 4x − 2y = −1
3. The vertices of a triangle ABC are A(4, 6), B(−4, 0), C(−1, − 4) . Find the equation of the median CM.

98
4. What are the values of a and b in the equation of the line ax + by = 1 going through the points (1, 2) and (2, 1)?
5. Three vertices of a parallelogram ABCD are A(1, 0), B(2, 3), C(3, 2). Find the coordinates of the fourth vertex,
and find the coordinates of the point of intersection of the diagonals.
6. T
he distance of the point A from the x-axis is q1 , and its distance from the y-axis is q2 , and its distance from
the point B(3, 6) is q3 . Find the coordinates of A if q1 = q2 = q3.
7. F
ind the point that is one-fourth of the distance from the point A(–1, 2) to the point B(6, 7) along the segment
AB.
3
8. F
ind the point that is five-sevenths of the distance from the point A(− 2 , 2) to the point B(2, 2) along the
segment AB.

99
Trigonometric Functions
Part II Trigonometry
Section 9
Trigonometry means triangle measurement. Trigonometry is used to compute the lengths of segments
Trigonometric Functions
and measures of angles, and therefore it is an important tool in many branches of science, such as
astronomy, geography, and navigation. To illustrate how trigonometry is used in measurement, let’s
consider the following example.
InTrigonometry
Figure 9–1,means
AD istriangle
the height of a mountain
measurement. sitting
Trigonometry on atoplane.
is used There
compute is no of
the lengths direct way and
segments to measure
measures of angles, and therefore it is an important tool in many branches of science, such as astronomy,
the height of
geography, andthe mountain.
navigation. However,
To illustrate howwith a specialisinstrument,
trigonometry we can let’s
used in measurement, measure thethe
consider angle in which
following
weexample.
see the summit A of the mountain from a point B on the plane. Let’s denote the measure of
In Figure 9–1, AD is the height of a mountain sitting on a plane. There is no direct way to measure the height of
this angle by β . Now, along the segment BD we move a meters toward the mountain, and again
the mountain. However, with a special instrument, we can measure the angle in which we see the summit A of
the mountain
measure from ain
the angle point B onwe
which the see
plane.
theLet’s denoteAthe
summit measure
. Let’s of thisthe
denote angle by β. Now,
measure alongangle
of this the segment
by γ . The
BD we move a meters toward the mountain, and again measure the angle in which we see the summit A. Let’s
numbers
denote theβ ,measure
γ , andofathis
areangle
sufficient tonumbers
by γ. The compute the
β, γ, andheight AD . In to
a are sufficient this section
compute theof the AD.
height resource
In thisguide,
section of the resource guide, you will learn trigonometric tools for finding measurements of sides and angles of
you will learn trigonometric tools for finding measurements of sides and angles of a triangle.
a triangle.

A
β B
D
FIGURE 9–1
Figure 9–1
We
Wewill
willbegin
begin with thetrigonometric
with the trigonometric functions
functions of anangle.
of an acute acute angle.
9.1 THE SINE FUNCTION FOR ACUTE ANGLES

Take an acute angle α and position it in a coordinate system so that its vertex is at the origin O and one of its
sides is on the positive x-axis. Let P(x, y) be a point on the second side of the angle, and let r be the distance
between P and the origin O. (See Figure 9–2.)
127

100
rr yy
the distance between P and the origin O . (See Figure 9–2.)
yy xx
O
xx PP(x,
(x , y)
y)
rr
Figure 9–2
yy
y y
As α varies from 0° to 90° , the ratio also varies. Moreover, as α gets
xx larger, gets larger, and
y Or y r
as α gets smaller, gets smaller. The ratio is called the sine of α and is written as sin α .
r r
Since α is acute, and y is positive, the sin α is therefore positive. And, since y is smaller than r ,
sin α is smaller than 1 . FIGURE 9–2
Figure 9–2
y y
AsWe α varies from 0°this to 90°, the ratio For also varies.
α Moreover,
y < 90 asαα<gets larger, r gets larger, andy as α gets smaller,
Assummarize
α varies from as
0° follows:
to 90° , r
the 0 °
ratio < also ° , 0 < sin
varies. Moreover,1 . as α gets larger, gets larger, and
y y r r
gets αsmaller. The ratio y gets is called the sine of α and yis written as sin α.
r At as90° gets
, y = smaller,
r . Hence:rrsin = 1 . The ratio r is called the sine of α and is written as sin α .
90°smaller.
Since α is acute, and y is positive, the sin α is therefore positive. And, since y is smaller than r, sin α is smaller
than 1.0° , yα=is0 .acute,
AtSince Hence: andsin 0y° is = 0positive,
. the sin α is therefore positive. And, since y is smaller than r ,
sin α is smaller
We summarize this asthan
follows:1 . For 0° < α < 90°, 0 < sin α < 1.

Is sin α a function? As defined, there is no guarantee that sin α is a function, or in other words there
At 90°, y = r. Hence: sin90° = 1.
We summarize this as follows: For 0° < α < 90° , 0 < sin α < 1 .
At is0°,no
y =guarantee
0. Hence: that sin0°for= 0.any input α , there exists exactly one output sin α . Thus, to insure that sin α
is aαfunction,
Is sinAt a90° , y = rwe
function? .As must prove
defined,
Hence: 90the
° =is1following
sin there .no guarantee theorem, which asserts that the value sin αthere
that sin α is a function, or in other words
is independent
is no
guarantee that for any inputα , there exists exactly
of the choice of the point P( x, y ) on the second side of the angle. one output sin α . Thus, to insure that sin α is a function, we
mustAt prove
0° , the
y =following
0 . Hence: theorem,
sin 0° =which0 . asserts that the value sin α is independent of the choice of the point
P(x, y) on the second side of the angle.
Theorem: Let angle α be an acute angle such that its vertex is at the origin and one of its sides is
onIsthe
THEOREM: α a function?
sinpositiveLet angle
x-axis, αAs asdefined,
be is acute there
anshown angle is no that
such
in Figure guarantee
9–3. itsLet Pthat
vertex ( xis, yatsin α origin
) the
and isPa'(function,
xand
', y ')one
be oforitsindistinct
two otheris words
sides on the there
points on
positive x-axis, as is shown in Figure 9–3. Let
α ,CallP(x, y) and P'(x', y') be two distincty points
y ' on the non-horizontal
theis no guarantee that
non-horizontal sideforofany theinput
angle. there OPexists exactly
= r and OP 'one . Then,sin=α . Thus,
= r 'output . to insure that sin α
y y' r r'
side isofathe angle. Call
function, we OPmust = rprove
and OP' the=following = r' .
r'. Then, rtheorem, which asserts that the value sin α is independent
Proof:
of theDrop Dropof
choice twotheperpendiculars
point P(PC x, yand PCthe
) on and PC ' as shown
second inangle.
Figure 9–3.
PROOF: two perpendiculars PC' as shownside of the
in Figure 9–3.
y
Theorem: Let angle α be an acute angle such x that its vertex is at the origin and one of its sides is
P(x, y)
on the positive x-axis, as is shown in Figurex'9–3. Let P( x, y ) and P '( x ', y ') be two distinct points on
y y'
the non-horizontal side of the angle. Call OP = r and P'(x',
OP y') ' = r ' . Then, = .
y r r'
r'
y'
Proof: Drop two perpendiculars PC and PC ' as shown in Figure 9–3.
x Manual
2019–2020 Mathematics Resource Guide Instructor's
128
FIGURE 9–3
Figure 9–3
2022–2023 y y 'Resource Guide

Mathematics
Clearly, OPC and OP ' C ' are similar. Hence, = .
r r'
101
One of the important applications of the sine function is expressed in the following theorem:
area ( ABC ) = AB ⋅ AC ⋅ sin α .
2
One of the important applications of the sine function is expressed in the following theorem:
Proof: We will prove this theorem for the case where α is acute. The theorem, however, is also valid
y y'
Theorem:
Clearly, The
and area of
are any
similar.triangle
Hence, is one-half the product of two sides of the triangle
�OPC �OP'C'
when α is not acute. r = r' .
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and
One of the sine of the
the important angle between
applications them.
of the sine That
function is, the area
is expressed offollowing
in the  ABC is given by the formula:
theorem:
The 1
areaarea
( ABCof) any
= triangle
AB ⋅ AC ⋅ABCsin α .(see Figure 9–4) is half the product of a side of the triangle and the
THEOREM: The2area of any triangle is one-half 1 the product of two sides of the triangle and the sine of the
altitude
angle to that
between them.side. is, the area
ThatHence, area (of
ABC
�ABC ) =is given
AB ⋅ CH . formula:
by the
Proof: We will prove this theorem for the2case where α is acute. The theorem, however, is also valid
1
area (�ABC) AB ⋅ AC ⋅ sin α .
= 2 acute.
when α is not
PROOF: We will prove this theorem for the case where α is acute. The theorem, however, is also valid when α is
notThe
acute.
area of any triangle ABC (see Figure 9–4) is half the product of a side of the triangle and the
1
altitude
The area ofto that
any side. ABC
triangle (seearea
Hence, Figure 9–4)) =is half
( ABC ⋅ CH
ABthe .
product of a side of the triangle and the altitude to that
2
1
side. Hence, area (�ABC) = 2 AB ⋅ CH .
Figure 9–4
Point C is at distance CH from the line AB. This distance can be seen from the angle CAB (let’s call
CH
it α ). Therefore, ratio = sin α . From here, CH = AC ⋅ sin α . Substituting the value of CH into the
AC

1 1
initial formula, we get area ( ABC ) = AB ⋅ CH = AB ⋅ AC ⋅ sin α .
2 FIGURE
Figure 9–4
2 9–4
Point C is at distance CH from 1 line AB. This distance can be seen from the angle ∡CAB (let’s call it α).
Therefore, area ( ABC ) = theAB ⋅ AC ⋅ sin α .
Point C is at distance
CH CH 2from the line AB. This distance can be seen from the angle CAB (let’s call
Therefore, ratio = sin α . From here, CH = AC ⋅ sin α. Substituting the value of CH into the initial formula,
AC ratio CH = sin α . From here, CH = AC ⋅ sin α . Substituting the value of CH into the
it α ). Therefore,
1 AC 1
we9 .2
get THE TANGENT
area (�ABC) = 2 AB ⋅ CH FUNCTION
= 2 AB 1⋅ AC ⋅ sin α. FOR
1 ACUTE ANGLES
initial formula, we get area ( ABC ) = AB ⋅ CH = AB ⋅ AC ⋅ sin α .
1 2 2
Therefore, area (�ABC) = 2 AB ⋅ AC ⋅ sin α.
As with the sine function, take an acute angle α and 129position it in a coordinate system so that its vertex
9.2
is atTHE TANGENT
the origin O and one of FUNCTION FORx-axis.
its sides is on the positive ACUTE
Let P ( xANGLES
, y ) be a point on the second side
Asofwith
the the sine(See
angle. function,
Figuretake an acute angle α and position it in a coordinate system so that its vertex is at the
9–5.)
origin O and one of its sides is on the positive x-axis. Let P(x, y) be a point on the second side of the angle. (See
Figure 9–5.)
x P(x, y)
r y USAD - USAD, CA
FIGURE 9–5
Figure 9–5
2022–2023
y Mathematics Resource Guide
As α varies from 0° to 90° , the ratio 102but always remains positive. Moreover, as α gets
also varies
x
y
y
The ratio is called the tangent of α , and is written as tanα . Indeed tanα is the slope of the line
x
going through the origin O and ythe point P. For 0 < α < 90 , 0 < tanα < ∞ .
As α varies from 0° to 90°, the ratio x also varies but always remains positive. Moreover, as α gets larger, y gets
y y
larger and xthe
As with gets smaller,
sine and so
function, x gets
here toolarger. As guarantee
we must α gets smaller, gets
thatytan α smaller and x gets
is a function. larger,
That andmust
is, we so x show
gets
smaller.
that they value of tan α is independent of the choice of the point P( x, y ) on the second side of the
The ratio x is called the tangent of α, and is written as tan α. Indeed, tan α is the slope of the line going through
the origin O and the point P. For 0 < α < 90, 0 < tan α < ∞.
angle.
As with the sine function, here too we must guarantee that tan α is a function. That is, we must show that the
value of tan α is independent
Theorem: Let angle αofbe
thean
choice
acuteofangle
the point
suchP(x,
that on vertex
y) its the second
is atside
the of the angle.
origin and one of its sides is
THEOREM:
on the positiveLet x-axis,
angle αas
beisanshown
acute angle such that
in Figure 9–6.itsLet
vertex
P( x,isy )atand
the origin
P '( x ',and
y ') one of itsdistinct
be two sides is points
on the on
positive x-axis, as is shown in Figure 9–6. Let P(x, y) and P'(x', y') be two distinct points on the non-horizontal
y y'
y y'of the angle. Then =
the non-horizontal side .
side of the angle. Then x = x' . x x'
yy
xx
P(x, y)
P(x ,y)
P'(x', y')
P'(x',y')
yy
r'r' y'

y'
xx
O x'
x' C' C
FIGURE 9–6
Figure 9–6
PROOF: Drop two perpendiculars PC and PC' as shown in Figure 9–6. Clearly, �OPC and �OP'C' are similar.
Proof: Drop two perpendiculars PC and PC ' as shown in Figure 9–6. Clearly, OPC and OP ' C '
y y'
Hence, x = x' . y y'
are similar. Hence, = .
x x'
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9.3
9 .3TTHE
HE COSINE
COSINEAND
ANDCOTANGENT
COTANGENTFUNCTIONS
FUNCTIONSFOR
FORACUTE
ACUTE
ANGLES
ANGLES
In addition to the functions sine and tangent, we will define two additional trigonometric functions. The four
functions are needed to write trigonometric formulas more effectively.
In addition to the functions sine and tangent, we will define two additional trigonometric functions.
The cosine of an angle 0° < α < 90° is denoted by cos α and is defined as follows: cos α = sin(90° − α).
The four functions are needed to write trigonometric formulas more effectively.
The cotangent of an angle 0° < α < 90° is denoted by cot α and is defined as follows: cot α = tan(90° − α)
From cosine
Thehere, it isofeasy
an angle α <α 90
° < sin
to see 0that ° is denoted
= cos(90° cos α
by that
−α) and tanand − α)as follows: cos α = sin(90° − α ) .
is defined
α = cot(90°
Here is why:
The cotangent of an angle 0° < α < 90° is denoted by cot α and is defined as follows: cot α = tan(90° − α )
By the definition of cosine, cos(90° −α) = sin(90° − (90° −α)) = sin α.
ByFrom here, it isofeasy
the definition cotangent, that sin−αα)==cos(90
to see cot(90° ° − α ) and
tan(90° − (90° that
−α))
tan α = cot(90° − α )
= tan α.
Here is why:
103
By the definition of cosine, cos(90° − α ) = sin(90° − (90° − α )) = sin α .
By the definition of cotangent, cot(90° − α ) = tan(90° − (90° − α )) = tan α .
Thus, in a right triangle ABC (see Figure 9–7), we have the following relations:
Thus, in a right triangle ABC (see Figure 9–7), we have the following relations:
a a
1. 1. = cA == cosB
sinAsin = cos B
c
b b
2. 2.
cosAcos
=A c sinA
= = sin A
c
a a
3. 3. = bA == cotB
tanAtan = cot B
b
b
4. cot bA = = tan B
4. cotA = a = tanB
a
a
b
- China, CH
FIGURE 9–7
Figure 9–7
9 .4RELATIONS
9.4 RELATIONSAMONG
AMONGTRIGONOMETRIC
TRIGONOMETRICFUNCTIONS
FUNCTIONS
USAD, CA
SKT -Education
There are six basic relations among trigonometric functions. They are referred to as basic identities:
sin αsix basic relations among trigonometric functions. They are referred to as basic identities:
1. There
tan α =are
cos α
USAD
cos α sin α
2. 1.
cot αtan
= sin
α =α
cos α
3. tan α ⋅ cot α =cos
1α
2. cot α =
4. sin2α + cos2αsin = α1
1
5. 3. tan+α1⋅=cot
tan2α αα == 1
cos2α , cos α ≠ 0
1
6. 4.
1 + sin
cot22αα=+sin , sin
cos2α2 α = 1α ≠ 0
1 1
Often sin α2 is denoted1by csc α and cos α by sec α.
5. tan α + 1 = , cos α ≠ 0
cos 2
α
Thus identities 5 and 6 can be written as:
1
1=α
tan21α++cot sec=2α 2 , sin α ≠ 0
2
7. 6.
sin α
8. 1 + cot2α = csc2α.
1 1
ToOften
prove these formulas
is denoted an csc
forby α and
acute by sec αbe. a right triangle in C with the acute angle ∡BAC =α.
angle α, let �ABC
sin α cos α
Let AC = b, CB = a, and AB = c, as shown in Figure 9–8.
Thus identities 5 and 6 can be written as:
7. tan 2 α + 1 = sec 2 α 2022–2023 Mathematics Resource Guide

104
8. 1 + cot 2 α = csc 2 α2019–2020
. Mathematics Resource Guide Instructor's Manual
BAC = α . Let AC = b , CB = a , and AB = c , as shown in Figure 9–8.
C
90°
aa
bb
cc B
A
FIGURE 9–8
Figure 9–8
sin α
α =α
1. tan sin
1. tan α = cos αcos α
a b sin α a b a a
SKT Education - China, CH USAD - USAD, CA

Proof: Since sin αa = and cosbα = , thesin α a b =a : = . By definition,
ratio a sin α
= tan α . Therefore,
PROOF: Since sin α = c and
c cos α = c , the cratio cos α = ccos
: cα= b.cByc definition,
b b = tan α. Therefore,
b tan α = cos α .
sin α
tan α = .
cos
cosαα
2. cot α = sin α
cos α b cos α b a b
PROOF: = cos α = c , we have: sin α = c : c = a
2. cot αSince
sin α
Since
b
= cot α, we get cot b = cos α . cos α b a b
α
Proof:
a Since cos α = sin αhave:
, we = : =
c sin α c c a
3. tan α ⋅bcot α = 1 cos α
Since = cot α , we get cot α = .
a b sin α a a b
PROOF: By definition, cot α = a and tan α = b . Hence: tan α ⋅ cot α = b ⋅ a = 1.
3. tan α ⋅ cot α = 1
4. sin2α + cos2α = 1
b a a b
PROOF:
Proof:ByBy
thedefinition,
Pythagorean α = and
cotTheorem, in tan α = triangle
a right . Hence: α ⋅have
tanwe
ABC, cot αa2=+ b⋅2 = =c21. .
a b b a
a2 b 2 c 2
Dividing both sides of the equality by the non-zero c2, we get c2 + c2 = c2 = 1
4. sin 2 α + cos2 α = 1
a b
Since c = sin α and c = cos α, we get: sin2α + cos2α = 1.
Proof: By the Pythagorean Theorem, in a right triangle ABC, we have a 2 + b 2 = c 2 .
1
5. tan2α + 1 = cos2α
2 a 2 b2 c 2
Dividing both sides of the 2equality by2 the non-zero c , we get + = =1
sin α sin α sin2α + cos2α c12 c 2 c 2
PROOF: tan α + 1 = �cos α � + 1 =
2
+1= = .
a b cos2α 2 cos 2
α cos2α
Since = sin α 1 and c = cos α , we get: sin α + cos α = 1 .
2
6. cot2α +c 1 = .
sin2α
cos α 2 cos2α cos2α + sin2α 1
PROOF: 2cot2α + 1 =1� � + 1 = + 1 = =
5. tan α + 1 = sin α sin 2
α sin 2
α sin 2
α
cos2 α2019–2020 Mathematics Resource Guide Instructor's Manual
2
 sin α  sin 2 α 133
sin 2
α + cos2 α 1
9.5 TRIGONOMETRIC
Proof: tan 2
α + 1 =   + 1 FUNCTIONS
= + 1 = OF SPECIAL
= . ANGLES
 cos α  cos α cos α cos2 α
2 2
We will now show how the identities we just proved can be used to compute the trigonometric functions for the
angles 30°, 45°, 60°, and1 90°.
6. cot 2 α + 1 =
sin 2 α
First, let’s determine the values of2 all trigonometric functions for 30º and 60º. For this, consider a right triangle
 cos α  cos2 α cos2 α + sin 2 α 1
Proof: cot α + 1 = 
2
 +1 = +1 = = 2 .
 sin α  sin α sin α sin α
2 2

105
ABC (AC = b, CB = a, and AB = c) with acute angles ∡A = α = 30° and ∡B = β = 60°. From geometry, we know
a 1 1
that the hypotenuse c is twice the side opposite the 30º. Hence, c = 2 , and so: sin30° = 2 .
�3
Using the identity sin2α + cos2α = 1, it is easy to get cos30° = .
2
We have cos30° = �1 − sin230° = 1 −

� 1
4
=
�
3 �3
= .
4 2
1 �3
Since sin30° = cos60°, cos60° = 2 . Also, sin60° = cos30°, cos30° = .
2
sin α sin30° 1 �3 1
Using the identity tan α = cos α , we compute tan30° = cos30° = 2 : = .
2 �3
And
sin60° �3 1
tan60° = = : = �3.
cos60° 2 2
cos α cos30° �3 1
Using the identity cot α = sin α , we get cot30° = sin30° = : = �3.
2 2
And
cos60° 1 �3 1

cot60° = = : = .
sin60° 2 2 �3
Now let’s compute the values of all trigonometric functions for the angle 45º. For this we take a right isosceles
(i.e., having two equal sides) triangle ABC(AC = a, CB = a, and AB = c) with β = α = 45°.
By the Pythagorean Theorem, a2 + a2 = c2. Hence: 2a2 = c2.
a 1
From this, we get c = .
�2
a 1
Since c = sin45° = cos45°, we have: sin45° = cos45° = .
�2
And
1 1
tan45° = cot45° = : = 1.
�2 �2
We will now conclude with the values of the trigonometric functions for angle 90º. We have already seen that:
sin90° = 1 and sin0° = 0.
From these two facts, we can calculate the rest:
cos90° = �1 − sin290° = �1 − 1 = 0.
sin90° 1
tan90° = = = ∞.
cos90° 0
cos90° 0
cot90° = = = 0.
sin90° 1

106
cos 90° 0
cot 90° = = =0.
USAD - US
α 30º90° 45º1 60º
sin 90º
The
Thefollowing
followingtable summarizes
table thethe
summarizes values of the
values special
of the angles:
special angles:
1 1 3
sin α 1
2 2 2
α 30º 45º
1 60º
1 90º
cos α
3 0
2 2 2
1 1 3
sin α 1
tan α 21 2
1 23 −
3
3 1 1
cos α 0
cot α 23 2
1 21 0
3
1
tan α 1 3 −
3
1
cot α 3 1 0
3
9 .6 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS OF ANGLES OF ANY MEASURE

9.6.1
9.6 Definitions and Properties
T RIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS OF ANGLES OF ANY
TheMEASURE

definitions of the trigonometric functions for acute angles we learned in the previous sections are
9.6.1 Definitions
extendable to anglesand Properties
of any measure.
2019–2020 As before,
Mathematics we take
Resource angle α and
anyInstructor's
Guide position it in a coordinate
Manual
The definitions
system of theits
such that trigonometric
vertex is at functions and135
the originforOacute angles
one of we
its learned
sides is in
onthe
theprevious
positivesections
x-axis.are
Letextendable
P ( x, y )
to angles of any measure. As before, we take any angle α and position it in a coordinate system such that its
be adefinitions
vertex
The point
is at theonorigin
the second
O and
of the sideofofitsthe
one
trigonometric angle,
sides is onand
functions letacute
thefor
positive r . Here
PO =x-axis.
angles wewe
Let P(x,think of
y) bein
learned a the
point on theαsecond
theprevious
angle as theside
sectionsangleof
are
the angle, and let PO = r. Here we think of the angle α as the angle generated by moving counter clockwise from
generated
extendable
the by
to moving
positive x-axisangles
to theof counterclockwise
any measure.
segment PO. See As from thewe
before,
Figure 9–9. positive x-axis
take any to α
angle theand
segment . See
PO it
position in aFcoordinate
igure 9–9 .
yy its sides is on the positive x-axis. Let P( x, y )

system such that its vertex is at the origin O and one of
be a point on the second side of the angle, and let PO = r . Here we think of the angle α as the angle
generated by moving counterclockwise from the positive x-axis to the segment PO . See Figure 9–9 .
PP(x,
(x ,y)y) xx
rr
yy
xx
O
FIGURE 9–9
Figure 9–9
The definitions of the four trigonometric functions for such an angle α are as follows:
y 2022–2023 Mathematics Resource Guide
1. sin α = 107
r
4. cot α = r , y ≠ 0
y
x
2. cos α =
From these
The definitions of thedefinitions, it is easyfunctions
r four trigonometric to derivefor
thesuch
following identities:
an angle α are as follows:
y α
sin
ly tan
1. sin α =3. tanα = , x ≠ 0
r x α
cos
2. cos α 4.
=
x x α
cos
r cotα
l cot α == , y ≠ 0
ysin α
y
3. tan α = , x ≠ 0
From r is positive,
x these
Since the itsign
definitions, of the
is easy sine function
to derive (that is,
the following whether the function is positive or negative) is
identities:
x
4. cot α =l , y ≠ 0 sin
determined byαthe sign of y , whereas the sign of cosine is determined by the sign of x .
y tan α =
cos α
From these definitions, itα is easy
l For 0 < cos
to derive the following identities:
l cot α = α < 90° , y > 0 and x > 0 . Hence: sin α > 0 and cos α > 0
sin α sin α
6 tan
l αFor
= cos90α° < α < 180° , y > 0 and x < 0 . Hence: sin α > 0 and cos α < 0
r
Since cos isαpositive, the sign of the sine function (that is, whether the function is positive or negative) is
l For 180 ° < α < 270° , y < 0 and x < 0 . Hence: sin α < 0 and cos α < 0
6 cot α = sin α
determined by the sign of y , whereas the sign of cosine is determined by the sign of x .
l For 270° < α < 360° , y < 0 and x > 0 . Hence: sin α < 0 and cos α > 0
Since r is positive, the sign of the sine function (that is, whether the function is positive or negative) is
determined
l Forby the
0 <sign
α <of90y,° whereas
, y > 0 and the sign
x > 0of. Hence:
cosine issin
determined
α > 0 andbycos theαsign
> 0 of x.
In addition, the following table gives the values of sine and cosine for  α == 00,
°, 90,
90°, 180,
180°, 270,
270°,360
360°::
6 l α
For For
0 < α90 0º
<°90°,
< α y<>1800 and 90º
° , yx>>00.andHence:
x < sin 180º
0 . αHence:
> 0 andsin
cos 270º
αα>>00and cos α < 0 360º
Forα α <180
90° 00º
α <180°, > 0°and 190º Hence: sin α0180º −1 cos α < 0
0270º 0360º
6 l sin
For ° < α <y270 , y <x 0< 0.
and x < 0 . Hence:> 0 and
sincos
α <α 0< and
6 l For 180°
αα < α1 0< 270°, y < 0 and01 x < 0. Hence: sin0−α1< 0 and cos α <0−01 10

cos
sin
For 270° < α < 360° , y < 0 and x > 0 . Hence: sin α < 0 and cos α > 0
6 Forcos 270°
α < α1< 360°, y < 0 and0 x > 0. Hence: sin−α1< 0 and cos α >00 1
In addition,
In tan αthe
Asaddition,
for
the following and cot α
table
following , these
gives table functions
the gives
values areand
of sine
the values not defined
ofcosine forfor
sine and =all
0°,angles.
αcosine 90°,
for  =tan
α180°,
= °α
270°,
00, is °not
, 90,
90 defined
,360°
180
180, 360α°::= 90°
270°for
°:, 270, ,360
α 0º
α °and cot α for
90º 180º 270º 360º
As for
and α =tan 270 because , these thesefunctions
values x are= 0 not ; cotdefined
α is notfordefined for αtan
all angles. =α 0°is, α not defined
= 180 forαα==360
° , and 90°°
α
sin α 00º 190º 0180º −1
270º 0360º
and α =for
because 270these ° because
valuesfor y =these 0 . values x = 0 ; cot α is not defined for α = 0° , α = 180° , and α = 360°
cosαα
sin 10 01 0−1 0−1 10
because for these values y = 0 .
cos αthe definitions
From 1 of tangent 0 and cotangent −1 we get: 0 1
As for tan α and cot α , these functions are not defined for all angles. tan α is not defined for α = 90°
From
l Forthe 0°definitions
<α ° ,oftantangent
< 90functions α >are and cot
0 and cotangent
α >for 0 all we get:
As for tan
Asα for
and cot α,
α these cot α for not defined angles. tan α is
allnot defined forisα not= 90° and α =for 270° 90°
and α =tan 270 °and
because , thesethesefunctionsvalues x are = 0 not ; cotdefined
α is notfordefined for αtan
angles. =α 0° , α = 180 ° , and αα==360
defined °
because lfor these
For 90
l For values
0° °<<αα<<90 x =
1800; cot
° , °tan
, tanα
αα is not
> 0< 0and defined for
αα
andcotcot α
> 0< 0 = 0°, α =180°, and α = 360° because for these values
y = 0. and
becauseα =for 270these ° because
valuesfor y =these 0 . values x = 0 ; cot α is not defined for α = 0° , α = 180° , and α = 360°
l For 180
l For 90°°<<αα<<180 270 , tanαα<>00and
° °, tan andcot cotαα<>00
From thebecause
definitionsfor these of tangent
values andy cotangent
= 0. we get:
From
l For
l For the180 °° <<α
definitions
270 α << 270
360 tanα
of°°tangent
,,tan α ><and00 and cotα
cot
cotangent
and α ><we 00 get:
6 For 0° < α < 90°, tan α > 0 and cot α > 0
From
6 For 90°
l For
l For the0270
< α° <<180°,°α<<α90
definitions < ,αof
°360
tan tan tangent
<° ,0αtan>α
and <
0cot and
and and
0α < 0 αcot
cot >α
cotangent 0 <we 0 get:
In addition, the following table gives the values of tangent and cotangent for
6 Forl 180°
l For
For 90 0<°α°<< <αα270°,
<<90 °tan
180 , °tan >α0α
,αtan >and cot
0< 0and αcot
and 0α α
>cot > 0< 0
α
In=
 addition,
= 0 °,
0, 90
90,° , the°following
180
180, , 270
270, ° ,360
360 table
° : gives
< 0 :and cot α <cot
the values of tangent and cotangent for
6 Forl 270°
l For 180
For
< α° << α360°,
90 ° < α<<180
tan
270 ° °,αtan
, tanαα<>00and
0
and cotαα<>00
α
 == 00,
°, 90
90,°, 180 180,°, 270,
270°,360 360°::
In addition, the following table gives the
αα ><values of tangent >< 00and cotangent for α = 0°, 90°, 180°, 270°,360° :
l
l ForFor 180
2700º °° <<αα << 270
360°°,,tan tan90º 00 and cotα
and cot α180º
α 270º 360º
l For 270° < α < 360° , tan α < 0 and cot α < 0
αtan α 00º –90º 0180º −
270º 0360º
In addition, the following table gives the values of tangent and cotangent for
tanα
cot α 0− 0– 0− 0− 0−
α
In=
 =addition,
°, 90
00, 90,°, 180 the°following
180, 270°,360
, 270, 360 table
°:: gives the values of tangent and cotangent for
cot α − 0 − 0 −
α
 == 00,
°, 90
90,°, 180 180, °, 270,
270°,360 360°::
9.6.2neGATIve
9 .6 .2 Negative aNgles
AnGLeS
α 0º
9 .6 .2 Negative Angles aNgles 180º
90º 270º 360º
9.6.2
9 .6 .2 Negative
neGATIve AnGLeS
Using 0
αtan α the above –
0º identities, we 0
90ºcan determine180º − 270º
the values of trigonometric 0360º for negative angles. As
functions
108
tanα
cot
Using α the 0− 0−
0– can determine0−the values of trigonometric 0−
before, we above identities,
take any angle αweand position it in a coordinate system so thatfunctions
its vertexfor negative
is at angles.
the origin As
O and
1. sin(−α ) = − sin α
2. cos(−α ) = cos α
9.6.2 Negative Angles
−α )the
3. tan(Using tan α
= −above identities, we can determine the values of trigonometric functions for negative angles. As before,
we take any angle α and position it in a coordinate system so that its vertex is at the origin O and one of its sides
α )the= positive
4. cot(is−on − cot αx-axis. And, as before, we let P(x, y) be a point on the second side of the angle, and PO = r.
Here, however, we think of the angle α as the angle generated by moving clockwise from the positive x-axis to
the segment PO. In the exercises at the end of this section, you will prove the following relations using identities
we will learn in this section:
9 .7 TRIGONOMETRIC
1. sin(−α ) = − sin α
IDENTITIES
9.7.1 Sum and Difference Identities
2. cos(−α ) = cos α
3. tan(−α )identities
The following = − tan α are helpful in computing the measure of many angles:
4. cot(−α ) = − cot α
1. sin(α + β ) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β
The following identities are helpful in computing the measure of many angles:
9.7
2. cos( α +TRIGONOMETRIC
β ) = cos α cos β − sin α sin IDENTITIES
β
1. sin(α + β ) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β
9.7.1
3. sin(α − βSum and
) = sin α Difference
cos β − cos αIdentities
sin β
2. cos(α + β ) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β
The following identities are
β βhelpful in computing the measure of many angles:
3. αsin(
4. cos( − βα)−=βcos α cos
) = sin α cos cosααsin
+−sin sin β
β
1. sin(α + β) = sin α cosβ + cos α sinβ
4. cos(α − β ) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β

Proofs2.ofcos(α + β) = cos1α and
Identities cosβ −
2:sin α sinβ
3. sin(α of
Proofs − β) = sin α cosβ
Identities − cos
1 and 2:α sinβ
These 4.identities
cos(α − β) = cos α cosβ + sin α sinβ
hold for α and β of any measure. Here we will prove them only for the case wh
These
Proofsidentities hold
of Identities for2:α and β of any measure. Here we will prove them only for the case where
1 and
0 < α + β < 90 .
< α +identities
0These β < 90hold
. for α and β of any measure. Here we will prove them only for the case where 0 < α + β < 90°.
We first construct
We first a afigure
figure like that shown in Figure
inFF9–10.
Weconstruct
first construct a figurelike
likethat
thatshown
shown in igure 9–10.
igure 9–10.
B B
α sinβ
α sinβ
90°
F 90°90° D 90°
F D
1 cosβ
1 cosβ
sin(α+β)
sin(α+β)
α+β
β
α α+βcos(α+β) 90° 90°
A β C E
α cos(α+β) 90° 90°
A FIGURE 9–10
Figure 9–10
C E
In this figure we have: Figure 9–10

BC = sin(α + β ) 138 Resource Guide
In thisAC
figure we have:
= cos(α + β ) 109
In this figure we have:
BC = sin(α + β)
AC = cos(α + β)
BD = sinβ
AD = cosβ
sin(α + β) = BC = BF + DE
cos(α + β) = AC = AE − FD
BF = BD ⋅ cos α = sin β cos α
DE = AD ⋅ sin α = cos β sin α
AE = AD ⋅ cos α = cos β cos α
FD = BD ⋅ sin α = sin β sin α
Therefore, sin(α + β) = sin α cosβ + cos α sinβ
and
cos(α + β) = cos α cosβ − sin α sinβ.
This completes the proofs for Identities 1 and 2.
Proofs of Identities 3 and 4:

We will now prove Identities 3 and 4:
Let α = (α − β) + β. Then,
sin α = sin((α − β) + β) = sin(α − β)cosβ + cos(α − β)sinβ
cos α = cos((α − β) + β) = cos(α − β)cosβ − sin(α − β)sinβ.
We treat these two equations as the system of equations with two unknowns sin(α −β) and cos(α −β).
Multiplying the first equation by cosβ, and the second by −sinβ and adding, we get:
sin α cosβ − cos α sinβ = sin(α − β) ⋅ (cos2β + sin2β) = sin(α − β) ⋅ 1 = sin(α − β).
This completes the proof for Identity 3.
To prove Identity 4, solve the system of equations 1 and 2 for cos(α −β). To do this, multiply the first equation by
sinβ, and the second equation by cosβ, and then add them. You will get:
sin α sinβ + cos α cosβ = cos(α − β) ⋅ (cos2β + sin2β) = cos(α − β) ⋅ 1 = cos(α − β).
The following identities are also useful:
tan α + tanβ
1. tan(α + β) = 1 − tan α ⋅ tanβ where α + β ≠ (1 + 2n)90°, α ≠ (1 + 2n)90°, β ≠ (1 + 2n)90°, n is a integer.
tan α − tanβ
2. tan(α − β) = 1 + tan α ⋅ tanβ where α − β ≠ (1 + 2n)90°, α ≠ (1 + 2n)90°, β ≠ (1 + 2n)90°, n is a integer.

110
PROOF:
sin αcosβ cos αsinβ
+
sin(α + β) sin αcosβ + cos αsinβ cos αcosβ cos αcosβ (tan α) ⋅ 1 + 1 ⋅ (tanβ) (tan α) + (tanβ)
tan(α + β) = cos(α + β) = cos αcosβ − sin αsinβ = = = 1 − tan αtanβ .
cos αcosβ sin αsinβ 1 − tan αtanβ
cos αcosβ − cos αcosβ
The proof for the second identity is similar.
EXAMPLE 9.7a: Find cos135°
SOLUTION:
1 1 1
cos135° = cos(90° + 45°) = cos90°cos45° − sin90°sin45° = 0 ⋅ −1⋅ =− .
�2 �2 �2
EXAMPLE 9.7b: Find tan210°
SOLUTION: 1
0+
tan180° + tan30° �3 1
tan210° = tan(180° + 30°) = 1 − tan180° ⋅ tan30° = = .

1 �3
1−0⋅
�3
EXAMPLE 9.7c: Find sin300°
SOLUTION:
�3 1 �3
sin300° = sin(270° + 30°) = sin270°cos30° + cos270° sin30° = (−1) ⋅ +0⋅2=− .
2 2
EXAMPLE 9.7d: Find cot75°
SOLUTION: 1
1−
1 − tan45°tan30° �3 �3 − 1 4 − 2�3
cot75° = cot(45° + 30°) = tan45° + tan30° = = = = 2 − �3.
1 �3 + 1 2
1+
�3
Summarizing: we have the following Sum and Difference Identities:

1. sin(α + β) = sin α cosβ + cos α sinβ
2. cos(α + β) = cos α cosβ − sin α sinβ
3. sin(α − β) = sin α cosβ − cos α sinβ
4. cos(α − β) = cos α cosβ + sin α sinβ

111
tan α + tanβ
5. tan(α + β) = 1 − tan α ⋅ tanβ , where α + β ≠ (1 + 2n)90°, α ≠ (1 + 2n)90°, β ≠ (1 + 2n)90°, n is an integer.
tan α − tanβ
6. tan(α − β) = 1 + tan α ⋅ tanβ , where α + β ≠ (1 + 2n)90°, α ≠ (1 + 2n)90°, β ≠ (1 + 2n)90°, n is an integer.
9.7.2 Double-Angle Identities

From the above identities, it is easy to prove the following identities. You can complete the proofs of these
identities as an exercise on your own:
1. sin2α = 2sin α cos α
2. cos2α = cos2α − sin2α
2tan α
3. tan2α =
− tan2α
4
EXAMPLE 9.7e: Given that sinα = 5 where 0 < α < 90°, find sin2α, cos2α, tan2α and cot2α.
SOLUTION:
� 4 2
cos α = ± �1 − sin2α = 1 − � � = ±
5
9
25 � 3
=± .
5

3
Since 0° < α < 90°, we take cos α positive, and so cos α = .
5
4 3 24
From here, we have sin2α = 2sin α cos α = 2 ⋅ ⋅ =
5 5 25
3 2 4 2 7
cos2α = cos2α − sin2α = � � − � � = −
5 5 25
To find tan2α and cot2α, we first find tan α and cot α:
4
sin α 5 4
tan α = cos α = 3 = .
3
5
1 1 3
cot α = tan α = = .
4 4
3
4 8
2⋅
tan2α =
2tan α 3 + 3 = − 24
2 =
1 − tan α 1 − � 4 �2 − 7 7
3 9
1 7
cot2α = tan2α = −
24
4 24 7 24 7
Thus, if sin α = where 0 < α < 90°, then sin2α = , cos2α = − , tan2α = − , cot2α = − .
5 25 25 7 24

112
4
EXAMPLE 9.7f: Given that cos2α = and 90° < α < 180°, find tan α + cot α.
5
1
SOLUTION: Recall that tan22α + 1 = cos22α . Hence:
�
4 2
1 − � �
�
1− cos 2α
�
3 = ± 9 = ± 3.
2
tan2α = ± = ± 4 2
cos22α � � 16 4
5
3
Since 90° < α <180°, so 180° < 2α < 360°, but cos2α > 0, therefore 270° < 2α < 360° and tan2α = − .
4
2tan α
To find tan α, we use the identity tan2α = 1 − tan2α .
3 2tan α
We have: − = 1 − tan2α , 1 − tan2α ≠ 0.
4
Solving for tan α, we get: 3tan2α − 8 tan α − 3 = 0
1
tan α = 3 or tan α = − .
3

1
Since 90° < α <180°, tan α = − and, therefore, cot α = −3.
3
1 1
Now we are ready to compute tan α + cot α : tan α + cot α = − − 3 = −3
3 3
9.7.3 Half-Angle Identities

We can also obtain the following identities for half angles:
α
1. sin = ±
2 �1 − cos α
2
α
2. cos = ±
2 �1 + 2cosα
α sin α
3. tan = ± 1 + cos α
2
α 1 + cos α
4. cot = ±
2 sin α
PROOF:
Proof of (1):
α α α α α α
cos α = cos�2 � = cos2 − sin2 = �1 − sin2 �− sin2 = 1 − 2sin2
2 2 2 2 2 2
α
sin = ±
2 �
1 − cos α
2

113
Proof of (2):
α α α α α α
cos α = �2 � = cos2 − sin2 = cos2 − �1 − cos2 � = 2cos2 − 1
2 2 2 2 2 2
α
cos = ±
2 �1 + cos α
2
Proof of (3):
α
α sin 2
tan =
2 cos α
2
= ±
� 1 − cos α
1 + cos α
= ±
� ⋅
�
1 − cos α 1 + cos α
1 + cos α 1 + cos α
= ±
�
1 − cos2α
(1 + cos α)2
=±
sin α
=
sin α
±(1 + cos α) (1 + cos α)
,
where α ≠ 180°n and n is an integer.

Proof of (4): You should complete the proof of (4) on your own as an exercise.
EXAMPLE 9.7g: Find sin15°.
SOLUTION:
�
�3
1−
sin15° = ±
�
1 − cos30°
2
=±
2 4 �
2 = ± 2 − �3 = ± �2 − �3 .
2

�2 − �3
Since 0° < α < 90°, we take the positive value: sin15° = .
2
EXAMPLE 9.7h: Simplify the expression A = 0.125cos4α + sin2α cos2α.
SOLUTION: (Justify each step using the identities you have learned thus far.)
A = 0.125cos4α + (sin α cos α)2
(2sin α cos α)2
A = 0.125cos4α +
4
(sin2α)2
A = 0.125cos4α +
4
1
A = 0.125cos4α + sin22α
4
1 1 1 − cos4α
A = 0.125cos4α + sin22α = 0.125cos4α + ⋅ = 0.125cos4α + 0.125(1 − cos4α) =
4 4 2
= 0.125cos4α + 0.125 − 0.125cos4α = 0.125.
Thus, A = 0.125.
9.7.4 Sum–to–Product Identities

In the previous sections, we learned identities of trigonometric functions for the sum and difference of angles. In
this section, we will learn identities that will help us deal with the sum and difference of trigonometric functions
such as sin18° + cos42°.

114
Recall the following identities:
1. sin(x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y
2. sin(x − y) = sin x cos y − cos x sin y
Adding Equations 1 and 2, we get sin(x + y) + sin(x − y) = 2sin x cos y
Subtracting Equations 1 and 2, we get sin(x + y) − sin(x − y) = 2cos x sin y
Let x + y =α and x − y = β
α+β
Adding these two equations, we get: x =
2
α−β
Subtracting these two equations, we get: y =
2
Substituting the values of x and y in sin(x + y) + sin(x − y) = 2sin x cos y, we get:
α+β α−β
sin α + sinβ = 2sin cos .
2 2
Substituting the values of x and y in sin(x + y) − sin(x − y) = 2cos x sin y, we get:
α+β α−β
sin α − sinβ = 2cos sin .
2 2
In a similar manner, using sum and difference identities for cosine, we can prove that:
α+β α−β

1. cos α + cosβ = 2cos cos
2 2
α+β α−β
2. cos α − cosβ = −2sin sin
2 2
You can complete this proof on your own as an exercise.
EXAMPLE 9.7i: Compute sin18° + cos42°.
SOLUTION:
18° + 42° 18° − 42° 1
sin18° + cos42° = 2sin cos = 2sin30°cos(−12°) = 2 ⋅ cos12° = cos12°.
2 2 2
We will now derive similar formulas for tangent and cotangent :

sin α sinβ sin α cosβ + cos α sinβ sin(α + β)
tan α + tanβ = cos α + cosβ = cos α cosβ = cos α cosβ
and
sin α sinβ sin α cosβ − cos α sinβ sin(α − β)
tan α − tanβ = cos α − cosβ = cos α cosβ = cos α cosβ , where α ≠ 90°(1 + 2n), β ≠ 90°(1 + 2n), and n is
an integer.
cos α cosβ sinβ cos α + cosβ sin α sin(β + α)
Similarly, cot α + cotβ = sin α + sinβ = sin α sinβ = sin α sinβ
and
cos α cosβ sinβ cos α − cosβ sin α sin(β − α)
cot α − cotβ = sin α − sinβ = sin α sinβ = sin α sinβ , α ≠ 180° ⋅ n, β ≠ 180° ⋅ n, and n is an integer.

115
Summarizing: we have the following Sum-to-Product Identities:
α+β α−β
1. sin α + sinβ = 2sin cos
2 2
α+β α−β
2. sin α − sinβ = 2cos sin
2 2
α+β α−β
3. cos α + cosβ = 2cos cos
2 2
α+β α−β
4. cos α − cosβ = −2sin sin
2 2
sin(α ± β)
5. tan α ± tanβ = , α ≠ 90°(1 + 2n), β ≠ 90°(1 + 2n), and n is an integer.
cos α cosβ
sin(β ± α)
6. cot α ± cotβ = , α ≠ 180° ⋅ n, β ≠ 180° ⋅ n, and n is an integer.
sin α sinβ
2sin249° − 1
EXAMPLE 9.7j: Compute (without calculator) .
cos53° − cos37°
SOLUTION: (Justify each step in the solution.)

1 − cos98°
2 −1
2sin 49° − 1
2 2 1 − cos98° − 1 cos98°
= = =
cos53° − cos37° −2sin45°sin8° −�2sin8° �2sin8°

Notice, cos98° = cos(90° + 8°) = −sin8°
1
Thus, −sin8° = − .
�2sin8° �2
sin7β + sin11β
EXAMPLE 9.7k: Simplify the expression and find its value for β = 30°.
cos10β − cos8β
SOLUTION:
sin7β + sin11β 2sin9βcos(−2β)

= .
cos10β − cos8β −2sin9βsinβ
sin7β + sin11β 2sin9βcos(−2β) cos2β
Recall that cos(−2β) = cos2β. Hence, = =− .
cos10β − cos8β −2sin9βsinβ sinβ
cos2β cos60° 1 1
For β = 30°, we have − =− = − : = −1
sinβ sin30° 2 2
9.7.5 Product–to–Sum Identities

The following are three more useful identities; they allow us to transfer the product of trigonometric functions
into the sum or difference of trigonometric functions.
1
1. sin α sinβ = (cos(α − β) − cos(α + β))
2
1
2. cos α cosβ = (cos(α + β) + cos(α − β))
2

116
1
3. sin α cosβ = (sin(α + β) + sin(α − β))
2
Use the sum and difference identities to prove these identities.
EXAMPLE 9.7l: Compute (without a calculator) A = sin15°cos7° − cos11°cos79° − sin4°sin86°.
SOLUTION:
1 1 1
A = (sin22° + sin8°) − (cos90° + cos68°) − (cos(−82°) − cos90°).
2 2 2
1
Opening the parentheses, we get A = (sin22° + sin8° − cos68° − cos82°).
2
(Recall that cos(−82°) = cos82°.) Note, cos68° = cos(90° − 22°) = sin22° and cos82° = cos(90° −8°) = sin8°.
1
We have: A = (sin22° + sin8° − sin22° − sin8°) = 0.
2
8cos 20°
EXAMPLE 9.7m: Show that tan30° + tan40° + tan50° + tan60° =
�3
sin(α + β)
SOLUTION: Recall that tan α + tanβ = .
cos α cosβ

Hence: tan30° + tan40° + tan50° + tan60° = (tan30° + tan60°) + (tan40° + tan50°) =
sin(30° + 60°) sin(40° + 50°) sin90° sin90° 4 1 4cos40° cos50° + �3

+ = + = + = �3cos40°cos50° .
cos30°cos60° cos 40°cos50° �3 1 cos40°cos50° �3 cos 40°cos50°
⋅
2 2
1
To proceed, we use cos α cosβ = (cos(α + β) + cos(α − β)):
2
1
4cos40° cos50° + �3 4⋅ 2 (cos90° + cos(−10°)) + �3 2(0 + cos10°) + �3 4cos10° + 2�3
= = =
�3cos40°cos50° 1 �3 �3 cos10°
�3 ⋅ (cos90°+ (−10°) (0 + cos10°)
2 2
�3
4�cos10° + �
�3 4cos10° + 2�3 2 4(cos10° + cos30°)
Recall that = cos30°. Hence = =
2 �3 cos10° �3 cos10° �3 cos10°
α+β α−β
Now we can use the identity cos α + cosβ = 2cos cos .
2 2
4(cos10° + cos30°) 4 ⋅ 2cos 20°cos(−10°) 8cos20° cos10° 8cos20°
We get = = = .
�3 cos10° �3 cos10° �3 cos10° �3

117
Sections 9.1 – 9.7
EXERCISES
7
1. Find sin2α and cos2α if cos α = 25 , 270° < α < 360°.
( ) (
b. cos 2 α + cos 2 β − cos α + β cos α − β
3 1
)
2. Find sin(α + β) if sin α = 4 , cosβ = − 5 , 90° < α <180°, 180° < β < 270°.
1 + cos α + cos 2α + cos 3α
c.
3. A
n 18-ft laddercosleans
α + 2against
cos 2 α a− 1building so that the angle between the ground and the ladder is 70 degrees. At
what height does the ladder reach the building?
sin 58° cos 52° + sin 52° cos 58°
d.
4. In a triangle the37length
cosABC,
72° cos ° + sinof
72BC° sinis37
1 °inch, and angles A and B are 30° and 45°, respectively. Find the other
two sides of the triangle.
5. Simplify the following expressions:
6. Prove:
a. (cos218° − cos272°) ⋅ 2cos27°
b. cosa.
2
α +sin(
cos−2α
β )−=cos(α
− sin+αβ)cos(α − β)
1 + cos α + cos2α + cos3α
c. α ) =2αcos
α + −2cos
b.coscos( − 1α
sin58° cos52° + sin52° cos58°
c. tan(−α ) = − tan α
d. cos72°

cos37° + sin72° sin37°
6. Prove:
d. cot(−α ) = − cot α
a. sin(−α) = −sin α
b. cos(−α) = cos α
c. tan(−α) = − tan α
d. cot(−α) = −cot α
9 .8 can
You GRAPHS OF TRIGONOMETRIC
use a calculator FUNCTIONS
to verify that the graphs of the six trigonometric functions, sine, cosine,
9.8 GRAPHS
tangent, cotangent,OF
sec, TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
and csc look like the graphs shown here for each:
You
You cancan
useuse a calculator
a calculator to verify
to verify thatthat
the the graphs
graphs of six
of the thetrigonometric
six trigonometric functions,
functions, sine, cosine,
sine, cosine, tangent,
tangent,
cotangent,
cotangent, andand
secant,
secant, looklook
cosecant
cosecant likelike the graphs
the graphs shown shown
here here for each:
for each:
y = sin x
FIGURE
Figure9–11
9–11
It is important to note in this graph (FigureMathematics

2022–2023 9–11) that for any integer
Resource k,
Guide
l sin(α + 360°k ) = sin α 118
, CA
It is important to note in this graph (Figure 9–11) that for any integer k ,
It is important to note in this graph (Figure 9–11) that for any integer k,
l sin(α + 360°k ) = sin α
6 sin(α + 360°k) = sin α
l sin(180°k − α ) = sin α
6 sin(180°k −α ) = sin α
l sin( −α ) = − sin α
6 sin(−α ) = −sin α
You can use the identities you learned in the previous sections to verify these identities.
yy==cos x
cosx
yy==cos x
cosx
1
–540° –360° –180° 1 180° 360° 540°

–α 0° α
–540° –360° –180° 180° 360° 540°
–α –1 α
0°
–1

Figure 9–12
FIGURE 9–12
Figure 9–12
It is important to note that in this graph (Figure 9–12), for any integer k ,
It is important to note that in this graph (Figure 9–12), for any integer k,
It
l is cos(
important
α + 360to
°k note that
) = cos α in this graph (Figure 9–12), for any integer k ,
6 cos(α + 360°k) = cos α
l cos(α
l −α+)360 °k )α= cos α
= cos
6 cos(−α) = cos α 2019–2020 Mathematics Resource Guide Instructor's Manual
l cos( −α ) = cos α 150
YouYou cancan
useuse
thethe
identities youyou
identities learned in the
learned in previous sections
the previous to verify
sections these these
to verify identities.
identities.
yy== tan
tanxx
yy== tan
tanxx
–540° –360° –180° 0° 180° 360° 540°

α 180°+α
–540° –360° –180° 0° 180° 360° 540°
α 180°+α
FIGURE 9–13
Figure 9–13
AD - USAD, CA
Figure 9–13
It
l is tan(
important
α + 180to
°k )note inαthis graph (Figure 9–13) that for any integer k ,
= tan 119
l
l tan(α + 180 °
−α ) = − tan α
k ) = tan α
USAD - USAD,
It is important to note in this graph (Figure 9–13) that for any integer k,
Youtan(
l canαuse
+ 180 ) = tan α you learned in the previous sections to verify these identities.
the°kidentities
6 tan(α +180°k) = tan α
l tan( −α ) = − tan α
6 can
You tan(−α) = −identities
use the tan α you learned in the previous sections to y verify these
= cot x identities.
YouYou can
can useuse
thethe identities
identities youyou learned
learned in previous
in the the previous sections
sections to verify
to verify thesethese identities.
identities
y = cot x
y = cot x
Figure 9–14
It is important to note in this graph (Figure 9–14) Figure that for any integer k ,
9–14
FIGURE
Figure 9–149–14

l cot(α + 180°k ) = cot α
It It
is is
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important to note in this
to note graph
in this (Figure
graph 9–14)9–14)
(Figure that for anyfor
that integer k,
any integer k,
l cot( −α ) = − cot α
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l α + 180°k ) = cot α
l
6 cot(
You canα use
+ 180
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°k identities
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l cot( −α ) =the
− cot α 2019–2020 Mathematics Resource Guide Instructor's Manual
Youl can use
cot( −αthe − cot α you learned in the previous sections
) =identities 151 to verify these identities.
y = sec x
y = sec x
y = sec x
1
–540° –360° –180° 180° 360° 540°

10°
1
–540° –360° –180° –1 180° 360° 540°
–540° –360° –180° 0° 180° 360° 540°
0°
–1
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–1
FIGURE 9–15
Figure 9–15

Figure 9–15
1209–15
Figure
y = csc x
y = csc x
Figure 9–15
y = csc x
1
y = csc x
–540° –360° –180° 180° 360° 540°
1
0°
–540° –360° –180° –1 180° 360° 540°

0°
1 –1
–540° –360° –180° 180° 360° 540°

0°
–1
Figure 9–16
Before proceeding, it is recommended that you revisit

Figure Section 5.6.
9–16
ExamplE 9.8a: Graph the functionFIGURE

Figure 9–16
y = 4 − 29–16
cos x.

Before proceeding, it isitrecommended that you
thatrevisit SectionSection
5.6.
Before proceeding, 2019–2020 Mathematics
is recommended Resource
you revisit Guide Instructor's
5.6. Manual
Solution: This function is of the form y = Af ( x) + C , where f ( x) = cos x , A = −2 , C = 4 .
152
EXAMPLE graphGraph
The 9.8a: of this thefunction
functioncan
y = 4be−obtained
2cos x. from the graph of y = cos x in the following steps:
ExamplE 9.8a: Graph the

the function y = 4 − 2 cos x . f(x) = cos x, A = −2, C = 4. The graph of this
StepThis
SOLUTION: function
1: Construct is
theofgraph form
of yy == Af(x)
2 cos +x C,
bywhere
expanding the graph of y = cos x along the y-axis
function can be obtained from the graph of y = cos x in the following steps:
by a factor of 2.
STEP 1: Construct This
Solution: the graph of y =is 2cos
function x by
of the expanding
form y = Af (the
x) +graph of y = cos
C , where f ( xx) along
= cos the
x, A = −2by
y-axis , Ca =
factor
4 . of 2.
The graph of this function can be obtained from the graph of y = cos y
x in 2cos
= the x
following steps:
Step 1: Construct the graph of y = 2 cos x by expanding

1
the graph of yy==cos x along
2cos x the y-axis
by a factor of 2.
–360° –180° 180° 360° 540°
1
y = 2cos x
0°
Step 2: Reflect y = 2 cos x with respect to the x-axis
the graph of –180°
–360° 360°of y = −2 cos540°
180°to get the graph x.
y = – 2cos x
0°
1
STEP 2: Reflect the graph of y = 2cos x with respect to the x-axis to get the graph of y = −2cos x.
–360° –180° 1 180° 360° 540°
–360° –180°
0°
180° y = – 360°
2cos x
0°
1
–360° –180° 180° 360°

0°

121
Step 2: Reflect y = 2 cos x with respect to the x-axis
the graph of –180°
–360° 360°of y = −2 cos540°
180°to get the graph x.
y = – 2cos x
0°
USAD - USAD, CA
1
–360° –180° 180° y = – 360°

2cos x
0°
1
–360° –180° 180° 360°

0°
STEP 3: Move the graph of y = −2cos x along the y-axis by 4 units to get the graph of y = 4 − 2cos x.
Step 3: Move the graph of y = −2 cos x along the y-axis by 4 units to get the graph of
y = 4 − 2 cos x .
y = 4 – 2cos x

1
–360° –180° y=4– 2cos x

180° 360°
0°
1
–360° –180° 180° 360°

0°
EXAMPLE 9.8b: Graph the function y = −5cos(2x − 60°) + 1.
SOLUTION: First we rewrite this function as y = −5cos2(x − 30°) + 1. This function is of the form
y = Af(ax − c) + C,
ExamplE whereGraph
9.8b: f(x) = cos A = −5 , Cy == 1,
thex,function a = 2 , xc −=60
−5cos(2 30°.
°) + 1 .
The graph of this function can be obtained from the graph of y = cos x in the following steps:
Solution:
STEP 1: Move the
ExamplE FirstGraph
graph
9.8b: wey rewrite
of = cos this function
along
thexfunction the yx-axis = −x5cos
asbyy 30°
= −5cos(2 the°2(
− 60
to +x1−.to
)left °) +the
30get 1 . graph
This function is of
of y = cos(x the
+ 30°).
form y = Af (ax − c) + C , where f ( x) = cos x , A = −5 , C = 1 , a = 2 , c = 30° .
Solution: First we rewrite this function as y = −5cos 2( x − 30°) + 1 . This function is of the
The graph of this function can be obtained from the graphyof= cos x in˚)the following steps:
(x +30
y = cos
form y = Af (ax − c) + C , where f ( x) = cos x , A = −5 , C = 1 , a = 2 , c = 30° .
1
Step 1: Move the graph of y = cos –180°
x along the x-axis by 30° to the left to get the graph of
180°
–360° 360°
The graph of this function can be obtained from0° the graph of y = cos x in the following steps:
y = cos( x + 30°) .
Step 1: Move the graph of y = cos x along the x-axis by 30° to the left to get the graph of
y = cos( x + 30°) .

122
y = cos 2( x +30˚)
STEP 2: Construct the graph of y = cos2(x + 30°) by shrinking the graph of y = cos(x + 30°) along the x-axis
1
by a factor of 2 .
y = cos 2( x +30˚)
1
–360° –180° 180° 360°

0°
STEP 3: Construct the graph of y = 5cos2(x + 30°) by expanding the graph of y = cos2(x + 30°) along the
y-axis by a factor of 5.
STEP 3: Construct the graph of y = 5cos 2( x + 30°) byyexpanding ) of y = cos 2( x + 30°)
the graph
= 5cos2(x+30
y = 5 cos 2(x+30°)
STEP 3: Construct the graph of y = 5cos 2( x + 30°) by expanding the graph of y = cos 2( x + 30°)

y = 5 cos 2(x+30°)
1
–360° –180° 1 180° 360°

0°
–360° –180° 180° 360°
0°
–360° –180° 180° 360°

0°
STEP 4: Reflect the graph of y = 5cos 2( x + 30°) with respect to the y-axis to get the graph of
y = −5cos 2( x + 30°) .
STEP 4: Reflect the graph of y = 5cos2(x + 30°) with respect y y=y=5=to
cos
the2(x
5–5cos2(x+30
cos 2(x+30˚)
+30°)
y-axis°) to get the graph of
y = −5cos2(x + 30°).
STEP 4: Reflect the graph of y = 5cos 2( x + 30 °) with respect to the y-axis to get the graph of
y = −5cos 2( x + 30°) .
y y=y=5=5–5cos2(x+30
cos
cos2(x
2(x+30˚)
+30°)
°)
- USAD, CA
1
1
–360° –180° 180° 360°
–360° –180° 0° 180° 360°
0°
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–360° –180° 180° 360°
–360° –180° 0° 180° 360°
0°
STEP 5: Move the graph of = 5 the

y = −5cos 2( x + 30°)yalong cosy-axis
2(x+30°)+1
by 1 unit to get the graph of
y = −5 cos 2( x + 30°) + 1 . yy== 5–5cos2(x+30°)+1
cos 2(x+30˚)+1

2(x+30°)+1
y = −5 cos 2( x + 30°) + 1 . y = 5 cos 2(x+30˚)+1
2022–2023 Mathematicsy =Resource
–5cos2(x+30°)+1
Guide
123
1
1
–360° –180° 180° 360°
USAD
STEP 5: Move the graph of y = −5cos2(x + 30°) along the y-axis by 1 unit to get the graph of
y = −5cos2(x + 30°) + 1.

2(x+30°)+1
y = −5 cos 2( x + 30°) + 1 . yy== 5–5cos2(x+30°)+1
cos 2(x+30˚)+1
1
1
–360° –180° 180° 360°
–360° –180° 0° 180° 360°
0°
Graphs of theGraphs
trigonometric functions
of the trigonometric are periodic.
functions This means
are periodic. thatthat
This means there
thereexists
exists aanumber
number TT forforwhich
which
f(x + T) = f(x)Graphs
for any x intrigonometric
of the the domain of the are
functions function. T isThis
periodic. called thethat
means period of the
there exists function.
a number T For the cosine and
for which
f ( x + T ) = f ( x) for any x in the domain of the function. T is called the period of the function . For the
sine functions,f (the
x + Tperiod
) = f ( x)isfor
360°
any because cos(αof+the
x in the domain 360°k) = cosTαisand
function. sin(α
called + 360°k)
the period = function
of the sin α. For thethetangent and
. For
cotangent functions, the period is 180° because tan(α +180°k) = tan α and cot(α +180°k) = cot α.

The period of function can change if the function is of the form y = f(ax) a ≠ 0. Recall from Section 5.6 that the
1
graph of the function y = f(ax) shrinks or expands along the x-axis by a factor of a . From here we conclude that
T
the period of y = f(ax) is determined from the period of y = f(x) by the following formula: T1 = a , where T1 is the
period of y = f(ax) and T is the period of y = f(x).
EXAMPLE 9.8c: Find the period of the function y = −5cos(2x + 60°) + 1.
360°
SOLUTION: By the formula just discussed, the period is: T1 = 2 = 180°.
When a periodic function is of the form y = Af(x), its graph expands or shrinks along the y-axis by the factor A.
The absolute value |A| is called the amplitude of the function.
6 The amplitude of the function y = −5cos(2x + 60°) + 1 is |−5| = 5.

6 The amplitude of the function y = 4 − 2cos x is |−2| = 2.
9.9 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Clearly, the sine function is a many-to-one function because for a value of y between −1 and 1, there are
infinitely many values of x such that sin x = y , as is shown in Figure 9–17:

124
–1 = sin
yy = sinxx
infinitely many values of x such that sin x = y , as is shown in Figure 9–17:
1
–90 ° 90°
α1 α2 α3 0° α 4y = αsin α6 α7
Figure 9–17 y = 5
sinxx
–1
Recall from Section 4 that this implies that the function y = sin x is not invertible. However, if we
1
–90 ° 90°
restrict
α 1 the domain of the
α 2function
α3 to −90° ≤ x ≤ 090 ° 4, theαfunction
° α 5 y = sin x αover
6 this
α 7 interval is one-
to-one, and, hence, it is invertible.

FIGURE 9–17
Figure 9–17
–1
The inverse of the function y = sin x over the interval −90° ≤ x ≤ 90° is called arcsine and is denoted
Recall from Section Recall 4 that
from thisSimplies
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4 that
Mathematics thisResource y = sin
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hence, it is
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4). Since we restrict the domain of y = sinFigure x to be 9–17−90° ≤ x ≤ 90° , the range of y = arcsin x is
to-one, and, hence, it is invertible.
The inverse of the function y = sin x over the interval −90° ≤ x ≤ 90° is called arcsine and is denoted by
y =−Recall
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igure 9–18.
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y = arcsin x
y = arcsin x
y = arcsin x
Education
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Figure 9–18
exampleS:
Figure 9–18
1 1 Figure 9–18
l arcsin = 30° because sin 30° = FIGURE 9–18
exampleS: 2 2 Figure 9–18
EXAMPLES:
exampleS:
l1 arcsin 0 = 90° because sin 1 90° = 0
l arcsin = 30° because sin 30° =
exampleS: 1 1
62 arcsin
l arcsin12==30
30° because2sin
° because sin30° 1
30° == 2
l arcsin 2 does not exist since there
1arcsin0
l arcsin60 = 90 = 90°because
° because sin 90° = 0sin90° 1 = 02 is no angle α for which sin α = 2 .
l arcsin = 30° because sin 30° =
2arcsin0 2=does
6
arcsin
l not existsin
3°because
90 since
90°there
2 0 is no angle α3for which sin α = 2.
=
arcsin  −
l = −60 ° sin(−60°) = −
since there is no angle
because
l arcsin 2 does not exist �3
2 α for which
�3 sin α = 2 .
6 0arcsin�−
l arcsin = 90

°

� = −60°
because sin because
90 ° = 0sin(−60°) = − 2
l arcsin 2 does not exist since there is no angle2 α for which sin α = 2 .
2
 3 3
l arcsin  −
 2  =−60°3because sin(−60°) = −
l arcsin arcsin −not exist
2 does = −60since there
° because
2
is −no
60angle
3
= − α for which
°)Mathematics sin α =2.
l 
 
 sin(
2022–2023
ExamplE2 9.9a: For any a ≤ 1 , arcsin(− a )2= − arcsin Resource
a. Guide
  125
 3 3
l arcsin − = −60° because
Recall that sin(−α ) = − sin α . So, sin(−α ) = a .
Recall that sin(−α ) = − sin α . So, sin(−α ) = a .
Dividing both sides of this
−α −) α=)−=sin αequation by
−−α− 1 , we get − sin α = a .
Recall thatthat
Recall sin(sin( − sin . So,
α . So,sin(
sin( α) )==aa..
Note that −90° ≤ −α ≤ 90° . Thus, −α = arcsin a .
Note that −90° ≤ −α ≤ 90° . Thus, −α = arcsin a .
Recall
Note that
that
EXAMPLE
Note −90°
9.9a:
that ≤α −α
−For
sin(−90° ≤=−α
)any−
≤|a|
sin
90° α1,. .Thus,
≤≤90° .So, sin(
arcsin(−a)
Thus, −α−− α=−arcsin
α== = a . aα.
) arcsin
arcsin a..
Therefore:
Therefore:
Note that
Therefore:
PROOF: Let:−90° ≤ −α ≤ 90°(2)
Therefore: . Thus, α = arcsin
α = − −arcsin a a.
(2) α = − arcsin a
(1) arcsin(−α)
(2) = −=arcsin
(2)= α− arcsin
α α,a−90°
a ≤ α ≤ 90°.
Therefore: From (1) and (2), we get arcsin(− a ) = − arcsin a .
Therefore, sin α = −a.
From (1) and
From (2),(2),
(1) and wewegetget
arcsin( − a−)a=
arcsin( ) =−−arcsin
arcsinaa ..
(2)
From α
Dividing= −both
(1) arcsin
and a we
sides
(2), of the
getequation
arcsin( −bya )−1,
= −
we get −sin
arcsin a .α = a.
Recall that sin(−α) = −sin α. So, sin(−α) = a.
From (1)−90°
Note that and ≤(2),
−αwe getThus,
≤ 90°. −α−=
arcsin( = − arcsin
a )arcsin a. a.
Therefore: α = −arcsin a  1 1
ExamplE 9.9b: arcsin −  = −arcsin   = −30° .
From (1) and (2), we get arcsin(−α)
 1 1= −arcsin a.
11  2 2
ExamplE 9.9b: arcsin  −  = −arcsin   =
ExamplE 9.9b: arcsin − 1  = −arcsin  1  = −30° .−30° .
ExamplE 9.9b: arcsin −2 2= −arcsin 22= −30° .
1  
2
1  
2
EXAMPLE 9.9b: arcsin�− 2 � = −arcsin� 2 � = −30°.
1 1
ExamplE 9.9b: arcsin −  = −arcsin   = −30° .
2  function, 2too,
The cosine  is not one-to-one because for a value of y between −1 and 1, there ar
The cosine function, too,manyis notvalues
one-to-one because
of x such thatforcos x = y of
a value shown in−F
, asyisbetween 1 igure
and 1,9–19:
there are infinitely
The cosine
The
function,
cosinefunction,
too,
function, too,
is
too, is
not
not
one-to-one
one-to-one
because
because
for
for for
a
a value
value of y
of y between
between −
−1 and 1,
1 and
there
1, there
are
are many
infinitely
infinitely
The cosine is not one-to-one because
many values of x such that cos x = y , as is shown in Figure 9–19:a value of y between − 1 and 1, there are infinitely
values
many of x such
values of xthat cos that
such x = y,cos
as isx shown in is
= y , as Figure
shown9–19:
in Figure 9–19:

many values of x such that cos x = y , as is shown in Figure 9–19:
The cosine function, too, is not one-to-one because for a value of y between −1 and 1, there are infinitely
many values of x such that cos x = y , as is shown in Figure 9–19:

cos x
yy==cosx
cos x
yy1==cosx
yy cos x
==cosx
y=α= cos x
1
y0° 180°
α1 α2 α3 α4 α6 α7
5
cosx
10° 180°
α2 α3 α4 1 α5 α6 –1 α7 α8
α1
cos x
yy==cosx
0° 180°
α2 α3 α4 –1α5 α6 α7 α8
α1 0° 180°
α1 α2 α3 α4 1 α5 α6 α7 α8
–1
0° 180°
α2 α3 α4 α5 α6 α7 α8
–1
α1
–1
FIGURE 9–19
Figure 9–19
Figure 9–19
This implies that the function Thisy =implies
cos x is that
not invertible.
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0° ≤ x ≤180°, the function2019–2020
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is one-to-one, Instructor's
hence, it isManual
invertible.
This implies that the function
functiony to= cos0° x≤ xis≤not ° 158
180invertible.
Figure , the However,
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9–19 y = cos
if we restrict
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one-to-one, and, h
The inverse of the function y = cos x over the interval Figure0° ≤ 9–19
x ≤180° is called arccosine and is denoted by
y =function
arccos x. to
Again,
0° ≤since we
x ≤ 180 °take
, thethe interval 0°
function
invertible. y =≤cos
x ≤180°
x overas the
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is one-to-one, the range
and,x, hence, it of
is
the implies
This function ythat
= arccos x is 0° ≤ y ≤180°.
the function y = cosLikewise,
x is not the range of y However,
invertible. = cos x is theifdomain of y = arccos
we restrict x . Hence
the domain of the
Figure 9–19
theinvertible.
This implies
domain ofthaty = arccos x is: −1 ≤yx =≤ cos
the function is not
1. Inx summary: invertible.
y = arccos xHowever,
if and onlyifif we
cos yrestrict
= x and the
0° ≤ domain of the
y ≤ 180°. The
function
graph of to ° ≤ x x≤is180
y = 0arcsin ° , the
shown function
in Figure 9–20.y = cos x over this interval is one-to-one, and, hence, it is
function to 0° ≤ x ≤ 180° , the function y = cos x over this interval is one-to-one, and, hence, it is
This implies that the function y = cos x is not invertible. However, if we restrict the domain of the
invertible.
invertible.
function to 0° ≤ x ≤ 180° , the function
2022–2023 = cos x overResource
y Mathematics this interval
Guideis one-to-one, and, hence, it is
invertible. 126
of y = arccos x . Hence the domain of y = arccos x is: −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 . In summary: y = arccos x if and
only if cos y = x and 0° ≤ y ≤ 180° . The graph of y = arcsin x is shown in Figure 9–20.
f(x) = cos–1(x)
y = arccos x
USAD - USAD, CA
FIGURE 9–20
Figure 9–20

EXAMPLES:
exampleS:
�2 �2
6 arccos 22 = 45° because cos45° = 2 2
l arccos = 45° because cos 45° =
6 arccos1
2 = 0° as cos0° = 1 2
6
l arccos(−3)
arccos1 = 0° does not0°exist
as cos = 1 because there is no angle α for which cos α = −3.
1 1
6 arccos�− 2 � = −120° because cos120° = − 2 .
l arccos( −3) does not exist because there is no angle α for which cos α = −3 .
 1 1
l arccos  −  = −120 ° because cos120° = − .
EXAMPLE 9.9c:2 For any |a| ≤ 1, arccos(−a) = 180°2−arccosa.
PROOF: Let:
(1) arccos(−a) = α, 0° ≤ α ≤ 180°.
ExamplE
Therefore, −a. For any a ≤ 1 , arccos(− a ) = 180° − arccos a .
cos α =9.9c:
Using the fact that cos α = −cos(180° − α), we get −a = cos α = −cos(180° − α)
or just a = cos(180°
proof: Let: − α). 159
Note that 0° ≤ 180° − α ≤ 180°. Thus, 180° − α = arccos a.
(1) arccos(− a ) = α , 0° ≤ α ≤ 180° .
Therefore, (2) α = 180° − arccos a.
From (1) and (2), we get arccos(−a) = 180° − arccos a.
�2 �2
EXAMPLE 9.9d: arccos�− � = 180° − arccos� � = 180° − 45° = 135°.
2 2

127
for any value of y there are infinitely many values of x such that tan x = y and cot x = y , as is shown in
with the
any valuesine
of and cosine
y there arefunctions,
infinitely the
manytangent
valuesand
of cotangent
x such thatfunctions
tan x = ytoo
andarecot
notx one-to-one because
= y , as is shown in
the following figures:
the
As following figures:
with the sine and cosine functions, the tangent and cotangent functions too are not one-to-one because for any
any value
valueof there
of yythere are are infinitely
infinitely many
many values of xvalues
such thatof x =such
tan x y and that y, asxis=shown
cot x =tan y and cot
in the x = y figures:
following , as is shown in
following figures:
yy == tan x
tanx
following figures: = tan x
yy = tanx
= tan
yy = x
tanx
0°
α1 α 2 –90 ° 0° α 3 90°
= tan
yy = α
tanxx α5
4
α1 α 2 –90 ° α 3 90° α4 α5
0°
α1 α 2 –90 ° α 3 90° α4 α5
0°
α1 α 2 –90 ° α 3 90° α4 α5
FIGURE 9–21
Figure 9–21
Figure 9–21

y = cot xManual
2019–2020 Mathematics Resource Guide Instructor's
160
Figure 9–21
Figure 9–21
FIGURE 9–22
Figure 9–22
This implies that the functions y = tan x and y = cot x are not invertible. However, if we appropriately restrict
their domains, we can make them invertible functions. For the tangent function, we only consider the interval
This implies that the functions y = tan x and y = cot x are not invertible. However, if we appropriately
−90° < x < 90°, and for the cotangent function, we only consider the interval 0° < x <180°.
restrict
The their
inverse domains,
of the function we
y = can
tan x make
over thethem invertible
interval −90° < functions. For the
x < 90° is called tangent function,
the arctangent, we only
and is denoted by
USAD - USAD, CA
y = arctan x. The domain of this function is −∞ < x < ∞ because the range of y = tan x is any number. The range
ofconsider
y = arctanthe
x isinterval
−90° < y −<90 ° <. xNote
90° ° , and
< 90that sincefor
y =the
tancotangent function,
x is undefined for all αwe only consider
= ±90°(1 + 2k), k ∈the interval
ℤ, the angles
90° and –90° will be excluded from the range of y = arctan x.
0° < x < 180° .
The inverse of the function y = cot x over the interval −90° < x < 90° is called the arccotangent, and is denoted
by y = arccot x. The domain of this function is also −∞ < x < ∞ and the range is 0° < y <180°.
The inverse of the function y = tan x over the interval −90° < x < 90° is called the arctangent, and is
denoted by y = arctan x . The domain of this function is −∞ < x < ∞ because the range of y = tan x
128
is any number. The range of y = arctan x is . Note that since y = tan x is undefined for
Note, angles 0° and 180° will be excluded from the range of y = arccot x for y = cot x is undefined for all α
=180°k, k ∈ ℤ.
Thus: y = arctan x if and only if tan y = x and −90° < y < 90°. y = arccot x if and only if cot y = x and 0° < x <180°.
y = arctan x y = arccot x
FIGURE 9–23
Figure 9–23 FIGURE 9–24
Figure 9–24
EXAMPLES:
ExamplEs:

arctan1
l 6arctan1 = 45=° 45° becausetan
because tan45°
45° ==11
 3 �3� = 60° because cot60° = �3
arccot�
6 3
l arccot   3= 60° because cot 60° = 3
 3  3
6 arctan(−�3) = −60° because tan(−60°) = −�3
l
6arctan ( )
− 3 = =135°
arccot(−1) becausecot135°
−60° because tan(−= °) = − 3
60−1
l arc cot(−1) = 135° because cot135° = −1

EXAMPLE 9.9e: Prove that for all −1 ≤ y ≤ 1 cos(arccos y) = y.
PROOF: For any y and x, −1 ≤ y ≤1 and 0° ≤ x ≤180°, arccos y = x if and only if cos x = y. Substituting x in the
last equation, we
ExamplE get cos
9.9e: x = cos(arccos
Prove y) =−y.
that for all 1 ≤ y ≤ 1 cos(arccos y ) = y .
In proof:
the same way,
Forwe cany prove
any and that
x , −for
1 ≤any
y ≤y,1−1and
≤y0≤°1,≤sin(arcsin = y; andy for
x ≤ 180°y), arccos = xany y∈ℝ
if and only if cos x = y .
6 tan(arctanxy)in
Substituting = ythe last equation, we get cos x = cos(arccos y ) = y .
6 cot(arccot y) = y (You can complete the proof of this on your own as an exercise.)
EXAMPLE
In the Prove
9.9f:we
same way, canthat for all
prove that−90°
for≤any
x ≤ y90°
, −arcsin(sin
1 ≤ y ≤ 1x), =sin(arcsin
x. y ) = y ; and for any y ∈ 
tan(arctan
l PROOF: ) =y,y−1 ≤ y ≤1 and any x, −90° ≤ x ≤ 90°, arcsin y = x if and only if sin x = y. Substituting y in
For yany
the first equation, we get arcsin y = arcsin(sin x) = x.
l cot(arc cot y ) = y (You can complete the proof of this on your own as an exercise.)
for all −90Mathematics

ExamplE 9.9f: Prove that2022–2023 ° ≤ x ≤ 90° arcsin(sin x) = x .
Resource Guide
129
In the same way, we can prove that for any x, 0° ≤ x ≤ 180°, arccos(cos x) = x; And for any x, −90° < x < 90°,
arctan(tan x) = x; And for any x, 0° < x <180°, arccot(cot x) = x. (You can complete the proof of this on your own
as an exercise.)
EXAMPLES:
�3 �3
6 cos(arccos )=
2 2
6 arcsin(sin30°) = 30°
6 arctan(tan(−60°)) = −60°
6 arccot(cot270°) is not defined (why?)
2
EXAMPLE 9.9g: Compute cos(arcsin 5 ).
2
SOLUTION: Let arcsin 5 = α where −90° ≤ α ≤ 90°.
2
Then, sin α = 5 , 0° ≤ α ≤ 90° (why?)
Therefore, cos α = �1 − sin α =

2 1 −
�
�
2 2
5
�21
� =± .
5

�21
Since 0° ≤α ≤ 90°, cos α = .
5
�21
From here we have arccos = α.
5
�21 2
Therefore, arccos = arcsin 5 .
5
2 �21 �21
Hence, cos(arcsin 5 ) cos(arccos ) = .
5 5
4
EXAMPLE 9.9h: Compute sin(arctan(− 5 )).
4
SOLUTION: Let arctan�− 5 � = α, where −90° < α < 90°.
4
Then tan α = − 5 , −90° < α < 0° (why?)
To find sin α, we first find cot α using the identity cot α ⋅ tan α = 1 and then we find sin α using the identity
1
cot2α + 1 = sin2α .
1 5
cot α = tan α = − 4 .

130
� �
1 16 4
�
1
sin α = ± cot2α + 1 = ± 25 = ± 41 = ± �41
+1
16
4
Since −90° < α < 0°, sin α = − �41.
4
From here, arcsin�− �41� = α.
4 4
Therefore, arctan�− 5 � = arcsin�− �41�.
4 4 4
Hence, sin(arctan�− 5 �) = sin(arcsin�− �41�) = − �41 .
9.10 TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS

The simplest trigonometric equations are equations such as sin x = a, cos x = a, tan x = a and cot x = a. Since the
range of the function y = sin x is −1 ≤ y ≤ 1, the equation sin x = a has a solution if and only if −1 ≤ a ≤ 1.
1
EXAMPLE 9.10a: Solve the equation sin2x = − 2 .

1
SOLUTION: sin2x = − 2
1
2x = arcsin�− 2 � + 360°k
or
1
2x = 180° −arcsin�− 2 � + 360°k
1 1
Since arcsin�− 2 � = −arcsin 2 = −30°, we get 2x = −30° + 360°k
or 2x = (180° − (−30°)) + 360°k = 210° + 360°k.
Thus: x = −15° + 90°k
or x = 105° + 180°k
1
EXAMPLE 9.10b: Solve the equation 2 sin2x = �3.
1
SOLUTION: 2 sin2x = �3
sin2x = 2�3.
Since 2�3 > 1, the equation has no solution.

131
�3
EXAMPLE 9.10c: Solve the equation cos(x − 45°) = .
2
�3
SOLUTION: cos(x − 45°) =
2
�3
x − 45° = arccos + 360°k
2
or
�3
x − 45° = −arccos + 360°k
2
�3
Since arccos = 30°, we get x − 45° = 30° + 360°k
2
or
x − 45° = −30° + 360°k
Thus: x = 75° + 180°k
or
x = 15° + 180°k

EXAMPLE 9.10d: Solve the equation cos(−2x) = 1.
SOLUTION: cos(−2x) = 1
−2x = arccos1 + 360°k
or −2x = −arccos1 + 360°k
Since arccos1 = 0 , we get −2x = 0 + 360°k
x = −180°k
Since k varies over all the integers, we can write the solution as: x = 180°k.
2
EXAMPLE 9.10e: Solve the equation tan� 3 x − 30°� = �3.
2
SOLUTION: tan� 3 x − 30°� = �3
2
3 x − 30° = arctan�3 + 180°k
2
3 x − 30° = 60° + 180°k
x = 135° + 270°k.

132
1
EXAMPLE 9.10f: Solve the equation cot2x = − .
�3
1
SOLUTION: cot2x = −
�3
1
2x = arccot�− � + 180°k
�3
2x = 120° + 180°k
x = 60° + 90°k.
x x 1
EXAMPLE 9.10g: Solve the equation sin4 2 − cos4 2 = 2 .
x x 1
Solution: sin4 2 − cos4 2 = 2
x x x x 1
�sin2 2 − cos2 2 ��sin2 2 + cos2 2 � = 2
x x x x 1
Since sin2 2 + cos2 2 = 1 and sin2 2 − cos2 2 = − cos x, we get cos x = 2
1
Multiplying both sides of the equation by −1, we get cos x = − 2

1
x = ± arccos�− 2 � + 360°k
1 1
Since arccos�− 2 � = 180° − arccos 2 = 180° − 60° = 120°, we get x = ± 120° + 360°k.
EXAMPLE 9.10h: Solve the equation cos x + �3 sin x = 2.
SOLUTION: cos x + �3 sin x = 2

1 �3
2 cos x + 2 sin x = 1.
1 �3
Notice that sin30° = 2 and cos30° = .
2
Hence, the equation can be written as sin30°cos x + cos30°sin x = 1.
Using one of the sum identities we learned earlier, we get sin(30° + x) = 1.
30° + x = 90° + 360°k
x = 60° + 360°k.

133
EXAMPLE 9.10i: Solve the equation cos2x − cos6x = 0.
2x − 6x 2x + 6x
SOLUTION: −sin 2 sin 2 =0
−2sin(−2x) sin4x = 0
2sin2x sin4x = 0
In the last equation the product is equal to zero. Therefore, sin2x = 0
or sin4x = 0
Solving, we get 2x = 180°k
or 4x = 180°k
That is, x = 90°k
or x = 45°k
It is not difficult to see that the last set of solutions comprises the first one. Thus: x = 45°k.
EXAMPLE 9.10j: Solve the equation 6sin2 x − 5sin x + 1 = 0.
SOLUTION: Let sin x = t. Then, we get 6t2 − 5t + 1 = 0.

5±1
t = 12
1
t=2
1
or t = 3 .
1 1
Hence, sin x = 2 or sin x = 3 .
From the first equation we get x = 30° + 360°k
or x = 150° + 360°k
1
From the second equation we get x = arcsin 3 + 360°k
1
or x = 180° − arcsin 3 + 360°k
x
EXAMPLE 9.10k: Solve the equation sin 2 + cos x = 2.
x
SOLUTION: Since the functions y = sin x and y = cos x cannot exceed the value 1, sin 2 + cos x = 2 if and only
x
if each of the addends sin 2 and cos x is 1. Hence, we have the following system of equations:
x
sin = 1
� 2
cos x = 1

134
x
Solving the first equation, we get 2 = 90° + 360°k
x = 180° + 720°k.
Solving the second equation, we get x = 360°k.
The question now is: Are there integers k1 and k2 such that 180° + 720°k1 = 360k2?
This is equivalent to 180° = 360°(k2 − 2k1 )
1
The last equation, in turn, is equivalent to 2 = k2 − 2k1.
This obviously is not possible, since the difference between two integers cannot be a fraction. Hence, our
equation has no solution.
Sections 9.8 – 9.10

EXERCISES
1. Which of the following expressions are meaningful?

a. arccos(−1)

b. tan(arctan(−3))
�2
c. sin(arcsin(− ))
2
2. Compute the following:
24
a. tan(arcsin 25 )
1
b. cos(arctan(− 3))

1
a. sin(−4x + 30°) = − 2
7
b. 1 − 2sin2 x = 3sin x
c. sin(15° + x) + sin(45° − x) = 1
d. �3 sin x − cos x = 3
e. cos2 x − 3sin x cos x = −1
f. 1 + cos x + cos2x = 0
x x
g. sin2x = cos42 − sin42
1
h. cot42x + sin42x = 25

135
9.11 THE LAW OF SINES AND COSINES
So far, we have learned how the trigonometric functions can help us solve geometric problems involving right
triangles. In this section, you will learn two theorems that will help us solve geometric problems involving any
triangle.
The Law of Sines: Let ABC be any triangle, with sides a, b, c, and angles α, β, and γ, as shown in Figure 9–25.
a b c
Let r be the radius of the circle circumscribing the triangle. Then sin α = sinβ = sin γ = 2r.
PROOF:
Let ABC be any triangle, with sides a, b, c, and angles α, β, and γ, as shown in Figure 9–25. We are to prove:
a b c
1) sin α = sinβ = sin γ .
a b c
2) sin α = sinβ = sin γ = 2r.
C
γ

aa
bb
α β
cc
A B
FIGURE 9–25
Figure 9–25
Proof of 1): We know that

Proof of 1): We know that
1
area(ΔABC) = 2 absin γ
1
l area ( ∆ABC
1 )= ab sin γ
area(ΔABC) = 2 bcsin α2
1
1 ) = bc sin α
l area ( ∆ABC
2
area(ΔABC) = 2 acsinβ.
1
l area ( ∆ABC ) = ac sin β .
Hence:
2
1 1
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(1) 2 absin γ = 2 bcsin α

Hence:
1 1
(2) 2 bcsin
1 α = 2 acsinβ
1
(1) ab sin γ = bc sin α
2 we get 2
From (1),
1 1
(2) bc sin α = ac sin β
a 2 c 2
(3) sin α = sin γ
From (1), we get
a c 2022–2023 Mathematics Resource Guide

(3) = .
sin α sin γ 136
From (2), we get
a b
(4) sin α = sinβ
From (3) and (4), we get
a b c
(5) sin α = sinβ = sin γ .
a
Proof of 2): It is sufficient to prove that sin α = 2r.
CaSe 1: α = 90°
Circumscribe the triangle ABC.
CaSe 1: α = 90°
CASE 1: α = 90°
The center of the circle is on the side BC as is shown in Figure 9–26.
TheThe center
center of the
of the circle
circle is onisthe
on side
the side
BC asBC is as is shown
shown in Figure 9–26.
C in Figure 9–26.
In In
thisthis case,
case, BCBC = a==a2r.
= 2r . C
In this case, BC = a = 2r . γ
a a 2r 2r 2r 2r
Hence: γ
Hence: sin αsina=αsin90°
= = 1 == 2r. = 2r .
290
sin r ° 21r bb
Hence: = = = 2r . a
a
sin α sin 90° 1 bb
a
aO
O
A α

A α
cc
cc β
β B
B
Figure 9–26
FIGURE 9–26
Figure 9–26
CaSe 2 α ≠ 90°
CASE 2: α ≠ 90°
CaSe 2 α ≠ 90°
Let CA1 be a diameter. Clearly triangle A1BC is a right triangle (why?) with angle �CBA1 = 90°.
Let CA1 be a diameter. Clearly triangle A1BC is a right triangle (why?) with angle CBA1 = 90° .
Let CA1 be a diameter. Clearly triangle A1BC is a right triangle (why?) with angle CBA1 = 90° .
C
C
γ
γ
a
a
bb
a
a
bb
O
α O β
A B
A
α cc β
B
cc
A1
A1
FIGURE 9–27
Figure 9–27
Figure 9–27
a a 2022–2023 Mathematics Resource Guide
We have: sin A1 = = .
Aa1C 2ar 137
We have: sin A1 = = .
a A1C 2r
Therefore, = 2r .
a a
We have: sinA1 = A C = 2r.
1
a
Therefore, sinA = 2r.
1
Note,angle
Since however,
A1 andthat theα points
angle A and
are inscribed B can
within thebe on arc,
same the same sideequal,
they are of the diameter
and, CA
hence, sin α1=, as is1.shown in
sinA
F IGURE a
This shows9–28.
that sin α = 2r, as was required. C
Note, however, that the points A and B can C be on the same side of the diameter CA , as is shown in
1
Note,
Note, however,
however, thatthat the points
the points A andAB and
can beB onγ thebe
can on the
same side same
of theside of the
diameter CAdiameter CA1 , in
, as is shown as Figure
is shown in
9–28.
Figure 9–28. γC 1
Figure 9–28. b
b C
b
b γ
γ
O
b
b O
b aa
b aa
A αα
A O
cc aa O
c aa
A αα
c
A β
c β A1
cc B A1
c B
β
A1

FIGURE β 9–28
FIGURE B 9–28 A1
B
In this case, α + A1 = 180 , or A1 = 180 − α . Figure 9–28
FIGURE
Figure 9–289–28
a
InStill, sin A1α=+αsin(180 − αor,) A
= sin α ,− α. so the relation sin α = 2r still holds.
and
°
this
In case,
this case, =1 180,
A+1 A = 180 = 180
1 A1 = 180 − α .
or
In this case, α + A1 = 180 , or A1 = 180 − α .
a
Still, sinA1 = sin(180° −° α) = sin α, and so the relation sin α = 2r a = still holds.
Still, sin A1 = sin(180° − α ) = sin α , and so the relation a = 2r still holds.
Still, sin A1 = sin(180 − α ) = sin α , and so the relation sin α = 2r still holds.
sin α
EXAMPLE 9.11a: In the triangle ABC AC = 12 , A = 75° , C = 60° . Find side AB .
USAD - USAD, CA
EXAMPLE 9.11a: In the triangle ABC, AC = 12, �A = 75°, �C = 60°. Find side AB.
ExamplE 9.11a: In the triangle ABC AC = 12 , A = 75° , C12 = 60° . Find
c side AB.
ExamplE :9.11a:
SOLUTION To findIn the AB
side triangle
= c we ABC
willAC 12 ,Law
use=the =1275
A of ° , cC = 60=° . Find
Sines: side
. AB.
SOLUTION: To find side AB = c we will use the Law of Sines: sinβ = sin60° sin B. sin 60°
12 c
Solution: To find side AB = c we will use the Law of Sines: �3 12 = c .
3
Solution: To find side AB = c we will use 12 ⋅ the Law 12
sin60° of ⋅Sines: sin B = sin 60° .
Since �B = 180° − (75° + 60°) = 45°, we have c = 12 sin=60 ° 212= 6�3 = 6�6
2 B⋅ �2 sin
sin 60°.
Since B = 180° − (75° + 60°) = 45° , we have csin45° = 1= 1 3 = 6 3 2 =6 6 .
sin 45°
�2 12 ⋅
Since B = 180° − (75° + 60°) = 45° , we C have c = ⋅ sin 60° = 12 ⋅2 23 = 6 3 ⋅ 2 = 6 6 .
12
C have c = 12sin ⋅ sin 60°
Since B = 180° − (75° + 60°) = 45° , we 45° = 1 2 = 6 3 ⋅ 2 = 6 6 .
60° sin 45° 1
2
60
C° 2
a
12 aa
C
12 60°
60°
aa
aa
75°
12
75°
12
A c B
A c
c B
75°
75°
cc
A 2022–2023 Mathematics
cc Resource Guide B
A B
138
The Law of Cosines: Let ABC be any triangle, with sides a , b , c , and angles , , and , as shown in
The
a 2 Law
= b2 +ofcCosines:
2
− 2bc cos Let
α ABC be any triangle C
with sides a, b, c and angles α, β, and γ, as shown in Figure 9–29.
Then:
b2 = a 2 + c 2 −a22 ac 2 β 2
= bcos+ c − 2bc cos α γ
a c=2 b= a+2 c+ b−2 2bccos
2 2 2
α
C
−b22ab 2 γ 2
cos
= a + c − 2ac cos βb γaa
b2 = a2 + c2 − 2accosβ
c 2 = a 2 + b2 − 2ab cos γ
b
aa
c2 = a2 + b2 − 2abcosγ bb
α β
cc
α
B
β
A
A Figure 9–29 c B
FIGURE 9–29
c
Proof: We will prove the first equality a 2 = b2 + c 2 − 2bc cos Figure 9–29
α . The proof for the other two are analogous.
PROOF: We will prove the first equality a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bccos α. The proof for the other two are analogous.
Situate the Proof:
triangle in We
a will prove
coordinate the
systemfirst
as equality
is shown a
in
2
= b 2
Figure+ c 2
−
9–30.
Situate the triangle in a coordinate system as is shown in Figure 9–30. 2 bc cos α . The proof for the other two are analogo
yy
Situate the triangle in a coordinate system as is shown in Figure 9–30.
yy
C (b cos
C (bcosα, , b αsin
bsin ) )

β C (b cos
C (bcosα, , b αsin
bsin ) )
a
βa
bb
a
bb a
α γ
xx
B
c 0)
cαc γ
A (c,
FIGURE 9–30 xx
B
A Figure c9–30 c 0)
(c,
c
We have A = (0, 0), B = (c, 0), and C = (bcos α, bsin α) (Why? Hint: drop the altitude CH from the vertex C to the
Figure
We have A = (0, 0) , B = (c, 0) and C = (b cos α , b sin α ) (Why? Hint:9–30
drop the altitude CH from the vertex
segment AB and consider the right triangle ACH).
C to the segmenthave AB and consider =the
(c,αright triangle
= (αbACH).
By the distanceWe formula:ABC= (0,
2
a2 ,=B(bcos
= 0) and
0)− c) 2
+C (bsin − 0)α2 ,=bbsin
cos 2 α 2) (Why?
cos α + b2sinHint:
2 drop the
α − 2bccos α +altitude
c2 = CH from the ver
b (sin α + cos α)
2 2 2
− 2bccos
C to α + c2 =AB
the segment
2
b +c −
2 2
2bccos α.2 right triangle
By the distance formula: BC = a 2 and = (bconsider
cos α − c )the + (b sin α − 0) 2 =ACH).
b2 cos2 α + b2 sin 2 α − 2bc cos α + c 2 =
Thus, a2 = b2 + c22 − 2bccos α.
b2 (sin 2 α + cosBy αthe 2bc cos αformula:
) −distance + c 2 = b2BC+ c22 =− a22bc=cos α . α − c)2 + (b sin α − 0)2 = b2 cos2 α + b2 sin 2 α − 2bc cos α + c 2
(b cos
Thus,
2
2 b (sin
a 2 = b9.11b:
+ c 2 In
2
αbc+cos
− 2the
cosαα. ) − 2bc cos α + c = b + c − 2bc cos α .
2 2 2 2
EXAMPLE triangle ABC �A = 60° and AB = 6�6, AC = 12. Find side BC.
Thus, a 2 = b2 + c 2 − 2bc cos α .

SOLUTION: By the Law of Cosines Theorem, we have:
1
BC2ExamplE
= (6�6)2 + 129.11b: In⋅ the
− 2 ⋅ 6�6 12 ⋅triangle
cos60° =ABC ° and⋅ AB= =
A =−60144�6
216 +144 6 6 , AC = 12 . Find side BC.
2 360 − 72�6.
2
Then, BC = �360ExamplE
− 72�6 = �36(10 − 2�6)
9.11b: 6�10
In =the − 2�6.ABC A = 60° and AB = 6 6 , AC = 12 . Find side BC.
triangle
Solution: By the Law of Cosines Theorem, we have:
Solution: By the Law of Cosines Theorem, we have:

2019–20202022–2023
Mathematics Resource Guide
Mathematics Instructor's
Resource Guide Manual
174
139
Section 9 .11
EXERCISES
Section 9.11
EXERCISES
1. Find all the sides and angles of the triangle ABC if
1. Find all the sides and angles of the triangle ABC if
C
a. �A1.= Find
60°, �B
all =the
40°, c = and
sides 14 angles of the triangle ABC if
C
γ
A = 60°b, =10B = 40°, c = 14 γ
b. �A = a.
80°,
a. aA==16,60°, B = 40°, c = 14 a
bb a
A = 80 =°°20.
, a = 16, b = 10
a
c. a = 14,b. 18, bb
b.b =
A =c80 , a = 16, b = 10
a
2. Determinec. a = 14, b = 18, c = 20 . ABC if its sides are

c. the
a =angles
14, b =of18,a triangle
c = 20 . α β
a. 5, 4, and 4 A α β
2. Determine the angles of a triangle ABC if its sides are ccc
B
b. 17,2. Determine
8, and 15 the angles of a triangle ABC if its sides are
A B
c
a. 5, 4, and 4
c. 9, 5, and
a. 6.
5, 4, and 4
USAD - USAD, CA
b. 17, 8, and 15
3. Find the b. 17, 8, and
bisectors in the15triangle with sides 5, 6, and 7.
c. 9, 5, and 6.
4. A groupc.of 9, 5, andwas
students 6. assigned to determine the width of a river. They marked two trees on one bank of
the river, A and B, and measured the distance between them. The distance was 70 yards. On the other bank of
3. Find the bisectors in the triangle with sides 5, 6, and 7.
the river, adjacent
3. Find to the water,
the bisectors theytriangle
in the markedwith
another
sidestree
5, 6, They7.also found that �CAB = 12°30′ and �ABC =
C. and
72°42′. The students determined the width of the river from this information. What is the river’s width?
4. A group of students was assigned to determine the width of a river. They marked two trees on

4. A group of students was assigned to determine the width of a river. They marked two trees on
5. Use the Law of Cosines to prove the Pythagorean Theorem.
one bank of the river, A and B, and measured the distance between them. The distance was 70
one bank of the river, A and B, and measured the distance between them. The distance was 70
6. State theyards.
converse
On of
thethe Pythagorean
other bank of Theorem
the river, and proveto
adjacent it using the Law
the water, theyofmarked
Cosines.another tree C. They
yards. On the other bank of the river, adjacent to the water, they marked another tree C. They
also found that CAB = 12°30′ and ABC = 72°42′ . The students determined the width of the
also found that CAB = 12°30′ and ABC = 72°42′ . The students determined the width of the
river from this information. What is the river’s width?
9.12 RADIANS river from this information. What is the river’s width?
So far we
5. have
Use measured
the Law ofangles by degree
Cosines to proveunits.
theIn this section,Theorem.
Pythagorean we will learn how to measure angles by length
5. Use the Law of Cosines to prove the Pythagorean Theorem.
units, calledatradians.
centered To of
the vertex α , as
define theshown
radianinmeasure
Figureof9–31,
an angle α, take
and let l beany
the circle
lengthwith radius
of the theα .
centered atby
arc rintercepted
centered
vertex of at the vertex of α , as shown in F igure 9–31, and let l be the length of the arc intercepted by α .
6.α,State
as shown
l is considered the in Figureof9–31,
to converse
be positive ifthe
and let l be theTheorem
α Pythagorean
is a positive angle
length ofand
the arc intercepted
prove
and negative if it
αusing by α.
the Lawl isof
is a negative
considered
Cosines. to be
positive6.if αState the
toconverse
is a positive
l is considered angleof
be positiveandifthe Pythagorean
αnegative Theorem
if α is aangle
is a positive negative and
and angle. prove
negative if itαusing the Law angle.
is a negative of Cosines.
angle.
l
9 .12 RADIANS l
r
r
So far we have measured angles by degree units. In this section, we will learn how to measure angles by
So far we have measured angles by degree units. In this section, we will learn how to measure angles by
α measure of an angle α , take any circle with radius r
length units, called radians. To define the radian
α measure of an angle α , take any circle with radius r
length units, called radians. To define the radian

175
Figure 9–31
FIGURE 9–31
Figure 9–31
l
The radian measure of the angle α is defined to be the ratio, l .
α is defined
The radian measure of the angle2022–2023 to be the ratio,
Mathematics r . Guide
Resource
r
140 the radian measure of the angle α is independent
For this definition to be meaningful, we must show that
For this definition to be meaningful, we must show that the radian measure of the angle α is independent
l
The radian measure of the angle α is defined to be the ratio, r .
For this definition to be meaningful, we must show that the radian measure of the angle α is independent of the
choice of the radius r. In the exercises at the end of this section, you will be guided to justify this fact.
l
Since the ratio r is independent of the radius r, we may choose r = 1. So, the measure of α in radian is the length
of the arc intercepted by α in a circle of radius 1. When we say the radian measure of an angle α is, for example,
1.5, we mean that the length of the arc intercepted by α in a circle of radius 1 is 1.5.
Thus, it easy to see that:
1. If the degree measure of an angle α is 360°, then the radian measure of α is 2π.
2. If the degree measure of an angle α is 180°, then the radian measure of α is π.
π
3. If the degree measure of an angle α is 1°, then the radian measure of α is 180 .
And in general:
π
4. If the degree measure of an angle α is n°, then the radian measure of α is 180 ⋅ n.
We can also convert radians to degrees:

π °
5. If the radian measure of an angle α is 1, then the degree measure of α is � 180 � .
And in general:
π °
6. If the radian measure of an angle α is s, then the degree measure of α is � 180 ⋅ s�
3π 3π
When we write 135° = 4 , we mean that the radian measure of the angle whose degree measure is 135° is 4 .
EXAMPLES:
π
360° = 180° ⋅ 360° = 2π
π 3π
135° = 180° ⋅ 135° = 4
180°
2.5 = π ⋅ 2.5 ≅ 143°
π 180° π
6 = π ⋅ 6 = 30°.

141
Section 9.12
EXERCISES
1. Find the radian measure for each angle.
° 15° 30° 45° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 225° 270° 315° 360°
radians
2. D
etermine to which quarter each of the following angles belongs:
2π 3π π 5π 7π 2π 15 2
3 , 4 , 6 , 18 , 12 , 5 , 35π, 146π, 2 π, 1, 8, π .
3. Find the radian measures of the angles whose degree measures are:
a. 45°30′
b. 12′

a. tan(3sinπx) = �3
b. sin(cos3x) = 1

142

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ALGEBRA AND TRIGONOMETRY

Part I Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 3.7 Proof of the Factor Theorem . . . . . . . . 24

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Section 6.2: Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67 Part II Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . 100

Section 6.4: Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74 9.4 Relations Among Trigonometric

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Sections 9.1–9.7: Exercises . . . . . . . . . . 118

SKT Education - China, CH

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2022–2023 Mathematics Resource Guide

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heMATics ResouRce Guide

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EXAMPLE 2.1a: The equations 2x − 9 = 34 and 2x − 43 = 0 are equivalent.

Now, let’s solve a few linear equations.

EXAMPLE 2.1b: Solve the equation 8x − 34 = 15.

2022–2023 Mathematics Resource Guide

EXAMPLE 2.1c: Solve the equation −5x + 4 = 3x − 1 .

SOLUTION: −5x + 4 − 4 = 3x − 1 − 4 Subtract 4 from both sides of the equation.

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EXAMPLE 2.1d: Solve the equation 2(x − 4) + 3 = 2x − 5.

2022–2023 Mathematics Resource Guide

1. Solve the following equations:

b. 2�x − 3 �+ 3�x + 2 �+ 4�x − 1 �= 9x + 17

SKT Education - China, CH

2022–2023 Mathematics Resource Guide

2.2.1 Equations of the Form x2 – p = 0

EXAMPLE 2.2a: Solve the equation x2 − 16 = 0.

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2.2.2 Equations of the Form k(x + r)2 – p = 0, Where k ≠ 0

EXAMPLE 2.2b: Solve the equation 8(x + 3)2 − 72 = 0.

SOLUTION: 8(x + 3)2 − 72 = 0

2022–2023 Mathematics Resource Guide

EXAMPLE 2.2c: Solve 2x2 − 3x + 1 = 0.

By substituting k = 2 in 2kr = −3, we get r = −3 . k x2 + 2kr x + kr2 − p = 0

SKT Education - China, CH

2022–2023 Mathematics Resource Guide

SKT Education - China, CH

2.2.4 The Discriminant

−b+�b2 − 4ac −b−�b2 − 4ac

2. When Δ = b2 − 4ac = 0, the equation has only one real solution: x = −b .

2022–2023 Mathematics Resource Guide

−b±�b2 − 4ac −b±�b2 − 4a0 −b±�b2 − 0 −b±�b2 −b±b

Thus, x = 0 and x = −2b = − b is the solution set of the equation ax2 + bx = 0.

1. Solve the equations:

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2022–2023 Mathematics Resource Guide

SKT Education - China, CH

The coefficients of the polynomial 17x4 + 0 ⋅ x3 − 12x2 + 0 ⋅ x − 3 are:

The terms of this polynomial are: − 3 , 0 ⋅ x, −12x2, 0 ⋅ x3, and 17x4.

2022–2023 Mathematics Resource Guide

3.2 HOW DO WE ADD AND SUBTRACT POLYNOMIALS?

Q(x) = −4x5 + 3x3 + 2x2 − 6x + 9

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Q(x) = 65x7 + 13x3 + �2x2 − 8

Q(x) = 6x4 + 23x3 + �2x2 − 3x − 8

3.3 HOW DO WE MULTIPLY POLYNOMIALS?

2022–2023 Mathematics Resource Guide

Q(x) = 5x3 − 3x2 + 2x

3.5 HOW DOES THE DIVISION OF POLYNOMIALS HELP US WITH

4.3 M ANY-TO-ONE FUNCTIONS VERSUS ONE-TO-ONE FUNCTIONS