CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

UNIVERSITY

Mechanical Engineering Department

HEAT TRANSFER
Angelo A. Acenas, ME, LPT
Instructor
 Before you proceed, make sure to download
this PDF File

Also, check slide 102 to have an idea about the

weekly tasks.

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 Heat Energy &
Conduction Heat Transfer
ME 333 Module No. 1

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 INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:
Topic 1: Heat Energy
ILO1. Recall the laws of thermodynamics that govern the transmission of heat energy.
ILO2. Identify the thermodynamic parameters that drives heat energy.
ILO3. Describe and distinguish from other the different modes of heat transmission.
Topic 2: Conduction Heat Transfer
ILO1. Describe the heat transfer on solid medium of plane surface and cylindrical surface.
ILO2. Derive the conduction steady state transfer of heat energy from Fourier’s equation.
ILO3. Show the electrical circuit analogy of steady state heat transfer.

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 Heat Energy
ME 333 Topic No. 1

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 Definition
Heat transfer can be defined as follows:
• Heat transfer (or heat) is thermal energy in transit due
to a spatial temperature difference.
• Heat, which is the form of energy that can be
transferred from one system to another as a result of
temperature difference. The science that deals with
the determination of the rates of such energy
transfers is heat transfer.

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Heat travels from High Temperature to Low Temperature Reservoir.
 Applications

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 Modes of Heat Transfer
• Heat can be transferred in three different modes:
conduction, convection, and radiation.
• All modes of heat transfer require the existence of a
temperature difference, and all modes are from the
high-temperature medium to a lower-temperature
one.

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 Modes of Heat Transfer

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 Conduction
• Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic
particles of a substance to the adjacent less energetic ones
as a result of interactions between the particles.
• Conduction can take place in solids, liquids, or gases.
• In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions and
diffusion of the molecules during their random motion.
• In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of the
molecules in a lattice and the energy transport by free
electrons.

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 Conduction
• It is possible to quantify heat transfer processes in terms of
appropriate rate equations.
• Rate equations are used to compute the amount of energy
being transferred per unit time.
• For heat conduction, the rate equation is known as
Fourier’s law.

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 Conduction
• One-dimensional heat transfer, steady-state conduction

The direction of
heat flux is from
high to low
temperature.

Where,
𝑊
𝑞𝑥′′ is the heat flux, in ( 2 ), is the heat transfer rate in the x direction per unit area perpendicular to the direction of transfer
𝑚
∆𝑇 is the temperature difference (K),
k is the thermal conductivity (W/m- K) and is a characteristic of the wall material.
L is the wall thickness

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 Sample Problem No.1
The wall of an industrial furnace is constructed from 0.15-m-thick fireclay brick having a thermal
conductivity of 1.7 W/m K. Measurements made during steady-state operation reveal temperatures
of 1400 and 1150 K at the inner and outer surfaces, respectively. What is the rate of heat loss
through a wall that is 0.5 m by 1.2 m on a side? Ans. 𝒒𝒙 = 𝟏𝟕𝟎𝟎 𝑾

*Assumptions:
1. Steady-state conditions.
2. One-dimensional conduction
through the wall.
3. Constant thermal conductivity.

*In solving heat transfer problems, assumptions are necessary to simplify your solutions. You must present your assumptions
to justify to final answer.

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 Sample Problem No.1
The wall of an industrial furnace is constructed from 0.15-m-thick fireclay brick having a thermal
conductivity of 1.7 W/m K. Measurements made during steady-state operation reveal temperatures
of 1400 and 1150 K at the inner and outer surfaces, respectively. What is the rate of heat loss
through a wall that is 0.5 m by 1.2 m on a side?
Since heat transfer through the wall is by
conduction, the heat flux may be determined
from Fourier’s law:
𝑊
𝑘∆𝑇 1.7 𝑚 − 𝐾 (1400 𝐾 − 1150𝐾)
𝑞𝑥′′ = =
𝐿 0.15 𝑚
𝑊
𝑞𝑥′′ = 2833.33 2
𝑚

For the 0.5m x 1.2 m wall, the rate of heat loss is

𝑞𝑥 = 𝑞𝑥′′ 𝑥 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑊
𝑞𝑥 = 2833.33 𝑥 (0.5 𝑚 𝑥 1.2 𝑚)
𝑚2
𝒒𝒙 = 𝟏𝟕𝟎𝟎 𝑾 → 𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

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For problems involving thermal
conductivity and other thermophysical
properties such as density and specific
heat, check the following pages of our
reference book “Fundamentals of Heat
and Mass Transfer” by Incropera, et. Al

These properties are also useful in

cooling load calculation of the course
Airconditioning Systems.
 Convection
• Convection is the mode of energy transfer between a solid
surface and the adjacent liquid or gas that is in motion, and it
involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid
motion.
• The faster the fluid motion, the greater the convection heat
transfer.
• In the absence of any bulk fluid motion, heat transfer
between a solid surface and the adjacent fluid is by pure
conduction.

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 Convection
• Convection heat transfer processes:
a. forced convection when the flow is
caused by external means, such as by a
fan, a pump, or atmospheric winds
b. free (or natural) convection the flow is
induced by buoyancy forces, which are
due to density differences caused by
temperature variations in the fluid.
Heat transfer processes that involve change
of phase such as
c. Boiling
d. Condensation

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 Convection
• The rate of convection heat transfer is observed to be
proportional to the temperature difference, and is
conveniently expressed by Newton’s law of cooling

Sign of convection heat flux:

𝑇𝑠 > 𝑇∞ → positive, heat is transferred from the surface
𝑇𝑠 < 𝑇∞ → negative, heat is transferred to the surface

Where,
𝑞 ′′is the convective heat flux (𝑊/𝑚2 ),
h is the convection heat transfer coefficient (𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾)
𝑇𝑠 is the surface temperature, K
𝑇∞ is the fluid temperature, K

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 Sample Problem No.2
A 2-m-long, 0.3-cm-diameter electrical wire extends across a room at 15℃. Heat is generated in
the wire as a result of resistance heating, and the surface temperature of the wire is measured to
be 152°C in steady operation. Also, the voltage drop and electric current through the wire are
measured to be 60 V and 1.5 A, respectively. Disregarding any heat transfer by radiation,
determine the convection heat transfer coefficient for heat transfer between the outer surface of the
wire and the air in the room. Ans 𝐡 = 𝟑𝟒. 𝟗 𝑾/𝒎𝟐 · °𝑪

Assumptions:
1. Steady state condition exists
2. Negligible radiation heat transfer

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 Sample Problem No.2
A 2-m-long, 0.3-cm-diameter electrical wire extends across a room at 15℃. Heat is generated in
the wire as a result of resistance heating, and the surface temperature of the wire is measured to
be 152°C in steady operation. Also, the voltage drop and electric current through the wire are
measured to be 60 V and 1.5 A, respectively. Disregarding any heat transfer by radiation,
determine the convection heat transfer coefficient for heat transfer between the outer surface of the
wire and the air in the room.
When steady operating conditions are reached, the rate of
heat loss from the wire will equal the rate of heat
generation in the wire as a result of
resistance heating.
𝑞ሶ = 𝐸ሶ 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 𝑉𝐼 = 60𝑉 1.5𝐴 = 90 𝑊
𝑞ሶ = 𝑞ሶ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑞 ′′𝐴𝑠 = ℎ (𝑇𝑠 - 𝑇∞ )𝐴𝑠
𝑞ሶ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 90 𝑊
ℎ= =
(𝑇𝑠 - 𝑇∞ )𝐴𝑠 (152°𝐶 − 15°𝐶)(𝜋)(0.003𝑚)(2𝑚)
𝑾
ℎ = 𝟑𝟒. 𝟗 𝟐 °𝑪 → answer
𝒎
𝐴𝑠 = 𝜋𝐷𝐿 → 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒

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 Radiation
• Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form of
electromagnetic waves (or photons) as a result of the
changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or
molecules.
• Unlike conduction and convection, the transfer of energy by
radiation does not require the presence of an intervening
medium.
• In fact, energy transfer by radiation is fastest (at the speed of
light) and it suffers no attenuation in a vacuum. This is how
the energy of the sun reaches the earth.
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 Radiation
• The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted from a
surface at an absolute temperature 𝑇𝑠 (in K or R) is given by
the Stefan–Boltzmann law as
4
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑞ሶ 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜎𝐴𝑠 𝑇𝑠 → 𝑊 𝑜𝑟
ℎ𝑟
𝑊 𝐵𝑡𝑢
where σ = 5.67 𝑥 10−8 𝑚2−𝐾 4 𝑜𝑟 0.1714 𝑥10−8 ℎ−𝑓𝑡 2−𝑅4 is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant

• The idealized surface that emits radiation at this maximum

rate is called a blackbody, and the radiation emitted by a
blackbody is called blackbody radiation.
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 Radiation
• The heat flux (emissive power) emitted by a real surface is
less than that of a blackbody at the same temperature and is
given by
4
𝑊
𝐸 = 𝜀 𝜎𝑇𝑠 → 2
where ,
𝑚
𝑊 𝐵𝑡𝑢
σ = 5.67 𝑥 10−8 𝑚2−𝐾4 𝑜𝑟 0.1714 𝑥10−8 ℎ−𝑓𝑡 2−𝑅 4 is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant
𝜀 is the emissivity of the surface. The property emissivity, whose value is in the range 0 to 1 and is a measure of
how closely a surface approximates a blackbody for which 𝜀 = 1

Another important radiation property of a surface is its absorptivity, 𝜶, which is the fraction of the radiation energy incident
on a surface that is absorbed by the surface. Like emissivity, its value is in the range 0 to 1. A blackbody absorbs the entire
radiation incident on it. That is, a blackbody is a perfect absorber (α = 1 ) as it is a perfect emitter.
The absorbed radiation energy is 𝐺𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 = 𝜶𝑮

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 4
𝐺 = 𝜎𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟 → Irradiation, 𝑊/𝑚2, which is the rate at which all such radiation is incident on a unit area of the surface
𝑮 = 𝝈𝑻𝟒𝒔𝒖𝒓

𝑬 = 𝟏−𝜶 𝑮

𝑮𝒂𝒃𝒔 𝜶𝑮 = 𝜶𝝈𝑻𝟒𝒔𝒖𝒓
 Radiation
• If the surface is assumed to be one for which 𝜀 = 𝛼 (a gray
surface), the net rate of radiation heat transfer from the
surface, expressed per unit area of the surface, is

where ,
′′ 𝑊
𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑 is the radiation heat transfer in
𝑚2
𝑊 𝐵𝑡𝑢
σ = 5.67 𝑥 10−8 𝑜𝑟 0.1714 𝑥10−8 is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant
𝑚2 −𝐾4 ℎ−𝑓𝑡 2 −𝑅 4
𝜀 is the emissivity of the surface. The property emissivity, whose value is in the range 0 to 1 and is a measure of
how closely a surface approximates a blackbody for which 𝜀 = 1
𝑇𝑠 is the surface temperature, K
𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟 is the surrounding temperature, K, 𝑇𝑠 ≠ 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟

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 Radiation
• There are many applications for which it is convenient to
express the net radiation heat exchange in the form

where ,
𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑 is the radiation heat transfer in 𝑊
ℎ𝑟𝑎𝑑 is the radiation heat transfer coefficient = 𝜀 𝜎(𝑇𝑠 + 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟 )(𝑇𝑠2 + 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟
2 )

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 Radiation
• The surface may also simultaneously transfer heat by
convection to an adjoining gas. The total rate of heat transfer
from the surface is then

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 Sample Problem No.3
An uninsulated steam pipe passes through a room in which the air and walls are at 25°C. The
outside diameter of the pipe is 70 mm, and its surface temperature and emissivity are 200°C and
0.8, respectively. What are the surface emissive power and irradiation? If the coefficient associated
with free convection heat transfer from the surface to the air is 15 𝑊/𝑚2 − 𝐾, what is the rate of
𝑾 𝑾 𝑾
heat loss from the surface per unit length of pipe? Ans. 𝑬 = 𝟐𝟐𝟕𝟑. 𝟑𝟔 𝒎𝟐, 𝑮 = 𝟒𝟒𝟖. 𝟎𝟓 𝒎𝟐, 𝒒′ = 𝟗𝟗𝟖. 𝟑𝟖 𝒎

Assumptions:
1. Steady-state conditions.
2. Radiation exchange between the
pipe and the room is between a small
surface and a much larger enclosure.
3. The surface emissivity and
absorptivity are equal.

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 Sample Problem No.3
An uninsulated steam pipe passes through a room in which the air and walls are at 25°C. The
outside diameter of the pipe is 70 mm, and its surface temperature and emissivity are 200°C and
0.8, respectively. What are the surface emissive power and irradiation? If the coefficient associated
with free convection heat transfer from the surface to the air is 15 𝑊/𝑚2 − 𝐾, what is the rate of
heat loss from the surface per unit length of pipe?
Surface emissive power, E
𝑊
𝐸 = 𝜀 𝜎𝑇𝑠4 = 0.8 5.67 𝑥 10−8 200 + 273.15 𝐾 4
𝑚2 − 𝐾 4
𝑊
𝐸 = 2273.36 𝑚2 → answer
Irradiation, G
4
𝑊
𝐺= 𝜎𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟 = 5.67 𝑥 10−8 25 + 273.15 𝐾 4
𝑚2 − 𝐾 4
𝑊
𝐺 = 448.05 → answer
𝑚2

𝐴𝑠 = 𝜋𝐷𝐿 → 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒

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 Sample Problem No.3
An uninsulated steam pipe passes through a room in which the air and walls are at 25°C. The
outside diameter of the pipe is 70 mm, and its surface temperature and emissivity are 200°C and
0.8, respectively. What are the surface emissive power and irradiation? If the coefficient associated
with free convection heat transfer from the surface to the air is 15 𝑊/𝑚2 − 𝐾, what is the rate of
heat loss from the surface per unit length of pipe?
Heat loss from the surface per unit length of the pipe, q’
Heat loss from the pipe is by convection to the room air and
by radiation exchange with the walls, 𝑞 = 𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 + 𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑
′ 𝒒 𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 + 𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑 ℎ 𝑇𝑠 - 𝑇∞ 𝐴𝑠 + 𝜀 𝜎 𝑇𝑠4 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟 4
𝐴𝑠
𝒒 = = =
𝑳 𝑳 𝐿
𝑾
𝒒′ = 𝟏𝟓 𝟐 𝟐𝟎𝟎 − 𝟐𝟓 𝝅 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝒎 +
𝒎 −𝑲
−𝟖
𝑾 𝟒
+𝟎. 𝟖(𝟓. 𝟔𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 )( 𝟐𝟎𝟎 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑. 𝟏𝟓
𝒎𝟐 − 𝑲𝟒
− 𝟐𝟓 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑. 𝟏𝟓 𝟒 𝝅 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝒎
𝑾
𝒒′ = 𝟗𝟗𝟖. 𝟑𝟖 → answer
𝒎
𝐴𝑠 = 𝜋𝐷𝐿 → 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 *temperature must be expressed in kelvins (K) when evaluating a radiation transfer
rate.
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 Bonus Question

This is to check whether you are studying this material.

How do you find studying this material so far?
Follow the format: <ME 333> <Space> <Full Name> <Space>
<Answer>
Send to 09750950831
The first half of the students to text will receive additional 5
points in the problem set.

ME Comprehensive Evaluation Course 1

 Simultaneous Heat Transfer
• Heat transfer is only by conduction in
opaque solids, but by conduction and
radiation in semitransparent solids.
• Heat transfer is by conduction and possibly
by radiation in a still fluid (no bulk fluid
motion) and by convection and radiation in
a flowing fluid.
• Heat transfer through a vacuum is by
radiation only since conduction or
convection requires the presence of a
material medium.
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 Sample Problem No.4
Consider a person standing in a breezy room at 20°C. Determine the total rate of heat transfer from
this person if the exposed surface area and the average outer surface temperature of the person
are 1.6 m2 and 29°C, respectively, and the convection heat transfer coefficient is 6 W/m2 · °C.
Ans. 𝒒 = 𝟏𝟔𝟖. 𝟐𝟒 𝑾

Assumptions:
1. Steady operating conditions exist.
2. The person is completely
surrounded by the interior surfaces of
the room.
3. The surrounding surfaces are
at the same temperature as the air in
the room.
4. Heat conduction to the floor
through the feet is negligible.

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 Sample Problem No.4
Consider a person standing in a breezy room at 20°C. Determine the total rate of heat transfer from
this person if the exposed surface area and the average outer surface temperature of the person
are 1.6 m2 and 29°C, respectively, and the convection heat transfer coefficient is 6 W/m2 · °C

Heat transfer is by convection due to the temperature difference between the room
air and the person, and by radiation since the person will also lose heat by radiation
to the surrounding wall surfaces.
𝑞 = 𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 + 𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑞 = ℎ 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ 𝐴𝑠 + 𝜀 𝜎 𝑇𝑠4 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟 4
𝐴𝑠
The emissivity of a person is 0.95 (Slide 27)
𝑊
𝑞=6 2 (29 − 20)(1.6𝑚2 ) +
𝑚 −𝐾
+0.95(5.67 𝑥 10−8 𝑊/(𝑚2 − 𝐾 4 ))( 29 + 273.15 4 − 25 + 273.15 4 1.6𝑚2

𝑞 = 168.24 𝑊

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 Conduction Heat Transfer
ME 333 Topic No. 2
Intended Learning Outcomes:
ILO1. Describe the heat transfer on solid medium of plane surface and cylindrical surface.
ILO2. Derive the conduction steady state transfer of heat energy from Fourier’s equation.
ILO3. Show the electrical circuit analogy of steady state heat transfer.

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 The Conduction Rate Equation
• The conduction rate equation, Fourier’s law, was introduced in previous
topic, it is now appropriate to consider its origin. Fourier’s law is
phenomenological; that is, it is developed from observed phenomena
rather than being derived from first principles.
For example, consider the steady-state conduction experiment.
• A cylindrical rod of known material is insulated on its lateral
surface, while its end faces are maintained at different, with 𝑇1 >
𝑇2 .
• The temperature difference causes conduction heat transfer in the
positive x- direction.
• How 𝒒𝒙 depends on the following variables: ΔT, the temperature
difference; Δx, the rod length; and A, the cross-sectional area.
• 𝑞𝑥 = 𝑞𝑥 (Δ𝑇, Δ𝑥, 𝐴) using a chain rule differentiate equation : by
𝚫𝑻
taking one constant and two variable 𝒒𝒙 ∝𝑨
𝚫𝒙
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 The Conduction Rate Equation
• What will be 𝑞𝑥 value for metal and a plastic material for equal values of ΔT, Δx, and A?
𝒒𝒙 would be smaller for the plastic than for the metal.
• Why? Proportionality (∝)
• Proportionality may be converted to an equality by introducing a coefficient that is a
measure of the material behavior. Hence, we write
𝚫𝑻 𝑊
𝒒𝒙 = 𝒌𝑨 𝚫𝒙 → k is the thermal conductivity (𝑚−𝐾)
• Evaluating this expression in the limit as Δ𝑥 → 0, we obtained
𝒅𝑻
𝒒𝒙 = −𝒌𝑨 𝒅𝒙 → For the heat rate*

𝒒𝒙 𝒅𝑻
𝒒′′𝒙 = −𝒌 → For the heat 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥
𝑨 𝒅𝒙
*the minus sign is necessary because heat is always transferred in the direction of decreasing temperature.

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 The Conduction Rate Equation
• Fourier's law (𝒒𝒙′′): The direction of heat flow will always be normal to a
surface of constant temperature, called an isothermal surface.
• Recognizing that the heat flux is a vector quantity, we can write a more
general statement of the conduction rate equation (Fourier's law ) as

• Resolving heat flux vector intro components

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 Thermal Conductivity (𝑘)
• The rate of heat transfer through a unit thickness of the material per unit
area per unit temperature difference.
𝑾
Unit →
𝒎−𝑲

• It depends on the physical structure of matter, atomic and molecular, which

is related to the state of the matter.
• The thermal conductivity of a material is a measure of the ability of the
material to conduct heat.
• A high value for thermal conductivity indicates that the material is a good
heat conductor, and a low value indicates that the material is a poor heat
conductor or insulator.
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 Thermal Diffusivity (𝜶)
• In heat transfer analysis, the ratio of the thermal conductivity to the heat
capacity is an important property termed the thermal diffusivity 𝜶, which
is
𝒎𝟐
Unit →
𝒔

• It measures the ability of a material to conduct thermal energy relative to

its ability to store thermal energy.
• So what does it mean when materials have large and small value of 𝜶? For
a large 𝛂 will respond quickly to changes in their thermal environment, and
For a small 𝜶 will respond more sluggishly, taking longer to reach a new
equilibrium condition.
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 Sample Problem No.5
The thermal diffusivity is the controlling transport property for transient conduction. Using
appropriate values of 𝑘, 𝜌 and 𝑐𝑝 from Appendix A, calculate 𝛼 for the following materials at the
prescribed temperatures: pure aluminum, 300 and 700 K; silicon carbide, 1000 K; paraffin, 300 K.

Pure Aluminum 300 K Pure Aluminum 700 K

Using Table A.1 Using Table A.1

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 Sample Problem No.5
The thermal diffusivity is the controlling transport property for transient conduction. Using
appropriate values of 𝑘, 𝜌 and 𝑐𝑝 from Appendix A, calculate 𝛼 for the following materials at the
prescribed temperatures: pure aluminum, 300 and 700 K; silicon carbide, 1000 K; paraffin, 300 K.

Silicon Carbide 1000 K Paraffin 300 K

Using Table A.2 Using Table A.3

HEAT TRANSFER
 General Heat Conduction Equation
• Heat transfer problems are also classified as being one-dimensional, two dimensional,
or three-dimensional, depending on the relative magnitudes of heat transfer rates in
different directions and the level of accuracy desired.
• In the most general case, heat transfer through a medium 3D. That is, the temperature
varies along all three primary directions within the medium during the heat transfer
process.
• The temperature distribution throughout the medium at a specified time as well as the
heat transfer rate at any location, can be described by a set of three coordinates such as
the
i. Rectangular (or Cartesian) coordinate system: x, y, and z;
ii. Cylindrical coordinate system: 𝐫, 𝝓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒛
iii. Spherical (or polar) coordinate system: 𝐫, 𝝓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜽

HEAT TRANSFER
 General Heat Conduction Equation
i. Rectangular (or Cartesian) coordinate system: x, y, and z
• Consider a small rectangular element of length 𝑑x, width dy, and height dz,
and an infinitesimally small (differential) control volume, dy. 𝑑x.dz and
temperature distribution: T(x. y, z)
• In the absence of motion (or with uniform motion), there are no changes in
mechanical energy and no work being done on the system.
• Only thermal forms of energy need be considered. Specifically, if there are
temperature gradients, conduction heat transfer will occur across each of
the control surfaces.
• The conduction heat rates perpendicular to each of the control surfaces at
the x-,y-, and z- coordinate locations are indicated qx, qy, and qz.
HEAT TRANSFER
 General Heat Conduction Equation
i. Rectangular (or Cartesian) coordinate system: x, y, and z
• The conduction heat rates at the opposite surfaces can then be expressed
as a Taylor series expansion where, neglecting higher-order terms,

• Within the medium there may also be an energy source

term associated with the rate of thermal energy
generation. This term is represented as 𝐸𝑔 = 𝑞 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
• q: rate at which energy is generated per unit volume
(𝑊/𝑚 3)
• In addition, changes may occur in the amount of the
internal thermal energy stored by the material in the
control volume.

HEAT TRANSFER
 General Heat Conduction Equation
i. Rectangular (or Cartesian) coordinate system: x, y, and z
• Based on applying conservation of energy to a differential control volume
through which energy transfer is exclusively by conduction.

or

Substituting values

HEAT TRANSFER
 General Heat Conduction Equation
i. Rectangular (or Cartesian) coordinate system: x, y, and z

Substituting values

The conduction heat rates in an isotropic* material may be evaluated from Fourier's law,

*Note: Isotropic material : they have the same properties in all

directions. Or, thermal conductivity of a material to be independent
of direction. Fibrous or composite, are some anisontropic materials

HEAT TRANSFER
 General Heat Conduction Equation
i. Rectangular (or Cartesian) coordinate system: x, y, and z
• Thus for General Cartesian Coordinates, the Heat Diffusion Equation is

Net transfer of thermal energy into the

control volume (inflow-outflow) Change in thermal energy storage

Thermal energy generation

HEAT TRANSFER
 General Heat Conduction Equation
i. Rectangular (or Cartesian) coordinate system: x, y, and z
• In the case of constant thermal conductivity, heat diffusion equation
reduces to

→ Fourier-Biot equation

→ Fourier-Biot equation under

specified conditions

HEAT TRANSFER
 General Heat Conduction Equation
ii. Cylindrical coordinate system: 𝐫, 𝝓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒛
When the del operator (𝜵) of heat flux is expressed in
cylindrical coordinates, the general form of the heat
flux vector and hence of Fourier's law is

Where,

Applying an energy balance to the differential control

volume, the following general form of the heat
equation is obtained

HEAT TRANSFER
 General Heat Conduction Equation
iii. Spherical (or polar) coordinate system: 𝐫, 𝝓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜽
In spherical coordinates the general form of the heat
flux vector and Fourier’s law is

Where,

Applying an energy balance to the differential control

volume of, the following general form of the heat
equation is obtained:

HEAT TRANSFER
 Sample Problem No.6
The temperature distribution across a wall 1m thick at a certain instant of time is given as
𝑇 𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 2
where 𝑇 is in degrees Celsius and 𝑥 is in meters, while 𝑎 = 900°𝐶,
2 ሶ 𝑊
𝑏 = −300°𝐶/𝑚, and 𝑐 = − 50°𝐶/𝑚 . A uniform heat generation, 𝑞 = 1000 𝑚2 , is
present in the wall of area 10 𝑚2 having the properties
𝑘𝑔 𝑊 𝑘𝐽
ρ = 1600 𝑚3 , 𝑘 = 40 𝑚−𝑘 , and 𝑐𝑝 = 4 𝑘𝑔−𝐾 .
1. Determine the rate of heat transfer entering the wall (𝑥 = 0) and leaving the
wall (𝑥 = 1 𝑚).
2. Determine the rate of change of energy storage in the wall.
3. Determine the time rate of temperature change at 𝑥 = 0, 0.25, and 0.5 𝑚.

HEAT TRANSFER
 Sample Problem No.6

Assumptions:
1. One-dimensional conduction in the x direction.
2. Isotropic medium with constant properties.
3. Uniform internal heat generation, (W/m3).

HEAT TRANSFER
 Sample Problem No.6
1. Determine the rate of heat transfer entering the wall (𝑥 = 0)
and leaving the wall (𝑥 = 1 𝑚)

Using Fourier’s Law

𝜕𝑇 𝜕
𝑞𝑖𝑛 = 𝑞𝑥 0 = 𝑞𝑥′′𝐴 = −𝑘𝐴 = −𝑘𝐴 (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 2)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝑞𝑖𝑛 = −𝑘𝐴 𝑏 + 2𝑐𝑥 𝑥=0 = −𝑘𝐴𝑏
𝑊 𝐶
𝑞𝑖𝑛 = −40 10 𝑚2 −300° = 120 000 𝑊 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝒌𝑾
𝑚−𝑘 𝑚

𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −𝑘𝐴 𝑏 + 2𝑐𝑥 𝑥=1 = −𝑘𝐴(𝑏 + 2𝑐)

𝑊 𝐶 𝐶
𝑞𝑖𝑛 = −40 10 𝑚2 −300° + 2 − 50° 2
𝑚−𝑘 𝑚 𝑚
𝑞𝑖𝑛 = 160 000 𝑊 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎 𝒌𝑾

HEAT TRANSFER
 Sample Problem No.6
2. Determine the rate of change of energy storage in the wall.

Using

HEAT TRANSFER
 Sample Problem No.6
3. Determine the time rate of temperature change at 𝑥 =
0, 0.25, and 0.5 𝑚.

Using

Rewriting this equation,

Where,
𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕(𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 2)
= = ( )
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕
2 = 𝑏 + 2𝑐𝑥 = 2𝑐
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕2𝑇 𝐶 𝐶
= 2 − 50° = −100
𝜕𝑥 2 𝑚2 𝑚2

HEAT TRANSFER
 Sample Problem No.6
3. Determine the time rate of temperature change at 𝑥 =
0, 0.25, and 0.5 𝑚.
𝜕𝑇 𝑘 𝜕2 𝑇 𝑞ሶ
= +
𝜕𝑥 𝜌𝑐𝑝 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜌𝑐𝑝
𝑊 𝑊
𝜕𝑇 40 𝐶 1000
= 𝑚−𝑘 (−100 2 ) + 𝑚2
𝜕𝑥 1600 𝑘𝑔 (4 𝑘𝐽 ) 𝑚 1600
𝑘𝑔
(4
𝑘𝐽
)
𝑚3 𝑘𝑔 − 𝐾 𝑚3 𝑘𝑔 − 𝐾

𝝏𝑻
= −𝟒. 𝟔𝟗𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟒 °𝑪/𝒔
𝝏𝒙

*Note that this derivative is independent of position in the medium.

Hence the time rate of temperature change is also independent of
position.

HEAT TRANSFER
 1D Steady-State Conduction
Steady Heat Conduction in Plane Wall
• For one-dimensional conduction in a plane
wall, temperature is a function of the x-
coordinate only and heat is transferred
exclusively in this direction.
• There will be no heat transfer in a direction
in which there is no change in temperature.
(isothermal).

HEAT TRANSFER
 1D Steady-State Conduction
Steady Heat Conduction in Plane Wall
Heat transfer through a plane wall: Temperature distribution and its
equivalent thermal circuit.
• For steady-state conditions with no distributed source or sink of energy
within the wall, the appropriate form of the heat equation is

• No heat generation, the heat flux is a constant, independent of x. and k is

constant , the equation may be integrated twice to obtain the general
solution

HEAT TRANSFER
 1D Steady-State Conduction
Steady Heat Conduction in Plane Wall
Heat transfer through a plane wall: Temperature
distribution and its equivalent thermal circuit.
• To obtain the constants of integration, 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 , boundary
conditions must be introduced. 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 𝐿, in which
case
𝑇 0 = 𝑇𝑠,1 and 𝑇 𝐿 = 𝑇𝑠,2
• At 𝑥 = 0 → 𝑇 0 = 𝐶1 0 + 𝐶2 → 𝑇𝑠,1 = 𝐶2
• At 𝑥 = 𝐿 → 𝑇 𝐿 = 𝐶1 𝐿 + 𝐶2 → 𝑇𝑠,2 = 𝐶1 𝐿 + 𝑇𝑠,1
• Substituting into 𝑇 𝑥 = 𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶2
𝑥
• 𝑇 𝑥 = 𝑇𝑠,2 − 𝑇𝑠,1 + 𝑇𝑠,1 → temperature varies linearly with x
𝐿

HEAT TRANSFER
 1D Steady-State Conduction
Steady Heat Conduction in Plane Wall
Heat transfer through a plane wall: Temperature
distribution and its equivalent thermal circuit.
𝑥 𝑑𝑇 1
• 𝑇 𝑥 = 𝑇𝑠,2 − 𝑇𝑠,1 + 𝑇𝑠,1 → = 𝑇𝑠,2 − 𝑇𝑠,1
𝐿 𝑑𝑥 𝐿
• Heat rate (Fourier’s Law Equation)
𝑑𝑇 𝑘𝐴 𝑇𝑠,1 − 𝑇𝑠,2
𝑞𝑥 = −𝑘𝐴 =
𝑑𝑥 𝐿
• Heat flux
𝑞𝑥 𝑘 𝑇𝑠,1 − 𝑇𝑠,2
𝑞′′𝑥 = =
𝐴 𝐿

HEAT TRANSFER
 1D Steady-State Conduction
Steady Heat Conduction in Plane Wall
• Thermal Resistance
• Just as an electrical resistance is associated with the conduction of electricity, a thermal
resistance may be associated with the conduction of heat.
• Defining resistance as the ratio of a driving potential to the corresponding transfer rate
• For electrical conduction in the same system, Ohm's law provides an electrical resistance
of the form

𝑉1 −𝑉2 E𝑠,1 −𝐸𝑠,2 𝐿

→ 𝑅𝑒 = = =
I 𝐼 𝜎𝐴

HEAT TRANSFER
 1D Steady-State Conduction
Steady Heat Conduction in Plane Wall
• Thermal Resistance
• thermal resistance for conduction in a plane wall is

• thermal resistance for convection heat transfer at a surface. (Newton’s

cooling system)

• thermal resistance for radiation

HEAT TRANSFER
 1D Steady-State Conduction
Steady Heat Conduction in Plane Wall
• Thermal Resistance
• The equivalent thermal circuit for the plane wall
with convection surface conditions. The heat
transfer rate may be determined from separate
consideration of each element in the network.
• Since qx is constant throughout the network, it
follows that

HEAT TRANSFER
 1D Steady-State Conduction
Steady Heat Conduction in Plane Wall
• Thermal Resistance
• In terms of the overall temperature difference,
𝑇∞,1 − 𝑇∞,2 , and the total thermal resistance the
total thermal resistance, 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 , the heat transfer
rate is

Where,

HEAT TRANSFER
 1D Steady-State Conduction
Steady Heat Conduction in Composite Wall
• The composite walls that involve any number
of series and parallel thermal resistances due
to layers of different materials.

HEAT TRANSFER
 1D Steady-State Conduction
Steady Heat Conduction in Composite Wall
• Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient, U
• With composite systems, it is often convenient to work with an overall heat
transfer coefficient U, which is defined by an expression analogous to
Newton's law of cooling. Accordingly

• 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
• ΔT is the overall temperature difference and, In general, we may write

HEAT TRANSFER
Equivalent thermal circuits for a series–parallel composite wall.
Thermal resistance in series

Thermal resistance in parallel

 1D Steady-State Conduction
Thermal Contact Resistance
• In the analysis of heat conduction through multilayer
solids, we assumed “perfect contact” at the interface
of two layers, and thus no temperature drop at the
interface.
• This would be the case when the surfaces are perfectly
smooth and they produce a perfect contact at each
point.
• In reality, however, even flat surfaces that appear
smooth to the eye turn out to be rather rough when
examined under a microscope,
• The temperature change is attributed to what is known
as the thermal contact resistance,

HEAT TRANSFER
 1D Steady-State Conduction
Thermal Contact Resistance
• for a unit area of the interface, the resistance is
defined as

• So, how 𝑅𝑡,𝑐 can be decrease ?

i. Increasing the joint pressure and/or reducing the
roughness of the mating surfaces.
ii. By selecting an interfacial fluid of large thermal
conductivity.

HEAT TRANSFER
 Sample Problem No.7
Consider a composite wall that includes an 8-mm-thick hardwood siding, 40-mm by 130-
mm hardwood studs on 0.65-m centers with glass fiber insulation (paper faced, 28 kg/m3),
and a 12-mm layer of gypsum (vermiculite) wall board.

What is the thermal resistance associated with a wall that is 2.5 m high by 6.5 m wide
𝑲
(having 10 studs, each 2.5 m high)? Ans. 𝑹𝒕𝒐𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖𝟓
𝑾

HEAT TRANSFER
 Sample Problem No.7
Consider a composite wall that includes an 8-mm-thick hardwood siding, 40-mm by 130-
mm hardwood studs on 0.65-m centers with glass fiber insulation (paper faced, 28 kg/m3),
and a 12-mm layer of gypsum (vermiculite) wall board. What is the thermal resistance
associated with a wall that is 2.5 m high by 6.5 m wide (having 10 studs, each 2.5 m high)?

ASSUMPTIONS:
(1) Steady-state conditions,
(2) Temperature of composite depends only on x
(surfaces normal to x are isothermal),
(3) Constant properties,
(4) Negligible contact resistance.

HEAT TRANSFER
 Sample Problem No.7
Consider a composite wall that includes an 8-mm-thick hardwood siding, 40-mm by 130-
mm hardwood studs on 0.65-m centers with glass fiber insulation (paper faced, 28 kg/m3),
and a 12-mm layer of gypsum (vermiculite) wall board. What is the thermal resistance
associated with a wall that is 2.5 m high by 6.5 m wide (having 10 studs, each 2.5 m high)?

𝒒
The thermal circuit associated with a single unit (enclosed by dashed lines) of the wall is

HEAT TRANSFER
 Sample Problem No.7
Consider a composite wall that includes an 8-mm-thick hardwood siding, 40-mm by 130-
mm hardwood studs on 0.65-m centers with glass fiber insulation (paper faced, 28 kg/m3),
and a 12-mm layer of gypsum (vermiculite) wall board. What is the thermal resistance
associated with a wall that is 2.5 m high by 6.5 m wide (having 10 studs, each 2.5 m high)?
Thermal resistance for each element A,B,C,D:

Values for k are from the

table in the Appendix of
Reference Book.

HEAT TRANSFER
 Sample Problem No.7
Consider a composite wall that includes an 8-mm-thick hardwood siding, 40-mm by 130-
mm hardwood studs on 0.65-m centers with glass fiber insulation (paper faced, 28 kg/m3),
and a 12-mm layer of gypsum (vermiculite) wall board. What is the thermal resistance
associated with a wall that is 2.5 m high by 6.5 m wide (having 10 studs, each 2.5 m high)?
The total resistance (for each unit),
−1
1 1
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡,1 = 𝑅𝐴 + + + 𝑅𝑐
𝑅𝐵 𝑅𝐷
−1
𝐾 1 1 𝐾
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡,1 = 0.0524 + + + 0.0434
𝑊 𝐾 𝐾 𝑊
8.125 2.243
𝑊 𝑊
𝐾
𝒒 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡,1 = 1.854
𝑊
The total resistance (for 10 units, parallel to each other),
−1
1 𝑲
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 10𝑥 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖𝟓
𝐾 𝑾
1.854
𝑊

HEAT TRANSFER
 1D Steady-State Conduction
Steady Heat Conduction in Radial System: Cylinder
• A common example is the hollow cylinder whose inner and outer surfaces are
exposed to fluids at different temperatures. For steady-state conditions with
no heat generation, the appropriate form of the heat equation,

• For Fourier’s Law

• where 𝑨 = 𝟐𝜋𝒓𝑳 is the area normal to the direction of heat transfer.

HEAT TRANSFER
 1D Steady-State Conduction
Steady Heat Conduction in Radial System: Cylinder
1 𝑑 𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇
• From equation 𝑘𝑟 = 0, the quantity (𝑘𝑟 = 0) is independent of
𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑇
r, then the conduction heat transfer rate, 𝑞𝑟 = −𝑘𝐴 , is constant in the
𝑑𝑟
′′
radial direction. But, for the heat flux 𝑞𝑟 is dependent on radial direction
1 𝑑 𝑑𝑇
• Double integration for 𝑘𝑟 = 0 by assuming the value of k to be
𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
constant yield
𝑇 𝑟 = 𝐶1 ln 𝑟 + 𝐶2
• To obtain the constants of integration C1 and C2 , we introduce the following
boundary conditions:
𝑇 𝑟1 = 𝑇𝑠,1 and 𝑇 𝑟2 = 𝑇𝑠,2
HEAT TRANSFER
 1D Steady-State Conduction
Steady Heat Conduction in Radial System: Cylinder
• Applying these conditions to the general solution, we then obtain
𝑇𝑠,1 = 𝐶1 ln 𝑟1 + 𝐶2 and 𝑇𝑠,2 = 𝐶1 ln 𝑟2 + 𝐶2
• Solving for C1 and C2 and substituting into the general solution, we then
obtain

• Substituting 𝑇(𝑟) to the Fourier’s Law

HEAT TRANSFER
Thermal Resistance for Radial System
 1D Steady-State Conduction
Steady Heat Conduction in Radial System: Cylinder
• Heat transfer rate

𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡

• For an overall heat transfer coefficient

HEAT TRANSFER
 1D Steady-State Conduction
Steady Heat Conduction in Radial System: Cylinder
• If U is defined in terms of the inside area, 𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟1 𝐿, the previous equation
will yield

• Arbitrary overall heat transfer coefficient

HEAT TRANSFER
 Bonus Question

You made it this far! What’s your greatest takeaway so far?

How do you find studying this material so far?
Follow the format: <ME 333> <Space> <Full Name> <Space>
<Answer>
Send to 09750950831
The first half of the students to text will receive additional 5
points in the problem set.

ME Comprehensive Evaluation Course 1

 Sample Problem No.8
𝑊
Electric current flows through a long rod generating thermal energy at a uniform volumetric rate of 𝑞ሶ = 2𝑥106 3 . The
𝑚
rod is concentric with a hollow ceramic cylinder, creating an enclosure that is filled with air.

′ 𝐾
The thermal resistance per unit length due to radiation between the enclosure surfaces is 𝑅𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 0.30 𝑚 − 𝑊 , and the
coefficient associated with free convection in the enclosure is ℎ = 20 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾.
(a) Construct a thermal circuit that can be used to calculate the surface temperature of the rod, 𝑇𝑟 . Label all
𝑲
temperatures, heat rates, and thermal resistances, and evaluate each thermal resistance. Ans. 𝑹𝒕𝒐𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟒 𝒎 −
𝑾
(b) Calculate the surface temperature of the rod for the prescribed conditions. Ans. 𝑻𝒓 = 𝟐𝟑𝟗 ℃

HEAT TRANSFER
 Sample Problem No.8
𝑊
Electric current flows through a long rod generating thermal energy at a uniform volumetric rate of 𝑞ሶ = 2𝑥106 3 . The
𝑚
rod is concentric with a hollow ceramic cylinder, creating an enclosure that is filled with air. The thermal resistance per
′ 𝐾
unit length due to radiation between the enclosure surfaces is 𝑅𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 0.30 𝑚 − 𝑊 , and the coefficient associated with
free convection in the enclosure is ℎ = 20 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾.
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) One-dimensional, radial conduction through the hollow cylinder, (3) The
enclosure surfaces experience free convection and radiation exchange.
a. Thermal Circuit

HEAT TRANSFER
 Sample Problem No.8
a. Thermal Circuit -Thermal Resistances

The thermal resistance between the enclosure

surfaces (𝑟 − 𝑖) due to convection and radiation
exchange is

The total resistance between the rod surface (r) and

the outer surface of the cylinder (o) is

HEAT TRANSFER
 Sample Problem No.8
b. Calculate the surface temperature of the rod for the prescribed conditions.
From an energy balance on the rod (see schematic) find Tr

HEAT TRANSFER
 1D Steady-State Conduction
Steady Heat Conduction in Radial System: Sphere
• Thermal Resistance for Sphere

→ 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆

→ 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒇𝒆𝒓 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆

HEAT TRANSFER
 Sample Problem No.9
A spherical, thin-walled metallic container is used to store liquid nitrogen at 77 K. The container has a diameter of 0.5 m
and is covered with an evacuated, reflective insulation composed of silica powder. The insulation is 25 mm thick, and its
outer surface is exposed to ambient air at 300 K. The convection coefficient is known to be 20 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾. The latent
heat of vaporization and the density of liquid nitrogen are 2 𝑥 105 𝐽/𝑘𝑔 and 804 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , respectively. What is the rate
of heat transfer to the liquid nitrogen? Ans. 𝒒 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟎𝟔 𝑾

HEAT TRANSFER
 Sample Problem No.9
A spherical, thin-walled metallic container is used to store liquid nitrogen at 77 K. The container has a diameter of 0.5 m
and is covered with an evacuated, reflective insulation composed of silica powder. The insulation is 25 mm thick, and its
outer surface is exposed to ambient air at 300 K. The convection coefficient is known to be 20 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾. The latent
heat of vaporization and the density of liquid nitrogen are 2 𝑥 105 𝐽/𝑘𝑔 and 804 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , respectively.

Assumptions:
1. Steady-state conditions.
2. One-dimensional transfer in the radial direction.
3. Negligible resistance to heat transfer through the container
wall and from the
container to the nitrogen.
4. Constant properties.
5. Negligible radiation exchange between outer surface of
insulation and
surroundings.

Table A.3, evacuated silica powder (300 K): k 0.0017 W/m K.

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 Sample Problem No.9
A spherical, thin-walled metallic container is used to store liquid nitrogen at 77 K. The container has a diameter of 0.5 m
and is covered with an evacuated, reflective insulation composed of silica powder. The insulation is 25 mm thick, and its
outer surface is exposed to ambient air at 300 K. The convection coefficient is known to be 20 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾. The latent
heat of vaporization and the density of liquid nitrogen are 2 𝑥 105 𝐽/𝑘𝑔 and 804 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , respectively.

a. rate of heat transfer to the liquid nitrogen

The thermal circuit involves a conduction and convection

resistance in series and is of the form

HEAT TRANSFER
 Sample Problem No.9
A spherical, thin-walled metallic container is used to store liquid nitrogen at 77 K. The container has a diameter of 0.5 m
and is covered with an evacuated, reflective insulation composed of silica powder. The insulation is 25 mm thick, and its
outer surface is exposed to ambient air at 300 K. The convection coefficient is known to be 20 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾. The latent
heat of vaporization and the density of liquid nitrogen are 2 𝑥 105 𝐽/𝑘𝑔 and 804 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , respectively.

a. rate of heat transfer to the liquid nitrogen

The rate of heat transfer to the liquid nitrogen is then

HEAT TRANSFER
 Sample Problem No.9
A spherical, thin-walled metallic container is used to store liquid nitrogen at 77 K. The container has a diameter of 0.5 m
and is covered with an evacuated, reflective insulation composed of silica powder. The insulation is 25 mm thick, and its
outer surface is exposed to ambient air at 300 K. The convection coefficient is known to be 20 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾. The latent
heat of vaporization and the density of liquid nitrogen are 2 𝑥 105 𝐽/𝑘𝑔 and 804 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , respectively.

a. rate of heat transfer to the liquid nitrogen

The rate of heat transfer to the liquid nitrogen is then

HEAT TRANSFER
SUMMARY – 1D Steady State with no generation
 WEEK 1 TASKS
First task: Problem Set No.1 Show your detailed assumption and
solution to problems found in the next slides.

• Using CamScanner App, scan your note and save in one PDF File. Submit
your out put in your designated google folder using the naming
conventions:
• File Name: surname_firstname_ProblemSet1
• DEADLINE: MAY 5, 2020 5PM

HEAT TRANSFER
 WEEK 1 TASKS
Second task: Note No.1 Submit your notes to Heat Energy &
Conduction Heat Transfer

Using CamScanner App, scan your note and save in one PDF File.
Submit your output in your designated google folder using the naming
conventions:
File Name: surname_firstname_notes 1
DEADLINE: MAY 5, 2020, 5 PM

HEAT TRANSFER
 Problem Set
1. Cite one law of thermodynamics that govern the transmission of heat energy.
Explain in 3 sentences.
2. What is the driving potential for heat transfer?
3. What is the difference between a heat flux and a heat rate? What are their
units?
4. What is Fourier’s law? What is Newton’s law of cooling? What is predicted by
the Stefan–Boltzmann law, and what unit of temperature must be used with the
law?
5. Differentiate emissivity, transmissivity, reflectivity, & absorptivity.
6. Cite examples of conduction, convection and radiation heat transfers.
7. How do you differentiate the heat transfer between opaque material and glass
material?

HEAT TRANSFER
 Problem Set
8. The heat flux through a wood slab 50 mm thick, whose inner and outer surface
temperatures are 40 ℃ and 20 ℃, respectively, has been determined to be 40
𝑊/𝑚 2. What is the thermal conductivity of the wood?
9. A square silicon chip (𝑘 = 150 𝑊/𝑚 𝐾) is of width 5 mm on a side and of
thickness 1 mm. The chip is mounted in a substrate such that its side and back
surfaces are insulated, while the front surface is exposed to a coolant.

HEAT TRANSFER
 Problem Set
10. You’ve experienced convection cooling if you’ve ever extended your hand out the window of a
moving vehicle or into a flowing water stream. With the surface of your hand at a temperature of
30℃, determine the convection heat flux for (a) a vehicle speed of 35 km/h in air at -5℃ with a
𝑊
convection coefficient of 40 2 and (b) a velocity of 0.2 m/s in a water stream at 10℃ with a
𝑚 −𝐾
𝑊
convection coefficient of 900 2 Which condition would feel colder? Contrast these results with a
𝑚 −𝐾
heat loss of approximately 30 𝑊/𝑚2 under normal room conditions.
11. An electric resistance heater is embedded in a long cylinder of diameter 30 mm. When water
with a temperature of 25 ℃ and velocity of 1 m/s flows crosswise over the cylinder, the power per
unit length required to maintain the surface at a uniform temperature of 90 ℃ is 28 kW/m. When air,
also at 25 ℃, but with a velocity of 10 m/s is flowing, the power per unit length required to maintain
the same surface temperature is 400 W/m. Calculate and compare the convection coefficients for
the flows of water and air.
12. A spherical interplanetary probe of 0.5-m diameter contains electronics that dissipate 150 W. If
the probe surface has an emissivity of 0.8 and the probe does not receive radiation from other
surfaces, as, for example, from the sun, what is its surface temperature?
HEAT TRANSFER
 Problem Set
13. Chips of width L =15 mm on a side are mounted to a substrate that is installed in an enclosure
whose walls and air are maintained at a temperature of 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟 = 𝑇∞ = 25℃. The chips have an
emissivity of 0.60 and a maximum allowable temperature of 𝑇𝑠 = 25℃ .

(a) If heat is rejected from the chips by radiation and natural convection, what is the maximum
operating power of each chip? The convection coefficient depends on the chip-to-air
1
temperature difference and may be approximated as ℎ = 𝐶 𝑇𝑠 – 𝑇∞ , where 𝐶 = 4.2 𝑊/
4
5
2
𝑚 𝐾 .4

(b) If a fan is used to maintain air flow through the enclosure and heat transfer is by forced
𝑊
convection, with ℎ = 250 2 , what is the maximum operating power?
𝑚 −𝐾

HEAT TRANSFER
 Problem Set
14. Consider steady heat transfer between two large parallel plates at constant temperatures of
𝑇1 = 300 𝐾 and 𝑇2 = 200 𝐾 that are 𝐿 = 1 𝑐𝑚 apart. Assuming the surfaces to be black
(𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 1), determine the rate of heat transfer between the plates per unit surface area
assuming the gap between the plates is (a) filled with atmospheric air (𝑘 = 0.0219 𝑊/𝑚 · °𝐶 ), (b)
evacuated, (c) filled with urethane insulation ( 𝑘 = 0.026 𝑊/𝑚 · °𝐶 ), and (d) filled with
superinsulation (k = 0.00002 𝑊/𝑚 · °𝐶).
15. Can a medium involve (a) conduction and convection, (b) conduction and radiation, or (c)
convection and radiation simultaneously? Give examples for the “yes” answers.
16. What form does Fourier’s law take for each of the orthogonal directions of Cartesian,
cylindrical, and spherical coordinate systems? In each case, what are the units of the temperature
gradient? Can you write each equation from memory?

HEAT TRANSFER
 Problem Set
17. An apparatus for measuring thermal conductivity employs an electrical heater sandwiched
between two identical samples of diameter 30 mm and length 60 mm, which are pressed between
plates maintained at a uniform temperature 𝑇𝑜 = 77°𝐶 by a circulating fluid. A conducting grease is
placed between all the surfaces to ensure good thermal contact. Differential thermocouples are
imbedded in the samples with a spacing of 15 mm. The lateral sides of the samples are insulated to
ensure one-dimensional heat transfer through the samples.

(a) With two samples of SS316 in the apparatus, the heater draws 0.353 A at
100 V and the differential thermocouples indicate ∆𝑇1 = ∆𝑇2 = 25 ℃. What is
the thermal conductivity of the stainless steel sample material? What is the
average temperature of the samples? Compare your result with the thermal
conductivity value reported for this material in Table A.1.
(b) By mistake, an Armco iron sample is placed in the lower position of the
apparatus with one of the SS316 samples from part (a) in the upper portion. For
this situation, the heater draws 0.601 A at 100 V and the differential
thermocouples indicate ∆𝑇1 = ∆𝑇2 = 15 ℃. What are the thermal conductivity
and average temperature of the Armco iron sample?

HEAT TRANSFER
 Problem Set
𝑊
18. The steady-state temperature distribution in a one-dimensional wall of thermal conductivity 50 and
𝑚−𝐾
thickness 50 mm is observed to be 𝑇 °𝐶 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 2, where 𝑎 = 200°𝐶 , 𝑏 = −2000°𝐶/𝑚2 , and x is in meters.
(a) What is the heat generation rate 𝑞ሶ in the wall?
(b) Determine the heat fluxes at the two wall faces. In what manner are these heat fluxes related to the heat
generation rate?
19. How is the conduction resistance of a solid affected by its thermal conductivity? How is the convection
resistance at a surface affected by the convection coefficient? How is the radiation resistance affected by the
surface emissivity?

HEAT TRANSFER
 Problem Set
20. The composite wall of an oven consists of three materials, two of which are of known thermal conductivity,
𝑊 𝑊
𝑘𝐴 = 20 𝑚−𝐾 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘𝐶 = 50 𝑚−𝐾 , and known thickness, 𝐿𝐴 = 0.30 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿𝐶 = 0.15 𝑚. The third material, B,
which is sandwiched between materials A and C, is of known thickness, 𝐿𝐵 = 0.15 𝑚, but unknown thermal
conductivity 𝑘𝐵 . Under steady-state operating conditions, measurements reveal an outer surface temperature
of 𝑇𝑠,𝑜 = 20°𝐶, an inner surface temperature of 𝑇𝑠,𝑖 = 600°𝐶, and an oven air temperature of 𝑇∞ = 800°𝐶. The
inside convection coefficient h is known to be 25 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾. What is the value of 𝑘𝐵 ?

HEAT TRANSFER
 Problem Set
21. A thin electrical heater is wrapped around the outer surface of a long cylindrical tube whose inner surface
is maintained at a temperature of 5°C. The tube wall has inner and outer radii of 25 and 75 mm, respectively,
𝑊
and a thermal conductivity of 10 𝑚−𝐾. The thermal contact resistance between the heater and the outer
𝐾
surface of the tube (per unit length of the tube) is 𝑅′𝑡,𝑐 = 0.01 𝑚 − . The outer surface of the heater is
𝑊
𝑊
exposed to a fluid with 𝑇 = −10°𝐶 and a convection coefficient of ℎ = 100 . Determine the heater power
𝑚2 −𝐾
per unit length of tube required to maintain the heater at 𝑇𝑜 = 25°𝐶.
22. A storage tank consists of a cylindrical section that has a length and inner diameter of 𝐿 = 2 𝑚 and
𝐷𝑖 = 1𝑚, respectively, and two hemispherical end sections. The tank is constructed from 20-mm-thick glass
(Pyrex) and is exposed to ambient air for which the temperature is 300 K and the convection coefficient is
𝑊
10 𝑚2−𝐾 . The tank is used to store heated oil, which maintains the inner surface at a temperature of 400 K.
Determine the electrical power that must be supplied to a heater submerged in the oil if the prescribed
conditions are to be maintained. Radiation effects may be neglected, and the Pyrex may be assumed to have
𝑊
a thermal conductivity of 1.4 .
𝑚−𝐾

HEAT TRANSFER