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POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND CONTROL
Department: EEE
Batch/Year: 2017-2021/ 2020
Created by: 1. Dr. USHA RANI P

Professor
RMD Engineering College
2. Umasankar L
Asst. Prof
RMKCET
3 Nareshkumar K
Asst Prof
RMK EC
Date: July 2020

Contents
S.No Contents Page No

1 Contents 5
2 Course objectives 6
3 Pre Requisites 7
4 Syllabus 8
5 Course outcomes 9
6 CO-PO/PSO Mapping 13
7 Lecture Plan 14
8 Activity based learning 16
9 Lecture Notes 17
10 Assignments 66
11 Part A Q & A 67
12 Part B Qs & Part C Qs 72
13 Supportive online Certification courses 74
14 Real time Applications 75
15 Contents beyond the Syllabus 76
16 Assessment Schedule 77
Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books 78

17
18 Mini Project suggestions 79

Course Objectives
To impart knowledge on the following topics
Significance of power system operation and control.
Real power-frequency interaction and design of power-frequency controller.
Reactive power-voltage interaction and the control actions to be implemented for

maintaining the voltage profile against varying system load.
Economic operation of power system.
SCADA and its application for real time operation and control of power systems
Prerequisites
Course Name : Power System Analysis
Course Code : EE8501

Syllabus
EE8702 POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND CONTROL L T P C 3 0 0 3
UNIT I PRELIMINARIES ON POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND CONTROL 9

Power scenario in Indian grid – National and Regional load dispatching centers –
requirements of good power system - necessity of voltage and frequency regulation
- real power vs frequency and reactive power vs voltage control loops - system load
variation, load curves and basic concepts of load dispatching - load forecasting -
Basics of speed governing mechanisms and modeling - speed load characteristics -
regulation of two generators in parallel.
UNIT II REAL POWER - FREQUENCY CONTROL 9
Load Frequency Control (LFC) of single area system-static and dynamic analysis of
uncontrolled and controlled cases - LFC of two area system - tie line modeling -
block diagram representation of two area system - static and dynamic analysis - tie
line with frequency bias control – state variability model - integration of economic
dispatch control with LFC.
UNIT III REACTIVE POWER – VOLTAGE CONTROL 9
Generation and absorption of reactive power - basics of reactive power control –
Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) – brushless AC excitation system – block diagram
representation of AVR loop - static and dynamic analysis – stability compensation –
voltage drop in transmission line - methods of reactive power injection - tap
changing transformer, SVC (TCR + TSC) and STATCOM for voltage control.
UNIT IV ECONOMIC OPERATION OF POWER SYSTEM 9
Statement of economic dispatch problem - input and output characteristics of
thermal plant - incremental cost curve - optimal operation of thermal units without
and with transmission losses (no derivation of transmission loss coefficients) - base
point and participation factors method - statement of unit commitment (UC) problem
- constraints on UC problem - solution of UC problem using priority list – special
aspects of short term and long term hydrothermal problems.
UNIT V COMPUTER CONTROL OF POWER SYSTEMS 9
Need of computer control of power systems-concept of energy control centers and
functions – PMU - system monitoring, data acquisition and controls - System
hardware configurations - SCADA and EMS functions - state estimation problem –
measurements and errors - weighted least square estimation - various operating
states - state transition diagram.
TOTAL : 45 PERIODS
,Course Outcomes
CO1 Ability to understand the day-to-day operation of electric power system.
CO2 Ability to analyse the control actions to be implemented on the system to meet
the minute-to-minute variation of system demand.
CO3 Ability to understand the significance of power system operation and control.
CO4 Ability to acquire knowledge on real power-frequency interaction.
CO5 Ability to understand the reactive power-voltage interaction.
CO6 Ability to design SCADA and its application for real time operation.
PROGRAMME OUTCOMES
The graduates will have the ability to

a. Apply the Mathematical knowledge and the basics of Science and Engineering to
solve the problems pertaining to Electrical and Electronics Engineering.
b. Identify and formulate Electrical and Electronics Engineering problems from

research literature and be ability to analyze the problem using first principles of
Mathematics and Engineering Sciences.
c. Come out with solutions for the complex problems and to design system
components or process that fulfill the particular needs taking into account public
health and safety and the social, cultural and environmental issues.
d. Draw well-founded conclusions applying the knowledge acquired from research

and research methods including design of experiments, analysis and
interpretation of data and synthesis of information and to arrive at significant
conclusion.
e. Form, select and apply relevant techniques, resources and Engineering and IT
tools for Engineering activities like electronic prototyping, modeling and control
of systems and also being conscious of the limitations.
f. Understand the role and responsibility of the Professional Electrical and

Electronics Engineer and to assess societal, health, safety issues based on the
reasoning received from the contextual knowledge.
g. Be aware of the impact of professional Engineering solutions in societal and

environmental contexts and exhibit the knowledge and the need for Sustainable
Development.
h. Apply the principles of Professional Ethics to adhere to the norms of the

engineering practice and to discharge ethical responsibilities.
i. Function actively and efficiently as an individual or a member/leader of different

teams and multidisciplinary projects.
10
PROGRAMME OUTCOMES
j. Communicate efficiently the engineering facts with a wide range of engineering

community and others, to understand and prepare reports and design
documents; to make effective presentations and to frame and follow instructions.
k. Demonstrate the acquisition of the body of engineering knowledge and insight

and Management Principles and to apply them as member / leader in teams and
multidisciplinary environments.
l. Recognize the need for self and life-long learning, keeping pace with
technological challenges in the broadest sense.
11
PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES
PSO 1 Analyze, design and implement control, instrumentation and power systems for
satisfying industry needs.
PSO 2 Use modern tools and appropriate solutions for the real time problems for promoting
energy conservation and sustainability.
PSO 3 Possess the capacity to embrace new opportunities of emerging technologies,

leadership and teamwork opportunities, all affording sustainable engineering career in
Electrical and Electronics related fields.
12
CO-PO /PSO mapping
CO/ a b c d e f g h i j k l PS PS PS
PO, O O O
PSO 1 2 3
co1 - 2 - 3 3 - - - - - - - 3 - 3
co2 - 2 - 3 3 - - - - - - - 3 - 3
co3 - 2 - 3 3 - - - - - - - 3 - 3
co4 - 2 - 3 3 - - - - - - - 3 - 3
co5 - 2 - 3 3 - - - - - - - 3 - 3
co6 - 2 - 3 3 - - - - - - - 3 - 3
Lecture plan Unit I
Sl Topic No Prop Actu Pertaining Taxon Mod
No of ose al dt CO omy e of
Peri d dt level deliv
ods ery
1 Power scenario in CO1, CO2 K2 PPT
Indian grid – National
and Regional load
dispatching centers –
requirements of good
power system
2 Necessity of voltage CO1, CO2 K2 PPT
and frequency
regulation - real power
vs frequency and
reactive power vs
voltage control loops
3 System load variation CO1, CO2 K2 PPT
4 Load curves CO1, CO2 K2 PPT
5 Basic concepts of load CO1, CO2 K2 PPT

dispatching - load
forecasting
6 Basics of speed CO1, CO2 K2 PPT
governing mechanisms
and
7 Modeling-speed CO1, CO2 K3 PPT
governing mechanisms
8 Speed load CO1, CO2 K2 PPT
characteristics
9 Regulation of two CO1, CO2 K2 PPT

generators in parallel
Activity Based Learning
Load Curve: EEE Block daily load curve Ground floor, I floor, II floor
Lecture notes
UNIT I Preliminaries on Power System Operation and Control

Power Scenario In Indian Grid
Total Installed Capacity - Source : Central Electricity Authority (CEA)
Sector MW % of Total
Central Sector 93,477 25.2
State Sector 1,03,322 27.9
1,73,549 46.9
Total 3,70,348
Fuel MW % of Total
Total Thermal 2,30,600 62.8
Coal 1,98,525 54.2
Lignite 6,610 1.7
Gas 24,955 6.7
Diesel 510 0.1
Hydro(Renewable) 45,699 12.4
Nuclear 6,780 1.9
RES (MNRE) 87,269 23.6
Total 3,70,348
All India Installed Capacity (in MW) of Power stations
Region Thermal Nuclear Hydro RES Grand

(MNRE) Total
Northern 60,801.05 1620.00 20,085.77 16,870.11 99,376.93
Western 85,281.61 1840.00 7622.50 26,043.13 12,0787.00
Southern 54,509.99 3320.00 11,774.83 42,473.52 1,12,078.34
Eastern 27,385.05 4639.12 1499.16 364.64 4,523.46
North 2,581.83 0.00 1577.00 364.64 4,523.46
Eastern
Islands 40.05 0.00 0.00 18.19 58.24
All India 2,30,599.57 6780.00 45,699.22 87,268.74 3,70,347.52
National and Regional load dispatching centres
Power System Operation Corporation Limited (POSOCO) is a wholly owned

Government of India enterprise under the Ministry of Power.
It was earlier a wholly owned subsidiary of Power Grid Corporation of India Limited
(PGCIL). It was formed in March 2009 to handle the power management functions
of PGCIL.
It is responsible to ensure the integrated operation of the Grid in a reliable, efficient,

and secure manner.
It consists of 5 Regional Load Despatch Centres and a National Load Despatch

Centre (NLDC).
National Load Despatch Centre (NLDC) has been constituted as per Ministry of
Power (MOP) notification, New Delhi dated 2 March 2005 and is the apex body to
ensure integrated operation of the national power system.
Function: for optimum scheduling and despatch of electricity among the Regional
Load Despatch Centres.
-To monitor grid operations
-To exercise supervision and control over the inter-state transmission system
-To optimize scheduling and dispatch of electricity within the region
-To keep accounts of quantity of electricity transmitted through the regional grid.
-To carry out real time operations of grid control and dispatch of electricity within the
region in accordance with the Grid Standards and Grid Code.
Regional Load Dispatch Centers Rids
The five RLDCs in India are owned, operated and maintained by Power Grid
Corporation of India Limited (POWERGRID) which is the Central Transmission Utility
(CTU) of the country
Northern grid: Delhi, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab,
Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand 99376.93MW
Western grid: Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Goa, Daman

and Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli 1,20,787.24MW
Eastern grid: Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal, Sikkim 33523.32MW
Southern grid: Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana,

Pondicherry 1,12,078.34
North-Eastern grid: Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram,

Nagaland, Tripura 4523.46MW Total: 370347.52MW
Southern Regional Grid
i) Southern regional grid is an electrical system comprising of 6,51,000 Sq. km of

area with 5 States namely Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamilnadu, Telangana
and Union Territory of Pondicherry, Generating Stations at Central and State Sector,
Independent Power producing stations, State DISCOMS and STUs etc.
ii) The Southern region has an installed capacity of 74367 MW as on 31/07/2016

with 30,347 MW in State Sector and 10490 MW in Central Sector and 33530 MW
IPPs.
iii) The States are inter connected with each other through 765/400/220 kV network.
Southern Region is connected to Western region through HVDC Back-to-back (2x500
MW) link at Bhadrawathi in WR and to Eastern regions through HVDC back-to-back
link (2x500 MW) at Gazuwaka in SR and ±500 kV Bipolar HVDC link (2x1000 MW)
from Talcher in ER to Kolar in SR as well as 765 kV 2 x Single Circuit Sholapur-
Raichur Interconnector to facilitate exchange of power from surplus to deficit region
/ State as well as wheeling of power.
iv) For the year 2015 – 16 had seen Southern Region in meeting a maximum
demand of 40899 MW and average daily energy consumption of 780 MUs which are
7.3% and 4.7% respectively higher than the previous year. There was about 6800
MW generation addition during the year. During the year 2015-16 the Southern
Region has witnessed a maximum consumption of energy of 929.57 MUs on 22nd
March'16 (4.13% rise compared to 2014-15) and the maximum peak demand of
40899 MW on 21st March'16 (7.3% rise compared to 2014-15) as against the
respective maximum values 892.70 MU and 38090 MW met last year.
v) Southern Region has met a maximum demand of 41,607 MW on 7th April 2016
Tamil Nadu State Load Despatch Centre (SLDC)
Functions of SLDCs
Grid Operation in TN started by November 1964.The first Load Despatch Centre was
operated from Erode.
Subquently, the main Load Despatch Centre was formed in 1986 at Chennai and
Sub Load Despatch Centre at Madurai.
In accordance with section 32 of Electricity Act, 2003 roles and functions of SLDCs
are as under :
The SLDCs shall be the Apex Body to ensure integrated operation of the Power
system in a State.
SLDCs shall :Be responsible for optimum scheduling and dispatch of electricity within
a state in accordance with the contracts entered into with the licensees or the
generation companies operating in that State.
Monitor grid operation
Keep accounts of the quantity of electricity transmitted through State Grid.
Exercise supervision and control over the inter-state transmission system.
Be responsible for carrying out real time operation for grid control and dispatch of
electricity within the State through secure and economic operation of the State Grid
in accordance with the grid standards and state grid code
Requirements Of Good Power System
The function of a power station is to deliver power to a large number of consumers.

However, the power demands of different consumers vary in accordance with their
activities. The result of this variation in demand is that load on a power station is
never constant, rather it varies from time to time. Most of the complexities of
modern power plant operation arise from the inherent variability of the load
demanded by the users. Unfortunately, electrical power cannot be stored and,
therefore, the power station must produce power as and when demanded to meet
the requirements of the consumers. On one hand, the power engineer would like
that the alternators in the power station should run at their rated capacity for
maximum efficiency and on the other hand, the demands of the consumers have
wide variations. This makes the design of a power station highly complex. In this
chapter, we shall focus our attention on the problems of variable load on power
stations.
Requirements Of Good Power System
In general, each generation plant in any power may have more than one generating
units. Each of the unit may have identical or different capacities. A number of power
plants can be tied together to supply the system load by means of interconnection
of the generating stations.
Interconnected electric power system is more reliable and convenient to operate and
also offers economical operating cost.
It has better regulations characters by all the units are interconnected.
The function of an electric power system is to convert energy from one of the
naturally available forms to electrical from and to transport it to points of
consumption.
A properly designed and operated power system should meet the following
fundamental requirement.
1. Adequate spinning reserve must be present to meet the active and reactive
power demand.
2. Minimum cost with minimum ecological impact.
3. The power quality must have certain minimum standards within the tolerance or
limit such as,
Constancy of frequency:
Constancy of voltage (Voltage magnitude and load angle).
Level of reliability.
In simply, the generation of power is transfer to the Consumers through

the transmission system. Generation unit, Transformer Unit,
Converter Unit, Transmission Unit, Inverter Unit and Consumer Point. This
combination of all the unit is called the overall power system units.
Necessity of Voltage and Frequency Regulation
Constant frequency
Constant frequency is to be maintained for the following functions:
All the AC motors should require constant frequency supply so as to maintain speed
constant.
In continuous process industry, it affects the operation of the process itself.
For synchronous operation of various units in the power system network, it is
necessary to maintain frequency constant.
Frequency affects the amount of power transmitted through interconnecting lines.
Frequency fluctuations are harmful to electrical appliances.
Speed of three phase ac motors proportional to the frequency.
(N=120f/p)
The blades of turbines are designed to operate at a particular speed. Frequency
variation leads to speed variation and results in mechanical vibration
Constant voltage
Over voltage and under voltage
Electric motors will tend to run on over speed when they are fed with higher
voltages resulting vibration and mechanical damage.
Over voltage may cause insulation failure.
For a specified power rating, lower voltage results in more current and this results in
heating problems. (P=VI)
Kinetic energy= 1/ 2 J w 2
Kinetic Energy decreases, w decreases, speed decreases, freq decreases N=

120 f/P
Real Power Vs Frequency And Reactive Power Vs
Voltage Control Loops
P–f control
The Load Frequency Control (LFC), also known as generation control or P–f control,
deals with the control of loading of the generating units for the system at normal
frequency. The load in a power system is never constant and the system frequency
remains at its nominal value only when there is a match between the active power
generation and the active power demand. During the period of load change, the
deviation from the nominal frequency, which may be called frequency error (Δf), is
an index of mismatch and can be used to send the appropriate command to change
the generation by adjusting the LFC system. It is basically controlling the opening of
the inlet valves of the prime movers according to the loading condition of the
system. In the case of a multi-area system, the LFC system also maintains the
specified power interchanges between the participating areas. In a smaller system,
this control is done manually, but in large systems automatic control devices are
used in the loop of the LFC system
Q–V Control
In this control, the terminal voltage of the generator is sensed and converted into
proportionate DC signal and then compared to DC reference voltage. The error in
between a DC signal and a DC reference voltage, i.e., Δ |V | is taken as an input to
the Q–V controller. A control output ΔQ is applied to the exciter
Generator Controllers (p–f and Q–V Controllers)
The active power P is mainly dependent on the internal angle δ and is independent of the
bus voltage magnitude |V|. The bus voltage is dependent on machine excitation and hence
on reactive power Q and is independent of the machine angle δ. Change in the machine
angle δ is caused by a momentary change in the generator speed and hence the frequency.
Therefore, the load frequency and excitation voltage controls are non-interactive for small
changes and can be modeled and analyzed independently. Figure gives the schematic
diagram of load frequency (P–f) and excitation voltage (Q–V) regulators of a turbo-
generator. The objective of the MW frequency or the P–f control mechanism is to exert
control of frequency and simultaneously exchange of the realpower flows via
interconnecting lines. In this control, a frequency sensor senses the change in frequency
and gives the signal Δf . The P–f controller senses the change in frequency signal (Δ f) and
the increments in tie-line real powers (ΔP ), which will indirectly provide information about
the incremental state error (Δδ ). These sensor signals (Δf and ΔP ) are amplified, mixed,
and transformed into a real-power control signal ΔP . The valve control mechanism takes ΔP
as the input signal and provides the output signal, which will change the position of the inlet
valve of the prime mover. As a result, there will be a change in the prime mover output and
hence a change in real-power generation ΔP . This entire P–f control can be yielded by
automatic load frequency control (ALFC) loop.
The objective of the MVAr-voltage or Q–V control mechanism is to exert control of the
voltage state |Vi |. A voltage sensor senses the terminal voltage and converts it into an
equivalent proportionate DC voltage. This proportionate DC voltage is compared with a
reference voltage Viref by means of a comparator. The output obtained from the
comparator is error signal Δ|Vi | given as input to Q–V controller, which transforms it to a
reactive power signal command ΔQci and is fed to a controllable excitation source. This
results in a change in the rotor field current, which in turn modifies the generator terminal
voltage. This entire Q–V control can be yielded by an automatic voltage regulator (AVR)
loop.
Schematic diagram of P–f controller and Q–V controller
Fig. Schematic diagram of P–f controller and Q–V controller

System Load
System Load
From systems point of view, there are 5 broad category of loads:
1. Domestic
2. Commercial
3. Industrial
4. Agriculture
5. Others - street lights, traction.
Domestic:
Lights,
Fans,
domestic appliances like heaters,
refrigerators, air conditioners,
mixers,
ovens,
small motors etc.
1. Demand factor = 0.7 to 1.0;
2. Diversity factor = 1.2 to 1.3;
3. Load factor = 0.1 to 0.15
Commercial:
Lightings for shops, advertising hoardings, fans, AC etc.
Industrial:
Small scale industries: 0-20kW
Medium scale industries: 20-100kW
Large scale industries: above 100kW
System load-continue
Industrial loads need power over a longer period which remains fairly uniform
throughout the day.
For heavy industries:
Agriculture:
Supplying water for irrigation using pumps driven by motors
1. Demand factor = 0.9 to 1;
Other Loads:
a) Bulk supplies,
b) street lights,
c) traction,
d) government loads
which have their own peculiar characteristics
System Load Characteristics
a) Connected Load
b) Maximum Demand
c) Average Load
d) Load Factor
e) Diversity Factor
f) Plant Capacity Factor
g) Plant Use Factor
System load- continue
Plant Capacity Factor:

It is the ratio of actual energy produced to the maximum possible energy that could
have been produced during a given period.
Plant Use Factor:

It is the ratio of kWh generated to the product of plant capacity and the number of
hours for which the plant was in operation.
Plant use factor = Station output in kWh / Plant capacity * Hours of use
When the elements of a load curve are arranged in the order of descending
magnitudes.
Economic of Generation
1. Load curves
The curve showing the variation of load on the power station with respect to time
The curve drawn between the variations of load on the power station with reference
to time is known as load curve. Fig shows the load curve
There are three types, Daily load curve, Monthly load curve, Yearly load curve .
Load Curve-continue
Types of Load Curve:
Daily load curve–Load variations during the whole day
Monthly load curve–Load curve obtained from the daily load curve
Yearly load curve-Load curve obtained from the monthly load curve
Daily load curve
The curve drawn between the variations of load with reference to various time
period of day is known as daily load curve.
Monthly load curve
It is obtained from daily load curve.
Average value of the power at a month for a different time periods are calculated
and plotted in the graph which is known as monthly load curve.
Yearly load curve
It is obtained from monthly load curve which is used to find annual load factor.
Load duration curve
When the elements of a load curve are arranged in the order of

descending magnitudes.
The load duration curve gives the data in a more presentable form
The area under the load duration curve is equal to that of the
corresponding load curve
The load duration curve can be extended to include any period of time
Connected load
It is the sum of continuous ratings of all the equipments connected to supply
systems.
Maximum demand
It is the greatest demand of load on the power station during a given period.
Demand factor
It is the ratio of maximum demand to connected load.
Demand factor= (max demand)/ (connected load)
Average demand
The average of loads occurring on the power station in a given period (day or month
or year) is known as average demand
Daily average demand = (no of units generated per day) / (24 hours)
Monthly average demand = (no of units generated in month) / (no of hours in a
month)
Yearly average demand = (no of units generated in a year) / (no of hours in a year)
Load factor
The ratio of average load to the maximum demand during a given period is known
as load factor.
Load factor = (average load)/ (maximum demand)
Diversity factor
The ratio of the sum of individual maximum demand on power station is known
as diversity factor.
Diversity factor = (sum of individual maximum demand ) / (maximum demand).
Capacity factor
This is the ratio of actual energy produced to the maximum possible energy that
could have been produced during a given period.
Capacity factor = (actual energy produced) / (maximum energy that have been
produced)
Plant use factor
It is the ratio of units generated to the product of plant capacity and the number
of hours for which the plant was in operation.
Units generated per annum= average load * hours in a year

Problems
Example 1. A generating station has a maximum demand of 35 MW and has a

connected load of 60 MW. The annual generation of units is 24 × 107 kWh. Calculate
the load factor and the demand factor
No. of units generated annually = 24 × 107 kWh
No. of hours in a year (assuming 365 days in a year) = 365 × 24
= 8,760 hours
Average load on the station = Units generated per annum/ No of hrs
= 24x107 / 8760 = 27.397MW
Load Factor = Average load / Max. demand
= 27.397 / 35 = 0.7828 or 78.28%
Demand Factor = Max. demand/ connected load
= 35/60 = 0.583 or 58.3%

Problem
Example 2. A generating station has the following daily load cycle :
Time (Hours) 0 —6 6 —10 10 —12 12 —16 16 —20 20 —24
Load (M W) 40 50 60 50 70 40
Draw the load curve and find (i) maximum demand (ii) units generated per day (iii)
average load and (iv) load factor.
Solution.
Daily curve is drawn by taking the load along Y -axis and time along X-axis. For the
given load cycle, the load curve is shown in Fig.
(i) It is clear from the load curve that maximum demand on the power station is 70
MW and occurs during the period 16— 20 hours. Maximum demand = 70 MW
(ii) Units generated per day = Area (in kWh) under the load curve
= 103 [40 × 6 + 50 × 4 + 60 × 2 + 50 × 4 + 70 × 4 + 40 × 4]
= 103 [240 + 200 + 120 + 200 + 280 + 160] kWh
= 12 × 105 kWh
(iii) Average load = Units generated per day / No. of hours = 12 x 10 5/ 24 =

50,000 kW
(iv) Load factor = Average load/ Max. demand == 50 000 / 70 x 10 3 = 0·714 =

71·4%
Load Forecasting
Electrical energy cannot be stored. It has to be generated whenever there is a demand for
it. It is, therefore, imperative for the electric power utilities that the load on 3 6 their
systems should be estimated in advance. This estimation of load in advance is commonly
known as load forecasting. It is necessary for power system planning. Power system
expansion planning starts with a forecast of anticipated future load requirements. The
estimation of both demand and energy requirements is crucial to an effective system
planning. Demand predictions are used for determining the generation capacity,
transmission, and distribution system additions, etc. Load forecasts are also used to
establish procurement policies for construction capital energy forecasts, which are needed to
determine future fuel requirements. Thus, a good forecast, reflecting the present and future
trends, is the key to all planning
Purpose of load forecasting
1. For proper planning of power system;
2. For proper planning of transmission and distribution facilities;
3. For proper power system operation;
4. For proper financing;
5. For proper manpower development;
6. For proper grid formation;
7. For proper electrical sales.
(i) For Proper Planning of Power System To determine the potential need for additional new
generating facilities; To determine the location of units; To determine the size of plants; To
determine the year in which they are required; To determine that they should provide
primary peaking capacity or energy or both; To determine whether they should be
constructed and owned by the Central Government or State Government or Electricity
Boards or by some other autonomous corporations.
Load Forecasting
(ii) For Proper Planning of Transmission and Distribution Facilities For planning the
transmission and distribution facilities, the load forecasting is needed so that the
right amount of power is available at the right place and at the right time. Wastage
due to misplanning like purchase of equipment, which is not immediately required,
can be avoided.
(iii) For Proper Power System Operation Load forecast based on correct values of
demand and diversity factor will prevent overdesigning of conductor size, etc. as well
as overloading of distribution transformers and feeders. Thus, they help to correct
voltage, power factor, etc. and to reduce the losses in the distribution system.
(iv) For Proper Financing The load forecasts help the Boards to estimate the future
expenditure, earnings, and returns and to schedule its financing program
accordingly.
(v) For Proper Manpower Development Accurate load forecasting annually reviewed
will come to the aid of the Boards in their personnel and technical manpower
planning on a long-term basis. Such a realistic forecast will reduce unnecessary
expenditure and put the Boards’ finances on a sound and profitable footing.
(vi) For Proper Grid Formation Interconnections between various state grids are now
becoming more and more common and the aim is to have fully interconnected
regional grids and ultimately even a super grid for the whole country. These
expensive high-voltage interconnections must be based on reliable load data,
otherwise the generators connected to the grid may frequently fall out of step
causing power to be shut down.
(vii) For Proper Electrical Sales In countries, where spinning reserves are more,
proper planning and the execution of electrical sales program are aided by proper
load forecasting.
Classification of load forecasting
The load forecasting can be classified as: (i) demand forecast and (ii) energy
forecast.
Demand Forecast: This is used to determine the capacity of the generation,

transmission, and distribution system additions. Future demand can be predicted on
the basis of fast rate of growth of demand from past history and government policy.
This will give the expected rate of growth of load.
Energy Forecast :This is used to determine the type of facilities required, i.e., future
fuel requirements
Forecasting Lead time Application

Very short time Few mins to half an hour Real time control, real time security
evaluation
Short time Half an hour to a few Allocation of spinning reserve, unit
hours commitment, maintenance
scheduling
Medium time Few days to a few weeks Planning or seasonal peak winter,
summer
Long time Few months to a few years To plan the growth of the
generation capacity
Load Scheduling Or Load Dispatching
Loading of units are allocated to serve the objective of minimum fuel cost is known
as load scheduling. Load scheduling problem can be divided into:
i. Thermal scheduling.
ii. Hydrothermal scheduling.
i. Thermal scheduling.
The loading of steam units are allocated to serve the objective of minimum fuel cost.
Thermal scheduling will be assumed that the supply undertaking has got only form
thermal or from steam stations.
ii. Hydrothermal scheduling.
Loading of hydro and thermal units are allocated to serve the objective of minimum
fuel cost is known as hydrothermal scheduling.
Scheduling of hydro units are complex because of natural differences I the

watersheds, manmade storage and release elements used to control the flow of
water are difficult.
During rainy season, we can utilize hydro generation to a maximum and the
remaining period, hydro generation depends on stored water availability. If
availability of water is not enough to generate power, we must utilize only thermal
power generation. Mostly hydroelectric generation is used to meet out peak loads.
There are two types of hydrothermal scheduling.
a) Long range hydro scheduling
b) Short range hydro scheduling.

Load Scheduling -continue
a) Long range hydro scheduling
Long range hydro scheduling problem involves the long range forecasting of water
availability and the scheduling of reservoir water releases for an interval of time that
depends on the reservoir capacities. Long range hydro scheduling involves
from I week to I year or several years. Long range hydro scheduling involves
optimization of statistical variables such as load, hydraulic inflows and unit
availabilities.
b) Short range hydro scheduling.
Short range hydro scheduling involves from one day to one week or hour-by-hour
scheduling of all generation on a system to achieve minimum production cost foe a
given period.
Assuming load, hydraulic inflows and unit availabilities are known, for a given
reservoir level, we can allocated generation of power using hydro plants to meet out
the demand, to minimize the production cost.
The largest category of hydrothermal system includes a balance between

hydroelectric and thermal generation resources. Hydrothermal scheduling is
developed to minimize thermal generation production cost.
Basics of Speed Governing Mechanisms and Modelling
The speed governor is the main primary tool for the LFC, whether the machine is
used alone to feed a smaller system or whether it is a part of the most elaborate
arrangement. A schematic arrangement of the main features of a speed-governing
system of the kind used on steam turbines to control the output of the generator to
maintain constant frequency is as shown in Fig.1
Its main parts or components are as follows:
(i)Fly Ball Speed Governor:
This is the heart of the system which senses the change in speed (frequency).As the
speed increases the fly balls move outwards and the point B on linkage mechanism
moves downwards. The reverse happens when the speed decreases.
(ii)Hydraulic Amplifier:
It comprises a pilot valve and main piston arrangement. Low power level pilot valve
movement is converted into high power level piston valve movement. This is necessary in
order to open or close the steam valve against high pressure steam.
(iii)Linkage Mechanism:
ABC is a rigid link pivoted at B and CDE is another rigid link pivoted at D. This link
mechanism provides a movement to the control valve in proportion to change in speed. It
also provides a feedback from the steam valve movement.
Basics of Speed Governing Mechanisms and Modelling
(iv)Speed Changer: It provides a steady state power output setting for the
turbine. Its downward movement opens the upper pilot valve so that more steam
is admitted to the turbine under steady conditions (hence more steady power
output). The reverse happens for upward movement of speed changer.
A brief explanation of the diagram is as follows:
Steam enters into the turbine through a pipe that is partially obstructed by a steam
admission valve. In steady state the opening valve is determined by the position of a
device called the speed changer (upper left corner in Fig.1), fixes the position of the
steam valve through two rigid rods ABC and CDE. The reference value or set point of
the turbine power in steady state is called the reference power
When the load on the bus suddenly changes, the shaft speed is modified, and a device
called speed regulator acts through the rigid rods to move the steam valve. A similar
effect could be produced by temporarily modifying the reference power (which justifies
the name speed changer). In practice, both control schemes are used simultaneously.
Amplifying stages (generally hydraulic) are introduced to magnify the output of the
controller and produced the forces necessary to actually move the steam valve.
Modelling of Speed Governor
In this section, we develop the mathematical model based on small deviations around
a nominal steady state. Let us assume that the steam is operating under steady state
and is delivering power P0G from the generator at nominal speed or frequency fo.
Under this condition, the prime mover valve has a constant setting χ0E, the pilot valve
is closed, and the linkage mechanism is stationary. Now, we will increase the turbine
power by ΔPC with the help of the speed changer. For this, the movement of linkage
point A moves downward by a small distance ΔxA and is given by
Fig.1 Schematic diagram of speed governing mechanism
ΔxA = Kc ΔPC ……………..(1)
The link point ‘C’ will move upward because of linkage (A-B-C) action. Let it be
further, the link point ‘D’ moves the piston in pilot servo (V), resulting in higher
pressure oil flow in the upper part of the main piston. The piston moves
downward by an amount ΔXD and the steam valve opening increases. It
increases the torque developed by the turbine. This increased torque increases
the speed of generator, i.e., frequency (Δf). This change of speed results in the
outward movement of fly ball of the speed regulator. Thus the link ‘B’ moves
slightly downward a small distance ΔXB. Due to the movement of link point B,
the link point ‘C’ also moves downward by an amount ΔXC’’ which is also
proportional to Δf. Thus the net movement of link point C is
ΔXC = ΔXC’ + ΔXC’’ ……………. (2)
(-) ΔXC’ (lAB) = ΔXA (lBC)
(lBC)
(-) ΔXC’ = ΔXA ………… (3)
(lAB)
We know from eq-(1) ΔxA = Kc ΔPC substitute in eq-(3) and consider
(lBC)
K1 = (lAB)
ΔXC’ = (-) Kc ΔPC K1
ΔXC’ = (-) K1 Kc ΔPC …………….. (4)
and ΔXC “ = K2 Δf
Thus the net movement of C is therefore
ΔXC = (-) K1 Kc ΔPC + K2 Δf ………………. (5)

The movement of D, ΔXD is the amount by which the pilot valve opens. It is contributed
by ΔXC and ΔXE and can be written as
ΔXD = ΔXD’ + ΔXD’’ …………….. (6)
ΔXD’ (lCD + lDE) = ΔXC (lDE)
lCD + lDE
ΔXD’ = ΔXC ……………… (7)
(lDE)
ΔXD’ = K3 ΔXC ……………… (7)
ΔXD’’ (lCD + lDE) = ΔXE (lCD)
lCD + lDE
ΔXD’’ = ΔXE
(lCD)
ΔXD’’ = K4 ΔXE ……………….. (8)
Thus, it can written as
ΔXD = K3 ΔXC + K4 ΔXE …………….. (9)
Now, if an assumption is made that the flow of oil into the servo-motor is
proportional to position ΔXD of the pilot valve V, then the movement ΔXE of the
piston can be expressed as
ΔXE =ΔXV = K5‫(𝑡׬‬−ΔXD) dt ………………. (10)

0
Taking Laplace transform of equations (5), (9) and (10)
ΔXC(s) = - K1 Kc ΔPC (s) + K2 Δf(s) ………………… (11)
ΔXD (s) = K3 ΔXC (s) + K4 ΔXE(s) ………………………(12)
1
ΔXE(s) = K5 ΔXD (s) ………………………. (13)
𝑠
Eliminating ΔXC(s) and ΔXD (s)
𝐾4 𝐾5 −𝐾5 𝐾3
ΔXE(s) 1 + = −𝐾1 𝐾𝑐 ΔP𝑐 (s) + 𝐾2 Δf(s)
𝑠 𝑠
𝑘2
𝑘5𝑘3𝑘1𝑘𝑐 ΔPC (s) − Δf(s)
ΔXE(s) = 𝑠
𝑘1𝑘𝑐
𝑘4𝑘5 1+
𝑘4𝑘5
𝑘2
𝐾3𝐾1𝐾𝐶 ΔPC (s) − Δf(s)
ΔXE(s) = 𝑘1𝑘𝑐
𝑠
𝐾4 1+
𝑘4𝑘5
𝐾3𝐾1𝐾𝐶 1 1 𝑘2
KG = ; TG = ; = ;
𝐾4 𝐾4𝐾5 𝑅 𝑘1𝑘𝑐
Value of TG < 100 m sec
The equation can be written as:
1 𝐾𝐺
ΔXE(s) = ΔPC s − 𝑅 Δf(s) x ………… (14)
1+𝑆𝑇𝐺
Fig.2 Model of speed governor

Turbine Model
Fig.3 Model of turbine
Steam turbine or hydro turbine act as a prime mover driving a generator unit. At
present, we can assume that the voltage level is constant and the torque variations
are small. Then an incremental analysis will give a relatively simple dynamic
relationship between ΔXE and ΔPG. Such an analysis reveals considerable difference,
not only between steam turbines and hydro- turbines, but also between various types
(reheat and non-reheat) of steam turbines. Therefore, the transfer function, relates
the change in the generated power output with respect to the change in the valve
position, varies with the type of the prime mover.
Fig.3 shows a Single-stage Non-reheat type steam turbine. In this model, the
turbine can be characterized by a single gain constant Kt and and a single time
constant Tt and ΔPv is per unit change in valve position from nominal value.
ΔPT(s) 𝐾𝑡
Gt(s) = =
ΔXE(s) 1+𝑆𝑇𝑡
Generator Load Model
Here the mathematical modelling of an isolated generator is given. Generator is

only supplying local load and is not supplying power to another area via a tie line.
Suppose there is real load change of ΔPD. Due to the action of turbine controllers,
the generator increases its output by the amount ΔPT . The net surplus power
ΔPT - ΔPD will be absorbed by the system in two ways.
𝑑(𝑊𝑘𝑖𝑛)
1. By increasing the kinetic energy Wkin in the rotor generator at the rate 𝑑𝑡
2. By an increased load consumption. All typical load experiences on increase
𝜕𝑃𝐷
B= where B is called Damping Coefficient in MW/HZ.
𝜕𝑓
Thus this surplus power can be expressed as
𝑑(𝑊𝑘𝑖𝑛)
ΔPT - ΔPD = + B Δf
𝑑𝑡
As the kinetic energy is proportional to the square of the speed.
𝑓 2
Wkin = W0kin 𝑓0
Where f = f + f0 , fo is the nominal frequency and f is new frequency after

disturbances.
𝑓0+Δf 2 Δf Δf 2
Wkin = W0kin = W0kin 1 + 2 𝑓0 +
𝑓0 𝑓0
Δf
Wkin = W0kin 1 + 2 𝑓0
0
𝑑(𝑊𝑘𝑖𝑛) 𝑊𝑘𝑖𝑛 𝑑Δf
=2
𝑑𝑡 𝑓0 𝑑𝑡
𝑊𝑘𝑖𝑛
H= 𝑃𝑟
𝑑(𝑊𝑘𝑖𝑛) 𝐻𝑃𝑟 𝑑Δf

=2
𝑑𝑡 𝑓0 𝑑𝑡
As per power balance equation,
Change in turbine power= Change in load power + Change in KE + Change in power due
to change in frequency of active load.
𝐻𝑃𝑟 𝑑Δf
ΔPT – ΔPD = 2 + B Δf
𝑓0 𝑑𝑡
Dividing by Pr we get,
𝐻 𝑑Δf
ΔP𝑇𝑝.𝑢 - ΔP𝐷𝑝.𝑢 = 2 + B𝑝.𝑢 Δf
𝑓0 𝑑𝑡
Taking Laplace transform on both sides, we get
ΔP𝑇𝑝.𝑢 = ΔP𝐺𝑝.𝑢
𝐻𝑠
ΔP𝐺 (𝑠) - ΔP𝐷 (s) = 2 Δf (s) + B Δf(s)
𝑓0
Or it can be written as
𝐻 𝑑Δf
ΔP𝑇𝑝.𝑢 - ΔP𝐷𝑝.𝑢 = 2 + B𝑝.𝑢 Δf
𝑓0 𝑑𝑡
Taking Laplace transform on both sides, we get
ΔP𝑇𝑝.𝑢 = ΔP𝐺𝑝.𝑢
𝐻𝑠
ΔP𝐺 (𝑠) - ΔP𝐷 (s) = 2 Δf (s) + B Δf(s)
𝑓0
Or it can be written as
Hs
Δf (s) 𝐵 + 2 𝑓 = ΔP𝐺 (𝑠) - ΔP𝐷 (s)
0
ΔP𝐺 𝑠 −ΔP𝐷 (𝑠)

Δf (s) = Hs
𝐵+2
𝑓0
ΔP𝐺 𝑠 −ΔP𝐷 (𝑠)

Δf (s) = Hs
𝐵 1+2
𝐵𝑓0
𝐾𝑝
Δf (s) = [ΔP𝐺 (𝑠) - ΔP𝐷 (s)] 1+𝑆𝑇𝑝
2𝐻
TG = = Power system time constant
𝐵𝑓0
1
Kp = = Power system gain
𝐵
Block diagram of Generator load model is shown in Fig.4

Fig.4 Generator load model
Speed – Load Characteristics (Load Sharing between Two Synchronous
Machines in Parallel)
Speed droop is a governor function which reduces the governor reference speed as fuel
position (load) increases. All engine controls use the principle of droop to provide stable
operation. The simpler mechanical governors have the droop function built into the
control system, and it cannot be changed.
Droop originates from the principle of power balance in synchronous generators. An

imbalance between the input mechanical power and the output electric power causes a
change in the rotor speed and electrical frequency. Similarly, variation in output reactive
power results in voltage magnitude deviation.
The ability to return to the original speed after a change in load is called
isochronous speed control. All electronic controls have circuits which effectively
provide a form of temporary droop by adjusting the amount of actuator position change
according to how much off speed is sensed. Without some form of droop, engine-speed
regulation would always be unstable. A load increase would cause the engine to slow
down. The governor would respond by increasing the fuel position until the reference
speed was attained. However, the combined properties of inertia and power lag would
cause the speed to recover to a level greater than the reference.
Droop is a straight-line function, with a certain speed reference for every fuel position.
Normally, a droop governor lowers the speed reference from 3 to 5 percent of the
reference speed over the full range of the governor output. Thus a 3% droop governor
with a reference speed of 1854 rpm at no fuel would have a reference speed of 1800 rpm
at max fuel (61.8 Hz at no fuel and 60 Hz at max fuel).
Most complex hydraulic governors have adjustable droop. In these cases, droop may be
set between 0% and 5%. Droop is not adjustable in most mechanical governors,
Percentage speed regulation or droop
The value of R determines the steady-state speed versus load characteristic of the
generating unit as shown in fig.5. The ratio of speed deviation (∆ωr) or frequency
deviation (∆f) to change in valve/gate position or power output (∆P) is equal to R. The
parameter R is referred to as speed regulation or droop. It can be expressed in
percent as
𝑁𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑−𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑

%R = x 100
𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
𝜔𝑁𝐿 − 𝜔𝐹𝐿
%R = x 100
𝜔𝐹𝐿
When two generating units are operating in parallel on the system, their speed-droop
characteristics low load changes are shared among them in the steady state and to
operate to a common frequency.
The changes in the outputs of the units are given by
−𝑃𝑟1 ∆f
Unit-1, (∆PG1) = x
𝑅𝑝.𝑢1 𝑓𝑟
−𝑃𝑟2 ∆f
Unit-2,( (∆PG2) = x
𝑅𝑝.𝑢2 𝑓𝑟
Total load change in output

−∆f 𝑃𝑟1 𝑃𝑟2
= ∆P = ∆PG1 + ∆PG2 = +
𝑓𝑟 𝑅𝑝.𝑢1 𝑅𝑝.𝑢2
−∆P .fr
The system frequency change ∆f = 𝑃𝑟1 𝑃𝑟2
+
𝑅𝑝.𝑢1 𝑅𝑝.𝑢2
−∆P
∆f = 𝟏 𝟏
+
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
Fig.5 Ideal steady state characteristics of a governor with
speed droop
Fig.6 Speed-Load characteristics

Parallel operation of two alternators
Two different controls are carried out on the governor characteristics. The
parameter R is adjusted during off-line condition of the unit to ensure its proper
coordination with the other units, the second control shifts the straight line
characteristic parallel to itself to change the load distribution among the generators
connected in parallel as well as to maintain the system frequency.
Fig.7 Parallel operation of two alternators

The second control known as supplementary control. In Fig.7, the governor
characteristics of two generating units are shown. Supposing if two generator units
sharing the total load P ie. P =P1+P2 and at constant frequency f0. Now if the total load
increases by P’, the frequency reduces to f’0 then the two generator units increases their
output by supplying kinetic energy which in turn reduction in speed. In order to maintain
the system frequency, one of the generators or both the generator increase their output
which is shown in dotted lines of the figure. Now the total load P’ is hared by both the
generators with increased output i.e P’ = P’1+P’2 .
It is to be noted that if the frequency of two areas are to be controlled, the static
frequency drop is 50% of the isolated operation of two systems. Also, if there is change
in load in any area, half of it shared by other area.
Problems in Load Sharing of Two Alternators
Example 1. Two generators rated 400MW and 700 MW are operated in

parallel. The droop characteristics of their governors are 3% and 4%
respectively from no-load to full –load. Assuming that the governors are
operating in 50HZ at no load, how would a load of 1000MW be shared
between them?. What will be the system frequency at this load? Assume
linear governor operation; determine the full load speed for each machine.
(Nov-Dec 2018AU)
Fig.8 Two alternators in Parallel

Solution :
𝑁𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 − 𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑

Speed Regulation = 𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
For alternator-1, of 400MW
50−OD
= 0.03
OD
50-OD = 0.03 OD
1.03 X OD = 50
OD = 48.543 Hz
Similarly for alternator-2, of 700MW
50−OF
= 0.04
OF
50-OF = 0.04 OF
1.04 OF = 50
OF = 48.0769 Hz
∆ABC and ∆ADE are similar,
𝐶𝐷 𝐴𝐵
=
𝐸𝐷 𝐴𝐷
𝑋 50−𝑓
=
400 50−48.543
50−𝑓
X = 400 (1.457)
X = 274.5367 50 − 𝑓
X = 13726.835 – 274.5367 f ……………….(1)

∆ABH and ∆AFG are similar,
𝐵𝐻 𝐴𝐵
=
𝐹𝐺 𝐴𝐹
1000−𝑋 50−𝑓
=
700 50−𝑂𝐹
1000−𝑋 50−𝑓
=
700 50−48.0769
1000−𝑋 50−𝑓
= 1.9231
700
50−𝑓
1000-X = 700 (1.9231)
1000-X = 363.9956 (50-f)
1000-X = 18199.7816 – 363.9956 f ………… (2)
363.9956 f + 274.5367f = 18199.7816 + 13726.835 -1000
638.5323 f = 30926.6166
f = 48.4339 Hz
Substitute ‘f’ value in eq-1
X = 13726.835 – 274.5367 f ……………….(1)
X = 13726.835 – 274.5367 (48.4339)
X = 13726.835 – 13296.8831
X = 429.952 MW
1000-X = 1000 – 429.952 = 570.04807 MW
Result
Load shared by first Alternator-1 = 429.952 MW
Load shared by first Alternator-2 = 570.04807 MW
Full load speed of Alternator-1 = 48.543 Hz
Full load speed of Alternator-2 = 48.0769 Hz
Frequency of the new load = 48.4339 Hz

Example :2 Two turbo-alternators are rated at 25MW each. They are running
in parallel. The speed-load characteristics of the driving turbines are such
that the frequency of alternator 1 drops uniformly from 50Hz on no load to
48Hz on full load, and that of alternator 2 from 50Hz to 48.5 Hz.
a) How will the two machines share a load of 30MW and find the bus-bar
frequency at this load?
b) Compute the maximum load that these two units can deliver without
overheating either of them.
Fig.9 Two alternators in Parallel

Solution:
Let x be the load supplied by alternator-1
Let 30-x be the load supplied by alternator-2
a) From similar ∆ABC and ∆ADE are similar,
𝐵𝐶 𝐴𝐶
=
𝐷𝐸 𝐴𝐸
𝑋 2−𝑓
25
= 50−48
𝑋 2−𝑓
=
25 2
X = 25 – 12.5 h ……………….(1)
∆ACH and ∆AFG are similar,
𝐶𝐻 𝐴𝐶
=
𝐹𝐺 𝐴𝐹
30−𝑋 𝐴𝐹−𝐹𝐶
=
25 𝐴𝐹
30−𝑋 1.5−(ℎ−0.5)
=
25 1.5
30-X = 25-16.67 h + 8.33 ……………… (2)
Substitute eq-1 in eq-2
30 – (25 – 12.5 h) = 25-16.67 h + 8.33
30 – 25 + 12.5 h = 25 – 16.67 h + 8.33

12.5 h + 16.67 h = 25-5 +8.33
h = 0.9712
Substitute ‘h’ value in eq-1
X = 25 – 12.5 x (0.9712)
X = 12.85MW
30-X = 30 – 12.85 = 17.15 MW
System frequency = 48 + h = 48.9712 Hz
(b) Full load will first come on alternator 2
Full load at 25MW at 48.5HZ
Extend BC to B’F
From similar ∆AB’F and ∆ADE are similar
𝐵"𝐹 𝐴𝐹
=
𝐷𝐸 𝐴𝐸
𝐵"𝐹 50−48.5
=
25 50−48
B’F = 18.75MW
Maximum possible load = 25 + 18.75 = 43.75 MW
System frequency = 48.5Hz

Assignments
1 A power system has to meet the following demand

Group A: 200KW between 8a.m and 6p.m
Group B: 100KW between 6a.m and 10a.m
Group C: 50KW between 6a.m and 10a.m
Group D: 100KW between 10a.m and 6p.m & then between 6p.m and 6a.m
Plot the daily load curve and determine diversity factor, units generated per day and
load factor.
2Two turbo-alternators are rated at 50 MW each. They are running in parallel. The
speed-load characteristics of the driving turbines are such that the frequency of
alternator 1 drops uniformly from 50Hz on no load to 48Hz on full load, and that of
alternator 2 from 50Hz to 48.5 Hz.
a) How will the two machines share a load of 70MW and find the bus-bar frequency
at this load?
b) Compute the maximum load that these two units can deliver without overheating
either of them.
Part A (Q & A)
S.No Part A (Q & A) K Level COs
What is the objective of power system control?

The objective of power system control is to maintain a continuous balance
1 between electrical generation and varying load demand while system K1 CO1
frequency and voltage levels are maintained constant.
What is load curve?

Load curve is the curve showing the variation of load on the power station
2 with respect to time. It can be plotted on a graph taking load on Y-axis and K1 CO1
time on X-axis
List out the types of loads.
The types of loads are,
1. Residential load: It consists of domestic lights, fans, heaters, refrigerators,
television, radio and air-conditioners.
3 2. Commercial load: It covers offices, hospitals, hotels, shopping complex and K1 CO1
theatres.
3. Industrial load: It covers small and heavy industries working on shifts.
4. Agricultural load: It occurs during the day time.
5. Municipal load: it consists of street-lighting, water supply and drainage.
What is daily load curve?
Daily load curve is the curve showing the variation of load on the power
4 station with respect to various time periods in a day. It can be plotted on a K1 CO1
graph taking load on Y-axis and time on X-axis
What is yearly load curve?

Yearly load curve is the curve showing the variation of load on the power
5 station with respect to the period of the year. It is obtained from monthly K1 CO1
load curves of that year.
What is load duration curve?

Load duration curve is the curve obtained when the load elements of a load
6 curve are arranged in the order of descending magnitudes K1 CO1
Part A (Q & A)
What is connected load?

7 Connected load is the sum of continuous ratings of all the equipments K1 CO1
connected to supply systems.
What is maximum demand?
8 Maximum demand is the greatest of all “short time interval averaged” during K1 CO1
a given period on the power station.
What is demand factor?
Demand factor is the ratio of actual maximum demand on the system to total
9 rated load connected to the system. K1 CO1

What is demand factor?
Demand factor is the ratio of actual maximum demand on the system to total
10 rated load connected to the system. K1 CO1

What is average demand?
Average demand is the average of loads occurring on the power station in a
given period.
The types of average demands are,
1. Daily average demand = (no of units generated per day)/ (24 hours)
11 K1 CO1
2. Monthly average demand = (no of units generated in month)/ (no of hours
in a month)
3. Yearly average demand = (no of units generated in a year)/ (no of hours in a
year)
What is load factor?

Load factor is the ratio of average load to the maximum demand during a
certain period of time.
12 K1 CO1
Load factor = (average load) / (maximum demand)

Part A (Q & A)
What is diversity factor?

Diversity factor is the ratio of the sum of the individual maximum demands of
all the consumers to the maximum demand of the power station.
13 K1 CO1
Diversity factor = (sum of individual maximum demand)/(maximum

demand).
What is capacity factor?
Capacity factor is the ratio of the average load to the rated capacity of the
power plant.
14 K1 CO1
Capacity factor = (actual energy generated) / (Plant capacity x Number of
Hours)
What is plant use factor?

Plant use factor or plant operating factor is the ratio of the actual energy generated
15 K1 CO1
during a given period to the product of capacity of plant and actual number of
operating hours.
What is units generated ?
It is the ratio of units generated to the product of plant capacity and the number of
16 hours for which the plant was in operation. K1 CO1
Units generated per annum= average load * hours in a year
What is the need for voltage regulation in power system?
The need for voltage regulation in power system is to maintain the voltage at
17 K1 CO1
the load terminals within prescribed limits under fluctuating load conditions
by employing suitable voltage control equipment.
Part A (Q & A)
Sl No Part A (Q & A) K Level COs
What are the parts of speed governing mechanism?
The parts of speed governing mechanism

(i) Speed governor
18 K1 CO1
(ii) Linkage mechanism
(iii) Hydraulic amplifier
(iv) Speed changer
Write about hydraulic amplifier.
Hydraulic amplifier consists of main piston and pilot valve. Low power level
19 pilot valve movement is converted into high power level piston valve K1 CO1
movement which is necessary to open or close the steam valve against high
pressure steam.
How is the real power in a power system controlled?
20 The real power in a power system is being controlled by controlling the K1 CO1
driving torque of the individual turbines of the system.
What is the need for large mechanical forces in speed-governing system?

Very large mechanical fores are needed to position the main valve against
21 the high stream pressure and these forces are obtained via several stages of K1 CO1
hydraulic amplifiers.
What is the objective of power system control?

The objective of power system control is to maintain a continuous balance
22 between electrical generation and varying load demand while system K1 CO1
frequency and voltage levels are maintained constant.
What is monthly load curve?
Monthly load curve is the curve showing the variation of load on the power
23 station with respect to the period of the month. It is obtained from daily load K1 CO1
curves of that month
Part A (Q & A)

What is the effect of speed of a generator on its frequency?
𝑃𝑁
24 The effect of speed of a generator on its frequency is 𝐹 = Hz K1 CO2
120
where p is the number of poles and N the speed in rpm.
Why should the system frequency be maintained constant?

Constant frequency is to be maintained for the following
functions:
1. All the AC motors should be given constant frequency supply so as to
25 maintain the speed constant. K1 CO2
2. In continuous process industry, it affects the operation of the process itself.
3. For synchronous operation of various units in the power system network, it
is necessary to maintain the frequency constant.
How do load frequency characteristics change during on-line

Control?
26 By shifting the load frequency characteristics as a whole up or down varying K1 CO2
the inlet valve opening of the prime mover
How do load frequency characteristics change during off-line

control?
27 By changing the slope of the load characteristics by varying the lever ratio of K1 CO2
the speed governor
State why P–f and Q–V control loops can be treated as non-interactive?
The active power P is mainly dependent on the internal angle δ and is
independent of bus voltage magnitude |V|. The bus voltage
is dependent on machine excitation and hence on reactive power Q and is
independent of the machine angle δ. The change in the machine angle δ is
28 caused by a momentary change in the generator speed and hence the K1 CO2
frequency. Therefore, the load frequency and excitation voltage controls are
non-interactive for small changes and can be modeled and analyzed
independently.
Choose what condition will the model developed for a turbine be

valid?
29 The condition for the turbine is the first 20 s following the incremental K1 CO2
disturbance.
Part B
S.No Part B K Level COs

With the block diagram of speed governing system, explain the automatic
1 load frequency control. Also derive necessary equations K2 CO1
Two generators rated 400MW and 700 MW are operated in parallel. The
droop characteristics of their governors are 3% and 4% respectively from
no-load to full –load. Assuming that the governors are operating in 50HZ
2 at no load, how would a load of 1000MW be shared between them?. K2 CO1
What will be the system frequency at this load? Assume linear governor
operation; determine the full load speed for each machine.
Two turbo-alternators are rated at 25MW each. They are running in

parallel. The speed-load characteristics of the driving turbines are such
that the frequency of alternator 1 drops uniformly from 50Hz on no load
to 48Hz on full load, and that of alternator 2 from 50Hz to 48.5 Hz.
3 a) How will the two machines share a load of 30MW and find the bus-bar K2 CO2
frequency at this load?
b) Compute the maximum load that these two units can deliver without
overheating either of them.
Why is the load on the power system is variable? What are the effects of
4 K2 CO1
variable load in power system?
A generating station supplies the following loads connected to it:

Industries-95MW
Domestic lightning load-5MW
Domestic power load-8MW
CO1
5 Commercial load-12MW K2
The maximum demand on the station is 90MW. Calculate the load factor
and diversity factor if the total number of units generated in a year is
3x108.
What is the significance of load factor and diversity factor? 66
Part C
S.No Part C K Level COs
Two generators rated 500MW and 800 MW are operated in parallel.

The droop characteristics of their governors are 3% and 4% respectively
from no-load to full –load. Assuming that the governors are operating
1 in 50HZ at no load, how would a load of 1200MW be shared between K3 CO2
them?. What will be the system frequency at this load? Assume linear
governor operation; determine the full load speed for each machine.
Two synchronous generators operating in parallel. Their capacities are

700MW and 600MW. The droop characteristics of their governor are
4% and 5% from NL to FL. Assuming that the generators are operating
2 K3 CO2
at 50Hz at NL, how a load of 800MW would be shared between them.
What will be the system frequency at this load? Assume free governor
action.
Supportive Online Certification Courses
S.No Name of the Course Link of the course
Power Systems Operation and Control by https://nptel.ac.in/courses/108/104/

1
Dr.SN Singh , IIT Kanpur –Video Content 108104052/
Power Systems Operation and Control Dr. https://nptel.ac.in/courses/108/101/

2
A.M. Kulkarni IIT Bombay – Web Content 108101040/
14 Real time Applications
Load Factor Improvement on Daily Load Curve Using Pump

Storage to Saving Production Cost in plants
15 Content beyond the syllabus
Interconnected grid system
Electronic Speed Governor

16 Assessment Schedule
03.08.2020
17 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Olle.I.Elgerd, ‘Electric Energy Systems theory - An introduction’, McGraw Hill

Education Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 34th reprint, 2010.
2. Allen. J. Wood and Bruce F. Wollen berg, ‘Power Generation, Operation and
Control’, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2016.
3. Abhijit Chakrabarti and Sunita Halder, ‘Power System Analysis Operation and
Control’, PHI learning Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, Third Edition, 2010.
REFERENCES
1. Kothari D.P. and Nagrath I.J., ‘Power System Engineering’, Tata McGraw-Hill
Education, Second Edition, 2008.
2. Hadi Saadat, ‘Power System Analysis’, McGraw Hill Education Pvt. Ltd., New
Delhi, 21st reprint, 2010.
3. Kundur P., ‘Power System Stability and Control, McGraw Hill Education Pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi, 10th reprint, 2010.
18 Mini project suggestions
weekly Load curve- EEE dept Building

Thank you
Disclaimer:
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Department: EEE
Batch/Year: 2017-2021/ 2020

Professor
RMD EC
2. Mr UMA SHANKAR L
Asst. Prof
RMKCET
3. Mr NARESHKUMAR K
Asst Prof
RMKEC
Date: July 2020

Contents

1 Contents 5
3 Pre Requisites 7
4 Syllabus 8
5 Course outcomes 9
7 Lecture Plan 14
9 Lecture Notes 17
10 Assignments 56
11 Part A Q & A 57

17

Course Objectives

Prerequisites

Syllabus

representation of AVR loop - static and dynamic analysis – stability compensation –
changing transformer, SVC (TCR + TSC) and STATCOM for voltage control.
UNIT IV ECONOMIC OPERATION OF POWER SYSTEM 9
TOTAL : 45 PERIODS
Course Outcomes
CO3 Ability to understand the significance of power system operation and control.
PROGRAMME OUTCOMES



conclusion.


Development.


10
PROGRAMME OUTCOMES


11

12
CO-PO /PSO mapping
PO, O O O
PSO 1 2 3
co1 - 2 - 3 3 - - - - - - - 3 - 3
co2 - 2 - 3 3 - - - - - - - 3 - 3
co3 - 2 - 3 3 - - - - - - - 3 - 3
co4 - 2 - 3 3 - - - - - - - 3 - 3
co5 - 2 - 3 3 - - - - - - - 3 - 3
co6 - 2 - 3 3 - - - - - - - 3 - 3
Lecture plan
Sl Topic No Prop Actu Pertaining Taxo Mode
N of osed al dt CO nom of
o Peri dt y deliver
ods level y
1 Load Frequency Control CO1, CO2 K2 PPT
(LFC) of single area
system-
2 Static Analysis of CO1, CO2 K2 PPT
uncontrolled and
controlled cases -
Problems
3 Dynamic analysis of CO1, CO2 K2 PPT
uncontrolled and
controlled cases
4 LFC of two area system - CO1, CO2 K2 PPT
tie line modelling
5 block diagram CO1, CO2 K2 PPT
representation of two area
system - static Analysis
6 Dynamic Analysis of two CO1, CO2 K2 PPT
area system
7 Tie line with frequency K3 PPT
bias control
8 State variability model CO1, CO2 K2 PPT
9 Integration of economic CO1, CO2 K2 PPT

Role Play-Load frequency control Two area system

Lecture notes
UNIT II REAL POWER - FREQUENCY CONTROL

Load frequency control of Single Area
Load frequency control (LFC) is the basic control mechanism in the power system operation.
Whenever there is a variation in load demand on a generating unit, there is momentarily an
occurrence of unbalance between real-power input and output. This difference is being
supplied by the stored energy of the rotating parts of the unit.
The kinetic energy of any unit is given by
1
KE = 2
I ω2
where I is the moment of inertia of the rotating part and ω the angular speed of the rotating
part. If KE reduces, ω decreases; then the speed falls, hence the frequency reduces. The
change in frequency Δf is sensed and through a speed governor system, it is fed back to
control the position of the inlet valve of the prime mover, which is connected to the
generating unit. It changes the input to the prime mover suitably and tries to bring back the
balance between the real-power input and output. Hence, it can be stated that the frequency
variation is dependent on the real-power balance of the system. The LFC also controls the
real-power transfer through the interconnecting transmission lines by sensing the change in
power flow through the tie lines.
.
Prime movers driving the generators are fitted with governors, which are regarded as
primary control elements in the LFC system. Governors sense the change in a speed control
mechanism to adjust the opening of steam valves in the case of steam turbines
Need of Load Frequency Control

The active and reactive power demands are never steady and they continuously changes
with the rising or falling trend of load demand. There is a change in frequency with the
change in load which causes problems such as:
1. Most AC motors run at speeds that are directly related to frequency. The speed and
induced electro motive force (e.m.f) may vary because of the change of frequency of the
power circuit.
2. When operating at frequencies below 49.5 Hz; some types of steam turbines, certain
rotor states undergo excessive vibration.
3. The change in frequency can cause mal operation of power converters by producing
harmonics.
4. For power stations running in parallel it is necessary that frequency of the network
must remain constant for synchronization of generators.
Representation of Load Frequency Control of Single Area Power System:

A complete block diagram representation of an isolated power system
comprising governor , turbine, generator and load is easily obtained by combining the
block diagrams of individual components.
Previous chapter derived the modelling of speed governor, turbine, and generator load
model. Combining the governor model, turbine model and generator load model, we get
the complete block diagram representation of LFC of an isolated power system which is
shown in fig.10
Fig.1. Complete Model of LFC of Single Area

Static Analysis or Steady state response of uncontrolled case
The basic objective of the primary ALFC loop is to maintain constant frequency in spite of
changing loads. The primary ALFC loop as shown in the fig. has one output and two
inputs. ΔPref(s) and ΔPD(s)
Consider the speed changer has a fixed setting. Under this condition ΔPC =0 and the load
demand changes. This is known s free governor operation. The block diagram is shown in
fig drawn from substituting ΔPC =0.
Fig.2
Fig.3
𝐾𝑝
ΔF(s) = [-ΔPD(s)]
1+𝑠𝑇𝑝
𝐾𝑝 𝐾𝑔𝐾𝑡
1+ 𝑥
1+𝑠𝑇𝑝 𝑅(1+𝑠𝑇𝑔)(1+𝑠𝑇𝑡)
𝐾𝑝
ΔF(s) = 𝐾𝑝𝐾𝑔𝐾𝑡 [-ΔPD(s)]
1+ 𝑠𝑇𝑝 +
𝑅(1+𝑠𝑇𝑔)(1+𝑠𝑇𝑡)
For a step load change ΔPD(s) = ΔPD

𝑠
−𝐾𝑝 ΔPD
ΔF(s) = 𝐾𝑝𝐾𝑔𝐾𝑡 [ ]
1+ 𝑠𝑇𝑝 + 𝑠
−𝐾𝑝 ΔPD
ΔF(s) = 𝐾𝑝𝐾𝑔𝐾𝑡 [ ]
1+ 𝑠𝑇𝑝 + 𝑠
Applying final value theorem,

−𝐾𝑝
Δfstat = lim 𝑆. ∆𝐹(𝑠) = 𝐾𝑝𝐾𝑔𝐾𝑡 x ΔPD …………. (1)
𝑠→0 1+
𝑅
Practically Kg Kt =1
−𝐾𝑝
Δfstat = 𝐾𝑝 ΔPD
1+
𝑅
1
Kp = and ΔPD = M
𝐵
1
−
Δfstat = 𝐵
1 ΔPD
1+
𝐵𝑅
−𝑀 𝑀 1
Δfstat = 1 = (-) - ; 𝛽 = 𝐵 +
𝐵+ 𝛽 𝑅
𝑅
1
In practice B<< , neglecting B,
𝑅
Δfstat
= (-)R Hz/MW
ΔPD
When several generators with governor speed regulations R1,R2…..Rn are connected to the
system the steady state deviation in frequency is given by
−ΔPD
Δfstat = 1 1 1
𝐵+ + +⋯⋯
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑛
Static Analysis or Steady state response of controlled case
In this case, there is a step change ΔPC force for speed changer setting and the load demand
remains fixed i.e ΔPD =0.
Fig.5
Fig.6
𝐾𝑔𝐾𝑡𝐾𝑝
ΔF(s) = 𝐾𝑔𝐾𝑡𝐾𝑝 x ΔPC (s)
1+𝑠𝑇𝑔 1+𝑠𝑇𝑡 1+𝑠𝑇𝑝 +
𝑅
Practically Kg Kt =1 ; Tg =Tt = 0
For a step load change, ΔPC (s) = ΔPC

𝑠
𝐾𝑝
ΔF(s) = 𝐾𝑝 x ΔPC
1+𝑠𝑇𝑔 1+𝑠𝑇𝑡 1+𝑠𝑇𝑝 +
𝑅 𝑠
Δfstat = lim 𝑆. ∆𝐹(𝑠)

𝑠→0
Δfstat 1
= 1 Hz/MW
ΔPC 𝐵+𝑅
Dynamic Analysis of Uncontrolled case (Single Area)

To obtain the dynamic response representing the change in frequency as a function of time for a step
change in load. The block diagram reduces as shown in fig.15
Fig.7
𝐾𝑝
ΔF(s) = [-ΔPD(s)]
1+𝑠𝑇𝑝
1+ 𝑥
Taking inverse Laplace transform for an expression ΔF(s) is tedious, because the
denominator will be third order. We can simplify the analysis by making the following
assumptions.
1. The action of speed governor and turbine is instantaneously compared with rest of the
power system.
2. The time constant of the power system

Tp=20 sec, Tg = 0.4sec. Tt = 0.5sec
Approximate Analysis : letting TG = Tt = 0 ; KG = Kt =1
The block diagram reduces as shown in fig.16
Fig.8
𝐾𝑝
ΔF(s) = 𝐾𝑝 [-ΔPD(s)]
1+ 𝑠𝑇𝑝 +
𝑅
For a step load change ΔPD(s) = ΔPD

𝑠
𝐾𝑝 ΔPD
ΔF(s) = 1 𝐾𝑝 [- ]
Tp[𝑠 + + ] 𝑠
𝑇𝑝 𝑅𝑇𝑝
Apply partial fraction method
−ΔPDkp 𝐴 𝐵
ΔF(s) = + 𝑅+𝐾𝑝
𝑇𝑝 𝑠 𝑠 +
𝑅𝑇𝑝
A+ B = 0
𝑅𝑇𝑝 −𝑅𝑇𝑝
A= ;B=
𝑅+𝐾𝑝 𝑅+𝐾𝑝
−ΔPDkp 𝑅𝑇𝑝 1 1
ΔF(s) = [ − 𝑅+𝐾𝑝 ]
𝑇𝑝 𝑅+𝐾𝑝 𝑠 𝑠 +
𝑅𝑇𝑝
Fig.9. Dynamic response of primary ALFC loop to a step load change
After taking inverse Laplace transformation
𝑅𝐾𝑝 𝑅+𝐾𝑝
Δf(t) = (-)M 1 − 𝑒 −(𝑡 𝑅𝑇𝑝 )
𝑅+𝐾𝑝
The dynamic response to a step load change as shown in Fig.17

Dynamic Analysis of Controlled Case:
ΔPD(s) = 0 , Letting KG Kt =1 ; TG =Tt = 0
ΔPC (s) = ΔPC

𝑠
ΔPCRK𝑝 𝑅+𝐾𝑝
Δf(t) = 1 − 𝑒
−(𝑡
𝑅𝑇𝑝 )
𝑅+𝐾𝑝
Important points for uncontrolled Single Area
1.By reducing value of R it is possible to increase AFRC. Hence static frequency error may be
reduced.
2. With smaller time constant Tg and Tt, the system response shows some oscillations before
settling down with a drop in frequency. But if these time constants are neglected, response is
purely exponential.
3. If the overall closed loop system time constant is calculated from the response curve, it is
found to be much smaller than the open loop time constant of the power system.
4. For the uncontrolled system there exists a steady state frequency error as a result of increase
in load demand, however small it may be.
5. When the load demand increases speed or frequency of the system drops though initially
kinetic energy of rotating inertia may be used to meet up the demand. Eventually it will be
balanced by an increase in system generation and decrease in load as associated with the
dropping frequency.
Problems in LFC single Area
Example 1: Find the static frequency drop if the load is suddenly increased by 25 MW on a
system having the following data:
Rated capacity Pr = 500 MW
Operating Load PD = 250 MW
Inertia constant H = 5 s
Governor regulation R = 2 Hz p.u. MW
Frequency f = 50 Hz
Also find the additional generation.
Solution :
Assuming the frequency characteristic to be linear, we have
𝜕𝑃𝑑 250
B= = MW/Hz
𝜕𝑓 50
250
∂PD/∂f expressed in p.u., B= = 0.01 pu MW/Hz
50𝑥500
25
ΔPD in p.u = = 0.05
500
Area frequency response characteristic (AFRC)
1 1
𝛽=𝐵+ = 0.01 + = 0.51
R 2
The static frequency drop
−𝑀 −0.05
Δfstat = 1 = =(-)0.09803 Hz.
𝐵+ 0.51
𝑅
Hence the system frequency drops
f = f0 + Δfstat = 50 - 0.09803 = 49.91Hz

Example 2 : An Isolated power system has the following parameters:
Turbine Rated output Pr = 300 MW
Load Change = 60 MW
Inertia constant H = 5 s
Governor regulation R =0.05 p.u.
Nominal Frequency f = 50 Hz
Turbine time constant = 0.5 sec
Governor time constant = 0.2 sec
The load varies by 0.8 percent for a 1 percent change in frequency; determine the steady
state frequency deviation in Hz. (June 2016 AU)
Solution :
H=5
Tt = 0.5 sec
TG = 0.2 sec
60
ΔPD = 60MW = = 0.2 p.u
300
R = 0.05 p.u = 0.05 x 50 Hz/p.u MW = 2.5 Hz/p.u MW

0.8
𝜕𝑃𝑑 𝑥300
B= = 100
1
𝜕𝑓
100 𝑥 50
B = 4.8 MW/Hz
4.8
B = = 0.016 p.u MW/Hz
300
1 1
𝐾𝑝 = = = 62.5 Hz/p.u MW
B 0.016
2𝐻 2𝑥5
Tp = = = 12.5 sec
𝐵𝑓0 0.016𝑥50
𝐾𝑝
ΔF(s) = [-ΔPD(s)]
1+𝑠𝑇𝑝
1+ 𝑥
0.2
For a step load change ΔPD(s) = ΔPD = 𝑆
𝑠
Apply final value theorem,
Δfstat = lim 𝑆. ∆𝐹(𝑠)

𝑠→0
−0.2
𝑠𝑥62.5𝑥0.1 𝑠 2
+7𝑠+ 10 ( 𝑠 )
Δfstat = lim 2 2
𝑠→0 1.25(𝑠 +7.08𝑠 +10.64𝑠+20.8)
Δfstat = (-)0.48 Hz
System frequency f = f0 + Δfstat = 50 – 0.48 = 49.52Hz

LFC of two area system:
From a practical point of view the problem of frequency control of

interconnected areas or power pools are more important than of isolated area or
single area power system. An interconnected power system can be divided into
number of LFC areas which are interconnected by a tie lines. Such an operation is
called pool operation.
When subject to disturbances in the interconnected power system like a
small load change all the generator - turbine units in a control area are swing
together with the other groups of the generator- turbine units in the other areas.
Hence all the units in a control area are represented by a single units and
characterised by a single frequency
Main advantages can be derived by from a pool operation are
• Under normal operating condition each area should have a capacity to meet out
the own demand from its own generating units, plus the scheduled interchange
between the neighbouring area which they are mutually agreed upon.
• Under emergency condition the energy generated can be drawn by the spinning
reserves of all the neighbouring areas immediately due to unanticipated loss of
generating outages
For analysing the dynamics of the LFC of an n-area power system, primarily consider
two-area systems.
Here, the control objective is to regulate the frequency of each area and
to simultaneously regulate the power flow through the tie line according to an inter
area power agreement.
Tie Line Modeling
In the case of an isolated control area, the zero steady state error in
frequency (i.e., Δf = 0) can be obtained by using a proportional plus integral
controller, whereas in two-control area case, proportional plus integral controller will
be installed to give zero steady state error in a tie-line power flow (i.e., ΔPTie = 0) in
addition to zero steady-state error in frequency.
For the sake of convenience, each area can be represented by an
equivalent turbine, generator, and governor system. In the case of a single control
area, the incremental power (ΔPG −ΔPD) was considered by the rate of increase of
stored KE and increase in area load caused by the increase in frequency. But as in
the case of a two-area, the tie-line power must be accounted for the incremental
power balance equation of each area, since there is power f low in or out of the area
through the tie line.
Power flow out of area 1 is given by
V1 V2
Ptie,1 = Sin(δ10 − δ02 )
X12
Ptie,1 = Pmax Sin(δ10 − δ02 )

Where δ10 and δ02 are the angles of end Voltages V1 and V2 respectively.
For small deviations in the angles δ1 & δ2 the tie line power changes with the
amount
Apply partial fraction with respect to δ
𝜕Ptie,1 V1 V2
= Cos δ10 − δ02 (Δδ1 − Δδ2 )
𝜕δ12 X12
Divide the above equation by rated power Pr1 to convert into per unit
V1 V2
∆Ptie,1 p.u = Cos δ10 − δ02 (Δδ1 − Δδ2 )
X12 Pr1
∆Ptie,1 p.u = T12 Δδ1 − Δδ2 (1)
V1 V2
Where T12 = Cos δ10 − δ02
X12 Pr1
= Synchronising power coefficient or electric stiffness
i.e., slope of the power angle curve at the initial operating angle 𝛿120
Synchronising power coefficient or electric stiffness is defined as differential power

increase obtained differential power angle increase
Since incremental frequency ΔF is related to the phase angle of deviation
ω = 2πf
ω
f = 2π
1 dδ
f=
2π dt
1 d
Δf = (∆δ)
2π dx
∆δ = 2π න ∆F dt
We can write the equation 1 as,
∆Ptie,1 p.u = 2π T12 ‫ ׬‬ΔF1 dt − ‫ ׬‬ΔF2 dt (2)
Where ΔF1 and ΔF2 are incremental frequency changes of area 1 and 2 respectively
Similarly,
∆Ptie,2 p.u = 2π T21 ‫ ׬‬ΔF2 dt − ‫ ׬‬ΔF1 dt
V2 V1 Pr1
Where T21 = X21 Pr2
Cos δ02 − δ10 x Pr1
Pr1
T21 = T
Pr2 21
Pr1
T21 = a12 T12 Where a12 = (3)
Pr2
The incremental power balance equation for area 1 can be written as,
2H1 d
∆PG1 − ∆PD1 = f0 dt
(∆F1 ) + B1 ∆F1 + ∆Ptie,1 (4)
(In the above equation all quantities are in P.U except frequency)
Taking Laplace transform on equation 4,
2H1
∆PG1 (s) − ∆PD1 (s) = s ∆F1 (s) + B1 ∆F1 (s) + ∆Ptie,1 (s)
f0
On rearranging the above equation
2H1
∆PG1 s − ∆PD1 s − ∆Ptie,1 s = ∆F1 s { s + B1 }
f0
∆PG1 s − ∆PD1 s − ∆Ptie,1 s

∆F1 s =
2H1
s + B1
f0
1
B1
∆F1 s = [∆PG1 s − ∆PD1 s − ∆Ptie,1 s ]
2H s
1+ 01
f B1
K ps1
∆F1 s = ∆PG1 s − ∆PD1 s − ∆Ptie,1 s (5)
1 + s Tps1
1 2H1
K ps1 ; Tps1 =
= B1 f0 B 1
K ps1 = Power system gain for area 1

Tps1 = Power system time constant for area 1
Block diagram of equation 5 is shown as
Fig 12 Single area network with tie line support

Taking Laplace transform of equation 2,
2π T12
∆Ptie,1 s = [ΔF1 𝑠 − ΔF2 𝑠 ] (6)
𝑠
For the control area 2,
2π T21
∆Ptie,2 s = [ΔF2 𝑠 − ΔF1 𝑠 ]
𝑠
2π 𝑎12 T12
∆Ptie,2 s = − 𝑠
ΔF1 𝑠 − ΔF2 𝑠 7
Block diagram representation of equation 6 and 7 are shown in the figure
Fig 13. Tie Line model

Block diagram representation of two area system
By the combination of basic block diagrams of Load frequency control of
single area network along with single area tie line support (fig 2 ) and Tie Line
model (fig 3), the composite block diagram of a two-area system can be modelled as
shown in Fig.
Fig 14. Two area load frequency control – Block Diagram

Static Analysis of Two Area System (Uncontrolled Case)
Here the changes or deviation which result in the frequency and the
tie line power under steady state conditions following sudden step changing in
the loads in the two areas are determined.
In an uncontrolled case the control input value is zero i.e., no need
to change the speed changer position ΔPc1= ΔPc2 = 0
Suppose there is sudden increase in load demand in the two areas
by incremental steps ΔPd1 and ΔPd2. Frequency drops in the steady state and
these drops are equal
∆𝐹1 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 = ∆𝐹2 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 = ∆𝐹𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡
At steady state condition, we will have incremental tie line power.
1
∆𝑃𝐺1,𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 = − ∆𝐹𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 (1)
𝑅1
1
∆𝑃𝐺2,𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 = − ∆𝐹 (2)
𝑅2 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡
From the two area system block diagram
K ps1
∆F𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 = ∆PG1,stat − ∆PD1 − ∆Ptie,1,stat
1 + s Tps1
1
B1
∆F stat = [∆PG1,stat − ∆PD1 − ∆Ptie,1,stat ]
2H s
1+ 01
f B1
2H1
∆PG1,stat − ∆PD1 − ∆Ptie,1,stat = ∆Fstat s + B1
f0
2H1 𝑑
= B1 ∆Fstat + ∆𝐹
f 0 𝑑𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡
𝑑
𝑃𝑢𝑡 ∆𝐹 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 1 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡
∆PG1,stat − ∆PD1 − ∆Ptie,1,stat = B1 ∆Fstat

∆Ptie,1,stat = ∆PG1,stat − B1 ∆Fstat − ∆PD1 (3)
Similarly for area 2
∆PG2,stat − ∆PD2 = B2 ∆Fstat + ∆Ptie,2,stat
∆PG2,stat − ∆PD2 = B2 ∆Fstat − 𝑎12 ∆Ptie,1 ,stat
∆PG2,stat − ∆PD2 = B2 ∆Fstat − 𝑎12 (∆PG1,stat − ∆PD1 − B1 ∆Fstat ) (4)

Substitute equation (1) and (2) in (4)
1 𝑎12
− ∆𝐹𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 − ∆PD2 = B2 ∆Fstat + ∆Fstat + 𝑎12 ∆PD1 + 𝑎12 B1 ∆Fstat
𝑅2 𝑅1
1 𝑎12
∆𝐹𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 − − B2 − − 𝑎12 B1 = 𝑎12 ∆PD1 + ∆PD2
𝑅2 𝑅1
[𝑎12 ∆PD1 + ∆PD2 ]

∆𝐹𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 = − (5)
1 1
𝐵2 + + 𝑎12 𝐵1 +
𝑅2 𝑅1
= ∆PG1,stat − B1 ∆Fstat − ∆PD1

from eqn 3 ∆Ptie,1,stat
1
=− ∆𝐹 − B1 ∆Fstat − ∆PD1
𝑅1 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡
1
= − ∆Fstat 𝐵1 + − ∆PD1 (6)
𝑅1
Substitute equation (5) in (6)
[𝑎12 ∆PD1 + ∆PD2 ] 1

∆Ptie,1,stat = 𝐵1 + − ∆PD1
1 1 𝑅1
𝐵2 + + 𝑎12 𝐵1 +
𝑅2 𝑅1
1 1 1
[𝑎12 ∆PD1 + ∆PD2 ] 𝐵1 + − ∆PD1 𝐵2 + − 𝑎12 ∆PD1 𝐵1 +
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅1
=
1 1
𝐵2 + + 𝑎12 𝐵1 +
𝑅2 𝑅1
1 1
∆PD2 𝐵1 + − ∆PD1 𝐵2 +
𝑅1 𝑅2
=
1 1
𝐵2 + + 𝑎12 𝐵1 +
𝑅2 𝑅1
1 1
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝛽1 = 𝐵1 + 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽2 = 𝐵2 +
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝛽1 ∆PD2 − 𝛽2 ∆PD1
∆Ptie,1,stat =
𝛽2 + 𝑎12 𝛽1
From Equation 5,
∆PD2 + 𝑎12 ∆PD1

∆𝐹𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 = −
𝛽2 + 𝑎12 𝛽1
For two identical areas
𝛽2 = 𝛽1 = 𝛽
𝑅2 = 𝑅1 = 𝑅
𝐵2 = 𝐵1 = 𝐵
𝑃𝑟1
𝑎12 = =1
𝑃𝑟2
(Since Pr1 = Pr2)
∆PD2 + ∆PD1
2𝛽
∆PD2 − ∆PD1
∆Ptie,1,stat = − ∆Ptie,2,stat =
2
Suppose a step load change occurs at area 1,
∆PD2 = 0
∆PD1
2𝛽
−∆PD1
∆Ptie,1,stat =
2
Suppose a step load change occurs at area 2,
∆PD1 = 0
∆PD2
2𝛽
∆PD2
∆Ptie,1,stat =
2
For an interconnected power system thee steady state frequency error is
reduced by 50% and change in tie line power also reduced by 50%
Advantage of Interconnected Power System
• Half of the added load in area 2 will be shared by area 1 through the tie line
• Frequency drop will be only half when compared to single area
Dynamic Analysis of Two Area System

To describe the dynamic response of the two-area system a system of
seventh-order differential equations is required. The solution of these equations
would be tedious. However, some important characteristics can be brought out by an
analysis rendered simple by the following assumptions.
Assume the two areas are to be identical
Neglect the time constant of generators and turbines as they are negligible when
compared to the time constant of power system
𝑇𝑃1 ≫ 𝑇𝑡1 , 𝑇𝐺1 ; ; 𝑇𝑃2 ≫ 𝑇𝑡2 , 𝑇𝐺2
From the uncontrolled case (Speed changer command is zero) we can
write the following condition or equation from the block diagram of two area system
and we get,
−K p1 ∆𝐹1 𝑠
∆𝐹1 𝑠 = + ∆PD1 𝑠 + ∆Ptie,1 𝑠 1
1 + s Tp 𝑅1
−K p2 ∆𝐹2 𝑠
∆𝐹2 (𝑠) = + ∆PD2 𝑠 − ∆Ptie,1 𝑠 (2)
1 + s Tp 𝑅2
2π T12
∆Ptie,1 s = ΔF1 𝑠 − ΔF2 𝑠 (3)
𝑠
For Identical two areas
∆𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑒 2 = −∆𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑒 1 ; 𝑎12 = 1
𝑅2 = 𝑅1 = 𝑅 ; 𝐾𝑝1 = 𝐾𝑝2 = 𝐾𝑝
From Equation 1
Kp −K p
∆𝐹1 (𝑠) 1 + = ∆PD1 𝑠 + ∆Ptie,1 𝑠
R(1 + s Tp ) 1 + s Tp
𝑅 + 𝑠𝑅𝑇𝑝 + K p −K p
∆𝐹1 (𝑠) = ∆PD1 𝑠 + ∆Ptie,1 𝑠
R(1 + s Tp ) 1 + s Tp
−K p 𝑅
∆𝐹1 (𝑠) = ∆PD1 𝑠 + ∆Ptie,1 𝑠
𝑅 + 𝑠𝑅𝑇𝑝 + K p
Similarly from equation 2,
−K p 𝑅
∆𝐹2 (𝑠) = ∆PD2 𝑠 + ∆Ptie,1 𝑠
𝑅 + 𝑠𝑅𝑇𝑝 + K p
Sub the value of ∆𝐹1 (𝑠) and ∆𝐹2 (𝑠) in equation 3 we get as,
2π T12 −K p 𝑅
∆Ptie,1 s = X ∆PD1 𝑠 − ∆PD2 𝑠 + 2 ∆Ptie,1 s
𝑠 𝑅 + 𝑠𝑅𝑇𝑝 + K p
4𝜋𝑇12 K p 𝑅 − 2π T12 K p 𝑅
∆Ptie,1 s 1 + = X ∆PD1 𝑠 − ∆PD2 𝑠
𝑅 + 𝑠𝑅𝑇𝑝 + K p 𝑠(𝑅 + 𝑠𝑅𝑇𝑝 + K p )
𝑇𝑝 𝑅𝑠 2 + 𝑠 𝑅 + 𝐾𝑝 + 4𝜋𝑇12 K p 𝑅
∆Ptie,1 s
𝑠 𝑅 + K p + 𝑠𝑅𝑇𝑝
2π T12 −K p 𝑅
= ∆PD1 𝑠 − ∆PD2 𝑠
𝑠 𝑅 + 𝑠𝑅𝑇𝑝 + K p
−2π T12 K p
∆Ptie,1 s = ∆PD1 𝑠 − ∆PD2 𝑠
2
𝑅 + 𝐾𝑝 4𝜋𝑇12 𝐾𝑝
𝑇𝑝 𝑠 + 𝑠+
𝑇𝑝 𝑅 𝑇𝑝
1
We know 𝐾𝑝 = 𝐵
Hz / p.u MW
−2π T12 [∆PD1 𝑠 − ∆PD2 𝑠 ]

∆Ptie,1 s =
1
𝑅+
𝑇𝑝 𝐵 𝑠 2 + 𝐵 𝑠 + 4𝜋𝑇12
𝑇𝑝 𝑅 𝐵 𝑇𝑝
2𝐻
Power system time constant 𝑇𝑝 =
𝐵𝑓0
2π T12 [∆PD2 𝑠 − ∆PD1 𝑠 ]

∆Ptie,1 s =
2𝐻 2 𝑅𝐵 + 1 4𝜋𝑇
𝑜 𝑠 + 2𝐻𝑅 𝑠 + 2𝐻12
𝑓
𝑓𝑜 𝑓𝑜
2π T12 𝑓 𝑜 [∆PD2 𝑠 − ∆PD1 𝑠 ]

∆Ptie,1 s =
𝑓𝑜 1 2𝜋𝑇12 𝑓 𝑜
2𝐻 𝑠 2 + 𝐵+ 𝑠+
2𝐻 𝑅 𝐻
The denominator is of the form of
𝑠 2 + 2𝛼𝑠 + 𝜔2 = (𝑠 + 𝛼)2 + 𝜔2 − 𝛼 2
𝑓𝑜 1
Where 𝛼= 𝐵+
4𝐻 𝑅
2𝜋𝑇12 𝑓 𝑜
2
𝜔 =
𝐻
Since 𝛼 and 𝜔2 are positive therefore the system is stable and damped
The roots of the characteristics equation are
−2𝛼 ± 2𝛼 2 − 4𝜔 2
𝑆1,2 =
2
= −𝛼 ± 𝛼 2 − 𝜔 2
We have three conditions
1. If 𝛼 = 𝜔 , the system is critically damped, the roots becomes 𝑆1,2 = −𝜔
2. If 𝛼 > 𝜔, the system becomes underdamped , the roots becomes
𝑆1,2 = −𝛼 ± 𝛼 2 − 𝜔 2
3. If 𝛼 < 𝜔, the system becomes over damped , the roots becomes
𝑆1,2 = −𝛼 ± 𝑗 𝜔 2 − 𝛼 2
= −𝛼 ± 𝑗𝜔𝑑
𝛼 = 𝐷𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝜔𝑑 = 𝐷𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝜔𝑑 = 𝜔2 − 𝛼2
2
2𝜋𝑇12 𝑓 𝑜 𝑓𝑜 1
= − 𝐵+
𝐻 4𝐻 𝑅
𝑓𝑜
Assume the load not varying with frequency B = 0, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝛼 = 4𝜋𝑅
The system damping is strongly depend on the parameter 𝛼. Since 𝑓 𝑜 and H are
constant, the damping will be function of R.
Low Value of R will give strong damping
High value of R will give weak damping
If R = 𝛼 , 𝜔𝑑 = 𝜔, where 𝜔 = Natural Angular Frequency
i.e., there is no speed governor action. Therefore the system will perform undamped
oscillations.
Fig.16. Dynamic response of two identical area
system
From the response curve the following conclusions can be drawn.
Static change in tie line flow corresponding to load change in area 2 is positive
and is equal to ΔPd / 2 for two identical two area system
Static change in frequency for the same case is negative and equal to (-ΔPd/2)
Change in frequency in area 2 under transient state is not identical
Maximum deviation of frequency occurs in the area in which disturbance has
taken place
Tie Line Frequency with Bias Control

Tie Line Bias Control:
From the dynamic response of two area system it is clearly indicate that
some form of integral control must be added to the system. The presence of static
frequency error is intolerable in the single area LFC system and in the two area
presence of static error in tie line power cause inadvertent exchange.
All the operating members must contribute to their share to frequency
control in addition to taking care of their own net interchange. For Example we could
conceive the arrangement that area 1 be responsible for frequency reset and area 2
take care of tie line power.
𝐴𝐶𝐸1 ≜ ∆𝐹1
𝐴𝐶𝐸2 ≜ ∆𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑒 2
The ACE’s would be fed via integrators on to the respective speed
changer. This arrangement would work but not well. The problem with this
arrangement proved to be that the central frequency controlling station tended to
regulate for everybody trying to absorb everybody’s else’s error and offsets. As a
result it would swing widely between the generating limits.
To avoid such error a control strategy that has been adopted by most
operating systems. The control strategy is termed “tie line bias control” and it is
based upon the principle that “all operating pool members must contribute their
share to frequency control in addition taking care of their own net interchange”.
Tie Line Bias Control of Two Area System
In this reset control method to our two area system we would add dashed
loops in two area system as shown in fig.
From the block diagram of two area system as shown in fig, ACE is the
change in area frequency which, when used in integral loop forced the steady state
frequency error to zero.
In order to make the steady state tie line power to zero another integral
control one for each area must be introduced to integrate the incremental tie line
power signal feed it back to the speed changer
𝐴𝐶𝐸1 = ∆𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑒 1 + 𝑏1 ∆𝐹1

b1 – Area frequency bias
𝐴𝐶𝐸2 = ∆𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑒 2 + 𝑏2 ∆𝐹2

Taking Laplace transform of the above two equation
𝐴𝐶𝐸1 (𝑠) = ∆𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑒 1 (𝑆) + 𝑏1 ∆𝐹1 (𝑆)
𝐴𝐶𝐸2 (𝑠) = ∆𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑒 2 (𝑠) + 𝑏2 ∆𝐹2 (𝑠)

Speed changer commands will be in this form
∆𝑃𝐶1 = −𝑘11 න ∆𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑒 1 + 𝑏1 ∆𝐹1 𝑑𝑡
∆𝑃𝐶2 = −𝑘12 න ∆𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑒 2 + 𝑏2 ∆𝐹2 𝑑𝑡
The constants K11 and K12 are integrator gains and the constants b1 and b2
are frequency bias parameters. The minus sign is included since each area should
increase its generation if either its frequency error or its tie line power increment is
negative
Fig 17 Block diagram of two area LFC with tie line bias control
Static System Response
The chosen strategy will eliminate the steady state frequency and tie line
deviations for the following reasons
Following a step load change in either area, a new static equilibrium, if
such an equilibrium exists can be achieved only after the speed changer commands
have reached constant values. But it is evidently requires that both integrands
∆𝑃𝐶1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝑃𝐶2 are zero.
∆𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑒 1 + 𝑏1 ∆𝐹1 = 0
∆𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑒 2 + 𝑏2 ∆𝐹2 = 0
∆𝐹1 − ∆𝐹2 = 0
∆𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑒 1
= −𝑎12 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
∆𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑒 2
The above conditions can be met only if,
∆𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑒 1 = ∆𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑒 2 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑
∆𝐹1 = ∆𝐹2 = 0
Note that this result is independent of B1 and B2. In fact, one of the bias
parameter (but not both) can be zero, and we still have a guarantee that the above
conditions is satisfied.
The question what best value to choose for the parameters B parameters
has been hotly debated. It shown that choosing B = β (i.e., AFRC) produces
satisfactory overall performance of interconnected power system.
Tie Line Bias Control of Multiarea Systems

In reality a control area is interconnected not with one tie line to
neighboring area but with several tie lines to neighboring control areas, all part of
overall power system network. Consider the ith control area. Its net interchange
equals the sum of the megawatts on all m outgoing tie- lines. As the area control
error ACEi should be reflective of the total exchange of power it should thus be
chosen of the form
𝐴𝐶𝐸𝑖 = ෍ ∆𝑃𝑖𝑗 + 𝐵𝑖 ∆𝐹𝑖

𝑗=1
Typically, the reset control is implemented by sampled data techniques. At
sampling intervals of say one second all tie line power data are fed into the central
energy control center where they added and compared with predetermined
contracted interchange megawatts. In this way is obtained the sum error of above
equation. This error is added to the biased frequency error and the ACE results. This
ACE is communicated with all area generators that are participating in the
interconnected network.
State variability model

A modern gigawatt generator with its multistage reheat turbine, including
its automatic load frequency control (ALFC) and automatic voltage regulator (AVR)
controllers, is characterized by an impressive complexity. When all its non-
negligibility dynamics are taken into account, including cross-coupling between
control channels, the overall dynamic model may be of the twentieth order.
The dimensionality barrier can be overcome by means of computer-aided
optimal control design methods originated by Kalman. A computer-oriented
technique called optimum linear regulator (OLR) design has proven to be particularly
useful in this regard.
The OLR design results in a controller that minimizes both transient
variable excursions and control efforts. In terms of power system, this means
optimally damped oscillation with minimum wear and tear of control valves.
OLR can be designed using the following steps:

Casting the system dynamic model in state-variable form and introducing
appropriate control forces.
Choosing an integral-squared-error control index, the minimization of which is the
control goal.
Finding the structure of the optimal controller that will minimize the chosen
control index.
Dynamic State Variable Model

The LFC methods discussed so far are not entirely satisfactory. In order to
have more satisfactory control methods, optimal control theory has to be used. For
this purpose, the power system model must be in a state variable model
From the block diagram write the ‘s domain’ equations.
𝐾𝑝𝑠1
∆𝐹1 𝑠 = ∆𝑃𝑔1 𝑠 − ∆𝑃𝑑1 𝑠 − ∆𝑃𝑇𝐿1 𝑠
1 + 𝑠𝜏𝑝𝑠1
𝐾𝑝𝑠2
∆𝐹2 𝑠 = ∆𝑃𝑔2 𝑠 − ∆𝑃𝑑2 𝑠 − ∆𝑃𝑇𝐿2 𝑠
1 + 𝑠𝜏𝑝𝑠2
1
∆𝑋𝐸1 𝑠 = ∆𝑃𝐶1 𝑠 − 𝐹1 (𝑠)/𝑅1
1 + 𝑠𝜏𝑠𝑔1
1
∆𝑋𝐸2 𝑠 = ∆𝑃𝐶2 𝑠 − 𝐹2 (𝑠)/𝑅2
1 + 𝑠𝜏𝑠𝑔2
1
∆𝑃𝐺1 𝑠 = ∆𝑋𝐸1 𝑠
1 + 𝑠𝜏𝑡1
1
∆𝑃𝐺2 𝑠 = ∆𝑋𝐸2 𝑠
1 + 𝑠𝜏𝑡2
2π T12
∆PTL1 s = [ ΔF1 𝑠 − ΔF2 𝑠 ]
𝑠
Where XE1 (s) and XE2 (s) are the Laplace transforms of the movements of
the main positions in the speed governing mechanism of the two areas.
By taking inverse Laplace transform for the above equations, we get a set of
seven differential equations. These are the time-domain equations, which describe the
small-disturbance dynamic behavior of the power system.
Consider the first equation,
(1 + 𝑠𝜏𝑝𝑠1 ) ∆𝐹1 𝑠 = 𝐾𝑝𝑠1 ∆𝑃𝑔1 𝑠 − ∆𝑃𝑑1 𝑠 − ∆𝑃𝑇𝐿1 𝑠
𝑠𝜏𝑝𝑠1 ∆𝐹1 𝑠 = −∆𝐹1 𝑠 + 𝐾𝑝𝑠1 ∆𝑃𝑔1 𝑠 − ∆𝑃𝑑1 𝑠 − ∆𝑃𝑇𝐿1 𝑠
1
𝑠∆𝐹1 𝑠 = −∆𝐹1 𝑠 + 𝐾𝑝𝑠1 ∆𝑃𝑔1 𝑠 − ∆𝑃𝑑1 𝑠 − ∆𝑃𝑇𝐿1 𝑠
𝜏𝑝𝑠1
Taking the inverse Laplace transform of the above equation, we get
𝑑 1
[∆𝐹1 ] = {−∆𝐹1 + 𝐾𝑝𝑠1 ∆𝑃𝑔1 − 𝐾𝑝𝑠1 ∆𝑃𝑑1 − 𝐾𝑝𝑠1 ∆𝑃𝑇𝐿1 }
𝑑𝑡 𝜏𝑝𝑠1
In a similar way, the remaining equations can be rearranged and an inverse
Laplace transform is found. Then, the entire set of differential equations is
𝑑 1
[∆𝐹2 ] = {−∆𝐹2 + 𝐾𝑝𝑠2 ∆𝑃𝑔2 − 𝐾𝑝𝑠2 ∆𝑃𝑑2 − 𝐾𝑝𝑠2 ∆𝑃𝑇𝐿1 𝑎12 }
𝑑𝑡 𝜏𝑝𝑠2
𝑑 1
(∆𝑋𝐸1 ) = −∆𝑋𝐸1 + ∆𝑃𝐶1 − ∆𝐹1 /𝑅1
𝑑𝑡 𝜏𝑠𝑔1
𝑑 1
(∆𝑋𝐸2 ) = −∆𝑋𝐸2 + ∆𝑃𝐶2 − ∆𝐹2 /𝑅2
𝑑𝑡 𝜏𝑠𝑔2
𝑑 1
(∆𝑃𝐺1 ) = −∆𝑃𝐺1 + ∆𝑋𝐸1
𝑑𝑡 𝜏𝑡1
𝑑 1
(∆𝑃𝐺2 ) = −∆𝑃𝐺2 + ∆𝑋𝐸2
𝑑𝑡 𝜏𝑡2
𝑑
(∆PTL1 ) = 2π T12 [ ΔF1 − ΔF2 ]
𝑑𝑡
The state variables are a minimum number of those variables, which

contain sufficient information about the past history with which all future states of
the system can be determined for known control inputs. For the two area system
under consideration, the state variables would be Δf1, Δf2 , ΔXE1 , ΔXE2 , ΔPsg1 , ΔPsg2
and ΔPTL1 ; seven in number. Denoting the above variables by x1, x2, x3, x4, x5, x6,
and x7 and arranging them in a column vector as
𝑥1 ∆𝐹1
𝑥2 ∆𝐹2
𝑥3 ∆𝑋𝐸1
𝑋 = 𝑥4 = ∆𝑋𝐸2
𝑥5 ∆𝑃𝑠𝐺1
𝑥6 ∆𝑃𝑠𝐺2
𝑥7 ∆𝑃𝑇𝐿1
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑋 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

The control variables ΔPc1 and ΔPc2 are denoted by the symbols u1 and u2,
respectively, as
𝑢1 ∆𝑃𝑐1
𝑢= 𝑢 ≡
2 ∆𝑃𝑐2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑢 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

The disturbance variables ΔPD1 and ΔPD2, since they create perturbations
in the system, are denoted by p1 and p2, respectively, as
𝑝1 ∆𝑃𝐷1
𝑝= 𝑝 ≡
2 ∆𝑃𝐷2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑃 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
The above state equations can be written in a matrix form as

1 𝐾𝑝𝑠1 𝐾𝑝𝑠1
0 0 0 0 −
𝜏𝑝𝑠1 𝜏𝑝𝑠1 𝜏𝑝𝑠1
1 𝐾𝑝𝑠2 𝐾𝑝𝑠1
0 − 0 0 0 −
𝑥1ሶ 𝜏𝑝𝑠2 𝜏𝑝𝑠2 𝜏𝑝𝑠1 𝑥
1
𝑥2ሶ 1 1 𝑥2
− 0 − 0 0 0 0
𝑥3ሶ 𝑅1 𝜏𝑠𝑔1 𝜏𝑠𝑔1 𝑥3
𝑥4ሶ = 1 1 𝑥4
𝑥5ሶ 0 − 0 − 0 0 0 𝑥5
𝑅2 𝜏𝑠𝑔2 𝜏𝑠𝑔2
𝑥6ሶ 𝑥6
1 1 𝑥7
𝑥6ሶ 0 0 − 0 − 0 0
𝜏𝑡1 𝜏𝑡1
1 1
0 0 0 0 − 0
𝜏𝑡2 𝜏𝑡2
2𝜋𝑇12 −2𝜋𝑇12 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 𝐾𝑝𝑠1
− 0
0 0 𝜏𝑝𝑠1
1
0 𝐾𝑝𝑠1
𝜏𝑠𝑔1 0 −
𝑢1 𝜏𝑝𝑠1 𝑝1
+ 1 𝑢2 + 𝑝2 (1)
0 0 0
𝜏𝑠𝑔2 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
𝑑𝑥𝑖
Where 𝑥ሶ 1 = ; i =1,2,3…,7
𝑑𝑡
The above matrix equation can be written in the vector form as
𝑥ሶ = 𝐴 𝑥 + 𝐵 𝑢 + 𝐽 𝑃 (2)
Where [A] is called the system matrix, [B] the input distribution matrix, and [J] the disturbance
distribution matrix.
In the present case, their dimensions are (7 × 7), (7 ×2), and (7 × 2),
respectively. Equation (2) is a shorthand form of Equation (1), and Equation (1)
constitutes the dynamic ‘state-variable model’ of the considered two-area system.
The differential equations can be put in the above form only if they are
linear. If the differential equations are non-linear, then they can be expressed in the
more general form as
𝑋ሶ = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑢, 𝑝)
Integration of Economic Dispatch Control with LFC

Economic load dispatch and LFC play a vital role in modern power system.
In LFC, zero steady-state frequency error and a fast, dynamic response were
achieved by integral controller action. But this control is independent of economic
dispatch, i.e., there is no control over the economic loadings of various generating
units of the control area.
Some control over loading of individual units can be exercised by adjusting
the gain factors (K) of the integral signal of the ACE as fed to the individual units.
But this is not a satisfactory solution.
A suitable and satisfactory solution is obtained by using independent
controls of load frequency and economic dispatch. The load frequency controller
provides a fast-acting control and regulates the system around an operating point,
whereas the economic dispatch controller provides a slow-acting control, which
adjusts the speed-changer settings every minute in accordance with a command
signal generated by the central economic dispatch computer.
EDC—economic dispatch controller
CEDC—central economic dispatch computer
The speed-changer setting is changed in accordance with the
economic dispatch error signal, (i.e., PG desired – PG actual) conveniently modified
by the signal ∫ ACE dt at that instant of time. The central economic dispatch
computer (CEDC) provides the signal PG desired, and this signal is transmitted to
the local economic dispatch controller (EDC). The system they operate with
economic dispatch error is only for very short periods of time before it is
readily used
This tertiary control can be implemented by using EDC and EDC
works on the cost characteristics of various generating units in the area. The
speed-changer settings are once again operated in accordance with an
economic dispatch computer program.
The CEDCs are provided at a central control center. The variable part
of the load is carried by units that are controlled from the central control
center. Medium-sized fossil fuel units and hydro-units are used for control.
During peak load hours, lesser efficient units, such as gas-turbine units or
diesel units, are employed in addition; generators operating at partial output
(with spinning reserve) and standby generators provide a reserve margin.
The central control center monitors information including area
frequency, outputs of generating units, and tie-line power flows to
interconnected areas. This information is used by ALFC in order to maintain
area frequency at its scheduled value and net tie-line power flow out of the
area at its shedding value.
Raise and lower reference power signals are dispatched to the turbine
governors of controlled units. Economic dispatch is co-ordinated with LFC such that
the reference power signals dispatched to controlled units move the units toward
their economic loading and satisfy LFC objectives.
Fig 20. Integration of LFC with EDC Control

Problems on Two area LFC
1. A two area has two identical areas whose data are given below.
Rated Capacity of area (Pr) = 1500 MW
Nominal Operating Load = 750 MW
Nominal Frequency = 50 Hz
Inertia Constant = 5.0
Speed Regulation = 3 %
Governor time constant=0.06 s
Turbine Time Constant = 0.25 s
A load increase M1 =30 MW occurs in area 1. Determine (i) Δfstat & ΔP12 (ii) Compare
Δfstat obtained in the single area and comment on the support.
Pr1 = 1500; Pr2 = 1500
𝑃𝑅1 1500
𝐴12 = = =1
𝑃𝑅2 1500
𝜕𝑃𝐷 750
𝐵 = 𝐵1 = 𝐵2 = = = 15 𝑀𝑊Τ𝐻𝑧
𝜕𝐹 50
15
= = 0.01 𝑝. 𝑢 𝑀𝑊Τ𝐻𝑧
1500
3
𝑥 50
𝑅 = 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 1500 𝐻𝑧Τ𝑀𝑊
1500
= 0.001 𝑋 1500 = 1.5 𝐻𝑧Τ𝑝. 𝑢 𝑀𝑊
30
∆𝑃𝐷1 = 𝑀1 = = 0.02 𝑝. 𝑢 𝑀𝑊
1500
∆PD2 + 𝑎12 ∆PD1

𝛽2 + 𝑎12 𝛽1
For two identical areas
𝛽2 = 𝛽1 = 𝛽
𝑅2 = 𝑅1 = 𝑅
𝐵2 = 𝐵1 = 𝐵
𝑃𝑟1
𝑎12 = =1
𝑃𝑟2
∆PD2 + ∆PD1
2𝛽
∆PD2 = 𝑀2 = 0
𝑀1
2𝛽
1 1
𝛽2 = 𝛽1 = 𝐵 + = 0.01 + = 0.6766 𝑝. 𝑢 𝑀𝑊Τ𝐻𝑧
𝑅 1.5
30
−
∆𝐹𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 = 1500 = −0.0147 𝐻𝑧
2 𝑋 0.6766
− 𝛽2 𝑀1 −𝑀1
∆𝑃12 = = = −0.01 𝑝. 𝑢 𝑀𝑊 = −15 𝑀𝑊
2𝛽 2
Comments: The ∆𝐹𝑠 of -0.0147 Hz is only half the value of -0.0294 Hz or

50 % obtained in the single area system. Because of support of energy received
from the spinning reserve in area 2. The value of ∆𝑃12 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 reveals that support
received from area 2 is 50 % of load change in area 1.
2. Two 50 Hz power stations are connected by means of interconnected cable so that the stations work in
parallel. The following are the data pertaining to the system
Station Full Load Capacity Speed Regulation Station Load
A 10 MW 2.5 % 7 MW
B 2 MW 4% 2 MW
Calculate the generator output of each station, power transmitted by the interconnector and operator
frequency.
Full load capacity of station A is Pr1 = 10 MW
Load of station A, PD1 = 7 MW
Change in load of station ΔPD1 = 3 MW
∆𝑃𝐷1 3
Per unit value of change in load demand ΔPD1 = = = 0.3 𝑝𝑢 𝑀𝑊
∆𝑃𝑅1 10
Full load capacity of station A is Pr2 = 2 MW
Load of station A, PD2 = 2 MW
Change in load of station ΔPD2 = 0
We know that for two area system, change in tie line power transferred from area A to B
𝛽1 ∆PD2 − 𝛽2 ∆PD1
∆Ptie,1,stat =
𝛽2 + 𝑎12 𝛽1
Change in static frequency
∆PD2 + 𝑎12 ∆PD1

𝛽2 + 𝑎12 𝛽1
1
𝛽1 = 𝐵 +
𝑅
2.5 50
𝑅1 = 𝑥 = 0.125 𝐻𝑧Τ𝑀𝑊
100 10
= 0.125 𝑥 10 = 1.25 𝐻𝑧Τ𝑝. 𝑢 𝑀𝑊
𝐵2 = 𝐵1 = 0
1 1
𝛽1 = = = 0.8
𝑅1 1.25
1 1
𝛽2 = = = 0.5
𝑅2 2
𝑃𝑟1 10
𝑎12 = = =5
𝑃𝑟2 2
−𝛽2 ∆PD1 −0.3 𝑋 0.5

∆Ptie,1,stat = = = −0.033 𝑝. 𝑢. 𝑀𝑊
𝛽2 + 𝑎12 𝛽1 5 𝑋 0.8 + 0.5
𝑎12 ∆PD1 − 5 𝑋 0.3

∆𝐹𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 = − = = −0.33 𝐻𝑧
𝛽2 + 𝑎12 𝛽1 5 0.8 + 0.5
Operator Frequency 𝐹 0 + ∆𝐹 = 50 + −0.33 = 49.667 𝐻𝑧

Assignments
1. A single-area system has the following data: Speed regulation, R = 4 Hz/p.u. MW;
Damping coefficient, B = 0.1 p.u. MW/Hz; Power system time constant, Tp = 10 s;
Power system gain, Kp = 75 Hz/p.u. MW; When a 2% load change occurs,
determine the AFRC and the static frequency error. What is the value of the steady-
state frequency error if the governor is blocked?
(β = 0.35 MW/Hz ; ΔF = -0.571 Hz; β = 0.1 p.u MW/Hz ; ΔF = -0.2 Hz)
2. A 200-MVA synchronous generator is operated at 3,000 rpm, 50 Hz. A load of 40

MW is suddenly applied to the machine and the station valve to the turbine opens
only after 0.4 s due to the time lag in the generator action. Calculate the frequency
to which the generated voltage drops before the steam flow commences to increase
so as to meet the new load. Given that the valve of H of the generator is 5.5 kW-s
per kVA of the generator energy. (F = 49.635 Hz)
3. Two generating units having the capacities 600 and 900 MW and are operating at
a 50 Hz supply. The system load increases by 150 MW when both the generating
units are operating at about half of their capacity, which results in the frequency
falling by 0.5 Hz. If the generating units are to share the increased load in
proportion to their ratings, what should be the individual speed regulations? What
should the regulations be if expressed in p.u. Hz/p.u. MW?
(R1 = 0.1 p.u ; R2 =0.1 p.u Hz/ p.u MW)
Explain the control area concept.
It is possible to divide a very large power system into sub-areas in
which all the generators are tightly coupled such that they swing in unison
with change in load or due to a speed-changer setting. Such an area, where
1 all the generators are running coherently, is termed the control area. In this K2 CO2
area, frequency may be same in Steady-state and dynamic conditions. For
developing a suitable control strategy, a control area can be reduced to a
single generator, a speed governor, and a load system.
What is meant by single-area power system?

A single area is a coherent area in which all the generators swing in unison to
the changes in load or speed-changer settings and in which the frequency is
2 assumed to be constant throughout both in static and dynamic conditions. K1 CO2
This single control area can be represented by an isolated power system
consisting of a turbine, its speed governor, generator, and load.
What is meant by dynamic response in LFC?

The meaning of dynamic response is how the frequency changes as a
3 K1 CO2
function of time immediately after disturbance before it reaches the new
steady-state condition.
What is meant by uncontrolled case?
4 For uncontrolled case, ΔP = 0; i.e., constant speed-changer position with K1 CO2
variable load.
What is the need of a fly-ball speed governor?
5 This is the heart of the system, which controls the change in speed K1 CO2
(frequency).
What is the need of a speed changer?
It provides a steady-state power output setting for the turbines. Its upward
movement opens the upper pilot valve so that more steam is admitted to the
6 K1 CO2
turbine under steady conditions. This gives rise to higher steady-state power
output. The reverse happens for downward movement of the speed changer
What is meant by area control error?

The area control error (ACE) is the change in area frequency, which when
7 K1 CO2
used in an integral-control loop forces the steady state frequency error to
zero
How and why do you approximate the system for the dynamic
response of the uncontrolled LFC of a single area?
The characteristic equation of the LFC of an isolated power system is third
order, dynamic response that can be obtained only for a specific numerical
8 K1 CO2
case.
However, the characteristic equation can be approximated as first
order by examining the relative magnitudes of the different time constants
involved
S.N
Part A (Q & A) K Level COs
o
What are the basic requirements of a closed-loop control system
employed for obtaining the frequency constant?
The basic requirements are as follows:
1. Good stability;
9 2. Frequency error, accompanying a step-load change, returns to zero; K1 CO2
3. The magnitude of the transient frequency deviation should be
minimum;
4. The integral of the frequency error should not exceed a certain
maximum value.
What are the advantages of a pool operation?
The advantages of a pool operation (i.e., grid operation) are:
1. Half of the added load (in Area-2) is supplied by Area-1 through the
10 tie line. K1 CO2
2. The frequency drop would be only half of that which would occur if
the areas were operating without interconnection
Show how the system Without speed-changer position control, can

the static frequency
11 K1 CO2
deviation be zero?
No, the static frequency deviation cannot be zero.
What is the criterion used for obtaining optimum values for the
control parameters?
12 K1 CO2
Integral of the sum of the squared error criterion is the required
criterion.
What is the difference of ACE in single-area and two-area power
systems?
In a single-area case, ACE is the change in frequency. The steady state
error in frequency will become zero (i.e., Δf = 0) when ACE
is used in an integral-control loop.
13 In a two-area case, ACE is the linear combination of the change in K1 CO2
frequency and change in tie-line power. In this case to make the
steady-state tie-line power zero (i.e., ΔPTL = 0), another integral
control loop for each area must be introduced in addition to the
integral frequency loop to integrate the incremental tie-line power
signal and feed it back to the speed-changer
What is the main difference of load frequency and economic
dispatch controls?
The load frequency controller provides a fast-acting control and
14 regulates the system around an operating point, whereas the EDC K1 CO2
provides a slow-acting control, which adjusts the speed-changer
settings every minute in accordance with a command signal generated
by the CEDC.
Part A

What are the steps required for designing an optimum linear
regulator?
An optimum linear regulator can be designed using the following
steps:
1. Casting the system dynamic model in a state-variable form and introducing
15 K1 CO2
appropriate control forces.
2. Choosing an integral-squared-error control index, the minimization of
which is the control goal.
3. Finding the structure of the optimal controller that will minimize the
chosen control index.
PART B
K
S.No Part B COs
Level
1 Develop the block diagram of the LFC of a single-area system K3 CO2
Illustrate in detail the dynamic response of single area system

2 K2 CO2
without integral control following a step load disturbance
Explain the steady state analysis of controlled and uncontrolled
3 K2 CO2
case of single area load frequency control
Develop the transfer function model of two area system and draw
4 K3 CO2
the block diagram
Explain the load sharing between two synchronous machines in

5 K2 CO2
parallel
Solve to find the frequency at which the generated voltage drops
before the steam flow commences to increase to meet the new
load. Given that the valve of H of the generator is 3.5 kW-s per
6 kVA of the generator energy and 250-MVA synchronous generator K3 CO2
is operating at 1,500 rpm, 50 Hz. A load of 50 MW is suddenly
applied to the machine and the station valve to the turbine opens
only after 0.35 s due to the time lag in the generator action.
Illustrate in detail about the step load change of demand in one
7 area and derive the expression about change in frequency and tie K2 CO2
line power
Explain the tie line bias of a two area system
8 K2 CO2
9 Develop the state variable model of a two area system. K3 CO2

Explain in detail about the integration of economic dispatch with
10 K2 CO2
LFC with help of a block diagram
Identify the primary ALFC loop parameters for a control area
having the following data. Total rated area capacity Pr=2000MW.
Normal operating load Pd=1000MW. Inertia constant H=5.0
11 Regulation R=2.40 Hz/pu MW (all area generators) K3 CO2
We shall assume that the load frequency dependency as linear
meaning that the old load would increase 1% for 1% frequency
increase
Solve to determine the change in frequency that occurs in this time for
100 MVA synchronous generator is running on full load at 50 Hz
12 frequency. A 40 MW Loads is suddenly removed. Due to lag in governor K3 CO2
system, the steam valve of the turbine begins to close after 0.5 sec..
Given H = 5 MW sec/ MVA of generator rating
Solve for steady-state change in frequency and tie-line power of 10 MW
change in load occurs in both areas where two control areas of 1,000 and
2,000 MW capacities are interconnected by a tie line. The speed regulations
13 K3 CO2
of the two areas, respectively, are 4 Hz/p.u. MW and 2.5 Hz/p.u. MW.
Consider a 2% change in load occurs for 2% change in frequency in each
area.
Solve to find power generation at each station and power transfer through
the line if the load on the bus of each station is 200 MW. And the two
generating stations A and B having capacities 500 and 800 MW, respectively,
are interconnected by a short line. The percentage speed regulations from
14 no-load to full load of the two stations are 2 and 3, respectively. K3 CO@
Apply the load frequency dynamics of this area and determine the steady
state frequency deviation in Hz using Area frequency response
characteristics .The load frequency dynamics of a single area power
system whose data are given below.
Rated Capacity of area (Pr)= 1500 MW ;Nominal Operating Load = 750
1 K3 CO2
MW ; Nominal Frequency = 50 Hz ;Inertia Constant = 5.0
Speed Regulation = 3 % ;Governor time constant & Turbine constant = 0
Assume linear load frequency Characteristics which means the
connected system load is increases by 1 % if the system frequency
increases by 1 %. The area is subjected to a load increase of 30 MW.
Apply the load frequency dynamics of a single area power system whose
data are given below. Rated Capacity of area (Pr)= 1000 MW; Nominal
Operating Load = 500 MW; Inertia Constant = 5.0; Regulation = 5 Hz/ p.u
MW; Frequency = 50 Hz Load decrease by 1 % for a decrease in
frequency by 1 %
2 a. Find gain and time constant of a power system. If it is an K3 CO2
uncontrolled area then find out the change in frequency due to an
increase of load by 75 MW
b. Determine the steady state frequency by changing regulation = 4
Hz/ p.u MW nominal operating load is 750 MW and compare with
the results ‘a’

1

2
-Load Factor Improvement on Daily Load Curve Using Pump

Storage to Saving Production Cost in plants
-Ensure stable operation for a Microgrid system, LFC

mechanism is useful
Integral control
16 Assessment Schedule
03.08.2020
TEXT BOOKS:

REFERENCES
LFC Single area system using MATLAB

Thank you
Disclaimer:
Department: EEE
Batch/Year: 2017-2021/ 2020

Professor
2. Mr. UMASANKAR L
Asst.Professor
RMKCET
3. Mr. NARESH KUMAR K
Asst.Professor
RMKEC
Date: August 2020

Contents

1 Contents 5
3 Pre Requisites 7
4 Syllabus 8
5 Course outcomes 9
7 Lecture Plan 14
9 Lecture Notes 17
10 Assignments 71
11 Part A Q & A 72

17

Course Objectives

Prerequisites

Syllabus

Generation and absorption of reactiUNIT III REACTIVE POWER – VOLTAGE
CONTROL ve power - basics of reactive power control – Automatic Voltage Regulator
(AVR) – brushless AC excitation system – block diagram representation of AVR loop -
static and dynamic analysis –.
UNIT IV ECONOMIC OPERATION OF POWER SYSTEMstability compensation –
changing transformer, SVC (TCR + TSC) and STATCOM for voltage control
9
TOTAL : 45 PERIODS
Course Outcomes
CO3 Ability to understand the significance of Economic Dispatch and Unit

Commitment in power system operation and control.
PROGRAMME OUTCOMES



conclusion.


Development.


10
PROGRAMME OUTCOMES


11
PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOS)
After successful completion of the B.E degree program, the

graduates will be able to
• Design and analyze electrical systems incorporating electrical machines, power

controllers along with the design of electrical layout for the complete structure.
• Use the modern tools for implementing the solutions to engineering problems that
can arise in the fields of Electrical, Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering
along with Information Technology Services.
• Face the challenges in the society by adopting the non-conventional energy

resources and utilizing the modern technologies for energy efficient transmission
and power quality improvement delivering clean energy for the wellbeing of the
mankind.
11
CO-PO /PSO mapping
PO, O O O
PSO 1 2 3
co1 - 2 - 3 3 - - - - - - - 3 - 3
co2 - 2 - 3 3 - - - - - - - 3 - 3
co3 - 2 - 3 3 - - - - - - - 3 - 3
co4 - 2 - 3 3 - - - - - - - 3 - 3
co5 - 2 - 3 3 - - - - - - - 3 - 3
co6 - 2 - 3 3 - - - - - - - 3 - 3
Lecture plan Unit I
ods ery
1 Generation and CO5 K2 PPT
absorption of reactive
power - basics of
reactive power control
2 Automatic Voltage CO5 K2 PPT
Regulator (AVR) –
brushless AC excitation
system – block diagram
representation of AVR
loop
3 AVR -static analysis CO5 K2,K3 PPT
4 AVR -dynamic analysis- CO5 K2,K3 PPT

stability compensation
5 Voltage drop in CO5 K2 PPT
transmission line
6 Methods of reactive CO5 K2 PPT
power injection
7 Tap changing CO5 K3 PPT
transformer,
8 SVC (TCR + TSC) for CO5 K2 PPT
voltage control
9 STATCOM for voltage CO5 K2 PPT
control
Role play: SVC, STATCOM,OLTC

Lecture notes
UNIT III REACTIVE POWER – VOLTAGE CONTROL

Generation and Absorption of Reactive Power
Synchronous Generators:
Synchronous generators can be used to generate or absorb reactive
power. An over-excited machine, that is, one with greater than nominal excitation,
generates reactive power whilst an under-excited machine absorbs it. Synchronous
generators are the main source of supply to the power system of both positive and
negative VARs.
The ability to absorb reactive power is determined by the short-circuit
ratio (1/synchronous reactance)
1
𝑆𝐶𝑅 =
𝑋𝑠
Shunt Capacitor:
A capacitor bank is very essential equipment of an electrical power
system. The power required to run all the electrical appliances is the load as useful
power is active power. The maximum load connected to the electrical power system
is mainly inductive in nature such as electrical transformer, induction motors,
synchronous motor, electric furnaces, fluorescent lighting are all inductive in nature.
In addition to these, inductance of different lines also contributes
inductance to the system. Because of these inductances, the system current lags
behind system voltage. As the lagging angle between voltage and current increases,
the power factor of the system decreases. As the electrical power factor decreases,
for same active power demand the system draws more current from source. More
current causes, more line losses.
Poor electrical power factor causes poor voltage regulation. So to avoid
these difficulties, the electrical power factor of the system to be improved. As a
capacitor causes current to lead the voltage, capacitive reactance can be used to
cancel the inductive reactance of the system
The capacitor reactance is generally applied to the system by using static
capacitor in shut or series with system. Instead of using a single unit of capacitor
per phase of the system, it is quite effective to use a bank of capacitor units, in the
view of maintenance and erection. This group or bank of capacitor units is known as
capacitor bank
Shunt Reactor:
A shunt reactor is a piece of electrical equipment used in high voltage
power transmission systems to stabilize the voltage during load variations. A
traditional shunt reactor has a fixed rating and is either connected to the
transmission line all the time or switched in and out depending on the load.
It offers the cheapest means of reactive power absorption and these are
connected in transmission line during the light load condition because there is huge
amount reactive power generation can be happened due to capacitance effect.
Transformers:
Power transformers ‗consume‘ inductive VARS during operation. This is
due to the reactive power requirement of two separate branches of the transformer
namely:
Shunt Magnetizing Reactance
Series Leakage Reactance
The reactive power drawn by power transformer could be as high as 5% of the
transformer rating when supplying full load current.
Shunt magnetizing reactance is responsible for creating the magnetic flux
in the transformer core. The current required to create this flux in the core is called
exciting current and is relatively independent of the transformer load current.
Exciting current is usually around 0.25-2% of the transformer full load current.
Series leakage impedance indirectly refers to the amount of magnetic flux
that do not link between the primary and secondary winding. The series leakage
reactance (also known as %impedance) is an important transformer parameter that
determines the short circuit contribution, voltage regulation etc.
The total inductive power demand of the power transformer is the
arithmetic sum of the demand due to both the branches above
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 3 𝐼 2 𝑋 𝑉𝐴𝑅
= 3 𝐾𝑉𝐴 𝑋𝑇 𝐾𝑉𝐴𝑅
Underground Cables:
Cables generate more reactive power than transmission lines because the
cables have high capacitance. The reason for cables having high capacitance than
the transmission line are,
The distance between the conductor is very small.
The distance between the core and earth sheath of the overhead line is very
small.
The permittivity of the cable insulation is usually 3 to 5 times greater than that of
the insulation around the conductors of overhead line.
𝑄𝐴 2𝜋𝜖0
Capacitance of Transmission Line = = 3 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝑉𝐴 1 2 3
𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒
𝑟
2𝜋𝜖0 𝜖𝑟
Capacitance of Cables = 𝐷
𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒
𝑑
From the equation of capacitance of both transmission line and cables we

could conclude that capacitance in the transmission line is very high when compared
to transmission line. Hence the reactive power generation also very high in the
cables
Transmission Line:
Transmission lines are considered as generating KVAR in their
shunt Capacitance and consuming KVAR in the series inductance. The
inductance KVAR is vary with line current, whereas the capacitive KVAR
vary with system potential.
Consider the transmission line is loaded such that load current is I ampere
and load voltage is V volts
If we assume the line is lossless, the reactive power absorbed by the line
is
∆𝑄𝐿 = 𝐼2 𝑋𝐿
= 𝐼2 𝜔𝐿
Due to line capacitance of the line, reactive power generated by the line
𝑽𝟐
∆𝑸𝒄 = = 𝑽𝟐 𝝎𝑪
𝑿𝒄
Suppose ∆𝑸𝑳 = ∆𝑸𝒄
𝑰𝟐 𝝎𝑳 = 𝑽𝟐 𝝎𝑪
𝑽 𝑳
= 𝒁𝒏 =
𝑰 𝑪
Where 𝒁𝒏 is called surge impedance of the line
A line is said to be surge impedance loading when it is terminated
by a resistance equal to its surge impedance. The power is transmitted
under this condition is called surge power.
In general
𝑬 𝑽
𝑷= 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜹
𝑿
At 𝜹 = 𝟗𝟎, 𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒂𝒏 𝒃𝒆 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒅
𝑬 𝑽
𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝑿
By Varying X , 𝜹, 𝑽 , we can get the control of Power transfer
Case (i)
∆𝑸𝑳 > ∆𝑸𝒄
The voltage sags if the voltage at the two ends are maintained constant.
The variation of voltage along the line is shown in the fig
Here the line is loaded below 𝒁𝒏 i.e., light load condition. The net
effect of the line will be absorbed reactive power.
∆𝑸𝑳 < ∆𝑸𝒄
The variation of voltage along the line is as shown in fig. and we find
the voltage rise and maintains constant at the end. Under light load condition
the effect of shunt capacitor is predominating and the line will generate reactive
power.
Loads:
Load absorbs reactive power. Load cannot be constant and it can varies
time to time, season and weather condition. Both active and reactive power of
composite loads vary as a function of voltage magnitudes. Load at low power
factor give Volatge drop in the line and it is uneconomical. Industrial Consumer
are using shunt capacitor to improve the power factor.
Basics of Reactive Power Control:
Both utility and customer equipment designed to operate at

certain voltage rating, Long time operation outside allowable
range could cause them damage
The lamp characteristics are very sensitive to changes of
voltage. the life of the lamp may be reduced by 50%
The power load consisting of induction motors, the voltage
variations may cause stray operation.
Too wide variations of voltage cause excessive heating of
electrical devices
The reactive power flow is minimized so as to reduce 𝐼2 R and
𝐼2 X losses to a practical minimum that ensures transmission
system operates efficiently
Reactive power generated by the ac power source is
stored in a capacitor or a reactor during a quarter of a cycle
and in the next quarter of the cycle it is sent back to the power
source. Therefore the reactive power oscillates between the ac
source and the capacitor or reactor So to avoid the circulation
between the load and source it needs to be control
Reactive power does not travel very far Usually
necessary to produce it close to the location where it is needed
a supplier/source close to the location of the need is in a much
better position to provide reactive power
When the load on the system increases, the voltage

drop increased in
Alternator synchronous impedance
Transmission line
Transformer impedance
Feeders
These voltage variations are undesirable and must be kept
within the limits
Methods of Voltage control:
Control of voltage levels is accomplished by controlling the production, and absorption, of
reactive power flow at all levels in the system
Generating units provide the basic means of voltage control
Additional devices to control voltage:

Static sources or sinks of reactive power
Voltage regulating such as tap transformers,
Dynamic source such as Synchronous motor
Static sources or fixed

• Shunt compensation
• Series compensation
• Static (VAR) compensators
• Static compensators
All these devices compensate reactive power using a similar operating principle
Shunt compensators:
The device that is connected in parallel with the transmission line is called the shunt
compensator.
A shunt compensator is widely used in transmission system to regulate the voltage
magnitude. It can be provided by either a current source ,or voltage source
The Shunt connected reactors are used to reduce the line over voltages by consuming the
reactive power,
The shunt connected capacitors are used to maintain the voltage levels by compensating
the reactive power to transmission line.
Typical Excitation system (OR) Typical Brushless Automatic Voltage
Regulator
AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATOR (AVR)
The automatic voltage regulator is used to regulate the voltage. It takes the fluctuate
voltage and changes them into a constant voltage. The fluctuation in the voltage
mainly occurs due to the variation in load on the supply system. The variation in
voltage damages the equipment of the power system. The variation in the voltage
can be controlled by installing the voltage control equipment at several places likes
near the transformers, generator, feeders, etc., The voltage regulator is provided in
more than one point in the power system for controlling the voltage variations.
In DC supply system the voltage can be controlled by using over compound

generators in case of feeders of equal length, but in the case of feeders of different
lengths the voltage at the end of each feeder is kept constant using feeder booster.
In AC system the voltage can be controlled by using the various methods likes
booster transformers, induction regulators, shunt condensers, etc.,
Working Principle of Voltage Regulator
It works on the principle of detection of errors. The output voltage of an AC

generator obtained through a potential transformer and then it is rectified, filtered
and compared with a reference. The difference between the actual voltage and the
reference voltage is known as the error voltage. This error voltage is amplified by
an amplifier and then supplied to the main exciter or pilot exciter.
Thus, the amplified error signals control the excitation of the main or pilot exciter
through a buck or a boost action (i.e. controls the fluctuation of the voltage). Exciter
output control leads to the controls of the main alternator terminal voltage.
Application of the Automatic Voltage Regulator
The main functions of an AVR are as follows.
 It controls the voltage of the system and has the operation of the machine nearer
to the steady state stability.
 It divides the reactive load between the alternators operating in parallel.
 The automatic voltage regulators reduce the overvoltage‘s which occur because of
the sudden loss of load on the system.
 It increases the excitation of the system under fault conditions so that the
maximum synchronising power exists at the time of clearance of the fault.
When there is a sudden change in load in the alternator, there should be a change in
the excitation system to provide the same voltage under the new load condition. This
can be done by the help of the automatic voltage regulator. The automatic voltage
regulator equipment operates in the exciter field and changes the exciter output
voltage, and the field current. During the violent fluctuation, the ARV does not give a
quick response.
Excitation system of alternator
The main objective of an excitation system is to feed direct current to the field winding
of synchronous alternator. Also excitation system executes control and protective
function for satisfactory performance of the power system by monitoring the field
current and voltage. The control function helps to control the reactive power flow and
hence voltage for enhancement of power system stability. Whereas protective system
assures the capability limits of the alternators, excitation system and other interlinked
components.
From generator considerations, the basic need of excitation system is to supply and
automatically adjust the field current of alternator to maintain terminal voltage as the
output of alternator varies within its capability. Generally rating of exciter varies from
2.0-3.5 kW per MVA rating of alternator. Capabilities of alternator are restricted by
various factors such as: rotor heating due to excessive field current, failure of rotor
insulation due to high rotor field voltage, stator (armature) heating due to high
armature loading, heating at core end due to under excited operation and excess
heating due to rise in volt/Hz ratio. The short term overload capacity may be extended
from 15-60 sec. So for best utilization of excitation system advantage of short term
overload capabilities may be taken without exceeding the limits.
Considering the power system point of view, the excitation system is effective for
voltage control which in turn enhances system stability. Excitation system should be
capable of responding quickly to disturbance in order to improve transient stability and
small signal stability.
Various components of an excitation system
i. Exciter: It provides dc current to the field winding of main synchronous

alternator.
ii. Regulator: It processes and amplifies the input control signal to a suitable form
to control the exciter.
iii. Terminal voltage transducer and load compensator: It senses terminal
voltage of the alternator, rectifies and filter to convert into DC and compares it with
a reference signal. Also load compensation is performed if required.
iv. Power system stabilizer: It provides a supplementary input signal in the form
of rotor speed deviation, frequency deviation and accelerating power to regulator
for reducing power system oscillations.
v. Limiter and protective circuits: It provides control and protective function which
assures that capability limit of both exciter and synchronous alternator are not
exceeded. The commonly used functions are maximum excitation limiter, field current,
terminal voltage limiter, volt/Hz protection & regulator and under excitation limiter.
Classification of excitation system
Based on type of sources, excitation systems are classified into:
i. DC excitation system
ii. AC excitation system
iii. Static excitation system.
i. DC excitation system: It utilizes DC generator as source of excitation which feed DC

current to field winding of main alternator through slip rings. Exciter may be self-excited
or separately excited and mounted on same shaft of alternator. Now a days it is no longer
being used due to some limitations and also due to advancement of semiconductor
devices. The DC (Direct Current) system consists of two types of exciters they are main
exciter and pilot exciter. The exciter output is adjusted by the automatic voltage regulator
to control the alternator output terminal voltage. Across the field winding, the field
discharge resistor is connected when the field breaker is open. These two exciters in the
direct current system can be driven either by motor or by the main shaft. The main
exciter voltage rating is about 400 V. The DC system figure is shown below.
Fig.1 DC Excitation System

Advantages
The advantages of the rotating thyristor system are
 Fast response
 Simple
 Low cost
Disadvantages
The main disadvantage is the response rate of the thyristor is very low
ii. AC excitation system: Here small alternator which is mounted on same shaft
of the main alternator is used as source of excitation. The AC output power from
exciter is rectified by rectifier unit. Rectifier unit may be static or rotating. In
stationary rectifier, the DC output current is fed to main field winding through slip
rings. But in rotating rectifier, slip ring and brushes are not required. Both
armature of AC exciter and diode rectifier are mounted on main shaft. A small
pilot AC exciter with a permanent magnet rotor as shown by NS in Figure 2.3
which rotates with exciter armature. Rectified output of the pilot exciter stator
feed DC to stationary field of AC exciter. The voltage regulator regulates the field
of AC exciter and in turn regulates the field of the main alternator. This excitation
system is known as brushless excitation system.
Fig.2 Brushless Excitation System

Advantages
The advantages of the brushless system are
 Reliability is excellent
 The flexibility of operation is good
 System responses are good
 There is no moving contact in the brushless system, so maintenance is low
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of the brushless system are
Response is slow
There is no fast de-excitation
iii. Static excitation system: Figure 3 shows the schematic diagram of static
excitation system and demonstrates that main alternator through step down
transformer or station auxiliary bus supplies power to stationary rectifier and is
regulated by a controlled rectifier. Here static rectifier supplies exciting current to
main field winding of alternator through slip rings.
Fig.3 Static Excitation System

Advantages
The advantages of the static system are
 Reliability is good
 The flexibility of operation is very good
 System responses are excellent
 Small in size
 Low loss
 Simple
 High performance
Disadvantages
The main disadvantages of the static system are, it requires a slip ring and
brush
Mathematical Modelling of AVR system (OR) Modelling of Typical

Excitation System
In general, there are two methods to mathematically model an element one is

transfer function method and other is state variable method. State variable
approach is preferable for both non-linear as well as linear systems. Whereas
transfer function approach is simpler and applicable for linear system only.
Therefore to deal with transfer function approach, some assumptions and
approximations are taken to linearize the non-linear model.
Variation in the magnitude of system voltage depends on transient reactance of

the synchronous machine while the duration of variation is decided by the
generator time constant. Being a static device, AVR offers minimum time delay
and brings the system voltage to its nominal value quickly. The terminal voltage
is sensed by AVR and is maintained at its rated value by regulating the
excitation. The basic components of an AVR system are (i) Comparator (ii)
amplifier (iii) exciter and (iv) Synchronous generator.
Fig.4 Brushless AVR
Potential Transformer and Rectifier
Using potential transformer, the terminal voltage of the generator is stepped

down to the value required for control signal and then rectified to get DC
voltage proportional to the rms value of terminal voltage.
Comparator
The comparator compares the measured signal |V| against the reference D.C.
signal (Vref). The difference between these two signals produce an error
voltage ‗Ve‘ called error signal.
The error signal ∆e = ∆|V|ref - ∆ |V| …………..(1)
Taking Laplace transform of equation (1)
∆Vref(s) - ∆V(s) - ∆e(s)
The Model of comparator is shown in Fig 5.
Fig.5 Model of comparator

Amplifier
The amplifier amplifies the input error signal depending on the amplification factor.
There are various types of amplifiers used in the excitation system. They are tuned
generator, amplidyne and electronic amplifier.
∆𝑉R ∝ ∆e
∆𝑉R = kA ∆𝑒 ……………………. (2)
kA = Amplifier gain
∆𝑉R = Output voltage of an amplifier
Taking Laplace transform of equation (2)
∆𝑉R(s) = kA ∆𝑒(𝑠)
Amplifier transfer function,
∆𝑉𝑅 (𝑠)
GA = = kA
∆𝑒(𝑠)
G A = kA
GA = Amplifier transfer function
In reality, the amplifier will have a time delay that can be represented by a time
Constant TA shown in fig. and the amplifier transfer function becomes;
∆𝑉𝑅 (𝑠) 𝐾𝐴
GA = ∆𝑒(𝑠)
= 1 + 𝑠𝑇𝐴
……………… (3)
Model of amplifier is shown in Fig.6.
Fig.6 Model of Amplifier
Typical value of kA is in the range of 10 to 400 and TA is in the range of 0.02 to

0.1sec.
Exciter
The purpose of the exciter is to supply field current to the rotor field of the
synchronous generator.
Let Re be the exciter field resistor
Le be the exciter field inductance
From the equivalent circuit shown in Fig.8
𝑑
Input voltage ∆𝑉R = Re ∆ie + Le (∆ie ) ………………..(4)
𝑑𝑡
Fig.7 Circuit of an exciter Fig.8 Eq.Ckt for field winding of an exciter
Output voltage of an exciter or Field voltage of a generator,
∆Vf ∝ ∆ie
∆Vf = k1 ∆ie ……………….(5)
Taking Laplace transform of equation (4) and equation (5)
∆VR(s) = [Re + Le s] ∆ie (s)
∆Vf (s)= k1 ∆ie (s)

Transfer function of the exciter,
𝐾1
∆Vf s) 𝑘1
Ge = = =
𝑅𝑒
(
∆VR(s) 𝑅𝑒 + 𝐿𝑒 𝑠 𝐿𝑒
1 + 𝑠
𝑅𝑒
𝐾𝑒
Ge = 1 + 𝑠𝑇𝑒
𝐾1 𝐿𝑒
Ke = 𝑅𝑒
; Te = 𝑅𝑒
Ke = Gain of the exciter
Te = Time constant of the exciter in sec.
Value of time constant, Te ranges from 0.5 to 1.0 seconds.
Model of Exciter:
Fig.9 Model of an exciter
Synchronous Generator
Synchronous generator generates three phase AC power at its terminals. It may be

driven by steam turbine at a very high speed or by low speed water turbine depending
on the energy available at that particular place.
The terminal voltage of the generator is maintained constant during its varying load
conditions, with the help of excitation system.
The terminal voltage of the generator equals to difference between induced emf and
drop across the armature
Fig.10. Circuit diagram of a Syn.Generator Fig.11 Eq.Ckt for field winding of Syn.Gen
∆V = ∆E - Vdrop
The relationship between Vf and V depends on the generator loading
At no load the drop can be neglected.
Hence V = E (neglect drop)
Taking Laplace transform ∆V(s) = ∆E(s)
From fig.
Applying KVL to the field winding,
𝑑
∆Vf = Rf ∆if + Lf (∆if)
𝑑𝑡
Emax = If XL = If.𝜔 Lfa
𝐼𝑓
Emax = 𝜔 Lfa
√2
2 2𝐸
If = ; Erms =
𝜔𝐿𝑓𝑎 𝜔𝐿𝑓𝑎
2
∆Vf (s) = [Rf + s Lf ] ∆E(s)
𝜔𝐿𝑓𝑎
Transfer function of the generator,

∆V(s) ∆𝐸(s) ∆E(s)
= = 2
∆V 𝑓 (𝑠) ∆V 𝑓 (𝑠) [Rf s Lf ]∆E(s)
𝜔𝐿𝑓𝑎 +
∆V(s) 𝜔 Lfa
= 𝐿𝑓
∆V 𝑓 (𝑠)
2 Rf 1 + 𝑠]
[ 𝑅𝑓
∆V(s) 𝐾𝑓
= ′
∆V 𝑓 (𝑠) 1 + 𝑠𝑇𝑑0
𝜔 Lfa
Where, Kf = 2 Rf
and 𝑇𝑑0
′
= Open circuit direct axis time constant
𝐿𝑓
′
𝑇𝑑0 = 𝑅𝑓
Lf = Self-inductance of field windings
Rf = Resistance of field windings
𝐿𝑓𝑎 = Mutual inductance co-efficient between rotor field and stator armature as
measured when magnetic axis coincide.
The synchronous generator model is shown in fig.12
Fig.12 Generator Model
Typical values of kf are in the range of 0.7 to 1

′
𝑇𝑑0 are in the range of 1.0 to 2.0 sec.
Combining all the individual blocks, we get the closed loop model of AVR as in
Fig.13.
Fig.13 Closed loop model of AVR
STATIC ANALYSIS OF AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATOR LOOP
1. The automatic voltage regulator must regulate the terminal voltage |V|
within the required static accuracy limit.
2. It must have sufficient speed response.
3. It must be stable.
The block diagram of AVR is as shown in Fig.14
Fig.14 Closed loop model of AVR
Initial error, ∆e0 = ∆|V|ref0 - ∆ |V|0
From Fig.15
𝐾𝐴 𝐾𝑒 𝐾𝑓
Open loop T.F, G(s) = 1 + 𝑠𝑇𝐴 1 + 𝑠𝑇𝑒 ′
1 + 𝑠𝑇𝑑0
Fig.15 AVR block after reduction
𝐺(𝑠)
At initial condition, ∆ |V|0 = 1 + 𝐺(𝑠)
∆|V|ref0 ……………….(1)
∆e0 must be less than some specified percentage P of reference voltage ∆|V|ref0 . The
static accuracy specification is :
𝑃
∴ ∆ e0 < ∆|V|ref0 ………………(2)
100
For a constant input, the transfer function is obtained by setting s=0
Substituting equation (1) in (2) we get,
𝐺(𝑠)
∆ e0 = (∆|V|ref0 ) – (1 + 𝐺(𝑠)
∆|V|ref0 )
1
∆ e0 = ∆|V|ref0 [1 + 𝐺(𝑠)
]
Putting S = 0,
1 ∆|V|ref0
∆ e0 = (∆|V|ref0 ) [1 + lim 𝐺(𝑆)] = 1 + 𝑘𝑝
𝑠→0
Position error constant, Kp = lim 𝐺(𝑆)

𝑠→0
Kp = lim 𝐺(𝑆)
𝑠→0
= lim 𝐺(𝑆) = lim ′
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 1 + 𝑠𝑇𝐴 1 + 𝑠𝑇𝑒 1 + 𝑠𝑇𝑑0
Kp = 𝐾𝐴 𝐾𝑒 𝐾𝑓
∆|V|ref0
∆ e0 =
1 + 𝐾
If K increases, ∆ e0 decreases, so static error decreases with an increased loop

gain.
To find the value of K;
Consider equation (2)
𝑃
∴ ∆ e0 < ∆|V|ref0
100
∆|V|ref0 𝑃 𝑃
< ∆|V|ref0 =
1 <
1 + 𝐾 100 1 + 𝐾 100
100
1+K> 𝑃
100
K> –1
𝑃
If ∆ e0 is less than 1%, K must exceed 99%.
Steady state response for a closed loop Transfer Function

KA Ke Kf
∆V(s) 1 + sTA 1 + sTe 1 + sT′d0
Closed loop T.F = = KA Ke Kf
∆V 𝑟𝑒𝑓 (𝑠) 1 +
1 + sTA 1 + sTe 1 + sT′d0
𝐾𝐴 𝐾𝑒 𝐾𝑓 ∆V 𝑟𝑒𝑓 (𝑠)
∆𝑉(s) = 1 + 𝑠𝑇𝐴 1 + 𝑠𝑇𝑒 ′ +𝐾 𝐾𝑒 𝐾𝑓
1 + 𝑠𝑇𝑑0 𝐴
1
For a step input ∆V 𝑟𝑒𝑓 (𝑠) = 𝑠
∆Vstat = lim 𝑠 ∆V(𝑆)

𝑠→0
𝑠 𝑥 𝐾𝐴 𝐾𝑒 𝐾𝑓 ∆V 𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑠 𝑥 1
∆Vstat = lim ′ +𝐾
𝑠
𝐾𝑒 𝐾𝑓
𝑠→0 1 + 𝑠𝑇𝐴 1 + 𝑠𝑇𝑒 1 + 𝑠𝑇𝑑0 𝐴
∆Vstat = 𝐾
1 + 𝐴 𝐾𝑒 𝐾𝑓
𝐾
∆Vstat = 1+K
Dynamic Analysis of AVR Loop
Fig.16 Block diagram of AVR
From fig.16
Open loop T.F G(s) = 1 + 𝑠𝑇𝐴 1 + 𝑠𝑇𝑒 ′
1 + 𝑠𝑇𝑑0
𝐺(𝑠)
∆V(s) = 1 + 𝐺(𝑠)
∆V 𝑟𝑒𝑓 (𝑠)
Taking inverse Laplace transform
∆V(s) = 𝐿−1 [∆V(s)]
The response depends upon the eigen values or closed loop poles, which are
obtained from the characteristic equation
1+ G(s) = 0.
Find roots of characteristic equation [Eigen values] s1,s2,s3 .

Case I : Roots are real and distinct
The open loop transfer function G(s) is of 3rd order. There are three eigen values
s1,s2,s3.
𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘3
∆V(t) =𝐿−1 [𝑠 − 𝑠1
+ 𝑠 − 𝑠2
+ 𝑠 − 𝑠3
]
Transient response = 𝑘1 𝑒 𝑠1 𝑡 + 𝑘2 𝑒 𝑠2 𝑡 +𝑘3 𝑒 𝑠3 𝑡
Case II : Two roots (Eigen values) are complex conjugate (𝝈 ± 𝒋𝝎)
The transient response is A𝑒 𝜎𝑡 sin (𝜔𝑡 + 𝛽)
For AVR loop to be stable, the transient components must vanish with time.
All the eigen values are located in left half of s-plane. Then the loop possesses
good tracking ability i.e the system is stable.
For high speed response, the loop possesses eigen values located far away to the
left from origin in s-plane.
The closer the eigen value is located to the j 𝜔 axis, the more dominant it
becomes.
AVR ROOT LOCI
The location in the s-plane of eigen values depends upon the open-loop gain ‗K‘
and the three time constants TA,Te and Td0‘ of these parameters only the loop gain
can be considered adjustable.

From the block diagram of AVR shown in Fig.17
Open loop T.F = 1 + 𝑠𝑇𝐴 1 + 𝑠𝑇𝑒 ′
1 + 𝑠𝑇𝑑0
K = 𝐾𝐴 𝐾𝑒 𝐾𝑓
𝐾
Open loop T.F = 1 + 𝑠𝑇𝐴 1 + 𝑠𝑇𝑒 ′
1 + 𝑠𝑇𝑑0
1 1 1
∵ Td0‘ > Te > TA = - 𝑇 ′ > - >-
𝑑0 𝑇𝑒 𝑇𝐴
Number of zeros, Z = 0,
Number of poles, p=3
1 1 1
i.e; 𝑝1 =- 𝑇 ′ ; p2 = - ; p3 = -
𝑑0 𝑇𝑒 𝑇𝐴
Number of root locus = P = 3
(2𝑞+1)𝜋
Asymtode angles, ∅ = ; q = 0,1,…………..(p-z-1)
𝑝−𝑧
Here, q = 0,1,2 [∵ p-z-1 = 3-0-1 = 2]

𝜋 𝜋
∅1 = 3 (0+1) = 3
(2+1)
∅2 = 𝜋 =𝜋
3
(4+1) 5𝜋
∅3 = 𝜋 =
3 3
The root loci for AVR loop is shown in fig. The root locus start from open loop poles
and ends at zero or infinity.
Fig.18 Root loci for AVR Control loop
(1) if the roots are far away from the origin means the system may be stable.
(2) For low values of the loop gain k, the eigen values (marked) are located close to
the open loop poles, their positions marked ‗a‘.
Now the response is sluggish,
100
K> 𝑃 –1
This result in inaccurate static response.
(4) By increasing the loop-gain K the eigen values S2 travels to the left and the loop
response quickens. At a certain gain setting the eigen values S3 and S2 ‗ collide‘.
Further increase in loop gain results in S3 and S1 becoming complex conjugate. This
dominant eigen value pair makes the loop oscillatory, with poor damping. If the gain
is increased further, the eigen values wander into the right-hand s-plane. The loop
now becomes unstable.
Stability compensation
Stability compensation improves the dynamic response characteristics without

affecting the static loop gain. Even for a small amplifier gain of KA, AVR step response
is not satisfactory. Thus we must increase the relative stability by introducing a
controller, which would add a zero to the AVR open loop transfer function.
High loop gain is needed for static accuracy, but this causes undesirable dynamic
response i.e possibly instability.
This conflict situation can be avoided by adding series and / or feedback stability
compensation to the AVR loop. Consider the addition of a series phase lead
compensator as shown in Fig.19
Transfer function of series compensator is
Gs = 1 + sTc
Where, Tc is the compensator time constant.
𝐾
Open loop T.F = (1+sTc) [ 1 + 𝑠𝑇𝐴 1 + 𝑠𝑇𝑒 ′ ]
1 + 𝑠𝑇𝑑0
Series compensator network will not affect the static loop gain (k).
K = 𝐾𝐴 𝐾𝑒 𝐾𝑓
And thus maintain the static accuracy.
But the dynamic characteristics will change.
If we tune TC = Te
G(s) = 1 + 𝑠𝑇𝐴 1 ′
+ 𝑠𝑇𝑑0
Number of zeros, Z = 0,
Number of poles, p=2
1 1
i.e p1 =- ; p3 = -
′
’ 𝑇𝐴
𝑇𝑑0
Number of root locus = P = 2
(2𝑞+1)𝜋
Asymtode angles, ∅ = ; q = 0,1,…………..(p-z-1)
𝑝−𝑧
Here, q = 0,1,2 [∵ p-z-1 = 2-0-1 = 1]

𝜋 𝜋
∅1 = 2 (0+1) = 2
(2+1) 3𝜋
∅2 = 𝜋 =
2 2
The root loci for zero compensated loop is shown in fig.18
Low loop gain still results in negative eigen values, the dominant poles s2 yields sluggish response.
Increasing loop gain results in oscillatory response. The damping of the oscillatory term will however,
not decrease with increasing gain as the case in uncompensated system. So the system is stable.
Feedback Stability Compensation
Consider the addition of feedback stability compensation
Even for a small amplifier gain of KA, AVR step response is not satisfactory. Thus, we
must increase the relative stability by introducing a controller, which would add a
zero to the AVR open loop transfer function. The block diagram, of AVR with
feedback stability compensation is as shown in Fig.20. By proper adjustment of Ks
and Ts, a satisfactory response can be obtained.
Fig.20 Block diagram of AVR with feedback stability compensation

Series compensators:
When a device is connected in series with the transmission line or feeder it is
called a series compensator.
A series compensator can be connected anywhere in the transmission It works as
a controllable voltage source.
Series inductance exists in all AC transmission lines.
when a large current flows, this causes a large voltage drop. To compensate,
series capacitors are connected, to decreasing the effect of the inductance.
Static VAR compensator:
A static VAR compensator (or SVC) is an electrical device for providing reactive
power
The term static is used to denote that there are no moving or rotating
components The SVC designed to bring the system closer to unity power factor.
(usually use thyristor to Controlled Reactors and capacitor)
If the power system's reactive load is capacitive (leading), the SVC will use
reactors lowering the system voltage. Also Under inductive (lagging) conditions.
Static Compensator:
The devices use synchronous voltage sources for generating or absorbing reactive
power. A synchronous voltage source (SVS) is constructed using a voltage source
converter (VSC).
A STATCOM usually contains an ( SVS) A synchronous voltage source that is
driven from a dc storage capacitor and the (SVS) is connected to the ac system
bus through an interface transformer. The transformer steps the ac system
voltage down
The STATCOM can be operated in two different modes: When the feeder voltage
is lower than the voltage of the converter the STATCOM generates reactive power.
When the converter voltage is higher than the feeder voltage, the STATCOM
absorbs reactive power
Voltage regulating:
Tap changing transformers
Auto transformer
Tap Changing transformer:
In this method, a number of tapping's are provided on the secondary of the
transformer.
The tap selection may be made on automatic or manual tap changer mechanism.
The number of tapping have been provided a variation voltage on the secondary.
When the position of the tap is varied, the number of secondary turns is varied
the voltage varied
Autotransformer:
Autotransformer has a single winding with two end terminals, one or more
terminals at intermediate tap points
The primary voltage is applied across two of the terminals, the secondary voltage
taken from two terminals,
Always having one terminal is common with the primary and secondary
The current flows directly from the input to the output, and only smaller part
inductively
Synchronous Condenser:
A synchronous machine running without a prime mover or a mechanical load
The reactive power control depending on field excitation, Started as an induction
motor ,
The main function is the improvement of p.f of the electrical system is known as
the synchronous condenser.
It is installed at the receiving end of the line .
Benefits of Reactive power Control:
Better efficiency of power generation, transmission and distribution
Improvement in voltage
Reduced KVA demand
Reduced system losses.
Tap changing Transformer
Tap changing transformer:
when the movable arm makes contact with lower positions
such as 1, the secondary voltage is minimum, during the
period of light inductive load
When the movable arm contact with higher position such as 5
,the secondary voltage is maximum, during the period of
high inductive load
Advantage of tap changing transformer

During high system load conditions, network voltages are
kept At highest practical level to minimize reactive power
requirements increase effectiveness of shunt capacitors to
compensated reactive power
During light load conditions, it is usually required to lower
network voltages avoid under excited operation of generators
Tap changing Transformer-continue
All power transformers on transmission lines are provided

with taps for control of secondary voltage. The tap changing
transformers do not control voltage by regulating the flow of reactive
VARs but by changing transformation ratio.
There are two types of tap changing transformers.
Off-load tap changing transformers.
On-load (Under-load) tap changing transformers (OLTC).
Off-load tap changing transformers:

The off-load tap changing transformer as shown in figure
which requires the disconnection of the transformer when the tap
setting is to be changed. Off-load tap changers are used when it is to
be operated in frequently due to load growth or some seasonal
change.
off –load tap changing transformer

On-load tap changing transformers (OLTC):
On-load tap changing transformer is used when changes in
transformer ratio to be needed frequently, and no need to switch off
the transformer to change the tap of transformer. It is used on power
transformers, auto transformers and bulk distribution transformers
and at other points of load service.
The modern practice is to use on-load tap changing

transformer which is shown in figure. In the position shown, the
voltage is maximum and since the currents divide equally and flow in
opposition through the coil between Q1 and Q2, the resultant flux is
zero and hence minimum impedance.
On-load tap changing transformer

On-load tap changing transformers (OLTC):
To reduce the voltage, the following operations are required
in sequence:
Open Q1.
Move selector switch S1 to the next contact.
Close Q1.
Open Q2.
Move selector switch S2 to the next contact.
Close Q2.
Thus, six operations are required for one change in tap
position. The voltage change between taps is often 1.25 % of the
nominal voltage.
System Level Control using Generator
Voltage Magnitude Setting:
Transformers transfer the reactive power from one side

to another side by altering the inphase component of the
system voltage. Let us consider the tap changing transformer
at both ends of a line is shown in figure.
Let t1, t2 be the functions of nominal transformation
ratio. i.e., tap ratio/nominal voltage
The actual voltage will be t1V1 and t2V2. Let V1, V2 be
the nominal voltage at the ends of the line. Since, the line has
impedance, it is necessary to compensate the voltage drop in
the line so that the voltage at the receiving end is maintained
at a desired level.
Radial transmission line with on-load tap changing

transformer at both ends
Put in the equation 1

Dividing by we get
For complete line drop compensation,

Sending end voltage,
Now ,
Sending end voltage VS = t1 V1

For a given load, given the nominal voltages, we can
find t1 and t2 as to keep V2 constant at a specific value.
For high line drops, the tap changing transformers do
not improve voltage profile because it does not have any
reactive power generation capability.
For small voltage variation or line drop, tap changing
transformer is used to improve voltage magnitude of the
system.
Combined use of Tap changing Transformers and
Reactive Power Injection:
Normally tap setting are provided in steps for the range
of ± 20 %. If the setting exceeds this range, it is necessary to
inject VARs at the load end to maintain the voltage profile and
to minimize transmission loss. A synchronous compensator is
connected to the tertiary winding of a three winding
transformer as shown in figure. The equivalent circuit is shown
in figure.
Figure – Synchronous compensator is connected to tertiary

winding of a three winding transformer
Let us find the transformation ratio, Vn = Voltage at the star

point, For analysis, XS and R is very small, therefore neglected.
Since resistance of the line is neglected,

Quadrature voltage drop,
Solving the above equation, we get
We can find out off nominal tap setting t,

Tap Setting Adjustment for Reactive Power
Injection to Large System:
Consider two bus system consists of tap changing
transformer as shown in figure(a).
System interconnected through tap changing transformer
Figure (b) shows an equivalent circuit with the impedance

transferred to bus 2.
Equivalent circuit with the impedance transferred to bus 2

By changing t, we can change VAr requirement due to
reactance X and to minimize transmission loss.
t< 1, Q is +ve, flow of lagging VAR to bus 2.
t> 1, Q is –Ve, flow of leading VAR to bus 2.
Problem 1
A 415KV line is fed through an 132/415 KV transformer from a
constant 132KV supply. At the load end of the line, the voltage
is reduced by another transformer of ratio 415/132 KV. The
total impedance of line is (40+j80 )ohm. Both transformers are
equipped with tap-changing, the product of the two off-nominal
setting is unity. If the load on the system is 200MW at 0.8pf
lagging. Calculate the settings of the tap changers required to
maintain the voltage at 132KV.
These settings are within the limit. Therefore , it would not be
necessary to inject additional VARs at the load end
Problem 2
Find the rating of synchronous compensator connected to the
tertiary winding of 66KV star connected, 11KV delta connected
three winding transformer to supply a load of 60MW at 0.8pf
lagging at 33KV across the secondary . Equivalent primary and
tertiary winding reactance are 18 ohm and 0.12 ohm
respectively. While the secondary winding reactance is
negligible. Assume that V1 is 66KV and maximum off nominal
setting between transformer primary and secondary is 1:1.1.
Static VAR Compensators
Static VAR Compensators are located in receiving
substations and distribution systems for smooth and step-less
variation of compensation of reactive power injected into line,
by shunt capacitors and shunt reactors. SVCs are used because
SVC at suitable points of a transmission system can maintain
specific voltage profile and can limit the voltage and frequency
deviations under disturbances. Further the transient stability
can be improved and the system transmission capacity can be
increased both under operating and fault conditions. The
reactor control is done by an anti-parallel thyristor switch
assembly. The firing angle of the thyristors governs the voltage
across the inductor, so, the reactor current and reactive
power absorption by the inductor can be controlled.
Let QC be the reactive power charging by the capacitor.
Let QL be the reactive power absorbed by the inductor.
Net reactive power injected to the bus Q = QC – QL.
By varying QL, QC can be controlled. For light load
condition QL> QC.
For heavy load condition QC> QL.
Figure shows schematic diagram of static VAR
compensator.
Advantages of SVC:
Bus voltage can be controlled.
Improves system stability, voltage stability.
Reduces power oscillations.
Minimize transmission loss.
Types of SVC:
Saturated reactors [SR].
Thyristor Controlled Reactor [TCR].
Thyristor Switched Capacitor [TSC].
Thyristor Switched Reactor [TSR].
Thyristor Controlled Transformer [TCT].
Fixed Capacitor and Thyristor Controlled Reactor [FC – TCR].
Thyristor Switched Capacitor and Thyristor Controlled
Reactor [TSC – TCR].
Self or Line Commutated Converter [SCC / LCC].
Fixed Capacitor and Thyristor
Controlled Reactor [FC – TCR]:
The circuit diagrams of a FC – TCR, with switched filters
are as shown in figure. This arrangement provides discrete
leadings VARs from the capacitors and continuously lagging
VARs from thyristor controlled reactor. The capacitors are
used as tuned filters, as considerable harmonics are generated
by thyristor control. The steady state characteristics of a FC –
TCR is shown in figure. The control range is AB with a positive
slope, determine by the firing angle control.
Where bc is the susceptance of the capacitor, b1(α) is

the susceptance of the inductor at firing angle α.
As the inductance is varied, the susceptance varies over
a large range. The voltage varies within limits V ± ΔV. Outside
the control interval AB, the FC – TCR acts like an inductor in the
high voltage range and like a capacitor in the low voltage
range. The response time is of the order of one or two
cycles. The compensator is designed to provide emergency
reactive and capacitive loading beyond its continuous steady
state rating.
Thyristor Switched Capacitor and Thyristor Controlled
Reactor [TSC – TCR]
To control the current through a reactor, with new

elements Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR) and Thyristor
Switched Capacitor (TSC) to meet reactive power generation
and absorption demands. Improved performance under large
system disturbance and lower power loss are obtained.
TSC-TCR
Each thyristor switch is built up from two thyristor stacks
connected in anti-parallel. Each single phase thyristor switched
capacitor consists of the capacitor, thyristor switch and reactor
to limit the current through the thyristors and to prevent
resonance with the network as shown in figure.
The problem of achieving transient free switching ON of
the capacitor is overcome by keeping the capacitor charged to
the positive or negative peak value, when they are in the
stand by state. The switching on instinct is then selected at the
time when the network has its maximum or minimum value
and the same polarity as the capacitor voltage. Switching of the
capacitor is accomplished by separation of the firing pulses to
the anti-parallel thyristors so that the thyristors will block as
soon as the current becomes zero.
The capacitor will then remain charged to the positive or
negative peak voltage and be prepared for the new transient
free switching on.
The V-I characteristics is as shown in figure. A certain
short time overload capability id provided both in the
maximum inductive and capacitive regions. Voltage regulation
with a given slope can be achieved in the normal operating
range. The maximum capacitive current decreases linearly with
the system voltage and the SVC becomes a fixed capacitor
when the maximum capacitive output is reached.
The voltage support capability decreases with decrease
in system voltage.
VI characteristics of an SVC (TSC-TCR)

ADVANTAGES
SVCs are suited to control the varying reactive power demand of

large fluctuating loads (i.e., rolling mills and arc furnaces).
It is used in HVDC converter stations for fast control of reactive
power flow.
The midpoint voltage will vary with the load and an adjustable
midpoint susceptance is required to maintain constant voltage
magnitude.
The transmitted electrical power can be increased be capacitive
VARs when the machine accelerates and it can be decreased by
reactive VARs when the machine decelerates because it has no
inertia.
Less maintenance.
Possibility to regulate the phases individually
STATCOM
A STATCOM is a controlled reactive-power source. It
provides the desired Reactive-power generation and
absorption entirely by means of electronic processing of the
voltage and current waveforms in a voltage-source converter
(VSC). A single-line STATCOM power circuit is shown in
Figure(a), where a VSC is connected to a utility bus through
magnetic coupling. In Figure.(b), a STATCOM is seen as an
adjustable voltage source behind a reactance—meaning that
capacitor banks and shunt reactors are not needed for reactive-
power generation and absorption, thereby giving a STATCOM a
compact design, or small footprint, as well as low noise and low
magnetic impact.
The exchange of reactive power between the converter
and the ac system can be controlled by varying the amplitude
of the 3-phase output voltage, Es, of the converter, as
illustrated in Figure(c). That is, if the amplitude of the output
voltage is increased above that of the utility bus voltage, Et,
then a current flows through the reactance from the converter
to the ac system and the converter generates capacitive-
reactive power for the ac system. If the amplitude of the
output voltage is decreased below the utility bus voltage, then
the current flows from the ac system to the converter and the
converter absorbs inductive-reactive power from the ac system.
If the output voltage equals the ac system voltage, the
reactive-power exchange becomes zero, in which case the
STATCOM is said to be in a floating state.
On the basis of explanations provided in the previous
sections it should be clear to the reader that, on the one hand,
in the linear operating range the V-I characteristic and
functional compensation capability of the STATCOM and the
SVC are similar. However, the basic operating principles of the
STATCOM, which, with a converter based var generator,
functions as a shunt-connected synchronous voltage source,
are fundamentally different from those of the SVC, which, with
thyristor-controlled reactors and thyristor-switched capacitors,
functions as a shunt-connected, controlled reactive admittance.
This basic operational difference (voltage source versus reactive
admittance)accounts for the STATCOM's overall superior
functional characteristics, better performance, and greater
application flexibility than those attainable with the SVC. These
operational and performance characteristics are summarized
here, with the underlying physical reasons behind them, and
with the corresponding application benefits.
V-I and V-Q Characteristics
The STATCOM is essentially an alternating voltage
source behind a coupling reactance with the corresponding V-I
and V-Q characteristics shown in Figure. These show that the
STATCOM can be operated over its full output current range
even at very low (theoretically zero), typically about 0.2 p.u
system voltage levels. In other words, the maximum capacitive
or inductive output current of the STATCOM can be maintained
independently of the ac system voltage , and the maximum var
generation or absorption changes linearly with the ac system
voltage. In contrast to the STATCOM, the SVC, being composed
of (thyristor-switched capacitors and reactors, becomes a fixed
capacitive admittance at full output. Thus, the maximum
attainable compensating current of the SVC decreases linearly
with ac system voltage, and the maximum var output
decreases with the square of this voltage ,as shown in Figures
(b) and (b), respectively. The STATCOM is, therefore superior to
the SVC in providing voltage support under large system
disturbances during which the voltage excursions would be well
outside of the linear operating range of the compensator. The
capability of providing maximum compensating current.at
reduced system voltage enables the STATCOM to perform in a
variety of applications the same dynamic compensation as an
SVC of considerably higher rating.
Youtube link
Youtube link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i50tns4de5o

Assignments
1. A 440kV line is fed through an 132/440 kV transformer from a constant 132kV

supply. At the load end of the line, the voltage is reduced by another transformer
of ratio 440/132 kV. The total impedance of line is (40+j70 )ohm. Both
transformers are equipped with tap-changing, the product of the two off-nominal
setting is unity. If the load on the system is 200MW at 0.85pf lagging. Calculate
the settings of the tap changers required to maintain the voltage at 132KV.
2. Find the rating of synchronous compensator connected to the tertiary winding of
66KV star connected, 11KV delta connected three winding transformer to supply a
load of 80MW at 0.8pf lagging at 33KV across the secondary . Equivalent primary
and tertiary winding reactance are 16 ohm and 0.13 ohm respectively. While the
secondary winding reactance is negligible. Assume that V1 is 66KV and maximum off
nominal setting between transformer primary and secondary is 1:1.1.
Part A (Q & A)
What are the different methods of voltage control?

The following methods are generally employed for controlling the
1 receiving-end voltage. 1. By excitation control. 2. By using tap- K1 CO5
changing transformer. 3. Auto-transformer tap changing. 4. Booster
transformer. 5. Induction regulators. 6. By synchronous condensers.
What is meant by excitation voltage control?
Due to the voltage drops in the synchronous reactance of the
armature, whenever the load on the supply system changes, the
2 K1 CO5
terminal voltage of the alternator changes correspondingly. This can be
kept constant by changing the field current of the alternator according
to the changes in load.
What are the disadvantages of tap-changing transformers?
During switching, the impedance of transformer is increased and there
3 will be a voltage surge K1 CO5
There are twice as many tappings as the voltage steps
What are the advantages of synchronous compensator? (Dec 2013)

Reactive power production is not affected by system voltage. Flexibility
4 of operation at all load condition. Smooth variation of reactive VARs as K1 CO5
compared to step-by-step variation in static capacitors. It is used in
HVDC converter stations.
What are the disadvantages of synchronous compensator? (Dec 2013)
Installation cost is high. It can fall out of step which may result in a
5 large sudden change in voltage. The machines add to the short circuit K1 CO5
capacity of the system during fault condition. Synchronous
compensators cannot be designed to work at more than about 20 kV.
What are the different types of reactive power compensation?
Tap-changing transformer. Booster transformer. Regulating transformer.
6 Static VAR Compensators Fixed Capacitor and Thyristor Controlled K1 CO5
Reactor, Thyristor Switched Capacitor
Give some excitation system amplifier.

The excitation system amplifiers are, Magnetic amplifier
CO5
7 Rotating amplifier K1
Modern electronic amplifier.
When is feedback stability compensation used?

Feedback stability compensation is used to resolve the effect of high
8 loop gain in AVR. High loop gain is needed for static accuracy but this
causes undesirable dynamic response, possibly instability
Part A (Q & A)
What is the excitation voltage?

It is an amount of voltage required to excite field coil and the voltage
9 K1 CO5
varies by the rectifier control. The alternating voltage and direct
voltage are the two types of excitation voltage.
Why DC is used for excitation?
The electric current is produced only when the wire rotates in a
10 K1 CO5
constant magnetic field obtained by only direct current (DC) voltage,
so dc voltage is applied to a coil to get the constant magnetic field.
Why do generators need excitation?
11 The excitation is needed for the generator to create a magnetic field K1 CO5
and to provide a constant or fixed or stationary rotating magnetic field.
What happens when generators loss excitation?
12 The rotor current decreases when the generator loss excitation and by K1 CO5
the field time constant the field voltage decays as well.
Why do we need an excitation system for alternators?
13 This system is needed for an alternator to control the voltage and K1 CO5
reactive power of the synchronous alternator or generator.
What is the exciter?
The exciter is the main component in AVR loop. It delivers the DC
14 K1 CO5
power to the generator field. It must have adequate power capacity
and sufficient speed of response (rise time less than 0.1 sec).
What is the function of AVR?
15 The function of the AVR is to provide constancy of the generator K1 CO5
terminal voltage during normal, small and slow changes in the load.
Explain about static AVR loop.
In a static AVR loop, the execution power is obtained directly from the
generator terminals or from the station service bus. The AC power is
16 K1 CO5
rectified by thyristor bridges and fed into the main generator field via
slip rings. Static exciters are very fast and contribute to improved
transient stability.
Write the static performance of AVR loop.
Static performance of AVR loop is to regulate the terminal |V| to within
17 required static accuracy limit, have sufficient speed of response and be K1 CO5
stable.
What is the disadvantage of high loop gain? How it is to be eliminated?
The disadvantage of high loop gain is that it causes undesirable
dynamic response, possibly instability. By adding series AND/OR
18 K1 CO5
feedback stability compensation to the AVR loop, this conflicting
situation can be resolved.
Part A (Q & A)

What is synchronous condenser? It is a synchronous motor running at
no-load and having excitation adjustable over a wide range. It feeds
19 positive VARs into the line under overexcited conditions and negative K1 CO5
VARs when under excited. Which use in sending end of transmission
line
Distinguish between on-load and off-load tap changing.
The off-load tap changing transformer which requires the
disconnection of the transformer when the tap setting is to be
changed. Off-load tap changers are used when it is to be operated in
frequently due to load growth or some seasonal change
20 K1 CO5
The On-load tap changing transformer is used when changes in
transformer ratio to be needed frequently, and no need to switch off
the transformer to change the tap of transformer. It is used on power
transformers, auto transformers and bulk distribution transformers and
at other points of load service
What is meant by stability compensation? High loop gain is needed for
static accuracy of Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR), but this causes
21 undesirable dynamic response, possibly instability. By adding series K1 CO5
and / or feed back stability compensation to the AVR loop, both static
accuracy and stability are improved
Advantages of SVC:
22 K1 CO5
Bus voltage can be controlled. Improves system stability, voltage
stability. Reduces power oscillations. Minimize transmission loss.
What is Brushless Exciter
The exciter consists of an ―inverted‖ 3 phase synchronous generator,
23 that is 3-phase armature on the rotor and field on the stator. Its K1 CO5
armature voltage is rectified in thyristors mounted on the rotating
shaft and then fed directly into the main generator field.
What are the effects of generator loading in AVR loop?
Effects of generator loading in AVR loop is given below. Added load
does not change the basic features of the AVR loop; it will however
affect the values of both gain factor Kf and the field constant. High
loading will make the generator work at higher magnetic saturation
24 levels. This means smaller changes in |E| for incremental increases in K1 CO5
if, translating into the reduction of KF. The field time constant will
likewise decrease as generator loading closing the armature current
paths. This circumstance permits the formation of transient stator
currents the existence of which yields a lower effective field induction.
What are the sources of reactive power? How it is controlled?

25 The sources of reactive power are generators, capacitors, and reactors. K1 CO5
These are controlled by field excitation.
Part B
K
S.No Part B CO5
Level
Draw the diagram of a typical automatic voltage regulator and develop

1 its block diagram representation. K2 CO5
Explain AVR static and dynamic analysis of AVR

2 K2 CO5
Discuss the relations between Voltage and Reactive Power at a Node
3 K2 CO5
Describe various methods of voltage control

4 K2 CO5
Briefly explain role of tap changing transformer in voltage control

5 K2 CO5
Explain briefly the voltage control by SVC
6 K2 CO5
Explain briefly the voltage control by STATCOM
7 K2 CO5
Part C
Find the rating of synchronous compensator connected to the

tertiary winding of 66KV star connected, 11KV delta connected
three winding transformer to supply a load of 60MW at 0.8pf
lagging at 33KV across the secondary . Equivalent primary and
1 tertiary winding reactance are 18 ohm and 0.12 ohm respectively. K3 CO5
While the secondary winding reactance is negligible. Assume that
V1 is 66KV and maximum off nominal setting between
transformer primary and secondary is 1:1.1.
A 415KV line is fed through an 132/415 KV transformer from a

constant 132KV supply. At the load end of the line, the voltage is
reduced by another transformer of ratio 415/132 KV. The total
impedance of line is (40+j80 )ohm. Both transformers are
2 equipped with tap-changing, the product of the two off-nominal K3 CO5
setting is unity. If the load on the system is 200MW at 0.8pf
lagging. Calculate the settings of the tap changers required to
maintain the voltage at 132KV.

1

2
Real time Applications
Coordination of OLTC and smart inverters for optimal voltage regulation of

unbalanced distribution networks
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378779620303011
Content beyond the syllabus
A new control design strategy for automatic voltage regulator in power system
Assessment Schedule
Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Olle.I.Elgerd, ‗Electric Energy Systems theory - An introduction‘, McGraw Hill

2. Allen. J. Wood and Bruce F. Wollen berg, ‗Power Generation, Operation and
Control‘, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2016.
3. Abhijit Chakrabarti and Sunita Halder, ‗Power System Analysis Operation and
Control‘, PHI learning Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, Third Edition, 2010.
REFERENCES
1. Kothari D.P. and Nagrath I.J., ‗Power System Engineering‘, Tata McGraw-Hill
2. Hadi Saadat, ‗Power System Analysis‘, McGraw Hill Education Pvt. Ltd., New
3. Kundur P., ‗Power System Stability and Control, McGraw Hill Education Pvt. Ltd.,
Mini project suggestions
Transformerless AVR
Solid state AVR

Simulation of TCR
Simulation of TSC
Thank you
Disclaimer:
Department: EEE
Batch/Year: 2017-2021/ 2020

Professor
2. Mr. UMASANKAR L
Asst.Professor
RMKCET
3. Mr. NARESH KUMAR K
Asst.Professor
RMKEC
Date: August 2020

Contents

1 Contents 5
3 Pre Requisites 7
4 Syllabus 8
5 Course outcomes 9
7 Lecture Plan 14
9 Lecture Notes 16
10 Assignments 66
11 Part A Q & A 68
12 Part B 73

17

Course Objectives

Prerequisites

Syllabus

representation of AVR loop - static and dynamic analysis –.
stability compensation – voltage drop in transmission line - methods of reactive
power injection - tap changing transformer, SVC (TCR + TSC) and STATCOM for
voltage control 9
UNIT IV ECONOMIC OPERATION OF POWER SYSTEM
TOTAL : 45 PERIODS
Course Outcomes

PROGRAMME OUTCOMES



conclusion.


Development.


10
PROGRAMME OUTCOMES


11
PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOS)
After successful completion of the B.E degree program, the

graduates will be able to
• Design and analyze electrical systems incorporating electrical machines, power

controllers along with the design of electrical layout for the complete structure.
• Use the modern tools for implementing the solutions to engineering problems that
can arise in the fields of Electrical, Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering
along with Information Technology Services.
• Face the challenges in the society by adopting the non-conventional energy

resources and utilizing the modern technologies for energy efficient transmission
and power quality improvement delivering clean energy for the wellbeing of the
mankind.
11
CO-PO /PSO mapping
PO, O O O
PSO 1 2 3
co1 - 2 - 3 3 - - - - - - - 3 - 3
co2 - 2 - 3 3 - - - - - - - 3 - 3
co3 - 2 - 3 3 - - - - - - - 3 - 3
co4 - 2 - 3 3 - - - - - - - 3 - 3
co5 - 2 - 3 3 - - - - - - - 3 - 3
co6 - 2 - 3 3 - - - - - - - 3 - 3
Lecture plan Unit IV
ods ery
1 Statement of economic CO3 K2 PPT
dispatch problem
2 incremental cost curve CO3 K2 PPT
3 optimal operation of CO3 K2,K3 PPT

thermal units without
transmission losses
4 optimal operation of CO3 K2,K3 PPT
thermal units with
transmission losses
5 base point method CO3 K2 PPT
6 participation factors CO3 K2 PPT

method
7 statement of unit CO3 K3 PPT
commitment (UC)
problem - constraints on
UC problem
8 solution of UC problem CO3 K2 PPT
using priority list
9 special aspects of short CO3 K2 PPT
term and long term
hydrothermal problems
-–
1. Matlab Code for the flowing Control methods are given Below.
Solve the problem Manually and Cross verify with Practical data
obtained through Matlab code
The fuel cost functions in Rs./hr for two thermal plants are given by
C = 420 + 9.2𝑃1 + 0.004𝑃12 , 100 ≤ 𝑃1 ≤ 200
C = 350 + 8.5𝑃2 + 0.0029𝑃22 , 150 ≤ 𝑃2 ≤ 500
where 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 are in MW and plant outputs are subjected to the
following limits. Determine the optimal scheduling of generation if
the total load is 640.82 MW. Estimate the value of λ = 12 Rs./MWh.
𝑃𝐿 𝑝𝑢 = 0.0346 𝑃12𝑝𝑢 + 0.00643 𝑃22 𝑝𝑢
Matlab Code:
https://docs.google.com/document/d/1LGhx4js0KweWC0iTuBxd1Au
6zfurRK8PxlIPEnjNW6o/edit?usp=sharing
2. Role play:
Economic Dispatch without losses
Economic Dispatch with losses

Lecture notes

ECONOMIC OPERATION OF POWER SYSTEM
A power system has several power plants. Each power plant has several
generating units. At any point of time, the total load in the system is met by the
generating units in different power plants. Economic dispatch control determines the
power output of each power plant and power output of each generating units within
a power plant, which will maximize the overall cost of the fuel needed to serve the
system load.
The factors considered by the load dispatcher are when to interchange
energy from one station to another station, how much energy to interchange, the
cost of supplying energy to the interconnection, the cost of received energy from
the interconnection. The other factors affecting the economy of operation are
variation fuel cost, labour cost, and weather conditions, normal and emergency
equipment rating, reserve requirements, voltage limitations, characteristic's of prime
moves, transmission losses etc.,
The main economic factor in power system operation is the cost of
generating real power. The main factor controlling the most desirable load allocation
between the various generating units is the total cost. Interconnected power system
is the more reliable, convenient to operate and offers economical operating cost. For
the purpose of economy interchange so it is necessary to consider not only the
incremental fuel cost but also the incremental transmission loss for the optimum
economy.
The economic system operation is necessary because
• In many cases economic factors and the availability of primary essentials such as
coal, water etc., it indicates that new generating plants is located at greater
distances from the load Centres
• Power systems are in interconnecting for purpose of economy interchange and
reduction of reserve capacity
• In a number of areas of the country, the cost of fuel is rapidly increasing.
Statement of Economic Dispatch Problem:

The complexity of interconnections and the size of the areas of electric
power systems that are controlled in a coordinated way is rapidly increasing. This
entails optimal allocation of the outputs of a large number of participating
generators. Whether a generator should participate in sharing the load at a given
interval of time is a problem of unit commitment.
Once the unit commitment problem has been solved, it becomes a
problem of optimal allocation of the available generations to meet the forecasted
load demand for the current interval. At a modern-day energy management center,
highly developed optimization techniques are used to determine not only the optimal
outputs of the participating generators, but also the optimal settings of various
control devices such as the tap settings of load tap changers (LTCs), outputs of VAR
compensating devices, desired settings of phase shifters etc.
The desired objective for such optimization problems can be many, such as
the minimization of the cost of generation, minimization of the total power loss in the
system, minimization of the voltage deviations, and maximization of the reliability of
the power supplied to the customers. One or more of these objectives can be
considered while formulating the optimization strategy. Determination of the real
power outputs of the generators so that the total cost of generation in the system is
minimized is traditionally known as the problem of economic load dispatch (ELD).
Input and Output Characteristics of Thermal Plant

In analysing the economic operation of a thermal unit, input–output
modeling characteristics are significant. For this function, consider a single unit
consisting of a boiler, a turbine, and a generator as shown in Fig This unit has to
supply power not only to the load connected to the power system but also to the local
needs for the auxiliaries in the station, which may vary from 2%to 5%. The power
requirements for station auxiliaries are necessary to drive boiler feed pumps, fans and
condenser circulating water pumps, etc
The total input to the thermal unit could be British thermal unit (Btu)/hr or
Cal/hr in terms of heat supplied or Rs./hr in terms of the cost of fuel (coal or gas). The
total output of the unit at the generator bus will be either kW or MW
To analyze the power system network, there is a need of knowing the

system variables. They are:
1. Control variables - real and reactive-power generations
2. Disturbance variables - real and reactive-power demands
3. State variables - bus voltage magnitude V and its phase angle δ
Scheduling is the process of allocation of generation among different
generating units. Economic scheduling is a cost-effective mode of allocation of
generation among the different units in such a way that the overall cost of generation
should be minimum. This can also be termed as an optimal dispatch
Let the total load demand on the station = 𝑃𝐷 and the total number of
generating units = n.
The optimization problem is to allocate the total load 𝑃𝐷 among these ‗n‘
units in an optimal way to reduce the overall cost of generation
Let 𝑃𝐺1 , 𝑃𝐺2 , 𝑃𝐺3 , …, 𝑃𝐺𝑛 be the power generated by each individual unit
to supply a load demand of P .
To formulate this problem, it is necessary to know the ‗input–output
characteristics of each unit‘.
It establishes the relationship between the energy input to the turbine and
the energy output from the electrical generator. The input to the turbine shown on
the ordinate may be either in terms of the heat energy requirement, which is
generally measured in Btu/hr or kCal/hr or in terms of the total cost of fuel per hour
in Rs./hr. The output is normally the net electrical power output of that steam unit in
kW or MW.
The steam turbine-generating unit curve consists of minimum and
maximum limits in operation, which depend upon the steam cycle used, thermal
characteristics of material, the operating temperature etc.
To convert the input–output curves into cost curves, the fuel input per
hour is multiplied with the cost of the fuel (expressed in Rs./million kCal)
Incremental cost curve

From the input–output curves, the incremental fuel cost (IFC) curve can be
obtained.
The IFC is defined as the ratio of a small change in the input to the corresponding
small change in the output
𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐶𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 ∆𝐹
Incremental Fuel Cost = =
𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐶𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 ∆𝑃𝐺
where Δ represents small changes. As the Δ quantities become

𝑑(𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡)
progressively smaller, it is seen that the IFC is𝑑(𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡) and is expressed in Rs./MWh.
A typical plot of the IFC versus output power is shown in Fig
The incremental cost curve is obtained by considering the change
in the cost of generation to the change in real power generation at
various points on the input–output curves, i.e., slope of the input–
output curve as shown in Fig
(a) Incremental cost curve; (b) Incremental fuel cost Characteristic

in terms of the slope of the input–output curve
The IFC is now obtained as (IC) = slope of the fuel cost curve
Heat Rate Curve
The heat rate characteristic obtained from the plot of the net heat rate in
Btu/kWh or kCal/kWh versus power output in kW
Let 𝐻𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 be the heat rate in kCal/kWh which is the heat energy
obtained by the combustion of the fuel in Kcal needed to generate one unit of
electric energy.
The thermal unit is most efficient at a minimum heat rate, which

corresponds to a particular generation P . The curve indicates an increase in heat
rate at low and high power limits.
Thermal efficiency of the unit is affected by the following factors:
condition of steam, steam cycle used, re-heat stages, condenser pressure, etc.
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑠/𝐻𝑟
Normally, Heat Rate =
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑊
Incrémental Heat Rate:

It is the ratio of change in input to the corresponding change in output at
any operating point.
∆𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 ∆𝑭
Incremental Heat Rate = =
∆𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 ∆𝑷
Incremental Efficiency:
The reciprocal of the incremental fuel rate or heat rate, which is defined
as the ratio of output energy to input energy, gives a measure of fuel efficiency for
the input
∆𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 ∆𝑷
Incremental Efficiency= =
∆𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 ∆𝑭
Cost Function
Let the cost of the Fuel be K Rs/Mkcal. Then the fuel input cost 𝐶𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 is
𝐶𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 = 𝐾 𝐹𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖
Here 𝐶𝑖 is the cost expressed in Rs/hr of producing energy in the generator unit i.
𝐹𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 is the Fuel Energy input
𝐹𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 = 𝑃𝐺𝑖 𝐻𝑖 (𝑃𝐺𝑖 )
𝐻𝑖 (𝑃𝐺𝑖 ) is obtained from the heat rate curve
Substitute the value of 𝐹𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 in 𝐶𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖
𝐶𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 = 𝐾 𝑃𝐺𝑖 𝐻𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖
The heat rate curve can be approximated why because the initial portion of curve
decrease, reaches minimum point and then increases.
𝑐′𝑖
𝐻𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 = + 𝑏′𝑖 + 𝑎′𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖
𝑃𝐺𝑖
Where 𝑎𝑖 , 𝑏𝑖 and 𝑐𝑖 are positive coefficients
𝑐′𝑖
Input Energy Rate 𝐹𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 = 𝑃𝐺𝑖 𝐻𝑖 (𝑃𝐺𝑖 ) = 𝑃𝐺𝑖 [ + 𝑏′𝑖 + 𝑎′𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 ]
𝑃𝐺𝑖
= 𝑎′𝑃2 𝐺𝑖 + 𝑏′ 𝑃𝐺𝑖 + 𝑐′𝑖
Fuel Cost 𝐶𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 = 𝐾 𝐹𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖

𝐾(𝑎′𝑃2 𝐺𝑖 + 𝑏′ 𝑃𝐺𝑖 + 𝑐′𝑖 )
𝐶𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 = 𝑎𝑃2 𝐺𝑖 + 𝑏 𝑃𝐺𝑖 + 𝑐𝑖
Formulation of Optimum Dispatch Problem (Lossless Case)
The economic power system operation needs to satisfy the following types of constraints
1. Equality constraints
The sum of real-power generation of all the various units must always be equal to the total
real-power demand on the system.
PGi − PD = 0
I=1
Total Generation = Total Demand.
The above equation is the real power balance equation when losses are neglected
2.Inequality constraints
These constraints are considered in an economic power system operation due to

the physical and operational limitations of the units and components
Each generating unit should not operate above its rating or below some
minimum generation. This minimum value of real-power generation is determined from the
technical feasibility.
𝑃𝐺𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛 < 𝑃𝐺𝑖 < 𝑃𝐺𝑖 𝑚𝑎𝑥
If a particular generator loading 𝑃𝐺𝑖 reaches the limit 𝑃𝐺𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛 or 𝑃𝐺𝑖 𝑚𝑎𝑥 its loading from now
on fixed at this value and the balance is then shared between the remaining generators
Cost function
Let N be the number of generators, the cost function of objective function is
𝑪= 𝐶𝑖 (PGi ) = 𝐶1 (PG1 ) + 𝐶2 (PG2 ) + … … … + 𝐶𝑁 (PG𝑁 )

I=1
𝑅𝑠
Where 𝐶𝑖 = 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑖, 𝐻𝑟
𝑅𝑠
𝐶𝑖 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 ,
𝐻𝑟
Coordination Equation Without Loss
Consider a two bus system having generation and load connected
to the same bus
2
PGi = 𝑃𝐺1 + 𝑃𝐺2

I=1
PDi = 𝑃𝐷1 + 𝑃𝐷2

I=1
The optimization problem can now be stated as,
𝑁
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝐶 = 𝐶𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖
𝑖=1
Where C = operating cost
I = no of generator on the bus
Subject to H ( PG1 +PG2 + … … … + PG𝑁 )
𝑵
= 𝑷𝑫 − 𝑷𝑮𝒊
𝒊=𝟏
Using langrangian multiplier λ
Langrangian function C* = C + λH
𝑁 𝑵
∗
𝐿=𝐶 = 𝐶𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 + λ [ 𝑷𝑫 − 𝑷𝑮𝒊 ]
𝑖=1 𝒊=𝟏
For minimum objective function differentiate above equation with respect to 𝑃𝐺𝑖 and equate
to zero
𝜕𝐶 ∗
=0
𝜕𝑃𝑔𝑖
𝜕𝐶 ∗ 𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝐶𝑖
= = +0 −λ
𝜕𝑃𝑔𝑖 𝜕𝑃𝑔𝑖 𝜕𝑃𝑔𝑖
𝜕𝐶𝑖
= λ For i = 1,2, … , 𝑁
𝜕𝑃𝑔𝑖
𝜕𝐶1 𝜕𝐶2 𝜕𝐶𝑛

For N units = = ………. = =λ
𝜕𝑃𝑔1 𝜕𝑃𝑔2 𝜕𝑃𝑔𝑛
𝜕𝐶𝑖
Where is the incremental cost of unit i
𝜕𝑃𝑔𝑖
Economic Dispatch Without Loss
Solution of λ iteration method without loss (Algorithm)
Case (i) operating limits of power generation are not specified
Step 1 : Assign the initial values of λ or calculate using
𝑁 𝑏𝑖
𝑃𝐷 + 𝑖=1 2𝑎
𝑖
λ=
𝑁 1
𝑖=1 2𝑎
𝑖
Step 2: compute 𝑃𝑔𝑖 corresponding to λ using the equation
𝐶𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 = 𝑎𝑃2 𝐺𝑖 + 𝑏 𝑃𝐺𝑖 + 𝑐𝑖
𝑑𝐶𝑖 (𝑃𝑔𝑖 )
Incremental cost (IC) = = 2𝑎𝑖 𝑃𝑔𝑖 + 𝑏𝑖 = λ
𝑑𝑃𝑔𝑖
λ − 𝑏𝑖
𝑃𝑔𝑖 =
2𝑎𝑖
Step 3: compute 𝒏
𝒊=𝟏 𝑷𝒈𝒊
Step 4: check for power balance equation 𝑷𝑫 = 𝑵

𝒊=𝟏 𝑷𝑮𝒊
The power balance equation is satisfied, then the optimum solution is obtained
otherwise go to next step.
Step 5:
𝑁
𝑖𝑓 𝑃𝑔𝑖 < 𝑃𝐷
𝑖=1
Assign λ + Δ λ (i.e.,) increment λ and go to step 2
𝑁
𝑖𝑓 𝑃𝑔𝑖 > 𝑃𝐷
𝑖=1
Assign λ - Δ λ (i.e.,) increment λ and go to step 2
Where
ΔP
Δ λ=
𝑁 1
𝑖=1 2𝑎
𝑖
Δ 𝑃 is change in demand
Case (ii) operating limits of power generation are specified
𝑁 𝑏𝑖
𝑃𝐷 + 𝑖=1 2𝑎
𝑖
λ=
𝑁 1
𝑖=1 2𝑎
𝑖
Step 2: compute 𝑃𝑔𝑖 corresponding to λ using the equation
λ − 𝑏𝑖
𝑃𝑔𝑖 =
2𝑎𝑖
Step 3: if the computed 𝑃𝑔𝑖 satisfies the operating limits,

𝑃𝐺𝑖 𝑚𝑖𝑛 < 𝑃𝐺𝑖 < 𝑃𝐺𝑖 𝑚𝑎𝑥
For i = 1,2,…., N, then the optimum solution is obtained, otherwise go to next
step
Step 4: if 𝑃𝑔𝑖 violates the operating limits, hen fix the generation at the
respective limit.
𝑃𝐺𝑖 < 𝑃𝐺𝑖,𝑚𝑖𝑛 , 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝐹𝑖𝑥 𝑃𝐺𝑖 = 𝑃𝐺𝑖,𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝐺𝑖 > 𝑃𝐺𝑖,𝑚𝑎𝑥 , 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝐹𝑖𝑥 𝑃𝐺𝑖 = 𝑃𝐺𝑖,𝑚𝑎𝑥

Step 5: Redistribute the remaining system load 𝑃𝐷
𝑃𝐷 𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝑃𝐷 𝑜𝑙𝑑 − 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
Step 6: compute λnew using 𝑃𝐷 𝑛𝑒𝑤 and compute the remaining generations
using
λ𝑛𝑒𝑤 − 𝑏𝑖
𝑃𝑔𝑖 =
2𝑎𝑖
Step 7: check whether optimal conditions is satisfied. If the condition is satisfied
then stop. Otherwise release the generation schedule fixed at 𝑃𝐺𝑖,𝑚𝑖𝑛 or 𝑃𝐺𝑖,𝑚𝑎𝑥 of
those units not satisfying the optimal condition. Include these units in the remaining
units and modify the new power demand
𝑃𝐷 𝑛𝑒𝑤,1 = 𝑃𝐷 𝑛𝑒𝑤 + 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 not satisfying the optimal condition
And go to step 6
EDC neglecting losses flowchart
1. The fuel cost two units are given by 𝐹1 = 1.6 + 25𝑃𝑔1 + 0.1 𝑃2𝑔1 and 𝐹2 = 2.1 +
32𝑃𝑔2 + 0.1 𝑃2𝑔2 if the demand of the generators are 250 MW. Find the economic
load scheduling of two units.
𝑏𝑖
𝑃𝐷 + 𝑁 𝑖=1 2𝑎
𝑖
λ=
𝑁 1
𝑖=1 2𝑎
𝑖
25 32
250 + 0.2 + 0.2
= = 53.5
1 1
0.2 + 0.2
λ − 𝑏1 53.5 − 25
𝑃𝑔1 = = = 142.5 𝑀𝑊
2𝑎1 0.2
λ − 𝑏2
𝑃𝑔2 = = 107.5 𝑀𝑊
2𝑎2
𝑃𝑔1 +𝑃𝑔2 = 142.5 + 107.5 = 250 MW

The amount of generation matches with the demand. Optimal Condition is achieved
2. A plant has two generators supplying the plant bus and neither is to operate
below 20 MW or above 135 MW. Incremental cost with 𝑃𝑔1 and 𝑃𝑔2 in MW are
𝑑𝐹1 𝑅𝑠
(𝐼𝐶)1 = = 0.14𝑃𝑔1 + 21
𝑑𝑃𝑔1 𝑀𝑊𝑕𝑟
𝑑𝐹2 𝑅𝑠
(𝐼𝐶)2 = = 0.225𝑃𝑔2 + 16.5
𝑑𝑃𝑔2 𝑀𝑊𝑕𝑟
For Economic Dispatch, find the plant λ when the demand equals (i) 45 MW (ii) 125
MW and (iii) 250 MW
(i) When demand = 45 MW
𝑁 𝑏𝑖
𝑃𝐷 + 𝑖=1 2𝑎
𝑖
λ=
𝑁 1
𝑖=1 2𝑎
𝑖
21 16.5
45 + +
0.14 0.225
= = 23.15
1 1
+
0.14 0.225
λ − 𝑏1 23.15 − 21
𝑃𝑔1 = = = 15.41 𝑀𝑊
2𝑎1 0.14
The lower limit value of generation is 20 MW but the generation of unit 1 is 15.41
MW. Since it violates the lower limit we can fix 𝑃𝑔1 =𝑃𝑔1 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 20 MW
Therefore
𝑃𝑔1 = 20 𝑀𝑊
𝑃𝑔2 = 45 − 20 = 25 𝑀𝑊
(ii) When demand = 125 MW
𝑁 𝑏𝑖
𝑃𝐷 + 𝑖=1 2𝑎
𝑖
λ=
𝑁 1
𝑖=1 2𝑎
𝑖
21 16.5
125 + +
0.14 0.225
= = 30.0616
1 1
+
0.14 0.225
λ − 𝑏1 30.0616 − 21
𝑃𝑔1 = = = 67.726 𝑀𝑊
2𝑎1 0.14
λ − 𝑏2 30.0616 − 16.5
𝑃𝑔2 = = = 60.274 𝑀𝑊
2𝑎2 0.225
Since the generation of unit 1 and unit 2 are within the limits and generation put
together will give a value of 125 MW. So the optimum conditions are satisfied
(ii) When demand = 250 MW
𝑁 𝑏𝑖
𝑃𝐷 + 𝑖=1 2𝑎
𝑖
λ=
𝑁 1
𝑖=1 2𝑎
𝑖
21 16.5
250 + +
0.14 0.225
= = 40.849
1 1
+
0.14 0.225
λ − 𝑏1 40.849 − 21
𝑃𝑔1 = = = 141.78 𝑀𝑊
2𝑎1 0.14
λ − 𝑏2 40.849 − 16.5
𝑃𝑔2 = = = 108.22 𝑀𝑊
2𝑎2 0.225
141.78>135 MW, 𝑃𝑔1 >𝑃𝑔1 𝑚𝑎𝑥 therefore fix 𝑃𝑔1 = 𝑃𝑔1 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 135 MW
𝑃𝑔2 = 250 – 135 = 115 MW

3. The fuel cost function for three thermal plants in $/H are given by
𝐶1 = 500 + 5.3𝑃1 + 0.004𝑃21
𝐶2 = 400 + 5.5𝑃2 + 0.006𝑃2 2
𝐶1 = 200 + 5.8𝑃3 + 0.009𝑃2 3
Where 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 and 𝑃3 are in MW. The total load is 𝑃𝐷 is 975 MW with the following
generator limits in MW. (Here we used to Iterative technique using Gradient
method)
200 ≤ 𝑃1 ≤ 450
150 ≤ 𝑃2 ≤ 350
100 ≤ 𝑃3 ≤ 225
Assume the initial Value of λ

= 6.0
λ − 𝑏1 6.0 − 5.3
𝑃1 = = = 87.50 𝑀𝑊
2𝑎1 2 (0.004)
λ − 𝑏2 6.0 − 5.5
𝑃2 = = = 41. 667 𝑀𝑊
2𝑎2 2 (0.006)
λ − 𝑏3 6.0 − 5.3
𝑃3 = = = 11.111 𝑀𝑊
2𝑎3 2 (0.009)
Since 𝑃𝐷 = 975 𝑀𝑊, the error ΔP
ΔP= 975 – (87.50 + 41.667 + 11.111) = 834.777
ΔP
Δ λ=
𝑁 1
𝑖=1 2𝑎
𝑖
834.777
=
1 1 1
+ +
2 (0.004) 2 (0.006) 2 (0.009)
834.777
== 3.1632
263.888
Therefore the new value of λ
λ𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 6.0 + 3.1632 = 9.1632
Continue the process for second iteration
λ − 𝑏1 9.1632 − 5.3
𝑃1 = = = 482.8947 𝑀𝑊
2𝑎1 2 (0.004)
λ − 𝑏2 9.1632 − 5.5
𝑃2 = = = 305.2632 𝑀𝑊
2𝑎2 2 (0.006)
λ − 𝑏3 9.1632 − 5.3
𝑃3 = = = 186.8421 𝑀𝑊
2𝑎3 2 (0.009)
ΔP= 975 – (482.8947 + 305.2632 + 186.8421) = 0.00

The error is zero but the generation of unit 1 is exceed the
upper limits. Hence we fix 𝑃1 = 450. thus the new unbalance in
power is
ΔP= 975 – (450 + 305.2632 + 186.8421) = 32.8947
32.8947
Δλ = = 0.2368
1 1
+
2 (0.006) 2 (0.009)
λ𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 9.1632 + 0.2368 =9.4

Continue the process for third iteration
𝑃1 =450
λ − 𝑏2 9.4 − 5.5
𝑃2 = = = 325 𝑀𝑊
2𝑎2 2 (0.006)
λ − 𝑏3 9.4 − 5.3
𝑃3 = = = 200 𝑀𝑊
2𝑎3 2 (0.009)
ΔP= 975 – (450 +325 + 200) = 0.0
The equality constraint is met and 𝑃2 and 𝑃3 are within their
limits, thus the optimal dispatch is
𝑃1 =450 MW
𝑃2 = 325 MW
𝑃3 = 200 𝑀𝑊
λ = 9.4 $/MWh
And the total fuel cost is
𝐶𝑡 = 500 + 5.3(450) + 0.004(4502 ) + 400 + 5.5(325) + 0.006(3252 ) +
200 + 5.8(200) + 0. . 009 (2002 ) = 8,236.25 $/h
Formulation of Optimum Dispatch Problem (Including
Losses)
In case of an urban area where the load density is very high and the
transmission distances are very small, the transmission loss could be neglected and
the optimum strategy of generation could be based on the equal incremental
production cost. If the energy is to be transported over relatively larger distances
with low load density, the transmission losses, in some cases, may amount to about
20–30% of the total load; hence, it is essential to take these losses into account
when formulating an economic load dispatch problem
In a practical system, a large amount of power is being transmitted
through the transmission network, which causes power losses in the network (𝑃𝐿 )
as shown in Fig In finding an optimal solution for economic scheduling problem
(allocation of total load among the generating units), it is more realistic to consider
the transmission line losses, which are about 5–15% of the total generation.
In general, the condition for optimality, when losses are considered, is
different. Equal incremental fuel costs (IFCs) for all generating units will not give an
optimal solution.
Consider the objective function

N
𝑪= 𝐶𝑖 (PGi )
I=1
Equality constraint
The real-power balance equation, i.e., total real-power generations minus
the total losses should be equal to the real-power demand:
N
PGi − P𝐿 = 𝑃𝐷 (𝑜𝑟)
I=1
PGi − P𝐿 − 𝑃𝐷 = 0
I=1
Inequality constraints:
Always there will be upper and lower limits for real and reactive-power
generation at each of the stations. The inequality constraints are represented
Coordination Equation With Loss
Minimize the cost Function
N
𝑪= 𝐶𝑖 (PGi )
I=1
Subject to the constraint
N N
𝑃𝐷𝑖 + P𝐿 = PGi
I=1 I=1
N N
𝑃𝐷𝑖 + P𝐿 − PGi = 0
I=1 I=1
Where P𝐿 is transmission loss
Using langrangian multiplier λ
Langrangian function C* = C + λH
𝑁 N N
∗
𝐿=𝐶 = 𝐶𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 + λ [ 𝑃𝐷𝑖 + P𝐿 − PGi ]
𝑖=1 I=1 I=1
For minimum objective function differentiate above equation with respect to 𝑃𝐺𝑖 and
equate to zero
𝜕𝐶 ∗
=0
𝜕𝑃𝑔𝑖
𝜕𝐶 ∗ 𝜕𝐶 𝜕𝑃𝐿
= + λ −λ=0
𝜕𝑃𝑔𝑖 𝜕𝑃𝑔𝑖 𝜕𝑃𝑔𝑖
𝜕𝐶 𝜕𝑃𝐿
= λ [1− ]
𝜕𝑃𝑔𝑖 𝜕𝑃𝑔𝑖
(𝐼𝐶)𝑖 = λ[1 − 𝐼𝑇𝐿 𝑖 ]

𝜕𝐶
= (𝐼𝐶)𝑖
𝜕𝑃𝑔𝑖
𝜕𝑃𝐿
= (𝐼𝑇𝐿)𝑖
𝜕𝑃𝑔𝑖
(𝐼𝐶)𝑖
λ= = 𝐿𝑖 (𝐼𝐶)𝑖
1 − (𝐼𝑇𝐿)𝑖
𝐿𝑖 = 𝑃𝑒𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠
1
λ=
1 − (𝐼𝑇𝐿)𝑖
Economic Dispatch Without Loss

Solution of λ iteration method without loss (Algorithm)
𝑁 𝑏𝑖
𝑃𝐷 + 𝑖=1 2𝑎
𝑖
λ=
𝑁 1
𝑖=1 2𝑎
𝑖
Step 2: solve for 𝑷𝒈𝒊 using
𝑏𝑖 𝑁
1− −2 𝑗≠𝑖 𝐵𝑖𝑗
𝜆
𝑗=1
𝑃𝑔𝑖 =
2𝑎𝑖
+ 2𝐵𝑖𝑖
𝜆
Step 3: Check if any 𝑃𝑔𝑖 is beyond or below the inequality constraint
𝑃𝐺𝑖 < 𝑃𝐺𝑖,𝑚𝑖𝑛 , 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝐹𝑖𝑥 𝑃𝐺𝑖 = 𝑃𝐺𝑖,𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝐺𝑖 > 𝑃𝐺𝑖,𝑚𝑎𝑥 , 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝐹𝑖𝑥 𝑃𝐺𝑖 = 𝑃𝐺𝑖,𝑚𝑎𝑥

Step 4: Calculate Transmission Loss,
𝑁 𝑁
𝑃𝐿 = 𝑃𝑔𝑖 𝐵𝑖𝑗 𝑃𝐺𝑗

𝑖=1 𝑗=1
Step 5: Check for power balance equation
𝑃𝐷 + 𝑃𝐿 − PGi = 0
I=1
Value of generation PGi gives the optimum generation otherwise go to next step.
Step 6: Increase λ by ∆λ if 𝑃𝐷 + 𝑃𝐿 − N
I=1 PGi < 0, or
decrease λ by ∆λ if 𝑃𝐷 + 𝑃𝐿 − N
I=1 PGi > 0, or
Repeat from step 2 till the optimum solution is achieved
EDC with Loss Flowchart

Problems:
The fuel cost in in $/h of three thermal power plants of are
𝐶1 = 200 + 7.0 𝑃1 + 0.008 𝑃21
𝐶2 = 180 + 6.3 𝑃2 + 0.009 𝑃2 2
𝐶1 = 140 + 6.8 𝑃3 + 0.007 𝑃2 3
Where 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 and 𝑃3 are in MW. Plant outputs are subjected to following limits
10 ≤ 𝑃1 ≤ 85
10 ≤ 𝑃2 ≤ 80
10 ≤ 𝑃3 ≤ 70
For this problem assume the real power loss in given by simplified expression
𝑃𝐿 = 0.0218𝑃12 𝑃𝑈 + 0.0228𝑃22(𝑃𝑈) + 0.0179 𝑃32(𝑃𝑈)

Where the loss coefficients are specified in per unit on a 100 MVA base. Determine
the optimal dispatch of generation when the system total load is 150 MW.
In the cost function 𝑃𝑖 is expressed in MW. Therefore, the real power loss in terms
of MW generation is.
2 2 2
𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑃3
𝑃𝐿 = 0.0218 + 0.0228 + 0.0179 𝑥 100
100 100 100
= 0.000218𝑃12 + 0.000228𝑃22 + 0.000179 𝑃32

Using gradient method, assume the value of lambda as 8
λ − 𝑏𝑖
𝑃𝐺𝑖 =
2(𝑎𝑖 + λ𝐵𝑖𝑖 )
8 −7
𝑃𝐺1 = = 51.3136 𝑀𝑊
2(0.008 + 8 𝑥 0.000218)
8 − 6.3
𝑃𝐺2 = = 78.5292 𝑀𝑊
2(0.009 + 8 𝑥 0.000228)
8 − 6.8
𝑃𝐺3 = = 71.1575 𝑀𝑊
2(0.007 + 8 𝑥 0.000179)
The real power loss is
𝑃𝐿 = 0.000218(51.3136)2 +0.000228(78.5292)2 +0.000179 (71.1575)2 = 2.886
Since 𝑃𝐷 = 150 MW the error ΔP is
ΔP = 150+2.8864 – (51.3136+78.5292+71.1575) = - 48.1139
Since generation is more than the demand we need to decrement the value of Lambda
λ = λ − Δλ
Δλ
∆λ =
𝑁 𝜕𝑃𝑖
𝑖=1 𝜕λ
𝑁 𝑁
𝜕𝑃𝑖 𝑎𝑖 + 𝐵𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑖
=
𝜕λ 2(𝑎𝑖 + λ𝐵𝑖𝑖 )2
𝑖=1 𝑖=1
3
𝜕𝑃𝑖 0.008 + 0.000218 𝑥 7.0 0.009 + 0.000228 𝑥 6.3
= +
𝜕λ 2(0.008 + 8.0 𝑥 0.000218)2 2(0.009 + 8.0 𝑥 0.000228)2
𝑖=1
0.007 + 0.000179 𝑥 6.8
+ = 152.4924
2(0.007 + 8.0 𝑥 0.000179)2
Δλ −48.1139
∆λ = = = −0.31552
𝑁 𝜕𝑃𝑖 152.4924
𝑖=1 𝜕λ
The new value of λ is λ𝑛𝑒𝑤 = λ – Δλ = 8 – 0.31552 = 7.6845

Continue the process for second iteration
7.6845 − 7
𝑃𝐺1 = = 35.3728 𝑀𝑊
2(0.008 + 7.6845 𝑥 0.000218)
7.6845 − 6.3
𝑃𝐺2 = = 64.3821 𝑀𝑊
2(0.009 + 7.6845 𝑥 0.000228)
7.6845 − 6.8
𝑃𝐺3 = = 52.8075 𝑀𝑊
2(0.007 + 7.6845 𝑥 0.000179)
𝑃𝐿 = 0.000218(35.3728)2 +0.000228(64.3821)2 +0.000179 (52.8075)2 = 1.717
the error ΔP is
ΔP = 150+1.717 – (35.3728 + 64.3821 + 52.8075 ) = - 0.8395
Since generation is more than the demand we need to decrement the value of Lambda
λ = λ − Δλ
Δλ
∆λ =
𝑁 𝜕𝑃𝑖
𝑖=1 𝜕λ
3
𝜕𝑃𝑖 0.008 + 0.000218 𝑥 7.0 0.009 + 0.000228 𝑥 6.3
= +
𝜕λ 2(0.008 + 7.684 𝑥 0.000218)2 2(0.009 + 7.684 𝑥 0.000228)2
𝑖=1
0.007 + 0.000179 𝑥 6.8
+ = 154.588
2(0.007 + 7.684 𝑥 0.000179)2
Δλ −0.8395
∆λ = = = −0.005431
𝑁 𝜕𝑃𝑖 154.588
𝑖=1 𝜕λ
The new value of λ is λ𝑛𝑒𝑤 = λ – Δλ = 8 −0.005431 = 7.679

Continue the process for third iteration
7.679 − 7
𝑃𝐺1 = = 35.0965 𝑀𝑊
2(0.008 + 7.679 𝑥 0.000218)
7.679 − 6.3
𝑃𝐺2 = = 64.1369 𝑀𝑊
2(0.009 + 7.679 𝑥 0.000228)
7.679 − 6.8
𝑃𝐺3 = = 52.4834 𝑀𝑊
2(0.007 + 7.679 𝑥 0.000179)
𝑃𝐿 = 0.000218(35.0965)2 +0.000228(64.1369)2 +0.000179 (52.4834)2 = 1.699
the error ΔP is
ΔP = 150+1.699– (35.0965+64.13691 +52.4834) = -0.01742
3
𝜕𝑃𝑖 0.008 + 0.000218 𝑥 7.0 0.009 + 0.000228 𝑥 6.3
= +
𝜕λ 2(0.008 + 7.679 𝑥 0.000218)2 2(0.009 + 7.679 𝑥 0.000228)2
𝑖=1
0.007 + 0.000179 𝑥 6.8
+ = 154.624
2(0.007 + 7.679 𝑥 0.000179)2
Δλ −0.01742
∆λ = = = 0 − 0.001127
𝑁 𝜕𝑃𝑖 154.624
𝑖=1 𝜕λ
The new value of λ is λ𝑛𝑒𝑤 = λ – Δλ = 8 −0.001127= 7.6789

Since Δλ in third iteration is small the equality constraint is met in our
fourth and optimal dispatch for lambda = 7.6789
7.6789 − 7
𝑃𝐺1 = = 35.0907 𝑀𝑊
2(0.008 + 7.6789 𝑥 0.000218)
7.6789 − 6.3
𝑃𝐺2 = = 64.1317 𝑀𝑊
2(0.009 + 7.6789 𝑥 0.000228)
7.6789 − 6.8
𝑃𝐺3 = = 52.4767 𝑀𝑊
2(0.007 + 7.6789 𝑥 0.000179)
𝑃𝐿 = 0.000218(35.0907)2 +0.000228(64.1317)2 +0.000179 (52.4767)2

= 1.699
And the total fuel cost
= 200 + 7.0 35.0907 + 0.008 35.0907 + 180 + 6.3 64.1317
+ 0.009 64.1317 + 140 + 6.8 52.4767 + 0.007 52.4767
= 1592.65 $/𝑕
Base Point and Participation Factor

The economic dispatch problem has to be solved repeatedly by moving the
generators from one economically optimum schedule to another as the load changes
by a reasonably small amount. We start from a schedule obtained from the equal
incremental cost as base point. Next the scheduler assumes a load change and
investigate how much each generating station needs to be moved (i.e. participate in
load change) in order that new load be served at most economic operating point.
Assume that both the first and second derivatives in the cost versus
power output function are available. The incremental cost curve of Ith unit is
given in
As the unit load is changed by an amount ∆𝑃𝑖 , the system incremental
cost moves from λ to λ+ Δλ
For a small change in power output on the single unit ,
𝐹𝑖 = 𝑎𝑃2 𝐺𝑖 + 𝑏 𝑃𝐺𝑖 + 𝑐𝑖
∆𝐹𝑖
λ𝑖 = = 2𝑎𝑖 𝑃𝑔𝑖 + 𝑏𝑖
∆𝑃𝐺𝑖
∆λ𝑖
= 𝐹𝑖′′ = 2𝑎𝑖
∆𝑃𝐺𝑖
∆λ𝑖 = Δλ = 𝐹𝑖′′ ∆𝑃𝐺𝑖

This is true for each of N units on the system, so that
Δλ
∆𝑃𝐺1 =
𝐹𝑖′′
Δλ Δλ
∆𝑃𝐺2 = ′′ … … . ∆𝑃𝐺𝑁 =
𝐹𝑖 𝐹𝑖′′
Let 𝑃𝐷 be the total demand on the generation
The total load in generation = change in total system demand
𝑃𝐷 = 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 + 𝑃𝐿
Change in Demand ∆𝑃𝐷 = ∆𝑃𝑔1 + ∆𝑃𝑔2 + … . + ∆𝑃𝑔𝑛
Δλ Δλ Δλ
= ′′ + ′′ + ⋯ + ′′
𝐹1 𝐹2 𝐹𝑁
𝑁
1
= Δλ
𝐹𝑖′′
𝑖=1
Participation factor for each unit
1
∆𝑃𝐺𝑖 𝐹𝑖′′
=
∆𝑃𝐷 𝑁 1
𝑖=1 𝐹 ′′
𝑖
Suppose 𝑃𝐷 increases to 𝑃𝐷 + ∆𝑃𝐷 . The new value of generation is calculated using
∆𝑃𝐺𝑖
𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑤,𝑖 = 𝑃𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖 + ∆𝑃𝐷
∆𝑃𝐷
𝑃𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖 = Old value of generation
Advantage of using Participation Factor
• Computer implementation of economic dispatch is straight forward
• Execution time for the economic dispatch is short
• It always gives consistent answers when units reach limits
• It gives linear incremental cost functions or have non convex cost curves
Problem:
The input – output characteristics of three units are
𝐹1 = 940 + 5.46 𝑃1 + 0.0016 𝑃21
𝐹2 = 820 + 5.35 𝑃2 + 0.0019 𝑃2 2
𝐹3 = 99 + 5.65 𝑃3 + 0.0032 𝑃2 3
Total load is 600 MW. Use participation factor method to calculate the dispatch for a
load is reduced to 550 MW
We know 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 = 600 (𝐴)
𝑑𝐹1
𝐹1′ = = 5.46 + 0.0032𝑃1 = λ (1)
𝑑𝑃1
𝑑𝐹2
𝐹2′ = = 5.35 + 0.0038𝑃2 = λ (2)
𝑑𝑃2
𝑑𝐹3
𝐹3′ = = 5.65 + 0.0064𝑃3 = λ (3)
𝑑𝑃3
Solve (1) and (2)
5.46 + 0.0032𝑃1 = 5.35 + 0.0038𝑃2
𝑃1 = −34.375 + 1.1875 𝑃2 (4)

Solve (2) and (3)
5.35 + 0.0038𝑃2 = 5.65 + 0.0064𝑃3
𝑃3 = −46.875 + 0.594 𝑃2 (5)

Substitute (4) and (5) in (A)
−34.375 + 1.1875 𝑃2 + 𝑃2 + −46.875 + 0.594 𝑃2 = 600
𝑃2 = 244.92 𝑀𝑊
Substitute the value of 𝑃2 in equation (5)
𝑃3 = −46.875 + 0.594 244.92 = 98.60 mW

Substitute the value of 𝑃2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃3 in equation (2)
𝑃1 = 256.47 𝑀𝑊
The second derivatives of 𝐹1′′ = 0.0032, 𝐹2′′ = 0.0038 , 𝐹3′′ = 0.0064
1
∆𝑃𝑖 𝐹𝑖′′
=
∆𝑃𝐷 3 1
𝑖=1 𝐹 ′′
𝑖
1 1 1
∆𝑃1 𝐹1′′ 𝐹1′′ 0.0032
= == = = 0.43
∆𝑃𝐷 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑖=1 𝐹 ′′ + + + +
1 𝐹1′′ 𝐹2′′ 𝐹3′′ 0.0032 0.0038 0.0064
1 1 1
∆𝑃2 𝐹2′′ 𝐹2′′ 0.0038
= == = = 0.3595
∆𝑃𝐷 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑖=1 𝐹 ′′ + + + +
2 𝐹1′′ 𝐹2′′ 𝐹3′′ 0.0032 0.0038 0.0064
1 1 1
∆𝑃3 𝐹3′′ 𝐹3′′ 0.0064
= == = = 0.2135
∆𝑃𝐷 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑖=1 𝐹 ′′ + + + +
1 𝐹1′′ 𝐹2′′ 𝐹3′′ 0.0032 0.0038 0.0064
∆𝑃𝐷 = 550 + 600 = −50 𝑀𝑊

The new Value of generations are given by
∆𝑃𝐺𝑖
𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑤,𝑖 = 𝑃𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖 + ∆𝑃𝐷
∆𝑃𝐷
∆𝑃1
𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑤,1 = 𝑃𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 1 + ∆𝑃𝐷 = 254.67 + 0.43 −50 = 234.97
∆𝑃𝐷
∆𝑃2
𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑤,2 = 𝑃𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 2 + ∆𝑃𝐷 = 244.92 + 0.3595 −50 = 226.945
∆𝑃𝐷
∆𝑃3
𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑤,3 = 𝑃𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 3 + ∆𝑃𝐷 = 98.6 + 0.2135 −50 = 87.925
∆𝑃𝐷
UNIT COMMITMENT
Introduction:
In power systems, demand variation is associated with human activities. Load is always light
during night hours and it starts increasing right from morning and usually readies its peak
level in the evening, and again falls during late evening period. The demand is also affected
during weekends as well as by weather. Hence, many methods have been developed for load
forecasting. The methods for load forecasting can predict the load for period varying from as
small as few seconds to days. Based on these load forecasts, the usual practice is to prepare
a commitment schedule of start-up and shut-down of units. The commission of a generating
unit means to bring it to speed, synchronize it to the system and then connect it to the
system so that it can deliver the load reliably.
In the early stages, the main criteria of unit commitment were efficiency of units. Units used
to be ordered as per efficiencies. The most efficient unit used to be committed first and then
the next unit, if necessary to meet the load demand, from priority list used to be committed.
Soon, it was realized that optimum unit commitment may be obtained using input-output
characteristics, termed as cost curves; and today all commitment techniques are based on
these cost curves. Classically, unit commitment is the determination of optimal schedule and
generation level of each unit over a specific time horizon. Time horizon may be hours or a
week.
Baldwin (Scientist name) was the first to report the study of economic shut down of
generating units. Since then, many optimization techniques have been used to obtain solution
of unit commitment problem prominent among these are dynamic programming, branch and
bound, Lagrangian relaxation.
STATEMENT OF UNIT COMMITMENT (UC) PROBLEM
The unit commitment problem (UC) in electrical power production is a large family
of mathematical optimization problems where the production of a set of electrical generators
is coordinated in order to achieve some common target, usually either match the energy
demand at minimum cost or maximize revenues from energy production.
The total load of the power system is not constant but varies throughout the day and
reaches a different peak value from one day to another. It follows a particular hourly
load cycle over a day. There will be different discrete load levels at each period.
Due to the above reason, it is not advisable to run all available units all the time, and it is
necessary to decide in advance which generators are to start up, when to connect them
to the network, the sequence in which the operating units should be shut down, and for
how long. The computational procedure for making such decisions is called unit
commitment (UC), and a unit when scheduled for connection to the system is said to
be committed.
The problem of UC is nothing but to determine the units that should operate for a
particular load. To ‗commit‘ a generating unit is to ‗turn it on‘, i.e., to bring it up to speed,
synchronize it to the system, and connect it, so that it can deliver power to the
network.
COMPARISON WITH ECONOMIC LOAD DISPATCH
Economic dispatch economically distributes the actual system load as it rises to the
various units that are already on-line. However, the UC problem plans for the best set of
units to be available to supply the predicted or forecast load of the system over a future
time period.
NEED FOR UC
The plant commitment and unit-ordering schedules extend the period of optimization
from a few minutes to several hours.
Weekly pattern scan be developed from daily schedules. Likewise, monthly, seasonal, and
annual schedules can be prepared by taking into consideration the repetitive nature of
the load demand and seasonal variations.
A great deal of money can be saved by turning off the units when they are not needed
for the time. If the operation of the system is to be optimized, the UC schedules are
required for economically committing units in plant to service with the time at which
individual units should be taken out from or returned to service.
This problem is of importance for scheduling thermal units in a thermal plant; as for
other types of generation such as hydro their aggregate costs (such as start-up costs,
operating fuel costs, and shutdown costs) are negligible so that the iron-off status is not
important.
CONSTRAINTS IN UC
There are many constraints to be considered in solving the UC problem.
Spinning reserve
It is the term used to describe the total amount of generation available from all
Synchronized units on the system minus the present load and losses being supplied.
Here, the synchronized units on the system may be named units spinning on the
system.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑎 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡

Spinning Reserve = 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑦𝑛𝑐𝑕𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑑 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 − 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 + 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
Static reserve:
To meet the load demand under contingency of failure of a generator or its derating
caused by minor defect, it is made so that the total installed capacity of the
generating station greater the yearly peak load by certain margin. This is called static
reserve.
Thermal Unit Constraints
Thermal units require crew to operate them especially where turned on or off. A
thermal unit may undergo only gradual temperature changes and this translates into
increased number of hours required to bring it on line. Therefore the various
constraints that arise one.
a) Minimum Up time
Once the unit is running, it should not be turned off immediately.
b) Minimum Down Time
Once the unit is decommitted, there is a minimum time before it can be

recommitted.
c) Crew Constraints
If a plant consists of 2 or more units, they cannot be turned on at the same time
since there are not enough staff to attend all the units at a time.
d) Start Up Cost
A start-up cost is incurred when a generator is put into operation. The cost is
dependent on how long the unit has been inactive. While the start-up cost function
is nonlinear, it can be discretized into hourly periods, giving a stepwise function.
The start-up cost may vary from a maximum ‗cold start‘ value to a very small value
if the unit was only turned off recently, and it is still relatively close to the operating
temperature.
Two approaches to treating a thermal unit during it‘s ‗down‘ state:
The first approach (cooling) allows the unit‘s boiler to cool down and then heat back
up to a operating temperature in time for a scheduled turn-on.
The second approach (banking) requires that sufficient energy be input to the boiler
to just maintain the operating temperature.
Similarly, shut-down cost is incurred during shutting down generating units. In

general, it is neglected from the unit commitment decision.
OTHER CONSTRAINTS
In addition to system and unit constraints, there are other constraints that need to
be considered in the UC decision. They are described as follows:
A. Fuel Constraints:
Due to the contracts with fuel suppliers, some power plants may have limited fuel or
may need to burn a specified amount of fuel in a given time. A system in which
some units have limited fuel, or else have constraints that require them to burn a
specified amount of fuel in a given time, presents a most challenging unit
commitment problem.
B. Must Run Units:
Some units are given a must-run status during certain times of the year for reason
of voltage support on the transmission network or for such purposes as supply of
steam for uses outside the steam plant itself. The must run units include units in
forward contracts, units in exercised call/put options, RMR units, nuclear power
plants, some cogeneration units, and units with renewable resources such as wind-
turbine units and some hydro power plants.
C. Must-off Units:
Some units are required to be off-line due to maintenance schedule or forced outage.
These units can be excluded from the UC decision.
D. Emission Constraints:
There are some emissions like sulphur dioxide ( SO2 ), nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon
dioxide ( CO2 ), and mercury which are produced by fossil-fuelled thermal power
plants. The amount of emission depends on various factors such as the type of fuel
used, level of generation output, and the efficiency of the unit. The production cost
minimization may need to be compromised in order to have the generation schedule
that meets the emission constraints.
Unit Commitment Solution Methods
The Unit commitment problems are very difficult to solve, for that
consider the following situation,
1. A loading pattern for the M periods using load curve must be established.
2. Number of units should be committed and dispatched to meet out the load.
3. The load period and number of units should supply the individual loads and any
combination of loads.
There are many classical approaches have been developed and implemented
successfully. Some of the approaches are
1. Enumeration Technique or Brute Force technique
2. Priority List Method
3. Dynamic Programming
4. Lagrange Relaxation
5. Integer and Mixed integer programming
6. Benders decomposition
7. Branch and Bound
Other non – classical approaches are
1. Genetic Algorithms
2. Greedy random adaptive search procedure
3. Particle swarm optimization
4. Simulated annealing
Brute Force Technique or Enumeration
In the Brute – force or Enumeration, the total number of

combinations are
trying at each and every hour is given by,
C (N.1) + C (N,2) + ………. + C (N,N-1) + C (N,N)
Which gives (2N -1) combinations if we consider for M periods, then the
number of combination becomes (2N -1)M
Where,
N – Number of units,
M – Total time period.
If number of units and periods increases, then the combination becomes too
high.
This leads to high dimensionality of possible solution.

Example problem 1:
Obtain the optimum unit commitment using the enumeration technique

or brute force technique for the power demand of 800 MW. The fuel
cost equations are as follows:
F1 = 0.006 PG12 + 7 PG1 + 600
F2 = 0.01 PG22 + 8 PG2 + 400
F3 = 0.008 PG32 + 6 PG3 + 500
Operating limits are
100 ≤ PG1 ≤ 400 MW
50 ≤ PG2 ≤ 300 MW
150 ≤ PG3 ≤ 500 MW
Solution: Brute force technique,
Number of combinations = 23-1 = 8 – 1 = 7
S.No U-1 U-2 U-3 Max. Min. PG1 PG2 PG3 Sol. Cost
in Rs.
1 0 0 0 - - - - - INF -
2 0 0 1 500 150 INF
3 0 1 0 300 50 INF
4 0 1 1 800 200 - 300 500 F 9200
5 1 0 0 400 100 INF -
6 1 0 1 900 250 400 400 F 8540
7 1 1 0 700 150 INF
8627.
8 1 1 1 1200 300 335 151 314 F
04
INF – Infeasible ; F – Feasible ; Sol - Solution
Consider the 4th case : (feasible solution)
PD = 800 MW
Units 2 and Units 3 are operating

𝑏𝑖 8 6
𝑃𝐷 + 800 + +
2𝑎𝑖
‫=ג‬ 1 = 1
2𝑥0.01
1
2𝑥0.008
= 14
+
2𝑎𝑖 2𝑥0.01 2𝑥0.008
‫ג‬ − 𝑏2 14 − 8
PG2 = = = 300 MW
2𝑎2 2 𝑥 0.01
‫ג‬ − 𝑏3 14 − 6
PG3 = = = 500 MW
2𝑎3 2 𝑥 0.008
F2 = a2 PG22 + b2 PG2 + c2 = 0.01 x 3002 + 8 x 300 + 400 = Rs.3700
F3 = a3 PG32 + b3 PG3 + c3 = 0.008 x 5002 + 6 x 500 + 500 = Rs.5500
Total Fuel cost Ft = F2 + F3 = Rs.9200
Consider 6th case (feasible) : Units 1 and Units 3 are operating.
𝑏𝑖 7 6
𝑃𝐷 + 800 + +
2𝑎𝑖
‫=ג‬ 1 = 1
2𝑥0.006
1
2𝑥0.008
= 12.057
+
2𝑎𝑖 2𝑥0.006 2𝑥0.008
‫ג‬ − 𝑏1 12.057 − 7
PG1 = 2𝑎1
= 2 𝑥 0.006
= 421.416 > PG1max
PG1 = PG1max = 400 MW
PG3 = PD – PG1 = 800 – 400 = 400 MW
F1 = a1 PG12 + b1 PG1 + c1 = 0.006 x 4002 + 7 x 400 + 600 = Rs.4360
F3 = a3 PG32 + b3 PG3 + c3 = 0.008 x 4002 + 6 x 400 + 500 = Rs.4180
Total Fuel cost = Ft = F1 + F3 = 4360 + 4180 = Rs.8540

Consider 8th case: 1, 2 and 3 are operating :
𝑏𝑖 7 8 6
𝑃𝐷 + 800 + + +
2𝑎𝑖
‫=ג‬ 1 = 1
2𝑥0.006
1
2𝑥0.01
1
2 𝑥 0.008
= 11.02
+ +
2𝑎𝑖 2𝑥0.006 2𝑥0.008 2 𝑥 0.01
‫ג‬ − 𝑏1 11.02 − 7
PG1 = = = 335 MW
2𝑎1 2 𝑥 0.006
‫ג‬ − 𝑏2 11.02 − 8
PG2 = = = 151 MW
2𝑎2 2 𝑥 0.01
‫ג‬ − 𝑏3 11.02 − 6
PG3 = = = 314 MW
2𝑎3 2 𝑥 0.008
F1 = a1 PG12 + b1 PG1 + c1 = 0.006 x 3352 + 7 x 335 + 600 = Rs.3618
F2 = a2 PG22 + b2 PG2 + c2 = 0.01 x 1512 + 8 x 151 + 400 = Rs.1836.01
F3 = a3 PG32 + b3 PG3 + c3 = 0.008 x 3142 + 6 x 314 + 500 = Rs.3172.768
Ft = F1 + F2 + F3 = Rs.8627.04
Result :
Total fuel cost for the 6th case is less than that of the other cases of feasible
solution. When the system load level is 800 MW, it is preferable to Keep
units 1 and 3 running.
Priority List Method (Using full load average Production cost
FLAPC)
Priority list method is the simplest unit commitment solution method which consists of
creating a priority list of units.
The priority list can be obtained by noting the full-load average production cost of each
unit.
Full load average Production cost = { Net heat rate at full load} x Fuel cost
𝐶𝑖 (𝑃𝐺𝑖 )
FLAPC = 𝑃𝐺𝑖
Assumptions
No load costs are zero.
Unit input – output characteristics are linear between zero output and full load.
Start-up costs are a fixed amount
Ignore minimum up time and minimum down time
Steps to be followed or Method of solving
Determine the full load average production cost for each units.
Form priority order based on average production cost,(Ascending order)
Commit number of units corresponding to the priority order.
Calculate PG1,PG2,……………..PGN from economic dispatch problem for the feasible

combinations only.
For the load curve, each hour load is varying.
Assume load is dropping or decreasing, determine whether dropping the next unit will
supply generation and spinning reserve.
If not, continue as it is,
If yes, go to next step.
Determine the number of hours H, before the unit will be needed again.
Check H < Minimum shut down time
If yes, go to last step,
If not, go to next step.
Calculate two costs
1. Sum of hourly production costs for the next H hours with the unit up.
2. Recalculate the same for the unit down + start-up cost for either cooling or
banking. If the second case is less expensive, the unit should be on.
Repeat this procedure until the priority list.
Merits
No need to go for ―N‖ Combinations.
Take only one constraint
Ignore the minimum up time and minimum down time.
Complication reduced.
Demerits
Start-up cost are fixed amount
No load costs are not considered

Example Problem 2
Determine Priority list using full load average production cost for the data
given.
Unit No Loading limits Fuel cost parameter Fuel cost

Min Max ai bi ci
1 100 400 0.006 7 600 1.1
2 50 300 0.01 8 400 1.2
3 150 500 0.008 6 500 1.0
Solution :
H1 = 0.006 PG12 + 7 PG1 + 600
H2 = 0.01 PG22 + 8 PG2 + 400
H3 = 0.008 PG32 + 6 PG3 + 500
𝐻1 (𝑃𝐺1 )
FLAPC1 = K1 x | PGi = PGi max
𝑃𝐺𝑖
1.1 [ 0.006 𝑥 4002 +7 𝑥 400+600]

FLAPC1 = = 11.99
400
𝐻2 (𝑃𝐺2 )
FLAPC2 = K2 x | PG2 = PG2 max
𝑃𝐺2
1.2 [ 0.01 𝑥 3002 +8 𝑥 300+400]

FLAPC2 = = 14.8
300
𝐻3 (𝑃𝐺3 )
FLAPC3 = K3 x | PG3 = PG3 max
𝑃𝐺3
1.0 [ 0.008 𝑥 5002 +6 𝑥 500+500]

FLAPC3 = = 11
500
Priority order : (Arrange FLAPC in ascending order)
Unit FLAPC Min(MW) Max(MW)

3 11 150 500
1 11.99 100 400
2 14.8 50 300
Unit Commitment:
Combination Minimum MW from Maximum MW from

combination combination
3+1+2 300 1200
3+1 250 900
3 150 500
Result :
All the three units would be held on until the load reached 900MW. Units 1 and 3
would be held on until the load reached 500MW, then unit 1 would be dropped.
Dynamic Programming Method
In dynamic programming method, the unit commitment table is to be arrived

at for the complete load cycle.
Advantages
Reductions in the dimensionality of the problem i.e number of combinations to

be tried are reduced in number.
If a strict priority order is imposed, the numbers of combinations for a 4 unit

case are:
Priority 1 unit
Priority 1 unit + Priority 2 unit
Priority 1 unit + Priority 2 unit + Priority 3 unit
Priority 1 unit + Priority 2 unit + Priority 3 unit + Priority 4 unit
The priority listing can be used only if:
 No load costs are zero.
 Unit input-output characteristics are linear between 0 output and full load
 Phase shift transformer tap position
 Switched capacitor settings
 Reactive injection for static VAR compensator
 Load shedding
 DC line flow.
Assumptions:
 Total number of units available, their individual cost characteristics and the load
cycle on the station are assumed priori(previously)
 A state consists of an array of units with specified units operating and the rest off-
line.
 The start-up cost of a unit is independent of the time it has been off-line(i.e., fixed
amount).
 There are no costs for shutting down a unit.
 There is a strict priority order and in each interval a specified minimum amount of
capacity must be operating.
Forward Dynamic programming method
Advantages
 Algorithm to run forward in time from the initial hour to the final hour.
 Forward dynamic programming is suitable if the start-up cost of a unit is a

function of the time it has been off-line(i.e, fixed amount)
 Previous history of the unit can be computed at each stage.
 Initial conditions are easily specified.
Algorithm
 One could set up a dynamic-programming algorithm to run backward in time

starting from the final hour to be studied, back to the initial hour.
 Conversely, one could set up the algorithm to run forward in time from the
initial hour to the final hour.
 The forward approach has distinct advantages in solving generator unit

commitment. For example, if the start-up cost of a unit is a function of the time it
has been off-line (i.e., its temperature), then a forward dynamic-program
approach is more suitable since the previous history of the unit can be computed
at each stage.
 There are other practical reasons for going forward.
 The initial conditions are easily specified and the computations can go forward in
time as long as required.
 A forward dynamic-programming algorithm is shown by the flowchart
The recursive algorithm to compute the minimum cost in hour K with combination
Fcost (K,I) = min { Pcost (K,I) + Scost (K-1,L;K,I) }
Where
Fcost(K.I) = R (K,I)
Fcost(K, I) = least total cost to arrive at state ( K , I )
Pcost(K,I) = production cost for state ( K ,I )
Scost(K - 1, L: K , I)= transition cost from state (K - 1, L) to

state ( K , I )
State (K, 1) is the Zth combination in hour K. For the forward dynamic
programming approach, we define a strategy as the transition, or path, from one
state at a given hour to a state at the next hour.
Note that two new variables, X and N, have been introduced in Figure.
X = number of states to search each period
N = number of strategies, or paths, to save at each step
These variables allow control of the computational effort (see below Figure).For
complete enumeration, the maximum number of the value of X or N is 2𝑁 – 1
Fig.1 Dynamic programming algorithm
Flow chart
Fig.2 Forward Dynamic Approach

E book and Video Links
S.N
Description Link
o
http://www.freepdfbook.com/pow
E book – Power System Operation and Control by
1 er-system-operation-and-control-
Sivagnanaraju
by-sivanagaraju-and-sreenivasan/
http://www.freepdfbook.com/oper
E book – Operation and Control in Power System by
2 ation-and-control-in-power-
PS Murthy
systems-by-p-s-r-murty/
E book - Power System Operation and Control by
3 er-system-analysis-operation-and-
Abhijit and chakrabarthi
control-abhijit-chakrabarti-pdf/
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/108/10
4 Video Link –State estimation
5/108105133/
5 Video Link – Load Frequency Control
5/108105104/
6 Video link -STATCOM https://www.youtube.com/wa

tch?v=i50tns4de5o
6 Video Link – AGC, AVR and EDC
4/108104052/
Quiz
1. Incremental heat rate curves, for thermal generating units, are used to
determine the:
1. Fuel cost in rupees per hour.
2. Values at which the units should be loaded to result in minimum fuel costs.
3. Cost per unit of electrical output.
4. Heat produced per hour.
2.When generating units are loaded to equal incremental costs, it results in:
1. Minimum fuel costs.
2. Fuel costs are at a maximum.
3. Fuel costs are not affected.
4. Maximum loading of generating units
3.Economic operation of power system is:
1. Unit commitment.
2. Load scheduling.
3. Controlling of voltage and its magnitude.
4. Both (a) and (b).
4.Lagrangian multiplier method converts a non-linear constrained optimization
problem into _____ non-linear optimization
problem.
1. Gradient.
2. Linear.
3. Unconstrained.
4. All of these.
5.Unit of heat rate curve is _____.
1. Million kCal/hr.
2. Rs.-hr.
3. Rs./MWh.
4. Rs./hr.
6.Power balance equation is _____ constraint.
1. Equality.
2. Inequality.
3. Security constraints.
4. Branch transfer capacity constraint.
7.Cost curves can be obtained by:
1. Multiply the fuel input with cost of fuel.
2. Subtract the fuel input with cost of fuel.
3. Add the fuel input with cost of fuel.
4. None of these.
8.The curve obtained by considering the change in cost of generation to change in
real-power generation at various points is:
1. Fuel cost curve.
2. Input–output curve.
3. Incremental cost curve.
4. All of these.
9.The optimization problem is:
1. To allocate total load demand among various units such that the cost of
generation is maintained constant.
generation is minimized.
generation is enormously increased.
4. To allocate total load demand among various units such that there is no effect
with cost of generation.
10. If the real-power inequality constraints are violated for any generator, then:
1. It is tied to the corresponding limit and the rest of the load is economically
distributed among the remaining units.
2. It is tied to the corresponding limit and the total load is economically distributed
among all the units.
3. It is not considered and the total load is economically distributed among all the
units.
4. Any of the above methods
11. In the economic operation of a power system, the effect of increased penalty
factor between a generating plant and system
load center is to:
1. Decrease the load on the generating plant.
2. Increase the load on the plant.
3. Hold the plant load constant.
4. Decrease the load first and then increase
12.Economic dispatch is done first by ___________ and then by___________.
1. Unit commitment and then load scheduling.
2. Load scheduling and then unit commitment.
3. Either (a) or (b).
4. Unit commitment and load frequency control.
13. Transmission losses are about:
1. 50% of the total generation.
2. 100% of the total generation.
3. 5–15% of the total generation.
4. None of these.
14.The condition for optimality with consideration of transmission loss is:
1. The incremental fuel costs in Rs./hr of all the units must be the same.
2. The incremental fuel costs in Rs./hr of all the units must be the same.
3. The incremental transmission losses in Rs./MWh of all the units must be the
same.
4. The incremental fuel cost of each multiplied by its penalty factor must be the
same for all plants.
15.Transmission loss is:
1. A function of real-power generation.
2. Independent of real-power generation.
3. A function of reactive-power generation.
4. A function of bus voltage magnitude and its angle.
16. In solving optimization problem with transmission loss consideration, the
condition for optimality is obtained as:
1. The IC of all the plants must be the same.
2. The IC of each plant multiplied with its penalty factor must be the same for all the
plants.
3. The IC of each plant divided by its penalty factor must be the same for all the
plants.
4. The IC of each plant subtracted from its penalty factor must be the same for all
the plants.
Assignments
1. Determine Priority list using full load average production cost for the data given
Power Demand, PD = 500MW
Unit No Loading limits Fuel cost parameter Fuel cost

Min Max ai bi ci
1 150 600 0.00142 7.2 510 1.1
2 100 400 0.00194 7.85 310 1.0
3 50 200 0.00482 7.97 78 1.2
2. Obtain the optimum unit commitment using the enumeration technique or brute
force technique for the power demand of 700 MW. The fuel cost equations are as
follows:
Unit Loading limits Fuel cost parameter Fuel

No Min Max ai bi ci cost
1 150 600 0.00585 6.8 620 1.1
2 100 400 0.00995 7 390 1.0
3 50 200 0.0078 5.6 510 1.2
Assignments
3. A constant load of 400 MW is supplied by two 210-MW generators 1 and 2, for
which the fuel cost characteristics are given as below:
𝐶1 = 0.05 𝑃𝑔1
2
+ 20 𝑃𝑔1 + 30.0 Rs./hr
𝐶2 = 0.06 𝑃𝑔2
2
+ 15 𝑃𝑔2 + 40.0 Rs./hr
The real-power generations of units P and P are in MW. Determine: (i) the most
economical load sharing between the generators. (ii) The saving in Rs./day thereby
obtained compared to the equal load sharing between two generators
4. The fuel cost of two units are given by
𝐶1 = 1.0 + 25 𝑃𝑔1 + 0.2 𝑃𝑔1
2
Rs/hr
1
𝐶2 = 1.5 + 35 𝑃𝑔2 + 0.2 2

𝑃𝑔2 Rs/hr
If the total demand on the generators is 200 MW, find the economic load scheduling
of the two units.
5.The cost curves of the three plants are given as follows:
𝐶1 = 0.04 𝑃𝑔1
2
+ 20 𝑃𝑔1 + 230 Rs./hr
𝐶2 = 0.06 𝑃𝑔2
2
+ 18 𝑃𝑔2 + 200 Rs./hr
𝐶3 = 0.05 𝑃𝑔3
2
+ 15 𝑃𝑔3 + 180 Rs./hr
Determine the optimum sharing of a total load of 180 MW for which each plant
would take up for minimum input cost of received power in Rs/MWh.
6. The IFC for two plants are
𝑑𝐶1
= 0.075𝑃𝑔1 + 18 𝑅𝑠/𝑀𝑊𝑕
𝑑𝑃1
𝑑𝐶2
= 0.08 𝑃𝑔2 + 16 𝑅𝑠/𝑀𝑊𝑕
𝑑𝑃2
The loss coefficients are given as 𝑩11 = 0.0015/MW, 𝑩12 = − 0.0004/MW, and 𝑩22 =
0.0032/MW for λ = 25 Rs./MWh. Find the real-power generations, total load
demand, and the transmission power loss.
7. The cost curves of two plants are
C = 0.05𝑃𝑔1
2
+ 20𝑃𝑔1 + 150 Rs./hr
C = 0.05 𝑃𝑔2
2
+ 15𝑃𝑔2 + 180 Rs./hr
The loss coefficient for the above system is given as 𝑩11 = 0.0015/MW, 𝑩12 = –
0.0004/MW, and 𝑩22 = 0.0032/MW. Determine the economical generation
scheduling corresponding to λ = 25 Rs./MWh and the corresponding system load
that can be met with. If the total load connected to the system is 120 MW taking
4% change in the value of λ, what should be the value of λ in the next iteration?
Part A (Q & A)
K
S.No Part A (Q & A) COs
Level
What is an incremental fuel cost and what are its units?
Incremental fuel cost is the cost of the rate of increase of fuel input
1 with the increase in power input. Its unit is Rs./MWh. K1 CO3
How is the inequality constraint considered in the determination

of optimum allocation?
If one or several generators reach their limit values, the balance real-
2 power demand, which is equal to the difference between the total K1 CO3
demand and the sum of the limit value, is optimally distributed among
the remaining units by applying the equal incremental fuel cost rule.
On what factors does the choice of a computation method depend on
the determination of optimum distribution of load among the units?
The factors depend upon the following:
3 K1 CO3
1. Number of generating units.
2. The degree of polynomial representing the IC curve.
3. The presence of discontinuities in the IC curves.
Justify the production cost being considered as a function of real
power generation.
The production cost in the case of thermal and nuclear power stations
4 K1 CO3
is a function of fuel input. The real-power generation is a function of
fuel input. Hence, the production cost would be a function of real-
power generation.
To get the solution to an optimization problem, what will we define an
objective‘s function?
Minimize the cost of production,
5 𝑁 K1 CO3
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝐶 = 𝐶𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖
𝑖=1
Write the condition for optimality in allocating the total load demand
among the various units.
6 𝜕𝐶
The condition for optimality is the incremental fuel cost, 𝜕𝑃 𝑖 = λ K1 CO3
𝑔𝑖
What is the need of system variables and what are the variables?
To analyze the power system network, there is a need of knowing the
system variables. They are: K1
7. CO3
1. Control variables—Pg and Qg
2. Disturbance variables—Pd and Qd
3. State variables—V and δ.
K
Level
Define the control variables.
8 The real and reactive-power generations are called control variables K1 CO3
since they are used to control the state of the system.
Define the disturbance variables.
The real and reactive-power demands are called demand variables and
9 they are beyond system control and are hence called uncontrolled or K1 CO3
disturbance variables
Define the state variables.
The bus voltage magnitude V and its phase angle δ dispatch the state
10 of the system. They are dependent variables that are being controlled K1 CO3
by the control variables
What is the need of input–output characteristics of a steam unit?
11 It establishes the relationship between the energy input to the turbine K1 CO3
and the energy output from the electrical generator.
Define the incremental fuel or heat rate curve.
12 It is defined as the ratio of a small change in the input to the K1 CO3
corresponding small change in the output
How do you get incremental cost curve?

The incremental cost curve is obtained by considering at various
13 K1 CO3
points, the change in cost of generation to the change in real power
generation, i.e., slope of the input–output curve.
How you get the heat rate characteristic?
14 The heat rate characteristic is obtained from the plot of net heat rate K1 CO3
in kCal/kWh versus power output in kW.
Define the incremental efficiency.
15 It is defined as the reciprocal of incremental fuel rate and is given by K1 CO3
𝑑𝑝𝑔
Incremental Efficiency = output/ Input = 𝑑𝑐
State in words the condition for minimum fuel cost in a power system
when losses are considered.
16 The minimum fuel cost is obtained when the incremental fuel cost of K1 CO3
each station multiplied by its penalty factor is the same for all the
stations in the power system.
What are the assumptions considered in deriving the transmission loss
expression?
The following assumptions are to be considered for deriving the
transmission loss expression:
17. 1. All lines in the system have the same X/R ratio. K1 CO3
2. All the load currents have the same phase angle.
3. All the load currents maintain a constant ratio to the total current.
4. The magnitude and phase angle of bus voltages at each station
remain constant.
K
Level
What is your analysis by considering the optimization problem with and
without transmission loss consideration?
To get the solution to optimization problem, i.e., to allocate the total
load among various units:
𝜕𝐶
When transmission losses are neglected, the condition is 𝜕𝑃 𝑖 = λ
𝑔𝑖
18 i.e., the IC of all the units must be the same. K1

When transmission losses are considered, the condition is CO4
𝜕𝐶𝑖
𝐿𝑖 = λ
𝜕𝑃𝑔𝑖
i.e., the product of IC of any unit and its penalty factor gives the
optimum solution.
What do you mean by ITL and penalty factor of the system? Write
expressions for them.
It is defined as the ratio of the change in real-power loss to the change
in real-power generation.
19 K1 CO4
Penalty factor
𝜕𝑃𝐿
= λ [1− ]
𝜕𝑃𝑔𝑖
Why are the reactive-power constraints to be considered as inequality

constraints in solving an optimization problem when transmission
losses are considered?
20 K1 CO4
The transmission loss is a function of real and reactive-power
generations since reactive power is proportional to the square of the
voltage
What are the points that should be kept in mind for the solution of
economic load dispatch problems when transmission losses are
included and co-ordinated?
The following points should be kept in mind:
1. Although the incremental production cost of a plant is always
21 K1 CO4
positive, ITL can be either positive or negative.
2. The individual units will operate at different incremental production
costs.
3. The generation with highest positive ITL will operate at the lowest
incremental production cost.
What is Langrangian Multiplier
The necessary condition for the existence of a minimum cost operating
22 condition that the incremental cost rates of all the units be equal to K1 CO4
some undetermined value (λ) calledLangrangian Multiplier
Part A
S.No Part A K Level COs
What is a UC problem?
It is not advisable to run all available units at all times due to the variation of
load. It is necessary to decide in advance:
i. Which generators to start up.
23 ii. When to connect them to the network. K1 CO3
iii.The sequence in which the operating units should be shut down
and for how long.
The computational procedure for making the above such decisions are called
the problem of UC.
What do you mean by commitment of a unit?
To commit a generating unit is to turn it ON, i.e., to bring it up to speed,

24 K1 CO3
synchronize it to the system, and connect it, so that it can deliver power to
the network.
Why is the UC problem important for scheduling thermal units?
As for other types of generation such as hydro, the aggregate costs such as
25 K1 CO3
start-up costs, operating fuel costs, and shut-down costs are negligible so that
their ON–OFF status is not important.
Compare the UC problem with economic load dispatch.
Economic load dispatch economically distributes the actual system load as it

26 rises to the various units already on-line. But the UC problem plans for the K1 CO3
best set of units to be available to supply the predicted or forecast load of the
system over future time periods.
What are the different constraints that can be placed on the uc problem?
Spinning reserve.
27 Thermal unit constraints. K1 CO3
Hydro-constraints.
Must-run constraints.
Fuel constraints.
Part A
S.No Part A K Level COs
What are the thermal unit constraints considered in the UC problem?
The thermal unit constraints considered in the UC problem are:

Minimum up-time.
28 K1 CO3
Minimum down-time.
Crew constraints
Start-up Cost
Why must the spinning reserve be maintained?
Spinning reserve must be maintained so that failure of one or more

29 units does not cause too far a drop in system frequency, i.e., if one K1 CO3
unit fails, there must be ample reserve on the other units to make up
for the loss in a specified time period.
Why are thermal unit constraints considered in a UC table?
A thermal unit can undergo only gradual temperature changes and this
30 translates into a time period of some hours required to bring the unit K1 CO3
on the line. Due to such limitations in the operation of a thermal plant,
the thermal unit constraints are to be considered in the UC problem.
. What is a start-up cost and what is its significance?
Because of temperature and pressure of a thermal unit that must be

moved slowly, a certain amount of energy must be moved slowly, a
certain amount of energy must be expended to bring the unit on-line,
31 K1 CO3
and it is brought into the UC problem as a start-up cost.
The start-up cost may vary from a maximum cold-start value to a very
small value if the unit was only turned off recently and is still relatively
close to the operating temperature
What are the techniques used for getting the solution to the UC
problem?
32 Priority-list scheme K1 CO3

Dynamic programming (DP) method
Lagrange‘s relaxation (LR) method
1 Build the Coordination equation for the EDC neglecting losses K3 CO4
Build the Coordination equation for the EDC neglecting including

2 K3 CO4
losses
Construct the Step by step procedure for a optimum dispatch
3 K3 CO4
strategy of N bus system neglecting the transmission losses
Construct the Step by step procedure for a optimum dispatch K3

4 CO4
strategy of N bus system including the transmission losses
Make use of the input – output characteristics of three units are
𝐹1 = 750 + 6.49 𝑃1 + 0.0035 𝑃21
𝐹2 = 870 + 5.75 𝑃2 + 0.0015 𝑃2 2
5 𝐹3 = 620 + 8.56 𝑃3 + 0.001 𝑃2 3 K3 CO4
The fuel cost of unit 1 is 1.0 Rs/Mbtu , for unit 2 is 1.0 Rs/Mbtu and
for unit 3 is 1.0 Rs/Mbtu. Total load is 800 MW. Use Participation
method to calculate the dipatach for a load is increased to 880 MW
Solve for the generation schedule when λ = 20 and 25. Find also
change in transmission losses between two schedules
The incremental production cost are
𝑑𝑓𝑖
= 0.08 𝑃𝑔1 + 20 𝑅𝑠/𝑀𝑊𝑕𝑟
𝑑𝑃𝑔1
6 K3 CO4
𝑑𝑓2
= 0.09 𝑃𝑔2 + 16 𝑅𝑠/𝑀𝑊𝑕𝑟
𝑑𝑃𝑔1
Loss coefficients are
𝐵11 = 0.0015 , 𝐵12 = −0.0006, 𝐵22 = −0.0024
Identify the penalty factor of plant 1 if the system consists of two

generating units connected to transmission line .
7 𝑑𝑓𝑖
= 0.16𝑃1 + 32 &
𝑑𝑓2
= 0.24𝑃2 + 36, with 𝑃𝑔1 = 𝑃𝑔1 = 100 and K3 CO4
𝑑𝑃𝑔1 𝑑𝑃𝑔2
𝑑𝑃𝐿
= 0.2
𝑑𝑃𝑔2
Solve to determine the economic generation schedule for the fuel
cost function for three thermal plants in $/H are given by
𝐶1 = 580 + 5.2𝑃1 + 0.0045𝑃21
𝐶2 = 640 + 4.5𝑃2 + 0.0056𝑃2 2
𝐶1 = 820 + 5.8𝑃3 + 0.0079𝑃2 3
8 Where 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 and 𝑃3 are in MW. The total load is 𝑃𝐷 is 925 MW with K3 CO4
the following generator limits in MW.
250 ≤ 𝑃1 ≤ 450
200 ≤ 𝑃2 ≤ 350
125 ≤ 𝑃3 ≤ 225
Part B
Explain the λ- iteration method for finding the solution of economic

9 dispatch without including transmission losses with a neat flow chart K1 CO3
Explain the λ- iteration method for finding the solution of economic

10 dispatch including transmission losses with a neat flow chart K1 CO3
The incremental cost of two units are

dF1/dP1=0.08PG1+16 Rs/MW-hr.
11 dF2/dP2=0.08PG2+12 Rs/MW-hr K1 CO3
Power loss is given by PL=0.001 PG12+0.0024 PG22-0.001 PG1 PG2
Determine the optimum scheduling for a load demand of 100MW
A two bus system is shown in figure. If 100 MW is transmitted from
plant 1 to the load, a transmission loss of 10 MW is incurred. Find the
required generation for each plant and power received by load when
the system incremental cost is Rs.25 per MWhr. The cost equations of
the plants are given below.
F1=0.01P12+16P1+180 Rs/hr F2=0.02P22+20 P2+ 160
Rs/hr
12 K1 CO3
Explain in detail about various constraints in unit commitment

13 K1 CO3
Explain the priority list method for unit commitment problem
14 K1 CO3
Part B
K
S.N
Part B Lev COs
o
el
Determine Priority list using full load average production cost for the data
given
Power Demand, PD = 500MW
15 K3 CO3

1

2
Real time Applications
A new Kho-Kho optimization Algorithm: An application to solve combined emission

economic dispatch and combined heat and power economic dispatch problem
Content beyond the syllabus
Smart Grid Economic Dispatch

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212017316000347
Assessment Schedule
Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Olle.I.Elgerd, ‗Electric Energy Systems theory - An introduction‘, McGraw Hill

2. Allen. J. Wood and Bruce F. Wollen berg, ‗Power Generation, Operation and
Control‘, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2016.
3. Abhijit Chakrabarti and Sunita Halder, ‗Power System Analysis Operation and
Control‘, PHI learning Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, Third Edition, 2010.
REFERENCES
1. Kothari D.P. and Nagrath I.J., ‗Power System Engineering‘, Tata McGraw-Hill
2. Hadi Saadat, ‗Power System Analysis‘, McGraw Hill Education Pvt. Ltd., New
3. Kundur P., ‗Power System Stability and Control, McGraw Hill Education Pvt. Ltd.,
Mini project suggestions
Simulation of Economic Dispatch problem without losses

Simulation of Economic Dispatch problem with losses
Thank you
Disclaimer:
Department: EEE
Batch/Year: 2017-2021/ 2020

Professor
Date: October 2020

Contents

1 Contents 5
3 Pre Requisites 7
4 Syllabus 8
5 Course outcomes 9
7 Lecture Plan 14
9 Lecture Notes 16
10 Assignments 56
11 Part A Q & A 57
12 Part B 60

17

Course Objectives

Prerequisites

Syllabus

representation of AVR loop - static and dynamic analysis –.
stability compensation – voltage drop in transmission line - methods of reactive
power injection - tap changing transformer, SVC (TCR + TSC) and STATCOM for
voltage control 9
TOTAL : 45 PERIODS
Course Outcomes

PROGRAMME OUTCOMES



conclusion.


Development.


10
PROGRAMME OUTCOMES


11

12
CO-PO /PSO mapping
PO, O O O
PSO 1 2 3
co1 - 2 - 3 3 - - - - - - - 3 - 3
co2 - 2 - 3 3 - - - - - - - 3 - 3
co3 - 2 - 3 3 - - - - - - - 3 - 3
co4 - 2 - 3 3 - - - - - - - 3 - 3
co5 - 2 - 3 3 - - - - - - - 3 - 3
co6 - 2 - 3 3 - - - - - - - 3 - 3
Lecture plan Unit V
Sl Topic No of Prop Actu Pertaining Taxon Mod
No Perio ose al dt CO omy e of
ds d dt level deliv
ery
1 Need of computer CO6 K2 PPT
control of power
systems-
2 Concept of energy CO6 K2 PPT
control centers and
functions
3 PMU - system CO6 K2 PPT
monitoring,
4 data acquisition and CO6 K2, PPT
controls - System
hardware
5 configurations - CO6 K2 PPT
SCADA
6 EMS functions CO6 K2 PPT
7 state estimation CO6 K3 PPT

problem –
measurements and
errors
8 weighted least square CO6 K2 PPT
estimation
9 various operating CO6 K2 PPT
states - state
transition diagram
1. Role play:
SCADA
Lecture notes
UNIT V COMPUTER CONTROL OF POWER SYSTEMS

Need of computer control of power systems
The computer control of power systems are needed in
❖ Power system Planning

❖ System Monitoring
❖ Automatic generation control
❖ Security control
❖ Voltage or reactive power control
❖ Unit commitment
❖ Economic dispatch
❖ State estimation
❖ Contingency analysis
❖ Load forecasting
Increase in unit size, growth of interconnected and the need to maintain the system in
normal mode requires sophisticated control, instrumentation and protection.
❖ The multiplicity of monitoring instruments in the control room and their distance apart
make the observation of more than a few vitalises almost impossible, especially during
the intense activity of plant start-up.
❖ The operation of changing plot parameters and take critical decisions.
❖ These requirements led to the development and application of more advanced solid
❖ state modular electronic instruments, computer based direct control and date
processing systems.
Computer Configuration Trend
❖ The computer system used at power system has been undergoing continuous
development over the years. Formerly, all the functions such as data acquisition,
logging display, and control and performance calculations were performer by
computer processing unit (CPU).
❖ In such system failure of any of the elegant leads to the total system breakdown.
Thus, the need for a dual computer configuration arose which is quite costly.
❖ The further advancement in communication technology and powerful

microprocessors has resulted in the cheap and reliable microprocessor based
Distributed Processing System (DPS).
❖ It is based on the principle of LAN. Today, in all process industries including power
plant, this system is employed for data acquisition and control.
❖ DPS consists of a number of microprocessors connected through data highway,
which is passive in nature. Each processor is assigned a specific task
independently.
Energy control centres
When the power system increases in size-the number of substations,

transformers, switchgear and so on-their operation and interaction become more
complex. So it becomes essential to monitor this information simultaneously for
the total system which is called as energy control centre.
A fundamental design feature of energy centre is that, it increases system
reliability and economic feasibility. In other words, Energy Management (EM) is
performed at control centre called system control centre.
Fig. shows the schematic diagram showing the information flow between various
functions to be performed in an operations control centre computer system. The
system gets information about the power system from remote terminal units
(RTU) that encode measurement transducer outputs and operand/closed status
information into digital signals that are transmitted to the operations centre over
communication circuits.
The control centre can transmit control information such as raise/lower commands
to the speed changer and in turn to the generators and open/close commands to
circuit breakers (CBs). The information coming into the control centre is breaker
/switch status indications and analog measurements.
The analog measurements of generator outputs must be used directly by the
Automatic Generation Control (AGC) program, whereas, all other data will be
processed by the state estimator before being used by the other programs. Real
time operations are in two aspects.
(a) Three level control
1. Turbine-governor to adjust generation to balance changing load-instantaneous
control.
2. ACG (called Load Frequency Control (LFC)) maintains frequency and net power
interchange –action repeated at 2-6 sec. interval.
3. Economic Dispatch Control (EDC) distributes the load among the units such
that fuel cost is minimum-executed at 5-10 minutes intervals.
(b) Primary voltage control
1. Excitation controls regulate generator bus voltage.
2. Transmission voltage control device includes SVC (Static VAR Controllers),
shunt capacitors, transformer taps, etc
Automatic Generation Control

Automatic generation control (AGC) consists of two major and several minor
functions that operate online in real time to adjust the generation against load at
minimum cost. The major functions are load frequency control and economic
dispatch, each of which is described below. The minor functions are reserve
monitoring, which assures enough reserve on the system; interchange
scheduling, which initiates and completes scheduled interchanges; and other
similar monitoring and recording functions.
Fig. Energy control centres
ECC Functions
Functions
The practice of all communication links between equipment and the control centre
could be interrupted and still, electric service is being maintained. The
generating in the system remains synchronized to the transmission network and
maintains its existing power output level even without signals received from
control centre.
Monitoring
An energy control centre fulfills the function of coordinating their
response of the system elements in both normal operation and emergency
conditions.
The burden of repetitious control in normal situations is delegated to the digital
computer and selective monitoring is performed by human operators.
The digital computer is used to process the incoming stream of data to detect
abnormalities and the human operator via lights, buzzers and CRT presentations.
Many lower level or less serious cases of exceeding normal limits are routinely
handled by digital computer. A more serious abnormality detected by the digital
computer may cause suspension of normal control functions
In emergencies such as loss of a major generator or excess power demands by a
neighboring utility on the tie lines, many alarms could be detected and the system
could enter an emergency state.
Data Acquisition and Control

Data acquisition provides operators and computer control systems with status
and measurement information needed to supervise overall operations. Security
control analyses the consequences of faults to establish operating conditions.
A SCADA system consists of a master station and remote terminal unit (RTU).
Master station communicates information to the RTU for observing and controlling
plants.
RTUs are installed at generating station or transmission substation or distribution
substation. RTUs transmitting status of the device and measurements to master
station and receive control commands from the master station.
In a computer aided data acquisition scheme, the steady state reading can be
acquired simultaneously from various instrument locations and can be saved for
future analysis.
The transient may result in the form of voltage or current fluctuations. In a real
power system, the transient may result in the failure of components and it is
sometimes difficult to trace the origin of disturbance. Using a Data Acquisition
system, the transients can be reduced and analyzed.
Phasor Measurement Units for Power Systems (PMU):
A phasor measurement unit (PMU) is a device used to estimate the magnitude and
phase angle of an electrical phasor quantity (such as voltage or current) in
the electricity grid using a common time source for synchronization. Time
synchronization is usually provided by GPS or IEEE 1588 Precision Time Protocol,
which allows synchronized real-time measurements of multiple remote points on the
grid. PMUs are capable of capturing samples from a waveform in quick succession
and reconstructing the phasor quantity, made up of an angle measurement and a
magnitude measurement. The resulting measurement is known as a synchrophasor.
These time synchronized measurements are important because if the grid’s supply
and demand are not perfectly matched, frequency imbalances can cause stress on
the grid, which is a potential cause for power outages.
PMUs can also be used to measure the frequency in the power grid. A typical
commercial PMU can report measurements with very high temporal resolution, up to
120 measurements per second. This helps engineers in analysing dynamic events in
the grid which is not possible with traditional SCADA measurements that generate
one measurement every 2 or 4 seconds. Therefore, PMUs equip utilities with
enhanced monitoring and control capabilities and are considered to be one of the
most important measuring devices in the future of power systems. A PMU can be a
dedicated device, or the PMU function can be incorporated into a protective relay or
other device.
Existing systems in power grid such as Energy Management System (EMS) and
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition system (SCADA) have the capability to
provide only steady state view of power system with high data flow latency. In
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition system (SCADA) it was not possible to
measure the phase angles of bus voltages of power system network in real time, due
to technical difficulties in synchronising measurements from distant locations.
Measurements were obtained at slower rates; it was not possible to get dynamic
behaviour of power system as well as limited situational awareness was conveyed
to the operator. Advent of Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs) alleviated this
problem by synchronising voltage and current waveforms at widely dispersed
locations with respect to global positioning system. PMU is superior to SCADA with
respect to speed, performance and reliability.
As per definition of IEEE, PMU is defined as device that produces

synchronised phasor, frequency and rate of change of frequency
estimates from voltage and/or current signals and time synchronising
signal. PMUs provide real time synchronised measurements in power system with
better than one microsecond synchronisation accuracy, which is obtained by
Global Positioning System (GPS) signals. PMUs are situated in power system
substations, and provide measurement of time stamped positive sequence
voltages and currents of all monitored buses and feeders. Data from various
substations are collected at suitable site, and by aligning time stamps of
measurements a coherent picture of the state power system is created. PMUs are
time synchronised, high speed measurement units that monitor current and
voltage waveforms (sinusoids) in the grid, convert them into a phasor
representation through high end computation and securely transmit the same to
centralised server.
PMU technology is well suited to track grid dynamics in real time, the data
obtained can be used for wide area monitoring, stability monitoring, dynamic
system ratings and improvement in state estimation, protection and control. It
enables utilities to proactively plan energy delivery and prevent failures.
PMU application
❖ Post disturbance analysis
❖ Stability monitoring
❖ Thermal overload monitoring
❖ Power system restoration
❖ State estimation
❖ Real time control
❖ Adaptive protection
System Hardware Configuration
❖ The supervisory control and the data acquisition system allow a few operators to
monitor the generation and HV transmission system. Consistent with principles of
high reliability and fail safe failures, electric utilities have almost universally applied
a redundant set of dual digital computers for the function of remote date
acquisition control, energy management and system security.
❖ Both computers have their own core memory and drive an extensive number of
input-output devices such as printers, teletypes, and magnetic tape drive, disks.
Usually one computer, the on-line units, is monitoring and controlling the power
system. The backup computer may be executing off-line batch programs such as
load forecasting or hydro-thermal allocation
❖ The on-line computer periodically updates a disk memory shared between the two
computers. Upon a fail over or switch-in status command, the stored information of
the common disk is inserted in the memory of the on-line computer.
❖ The information used by the on-line computer has a maximum age of update cycle.
All of the peripheral equipment is interfaced with the computer through input-
output microprocessors that have been programmed to communicate, as well as
pre-process the analog information, check for limits, convert to another system of
units and so on.
❖ The microprocessors can transfer data in and out of computer memory without
interrupting the central processing unit. As a result of these precautions, for all
critical hardware functions, there is often a guaranteed 99.8% or more
availability.
❖ Software also allows for multilevel hardware failures and initialization of

application programs, if failures occur. Critical operation and functions are
maintained during either preventive or corrective maintenance.
❖ Besides hardware, new digital code to control the system may be compiled and
tested in the backup computer, then switched to on-line status. The digital
computers are usually employed in a fixed cycle operating mode, with priority
interrupts wherein computer periodically performs a list of operations. The most
critical functions have the fastest scan cycle. Typically, the following categories
are scanned every 2 seconds.
➢ All status points such as switchgear position, substation loads and

voltages, transformer tap positions and capacitor banks.
➢ Tie-line flow and interchanges schedules.
➢ Generator loads, voltage, operating limits and boiler capacity.
➢ Telemetry verification to detect failures and error in the remote bilateral

communication links between the digital computer and remote
equipment.
❖ The turbine-generators are often commanded to new power levels every 4

seconds, sharing the load adjustment based on each unit‘s response capability
in MW/min. The absolute power output of each unit‘s response capability is
typically adjusted every 5 min by the computer executing an economic dispatch
program to determine the base power settings.
Energy Management System (EMS)
Energy management is the process of monitoring, coordinating and controlling the

generation, transmission and distribution of electrical energy. It is performed at
centers called ‘system control centers’, by a computer system called Energy
Management System (EMS). Data acquisition and remote control is performed by
the computer system called SCADA, which forms the front end of EMS. The EMS
communicates with generating, transmission and distribution systems through
SCADA systems.
Energy management system consists of energy management, AGC, security

control, SCADA, load management as shown in figure.
Fig. Energy Management System

Energy Management
Automatic generation control and economic dispatch minimize the production cost
ad transmission cost. Commit the number of units to be operated to minimize the
cost and schedule hydro-thermal plants properly have come under energy
management.
The functions of energy management systems are:
System load forecasting – Hourly energy, 1 to 7 days.
Unit commitment – 1 to 7 days.
Fuel scheduling to plants.
Hydro-thermal scheduling – up to 7 days.
MW interchanges evaluation – with neighboring system.
Transmission loss minimization.
Security constrained dispatch.
Maintenance scheduling.
Production cost calculation.
Load Management – Carried out at Distribution Control Centre
Remote terminal unit (RTU) installed at distribution substations, can

provide status and measurements for distribution substation. RTU can monitor
switches, interrupters, control voltage, customer meter reading, etc.
The functions
1. Data acquisition
2. Monitoring, sectionalizing switches and create circuit configuration
3. Feeder switch control and preparing distribution map
4. Preparation of switching orders
5. Customer meter reading
6. Load management
7. Fault location and circuit topology configuration
8. Service restoration
9. Power factor and voltage control
10. Implementation time dependent pricing
11. Circuit continuity analysis.
12. To control customer load through appliance switching and indirectly through
voltage control
Power System Data Acquisition and Control
A SCADA system consists of a master station that communicates with remote

terminal units (RTUs) for the purpose of allowing operators to observe and control
physical plants.
Generating plants and transmission substations certainly justify RTUs, and their
installation is becoming more common in distribution substations as costs
decrease. RTUs transmit device status and measurements to, and receive control
commands and set point data from, the master station.
Communication is generally via dedicated circuits operating in the range of 600 to
4800 bits/s with the RTU responding to periodic requests initiated from the
master station (polling) every 2 to 10 s, depending on the criticality of the data.
The traditional functions of SCADA systems are summarized:
a) Data acquisition: Provides telemetered measurements and status information to
operator.
b) Supervisory control: Allows operator to remotely control devices, e.g., open and
close circuit breakers. A “select before operate” procedure is used for greater safety.
c) Tagging: Identifies a device as subject to specific operating restrictions and
prevents unauthorized operation.
d) Alarms: Inform operator of unplanned events and undesirable operating
conditions. Alarms are sorted by criticality, area of responsibility, and chronology.
Acknowledgment may be required
e) Logging: Logs all operator entry, all alarms, and selected information.
f) Load shed: Provides both automatic and operator-initiated tripping of load in
response to system emergencies.
g) Trending: Plots measurements on selected time scales.
Energy Management
Since the master station is critical to power system operations, its functions are
generally distributed among several computer systems depending on specific
design. A dual computer system configured in primary and standby modes is most
common. SCADA functions are listed below without stating which computer has
specific responsibility.
• Manage communication circuit configuration
• Downline load RTU files
• Maintain scan tables and perform polling
• Check and correct message errors
Convert to engineering units
• Detect status and measurement changes
• Monitor abnormal and out-of-limit conditions
• Log and time-tag sequence of events
• Detect and annunciate alarms
• Respond to operator requests to:
– Display information
– Enter data
– Execute control action
– Acknowledge alarms Transmit control action to RTUs
• Inhibit unauthorized actions
• Maintain historical files
• Log events and prepare reports
• Perform load shedding
Automatic Generation Control
Automatic generation control (AGC) consists of two major and several minor
functions that operate online in real time to adjust the generation against load at
minimum cost.
The major functions are load frequency control and economic dispatch, each of
which is described below.
The minor functions are reserve monitoring, which assures enough reserve on
the system; interchange scheduling, which initiates and completes scheduled
interchanges; and other similar monitoring and recording functions.
Load Frequency Control

Load frequency control (LFC) has to achieve three primary objectives, which
are stated below in priority order:
1. To maintain frequency at the scheduled value
2. To maintain net power interchanges with neighboring control areas at the
scheduled values
3. To maintain power allocation among units at economically desired values.
The first and second objectives are met by monitoring an error signal, called
area control error (ACE), which is a combination of net interchange error and
frequency error and represents the power imbalance between generation and load
at any instant.
This ACE must be filtered or smoothed such that excessive and random changes
in ACE are not translated into control action.
Since these excessive changes are different for different systems, the filter
parameters have to be tuned specifically for each control area.
The filtered ACE is then used to obtain the proportional plus integral control signal
This control signal is modified by limiters, dead bands, and gain constants that are
tuned to the particular system.
This control signal is then divided among the generating units under control by
using participation factors to obtain unit control errors (UCE).
These participation factors may be proportional to the inverse of the second
derivative of the cost of unit generation so that the units would be loaded
according to their costs, thus meeting the third objective.
However, cost may not be the only consideration because the different units may
have different response rates and it may be necessary to move the faster
generators more to obtain an acceptable response.
The UCEs are then sent to the various units under control and the generating
units monitored to see that the corrections take place.
This control action is repeated every 2 to 6 s. In spite of the integral control,
errors in frequency and net interchange do tend to accumulate over time.
These time errors and accumulated interchange errors have to be corrected by
adjusting the controller settings according to procedures agreed upon by the
whole interconnection.
These accumulated errors as well as ACE serve as performance measures for
LFC.
The main philosophy in the design of LFC is that each system should follow its
own load very closely during normal operation, while during emergencies; each
system should contribute according to its relative size in the interconnection
without regard to the locality of the emergency.
Thus, the most important factor in obtaining good control of a system is its
inherent capability of following its own load.
This is guaranteed if the system has adequate regulation margin as well as
adequate response capability.
SUPERVISORY CONTROL AND DATA ACQUISITION
(SCADA)
There are two parts to the term SCADA Supervisory control indicates that the
operator, residing in the energy control center (ECC), has the ability to control
remote equipment.
Data acquisition indicates that information is gathered characterizing the state of
the remote equipment and sent to the ECC for monitoring purposes.
The monitoring equipment is normally located in the substations and is
consolidated in what is known as the remote terminal unit (RTU).
Generally, the RTUs are equipped with microprocessors having memory and logic
capability. Older RTUs are equipped with modems to provide the communication
link back to the ECC, whereas newer RTUs generally have intranet or internet
capability.
Relays located within the RTU, on command from the ECC, open or close selected
control circuits to perform a supervisory action.
Such actions may include, for example, opening or closing of a circuit breaker or
switch, modifying a transformer tap setting, raising or lowering generator MW
output or terminal voltage, switching in or out a shunt capacitor or inductor, and
the starting or stopping of a synchronous condenser.
Information gathered by the RTU and communicated to the ECC includes both
analog information and status indicators.
Analog information includes, for example, frequency, voltages, currents, and real
and reactive power flows.
Status indicators include alarm signals (over-temperature, low relay battery
voltage, illegal entry) and whether switches and circuit breakers are open or
closed.
Such information is provided to the ECC through a periodic scan of all RTUs. A 2
second scan cycle is typical.
SCADA
It consists of a master station and RTU linked by communication channel. The

hardware components can be classified into
1. Process computer and associated hardware at the energy control center
2. RTU and the associated hardware at the remote stations.
3. Communication equipment that links the RTUs and process computers at the
master station
4. Fig. Digital computer control and monitoring for power system
Hardware
System Hardware Configuration:
The supervisory control and data acquisition system allows a few
operators to monitor the generation and HV transmission system. Consistent with
principles of high reliability and fail safe features, electric utilities have almost
universally applied a redundant set of dual digital computers for the functions of
remote data acquisition control, energy management and system security. Both
computers have their own core memory and drive an extensive number of input-
output devices such as printers, teletypes, magnetic tape drive, and disks and so
on.
Usually one computer, the on-line units, is monitoring and controlling the
power system. The backup computer may be executing off-line batch programs such
as load forecasting to hydro-thermal allocation. The on-line computer periodically
updates a disk memory shared between the two computers.
Upon a fail over or switch-in status command, the stored information of
the common disk is inserted in the memory of the on-line computer.
The information used by the on-line computer has a maximum age of
update cycle. The figure gives a detailed block diagram of a typical digital computer
control and monitoring for power systems.
All of the peripheral equipment is interfaced with the computer through
input-output microprocessors that have been programmed to communicate, as well
as preprocess the analog information, check for limits, convert to another system of
units and so on.
The microprocessors can transfer data in and out of computer memory wit
processing unit. As a result of these precautions, for all critical hardware
functions, there is often a guaranteed 99.8 % or more availability. Software also
allows for multilevel hardware failures and initialization of application programs, if
failures occur. Critical operations and functions are maintained during either
preventive or corrective maintenance.
Besides hardware, new digital code to control the system may be compiled and
tested in the backup computer, then switched to on-line status. The digital
computers are usually employed in a fixed cycle operating mode, with priority
interrupts wherein the computer periodically performs a list of operations. The
most critical functions have the fastest scan cycle. Typically, the following
categories are scanned every two seconds.
All status points such as switchgear position, substation loads and voltages,
transformer tap positions and capacitor banks.
Tie-line flows and interchanges schedules.
Generators loads, voltage, operating limits ad boiler capacity.
Telemetry verification to detect failures and errors in the remote bilateral
communication links between the digital computer and the remote equipment
The turbine generators are often commanded to new power levels every four
seconds, sharing the load adjustment based on each unit’s response capability in
MW/min. The absolute power output of each unit’s response capability is typically
adjusted every five min by the computer executing an economic dispatch
program to determine the base power setting.
Most low priority programs may be executed on demand by the operator for study
purposes or to initialize the power system. An operator may also alter the digital
computer code in the execution if system. The computer software compiler and
data handlers are designed to be versatile and readily accepts operator inputsa
parameter changes in the system.
Types of SCADA systems and areas of applications:
Type 1: Small distribution systems, small hydro stations, HVDC links.
Type 2: Medium sized power system (plant control center), power station HVDC
link distribution systems.
Type 3: Regional control center, distribution system in large urban areas several
hydro power stations with cascade control.
Type 4: National and Regional control center distributed systems in large urban
areas, several hydro power station with cascade control.
Components of SCADA
SENSORS - Analog and digital sensors are used to interface the systems
RELAYS– Relays are used to sense the abnormal conditions and protect the
system.
REMOTE TERMINAL UNITS – RTU’s are microprocessors controlled electronics
devices which are used to collect various data's and transmit to SCADA system.
MASTER UNIT- Master unit act as a central processor computer.
COMMUNICATION LINKS- It is used to link RTU’s and SCADA system. Satellite
communication, microwave communication, fiber optic communication maybe
used for communication purpose.
AREA CONTROL ERROR
To maintain a net interchange of power with its neighbors, an AGC uses

real power flow measurements of all tie-lines emanating from the area and subtracts
the scheduled interchange to calculate an error value. The net power interchange,
together with a gain, b , the frequency bias, as a multiplier on the frequency is
called area control error.
The interchange power Ps, is generally scheduled for periods of the day
and is changed as ‘blocks’ of MWhr are bought or sold to neighboring utilities. A
positive ACE or positive net exchange of power represents a flow out of the area.
Where, Pk – MW tie flow defined as positive out of the area

Ps – Scheduled MW interchange
- Scheduled base frequency
MASTER STATION
Master unit is provided with a digital computer with associated interfacing
devices and hardware to receive information from RTU, process data and display
salient information to the operator.
Fig Master Station

The hardware at the master station includes the following
1. Process computer
2. CRT display
3. Printer
4. Data logger
5. Computer graphics
6. Control console
7. Keyboard
8. Alarm panel
9. Instrument panel
10. Modem
11. Multiplexer
REMOTE TERMINAL UNIT
The RTU’S are installed at selected power stations and substations. The
hardware components of RTU may include the following.
1. Transducers
2. A/D and D/A converters
3. Serial Interface
4. Modems
5. Multiplexers
6. Front end Computer
7. Control relays
REMOTE TERMINAL UNITS
The analog quantities like voltage , MW, MVAR and frequency measured
at stations are converted into DC voltage or current signals, through transducers and
fed to the A/D converters with convert the analog signals into digital from suitable
for transmission. The digital signal is fed to the front end computer and modems
through the serial interface . MODEM sends the information to the master unit
through multiplexer. MODEM will also receive commands from master units to
control the station equipment's through the control relays. In addition to measure
quantities, status of various devices is informed to master station.
The master station scans the RTU sequentially and gathers information on
the system operating condition i.e Voltage, Current, line flows, generation, output,
etc as well as equipment status. Computer, using real time data can check operating
limits of various quantities and give an alarm to operator if overloading or any other
abnormal condition is detected, the system real time information is presented to the
operator through CRT, computer graphic terminals, alarm panels, alarm printer so
that the operator can supervise minute by minute, system operating condition and
take control action to prevent system disturbances whenever emergency conditions
and system status at specified interval is printed by data loggers.
FUNCTIONS OF SCADA SYSTEMS

1. Data acquisition
2. Information display.
3. Supervisory Control (CBs : ON/OFF, Generator: stop/start, RAISE/LOWER
command)
4. Information storage and result display.
5. Sequence of events acquisition
6. Remote terminal unit processing.
7. General maintenance.
8. Runtime status verification.
9. Economic modeling.
10. Remote start/stop.
11. Load matching based on economics.
12. Load shedding.
CONTROL FUNCTIONS
Control and monitoring of switching devices, tapped transformers, auxiliary

devices, etc.
Bay-and a station-wide interlocking
Dynamic Bus bar coloring according to their actual operational status.
Automatic switching sequences
Automatic functions such as load shedding, power restoration, and high speed
bus bar transfer
Time synchronization by radio and satellite clock signal
MONITORING FUNCTIONS:
Measurement and displaying of current, voltage, frequency, active and reactive

power, energy, temperature, etc.
Alarm functions. Storage and evaluation of time stamped events.
Trends and archiving of measurements
Collection and evaluation of maintenance data
Disturbance recording and evaluation
PROTECTION FUNCTIONS:
Substation protection functions includes the monitoring of events like start, trip
indication and relay operating time and setting and reading of relay parameters.
Protection of bus bars. Line feeders, transformers, generators.
Protection monitoring (status, events, measurements, parameters, recorders)
Adaptive protection by switch-over of the active parameter set.
STATE ESTIMATION
7.9.1. Aim of State Estimation

To obtain the best possible values i.e., “best estimate ” of the bus voltage
magnitudes and angles by processing the available network data. The complex
bus voltages (V<δ) serve as the state variables of the power system.
State estimation is the process to clean up the erroneous data.
7.9.2. Need for State Estimation

To “Smooth out” small random errors in meter readings, defect and
identify gross measurement errors and “fill in” meter readings that have failed
due to communication failures.
7.9.3. Errors
In real time control, the measurements like real and reactive line flows,
real and reactive bus injections (P&Q),bus voltage magnitudes are collected
through SCADA (Supervisory control and data acquisition system).The
telemetered data contains error, that may be redundant measurements. The
errors arise from.
➢ Inaccurate transducer calibration.
➢ The effect of analog to digital conversion.
➢ Noise in communication channels.
➢ Unbalanced phase,etc.
➢ These errors are random in nature and the bus voltage magnitudes cannot be
predicted. So, state estimation is to clean up the erroneous data.
➢ If the number of measurements are more, or the redundancy in the measurement
set to determine the condition of the network, a systematic crosschecking should
be able tc eliminate the errors. Then the output data are used in the system
control center to implement security constrained dispatch and control.
7.9.4. State Vector

➢ The system state is represented by a vector [X] which includes the voltage
magnitudes all the buses (slack, P-V, P-Q buses) and the voltage angles of all the
buses except reference bus (P-V, P-Q buses slack).
Let nb be the number of buses.
Dimension of state vector is n s.
ns = 2nb-1
 2 
 
 x1    3 
 x 2   
   
 x3   nb
[ x] =    =  
 
   v1 
   v 2 
   
   
 
vnb
7.9.6. Static State Estimation

In Power system, the condition of the system may be defined by its
complex bus voltages.
The static state of the power system is defined as the system state that
exists after the action of automatic controllers such as turbine governor control
(speed governing mechanism) and automatic excitation control are completed.
The dynamic state of the power system is the state that exists during the
action of the automatic controllers.
Real time control of power system is concerned with the static state of
the system, i.e., the state of the system that exists for every load and network
condition in the varying load pattern and network configuration, after the action
of the automatic controllers is completed.
Static state estimation is the art of estimating the most likely system state
given a set of imperfect measurements made on the power system.
Estimation of system state is the process based on statistical criterion that
estimates the true value of the state variables by optimizing (minimizing or
maximizing) a selected function.
Most commonly encountered criteria in statistical stated estimation can be
done by
➢Weighted least square criterion.
➢Maximum likelihood criterion.
➢Minimum variance criterion.
Weighted least square criterion
The objective is to minimize the sum of the squares of the weighted
deviations of the estimated measurements [F[X] ) from the actual measurements
[Z].
Deterministic state Estimation: Weighted Least Square
Estimation
Each measurement Zi in the measurement vector [Z] is assigned a weightage

Wi. The values of Wi are fixed from the past experience with the measurements
and reflect the dependability of the measurement.
If the ith measurement Zi is more reliable and accurate, then larger value should
be assigned for the corresponding weightage Wi. Weightage matrix is a diagonal
matrix.
Definition: Weighted least square estimation problem is to estimate the current
state from the last known values(assumed ) of the state vector.
Let [X] be the state vector of order ns X 1
Let [Z] be the measurement vector of order nm X 1
Let F[X] be the vector of measurement function or order nm X 1
Let [X^] be the vector of estimated values for the state variables
order ns X 1
Let [W] be the weightage matrix of order ns X nm
Let[A] be the partial differential coefficients of the measurement function with
respect to the state variables of order nm X ns
Estimated state vector [X^}=[X0]+[∆X^]
Where,[X0]=Vector of last known values of state vector.
[∆X^]= Correction Vector.
Objective Function J={F[x] –[Z]}T[W]{(F[X]-[Z]}
J is a quadratic function and can have only positive values.
Weighted Least Square Estimate:
Criterion: The objective is to minimize [J] the sum of the square of the weighted
deviations of the estimated measurements.
F[X] from the actual measurements[Z]
J= {F[x] –[Z]}T[W]{(F[X]-[Z]}
Unconstrained minimum of J is zero because of quadratic function.
Expanding the equation we get
When J→0 When Fi[X]→Zi

When J is minimized Fi[X]→Ziapproaches Zero
(Fi[X]-Zi)2 approaches zero is determined by the values of Wi
If the Wi is large (Fi [X]-Zi)2 will be small when J is minimized and vice versa.
Hence estimated system state X^ is more close with the more reliable
measurements and less close with the less reliable measurements.
State vector [X]=[X0]+[∆X]
Substituting X=(F[X])
(F[X])= (F[X0]+[∆X]) = F[X0]+[A] [∆X]…………………….(2)
[Neglecting higher powers of [∆X] of expansion]
Substituting F[X] from equation 2 in equation 1,
J= { F[X0]/[A] [∆X –[Z]}T[W]{( F[X0]+[A] [∆X]-[Z]}
J= { F[X0] –[Z]/[A] [∆X] }T[W]{( F[X0] -[Z] +[A] [∆X]}
J={ F[X0] –[Z] }T[W]{( F[X0] -[Z]}+ [∆X]T [A]T [W] [A] [∆X] + 2[∆X]T
[A]T . [W] {( F[X0] -[Z]}……… (3)
If X is to be X^, to minimize J
= 2 [A]T [W] [A][∆X^] +2 [A]T [W] {( F[X0] -[Z]} =0
2 [A]T [W] [A][∆X^] =- 2 [A]T [W] {( F[X0] -[Z]}
[∆X^] =-{[A]T [W] [A]}-1[A]T [W] {( F[X0] -[Z]}
[∆X^]=-{[A]T [W] [A]}-1[A]T [W] {[Z]-F[X0] }

Where [X]= [X0]
Algorithm:
Calculate (F[X]) and [A]= corresponding to [X0].
Calculate [∆X^]= using the equation
[∆X^]=-{[A]T [W] [A]}-1[A]T [W] {[Z]-F[X0] }
If [∆X^] elements are small in magnitude, then stop and [X0] is the system state
[X^].
If [∆X^] elements are not small then update X0, [X0]new =[X0]old+[∆X^] and go to
step 1.
Maximum likelihood criterion
The objective is to maximize the probability that the estimate of the state
variables [X], is the true value of the state variable vector [X].
Minimum variance criterion :
The objective is to minimize the sum of the squares of the deviation of the
estimated components of the state variable vector from the corresponding
components of the true state variable vector.
7.9.6.1. Deterministic State Estimation: Weighted Least Square Estimation
Each measurement Zi in the measurement vector [Z] is assigned a

weightage Wi. The values of Wi are fixed from past experience with the
measurements and reflect the dependability of the measurement.
If the 7th measurement Zi is more reliable and accurate, then larger value should
be assigned for the corresponding weightage Wi matrix is a diagonal matrix .
Definition: Weighted least square estimation problem is to estimate the

current state from the last known values (assumed) of the state vector.
Let [X] be the state vector of order n3x1.
Let [Z] be the measurement vector of order nmx1.
Let F[X] be the vector of measurements function or order nmx1.
Let [X] be the vector of estimated current values for the state variables of order
n3x1.
Let [W] be the weightage matrix of order n3xnm.
Let [A] be the partial different coefficients of the measurement functions with
respect to the state variables on order nmxn3.
Estimated state vector Let [X] =[X0 ]+[ X]
where,[X0 ] = vector of last known values of state vector.
[ X] =Correction vector.
Objective function ,J = {(F[X]) – [Z]} T [W] {(F[X]) –[Z]}
J is a quadratic function and can have only positive values.

Weighted Least Square Estimate:
Criterion: The objective is to minimize [J] the sum of the square of
the weighted deviations of the estimated measurements.
F[X] from the actual measurements[Z]
J= {F[x] –[Z]}T[W]{(F[X]-[Z]}
Unconstrained minimum of J is zero because of quadratic function.
Expanding the equation we get
When J→0 When Fi[X]→Zi

When J is minimized Fi[X]→Ziapproaches Zero
(Fi[X]-Zi)2 approaches zero is determined by the values of Wi
If the Wi is large (Fi [X]-Zi)2 will be small when J is minimized and vice
versa.
Hence estimated system state X^ is more close with the more reliable
measurements and less close with the less reliable measurements.
State vector [X]=[X0]+[∆X]
Substituting X=(F[X])
(F[X])= (F[X0]+[∆X]) = F[X0]+[A] [∆X]…………………….(2)
[Neglecting higher powers of [∆X] of expansion]
Substituting F[X] from equation 2 in equation 1,
J= { F[X0]/[A] [∆X –[Z]}T[W]{( F[X0]+[A] [∆X]-[Z]}
J= { F[X0] –[Z]/[A] [∆X] }T[W]{( F[X0] -[Z] +[A] [∆X]}
J={ F[X0] –[Z] }T[W]{( F[X0] -[Z]}+ [∆X]T [A]T [W] [A] [∆X] +
2[∆X]T [A]T . [W] {( F[X0] -[Z]}……… (3)
If X is to be X^, to minimize J
= 2 [A]T [W] [A][∆X^] +2 [A]T [W] {( F[X0] -[Z]} =0
2 [A]T [W] [A][∆X^] =- 2 [A]T [W] {( F[X0] -[Z]}
[∆X^] =-{[A]T [W] [A]}-1[A]T [W] {( F[X0] -[Z]}
[∆X^]=-{[A]T [W] [A]}-1[A]T [W] {[Z]-F[X0] }
Where [X]= [X0]
Algorithm:
Calculate (F[X]) and [A]= corresponding to [X0].
Calculate [∆X^]= using the equation
[∆X^]=-{[A]T [W] [A]}-1[A]T [W] {[Z]-F[X0] }
If [∆X^] elements are small in magnitude, then stop and [X0] is the
system state [X^].
If [∆X^] elements are not small then update X0, [X0]new =[X0]old+[∆X^]
and go to step 1.
Fig .Weighted least square estimate
State Transition diagram or Various operating states
A power system may be operated in a several different states. These are classified
into five operating states. They are
1. Normal state (Secure state)
2. Alert state
3. Emergency state
4. Extremis state
5. Restorative state
The five operating states and their transitions are shown in fig
Fig. State Transition Diagram

Normal state
A system is said to be normal state if both load and operating constraints are
satisfied. It is one in which the total demand on the system is met by satisfying all
the operating constraints (i.e., equ
ality (E) and inequality (I) constraints).
Secure state
The normal of the system is said to be secure state if all postulated contingency
states are found to be normal. A normal state of the system is said to be insecure if
one or more of the postulated contingency state consists of the constraint limits
violated. In this state, frequency and the bus voltage magnitude are within the
normal operating range. Current flows on all transition lines are within the given
ratings. Transformers and generators are operated within their ratings and there is
no load shedding anywhere in the system. Reserve margin is sufficiently high to
make the system well secure.
Alert state
A normal state of the system is said to be in alert state if one or more of the
postulated contingency states, consists of the constraint limits violated. When the
system security level falls below a certain level or the probability of disturbance
increases, the system may be in alert state. All equalities (E) and inequalities (I) are
satisfied, but on the event of a disturbance occurs, the system will push into
emergency state. To bring back the system to secure state, preventive control action
is carried out.
Emergency state
The system is said to be in emergency state if one or more operating constraints
are violated, but the load constraint is satisfied. In this state, the equality
constraints are unchanged. The system will return to the normal (secure) or alert
state by means of corrective actions, i.e., disconnection of faulted section or load
shedding. The generator still traces the load and the system is still synchronized.
But one or several components are overloaded. As the components eventually fail,
the system will start disintegrate.
Extremis state
When the system is in emergency state, if no proper corrective action is taken in
time, then it goes to either serious emergency state or extremis state. In this,
neither the load nor the operating constraint is satisfied; this results in islanding.
Also the generating units are strained beyond their capacity. Emergency control
action is done to bring back the system state in to emergency state or normal
state.
Restorative state
From this state, the system may be brought back either to alert state or secure
state. The latter is a slow process. Hence, in certain cases, first the system is
brought back to alert state and then to the secure state. This is done using
restorative control action.
E book and Video Links
S.N
Description Link
o
E book – Power System Operation and Control by
1 er-system-operation-and-control-
Sivagnanaraju by-sivanagaraju-and-sreenivasan/
http://www.freepdfbook.com/oper
E book – Operation and Control in Power System by
2 ation-and-control-in-power-
PS Murthy systems-by-p-s-r-murty/
E book - Power System Operation and Control by
3 er-system-analysis-operation-and-
Abhijit and chakrabarthi control-abhijit-chakrabarti-pdf/
4 Video Link –State estimation 5/108105133/
5 Video Link – Load Frequency Control 5/108105104/
6 Video link -STATCOM https://www.youtube.com/wa

tch?v=i50tns4de5o
6 Video Link – AGC, AVR and EDC 4/108104052/
Assignments
Explain briefly about various operating States

Part A (Q & A)
What are the functions of SCADA? (Nov/Dec 2013)

The main functions of SCADA systems are
i. Monitoring
ii. Alarm
1 K1 CO6
iii. Control Data logging
iv. Data acquisition
v. Control On / Off, Raise / Lower
vi. Display
What is SCADA? It stands for supervisory control and data acquisition
system, allow a few operators to monitor the generation and high
voltage transmission systems and to take action to correct overloads.
SCADA refers to a system that enables an electricity utility to remotely
2 K1 CO6
monitor, coordinate, control and operate transmission and distribution.
Components, equipment and devices in a real time mode from a
remote location with acquisition of data for analysis and planning from
one control location
What is state estimation? (Nov/Dec 2013) This is the process of
assigning a value to unknown system state variable based on
3 measurements from that system according to some criteria i.e., K1 CO6
minimizing the some of the square of differences between the
estimated and true value.
Define network topology in power system
Before running the State Estimation program network topology, that is
how the transmission lines are
connected to the load and generator buses must be known. The
network topology keeps on changing and
4 K1 CO6
hence the current telemetered circuit breaker status must be used to
determine the connectivity of the network
and to restructure the electrical system model. The Program
accomplishing this is called the network
topology program or network configurator or system status processor
What is emergency state? The system is said to be in emergency state
if one or more operating constraints are violated, but the load
constraint is satisfied. In this state, the equality constraints are
unchanged. The system will return to the normal (secure) or alert
5 state by means of corrective actions, i.e., disconnection of faulted K1 CO6
section or load shedding. The generator still tracts the load and the
system is still synchronized. But one or several components are
overloaded. As the components eventually fail, the system will start
disintegrate.
List the applications of SCADA. (Nov/Dec 2014) Types of SCADA systems and
areas of applications: Type 1: Small distribution systems, small hydro stations,
HVDC links. Type 2: Medium sized power system (plant control centre), power
station HVDC link distribution systems
6 K1 CO3
Type 3: Regional control centre, distribution system in large urban areas
several hydro power stations with cascade control. Type 4: National and
Regional control centre distributed systems in large urban areas, several
Part A (Q & A)
K
Level
Define restorative state. (May/June 2014) From this state, the system may be
brought back either to alert state or secure state. The latter is a slow process.
6 Hence, in certain cases, first the system is brought back to alert state and K1 CO6
then to the secure state. This is done using restorative control action
What are the functions of Energy management system?

f energy management systems are: System load forecasting – Hourly energy,
1 to 7 days. Unit commitment – 1 to 7 days. Fuel scheduling to plants.
Hydro-thermal scheduling – upto 7 days. MW interchanges evaluation –
7 with neighboring system. Transmission loss minimization. Security K1 CO6
constrained dispatch. Maintenance scheduling. Production cost
calculation.
What is Energy management system?

8 Energy management system consists of energy management, AGC, security K1 CO6
control, SCADA, load management as show in figure.
What are the functions of control center?

System monitoring contingency analysis security constrained optimal
power flow.
9 K1 CO6
What is the function of system monitoring?

System monitoring provides upto date information about the power
system.
10 K1 CO6
Define alert mode?

The occurrence of all possible outages the system does not remain in
11 the secure is K1 CO6
called alert mode.
Part A (Q & A)
K
Level
Define weighted least-squares criterion?
The objective is to minimize the sum of the squares of the weighted
13 deviations of K1 CO6
the estimated measurements z, from the actual measurement.
Define state estimation?

State estimation is the process of assigning a value to an unknown
system state
variable based on measurements from that system according to some
14 criteria. K1 CO6
Define minimum variance criterion?

The objective is to minimize the expected value of the squares of the
deviations of
15 K1 CO6
the estimated components of the state variable vector from the
corresponding components
of the true state variable vector.
What are the states of power system?
Normal state alert mode contingency mode emergency mode.
16 K1 CO6
Define normal mode?

The system is in secure even the occurrence of all possible outages
has been simulated the
17 system remain secure is called normal mode. K1 CO6
Part B
Construct with neat schematic diagram, the information flow

between various functions in an operational energy control
1 K2 CO6
centre computer system
Explain the hardware components and functional aspects of

SCADA system with the help of its functional block diagram
2 K2 CO6
Explain briefly about Energy Management system and also its

functions and controls
3 K2 CO6
What is state estimation with respect to power system? Describe

4 briefly the method of weighted least squares estimation K2 CO6
Part C
Explain with state transition diagram, the different state of the

power system and the various control actions taken under
1 every state to maintain or bring back the system to normal K2 CO6
operating mode

1

2
SCADA Application Diagram for Remote Industrial Plant and Wireless

SCADA
https://www.watelectrical.com/scada-applications-in-power-system/
Energy Management Systems for Hybrid AC/DC Microgrids: Challenges and

Opportunities
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128148914000138
Assessment Schedule
TEXT BOOKS:

REFERENCES
Simulation of Economic Dispatch problem without losses

Simulation of Economic Dispatch problem with losses
Thank you
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Batch/Year: 2017-2021/ 2020

Created by: 1. Dr. USHA RANI P

Date: July 2020

S.No Contents Page No

12 Part B Qs & Part C Qs 72

13 Supportive online Certification courses 74

14 Real time Applications 75

15 Contents beyond the Syllabus 76

Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books 78

18 Mini Project suggestions 79

To impart knowledge on the following topics

Significance of power system operation and control.

Real power-frequency interaction and design of power-frequency controller.

Reactive power-voltage interaction and the control actions to be implemented for

Economic operation of power system.

Course Name : Power System Analysis

Course Code : EE8501

EE8702 POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND CONTROL L T P C 3 0 0 3

UNIT I PRELIMINARIES ON POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND CONTROL 9

CO1 Ability to understand the day-to-day operation of electric power system.

CO4 Ability to acquire knowledge on real power-frequency interaction.

CO5 Ability to understand the reactive power-voltage interaction.

The graduates will have the ability to

b. Identify and formulate Electrical and Electronics Engineering problems from

d. Draw well-founded conclusions applying the knowledge acquired from research

f. Understand the role and responsibility of the Professional Electrical and

g. Be aware of the impact of professional Engineering solutions in societal and

h. Apply the principles of Professional Ethics to adhere to the norms of the

i. Function actively and efficiently as an individual or a member/leader of different

j. Communicate efficiently the engineering facts with a wide range of engineering

k. Demonstrate the acquisition of the body of engineering knowledge and insight

PSO 3 Possess the capacity to embrace new opportunities of emerging technologies,

4 Load curves CO1, CO2 K2 PPT

5 Basic concepts of load CO1, CO2 K2 PPT

9 Regulation of two CO1, CO2 K2 PPT

UNIT I Preliminaries on Power System Operation and Control

Total Installed Capacity - Source : Central Electricity Authority (CEA)

All India Installed Capacity (in MW) of Power stations

Region Thermal Nuclear Hydro RES Grand

Power System Operation Corporation Limited (POSOCO) is a wholly owned

It is responsible to ensure the integrated operation of the Grid in a reliable, efficient,

It consists of 5 Regional Load Despatch Centres and a National Load Despatch

-To monitor grid operations

-To optimize scheduling and dispatch of electricity within the region

Western grid: Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Goa, Daman

Eastern grid: Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal, Sikkim 33523.32MW

Southern grid: Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana,

North-Eastern grid: Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram,

i) Southern regional grid is an electrical system comprising of 6,51,000 Sq. km of

ii) The Southern region has an installed capacity of 74367 MW as on 31/07/2016

The function of a power station is to deliver power to a large number of consumers.

It has better regulations characters by all the units are interconnected.

2. Minimum cost with minimum ecological impact.

Constancy of voltage (Voltage magnitude and load angle).

In simply, the generation of power is transfer to the Consumers through

Kinetic Energy decreases, w decreases, speed decreases, freq decreases N=

Fig. Schematic diagram of P–f controller and Q–V controller

Plant Capacity Factor:

Plant Use Factor:

Types of Load Curve:

Daily load curve–Load variations during the whole day

Daily load curve

Monthly load curve