Manual de Empaques

CHESTERTON ®
GASKET MANUAL
The following are trademarks of A.W. Chesterton Company:

140, 188, 189, 192, 196, 197, 198, 199, 772 and Steel Trap.
A.W. CHESTERTON CO. IS0 9001

Middlesex Industrial Park, 225 Fallon Road, Stoneham, Massachusetts 02180 -9101 USA CERTIFIED
Telephone: 617- 438 -7000 • Cable: Chesterton Stoneham, Mass.
Fax: (617) 438-8971 • Telex: 94-9417
© A.W. CHESTERTON CO.,1995. All rights reserved. ® Registered trademark owned and licensed by A.W. CHESTERTON CO. in USA and other countries.
FORM NO.073617 REV. 1 PRINTED IN USA 3/96

2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
GASKET MANUAL
Creep Relaxation
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Gasket Stress
Description of A.W. Chesterton Gasketing Materials Stability
Section 1 Compressed Non-Asbestos Maximum
Section 2 Flexible Graphite Temperature Resistance/Oxidation of Graphite
Section 3 Polytetrafluoroethylene Pressure & Temperature Relationship
Section 4 The Steel TrapTM Containment Gasket Chemical Properties of Graphite Sheet
Section 5 Rubber Gasketing Design
Section 6 Vegetable Fiber Gasketing “m” & “y” factors
Factors Influencing Gasket Performance Out of Flat Flange Surfaces
Gasket Application — Problems Repair of Flange Surfaces
The “Seal” — A Definition Installation
SECTION 1: COMPRESSED NON-ASBESTOS SECTION 3:

GASKETING MATERIAL . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 POLYTETRAFLUOROETHYLENE . . . . . . . 67
Material selection A.W. Chesterton Products

Influencing Factors AWC 2000: 100% Virgin PTFE Properties
Material Selection AWC 196: Filled PTFE Properties
Surface Finish
Minimum Surface Stress (Smin) SECTION 4: THE STEEL TRAP™ . . . . . . 75
Maximum Surface Stress (Smax)
Hydrostatic End Thrust (HET) Design and Construction
Minimum Assembly Stress (Sa) A.W. Chesterton Products
Torque Calculations Self Locator, Ring, Special Designs
Installation Bolting Specifications
Steam Limitation Torque Requirements
Miscellaneous Bolt Torque Calculations
Non-Stick Finish Installation
Effects of Jointing Compounds Testing of A.W. Chesterton Steel Trap Gasket
Appendix
A: Chemical Compatibility Chart SECTION 5:
B: Stress Curves RUBBER GASKETING MATERIAL . . . . . . 85
C: Technical Data
D: General Bolting Information A.W. Chesterton Products
E: Troubleshooting Descriptions
F: Material Characteristics Properties
G: Definition of Terms
H: Surface Finish SECTION 6: VEGETABLE FIBER
I: Conversion Table GASKETING MATERIAL. . . . . . . . . . . . 91
A.W. Chesterton 140
SECTION 2: FLEXIBLE GRAPHITE Properties
GASKETING MATERIAL . . . . . . . . . . . 47
A.W. Chesterton Products We hope the information contained here will be helpful. It is based on the best
AWC 198 Properties of our knowledge and we believe it to be true and accurate. However, because
of equipment and application variations, no warranty or guarantee is implied
AWC 199 Properties nor do we intend these statements as recommendations or suggestions for
Compressibility/Recovery of Graphite Gaskets any use which would infringe any patent or copyright.
4
INTRODUCTION
GASKET MANUAL
Current non-metallic, non-asbestos gasketing products have been investigated as suitable

encompasses a broad spectrum of materials. There substitutes (i.e. aramid, carbon fibers, glass,
are a variety of gasketing materials with a wide ceramic fibers, etc.) Clearly the technology for
range of physical properties suitable for various using asbestos has evolved over a long period of
conditions of media, temperature and pressure time. No one product will be a general substitute
ranges. A brief comment on gasketing materials for asbestos in the multiplicity of established
supplied by A.W. Chesterton will, for the most part, applications. Instead, alternative materials are
offer the gasket user a complete enough range to being developed for specific segments of the
make a proper selection to satisfy his needs. This asbestos market.
manual is divided into sections; each section will A.W. Chesterton has a number of different
describe a particular type or class of gasketing compressed gasketing styles/types available that
material supplied by A.W. Chesterton. can function over an extensive range of fluids,
temperatures and pressures.
SECTION 1: COMPRESSED NON-ASBESTOS

GASKETING MATERIAL SECTION 2: FLEXIBLE GRAPHITE
GASKETING MATERIAL
Compressed gasketing products were first
introduced in the 1890’s. Since that time, Flexible graphite is a distinctive material with
compressed gasketing has been the single most essential characteristics of graphite and
widely used product line in the world for sealing complimentary properties of flexibility,
flanges because of its ability to seal effectively over compactability, conformability and resilience. The
an extremely wide range of service conditions. process employs a high quality particulate graphite
In the manufacture of compressed gasketing, flake which has been chemically treated with
fibers of either asbestos or other materials are mixtures of mineral acids to from a complex
mixed with a variety of elastomers and fillers. A compound of carbon atoms between layers. This
viscous dough is formed in a mixer with the complex compound is then rapidly heated to
introduction of a suitable solvent. The dough is then decomposition resulting in an over eighty fold
formed into sheets using a specially designed two- expansion in size compared with the raw flake
roll calender called a “Sheeter”. A “Sheeter” has one material. The expanded or exfoliated product is
large steam heated roll and one smaller water then readily formed into sheets either by a molding
cooled roll. Each roll revolves toward the other or calendaring operation. Since the forming of
forcing the dough, located in the nip, onto the graphite sheet involves only mechanical
heated roll, where it continuously builds-up until interlocking of the expanded flakes, the resulting
the desired thickness is reached. Pressure is sheet product is essentially pure graphite, typically
constantly appplied by the cold roll on the dough well over 95% elemental carbon by weight, with a
attached to the heated roll as the rolls are slowly highly aligned structure.
backed off from one another to obtain the finished A density of 70 lb/ft3 (1.1gm/cm3) is often typical
thickness. of the processed material, since it is the most useful
The percentage and type of each constituent for the majority of industrial gasket applications.
used, process times and temperatures, mixing and While this density is approximately 50% of the
roll speeds and carefully controlled, constantly theoretical density of graphite, the permeability
applied loads on the dough during the combined through the sheet to fluid, as measured by the
compression/curing cycle on the “Sheeter” are helium admittance test, is extremely low.
critical factors that impact the sealing characteristics The ultimate density of flexible graphite is 140
of the products made by this unique process. lb/ft3 (2.2 gm/cm3), which would occur at 50%
In response to Industries’ needs for efficient compression of the 70 lb/ft3 (1.1 gm/cm3) material.
gasketing containing no asbestos, various fiber The edge surfaces of the flexible graphite sheet are
INTRODUCTION 5
more permeable than the flat surfaces. Since this The proper PTFE based material, when installed
edge permeability is inversely related to sheet using proper techniques, not only provides
density, gasket designs sometimes employ gasketing over a wide range of services, but also
densification of edges near bores to the ultimate gives industry a viable alternative to many asbestos-
density to prevent any fluid penetrated. based products.
Effective sealability is inherent in the flexible
graphite itself by virtue of its low creep relaxation
and stability under a wide range of compressive SECTION 4: THE STEEL TRAP™ GASKET
load/temperature conditions. Since the tensile
The A.W. Chesterton Steel Trap gasket
strength of flexible graphite is significantly lower
incorporates a sealing element in a containment
than that of binder containing products, a center
groove (or grooves) in a metal carrier that in
insert of metal is commonly employed to fortify the
combination provides the gasket with a high unit
flexible graphite for most applications. Stainless
load and superior sealing ability.
steel insert is used for its corrosion resistance.
Once the gasket is fully in position between the
Cutting of the laminated material into gaskets
flange faces, the concentration of the total
can be accomplished with conventional steel rule
compressive load of the flange on the sealing
die cutting techniques using standard tool steel dies.
element produces a seal with a higher sealing load
per square inch than other gaskets. This assures a
positive leak-proof seal for use with virtually any
SECTION 3: POLYTETRAFLUOROETHYLENE
media, temperature or pressure.
(PTFE) GASKETING
The compressive load on the gasket causes
Because of PTFE’s unique chemical resistance encapsulation of the sealing element within the
and physical properties, this man-made plastic, grooves of the metal retainer which helps shield
either by itself or in combination with other them from fire, chemicals, corrosive fluids or
ingredients or constructions, represents an anything that would tend to destroy the
important segment of the total world wide effectiveness.
gasketing market. The metal to metal contact between the flange
Gasketing made from PTFE can be used with an faces and the metal retainer provides positive
extremely wide range of fluids at temperatures from assurance against blow-out. This contact of the
cryogenic to 500°F. The only common commercial metal retainer and the flange face permits only
chemicals that attack PTFE are molten alkali metals micro-exposure of the sealing element to either
and free fluorine. It also has excellent antistick, external or internal environments.
dielectric, and impact resistance properties. The sealing elements may be made of any
PTFE gaskets do, however, cold flow or creep compressible, deformable material. The A.W.
under compression which means that gaskets lose Chesterton material is either flexible graphite or
thickness and expand in width and length under PTFE. (Other compressible materials may be
applied loads. This problem has been reduced specially ordered.) The metal carrier or retainer
considerably by several manufacturing systems may be made of any commercially available metal
using fillers in the PTFE, by using expanded PTFE (the A.W. Chesterton standard is 316SS).
or by using various envelope-type constructions.
The conventional method for making PTFE sheet
is to first mold a large hollow centered cylinder.
Sheets are then formed from this cylinder by
skiving or veneering to the desired thicknesses.
While the filled PTFE versions do improve
performance, problems may exist due to the lack of
uniformity of filler dispersions and lack of
omnidirectional strength.
Because of the high compressibility of both filled
and unfilled PTFE, they conform well to all surface
irregularities (waviness, pitting, gouges, etc.) With
relatively low bolt loading to form a seal, these
materials are very acceptable for delicate glass,
fragile PVC or FRP connections.
6 INTRODUCTION
products, air, gases and solvents of many kinds.
SECTION 5: RUBBER GASKETING
Because of its excellent solvent resistance, it is
A wide variety of rubber polymers and often preferred over rubber sheet material. When
compounds, each possessing unique features and stored under normal conditions, these materials
advantages have been developed to produce high have a long shelf life with little or no deterioration.
quality gasketing and sealing materials. In a gasketed joint, the objective is deceptively
Rubber has a number of basic features which simple — to create a seal that will prevent fluids
establish its advantages as a gasket and sealing from escaping the assembly. The seal must also
material. prevent the entrance of fluids or contaminates from
outside. Both of these requirements should be
• Rubber is naturally resilient. It is elastic and
satisfied at a reasonable cost.
squeezes into joint imperfections under relatively
Achieving these objectives is a complex
light bolt loadings. Its elasticity allows a gasket
requirement because a large number of variables
to move with the flange surfaces, always
bear upon the sealing applications. In most cases,
maintaining a seal.
several variables will interact to make the problem
• Rubber is incompressible; it can be deformed, even more complex.
depending on durometer and cross-section, but
cannot be reduced in volume.
FACTORS INFLUENCING GASKET
• Rubber is highly impermeable and can serve as a PERFORMANCE
tight barrier against the passage of gases or
First it must create our initial seal; second it
liquids.
must maintain the seal over a desired length of
• The availability of various rubber polymers time; third it must be able to withstand the
provide a wide range of physical properties, operating conditions of applied stress, medium,
durometer, tensile, elongation, modules, temperature and pressure and finally it must be
compression set, etc. easily removed and replaced. Varying degrees of
success are dependent on how well the gasket does
• Rubber can be reinforced with fabric insert to
the following:
add strength and prevent creep, rupture or blow
out. • Is impervious to the fluid in the system. It should
be chemically resistant to the system fluid to
• Rubber can be compounded to resist the effects
prevent serious impairment of its physical
of temperature, oil, chemicals, ozone
properties.
weathering, aging and abrasion. The results are
longer gasket life and reduced maintenance. • Is sufficiently deformable to “flow” into the
imperfections on the seating surfaces to provide
• Rubber sheeting can be produced in an infinite
intimate contact between the gasket and the
variety of thicknesses, widths, lengths, surface
seating surfaces.
finishes and colors to meet the users’ needs and
requirements. • Withstands system temperature without serious
impairment of its properties.
SECTION 6: VEGETABLE FIBER SHEET • Is resilient enough to maintain an adequate
GASKETING portion of the applied load when joint
movements are not fully eliminated by
One of the first types of gasketing materials was
equipment designs.
process plant fiber and a binder formed into
homogeneous structure employing paper making • Has sufficient strength to maintain its integrity
techniques and a glue-glycerin or similar saturation. when being handled and installed. To resist
It is furnished in sheets or rolls from 0.003 in. thick crushing under the applied load and resist “flow-
up to 1/16 in. in a homogeneous form and thickness out” under system pressure.
above 1/16 in. through 1/4 in. in a laminated
• Does not contaminate the system fluid or
construction.
promote corrosion of the gasket sealing
This material is widely used for many lower
surfaces.
temperature requirements (Max. 120°C or 250°F),
and requires relatively low bolt loading to seal. It is • Is as easily and cleanly removable as feasible at
a general purpose product for sealing petroleum time of replacement.
INTRODUCTION 7
GASKET APPLICATION — PROBLEMS THE “SEAL” — A DEFINITION
The process of specifying a gasket for sealing In sealability certain fundamental facts must be
must start by defining the problem that is to be recognized. Nothing made by man can be
solved. Eliminating or at least mitigating the considered “leak proof” to all fluids. For example,
reasons for a gasket failure is the goal of gasket gases permeate through all polymers and some
designers and suppliers. Some of the reasons for small molecules of gases, such as hydrogen, can
gasket failure: permeate through metals.
Gasket materials are made up from fibers,
• The fluid media chemically attacks the gasket
polymers and various other ingredients that, when
limiting the useful lifetime of the gaskets.
combined, result in a composition with
• The gasket material is not compatible with the interconnecting pores. It is therefore,
temperature requirements, the temperature understandable that fluids will pass through these
extremes and/or thermal cycling which causes or materials even under compressive loading. It is not
permits loss of joint tightness. a question of whether or not any fibrous type
gasketing material allows leakage through the
• The gasket material is not capable of creating a
gasket, but how much leakage under any condition
seal that can meet the leakage or fugitive
of time, temperature, and pressure.
emission requirements.
In a number of tests on flange assemblies, a “gas
• The properties of the gasket material limit the seal” is described as the absence of gas bubbles on
amount of applied stress that can be affected. the outer edge of the gasket when the assembly is
exposed to a specific pressure. However, the lack of
• The flange - bolt design cannot provide sufficient
bubbles does not guarantee perfect gas
stress to seal the selected gasket.
confinement. If a mass spectrometer were used to
• Particles or contaminates at the flange surface test the atmosphere adjacent to the joint, the
prevent sealing of the gasket. spectrometer would in all probability record some
degree of gas flow.
• The flange finish is outside the limits of
A “liquid seal” is often considered “perfect” when
irregularity that the gasket can tolerate.
no liquid appears on the outer edge of the gasket
• Non-uniform sealing stress causing warping of over a prescribed period of time. However, a longer
the flange; non-uniform application of bolt period of time may be all that is required for liquid
tension. to appear.
Accordingly, the results of sealability testing
• And misalignment of the gasket to the flange.
cannot be considered absolute, but are relative to
some arbitrary standard defined by the requirement
of a particular application.
Therefore, a seal is described by how much the
flange leaks. If it doesn’t leak too much, too soon, it
is considered sealed.
To establish the leakage criteria, the following
must be considered:
• The nature of the fluid to be sealed
• The impact on the environment in case of
leakage
• The risk factors of leakage (i.e. fire, explosions,
etc.)
8 INTRODUCTION
SECTION 1
COMPRESSED NON-ASBESTOS GASKETING MATERIAL
MATERIAL SELECTION
Influencing Factors
Binder Type
SURFACE FINISH
MINIMUM SURFACE STRESS (Smin)
MAXIMUM SURFACE STRESS (Smax)
HYDROSTATIC END THRUST (HET)
MINIMUM ASSEMBLY STRESS (Sa)
TORQUE CALCULATIONS
INSTALLATION
STEAM LIMITATION
MISCELLANEOUS
Non-Stick Surface
Effects of Jointing Compounds
APPENDIX:
A. Chemical Compatibility Chart
B. Stress Curves
C. Technical Data
D. General Bolting Information
E. Troubleshooting
F. Material Characteristics
G. Definition of Terms
H. Surface Finish
I. Conversion Table
C ompressed non-asbestos gasketing material is a value shown should be regarded as maximum. The
fiber reinforced (usually aramid, glass or carbon plot of the PxT curves for A.W. Chesterton material
fiber), filled elastomeric composition. The can be found in Appendix C.
elastomer or binder are in place to hold the A.W. Chesterton gasket materials have good
composition together and allow the gasket to be lower temperature characteristics; however with
flexible, enable it to conform to the irregularities of low temperature applications the following should
the flange faces to prevent and/or minimize leakage. be observed:
The remaining ingredients are primarily curing 1) The gasket must be dry and without oil or
agents and accelerators for the elastomer, colorants adhesive when installed. They should be stored
and fillers. in a dry atmosphere since fibers and fillers
absorb moisture from the air.
2) The gasket should not be subject to severe
MATERIAL SELECTION: thermal expansions at the joint assembly.
INFLUENCING FACTORS
3) The required flange loading must be applied at
A number of important factors must be ambient temperature and must not fall below the
considered in defining the conditions for creating a required minimum value over the whole range of
seal. The first consideration is material selection, service temperature.
but it is difficult to isolate this factor from flange
pressure, the properties of the sealed fluid,
temperature, internal pressure and other NORMAL MAXIMUM
considerations. TEMPERATURE/PRESSURE (PxT)
FLUID A.W.C. MAX. MAX. PRESS

MATERIAL TEMP. °C/°F Bar/(psi) PxT
When a gasket material is compressed in a
gasketed joint, the only exposure of the material to AWC 188 400 900 150,000
the sealed fluid is at its edge. The degree to which AWC 189 850 2500 500,000
the fluid penetrates the gasket material is relatively AWC 190 750 1200 350,000
small. Yet, however small, there may be a chemical AWC 192 700 1200 400,000
or physiochemical interaction that would prevent AWC 195 750 1450 400,000
the gasket from creating a seal, thereby, causing a AWC 197 900 1900 600,000
leakage rate higher than desired. For this reason,
chemical resistance of the gasket to the sealed fluid
must be considered. The gasket materials are made
INTERNAL PRESSURE
up of polymers and fibers that must not degrade in
A factor closely tied with temperature is the
the presence of the sealed fluid. Contamination is
internal pressure of the fluid at the gasket joint in
generally undesirable - and shrinkage or swelling of
the operating system. Each gasketing material has
the gasket material may affect the seal.
an operating limit which is affected by the thickness
A general overview of fluid compatibility for A.W.
of the gasket and the temperature of the operating
Chesterton material is given in the Appendix A.
system.
TEMPERATURE The relationship of temperature and pressure on
The temperature (heat or cold) creates thermo- the gasket is expressed as a PxT limit value where
mechanical effects, expanding or contracting the P = listed maximum internal pressure (psi).
metal, causing gasket creep (effectively causing a T = listed maximum operating temperature (°F) —
reduction in flange load), and other degradation of line up under (P). (See Table 1 in Temperature
gasket properties. The degrading effect of many Section for PxT limit values of all gasket materials)
fluids on gaskets increases as temperature rises. As If the actual service conditions do not exceed the
a rule, the higher the temperature, the more critical gasket material limitations in any of the three
the selection of the proper gasket. criteria (temperature, pressure, limit value), the
Each gasketing material supplied by A.W. material may be used and the load on the gasket
Chesterton has a temperature limit (see table at may be determined by the procedures described in
right). The temperature up to which a gasket section on Gasket Stress (Smin, Smax, Sa).
functions satisfactorily depends on the service If the conditions exceed any one limit, another
medium, internal pressure and flange loading. The material should be considered.
10 SECTION 1
Example: a gasket material has the following limits: • gasket surface stress at working pressure
Pressure limit (P) — 69 Bar/1000 psi
The minimum thickness may be calculated as:
Temperature limit (T) — 370°C/700°F
PxT limit — 12,500 Bar°C/350,000 psi°F Thickness = 2 x maximum depth of
flange finish x 100
ENGLISH EXAMPLE:
• At the pressure limit (P) of 1000 psi, the % compressibility of gasket
maximum allowable temperature is 350°F. at given surface stress
(T = 350,000 ÷ 1000) Thicker materials can of course be used, but it is
• At the temperature limit (T) of 700°F, the technically as well as economically best to keep the
maximum allowable pressure is 500 psi. thickness to the minimum.
(P = 350,000 ÷ 700) EXAMPLE:
• Thus conditions of a system with a temperature System flange loading is 5000 psi causing the
of 700°F and a pressure of 800 psi with the gasket to compress 17%. The flange grooves are
above mentioned gasket material would be 0.005 in. depth.
unsatisfactory: PxT = 800 x 700 = 560,000 — (0.005 in. x 2) x 100 = 0.059 in. thick gasket
greater than PxT limit stated for the material.
17
METRIC EXAMPLE:
If flange grooves are 0.00125 in. depth then
• At the pressure limit (P) 69 Bar, the maximum (0.00125 x 2) X 100 = 0.015 in. thick gasket.
allowable temperature is 181°C 17
(T = 12,500 ÷ 69)
• The temperature limit of 370°C, the maximum FLANGE PRESSURE
allowable pressure is 33.8 Bar Flange pressure is defined as the effective

(P = 12500 ÷ 370) compressive load per unit of gasket area expressed
in pounds per square inch (psi) or Newtons per
• Thus conditions of a system with a temperature square millimeter (N/mm2). It is the single most
of 370° x 55 = 20,350 — greater than PxT limit important factor controlling the success or failure
stated for the material. of a gasketed joint.
Each gasketing material and each gasket
GASKET THICKNESS thickness has a specific amount of applied stress
Compressed gasket material all have some that it can tolerate. Too high a gasket stress (flange
porosity, so it is very important to select as thin a pressure) can cause leakage. Gasket loading must
gasket as practical. The reasons are: never exceed the recommended maximum. For any
• reduces diffusion losses and the area exposed to given material, the maximum permissible loading
possible attack by aggressive system media. depends on the temperature and the thickness. Thin
materials withstand higher stress than thick ones;
• in many cases (particularly when sealing gases) cold conditions permit higher stress than hot.
thinner material requires a lower minimum If the area enclosed by the gasket is large, the
stress to create a seal. hydrostatic end thrust may be very large even at
• “stress relaxation” resistance (the ability of a moderate internal pressures. Such situations
gasket to withstand the effects of stress and demand higher back loading and the calculated
temperature without undue thickness decrease) minimum assembly stress (Sa) may exceed the
decreases with increasing gasket thickness. permissible maximum (Smax) for the given gasket
thickness.
• thinner material has superior load-bearing Conversely too low a gasket stress will allow
resistance. gasket leakage due to inadequate compression (see
Since the gasket needs to compensate for the sections of maximum stress — Fig. 1; assembly
surface roughness and irregularities of the flanges, stress Fig. 2).
the minimum thickness depends on: By establishing sufficient flange pressure, three
critical actions occur that enable the gasket to seal
• depth of flange surface roughness the flanged joint — (1) Pore volume within the
• compressibility of the gasket gasket material is reduced or eliminated; ( 2)
conformability of the gasket material to the surface
COMPRESSED NON-ASBESTOS GASKETING MATERIAL 11

irregularities on the flange surface achieved; (3) hydrocarbons and has poor resistance against
and blow-out is prevented. With these three chromic and nitric acids.
conditions satisfied, many of the problems arising
E. ETHYLENE - PROPYLENE MONOMER —
from other factors might never become serious.
(EPDM) is a synthetic material with good
resistance to strong acids, alkalies, salts and
chlorine solutions. It is not suitable for use in oils,
MATERIAL SELECTION — BINDER TYPE
solvents or aromatic hydrocarbons.
Most elastomers used as hardeners in
compressed non-asbestos gasketing material have
SURFACE FINISH
the following common properties:
Metallic flange surfaces may range from a rough
• They are incompressible: applied stress changes
casting to that produced by machine lapping and
the shape but the volume remains constant.
each type of surface influences sealing
• Heat gradually and irreversibly destroys their effectiveness. Surface roughness is usually
properties and integrity. measured in micro-inches (micro-meters) as an
Arithmetic Average Roughness Height (AARH) or
• Cooling causes them to become brittle and rigid.
Root Mean Square (RMS).
This effect is reversible.
Commonly used finishes for pipe flanges for
• Prolonged deformation leads to some degree of non-metallic gaskets are the serrated-concentric
compression set. and serrated-spiral (phonograph) finishes. Both
serrated finishes consist of a series of cuts which
The physical boundaries within which a gasket
width and depth varies with type of metal.
can operate effectively are primarily restricted by
The serrated-spiral finish is spirally cut, with a
its chemical makeup.
continuous spiral grooves extending from bore of
An examination of the properties of the basic
flange to outer perimeter. The serrated concentric
elastomers clarifies the distinctive features of each
finish has definite “hills and valleys”, each endless.
type enabling the best selection to be made for a
“Smooth” finishes which appear to have no
particular application.
perceptible surface irregularities are also quite
A. NATURAL RUBBER (NR) has good resistance to common. When microscopically viewed, the face
mild acids and alkalies, salts and chlorine solutions. presents a different picture. The “smooth” finish
It has poor resistance to oils and solvents and is not has wavy contours and surface inregularities which
recommended for use with ozone. Its temperature cannot be sealed by naked face to face flange
range is very limited and suitable only for use to contact and a gasket is an essential requirement.
90°C.
• The flange surface finish has a definite effect on
B. STYRENE — Butadiene (SBR) is a synthetic sealing effectiveness.
rubber that has excellent abrasion resistance and
• A minimum sealing stress must be reached in
has good resistance to weak organic acids,
order to flow the gasket material into the
alcohols, moderate chemicals and ketones. It is not
irregularities of the gasket surface.
good in ozone, strong acids, fats, oils greases and
most hydrocarbons. • The total force required to flow the material is
proportional to the area of the gasket. The
C. BUNA-N RUBBER NITRILE (NBR) is a
bolting face may be lowered by reducing the
synthetic rubber that has good resistance to acids
gasket area or flange contact area.
and solvents, aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbons,
petroleum oils and gasoline over a wide range of • The closer together the ridge surfaces of a
temperature. It also has good resistance to caustics serrated- concentric finish and the shallower the
and salts but only fair acid resistance. It is poor in grooves, the more the flange area begins to
strong oxidizing agents, chlorinated hydrocarbons, resemble a “smooth” face finish and thus there is
ketones and esters. greater contact area.
D. CHLOROSULFONATED POLYETHYLENE • A serrated-spiral finish is more difficult to seal
(HYPALON) has good acid, alkali and salt than a serrated-concentric finish. Complete flow
resistance. It resists weathering, sunlight, ozone, of gasket material must reach the valley surface
oils and commercial fuels such as diesel and of the spiral finish, otherwise a leak path will
kerosene. It is not good in aromatic or chlorinated exist from one end of the spiral to the other end.
12 SECTION 1
• Since gasket materials vary in hardness or
FIGURE 1
resistance to flow, selection of the proper
materials and thickness is important in
relationship to the flange finish.
• Flange surface finishes for gasket material used
in pipe flange 250 to 500 micro inch.
MINIMUM SURFACE STRESS
(Smin) at working pressure.

Leak Condition
Interrnal Pressure
If flange surfaces mated perfectly there would be
no need for gaskets. In practice, flanges always
have slight surface irregularities and a “m”
compressible, resilient material — The gasket — is
used to compensate for them. This gasket provides
an uninterrupted barrier against the medium and
compensates for slight movement of the flanges
during service. Seal Condition
Even at no internal pressure the gasket must be
pressed against the flanges with a definite minimum
stress. This “deformation stress” depends on the
structure and compressibility of the gasket material.
The value “y” (from graph Fig. 1) represents the
minimum stress required to conform to flange “y”
irregularities and close any gasket porosity. This is
the minimum stress required to seal even the lowest
differential pressure. Gasket Surface Stress
For each gasket material, a graph may be drawn
(Fig. 1 showing the minimum stress required to The derivation of these graphs is described in the paper
achieve a seal over a range of internal pressure. “Non-metallic asbestos free gaskets.” First presented at the
Institute of Mechanical Engineers seminar on May 28, 1987.
The slope of the graph may be considered as the
seal maintance factor “m”. This allows for the fact
that at higher internal pressures higher gasket
surface stresses are required.
The minimum surface stress (Smin) to achieve MAXIMUM SURFACE STRESS
a seal at a given internal pressure (pi) can be read (Smax)
directly from such a graph as Fig.1 or expressed
mathematically as: (Fig. 1) Too high a gasket surface stress can also cause
Smin = y + m (Pi) where ‘y’ minimum seating leakage. This is because the gasket loses the
stress resilience need to maintain its pressure against the
‘m’ = maintenance factor flange surfaces. The surface stress on the gasket
‘Pi’ = internal pressure must never exceed the recommended maximum.
Extensive research has demonstrated that the For a given material, the maximum permissible
shape and nature of these graphs varies with (a) surface stress depends mainly on the temperature
gasket material (b) gasket thickness and (c) the and the thickness. Thin materials withstand higher
nature of the media being sealed (i.e. gas or liquid.) stresses than thick ones, cold conditions permit
It is essential therefore that a complete set of higher stresses than hot.
graphs are determined for each material. Some years ago Richard Klinger Ltd. developed a
test rig and a procedure for determining the
performance of gasket materials at elevated
temperatures. This procedure has since been
adopted by the British Standards and can be found
in BSF-125 and BSF-130.

minimum assembly stress (Sa) must therefore
FIGURE 2
compensate for this loss of stress to insure the
maintance of the minimum surface stress (Smin) at
operating conditions.
The hydrostatic end thrust may be calculated
approximately as the internal pressure multiplied by
500 the area enclosed by the internal dimensions of the
gasket.
H = Pi x A Where H = hydrostatic end thrust
Pi = internal pressure
400 A = area enclosed by the internal
dimensions of the gasket
Temperature °C
For an annular gasket

H = Pi Xπ d2 Where d = internal diameter of the
300
4 gasket
Note that this thrust increases with the square of
the internal diameter and is much more significant
200 for larger flanges.
1.0 mm
FIGURE 3
100 2.0 mm
3.0 mm
1
20 40 60 80 100
N/mm2
Maximum Surface Stress
1 N/mm2 = 145 lbf/in2 (psi)
The technique involves maintaining a constant 2

stress on a gasket while raising the temperature at a
controlled rate. By constantly measuring the gasket
thickness, it is possible to determine the crushing
temperature. By repeating the test with other
stresses and different thicknesses, the set of curves 3
shown in Fig. 2 may be plotted.
For most materials the maximum stress is
significantly affected by both the thickness of the
gasket and the operating temperature. Thinner
materials are capable of handling higher stresses
than thicker ones at any given temperature.
HYDROSTATIC END THRUST (HET)
In closed vessels the internal pressure exerts a

force on the lid or cover known as the hydrostatic
end thrust (HET) Fig. 3. This applies equally in 1. Assembly load produced by bolts or clamps
closed pipeline where the force tends to separate
2. Radial force produced by internal pressure
the flanges. This reduces the stress originally
applied to the gasket (assembly stress). The 3. Hydrostatic end thrust
14 SECTION 1
STEP 3.
MINIMUM ASSEMBLY STRESS
Knowing the maximum temperature of the
(Sa) application and the gasket thickness, use the
bottom portion of the diagram to determine the
The minimum assembly stress (Sa) is greater
maximum recommended stress for this particular
than the operating stress (minimum surface stress —
gasket. (Smax = 88 N/mm2) for example shown.
Smin) and may be calculated as:
STEP 4.
Sa = Smin + H where Sa = minimum assembly stress.
Ensure that the maximum stress value (Smax) is
Smin = minimum surface stress
greater than the minimum assembly stress
H = hydrostatic end thrust
requirement (Sa). Also there should be a reasonable
A = gasket area under compression
working stress range between the two figures. The
The minimum and maximum stress curves definition of “reasonable” will depend on the
discussed earlier (Fig. 1/Fig. 2 ) can be combined sophistication of the bolt tightening methods
into one diagram for ready access of information: employed and by the integrity required of the joint.
see Fig. 4. This reveals in a divided way the
Sa = 62 N/mm2 + 7.9 N/mm2 = 69.9 N/mm2
minimum surface stress (Smin) required for any
given internal pressure and the maximum stress Note: A general recommendation would be a
(Smax) recommendation for any given temperature. minimum of 10-12 N/mm2.
To utilize this fully, the following procedure should If for example the maximum temperature of the
be adopted: application is 300°C, then from the bottom portion
of the diagram, the maximum recommended stress
EXAMPLE 1 would be 72 N/mm2, an unsatisfactory value with
the Sa = 70 N/mm2, since there is no room for
Gasket O.D. = 2.50 in. (63.5 mm); I.D. = 1.66 in.
adjustment.
(42.2 mm)
Gasket Avg. = 2.745 in2 (1771 mm2)
EXAMPLE 2
Gasket Thickness: 0.079 in. (2.0 mm)
Internal Pressure: 1450 psi (100 Bar = 10 N/mm2) Using a thinner material of 1.0 mm under the
Temperature: 392°F (200°C) same conditions of internal pressure, the Sm =
Medium: Gas 47 N/mm2, the minimum assembly stress Sa = Smin
+ HET = 55 N/mm2 and the maximum allowable
Using the curves illustrated in Fig. 4
gasket stress at 300° = 85 N/mm2.
STEP 1. Select a target stress value somewhere between
Knowing the maximum internal pressure the minimum and maximum levels bearing in mind
involved, the gasket thickness (see earlier section in the following:
choice) and the nature of the fluid to be sealed (i.e.
(A) A value midway between the two values is
gas or liquid) use the top portion of the diagram to
usually to be advised due to the problems
determine the minimum stress required. (Smin =
involved in achieving an accurate bolt strain.
62 N/mm2 for example shown).
(B) Most gaskets creep to a lesser or greater
STEP 2.
degree. It could be ill-advised to select a value
Calculate the hydrostatic end thrust (H) as
to wear the minimum level in case reduction in
described and divide it by the gasket area (A) to
gasket thickness via creep caused reduction in
achieve a stress value.
bolt strain and subsequent loss of surface
HET = Pi x π I.D.2 ÷ Gasket Area stress. This factor gains more significance at
4 higher temperatures (eg. above 150°C).
10 N/mm2 x 3.1416 x (42.2 mm)2 ÷ 1771 mm2 (C) Within reason it is advisable to achieve as high
4 a bolt stress as possible.
= 7.9 N/mm2

FIGURE 4 — EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION
1.0 mm 2.0 mm 3.0 mm

liquid gas gas gas
150
Minimum Stress
Internal Pressure: Bar
max. for material
100
STEP 1 (Example 1) Smin = 62
STEP 4 (Example 1) Sa = 70
STEP 1 (Example 2)
STEP 4 (Example 2)
Allow for hydrostatic end thrust
Allow for hydrostatic2 end thrust
+7.9 N/mm 2
50 +7.9 N/mm
Sa = 62 + 69.9 N/mm22
Sa = 62 + 69.9 N/mm
Service Conditions
Gasket Stress: N/mm2

0
20 40 60 80 100
STEP 3 (Example 1) Smax = 88

3.0 mm
STEP 3 (Example 2)
100 2.0 mm
1.0 mm
200
Temperature: °C
300
400
Maximum Stress
Conversion Factors
Bar = 14.5 psi
500 N/mm2 = 145 psi
16 SECTION 1
preheating studs, using tensioning devices, using
TORQUE CALCULATIONS
torque wrenches or using hydraulic wrenches. This
Having determined the target assembly stress is so important that it bears repeating.
(Sa), consideration has to be given as to how best Regardless of the method used to apply stress to
to achieve it. Although there have advances on the the studs, a few simple fundamentals should be very
technology of bolting flange joints (eg. tension carefully followed:
control bolts, hydraulic tensioning devices,
ultrasonic bolt analysis etc.) Torque is still the most • Inspect the gasket. Make sure the material is as
common method to control the tightening of bolts. specified, look for any possible defects or
Knowing the gasket stress, number and type of damage in the gasket. Center the gasket on the
bolts and area of the gasket, for lubricated bolts, flange. This is extremely vital where raised faces
the following formula describes the torque. are involved.
T = (f) x D x Sa x A • Inspect the gasket sealing surfaces. Look for tool
N marks, cracks, scratches or pitting by corrosion.
Where (f) = Friction coefficient Be sure that the flange surface is proper for the
D = Diameter of bolts type of gasket being used.
Sa = Load on gasket
A = Area Under compression • Radial tool marks on a gasket sealing surface are
N = Number of bolts virtually impossible to seal regardless of the type
of gasket material being used, therefore every
Example: attempt must be made to minimize these. If
(f) = AWC 772 Premium Nickel Anti-Seize unmatching of flanges is not possible, investigate
Compound the use of patching cements which can be fairly
Sa = 77 N/mm2) (11165 psi) effective in repairing sealing surfaces.
N = 4 ea. (12 mm) (0.472 in.) • Inspect and clean each stud or bolt, each nut,
A = 1771 mm2 (2.745 in2) each washer, and the facing on the flanges
Torque (metric) = against which the nuts must rotate. Look for
0.17 x 12 mm x 77 N/mm2 x 1771 N/mm2 = 69 N-M severe galling, pitting etc. If any of the above
mentioned items are damaged, replace that item.
4 x 1000 mm/M
• Lubricate all thread contact areas and nut
facings. The importance of proper lubrication
INSTALLATION
cannot be over stressed. No joint should be made
All too often we hear “The gasket leaks”. This is without proper lubricant being applied to the
not strictly true. It is the joint that leaks and the threaded surfaces and to the nut facings.
gasket is one component of the several that makeup
• When flanges are to be subjected to high
the joint. Unfortunately, the gasket is expected to
temperatures, the use of an antiseize compound
makeup for any and all deficiencies in design
should be considered to facilitate subsequent
improper installation procedures and compensate
disassembly. These are available on the market
for all flange movement due to thermal changes,
today in a vast variety of suitable lubricants that
pressure changes, vibrations, etc. In many cases the
can be selected to provide the necessary low
gasket will do these things but only when careful
coefficient of friction for the installation and
attention is given to all the aspects of gasket
adequate antiseize properties for high
selection, design and installation.
temperature use. The better the lubrication,
Regardless of the type of gasket being used or
more consistent will be the actual achieved bolt
the material of construction, certain basic
stress at installation.
procedures must be followed if the joint is to be
assembled, tested and put into operation with • Number the bolts so that torquing requirements
minimum difficulty; while these comments may can be followed. With any gasket materials, it is
seem elementary, they are extremely important in extremely important to follow a proper bolting
achieving a satisfactory seal and minimizing the sequence. If this sequence is not followed, the
time required to successfully makeup joints. These flanges can be “cocked”. Then, regardless of the
procedures should be followed whether bolt stress amount of subsequent torquing they cannot be
will be achieved with ordinary stud wrenches, brought back to parallel.

CORRECT BOLTING PATTERNS
8 10 5
4 14 9
7 6
2 3
12 1
1 3 1 3 16 15
4 1
4 2 2 11
4 2 5 8
6 9 7
10 13 3
Circular Four-Bolt Non-Circular Multi-Bolt Square Four-Bolt Circular Multi-Bolt
• Torque the bolt up to a maximum of thirty (A) Steam is a powerful hydrolizer capable of
percent of the final torque value required changing the nature of many polymers and fibers
following the sequence recommended (see above). used in the manufacture of gasketing materials.
• Repeat the above, increasing the torque to (B) Saturated steam has a definite and distinct
approximately 50 to 60 percent of the final temperature/pressure relationship. 1) The
torque required. higher the steam temperature, the higher the
steam pressure. 2) The higher the pressure, the
• 100% of the recommended torque value.
higher is the required gasket stress, 3) The
• Continue with the rotational pattern, of higher the gasket stress (for any thickness), the
retorquing all bolts to the desired amount until lower is the maximum recommended
no further rotation of the nuts can be achieved. temperature.
This may require several retorques since as one
(C) Many materials harden in steam leading in some
bolt is retorqued, it will relieve the stress on the
cases to embrittlement. This is particularly true
adjacent bolt until such time when equilibrium is
for non-asbestos calendered materials.
achieved.
When discussing temperature limits in steam,
• On high pressure, high temperature applications
only appropriate guide-lines can be offered because
using bolts specified at these conditions, it is
of considerations such as:
recommended if possible that the flanges be
retorqued to the required stress after 12 to 24 • Flange design (eg. tongue & grooved is far better
hours at operating conditions to compensate for than raised face).
any relaxation or creep that may have occured.
• Gasket thickness (the thinner, the better)
• The service life required
• Assembly techniques
STEAM LIMITATION
• Maintenance procedures
Steam service is one of the most common and
most difficult gasket applications. It is difficult for • The degree of acceptable embrittlement of the
many reasons including: gasket
STEAM LIMITS
SATURATED STEAM AWC 188 AWC 189 AWC 190 AWC 192 AWC 195 AWC 197
TEMPERATURE °C 150° 231° 208° 208° 217° 249°
°F 302° 448° 406° 406° 422° 480°
PRESSURE BAR 55 28 17 17 21 38
PSIG 3.7 400 250 250 300 550
18 SECTION 1
MISCELLANEOUS APPENDIX A:
CHEMICAL COMPATIBILITY CHART
NON-STICK SURFACE
The information in the chart below should only
A.W. Chesterton materials have an advanced
be used as a general rule to the selection of a
finish for premium jointings. This has three benefits
suitable material. Contact our Technical Services
over traditional finishes.
Department if any doubt.
(A) Efficient non-stick properties with no detrimental
effect on the all important creep resistance of
the gasket. This eliminates the need for gasket
coatings or release agents and reduces the time
KEY
taken to replace gaskets in service.
(B) As the gasket surface contains extremely low A Suitable for application
impurity levels, there is no risk of corroding
B Suitable depending on operating conditions
sensitive flange metals. This reduces flange
damage and minimizes the need for re- C Not suitable
machining of flanges.
(C) As the gasket surface contains no fibers they AWC 188 ORGANIC-INORGANIC FIBER/
are softer than traditional grades. This HYPALON
improves the micro-sealing performance of the
AWC 189 ARAMID/NITRILE/
gasket and reduces leakage.
METAL REINFORCED
EFFECT OF JOINTING COMPOUNDS AWC 190 ARAMID/SBR
It is recommended that no grease, spray, lubricant AWC 192 ARAMID/EPDM
or jointing compound be employed with our gasket
materials. These compounds interfere with the AWC 195 ARAMID/NITRILE
coefficient of friction between the gasket and flange AWC 197 CARBON FIBER/NITRILE
and invite the gasket to creep. Fit gasket “dry” to
ensure maximum service life and minimize leakage.
See the 1. Mech. E. Guide “Pipe Joints — A State of the Art.
Part 1: ——— PP38-40
MEDIUM AWC 188 AWC 189 AWC 190 AWC 192 AWC 195 AWC 197
ACETALDEHYDE A B B B B B
ACETAMIDE A A A A A A
ACETIC ACID — 10% A C A A A A
ACETIC ACID — 100% A A B B A A
ACETONE A B A A B B
ACETYLENE A A A A A A
ADIPIC ACID A A A A A A
AIR A A A A A A
ALUM A B A A A A
ALUMINUM ACETATE A B A A A A
ALUMINUM CHLORATE A C A A A A
ALUMINUM CHLORIDE A B A A A A
AMMONIA A A B A A A
AMMONIUM BICARBONATE A A A A A A
AMMONIUM CHLORIDE A C A A A A
AMMONIUM DISPHOSPHATE A A A A A A
AMMONIUM HYDROXIDE A B B B B A

AMYL ACETATE B B B B B B
ANILINE C C B B C C
ARETON 12 (FREON.12) A A C C A A
ARETON 22 (FREON.22) A B C C B B
ASPHALT (TAR) A A A A A A
ASTM OIL 1 A A B B A A
ASTM OIL 3 A A C C A A
AVIATION FUEL A A C C A A
BENZENE (BENZOL) A A C C A A
BENZINA (PETROLEUM SPIRITS) A A B B A A
BENZOIC ACID A B B B A B
BLAST FURNACE GAS A A A A A A
BLEACH LIQUOR CA (OCL)2 A C A A A A
BOILER FEED WATER (ALKALINE) A A A A A A
BORAX A A A A A A
BORIC ACID A A A A A A
BRINE (NACL) A A A A A A
BUTANE A A C C A A
BUTANONE (MEK) B B C C B B
BUTYL ALOCHOL (BUTANOL) A A A A A A
BUTYRIC ACID A A A A A A
CALCIUM CHLORIDE A B A A A A
CALCIUM HYDROXIDE
(LIME WATER) A A A A A A
CALCIUM HYPOCHLORITE A C A A A A
CALCIUM SULFATE A A A A A A
CARBOLIC ACID — 100%
(PHENOL) B C B B C C
CARBON DIOXIDE A A A A A A
CARBON DISULFIDE C C C C C B
CARBON TETRACHLORIDE C B C C B B
CASTOR OIL A A B B A A
CHLORINE (DRY) A A B B A A
CHLORINE (WET) B C C C B B
CHLORINE WATER (OA.0.5%) A C A A A A
CHLOROFORM B B C C B B
CHLOROMETHANE
(METHYLCHLORIDE) B B C C B B
CHROMIC ACID B C C C B B
CLOPHEN T.64 B B C C B B
CONDENSATE A A A A A A
COPPER ACETATE A A A A A A
COPPER SULFATE A A A A A A
CREOSOTE C C B B C C
CRESOL B B B B B B
CYCLOHEXANOL A A B B A A
CYCLOHEXANONE C C C C C C
DECALIN A A C C A A
DIBENZYL ETHER C C C C C C
20 SECTION 1
DIBUTYL PHTHALATE A A C C A A
DIESEL OIL A A C C A A
DIMETHYL FORMAMIDE C C C C C C
DIPHYL (DOWTHERM A) A A C C A A
DYE LIQUOR
(ALKALINE, NEUTRAL, ACIDIC) A C A A A A
ETHANE A A A A A A
ETHYL ACETATE B B B B B B
ETHYL ALCOHOL (ETHANOL) A A A A A A
ETHYL CHLORIDE B B C C B B
ETHYLENE A A A A A A
ETHYLENE CHLORIDE C C B B C C
ETHYLENE GLYCOL A A B B A A
ETHYL ETHER A A B B A A
FLUOSILICIC ACID A C A A A A
FORMALDEHYDE A A A A A A
FORMAMIDE B B B B B A
FORMIC ACID — 10% A C A A A A
FORMIC ACID — 85% A C B B B B
FREON 12 (FRIGEN 12) A A C C A A
FREON 22 (FRIGEN 22) A B C C B B
GLYCERINE A A A A A A
HEATING OIL A A C C A A
HEPTANE A A C C A A
HEXANE A A C C A A
HYDRAULIC OIL (MINERAL) A A C C A A
HYDRAULIC OIL
(PHOSPHATE ESTER) B B B B B B
HYDRAULIC OIL (GLYCOL BASED) A A A A A A
HYDROCHLORIC ACID — 20% A C C C B B
HYDROCHLORIC ACID — 37% A C C C C C
HYDROFLUORIC ACID — 10% A C C C C C
HYDROFLUORIC ACID — 40% A C C C C C
HYDROGEN A A A A A A
HYDROGEN CHLORIDE (DRY) A C A A A A
HYDROGEN PEROXIDE A C B B A A
ISO-OCTANE A A B B A A
ISOPROPYL ALCOHOL A A A A A A
KEROSENE (PETROLEUM) A A C C A A
LACTIC ACID — 50% A C A A A A
LEAD ACETATE A A A A A A
LEAD ARSENATE A A A A A A
LIME WATER A A A A A A
LIMESEED OIL A A B B A A
MAGNESIUM SULFATE A A A A A A
MALIC ACID A A A A A A
METHANE A A A A A A
METHYL ALCOHOL (METHANOL) A A A A A A
METHYLATED SPIRITS A A A A A A

METHYL CHLORIDE B B C C B B
METHYL ETHYL KETONE (MEK) B B C C B B
MINERAL OIL ASTM NO. 1 A A B B A A
MINERAL OIL ASTM NO. 3 A A C C C A
NAPHTHA A A C C A A
NATURAL GAS A A A A A A
NITRIC ACID —- 20% A C C C C C
NITRIC ACID — 40% A C C C C C
NITRIC ACID —- 96% A C C C C C
NITROGEN A A A A A A
NITROBENZENE C C C C C C
OCTANE A A C B A A
OLEIC ACID A A A A A A
OLEUM (FUMING SULFURIC ACID) C C C C C C
OXALIC ACID A B C C B B
OXYGEN
(CHECK LOCAL REGULATIONS
FOR USE) A A A A A A
PALMITIC ACID A A A A A A
PARAFFIN A A C C A A
PENTANE A A C C A A
PERCHLOROETHYLENE B B C C B B
PETROLEUM A A C B A A
PETROLEUM ETHER A A B B A A
PHENOL B C B B C C
PHOSPHORIC ACID (ALL CONC.) A C B B A A
PHTHALIC ACID A A A A A A
POTASSIUM ACETATE A A A A A A
POTASSIUM CARBONATE A A A A A A
POTASSIUM CHLORATE A A A A A A
POTASSIUM CHLORIDE A A A A A A
POTASSIUM CYANIDE A A A A A A
POTASSIUM CHROMIUM SULFATE A B A A A A
POTASSIUM DICHROMATE A B A A A A
POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE A B B A B A
POTASSIUM HYPOCHLORITE A C A A A A
POTASSIUM IODIDE A A A A A A
POTASSIUM NITRATE A A A A A A
POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE A A A A A A
PRODUCE GAS A A A A A A
PROPANE A A B B A A
PYDROL B A C C A A
PYRIDINE C C B B C C
RAPESEED OIL B A B B A A
SALICYLIC ACID A A A A A A
SEA WATER A B A A A A
SILICONE OIL A A A A A A
SKYDROL 550 C C C C C C
SOAP A A A A A A
22 SECTION 1
SODIUM ALUMINATE A A A A A A
SODIUM BICARBONATE A A A A A A
SODIUM BISULFITE A B A A A A
SODIUM CHLORIDE (SALT) A A A A A A
SODIUM CYANIDE A A A A A A
SODIUM HYDROXIDE A B B B B A
SODIUM SILICATE (WATER GLASS) A A A A A A
SODIUM SULFATE A A A A A A
SODIUM SULFIDE A A A A A A
STARCH A A A A A A
STEAM B A A A A A
STEAM CONDENSATE A A A A A A
SUGAR A A A A A A
SULFUR DIOXIDE A C B B C B
SULFURIC ACID — 20% A C C C C C
SULFURIC ACID — 50% A C C C C C
SULFUROUS ACID A C B B B B
TANNIC ACID A B A A A A
TAR (ASPHALT) A A A A A A
TARTARIC ACID A B A A A A
TETRACHLOROETHYLENE B B C C B B
TETRALIN A A C C A A
TOLUENE A A C C A A
TOWN GAS A A B B A A
TRANSFORMER OIL B A B B A A
TRICHLOROETHANE B B C C B B
TRIETHANOLAMINE A A A A A A
TURPENTINE B A C C A A
UREA A A A A A A
VINYL ACETATE A A C C A A
WATER A A A A A A
WATER GLASS A A A A A A
WHITE SPIRIT A A C C A A
XYLENE (XYLOL) A A C C A A

APPENDIX B: STRESS CURVES
DISCLAIMER: Curves are for reference guide lines only. For further information contact your Chesterton Sealing Device Specialist.
FIGURE 4 — EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION

1.0 mm 2.0 mm 3.0 mm
liquid gas gas gas
150
Minimum Stress
max. for material
100
STEP 1 (Example 1) Smin = 62
STEP 4 (Example 1) Sa = 70
STEP 1 (Example 2)
STEP 4 (Example 2)
Allow forforhydrostatic
Allow hydrostaticend
end thrust
thrust
50 +7.9 N/mm22
+7.9 N/mm
SaSa
==62 62++ 69.9 N/mm22
69.9 N/mm
Service Conditions

0
20 40 60 80 100
STEP 3 (Example 1) Smax = 88
3.0 mm
STEP 3 (Example 2)
100 2.0 mm
1.0 mm
200
Temperature: °C
300
400
Maximum Stress
Conversion Factors
Bar = 14.5 psi
500 N/mm2 = 145 psi
24 SECTION 1
A.W. CHESTERTON 188 — ORGANIC-INORGANIC FIBER/HYPALON
Minimum Stress
versus
150
Internal Pressure/Thickness
1.0 mm
liquid gas
2.0 mm
gas
100
3.0 mm
gas
max. for material: 62 Bar

50
Service Conditions

0
20 40 60 100
3.0 mm
100
Temperature: °C
200
max. for material: 204°C
2.0 mm
1.0 mm 0.8 mm
Maximum Stress
300
versus Conversion Factors
Temperature/Thickness Bar = 14.5 psi
N/mm2 = 145 psi

A.W. CHESTERTON 189 — ARAMID/NITRILE/METAL REINFORCED
200
liquid

3.2 mm gas
150 1.6 mm gas
0.8 mm gas
100
Minimum Stress
versus
50
Service Conditions

0
20 40 60 80 100 120
3.2 mm
100
1.6 mm
200
Temperature: °C
Maximum Stress
300
versus
Temperature/Thickness 0.8 mm
400
Conversion Factors
500 Bar = 14.5 psi
N/mm2 = 145 psi
26 SECTION 1
A.W. CHESTERTON 190 — ARAMID/SBR
120
Minimum Stress
versus
105
liquid
90

1.0 mm gas
75
2.0 mm gas
60
3.0 mm gas
45
30
Service Conditions
15

0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
100
3.0 mm 2.0 mm 1.0 mm
200
Temperature: °C
300

400
Maximum Stress
500 Bar = 14.5 psi
Temperature/Thickness N/mm2 = 145 psi

A.W. CHESTERTON 192 — ARAMID/EPDM
200
Minimum Stress
versus
150 1.0 mm gas
liquid
2.0 mm gas
100
50
Service Conditions

0
20 40 60 80 100 120
1.5 mm
1.0 mm
2.0 mm
100
200
Temperature: °C
300
400
Maximum Stress
500
N/mm2 = 145 psi
28 SECTION 1
A.W. CHESTERTON 195 — ARAMID/NITRILE
200
Minimum Stress
versus
150 liquid 1.0 mm 2.0 mm
gas gas
3.0 mm
gas
100
50
Service Conditions

0
20 40 60 80 100 120
3.0 mm 2.0 mm
1.0 mm
100
200
Temperature: °C
300

400
Maximum Stress
500
N/mm2 = 145 psi

A.W. CHESTERTON 197 — CARBON FIBER/NITRILE
200
Minimum Stress
versus
Internal
0.8 mm gas
Pressure/Thickness
liquid
150 1.5 mm gas
3.0 mm gas
2.0 mm gas
100
50
Service Conditions

0
20 40 60 80 100 120
2.0 mm
1.5 mm
100 3.0 mm 0.8 mm
200
Temperature: °C
300
Conversion Factors
400 Bar = 14.5 psi
Maximum Stress N/mm2 = 145 psi
versus max. for material: 482°C
500
Temperature/Thickness
30 SECTION 1
APPENDIX C: TECHNICAL DATA A.W. CHESTERTON 188 —
ORGANIC-INORGANIC FIBER/HYPALON
A.W. CHESTERTON 188 —
Bar
ORGANIC-INORGANIC FIBER/HYPALON PxT 150,000 5,000
psi
A flexible non-staining synthetic rubber Press (max) 900 psi 62 Bar
1450 100
chemically resistant sheet material formulated for Temp (max) 400°F 204°C
use in acids, oils and a wide variety of hydrocarbons. Steam Limit 55 psi 3.7 Bar
The material resists extrusion in temperatures up to 1305 90 302°F 150°C
400°F and pressures up to 900 psi.
1160 80
TECHNICAL DATA (TYPICAL)
ASTM F-712 line call-out F.712000B6E00M5
1015 70
Maximum Operating Conditions:
Temperature (T) 204°C (400°F)
870 60
Internal Pressure
Pressure (P) 62 Bar (900 psi)
PxT (1/16" & below) 5000 (150,000)
Saturated Steam 3.7 Bar (55 psi) 725 50
This data is for guidance only. The ability of a
gasket material to effect a seal depends not only on 580 40
the quality of the material, but also on the thickness
of the material, the design of the flanges, the amount 435 30
of pressure exerted on the gasket by the bolts and how
the gasket is assembled into the flanges and tightened.
290 20
Density AWC-RDLAB-992-011 1.60-1.70 gm/cc
Compressibility ASTM F-36A 7-17% 145 10
Recovery ASTM F-36A 55% (min)
Creep Relaxation ASTM F-38B 30-40% °C 50 100 150 200 250 300
0
Sealability ASTM F-37A 0.15 ml/hr. °F 122 212 302 392 482 572
Tensile Strength
Temperature
ASTM F-152 across grain 1500 psi (min) (10.3 N/mm2)
Acid Resistance — Thickness increase after immersion in: This data is for guidance only. The ability of a
Nitric Acid 50% 1 hr. @ 150°F/ 8% gasket material to effect a seal depends not only on
Sulfuric Acid 96% 18 hrs. @ 73°F/ 10% the quality of the material, but also on the thickness
Sulfuric Acid 65% 48 hrs. @ 73°F/ 8% of the material, the design of the flanges, the
Conc Nitric Acid >93% Not Suitable amount of pressure exerted on the gasket by the
bolts and how the gasket is assembled into the
A.W. CHESTERTON 189 — flanges and tightened.
ARAMID/NITRILE/METAL REINFORCED
A high tensile strength, expanded steel reinforced, Density AWC-RDLAB-992-011 2.10 gm/cc
nitrile bound sheet with excellent vibration Compressibility ASTM F-36A 5-12%
resistance. AWC 189 provides outstanding service in Recovery ASTM F-36A 50% (min)
piping systems subjected to high loads and vibration. Tensile Strength
In hot gas applications up to 850°F and pressures to ASTM F-152 across grain 32.4 N/mm2 (4700 psi min)
2500 psi, this material virtually eliminates Creep Relaxation ASTM F-38B 10-20% (0.040 in. ths)
mechanically induced sheet gasket destruction. Thickness Increase ASTM F-146 after immersion in:
ASTM Oil 1, 5 hrs. @ 300°F/150°C 0-5%
TECHNICAL DATA (TYPICAL) ASTM Oil 3, 5 hrs. @ 300°F/150°C 0-5%
ASTM F-104 line call-out F.712111B2E11M8 ASTM Fuel A, 5 hrs. @ 73°F 0-5%
Maximum Operating Conditions: ASTM Fuel B, 5 hrs. @ 73°F 0-5%
Temperature (T) 454°C (850°F) Weight Increase ASTM F-146 after immersion in:
Pressure (P) 172 Bar (2500 psi) Fuel B, 5 hrs. @ 73°F 9% (max)
PxT (1/16" & below) 17,950 (500,000) Change in Tensile Strength ASTM F-152 after immersion in:
Saturated Steam 28 Bar (400 psi) Fuel B, 5 hrs. @ 73°F (across grain) -12% (max)

amount of pressure exerted on the gasket by the
A.W. CHESTERTON 189 —
ARAMID/NITRILE/METAL REINFORCED bolts and how the gasket is assembled into the
flanges and tightened.
Bar
psi PxT 500,000 17,950
Press (max) 2500 psi 172 Bar
2900 200 Temp (max) 850°F 454°C
Steam Limit 400 psi 27.6 Bar Compressibility ASTM F-36A 7-17%
448°F 231°C Recovery ASTM F-36A 40% (min)
2610 180 Tensile Strength
ASTM F-152 across grain 11 N/mm2 (1600 psi min)
2320 160 Creep Relaxation ASTM F-38B 20-30%
Sealability ASTM F-37A 0.30 ml/hr.
Leachable Chloride Contact
2030 140
modified F.S.A. method 200 ppm (max)
Thickness Increase ASTM F-146 after immersion in:
1740 120
Internal Pressure
ASTM Oil 1, 5 hrs. @ 300°F 0-15%

ASTM Oil 3, 5 hrs. @ 300°F 20-35%
1450 100 ASTM Fuel A, 5 hrs. @ 73°F 0-15%
ASTM Fuel B, 5 hrs. @ 73°F 15-25%
Weight Increase ASTM F-146 after immersion in:
1160 80
Fuel B, 5 hrs. @ 73°F 25% (max)
Change in Tensile Strength ASTM F-152 after immersion in:
890 60 ASTM Oil 3, 5 hrs. @ 300°F (across grain) -50% (max)
580 40
A.W. CHESTERTON 190 — ARAMID/SBR
290 20
PxT 350,000 12,500
Bar
psi
°C 50 150 250 350 450 550 Press (max) 1200 psi 83 Bar
0 1450 100 Temp (max) 750°F 399°C
°F 122 302 482 662 842 1022
Steam Limit 250 psi 17 Bar
Temperature 406°F 208°C
1305 90
A.W. CHESTERTON 190 — ARAMID/SBR 1160 80

A non-asbestos sheet gasketing material
comprising a high strength, heat resistant fiber with 1015 70
a styrene-butative rubber binder (SBR) AWC 190 is
recommended for use in steam, water, mild acids
870 60
Internal Pressure
and alkalies and inert gases up to 750°F. This

material will withstand high fluid pressures and
flange stress and will seal on moderately rough 725 50
flange surfaces.
TECHNICAL DATA (TYPICAL) 580 40
ASTM F-104 line call-out F.712541B5E45M5
Maximum Operating Conditions: 435 30
Pressure (P) 83 Bar (1200 psi) 290 20
PxT (1/16" & below) 12,500 (350,000)
Saturated Steam 17 Bar (250°F) 145 10
°C 150 200 250 300 350 400
gasket material to effect a seal depends not only on 0
the quality of the material, but also on the thickness °F 302 392 482 572 662 752
of the material, the design of the flanges, the Temperature
32 SECTION 1
A superior non-asbestos sheet for water, steam,
relatively strong alkalies of moderate concentration
and mild acids. Synthetic fiber with EPDM binder PxT 350,000 12,000
Bar
psi
resistant creep relaxation that causes loss of Press (max) 1200 psi 83 Bar
1450 100 Temp (max) 700°F 370°C
torque. An excellent compressed sheet to replace Steam Limit 250 psi 17 Bar
asbestos in demanding service to 1200 psi and 406°F 208°C
temperatures up to 700°F. 1305 90
ASTM F-104 line call-out: F712900A9B4E99K5M9 1160 80

1015 70
870 60
Internal Pressure
PxT (1/16" & below) 12,000 (350,000)
Saturated Steam 17 Bar (250 psi)
This data is for guidance only. The ability of a 725 50
gasket material to effect a seal depends not only on
the quality of the material, but also on the thickness 580 40
of the material, the design of the flanges, the
amount of pressure exerted on the gasket by the 435 30
290 20
Density AWC-RDLAB-992-011 1.60 gm/cc
Compressibility ASTM F-36A 7-17% 145 10
Creep Relaxation ASTM F-38B 20-25% °C 150 200 250 300 350 400
0
Sealability ASTM F-37A 0.1 ml/hr. °F 302 392 482 572 662 752
Tensile Strength Temperature
ASTM F-152 across grain 17.2 N/mm2 (2500 psi min)
Thickness Increase ASTM F-146 after minimum in:
ASTM Oil 1, 5 hrs. @ 300°F 20% (min)
ASTM Oil 3, 5 hrs. @ 300°F 60% (min)
service sheet with excellent chemical resistance,
ASTM Fuel A, 5 hrs. @ 73°F 10% (min)
good creep relaxation properties, meet the physical
ASTM Fuel B, 5 hrs. @ 73°F 20%- 50%
properties of P-1141-A.
Fuel B, 5 hrs. @ 73°F 100% TECHNICAL DATA (TYPICAL)
Change in Tensile Strength ASTM F-152 after immersion in: ASTM F-104 line call-out: F712122B5E21M6
ASTM Oil 3, 5 hrs. @ 300°F (across grain) -50% (max)
Sealability ASTM F-37A
#1 Nitrogen Leakage: 2.0 ml/hr. (max) Typical 0.7 ml/hr.
#2 Fuel A Leakage: 1.0 ml/hr. (max) Typical 0.1 ml/hr.
PxT (1/16" & below) 14,400 (400,000)
*1 Gasket load 3000 psi (20.7 N/mm2);
Saturated Steam 21 Bar (300 psi)
internal pressure 30 psi (2.1 Bar)
*2 Gasket load 500 psi (3.5 N/mm2); This data is for guidance only. The ability of a
internal pressure 9.8 psi (0.68 Bar) gasket material to effect a seal depends not only on
A.W. CHESTERTON 195 — ARAMID/NITRILE amount of pressure exerted on the gasket by the
A heavy duty non-asbestos compressed sheet bolts and how the gasket is assembled into the
composed of an aramid, high temperature synthetic flanges and tightened.
fiber bound together with a high quality nitrile
composition. The material is a high quality general

Density AWC-RDLAB-992-011 1.60-1.75 gm/cc A.W. CHESTERTON 197 — CARBON FIBER/NITRILE
Compressibility ASTM F-36A 7-17%
Tensile Strength PxT 600,000 21,800
ASTM F-152 across grain 2000 psi (min) (13.8 N/mm2) Press (max) 1900 psi 131 Bar
Temp (max) 900°F 482°C
Creep Relaxation ASTM F-38B 20-30%
Bar
psi
Sealability ASTM F-37A 0.25 ml/hr. 480°F 249°C
Leachable Chloride Contact 1885 130
modified F.S.A. method 100 ppm (max.)
1740 120
ASTM Oil 1, 5 hrs. @ 300°F (150°C) 0-5%
ASTM Oil 3, 5 hrs. @ 300°F (150°C) 0-5%
ASTM Fuel A, 5 hrs. @ 73°F (23°C) 0-5% 1595 110
ASTM Fuel B, 5 hrs. @ 73°F (23°C) 0-5%
Weight Increase ASTM F-146 after immersion in: 1450 100
Fuel B, 5 hrs. @ 73°F (23°C) 15% (max)
ASTM Oil 3, 5 hrs. @ 300°F (across grain) -25% (max) 1305 90
1160 80
Internal Pressure
A.W. CHESTERTON 195 — ARAMID/NITRILE 1015 70
PxT 400,000 14,400 870 60

Bar
psi

1450 100 Temp (max) 750°F 399°C
725 50
422°F 217°C
1305 90
580 40
1160 80
435 30
1015 70
290 20
870 60
Internal Pressure
145 10
725 50 °C 50 150 250 350 450 550

0
°F 122 302 482 662 842 1022
580 40 Temperature
435 30
A.W. CHESTERTON 197 — CARBON FIBER/NITRILE
A high temperature non-asbestos sheet gasketing
290 20
material combining the chemical resistance of
nitrile with the high strength of carbon fibers. A.W.
145 10 Chesterton 197 is recommended for use in a broad
range of steam applications, provide substantial
°C 150 200 250 300 350 400 chemical resistance for a wide variety of media and
0
°F 302 392 482 572 662 752 suitable for majority of gasketing needs to 900°F
Temperature (480°C) and 1900 psi (130 Bar).
ASTM F-104 line call-out: F.712122B3E22M5
34 SECTION 1
Maximum Operating Conditions: accounted for. For example, one of these factors is
Temperature (T) 482°C (900°F) the mechanic performing the assembly; using a
Pressure (P) 131 Bar (1900 psi) calibrated torque wrench and a specified bolting
PxT (1/16" & below) 21,800 (600,000) pattern eliminates problems due to the mechanic’s
Saturated Steam 38 Bar (550 psi) “feel” which can be 200% inaccurate. Procedures
help control variations on other factors such as
surface finish, parallelism, condition of parts,
gasket material to effect a seal depends not only on
lubrication, tools, fastener material, and gasket
material to name a few. Utilizing written
procedures, as well as proper personnel training
amount of pressure exerted on the gasket by the
and supervision, will provide a plant with a marked
improvement in bolted joint performance.
The use of a specific fastener tightening
procedure is recommended to prevent loss of
preload, also known as bolt load, which is defined as
Compressibility ASTM F-36A 7-17%
the force developed in a fastener when it is
Recovery ASTM F-36A 50 (min)
tightened against a joint. A.W. Chesterton
Tensile Strength
recommends the use of a calibrated torque wrench
ASTM F-152 across grain 150 psi (min) (10.3 N/mm2)
of sufficient capacity when tightening bolts and
Creep Relaxation ASTM F-38B 20%
nuts. By using a calibrated torque wrench, the
Sealability ASTM F-37A 0.20 ml/hr.
mechanic ensures that a uniform load is applied to
Leachable Chloride Contact
all the bolts in the joint and that the applied load
modified F.S.A. method 20 ppm (max)
remains consistent from joint to joint. A light coat of
Chesterton® 772 Premium Nickel Anti-Seize
ASTM Oil 1, 5 hrs. @ 300°F (150°C) 0- 5%
Compound should be applied to the nut face and bolt
ASTM Oil 3, 5 hrs. @ 300°F (150°C) 0-5%
threads during assembly. It is recommended (some
ASTM Fuel A, 5 hrs. @ 73°F (150°C) 0-5%
codes require it) that a hardened washer be used
ASTM Fuel B, 5 hrs. @ 73°F (150°C) 0-7%
between the turned element and the joint surface. A
hardened washer may also be used under the
Fuel, B 5 hrs. @ 73°F 15% (max)
unturned element. Torque should be applied in a
uniform manner with the wrench perpendicular to the
ASTM Oil 3, 5 hrs. @ 300°F (150°C)
bolt axis. A cross bolting sequence is recommended
(across grain) -25% (max)
for each pass so as to compress the gasket in a
uniform manner. The following is a typical tightening
procedure used by a power generating station.
Pass 1 Bring all nuts up hand-tight; then snug-tight
APPENDIX D:
evenly.
GENERAL BOLTING INFORMATION
Pass 2 Torque to a maximum of 30% of the final
The information in this section is intended
torque. Check that the flange is bearing
primarily to give the maintenance mechanic an idea
uniformly on the gasket
of the problems with bolted joints usually
encountered in the field and the solutions he or she Pass 3 Torque to a maximum of 60% of the final
can use to solve them. It does not cover all types of torque.
joints nor specific problems particular to each type,
Pass 4 Torque to the final torque.
but it offers general advice on solutions to problems
found everyday in the field. This information only After the four basic torquing passes are
offers guidance; a complete answer to a specific completed, continue torquing the nuts using the
problem must come from a qualified engineer, final torque in a clockwise manner around the joint
specialist or metallurgist. until no further rotation of the nut is observed. This
Written procedures for the assembly of bolted process may require an additional five to seven
joints are the first step in eliminating bolting passes. Good bolting practice requires a minimum
problems. By following a standard procedure every of two threads above the nut after torquing.
time a joint is assembled, certain factors Some contributing factors to the loss of preload
responsible for failures can be eliminated or are elastic interactions, embedment and gasket

BOLT TORQUE SEQUENCE
4 Bolts 8 Bolts
1
1
5
0° 0°
45°
8
315°
90° 3 90° 3
4 270° 4 270°
135°
7
225°
180° 180°
6
Sequential Order 2 Rotational Order Sequential Order 2 Rotational Order
1–2 1 1–2 1
3–4 3 3–4 5
2 5–6 3
4 7–8 7
2
6
4
8
12 Bolts 16 Bolts
1 9
1 5
16 5
0° 30° 0° 22.5°
12 9 337.5° 45° 13
330° 60°
8 67.5°
315°
8 300° 90° 3 90° 3

12 292.5°
112.5° 11
4 270° 120° 4 270°
7
135°
247.5° 7
240° 150° 157.5°
14 225°
10 210° 180° 11 202.5° 180°
15
6
Sequential Order 6 2 Rotational Order Sequential Order 2 Rotational Order
1–2 1 1–2 10 1
3–4 5 3–4 9
5–6 9 5–6 5
7–8 3 7–8 13
9 – 10 7 9 – 10 3
11 – 12 11 11 – 12 11
2 13 – 14 7
6 15 – 16 15
10 2
4 10
8 6
12 14
4
12
8
16
36 SECTION 1
BOLT TORQUE SEQUENCE
20 Bolts 24 Bolts
1 13 9
5 1 17
12 24 5
0° 18° 17 0° 15° 30°
342° 36° 345°
20 16 45° 13
324° 54° 330° 60°
9 8 21
72° 315° 75°
8 306°
90° 3 20 300° 90° 3
16 288°
12 285° 105° 11
108° 15
4 270° 4 270° 120° 19
126° 7 255°
252° 135°
10 22 7
234° 144° 19 240° 150°
162° 225° 165°
216° 14 15
18 198° 180° 210° 195° 180°
11 6 23
6 2 18 2
14 10
Sequential Order Rotational Order Sequential Order Rotational Order

1–2 1 1–2 1
3–4 13 3–4 9
5–6 5 5–6 17
7–8 17 7–8 5
9 – 10 9 9 – 10 13
11 – 12 3 11 – 12 21
13 – 14 15 13 – 14 3
15 – 16 7 15 – 16 11
17 – 18 19 17 – 18 19
19 – 20 11 19 – 20 7
2 21 – 22 15
14 23 – 24 23
6 2
18 10
10 18
4 6
16 14
8 22
20 4
12 12
20
8
16
24
creep. Elastic interactions occur when a fastener is Embedment is caused by the surface roughness
tightened and the fasteners around it loosen or of both the fastener and joint; only the high spots on
partially relieve. It is the most common cause of each piece contact each other. Since these high
drastic preload loss, in some cases, losses of 5:1, spots are not of sufficient strength to accommodate
10:1 or more may occur. Making repeated passes the bolt load, the surfaces creep and flow together
around the bolt circle after the final torque has been until they can support the load. Losses of 2-10% can
reached will help eliminate elastic interactions. be caused by embedment. Again, this phenomenon
Tightening in a different pattern (backwards through can be overcome by repeated tightening of the joint
the initial pattern) after the recommended bolt until the fasteners have settled in together.
torque is reached will also help alleviate this problem. Gasket creep is defined as the continuous

deformation of a gasket material with no increase in fluoride and chloride levels which are known
load. Virtually all gaskets creep under load. Non- contributors to stress corrosion cracking of metals.
asbestos, elastomeric gasket materials have creep Always use thin coats of the lubricant on the
relaxation of 10% to 40% when tested according to fastener surfaces; too much lubricant on a fastener
the ASTM Standard F-38, Test for Creep Relaxation reduces it’s efficiency.
of Gasket Materials. As the gasket creeps, the bolt Finally, if a bolted joint should fail, all related
load decreases, and the force exerted on the gasket criteria should be documented. When disassembling
by the joint is reduced and this leads to the leakage the flange, the breakaway torque of all the fasteners
and possible blowout. Elastomeric gaskets are more should be checked. This will help determine
prone to creep than asbestos gaskets because they whether or not the fasteners were torqued to the
contain much less fiber; because of this, they may correct preload. Check the flange for corrosion,
creep for 24 hours or more after the initial radial cuts and parallelism. Inspect the gasket for
tightening. One solution is to go back to the joint uneven compression, chemical attack and correct
after 24 hours and retighten the bolts. The other is sizing for the application. Any one of these factors
to use a different gasket. Flexible graphite sheet or a combination of them can contribute to a
has creep relaxation of less than five percent failure.
(ASTM F-38). Some test results indicate the value to Using standard written procedures can greatly
be less than two percent. This low creep relaxation reduce bolted joint failure, and in the event of a
offers a customer “no retorque” behavior with their failure, careful analysis of the joint can usually
gaskets along with excellent sealing stability over a determine the cause. Rather than chalking up a
wide range of load and temperature. A metal insert, failure to a defective gasket, the maintenance
common to A.W. Chesterton 199, is sometimes used mechanic can use the information supplied above to
to make the handling characteristics of the graphite identify and correct the problem by analyzing the
sheet better because it is much more fragile than entire bolted joint.
products containing binders. Metal inserted flexible The information in this article can be found in
graphite sheet has replaced premium compressed the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) book,
asbestos sheet in severe services, and many Good Bolting Practices, which was prepared by
standards set by regulatory agencies have approved John Bickford and Michael Looram.
its use. The customer may expect savings through
reduced maintenance, greater reliability, additional
safety, a broad range of applications and an APPENDIX E: TROUBLESHOOTING
unlimited shelf life. These advantages far outweight
The reliability of a seal is as dependent on sound
the problem of increased price, thereby making
engineering practice in the field as it is on the
flexible graphite a better value for a customer’s
detailed attention given to the initial design.
gasketing needs.
The inability to effect or maintain a satisfactory
Use of a lubricant is highly recommended when
seal can be attributed to a series of factors which
assembling a bolted joint. Only 10% of the torque
can be classified into four distinctive groups:
applied to a heavy hex nut is actually transferred to
the joint as clamping force. 40% of the torque is • Design
used to overcome thread friction; the other 50% is
• Assembly
used to overcome the friction between the nut face
and flange face or flat washer. A lubricant serves • Flange Faces
several purposes; One, it lowers the friction
• Gasket Materials
between the fastener surfaces allowing more of the
torque to be used as clamping force. Two, it The table on the next page can be used to
prevents galling which is cold welding or bonding identify the fault, its probable cause, and the
of the fastener surfaces because of high loads. A appropriate remedy. It covers the main type of
good lubricant will also prevent corrosion which problems, but is by no means exhaustive.
can contribute to galling problems, and it should be
able to handle high temperatures without breaking
down. Chesterton 722 Premium Nickel Anti-Seize
Compound prevents corrosion and provides
consistent lubrication even at elevated
temperatures. Chesterton 722 also has very low
38 SECTION 1
TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE
FAULT CAUSE REMEDY

DESIGN:
• Insufficient gasket stress • Insufficient bolt load • Increase no. of bolts
• Increase dia. of bolts
• Change to higher tensile material
• Gasket too thin • Fit thicker gasket

• Gasket too wide • Reduce area of gasket
• Wrong gasket type • Fit gasket which requires lower seating stress
• Excessive gasket stress • Excessive bolt load • Reduce no. of bolts
• Change to lower tensile material
• Gasket too thick • Fit thinner gasket

• Gasket too narrow • Increase gasket area
• Wrong gasket type • Fit gasket which requires higher seating stress
ASSEMBLY:
• Lack of compression • Bolts insufficiently tightened • Apply additional torque
• Incorrect tightening procedure • Bolts should be tightened in sequence —
i.e. diametrically — and gradually increasing
load in each bolt alternately.
• Gasket relaxed due to operating • Use gasket with lower creep relaxation at
temperature. operating temperature.
• It is recommended that once plant reaches
operating temperature all gaskets are
“followed-up” to restore compression.
• Bad threads • Ensure nuts are a good running fit over the
entire length of bolt thread.
• Insufficient thread length • Ensure threads are sufficiently long to allow

nuts to make contact with metal faces.
METAL FACES:
• Uneven • Flanges toothen • Flanges should always be sufficiently rigid
not to be distorted by the bolt load.
• Flanges not parallel • Flange faces should always be parallel and

bolt load should never be relied on to pull
flanges together.
• Bolts should be tightened in proper sequence
to prevent “cocking”.
•Damage • Mechanical damage while faces exposed • Every attention should be given to ensure
faces are clean, flat and free from
imperfections too deep for the gasket
material to completely fill.
• Overzealous abrading during cleaning. • Care should be taken in removal of old

gasket material.
• Dirty or corroded • Previously used jointing compounds • Faces should be wire brushed down to clean
frequently harden and form uneven metal.
surface (old gasket not completely • Serrations should be perfectly clean and of
removed). sound contour.
• Incorrect surface texture • Concentric grooving is ideal for high

pressure.
• Where gramophone or continuous spiral
groove is used, the depth must not be too
deep for gasket to fill.

FAULT CAUSE REMEDY
GASKET MATERIAL:
• Loss of resilience and • Re-use of old gasket • The re-use of gaskets is not recommended.
interface contact The material will have hardened and taken
up the contours of flange surface
imperfection. It is unlikely that a gasket
would be replaced in exactly the same
position. Furthermore, downtime costs to
replace faulty gasket are far in excess of
initial gasket cost.
•Material deteriorates rapidly • Material incompatibility with contained • Check material recommendations and select
fluid/temperature material capable of withstanding condition.
• Gasket extrudes from faces • Too high seating stress • See recommendations under design faults.
• Excessive use of jointing compounds • Unless specified, the use of compounds and
paste is not recommended; these act as
lubricants which reduce friction between the
gasket and the metal faces thereby reducing
the load bearing properties.
• Where non-stick finish is required, it can be
applied during production of the material.
• Incorrect dimensions • Design or manufacturing error • Gaskets should always have clean cut edges
with more slightly larger than that of the
vessel or pipe, i.e. the gasket should not
protrude into the flow path of the fluid.
Protrusion could create turbulance in
addition to restricting flow. The gasket could
also suffer damage through erosion by the
fluid.
• Providing the gasket is compressed over the
entire face there is little likelihood of
absorption of the fluid.
• Back holes should be sufficiently large to
allow a clearance around the bolts.
Compressibility/Recovery: Sample specimens are

APPENDIX F: MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS
tested in accordance with ASTM Test Method F-36
A summary of procedures used in the using the procedure which is applicable to the
determination of properties of sheet gasketing material described by the first two digits of the
material. The test procedures listed are either in the ASTM “line call-out,” as given in ASTM F-36, Table 1.
standard ASTM Gasket Test Manual or in test
Tensile Strength: after conditioning, test the
procedures developed or modified by A.W.
specimens in accordance to ASTM Test Method F-152.
Chesterton.
Generally, only the cross-grain (or cross-machine
Density (as described in AWC-RDLAB-992-011): direction) tensile strength is reported.
Die cut specimens are measured using vernier
Fluid Resistance: Test the specimens in
calliper (to nearest 0.001 in.) metric 0.0254 mm
accordance with ASTM Test Method F-146.
and thickness measured as described in
Specimens are subjected to complete immersion in
ASTM F-104, Section 9.1. Sample specimens are
the test fluid and after removal of excess fluid, the
weighed on analytical balance to nearest 0.001 gm.
effect on the physical properties is expressed as a
Calculation given density in gms/cm.
(%) change from the original.
40 SECTION 1
Standard Test Fluids for Sheet Gasket Materials Corrosion of Metal by Gasket Material: Is tested
in accordance with MIL specification MIL A-7021C
(a) ASTM Oil 1; ASTM Oil 3
Section 4, 5, 6. A sandwich consisting of specific
Test Temperature: 150 ± 3°C
metal plates and gasket samples is assembled in jig
Test Time: 5 hrs
under 30lbs. pressure and placed in air circulating
(b) ASTM Fuel A; ASTM Fuel B
oven at 70°C for 7 days. At end of test period,
plates are examined for evidence of progressive
Test Time: 5 hrs
pitting or corrosion. Discoloration is not
(c) Distilled Water considered or defined as corrosion.
Test Time: 5 hrs Flexibility: Specimens in accordance with ASTM
or Test Method F-147. Material is bent 180°C around
Test Temperature: 27 ± 3°C mandrel of various diameters until specimen cracks
Test Time: 22 hrs or breaks. The specimen is tested in both machine
and cross-machine direction.
Sealability: Specimens tested in accordance with Weight Loss at Elevated Temperature: The test
ASTM Test Method F-37 (Generally gaskets are specimen is tested in accordance with ASTM Test
tested by method “B” — good for both liquids and Method F-495 to determine loss of combustibles
gases). and volatiles at various temperatures between
315°C (600°F) and 815°C (1499°F).
Standard Conditions for Sheet Gasket Materials
Gas Permeability (modified DIN 3535/4): A
(a) Liquids Flange Load Internal Pressure Medium sample gasket (90 mm OD x 50 mm ID x 1,57 mm
3.45 N/mm2 0.68 bar ASTM thick) is tested in accordance with AWC Test
(500 psi) (9.8 psi) Fuel A Method RDLAB-992-010.
6.90 N/mm2 1.01 bar ASTM
(1000 psi) (14.7 psi) Fuel A Conditions of Test:
(b) Gases Flange Load Internal Pressure Medium
Temperature: Ambient
20.69 N/mm2 2.07 bar Nitrogen
Gasket Stress: 32 MPa (4640 psi)
(3000 psi) (30 psi)
Nitrogen Pressure: 40 Bar (580 psi)
34.48 N/mm2 2.07 bar Nitrogen
(5000 psi) (30 psi) Time: 2 hrs.
Leakage reported as ml/hr. or ml/minute
Creep Relaxation: Test in accordance with ASTM Ambient Temperature “Blow-out”: A specimen
Method F-38. The test method provides a means of shall be a 102 mm nominal size gasket 114 mm ID
measuring the amount of creep relaxation of a x 165 mm OD. The thickness shall be specified. The
gasket material at a stated time after a compressive gasket is tested in accordance to ASTM Test Method
stress and temperature have been applied. F-434. The bolts on the test fixture are torqued in
25% increments to the target torque (but not to
Standard Test Condition for Sheet Gasket Materials exceed the rating of the bolts.) The fixture is filled
Initial Load: 13.4 KN (3000 lbs.) 26.7 KN (6000 lbs.) with water and then hydrostatically pressured in
Temperature: 100°C 100°C increments of 1000 psi (7 MPa). Maximum pressure
Time: 22 hrs. 22 hrs.
at a specified torque without leakage is recorded as
the limit.
Adhesion: Specimens tested in accordance with
ASTM Test Method F-607. The test method involves Compression Under Load: Using the Klinger Hot
the plying of gasket samples between flat plates of Compression Unit, an annular ring 75 mm x 55 mm
the desired metal, loading the assembly and cut from the sheet gasket material is tested in
subjecting it to specified set of conditions. The accordance with AWC-RDLAB-992-008. Material
tensile force required to part the plates is measured may be evaluated either at a constant load with
as pounds-force or converted to pounds force per varying temperature or constant temperatures with
sq. in. of gasket surface. varying load.

Standard Test Condition ANSI:
Abbreviation for American National Standards
Temperature: 300°C (522°F)
Institute.
Gasket Stress: 3625 psi or 7250 psi
Time: 45 minutes API:
Abbreviation for American Petroleum Institute.
Steam Sealability Limits: The sheet gasket
material is tested in accordance with AWC-RDLAB- APPARENT DENSITY:
992-004 to establish the pressure/temperature The density of a material is the amount of material,
limits of the material in saturated steam. or mass, per unit volume. It is ordinarily expressed
in grams per cubic centimeter or pounds per cubic
Temperature Limit of Gasket Material at 500 psi foot.
Internal Pressure: A sample gasket 75 mm + 55 mm
is tested on the Klinger Hot Compression Unit in AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS:
accordance with procedure AWC-RDLAB-992-005 Any fluid solution containing water. (See further
The sample is placed in unit under 11000 psi gasket discussion under pH).
stress, 500 psi internal pressure and temperature ASME:
raised to maximum of 450°C (812°F). The Abbreviation for American Society of Mechanical
temperature limit is determined to be the highest Engineers.
temperature level at which no leakage or “blow-out”
occurs. ASTM:
Abbreviation for American Society for Testing and
Temperature Cycling Test: The material is tested Materials.
in accordance with Method AWC-RDLAB-992-009.
The method is used to determine the behavior of a BEATER ADD (BEATER ADDITION):
gasket material when exposed to cycling conditions A manufacturing process for sheet employing a
(changes) up to its temperature limit while under paper making process using Fourdrinier or cylinder
specified load and internal pressure. type paper machines which deposits a binder (SBR-
Neoprene-Nitrile) uniformly over individual fibers
Stress Relaxation: (Torque retention) (Note: this (asbestos-cellulose-etc.) while suspended in water.
test depends upon the purchase of test fixture). The
stress relaxation test described in DIN52913 (also BURST:
BS2815 and BS1832) is a measure of a gasket A rupture caused by internal pressure.
material’s creep resistance. The stress remaining on CALENDER:
the gasket is measured and recorded. The A machine equipped with two or more heavy,
maximum allowable stress loss is 40%. internally heated or cooled rolls, which is used for:
sheeting, plying or densifying compound, or
fiber/rubber composite; or frictioning or coating
APPENDIX G: DEFINITION OF TERMS fabric with a rubber compound.
In many design engineering manuals, familiar COLD FLOW:
and unfamiliar terms will be encountered. This Continued deformation under stress.
section is designed to provide and define many of ELASTOMER:
those terms when referring to gaskets. Any of various elastic substances resembling
ACCELERATED TEST SERVICE: rubber. These man-made rubber (also called
If test results are required in a short time, the polymers) are produced by the combination of
materials under test will be subjected to monomers. See also Rubber.
exaggerated test conditions, usually involving EXTRUSION:
temperature, speed, etc. Permanent displacement of part of a seal into a gap,
AMBIENT TEMPERATURE: under the action of fluid pressure, or flange
The temperature of the environment to which a loading.
material is subjected. FLANGE:
The rigid portion of a gasketed joint that contacts
the sides or edges of the gasket.
42 SECTION 1
FLANGE JOINT: definition of “M” has varied in successive editions of
A joint formed by two abutting flanges. the Code, according to the method employed for
computing residual gasket load.
FLAT METAL GASKETS:
By definition, gaskets that are relatively thin OD:
compared to their width. They may be plain, solid Symbol for outside diameter.
or serrated or grooved.
OIL SWELL:
FLAT RING: The change in volume or weight of a gasketing
A flange gasket lying wholly within the ring of bolts. product resulting from contact with oil.
FULL-FACE GASKET: PERMANENT SET:
Gasket with dimensions to match entire flange 1. Permanent set is the deformation remaining after
diameter; encompasses flange bolts. a specimen has been stressed a prescribed amount
for a definite period and released for a definite
GASKET:
period. 2. In creep determinations, permanent set is
A deformable material, which when clamped
the residual unrecoverable deformation after the
between essentially stationary faces, prevents the
load causing the creep has been removed for a
passage of matter through an opening or joint.
substantial and definite period of time.
GASKETING:
PERMEABILITY AND POROSITY:
Material bulk form from which gaskets may be cut.
A permeable material is one that contains pores or
GASKETING SHEET: small openings that permit liquids or gases to seep
Refers to specific form of gasketing material from through. After manufacturing of graphite, definite
which gaskets are cut and/or fabricated. interstices (pores) will exist between the crystal
granules. Porosity is the percent by volume of pores
GASKETING JOINT:
in relation to the total volume of a piece.
The collective total of all members used to effect a
Permeability is the rate of flow of a gas through
gasketed seal between two separate members.
such a piece. The size and/or number of connected
HOMOGENEOUS: pores or channels that are continuous determine
Products that are of uniform composition the amount of permeability. Therefore, materials
throughout. with a high porosity do not necessarily have a high
permeability. Permeability is usually given in terms
ID:
of the cubic feet of cold air that will pass per hour
Symbol for inside diameter.
through a one-square-foot panel, one inch in
ISO: thickness, with a pressure drop of one inch of
Abbreviation for International Standards Institute. water.
JOINT: PRESSURE:
An interstice (crevice) between rigid members of a Force per unit area, usually expressed in pounds
fluid container. per square inch or N/mm2.
JOINTING: PRESSURE, ABSOLUTE:
Common term in Europe for gasketing. The pressure above zero absolute, i.e., the sum of
atmospheric and gage pressure. In vacuum related
LEAK:
work it is usually expressed in millimeters of
The passage of matter through interfacial openings
mercury (mm Hg).
or passageways, or both in the gasket.
PRESSURE, ATMOSPHERIC:
LEAKAGE RATE:
Pressure exerted by the atmosphere at any specific
The quantity, either mass or volume, of fluid
location (Seal Level pressure is approximately 14.7
passing through and/or over the faces of gaskets in
pounds per square inch absolute).
a given length of time.
PRESSURE, GAGE:
“M” MAINTENANCE VALUE:
Pressure differential above or below atmospheric
An empirical design constant of a flange gasket
pressure. Expressed as pounds per square inch
used in the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessels Code.
gage (Psig).
The Code equation defines this term as the ratio of
residual gasket load to fluid pressure at leak. The

PT VALUE: STRAIN:
A numerical value resulting from the multiplication The deformation of a gasket specimen under the
of the internal pressure (psi) by the temperature of action of applied force of stress.
the fluid being sealed. Used only as rough safety
STRESS:
guide for limiting gasket usage.
The intensity of the load at a point in the gasket
RAISED FACE GASKETS: specimen.
Gaskets for use with raised face flanges; see also
STRESS-RELAXATION:
flat ring, or ring gasket.
A transient stress-strain condition in which the
RECOVERY: gasket stress decays as the strain remains constant.
(Sheet Gasketing) The percentage decrease in (This condition is encountered in grooved-face
compressed deformation during a specified time gasketing joints in which metal-to-metal contact
interval and at a specified temperature, following occurs. This condition is also approached in flat-
release of load, as defined by ASTM F-36. face gasketing joints when the bolt is practically
infinitely rigid).
REINFORCEMENT:
The strength members, consisting of fabric, cord, STRESS-STRAIN:
and/or metal etc..., of a composite material. The relationship of load and deformation in a
gasket under stress. In most non-metallic gasketing,
RESIDUAL LOAD:
this is commonly the relationship of compressive
Axial load developed against, or by, a flange gasket
load and compression (strain).
at some interval after initial tightening. Is less than
preload by the amount of combined fluid relief and SURFACE FINISH:
creep-relaxation. The measure of surface smoothness (or “roughness”).
RING GASKET: TENSILE STRENGTH:
A flange gasket lying wholly within ring of bolts. Tensile strength is defined as the pure unit area
Also flat ring, or raised face gasket. required to rupture a material by pulling it apart. it
is expressed in pounds per square inch.
RUBBER:
An elastic substance, obtained naturally or WICKING:
synthetically, which is modified by chemical Leakage through a gasket (not around it).
treatment to increase its useful properties, such as
WORK PRESSURE:
the binder for gasket material.
The maximum operating pressure encountered
SEALABILITY: during normal service.
The measure of fluid leakage through and/or across
YIELD “y” FACTOR:
both faces of a gasket. Measured either by using
The minimum design seating stress on the gasket in
ASTM F-37 or DIN 3535 standard equipment and
either psi or megapascals that is required to
procedures.
provide a sealed joint with no internal pressure in
the joint.
44 SECTION 1
APPENDIX H: SURFACE FINISH/RA OR RMS VALUES
NOMINAL RA VALUES ROUGHNESS GRADE NUMBER

MM INCHES
50 2000 N12
25 1000 N11
12,5 500 N10
6,3 250 N9
3,2 125 N8
1,6 63 N7
0,8 32 N6
0,4 16 N5
0,2 8 N4
0,1 4 N3
0,05 2 N2
0,025 1 N1
0,0125 0.5 —
APPENDIX I: CONVERSION TABLE
(a) x (b) = (c)
Atmosphere 1.4696 x 101 Pounds/sq. in.
Bar 1.45 x 101 Pounds/sq. in.

Bar 1.0 x 10-1 N/mm2
Centimeter 3.281 x 10-2 Feet

Centimeter 3.937 x 10-1 Inch
Cubic Centimeter 3.531 x 10-5 Cubic Feet
Cubic Centimeter 6.102 x 10-2 Cubic inch
Cubic Feet 2.8320 x 104 Cubic Centimeter
Cubic Feet 1.728 x 103 Cubic Inch
Cubic Feet 2.832 x 10-2 Cube Meter
Cubic inch 1.639 x 101 Cubic Centimeter
Cubic Inch 5.787 x 10-4 Cubic Feet
Cubic Meter 3.531 x 101 Cubic Feet
Cubic Meter 6.1023 x 104 Cubic Inch
Feet 3.048 x 101 Centimeter
Gram .527 x 10-2 Ounce (Audp)

Gram 2.2046 x 10-3 Pounds
Grams/Cubic Centimeter 6.243 x 101 Pounds/Cubic Foot In
Inch 2.54 Centimeter

Inch 2.54 x 101 Millimeter

Kilogram 2.2046 Pounds
Kilogram/Cubic Meter 6.243 x -2 Pounds/Cubic Foot
Meter 3.281 Foot

Millimeter 3.281 x -3 Foot
Millimeter 3.937 x 10-2 Inch
Newton/Sq. Millimeter 10 x 101 Grams

Newton/Sq. Millimeter 145.035 Pounds
Ounce 2.835 x 101 Grams

Ounce 6.25 x 10-1 Pounds
Pounds 4.5359 x 102 Grams

Pounds/Cubic Foot 1.602 x 102 Gram/Cubic Centimeter
Pounds/Sq. Foot 6.804 x 10-2 Pounds/Sq. Inch
Pounds/Sq. Foot 4.882 Kilogram/Sq. Metric
Pounds/Sq. Inch 144 Pounds/Sq. Foot
Pounds/Sq. Inch 6.896 x 10-3 Newton/Sq. Millimeter
Square Feet 9.29 x 102 Square Centimeter

Square Feet 1.44 x 102 Square Inch
Square Inch 6.452 Square Centimeter
Square Inch 6.944 x 10-3 Square Feet
Square Millimeter 1.55 x 10-3 Square Inch
Square Meter 1.076 x 101 Square Feet
Temperature:
Centigrade 1.8°C Fahrenheit
Fahrenheit 5(°F-32) Centigrade

9
Torque:
Foot-Pound 1.356 Newton-Meter

Inch-Pound 1.13 x 10-1 Newton-Meter
Area Circle π d2
4
46 SECTION 1
SECTION 2
FLEXIBLE GRAPHITE GASKETING MATERIAL
A.W. CHESTERTON PRODUCTS

AWC 198 Properties
AWC 199 Properties
COMPRESSIBILITY/RECOVERY OF GRAPHITE GASKETS
CREEP RELAXATION
GASKET STRESS
Stability
Maximum
TEMPERATUARE RESISTANCE/OXIDATION OF GRAPHITE
PRESSURE & TEMPERATURE RELATIONSHIP
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GRAPHITE SHEET
DESIGN
“m” & “y” factors
Out of Flat Flange Surfaces
Repair of Flange Surfaces
INSTALLATION
T he special properties of flexible graphite can A.W. CHESTERTON 198
bring highly effective sealing to flange faces. A laminated premium grade flexible graphite
Flexible graphite seals at low stress with no need whose strength is generally higher than other
to adjust flange pressures to compensate for its homogeneous grades. This sheet has no binders or
negligible creep. Its resistance assures that a leak- fillers but contains a phosphate inhibitor. An
proof seal can be achieved when the flanges are excellent gasketing material for almost all
“out-of-flat”, pitted or gouged. The dimensional environments from pH-O to pH-14 and from 240°C
stability of flexible graphite is retained over its (-400°F) to 2982°C (5400°F) (inert or reducing
entire temperature range. Finally, with its atmosphere) or 454°C (+850°F) in an oxidizing
significantly higher thermal conductivity than that atmosphere and pressures to 138 Bar (2000 psi ).
of elastomeric bound material, there is no “burn- A.W. CHESTERTON 199
out” from localized heat generation. Similar grade of flexible graphite with a 0.002"
steel foil insert for extreme stability. The 316
stainless steel insert has higher chemical resistance
GRADES OF GRAPHITE SHEET GASKETING than plate steel. AWC 199 cuts easily, has little cold
MATERIAL flow (or creep), excellent compressibility requiring
A.W. Chesterton has two grades of flexible little or no retorquing to seal.
graphite sheet available. The types, based on AWC 199 has a maximum service temperature of
70lb/ft3 c1.12gm/cm3 density graphite, differ only in 871°C (1600°F) in a non-oxidizing or inert
the type of core material. atmosphere; and 454°C (850°F) in an oxidizing
atmosphere and operating pressure to 138 Bar
(2000 psi).
Complete properties of AWC 198/199 given in
the following tables:
A.W. CHESTERTON 198 — INHIBITED GRAPHITE SHEET

CHEMICAL REQUIREMENTS — TABLE IA
PROPERTY LIMIT TEST MEHTOD

Carbon, % min. 97.0 Leco Method or ASTM D-3178-84
Ash, % max. 2.0 ASTM C-561-85
Moisture, % max. 1.0 ASTM C-562-85
Water Leachable Chlorides, ppm max. 50 ASTM D-512-81 or
Ion Chromatography
Total Chlorine, ppm max. 500 ASTM D-808-81 or Ion Chromatography
Total Fluorine, ppm max. 300 ASTM D-3761-79
Total Sulfur, ppm max. 700 Leco Method or ASTM D-1662-79 or ASTM D-129-78
or Ion Chromatography
Total Heavy Metals, ppm max. 500 Atomic Absorption or Plasma Emission
*antimony, arsenic, bismuth, cadmium, copper, gallium, indium, lead, mercury, silver, tin, zinc.
48 SECTION 2
A.W. CHESTERTON 198 — INHIBITED GRAPHITE SHEET
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS — TABLE IB
UNITS
PROPERTY ENGLISH METRIC ASTM
Bulk Density ± 5lbs/ft (.80 g/c) 70 lbs/ft3 1.12 g/cc C-559
Maximum Working Pressure 2000 psi 138 Bar -
Creep Relaxation <5% <5% F-38
Compressibility 40% 40% F-36
Recovery 12-17% 12-17% F-36
Sealability 0.5 ml/hr. - F-37
Tensile Strength Along Width 750 psi 5.2 MPa F-152
Compressive Strength Maximum Usable Unconfined 24000 psi 165 MPa C-695
Friction Static (coeffecient) 0.05 to 0.20 0.05 to 0.20 -
Coef. of Ther. Exp. (Linear) Along Length and Width -0.2 -0.4 -
(at 70 to 2000°F) Through Thickness (at 70 to 4000°F) 10-6 in/in/°F 10-6 m/m/°C
15.0 27.0
10-6 in/in/°F 10-6 m/m/°C
Oxidation Rate at: (loss)
500°C (932°F) - 0.75 g/m/hr -
700°C (1292°F) 130 g/m2/hr
A.W. CHESTERTON 199 — REINFORCED INHIBITED GRAPHITE SHEET

CHEMICAL REQUIREMENTS — TABLE IIA
PROPERTY LIMIT TEST MEHTOD

Carbon, % min. 97.0 Leco Method or ASTM D-3178-84
Ash, % max. 2.0 ASTM C-561-85
Moisture, % max. 1.0 ASTM C-562-85
Water Leachable Chlorides, ppm max. 50 ASTM D-512-82 or
Ion Chromatography
Water Leachable Fluorides, ppm max. 50 ASTM D-1179-80 or
Ion Chromatography
Total Chlorine, ppm max. 500 ASTM D-808-81 or Ion Chromatgraphy
Total Fluorine, ppm max. 300 ASTM D-3761-79 or Ion Chromatography
Total Sulfur, ppm max. 700 Leco Method or ASTM D-129-78
or Ion Chromatography
Total Heavy Metals, ppm max. 500 Atomic Absorption or Plasma Emissions
* Individual Heavy Metals, ppm max. 200 Atomic Absorption or Plasma Emissions
*antimony, arsenic, bismuth, cadmium, copper, gallium, indium, lead, mercury, silver, tin, zinc.
FLEXIBLE GRAPHITE GASKETING MATERIAL 49

A.W. CHESTERTON 199 — REINFORCED INHIBITED GRAPHITE SHEET
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS — TABLE II B
UNITS
PROPERTY ENGLISH METRIC ASTM
Bulk Density ± 5 lbs/ft (.080 g/cc) 70 lbs/ft3 1.12 g/cc C-559
Maximum Working Pressure 2000 psi 139 Bars -
Creep Relaxation <5% <5% F-38
Compressibility 40% 40% F-36
Recovery 12-17% 12-17% F-36
Sealability 0.5 ml/hr. - F-37
Tensile Strength Along Width 750 psi 5.2 MPa F-152
Compressive Strength Maximum Usable Unconfined 24000 psi 165 MPa C-695
Friction Static (coefficient) 0.05 to 0.20 0.05 to 0.20 -
Coef. of Ther. Exp. (Linear) Along Length and Width -0.2 -0.4 -
(at 70 to 2000°F) 10-6 in/in/°F 10-6 m/m/°C
Through Thickness (at 70 to 4000°) 15.0 27.0
10-6 in/in/°F 10-6 m/m/°C
Oxidation Rate at: (loss)
500°C (932°F) - 0.75 g/m2/hr -
700°C (1292°F) 130 g/m2/hr
COMPRESSIBILITY/RECOVERY OF FIGURE 1 —
GRAPHITE GASKETS FLEXIBLE GRAPHITE: STRESS/STRAIN RELATIONSHIP
One of the advantages of using flexible graphite

for gasket applications is its excellent compressibility
and recovery characteristics. The shape retention 10
properties of flexible graphite are directly
proportioned to its density and inversely 9
proportional to the applied pressure (Fig. 1).
Even at high temperature (900°F) the resilience 8
(spring-back) of flexible graphite remains density
90 lb/ft3
unaffected. The high compressibility allows the (1.4 gm/cc)
material to conform to irregular flange surfaces and 7
flange warpage, while the resilience aids in
Stress — psi x 103
accommodating occurring bolt stretch. 6

Bottom line: once the joints are sealed, there is density
almost never any need to retighten the bolts to 70 lb/ft3
5 (1.1 gm/cc)
maintain sealability.
In Fig. 2 are shown the Stress/Compressive
Strain characteristics of A.W. Chesterton 198 4
(homogeneous graphite sheet) and 199 (0.002"
stainless steel insert graphite sheet). 3
The resilient behavior of flexible graphite is density
typified in Fig. 3 which shows the continuous 2 50 lb/ft3
application and release of load on a flexible (0.8 gm/cc)
homogeneous graphite sheet. At any point flexible
graphite will spring-back to a point about halfway 1
between its no-load thickness and its thickness
under load. Density is reduced proportionately, but 0
with “spring-back” or recovery not 100%, the result 10 20 30 40 50
is a new higher density material at no load, and it % Compressive Strain
50 SECTION 2
liquids and gases, often leading to leakage and/or
FIGURE 2 — STRESS/COMPRESSIVE STRAIN
A.W. CHESTERTON 198/199 blow out. Flexible graphite gaskets seal tightly at
low stress with negligible creep relaxation.
The following table shows relative values of
10 creep relaxation for various commonly used gasket
materials.
9 CREEP RELAXATION: ASTM F-38 METHOD B
% RELAXATION
8 100°C 200°C
(212°F) (392°F)
7 Compressed Asbestos 15 60
AWC 199 Non-Asb. Beater Sheet 25 70
(0.002" steel insert)
6 Non-Asb. Comp. Sheet 20 50

Flexible Graphite 2-5 5
5 The high temperature creep test using British

Standard Institute’s BSF.125 was used on A.W.
4 Chesterton 198 (homogeneous) and 199 (0.002
steel insert) flexible graphite sheet. The gasket is
measured by applying a clamp load of 6500 psi and
3 heating to 400°C(750°F) at a rate of 10°C/minute
AWC 198
2 (homogeneous)
FIGURE 3 — COMPRESSION/RECOVERY
INITIAL DENSITY: 85 lb/ft3 (1.3 gm/cc)
1
A: % Comp.~ 9
0 % Rec. ~ 5
10 20 30 40 50 10
B: % Comp.~ 17.6
% Compressive Strain % Rec. ~ 9.3
9 C: % Comp.~ 23
% Rec. ~ 9
will develop a new curve when compressive force is
8 D: % Comp.~ 27
reapplied. % Rec. ~ 8
The ultimate density of homogeneous graphite is
140 lb/ft3 (2.2 gm/cc), which occurs around 50% 7 D
compression for a 70 lb/ft3 (1.1 gm/cm3) material.
Unit Load — psi x 103
The amount of resilience or “spring-back” behavior

6
for this material under 5000 psi initial load is
around 13% (compression around 46%).
Since this “spring-back” like behavior is inherent 5 C
in the graphite structure, it is stable as long as the
structural integrity of the graphite is maintained. 4
This stability extends from temperatures as low as
cryogenic to temperatures of 800-900°F (in an B
3
oxidizing atmosphere) and to 5400°F in an inert or
reducing atmosphere.
2
CREEP RELAXATION 1 A
An important characteristic is graphite’s absence
of creep defined as the continued plastic flow of the 0
material under a constant load. Gasket creep has 10 20 30 40
traditionally been a problem in containment of % Compressive Strain

FIGURE 4 — PERCENT CREEP VS. TEMPERATURE — BSF.125 TEST
0
AWC 198 (0.002" steel)
% Creep (Compression Under Load)
5 AWC 198 (homog.)

Asbestos
6500 psi
10
Aramid
Carbon Fiber Creep @ 300°C ~ 28%
15 Creep @ 300°C ~ 33%
Creep @ 400°C ~ 42%
20
= 10% Creep failure
100 200 300 400

Temperature — °C
(18°F/minute). The percent thickness decreased is temperature - pressure combination produced an

measured against temperature. By definition of the irreversible distortion/decomposition of the gasket.
test, a gasket failed where the creep (% thickness The flexible graphite was able to withstand the 100
decrease) reaches 10%. MPa (14550 psi) apparatus pressure, without
A comparison of an asbestos material, an aramid failure, over the entire temperature range to the
reinforced material and a carbon fiber reinforced 450°C (850°F) maximum that was employed. A
material were used as a benchmark against AWC maximum temperature limit for flexible graphite
198/199. On the graph (Fig. 4), the asbestos was not established during these tests.
material had a creep of about 7% at 400°C (750°F) The 100 MPa (14550 psi) limit under 150°C
while the A.W. Chesterton graphite sheets had a (300°F) is consistent with the experience that some
creep of 3.5 and 2.5 @ 400°C respectively for AWC “extrusion” can occur at this pressure when flexible
198/199. The aramid material failed at 10% creep graphite is unconstrained. However flexible
about 185°C (370°F) and the carbon fiber material graphite can and has been used at much higher
failed at 10% creep at about 140°C (285°F). pressures when constrained.
A useful index of temperature capabilities of
flexible graphite sheet can be found by conducting
a high temperature stress retention test, such as
GASKET STRESS
DIN-52913, at various temperatures and noting
how residual stress varies.
STABILITY
The ability of flexible graphite to maintain its DIN - 52913
load bearing capabilities over a wide range of Temp.: 300°C (572°F)
temperatures is shown in a plot of stress versus Gasket Load: 50 N/mm2 (7250 psi)
temperature developed by E.M. Sauter 1 — Fig. 5. Thickness: 2.0 mm (0.079 in.)
The curves of maximum load bearing ability at Ring Size: 75 x 55 mm (2.95 x 2.16 in.)
temperature are plotted for three typical gasket Time: 16 hrs.
materials and compared to that of flexible graphite. Minimum Stress to Meet Standard:
Each curve is developed from points where 30 N/mm2 (4350 psi)
52 SECTION 2
MATERIAL 150°C (300°F) 200°C (392°F) 250°C (482°F) 300°C (572°F) 315°C (600°F)
RESIDUAL STRESS - N/mm2
FLEXIBLE GRAPHITE AWC 198 46.5 42.8 45.1 47.3 45.7
PREM GRADE ASBESTOS 28.8 22.3 17.6 12.9 14.2
PREM GRADE NON-ASBESTOS 22.4 18.9 18.3 16.9 17.1
N/m2 x 145 = psi
The above results clearly demonstrate the stress

FIGURE 6 —
retention superiority of graphite and the manner in MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE COMPRESSIVE STRESS
which the values fall off the temperature for other
materials. Example
29.00 ANSI 300-3" OD = 5.00
MAXIMUM ID = 3.50
Gasket users frequently need to know the b = 0.75
maximum permissible stress allowed for gaskets 26.10 Gasket Thickness/t — 0.032 b = 23
t
fabricated from flexible graphite. Until recently this
Max Stress: AWC 198 — 21,750 psi
information has been difficult or impossible to 23.20 AWC 199 — 13,000 psi
obtain. That problem has been rectified by the
information in Fig. 62. 20.30
Compressive Stress — psi x 103
To provide this necessary information in a
usable, practical form, the horizontal axis
17.40 homogeneous
(AWC 198)
FIGURE 5 —
GASKET MATERIAL LOAD BEARING ABILITY 14.50
Note: Each curve represents the 11.60

psi x 103
maximum temperature pressure

MPA
point for the gasket material. 0.002" steel insert

8.70 (AWC 199)
110 16
Flexible Graphite 5.80
2.90
83 12
Compressed 0
Asbestos 5 10 15 20 25
Width of Gasket, b
Thickness of Gasket, t
Stress
55 8 (abscissa) on the graph consists of the ratio of the

width of the gasket (b) and the thickness of the
Compressed
Non-Asbestos gasket (t) as follows:
Width of gasket (b)
Thickness of gasket (t)
28 4
Cork-Asbestos Presented in the graph in Fig. 6 are homogeneous
sheet (AWC 198) and inserted sheet (AWC 199).
1
E.M. Sauter, “Current and Future Gasket Materials —
°C 93 204 316 427 Methods of evaluating some of their functional properties,”
0 Transcript of oral presentation made at the fluid leading
°F 200 400 600 800 associating meeting, October, 1981.
Temperature 2
Calgraph Technical Manual, Section 26 Polycarbon Inc.

is present in all material the contained pressure
TEMPERATURE RESISTANCE/OXIDATION
will tend to filled the pores of the material fluid,
OF GRAPHITE
hence reducing any oxidizing tendencies.
Much confusion is being generated by recent
C. The joint may be wrapped or insulated, creating
reports of graphite gasket materials oxidizing at
an environment for the gasket different from the
elevated temperatures, and potentially
external environment.
“disappearing” from the gasket joint after sufficient
exposure time. Graphite, being a form of carbon, Any of these conditions could greatly increase
can eventually oxidize if subjected to a high the likelihood of oxidation.
temperature in an oxidizing medium for a long Oxidation is highly dependent on temperature,
enough period of time. However, several factors and time at temperature. Temperature is generally
affect the rate of oxidation, particularly in a dependent on the fluid media inside the joint. Heat
clamped joint. A thorough understanding of the transfer to the gasket will be dependent on the fluid
effects of the various parameters on possible flow in the pipe or vessel, as well as the proximity
oxidation is necessary in interpreting these results. of the gasket inside edge to the inner bore of the
In general, A.W. Chesterton flexible graphite flange. Heat transfer of the flange and gasket
products are rated at the following temperatures: material will create a rapid decrease in temperature
Air: 500°C or (932°F) as you approach the outer diameter of the joint.
Steam: 650°C or (1200°F) One of the features of flexible graphite is its ability
Inert or reducing atmospheres, or vacuum: to conduct heat, particularly in this parallel
3000°C or (5432°F) direction. Again, wrapped joints will affect this. The
overall result is that the fluid could be at or above
Any oxidation determined by weight loss is the oxidation temperature of graphite, while the
dependent on the exposed surface area of the remaining gasket is not.
sample as compared to the overall weight of Joint tightness will also have some affect on
material. In other words, only the edges of a gasket oxidation rate, as the density of the graphite will
are subject to oxidation and for a given size of increase with increasing clamping force, and
gasket, the thicker samples would exhibit higher permeablity will be reduced. Another factor will be
oxidation because of the increased edge area. the purity of the graphite, or the ash content.
Likewise, of two gaskets with the same inside Higher purity graphite products will oxidize less.
diameter, one with a larger outside diameter would A.W. Chesterton flexible graphite products
exhibit more oxidation. Therefore, listing oxidation contain a passive inhibitor to reduce oxidation.
results in percentage of initial weight will be These inhibitors convert to a glass like structure at
deceiving without knowing the rest of the elevated temperatures, creating a physical barrier
dimensions, and conditions. The gasket surfaces in covering the “active sights” on the graphite crystal
contact with the flange surfaces would not tend to lattice. As a result, the effect of oxygen is
oxidize, and oxidation within the gasket body would eliminated or minimized. Inhibitors will raise the
only be accessible via permeation of the oxygen threshold of oxidation by about 100°C and reduce
into the pores of the material hence the onset of oxidation by a factor of ten or more.
oxidation will not lead to a reduction in gasket
thickness. The significance of this is that oxidation
tests and results are highly dependent on the
sample configuration, and the method of sample
mounting (i.e. clamped or free state).
In an actual application several possible
conditions can be present:
A. The fluid contained may be an oxidizing media.
In this case the gasket is most susceptible to
oxidation.
B. The fluid may be inert or reducing, however the
external edge of the joint may be exposed to air,
hence leaving this portion in an oxidizing
environment. However, due to permeability that
54 SECTION 2
PxT LIMIT
PRESSURE x TEMPERATURE RELATIONSHIP
The product of pressure and temperature is Material English Metric

frequently used as a guide for the selection of a AWC 198
material for a specific gasket or seal application. PxT 2,000,000 76,000
The (PxT) value is a numeric value resulting from Max Press. 2000 psi 138 Bar
the multiplication of the internal pressure (psi or Max Temp.
Bar) by the temperature of the fluid being sealed Oxidizing 850°F 454°C
(°F or °C). This criterion is only a rough guideline Insert 5400°F 3000°C
though, and other parameters or product AWC 199
characteristics should also be given consideration. PxT 1,600,000 58,000
This value can also, as a general rule, decrease Max Press. 2000 psi 138 Bar
substantially with thicker gaskets. So, (PxT) values
Max Temp.
should be used with discretion and not relied upon
Oxidizing 850°F 454°C
wholly as a basis for decisions.
Insert 1600°F 871°C
The (PxT) limit values (plotted curvers) for A.W.
Chesterton 198 and 199 are shown on the following
plots.
A.W. CHESTERTON 198
454°C/138 Bar PxT Limit 2,000,000 76,000

Bar
psi
Oxidizing Service Limit Press (max) 2,000 psi 138 Bar

2175 150 Temp (max)
Non-Oxidizing 5400°F 3000°C
1813 125
Internal Pressure
1450 100
1088 75
3000°C/25.4 Bar
725 50 Non-Oxidizing
Service Limit
363 25
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 °C

0
932 1832 2732 3632 4532 5432 °F
Temperature

A.W. CHESTERTON 199
454°C PxT Limit 1,600,000 58,000
Bar
psi Oxidizing Press (max) 2,000 psi 138 Bar
2175 150 Service Limit Temp (max)
Non-Oxidizing 1500°F 815°C
1813 125
Internal Pressure
1450 100 815°C

Non-Oxidizing
Service Limit
1088 75
725 50
363 25
300 400 500 600 700 800 °C

0
572 752 932 1112 1292 1472 °F
Temperature
exceptions: certain strong oxidizers such as

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF
concentrated nitric or sulfuric acids, chloric acids,
GRAPHITE SHEET
permangnates, chromium (VI) solutions, as well as
Unlike typical asbestos based materials, flexible molten alkali and alkaline earth metals should not
graphite has inherently low levels of corrosion be used with flexible graphite.
inducing halides with leachable chlorides typically For reinforced flexible graphite, the laminating
less than 50-100 ppm (parts per million). material (i.e. steel) may not be as resistant as the
Significant concentrations of chlorides and other graphite alone. Also the performance or suitability
corrosive salts are present in asbestos which of a graphite gasket for a particular application may
enhance adhesion to mating surfaces necessitating depend on other factors including certain gasket
the use of “anti-stick” coatings. Since graphite is a design characteristics such as surface load,
solid lubricant sometimes used as an “anti-stick” pressure and temperature.
coating, the use of a secondary coating is The table on the next page assumes that:
unnecessary.
• the temperatures are up to the boiling point of
Graphite is one of the most inert natural
the chemicals or the melting point of the metal.
materials known. It will resist corrosion attack by a
wide variety of chemicals including many acids, • the chemicals are 100% concentration unless
bases, solvents, oils metals, etc. There are however otherwise noted.
56 SECTION 2
CITRIC ACID A
CHEMICAL RESISTANCE OF FLEXIBLE GRAPHITE
COPPER (MOLTEN) A
A Completely resistant DIMETHYL ETHER A
B Moderately resistant DIMETHYL AMINE A
C Not resistant DIMETHYL SULFOXIDE A
DIOXANE A
ACETALDEHYDE A DIPHENYL ETHER A
ACETIC ACID A EPICHLOROHYDRIN A
ACETIC ANHYDRIDE A ETHANOL A
ACETIC ACID AMYL ESTER A ETHANOLAMINE A
ACETONE A ETHYL BUTYL ETHER A
ACRYLIC ACID A ETHYLENE A
ACRYLIC ACID ETHYL ESTER A ETHYLENE DIBROMIDE A
ACRYLONITRILE A ETHYLENE DICHLORIDE A
AIR (<450°C) A ETHYLENE GLYCOL A
ALUM A FLUORIDES (AQUEOUS SALT-SOL’N) A
ALUMINUM (MOLTEN) A FLUORINE (>150°C) B
AMMONIA A FORMALDEHYDE A
AMMONIUM BISULFATE A FORMIC ACID A
AMMONIUM HYDROXIDE SOL’N A FREON A
AMYL ALCOHOL A GASOLINE A
ANILINE A GLYCOL A
AQUA REGIA C GOLD (MOLTEN) A
ARSENIC ACID A HEAT TRANSFER OILS (DOWTHERM, UCON ETC.) A
ARSENIC TRICHLORIDE A HYDRAULIC OIL A
BENZALDEHYDE A HYDRAZINE A
BENZENE A HYDROBROMIC ACID A
BENZENE HEXACHLORIDE A HYDROCHLORIC ACID A
BENZYL SULFONIC ACID A HYDROFLUORIC ACID (>60% AT RM. TEMP.) B
BLEACH LIQUOR A HYDROFLUORIC ACID (<60%,<90°C) A
BORATE (AQUEOUS SALT SOL’N) A HYDROFLUOROSILICIC ACID(<20%) A
BORIC ACID A HYDROGEN BROMIDE A
BROMIDES (AQUEOUS SALT SOL’N) A HYDROGEN CHLORIDE A
BROMINE (DRY) C HYDROGEN FLUORIDE A
BROMINE (RM TEMP.) B HYDROGEN PEROXIDE (<85%) A
BUTYL ALCOHOL A HYDROGEN SULFIDE A
BUTYL CELLOSOLVE A IODIDES (AQUEOUS SALT SOL’N) A
CARBON DIOXIDE (<600°C) A IODINE (RM TEMP.) B
CARBON DISULFIDE A IRON (MOLTEN) A
CARBON MONOXIDE A ISO-OCTANE A
CARBON TETRACHLORIDE A ISOPROPYL ACETATE A
CARBONIC ACID A ISOPROPYL ALCOHOL A
CHLORIDES (AQUEOUS SALT SOL’N) A KEROSENE A
CHLORINE (DRY) A LACTIC ACID A
CHLORINE DIOXIDE C LEAD (MOLTEN) A
CHLOROBENZENE A MAGNESIUM (MOLTEN) A
CHLOROETHYL BENZENE A MALEIC ACID A
CHLOROFORM A MERCAPTANS A
CHRONIC ACID(<10%, <95°C) A MERCURY (MOLTEN) A
CHROMOSULFURIC ACID (<20°C) A METHANOL A

METHYL ETHYL ETHER A SULFUR HEXALUORIDE A
METHYL ETHYL KETONE A SULFUR TRIOXIDE C
METHYL ISOBUTYL KETONE A SULFURIC ACID (>96%, RM TEMP.) C
MONOCHLOROACETIC ACID A SULFURIC ACID (70%-85% UP TO 170°C) A
MONOCHLOROBENZENE A SULFURIC ACID (8-93% <150°C) A
MONOETHANOL AMINE A SULFURIC ACID (93-96%, RM. TEMP.) B
MOTOR OILS A SULFUROUS ACID A
NITRATES AQUEOUS SALT SOL’N A TARTARIC ACID A
NITRIC ACID C THIONYLCHLORIDE A
NITRIC ACID (<20%) A TIN (MOLTEN) A
NITRIC ACID (20%, RM TEMP.) B TRANSFORMER OIL A
NITROBENZENE A TRICHLOROETHYLENE A
NITROGEN A TRICHLOROACETIC ACID A
NITROGEN DIOXIDE (<600°C) A TRIETHANOLAMINE A
NITROUS OXIDE A TRIETHYLAMINO ETHANOL A
OCTYL ALCOHOL A VINYL ACETATE A
OLEIC ACID A WOODS ALLOY (MOLTEN) A
OLEUM (FUMING SULFURIC ACID) C XYLENES A
OXALIC ACID A ZINC (MOLTEN) A
OXYGEN (<350°C) A
PAINT THINNER A
PARALDEHYDE A
PARADICHLOROHENZENE A
PERCHLORIC ACID (<20%) A DESIGN
PHENOL A
PHENYL ACETATE A “M” FACTOR AND “Y” STRESS
PHENYL ACETIC ACID A The “m” factor provides the sealing pressure
PHOSPHATES AQUEOUS SALT SOL’N A required to maintain the seal after the initial
PHOSPHORIC ACID A pressure is applied. In calculating sealing pressure
PHTHALIC ACID A requirements, the system pressure is multiplied by
POTASH (MOLTEN SALT) A the “m” factor and is added to the “y” factor value.
POTASSIUM (<350°C, MOLTEN) A The “y” factor is the minimum pressure required
POTASSIUM CHLORATE C
to accomplish a seal. (A rule of thumb: the
minimum sealing stress is 1000 psi for most
POTASSIUM HYDROGEN SULFATE A
grades).
POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE A
The uses and determination of the “m” and “y”
PROPANE A factors has been under some dispute and
PROPYLENE A discussion. Therefore, the use of published values
SILICONES A should be limited to preliminary design and in all
SILOXANES A cases they should be confirmed for specific
SILVER (MOLTEN) A applications. There is no consideration made for
SODA (MOLTEN) A leakage caused by permeability of the media sealed.
SODIUM (<350°C, MOLTEN) A The table below indicates the accepted values of
SODIUM PEROXIDE C “m” and “y” factors for homogeneous and 0.002 in.
SODIUM HYDROXIDE SOLUTION A steel inserted graphite sheets.
STEAM (<750°C) A TYPE THICKNESS “M” “Y” STRESS
STEARIC ACID A (inches) factor factor
SULFATES (AQUEOUS SALT SOL’N) A AWC 198
SULFONIC ACID A (Homogeneous) ANY 1.25 700 psi
SULFUR A AWC 199
SULFUR DIOXIDE A (0.002" Steel Insert) ANY 2.0 1500 psi
58 SECTION 2
Typical application: given a new, undamaged pair Required load/bolt for gasket = total bolt load ÷
of 4" 300 lb. raised face flanges and a working no bolts = 16992 lbs. ÷ 8 = 2124 lbs./bolt
pressure of 400 psi:
(4) Hydrostatic end thrust (HET) = P X π d2 =
(1) From “m” and “y” factor, the required minimum 4
gasket load: Sm= Y + MP: = 700 psi + 1.25
(400 psi) = 1200 psi. 400 lb./in2 X π X (4.5 in2) = 6362 - lbs.
4
Note: For homogeneous graphite sheet the plot
of Fig. 7 (internal pressure vs. unit load) may (5) Correct total gasket load = load (3) & load (4)
be used to determine the minimum gasket = 16992 lb. + 6362 lb. = 23354 lb.
stress (Smin). (6) Corrected total load/bolt = 23354 lb. ÷ 8 =
(2) For 4" 300 lb. raised face flanges. 2919- lb./bolt
effective gasket ID = 4-1/2 in. (7) Safeload/bolt from Crane Bolt Data:
effect gasket OD = 6-3/16 in.
effect gasket area = 0.785 (OD2 - ID2). (with 3/4" plain steel bolt = 10,020 lb.
raised face flange, the area underload is the 3/4" alloy steel bolt = 20,024 lb. Thus
area of the raised portion of the flange, and not Plain steel bolts are more than adequate, but
the entire flange width.) alloy bolts can be employed if higher strength
2 2
0.785 (6-3/16 - 4-1/2 ) = 14.16 sq. in. or corrosion resistance were required.
(3) Total bolt load required = gasket area X gasket (8) The total unit load (stress) on gasket = correct
load = 14.16 sq. in. X 1200 lb./in2 = 16992 - total load (5) divided by gasket area.
lbs. on 8 bolts, 3/4" dia. 23354 lb. ÷ 14.16 sq. in. = 1649 psi (11.4
N/mm2)
CRANE BOLT TABLE
DATA FOR USE WITH MACHINE BOLTS AND COLD ROLLED STUD BOLTS
Nominal Number of Minor Tensile STRESS

Diameter of Bolt Threads Diameter Stress Area 7,500 psi 15,000 psi 30,000 psi
Torque Tension Torque Tension Torque Tension
Inches Per Inch Inches Sq. Inch Ft. Lbs. Lbs. Ft. Lbs. Lbs. Ft. Lbs. Lbs.
1/4 20 .1887 .0318 1 239 2 477 4 954
3/16 18 .2443 .0524 2 393 4 786 8 1572
3/8 16 .2983 .0775 3 581 6 1163 12 2325
7/16 14 .3499 .1063 5 797 10 1595 20 3189
1/2 13 .4056 .1419 8 1064 15 2129 30 4257
9/16 12 .4603 .182 12 1365 23 2730 45 5460
5/8 11 .5135 .226 15 1695 30 3390 60 6780
3/4 10 .6273 .334 30 2505 55 5010 110 10020
7/8 9 .7387 .462 45 3465 85 6930 170 13860
1 8 .8466 .606 65 4545 130 9090 260 18180
1 1/8 7 .9497 .763 95 5723 185 11445 370 22890
1 1/4 7 1.0747 .969 130 7268 280 14535 520 29070
1 3/8 6 1.1705 1.155 170 8663 340 17325 680 34650
1 1/2 6 1.2955 1.405 225 10538 450 21075 900 42150
1 3/4 5 1.5046 1.90 360 14250 715 28500 1425 57000
2 4 1/2 1.7274 2.50 525 18750 1050 37500 2100 75000

CRANE BOLT TABLE
DATA FOR USE WITH ALLOY STEEL STUD BOLTS
Nominal Number of Minor Tensile STRESS

Diameter of Bolt Threads Diameter Stress Area 30,000 psi 45,000 psi 60,000 psi
Torque Tension Torque Tension Torque Tension
1/4 20 .1887 .0318 4 954 6 1431 8 1906
3/16 18 .2443 .0524 8 1572 12 2439 16 3144
3/8 16 .2983 .0775 12 2325 18 3488 24 4650
7/16 14 .3499 .1063 20 3189 30 4784 40 6373
1/2 13 .4056 .1419 30 4257 45 6386 60 8514
9/16 12 .4603 .182 45 5460 66 8190 90 10920
5/8 11 .5135 .226 60 6780 90 10170 120 13560
3/4 10 .6273 .334 110 10020 165 15030 220 20040
7/8 9 .7387 .462 170 13860 253 20790 340 27720
1 8 .8466 .606 260 18180 390 27270 520 36360
1 1/3 8 .9716 .790 375 23700 455 35550 750 47400
1 1/4 8 1.0966 1.000 525 30000 790 45000 1050 60000
1 2/3 8 1.2216 1.233 715 36990 1075 55485 1425 73980
1 1/2 8 1.3466 1.492 925 44760 1395 67140 1850 89520
1 5/8 8 1.4716 1.73 1200 53400 1800 80100 2400 106800
1 3/4 8 1.5966 2.08 1500 62400 2250 93600 3000 124800
1 7/8 8 1.7216 2.41 1800 72300 2775 108450 3700 144600
2 8 1.3466 2.77 2260 83100 3390 124650 4525 166200
2 1/4 8 2.0966 3.56 3280 106600 4890 180200 6525 213600
2 1/2 8 2.3466 4.44 4500 133200 6750 199800 9000 256400
2 3/4 8 2.5966 5.43 6025 162900 9040 244350 12050 325800
3 8 2.3466 6.51 7875 195300 11815 292950 15750 390600
OUT OF FLAT GASKET SURFACES pair, are out-of-flat. The surest way is to bring the
Gasket surfaces that have been warped by parts together, metal-to-metal and then inset feeler
excessive bolt loads, or extremes of thermal cycling gages into the interface.
are often encountered during planned maintenance
Step 3
turnarounds. If such out-of-flat gasket surfaces are
From Fig. 7 (Pressure vs Gasket Unit Load)
detected, a decision must be made whether to
determine the gasket unit load required to seal out
refinish the parts or scrap them and order new
working pressure. This load must be generated in
components. Ordering new parts is usually the last
the “valleys” or low spots.
resort because of high cost and long delivery times.
It is now possible to compensate for most out-of- Step 4
flatness gasket surfaces by the proper selections of From Fig. 2 (Compression Stress-Strain Curves),
gasket thickness, even for high temperature or determine the percent compression which is
other severe service. The procedure is as follows: produced in the gasket by the unit load from Step 3.
Step 1 Step 5
Determine the total net unit load on the gasket as Multiply the maximum out-of-flat reading from
illustrated on the preceding page. Step 2 by 15.
Step 2 Step 6
Measure and record the amount, in thousandths of Choose that combination of thickness or
inches, by which the mating surfaces, taken as a thicknesses which will be equal to or just above the
60 SECTION 2
FIGURE 2 — STRESS/COMPRESSIVE STRAIN FIGURE 7 — INTERNAL PRESSURE VS. FLEXIBLE
A.W. CHESTERTON 198/199 GRAPHITE UNIT LOAD
HOMOGENEOUS GRAPHITE GASKETS:
1/16", 1/32", 1/64" THICKNESS
10 50
9 45
8 40
7 35
Internal Pressure, psig x 100

AWC 199
6 30
5 25
4 20
3 15
AWC 198
2 (homogeneous) 10
1 5
0 0
10 20 30 40 50 2 4 6 8 10 12
% Compressive Strain Graphite Gasket Unit Load, psig x 1000
figure determined in Step 5 as the first cut at the thickness. T2 is the compressed thickness at the
initial gasket thickness, designated as (T1). required unit load and the percent strain for that
load in the lowest “valley.” T3 is the thinnest section
Step 7
of the gasket under load at the highest “high spot.”
Determine the strain which will be generated at the
“highest spot” when the required sealing stress is Thus: (1 - T2/T1) X 100 = least % strain.
developed in the lowest “valley.” Fig. 8 shows what (1 - T3/T1) X 100 = greatest % strain at the
is happening. T1 is the initial, uncompressed highest spot.
FIGURE 8 — GASKET CROSS-SECTION
Gasket Gasketed Surfaces
T1 T2 T3
A. Initial Gasket Thickness B. Compressed Gasket Thicknesses

Step 8 Step 4
From Fig. 2, read the stress in psi which will be From Fig. 2, 1000 psi unit load is equal to 27%
produced at the (1 - T3/T1) X 100% strain. compression.
Step 9 Step 5
T1 must meet both of the following requirements: 0.003 in. x 15 = 0.045 in.
(a) (1 - T3/T1) X 100 must not exceed 45%, above
Step 6
which flexible graphite rapidly approaches
eg. 1 x 0.045"; 3 x 0.015", 1 x 0.015 + 1.030 etc...
ultimate density.
T1 = 0.045"
(b) the Step 8 stress must not exceed the ability of
the gripping parts to produce it. Step 7
T2 = ( 1 - 0.27) x 0.045 = 0.033"
Step 10
T3 = 0.033" - 0.003" = 0.030"
If both the requirements of Step 9 have not been
T3/T1 = 0.030"/0.045" x 100 = 66.7%
met, a greater thickness for T1 must be used.
Step 8
Step 11
From Fig. 2, stress at (100 - 66.7)% is ~ 1800 psi
If both the requirements of Step 9 have been over
reached, a lesser thickness for T1 may be Step 9
considered. (a) (1 - T3/T1) x 100 = (1 - 0.030/0.045) x 100
= 33.3% < 45% - O.K.
EXAMPLE: OUT-OF-FLAT
(b) 1800 psi < 8137 psi - O.K.
Given a pair of 4" ANSI-300 raised face flanges
with a 0.003" maximum gap when brought together Both the percent compression and the unit load
metal-to-metal, working at 300 psi pressure with 8 required to generate it in Step 9 of the example are
ea. 3/4" diameter bolts each capable of 15,000 lb. conservatively safe. A thinner gasket could be
axial force. The gasket having an ID of 4 1/2", OD considered if cost or thinnest possible edge
of 6 3/16". exposure were significant enough factors to
warrant the effort, but the 0.033" to 0.030"
Step 1
thickness under load is already rather marginal.
Determine total unit force
Also, if the stress in Step 9(b) was marginal it
(a) the gasket area:
should be remembered that it does not occur over
π x [(6 3/16)2 - (4 1/2)2] = 14.16 in2
the whole gasket area. Rather, it probably occurs
4 only at one point, and the average stress may be
(b) Available bolt load: considerably closer to the required minimum
8 bolts x 15,000 lbs. = 120,000 lb. determined in Step 3.
(ANSI-300 - 4" requires 8 bolts)
(c) Hydrostatic end thrust = P x π (ID)2/4 REPAIR OF G0UGED FLANGE SURFACES
= 300 psi x π (4 1/2)2 = 4771 lb. Past practices for the recovery and reuse of gouged
4 and pitted flange surfaces have relied on a wide variety
of procedures, ranging from simply filling the hole
(d) Available net working force @ working with some sort of cement, all the way to welding or
pressure: brazing and then remachining the entire surface.
[(b) - (c)] = 120,000 lb. 4771 lb. Even the best cements are limited in performance
= 115,229 lb. and are subject to cracking through or around the
(e) Available net unit force (load) of working filled section during thermal cycling. Welding or
pressure: brazing, even with careful matching of metal alloys,
(d) ÷ gasket area: 115,229 lb. ÷ 14.16 in2 = will still create local stresses that may warp the flange
8137 psi surface beyond practical reclamination. Whatever the
field repairs used, many different crafts will have had
Step 2 to be brought to the site, with corresponding cost and
Out-of-flat measurement = 0.003 in. delays and generally without returning the equipment
Step 3 to “good-as-new” condition anyhow.
From Fig. 7, 300 psi working pressure is equal to Flexible graphite now makes it possible to seal
1000 psi unit load. most gouged surfaces without special cements,
62 SECTION 2
FIGURE 2 — STRESS/COMPRESSIVE STRAIN FIGURE 7 — INTERNAL PRESSURE VS. FLEXIBLE
A.W. CHESTERTON 198/199 GRAPHITE UNIT LOAD
HOMOGENEOUS GRAPHITE GASKETS:
1/16", 1/32", 1/64" THICKNESS
10 50
9 45
8 40
7 35
Internal Pressure, psig x 100

AWC 199
6 30
5 25
4 20
3 15
AWC 198
2 (homogeneous) 10
1 5
0 0
10 20 30 40 50 2 4 6 8 10 12
% Compressive Strain Graphite Gasket Unit Load, psig x 1000
welding or brazing, and it frequently permits Step 4

putting the equipment back on line the same day. Calculate the initial thickness of flexible graphite
The graphite sheet is flexible, compactable, and (T1) as follows:
resilient. It is chemically inert to all but the
T1 = gouge depth (inches) X 100
strongest oxidizing enviroments. It’s properties are
not affected by temperature, from cryogenic 100 - (% compression from Step 3)
(-400°F) to molten metal (+ 3000°F). It is Step 5
compatible with all flange surface materials and Select a thickness or combination of thickness
moreover, it seals as easily as do most elastomers. which are just greater than T1 from Step 4.
The procedure is simple and direct:
Step 6
Step 1 Check total initial thickness from Step 5 against
Measure the gouge depth. A depth gauge with sharp gouge depth to make sure the thickness selected in
probe is usually the quickest. Step 5 will not result in more than 45%
Step 2 compression, (for metal insulated graphite —
From Fig. 7 (pressure vs gasket load) determine the AWC 199, the resulting compression will be no
gasket unit load required to seal the given working more than 35% — Fig. 2). the percent at which
pressure. flexible graphite rapidly appoaches ultimate density.
The equation used is :
Step 3
From Fig. 2 determine the compression in percent % compression = (1 - gouge depth) X 100
of the original thickness which will be produced by T1
the unit load of Step 2.

As the flexible graphite fill approaches ultimate Step 5
density, it will increasingly tend to indent any full The nearest stock thickness greater than 0.014" is
face soft gasket opposite it. Thus if the full face 0.015", therefore the % compression of
gasket, which is applied later, can absorb a small
0.015" = (1 - 0.009") X 100 = 40%
amount of indentation, a compression around 40%
is acceptable. If the final full face gasket is hard and 0.015"
unyielding, the flexible graphite fill can be sanded which is less than 45% and acceptable.
down until T1 is exactly as calculated in Step 4, and
the fill makes an inverted and proportional minor
image of the gouge out to feathered edges as shown
in Fig. 10. INSTALLATION
Many gasket failures are attributed to improper

FIGURE 10 — CROSS-SECTION OF TYPICAL GOUGE installation, with the common areas of concern
AS FILLED WITH FLEXIBLE GRAPHITE being fastener torques, cleanliness,and choice of
material. The gasket user’s first decision is that of
which style and thickness of A.W. Chesterton
Proportional Mirror Image flexible graphite to choose for the application.
A.W. CHESTERTON 198
(Homogeneous Flexible Graphite)
Measure Can be laminated to attain thicknesses of 1/4" or
more. Since there is no core, it is the easiest to cut
with standard rule dies, but can present handling
problems in thinner versions. Obviously gasket size
affects this and thicker versions of reasonable size
gaskets are quite durable to handle and install. Use
where low sealing loads are available.
Example 1 (shallow gouge) — see Fig. 9, system
A.W. CHESTERTON 199
internal pressure is 1000 psi.
(Flexible graphite bonded to both sides of a
0.002" stainless steel core)
FIGURE 9 — CROSS-SECTION OF TYPICAL GOUGE Offers excellent handleability, with the increased
IN A GASKETED SURFACE strength of the steel core. It is more difficult to cut,
but should present no difficulty with properly made
rule dies, or even appropriate hand tools. Blow out
resistance and resistance to flange movement better
.009" than AWC 198 (homogeneous non-reinforced).
When installing any gasket, the adjoining
flanges should be clean and free of nicks,
scratches. All residue from previous gaskets or
sealants should be removed, either chemically or
mechanically. In the case of flexible graphite, there
Step 1
are no binders or resins to promote adhesion, and
Gouge depth measures 0.009".
graphite particles that may adhere to the flange
Step 2 surfaces can be removed easily with a wire brush.
From Fig. 7, 1000 psi working pressure is equal to The recommended surface finish for flanges in
2500 psi gasket unit load. general is usually stated as 16 to 120 µin/RMS. In
the case of concentric or spiral grooved
Step 3
(phonographic) finishes used on ANSI style flanges,
From Fig. 2 the 2500 psi gasket unit load is equal
this is less important, as the grooves form a sealing
to 36.5% compression.
labyrinth when filled by the gasket facing. Scratches
Step 4 or other imperfections across the width of the
T, = 0.009" X 100 = 0.014" sealing surface will tend to create leak paths, and
100 - 36.5 should be removed by resurfacing the flange. Out-
64 SECTION 2
of-flat conditions or flange distortion can usually be Do not use additional sealers on Chesterton
accommodated by the proper choice of gasket gaskets. Not only are they unnecessary, but they
thickness. may cause failures such as gasket extrusion (blow-
out) from between the flanges. Do not slide flanges
All fasteners should be as clean as possible, and
across the gasket surface. This can result in damage
properly lubricated for maximum bolting
to the gasket, or misalignment of the gasket with
efficiency. Oil or anti-seize compound, as dictated
the joint.
by system temperatures and environment will
suffice. Damaged or tight fitting threads should be Always tighten fasteners to the proper torque
dressed with a tap or thread chaser. If the threads value in the specific sequence for the flange
are tapped in the flange itself, inspect for thread configuration. Bolts should be of proper strength
pull-up which will create a raised area around the and material for the application. Minimum torque
bolt hole. Remove any raised areas with a few values may be calculated based on the sealability of
strokes of a file, or by chamfering followed by the the gasket material. (See Section — Design (m & y
use of an appropriate size bottoming tap. factor)
Handle new gaskets carefully. Mishandling can Bolt sequences assist in the sealing of the joint,
cause damage to the graphite surface. Bending may and reduce the possibility of flange warpage. Use of
cause a weak spot that could lead to leakage, a torque wrench or other monitoring device is
however flexible graphite is very conformable and recommended. Tightening by feel can easily result
forgiving, and as long as facing material is not lost, in ± 50% of the intended torque, resulting in
the gasket will probably still be functional. (It is this leakage, or possibly overloading the gasket, or
same conformability that makes flexible graphite an damaging the flange. A.W. Chesterton gaskets do
excellent choice for segmented or dove-tailed not require retorque once they are properly
gaskets for large flanges. Gaskets in excess of 30 installed.
feet in diameter have been made this way.)

66 SECTION 2
SECTION 3
POLYTETRAFLUOROETHYLENE (PTFE)

AWC 2000: 100% Virgin PTFE Properties
AWC 196: Filled PTFE Properties
IAggressive
n the chemical industry, plants and materials are
frequently exposed to extreme conditions.
media (liquids and gases), temperature
A.W. CHESTERTON 2000
A.W. Chesterton 2000 gasketing is a soft, easily

extremes and pressures must be withstood to insure compressible, chemically inert, 100% “Virgin”
safe, troublefree production. At the same time PTFE. The unique combination of chemical
processes must be operated with maximum resistance and low torque requirements make AWC
economy. Fluoropolymers can offer a versatile, high 2000 a truly versatile gasketing material.
performance range of materials for chemical It can be easily machined, punched or stamped
processes and environmental protection. to produce parts such as washers, machine
Fluoropolymers are an indispensable material for components or gaskets. The inherent qualities of
the chemical industry. The reason for this lies in PTFE with its low frictional characteristics and non-
their exceptional properties: excellent chemical sticking surface make AWC 2000 the material to be
resistance (the only common chemicals to attach used in a wide variety of applications from
PTFE are molten alkali metals and free fluorine); cryogenic to + 260°C (+500°F).
all-round temperature resistance from -200°C TECHNICAL DATA (TYPICAL)
(-330°F) to + 260°C (500°F), very good non-stick ASTM F-104 line callout: F-414999A9B9M7
properties and physiological inertness.
A.W. Chesterton produces materials that meet Operating Conditions:
chemical industry requirements for a material that Maximum Temperature 260°C (500°F)
will provide efficient corrosion protection and Maximum Pressure 10.3 Bar (150 psi)
hence long service life and high degree of safety PxT Limit 1750 (50,000)
and reliability for man and his environment. (PxT Limit — plot/Fig. 1)
Minimum Temperature -200°C (-378°F)
FIGURE 1 — A.W. CHESTERTON 2000 FIGURE 2 — A.W. CHESTERTON 2000

PxT LIMIT COMPRESSION UNDER LOAD
CONSTANT TEMPERATURE/VARIABLE LOAD — 1/16"
PxT Limit 50,000 1,750 Ring Size 2.953 x 2.165 in.
Press (max) 150 psi 10.3 Bar Area 3.164 in2
Temp (max) 500°F 260°C Thickness 1/16 in.
Bar
psi
0 Time at Load 3 minutes

145 10
10
116 8
% Compression
20
Internal Pressure
87 6 21 ± 2°C
(70 ± 4°F)
30
58 4
40
29 2 100 ± 2°C
50 (212 ± 4°F)
200 ± 2°C
°C 50 100 150 200 250 300 (392 ± 4°F)
0
°F 122 212 302 392 482 572 25 45 65 85 105 125
Temperature Load/KN (KN x 224.8 = lbs ÷ ring area = psi)
68 SECTION 3
FIGURE 2A — A.W. CHESTERTON 2000 FIGURE 3 — A.W. CHESTERTON 2000
COMPRESSION UNDER LOAD COMPRESSION UNDER LOAD
CONSTANT TEMPERATURE/VARIABLE LOAD — 1/32" CONSTANT LOAD/VARIABLE TEMPERATURE — 1/16"
Ring Size 2.953 x 2.165 in. Ring Size 2.953 x 2.165 in.
Area 3.164 in2 0 Area 3.164 in2
Thickness 1/32 in. Thickness 1/16 in.
0 Time at Load 3 minutes Heat Rate 3°C/minute
10
10
20
% Compression
% Compression
20 1776 psi
21 ± 2°C
(70 ± 4°F) 30
30
40 3625 psi
40
100 ± 2°C
(212 ± 4°F) 50
5826 psi
50
200 ± 2°C °C 50 100 150 200 250 300
(392 ± 4°F) °F 122 212 302 392 482 572
Temperature
25 45 65 85 105 125
Load/KN (KN x 224.8 = lbs ÷ ring area = psi) FIGURE 3A — A.W. CHESTERTON 2000
COMPRESSION UNDER LOAD
CONSTANT LOAD/VARIABLE TEMPERATURE — 1/32"
gasket material to effect a seal depends not only on Ring Size 2.953 x 2.165 in.
the quality of the material, but also the thickness of 0 Area 3.164 in2
the material, the design of the flanges, the amount of Thickness 1/32 in.
pressure exerted on the gasket by the bolts and how Heat Rate 3°C/minute
the gasket is assembled and tightened in the flange.
10
Specific Gravity 2.0 to 2.3
Compressibility ASTM F-36 12% (min)
Recovery ASTM F-36 30% (min) 20
% Compression
Tensile Strength 1776 psi

ASTM F-152 (across grain) 2800 psi (19 N/mm2)
Creep Relaxation ASTM F-38 30
1/16" 6000# Load (26.7 KN)
212°F (100°C) 3625 psi
22 hours 40
65-70%
1/32" 6000# Load (26.7 KN)
212°F (100°C) 50 5826 psi
22 hours
40-45%
Compression Under Load: AWC-RDLAB-992-009 °C 50 100 150 200 250 300
1) Constant Temperature/Variable Load Fig. 2 °F 122 212 302 392 482 572
2) Constant Load/Variable Temperature Fig. 3 Temperature
POLYTETRAFLUOROETHYLENE (PTFE) 69
A.W. CHESTERTON 196 FIGURE 4 — A.W. CHESTERTON 196
PxT LIMIT
The randomly oriented proprietary filler filled
PTFE sheet produces physical properties which
PxT Limit 350,000 12,000
Bar
psi
provide unparalled performance under the most
strenuous chemical plant conditions. A.W. 1812 125 Temp (max) 500°F 260°C
Chesterton 196 delivers outstanding compressibility
and recovery and resistance to creep while
maintaining the outstanding chemical resistance of
“virgin” PTFE. AWC 196 has a maximum operating 1450 100
temperature of +260°C (500°F) and a working
pressure maximum of 1500 psi (103 Bar) for a PxT
Internal Pressure
limit value of 350,000 (12,000). Fig. 4 diagram of
1088 75
PxT shows the area of application and the
relationship between the temperature and pressure.
AWC 196 has been used to seal against steam
pressure of 58.5 Bar (848 psi) for 10 days without 725 50
leaking using test procedure AWC-RDLAB-992-004.
The minimum gasket stress required to seal against
various steam pressures is given in the following table.
362 25
STEAM SEALABILITY LIMIT — AWC-RDLAB-992-004
TEMPERATURE STEAM GASKET °C 50 100 150 200 250 300
PRESSURE STRESS 0
°C °F Bar psi N/mm2 psi °F 122 212 302 392 482 572
150° 302° 3.7 54 6.52 945 Temperature
180° 356° 9.0 131 7.23 1049
200° 392° 14.6 211 20.2/14.7* 2932/2139*
ASTM F-104 line call out: F453999A6B6M5
220° 428° 22.2 322 30.3/20.9* 4349/3039*
where
250° 482° 38.8 562 36.67 5319 4 numeral-9: thickness increase in ASTM 3 Oil =
275° 520° 58.5 848 63.49 9209 1% max
*ANSI-600-2.00, 8-BOLT FIXTURE UNUSED INSTEAD OF THE 5 numeral-9: weight increase in ASTM 3 Oil =
STD. ANSI-600-1.25, 4 BOLT FIXTURE. 2% max
The relationship of temperature, stress on the 6 numeral-9: weight increase water = 1% max
gasket and gasket thickness, are given in Figs. 5, 6, A9 ASTM F-37 Fuel A leakage = 0.1 ml/hr. max
7 obtained from AWC-RDLAB-992-008 Gasket load 1000 psi (7 N/mm2)
compression under load testing. Internal pressure 9.8 psi (0.7 Bar)
Nitrogen sealability as determined by the DIN
standard 3535/4 (AWC-RDLAB-992-010) is minimal Operating Conditions:
as compared to the DIN standard of 1.0 ml/minute Temperature 260°C max (500°F)
as seen from table below. Pressure 103 Bar max (1500 psi)
P X T Unit Value 12,000 (350,000)
Minimum Service Temperature -200°C (-328°F)
DIN3535/4 NITROGEN SEALABILITY —
AWC-RDLAB-992-010 Density AWC-RDLAB-992-011 1.65-1.75 gm/cm3
Compressibility ASTM F-36A 10% (min)
32 N/mm2 Gasket load (4650 psi)
Internal Pressure 40 Bar (-580 psi)
Creep Relaxation ASTM F-38B 1/32" 25-35%
LEAK RATE (ml/minute) 1/16" 55-65%
THICKNESS 0.8MM 1.5MM 2.0MM 3.2MM Tensile Strength ASTM F-152 1700 psi (11.7 N/mm2)
1/32" 1/16" 5/64" 1/8" Compression Under Load AWC-R DLAB-992-006
LEAK RATE (See Figs. 5, 6, 7)
(ml/minute) 0.0003 0.0008 0.0004 0.0004 DIN3535/4 Sealability <0.1 ml/min. (max)
70 SECTION 3
FIGURE 5A — A.W. CHESTERTON 196 FIGURE 5C — A.W. CHESTERTON 196
Gasket Thickness 1.5 mm (1/16")
0 0 Time at Load 5 minutes
20 ± 2°C
(68 ± 4°F)
10 10
% Compression
% Compression
20 100 ± 2°C 20
(212 ± 4°F)
30 30
260 ± 2°C 20 ± 2°C
(500 ± 4°F) (68 ± 4°F)
40 40
100 ± 2°C
200 ± 2°C (212 ± 4°F)
(392 ± 4°F)
50 50 260 ± 2°C
Gasket Thickness 0.4 mm (1/64") (500 ± 4°F) 200 ± 2°C
Time at Load 5 minutes (392 ± 4°F)
25 45 65 85 105 25 45 65 85 105
Load/KN (KN x 224.8 = lbs ÷ gasket area = psi) Load/KN (KN x 224.8 = lbs ÷ gasket area = psi)
FIGURE 5B — A.W. CHESTERTON 196 FIGURE 5D — A.W. CHESTERTON 196

Gasket Thickness 0.8 mm (1/32") Gasket Thickness 2.0 mm (5/64")
0 Time at Load 5 minutes 0 Time at Load 5 minutes
10 10
% Compression
% Compression
20 20 ± 2°C 20 20 ± 2°C (68 ± 4°F)

(68 ± 4°F)
30 30
100 ± 2°C
(212 ± 4°F)
40 40
100 ± 2°C (212 ± 4°F)
260 ± 2°C
50 (500 ± 4°F) 200 ± 2°C 50
(392 ± 4°F) 200 ± 2°C (392 ± 4°F)
260 ± 2°C (500 ± 4°F)
25 45 65 85 105 25 45 65 85 105
Load/KN (KN x 224.8 = lbs ÷ gasket area = psi) Load/KN (KN x 224.8 = lbs ÷ gasket area = psi)
FIGURE 6A — A.W. CHESTERTON 196 FIGURE 6C — A.W. CHESTERTON 196
CONSTANT LOAD/VARIABLE TEMPERATURE — 1/64" CONSTANT LOAD/VARIABLE TEMPERATURE — 1/16"
Gasket Thickness 1.5 mm (1/16")

0 1066 psi 0
(7.35 N/mm2)
1776 psi 1066 psi

10 (12.25 N/mm2) 10 (7.35 N/mm2)
1776 psi
(12.25 N/mm2)
2487 psi
20 (17.15 N/mm2) 20 2487 psi
% Compression
% Compression
(17.15 N/mm2)
3625 psi 3625 psi

(25.0 N/mm2)
30 30 (25.0 N/mm2)
4618 psi
(31.85
40 N/mm2) 40
7250 psi
50 Gasket Thickness 0.4 mm (1/64") (50 N/mm2) 50 5826 psi 4618 psi
(40.17 N/mm2) (31.85
N/mm2)
°C 50 100 150 200 250 300 °C 50 100 150 200 250 300
°F 122 212 302 392 482 572 °F 122 212 302 392 482 572
Temperature Temperature
FIGURE 6B — A.W. CHESTERTON 196 FIGURE 6D — A.W. CHESTERTON 196

CONSTANT LOAD/VARIABLE TEMPERATURE — 1/32" CONSTANT LOAD/VARIABLE TEMPERATURE — 1/8"
Gasket Thickness 0.8 mm (1/32") Gasket Thickness 3.2 mm (1/8")

0 0
1066 psi
(7.35 N/mm2)
1066 psi
10 10 (7.35 N/mm2)
1776 psi
(12.25 N/mm2)
20 20
% Compression
% Compression
1776 psi
2487 psi (12.25 N/mm2)
(17.15 N/mm2)
30 30
3625 psi
(25.0 N/mm2)
40 40 2487 psi
(17.15 N/mm2)
4618 psi
(31.85 N/mm2) 3625 psi
(25.0 N/mm2)
50 5826 psi 50
(40.17 N/mm2)
°C 50 100 150 200 250 300 °C 50 100 150 200 250 300
°F 122 212 302 392 482 572 °F 122 212 302 392 482 572
Temperature Temperature
72 SECTION 3
FIGURE 7 — A.W. CHESTERTON 196
COMPRESSION UNDER LOAD — THICKNESS VARIATION
10
% Compression
Thickness Variation on constant

load of 1066 psi (7.35 N/mm2)
15 over temperature range of
20° to 260°C (68° to 500°F)
20 0.4 mm (~ 1/64")
0.8 mm (~ 1/32")
1.5 mm (~ 1/16")
25 2.0 mm (~ 5/64")
3.2 mm (~ 1/8")
°C 50 100 150 200 250 300

°F 122 212 302 392 482 572
Temperature
74 SECTION 3
SECTION 4
THE STEEL TRAP™
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
CHESTERTON PRODUCTS
Self Locator
Ring
Special Designs
BOLTING SPECIFICATIONS
TORQUE REQUIREMENTS
BOLT TORQUE CALCULATIONS
INSTALLATION
TESTING OF CHESTERTON STEEL TRAP™ GASKET

T he A.W. Chesterton Steel Trap™ or containment As the flanges are closed by tightening the bolts,
gasket is designed and manufactured the walls of the channels or grooves are
specifically to minimize or eliminate the major progressively flattened until the sealing element fills
causes of gasket failure, such as: the channels or grooves entirely. This is illustrated
in Fig. 2. The clamping force, transferred to the
• The fluid media chemically attacking the gasket. sealing element, exerts a unit pressure far greater
• Particles or contaminates within the media than that of an ordinary gasket. The steel walls of
mechanically eroding the seal. the grooves thus lock in the sealing element. Once
the gasket is fully in position between flange faces,
• Flange finish outside the limits of irregularity the sealing elements are encapsulated within the
that the gasket can tolerate. grooves on the metal retainer which helps shield
• Misalignment of the gasket to the flange. them from fire, deterioration by chemicals,
corrosive fluids, atmospheric conditions, etc. that
• Corrosion limiting the useful lifetime of the tend to destroy their effectiveness. The metal
gasket. retainers permit only micro-exposure of the sealing
• Flange bolt design cannot provide sufficient element to either external or internal enviroments,
torque to seal selected gasket material. thus dramatically extending the life of the gasket.
The metal-to-metal contact between the flange
• Design or material properties of the gasket limit faces and the metal retainer makes it impossible to
the amount of torque that can be applied — damage the gasket by overtorquing during
gasket creep.
• Temperature extremes and/or thermal cycling
cause and permit loss of joint tightness. FIGURE 2
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
The A.W. Chesterton Steel Trap™gasket

incorporates a sealing element, either flexible
graphite or PTFE in containment grooves or
channels in a metal carrier or retainer. The metal
carrier protecting the sealing element is usually 316
stainless steel. However any other commmercially
available metal can be specially ordered. The design
of the Steel Trap is illustrated in Fig. 1.
Unloaded
FIGURE 1 — DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
.025" .055" thick

thick
.120" wide x .012" thick
Loaded
76 SECTION 4
installation and eliminates the need for gauge rings
FIGURE 3 — ONE SIZE SEAL FITS
or other devices and methods to assure correct
torque for a positive seal. No re-torquing’s
required. This same metal-to-metal contact provides
positive assurance against blowout. The high
compressive load on the sealing element generates
a concentration of force at the point of contact
between the seals and the flange faces that is
powerful enough to prevent blowout under any and
all conditions.
STEEL TRAP™ PRODUCTS
The A.W. Chesterton Steel Trap™ gaskets come

in three styles: self-locating, ring and specialty
(heat exchange) gaskets.
The self-locator design of the Steel Trap™ gasket
has the advantage of not only preventing
misalignment but, as illustrated in Fig. 3, the same
size gasket can self-locate on ANS1-150# through
2500# flanges.
Fig. 4 further shows that the special shape of the
tines accommodate all the bolt sizes and bolt circle
positions for any one ANSI pipe size flange.
Steel Trap™ gaskets are manufactured according
to the dimensions shown in ANS1-B16.5-1981. Page
78 shows an example of the flange sizes in ANSI 16.5.
The variety of styles, sizes and shapes of heat
exchangers configuration of Steel Trap™ gaskets
are shown in Fig. 5. Any heat exchanger gasket can
be supplied with the internal or external locating
and positioning tabs upon request.
FIGURE 4 — SELF-LOCATING/MULTI-FIT DESIGN
Bolt Circle (Pressure)
9 1/2" (150)
10 5/8" (400)
12 1/2" (900)
14 1/2" (2500)
No. of Bolts, Diameter (Pressure)
8 @ 2" (2500)
12 @ 1 1/8" (900)
12 @ 7/8" (400)
8 @ 3/4" (150)
THE STEEL TRAP™ 77

TABLE E1 — GROUP 1A & 1B GASKETS
W W
(Note 1) Gasket OD (Note 1) Gasket OD
Gasket OD Gasket OD (Note 2)
FIGURE E2 FIGURE E3
FIGURE E2 FIGURE E3
W1 GASKET
NOMINAL CONTACT INSIDE OUTSIDE INSIDE OUTSIDE DIAMETER2
SIZE WIDTH DIAMETER DIAMETER DIAMETER 150 300 400 600 900 1500 2500
1/2 0.27 0.84 1.38 0.84 1.88 2.12 2.12 2.12 2.50 2.50 2.75
3/4 0.31 1.06 1.69 1.06 2.25 2.62 2.62 2.62 2.75 2.75 3.00
1 0.34 1.31 2.00 1.31 2.62 2.88 2.88 2.88 3.12 3.12 3.38
1 1/4 0.42 1.66 2.50 1.66 3.00 3.25 3.25 3.25 3.50 3.50 4.12
1 1/2 0.48 1.91 2.88 1.91 3.38 3.75 3.75 3.75 3.88 3.88 4.62
2 0.62 2.38 3.62 2.38 4.12 4.38 4.38 4.38 5.62 5.62 5.75
2 1/2 0.62 2.88 4.12 2.88 4.88 5.12 5.12 5.12 6.50 6.50 6.62
3 0.75 3.50 5.00 3.50 5.38 5.88 5.88 5.88 6.62 6.88 7.75
3 1/2 0.75 4.00 5.50 4.00 6.38 6.50 6.38 6.38 - - -
4 0.84 4.50 6.19 4.50 6.88 7.12 7.00 7.62 8.12 8.25 9.25
5 0.88 5.56 7.31 5.56 7.75 8.50 8.38 9.50 9.75 10.00 11.00
6 0.94 6.62 8.50 6.62 8.75 9.88 9.75 10.50 11.38 11.12 12.50
8 1.00 8.62 10.62 8.62 11.00 12.12 12.00 12.62 14.12 13.88 15.25
10 1.00 10.75 12.75 10.75 13.38 14.25 14.12 15.75 17.12 17.12 18.75
12 1.12 12.75 15.00 12.75 16.12 16.62 16.50 18.00 19.62 20.50 21.62
14 1.12 14.00 16.25 14.00 17.75 19.12 19.00 19.38 20.50 22.75 -
16 1.25 16.00 18.50 16.00 20.25 21.25 21.12 22.25 22.62 25.25 -
18 1.50 18.00 21.00 18.00 21.62 23.50 23.38 24.12 25.12 27.75 -
20 1.50 20.00 23.00 20.00 23.88 25.75 25.50 26.88 27.50 29.75 -
24 1.62 24.00 27.25 24.00 28.25 30.50 30.25 31.12 33.00 35.50 -
DIMENSIONS ARE IN INCHES.
1
Applies to both Figures E2 and E3. Gasket diameters may be varied. In no case, however, should the area of unconfined nonmetallic gaskets be less than that of the
bolt. See E3 (b).
2
Gasket OD may be extended, or an attached centering service may be 0.12 in. less than specified.
3
Slip-on type flange is shown for illustration purposes only. Gaskets may be used with other types of flanges. See E3 (e).
78 SECTION 4
FIGURE 5 — HEAT EXCHANGER STYLES
A C-1 C-2 D-1 D-2 E-1 E-2 E-3
E-4 F-1 F-2 F-3 G-1 G-2 G-3 G-4
G-5 G-6 G-7 G-8 G-9 H-1 H-2 H-3
H-4 H-5 H-6 H-7 H-8 H-9 H-10 H-11
H-12 I-1 I-2 I-3 I-4 I-5 I-6 I-7
I-8 I-9 I-10 I-11 J-1 J-2 J-3 J-4
J-5 J-6 J-7 J-8 K-1 K-2 K-3 K-4

1. Diameter of bolt
BOLTING SPECIFICATIONS
2. Type and number of threads on bolt
It is recommended that the gasket be torqued to
between 50% to 60% of the yield value of the bolts 3. Material of bolt
to allow for any extension or elongation under
4. Condition of nut bearing surfaces
temperature changes. The bolts will accept the
additional stress and maintain the required clamp 5. Lubrication of bolt threads and nut bearing surfaces
load. The result is that the seal does not require re-
The table below reflects the results of many tests
torquing nor will it develop a leak under
to determine the relation between torque and bolt
temperature fluctuations or thermal gradients.
stress. Values are based on steel bolting well
lubricated with a heavy graphite and oil mixture.
It was found that a non-lubricated bolt has an
TORQUE REQUIREMENTS
efficiency of about 50 percent of a well lubricated
The torque or turning effort required to produce bolt and also that different lubricants produce
a certain stress in bolting is dependent upon a results varying between the limits of 50 and 100
number of conditions, some of which are: percent of the tabulated stress figures.
TABLE 2
TORQUE DATA FOR USE WITH ALLOY STEEL STUD BOLTS
LOAD IN POUNDS ON STUD BOLTS WHEN TORQUE LOADS ARE APPLIED
Nominal Number Diameter Area STRESS

Diameter of at Root at Root
of Bolt Threads of of
Thread Thread 30,000 PSI 45,000 PSI 60,000 PSI
Torque Compression Torque Compression Torque Compression
1/4 20 .185 .027 4 810 6 1215 8 1620
3/16 18 .240 .045 8 1350 12 2025 16 2700
3/8 16 .294 .068 12 2040 18 3060 24 4080
7/16 14 .345 .093 20 2790 30 4185 40 5580
1/2 13 .400 .126 30 3780 45 5670 60 7560
9/16 12 .454 .162 45 4860 68 7290 90 9720
5/8 11 .507 .202 60 6060 90 9090 120 12120
3/4 10 .620 .302 100 9060 150 13590 200 18120
7/8 9 .731 .419 160 12570 240 18855 320 25140
1 8 .838 .551 245 16530 368 24795 490 33060
1 1/8 8 .963 .728 355 21840 533 32760 710 43680
1 1/4 8 1.088 .929 500 27870 750 41805 1000 55740
1 3/8 8 1.213 1.155 680 34650 1020 51975 1360 69300
1 1/2 8 1.338 1.405 800 42150 1200 63225 1600 84300
1 5/8 8 1.463 1.680 1100 50400 1650 75600 2200 100800
1 3/4 8 1.588 1.980 1500 59400 2250 89100 3000 118800
1 7/8 8 1.713 2.304 2000 69120 3000 103680 4000 138240
2 8 1.838 2.652 2200 79560 3300 119340 4400 159120
2 1/4 8 2.088 3.423 3180 102690 4770 154035 6360 205380
2 1/2 8 2.338 4.292 4400 128760 6600 193140 8800 257520
2 3/4 8 2.588 5.259 5920 157700 8800 236655 11840 315540
3 8 2.838 6.324 7720 189720 11580 284580 15440 379440
80 SECTION 4
INSTALLATION TESTING OF THE STEEL TRAP GASKETS
To successfully install a Gasket, the following The Steel Trap has undergone extensive use in
procedure is recommended and is dependent on the field in every imaginable application. The size
tightening method used. ranged from the smallest, 3/4", to custom heat
exchanger units over 14 feet in diameter.
1. Inspect the gasket seating surfaces. Look for tool
Much of our confidence in the sealing ability and
marks, cracks, scratches or pitting. Radial tool
usefulness of the gasket comes from testimonials
marks on a gasket seating surface are virtually
from users, gathered over a decade and a half. This
impossible to seal regardless of the type gasket
empirical, largely unsolicited, data gathered without
being used. If reworking flanges is not feasible,
benefit of knowing the conditions of the flange, the
consider relocating the position of the sealing
temperature as seen at the seal or the conditions of
element on the gasket surface or specify a
handling the gasket or even how carefully was the
double sealing path.
torquing accomplished, supports the claim of
2. Inspect the gasket. Verify that the Gasket “Leakless,” “Ultimate Gasket” and “Install it and
specification matches the requirements of the Forget It.” The term “Ultimate Gasket” was coined
flange. by a specification engineer of a large company who
specifies the Steel Trap on all difficult to seal
3. Inspect and clean each stud or bolt, nut, washer
flanges.
and the flange face. Replace or repair any item
out of specification.
4. Lubricate with recommended lubricant all thread GAS PERMEABILITY DIN 3535 LEAK TEST
contact areas and nut facings. The better the During the DIN Designation 3535 Gas
lubricant, the more consistent will be the actual Permeability test, standard off the shelf Steel Trap
applied bolt stress. Refer to the Bolt Chart (Fig. Gaskets with flexible graphite as the sealing
6) to see the potential difference in applied element were used. Flange finish was optimized to a
torque required depending upon exactly which standard 0.125 micro inch RMS.
lubricant is used.
TEST A
5. Insert the Gasket between the flange facing to Test Media Nitrogen Gas
allow a bolt to center the gasket. Install the Internal Pressure 250 psi (17.2 Bar)
balance of the bolts and nuts and bring to a Compressive Stress
finger tight condition. on the Gasket 4640 psi (32 N/mm2)
Resulting Leakage 0.125 cc/minute
6. Apply torque in 20% increments of final torque
required. Loading all bolts at each step before TEST B
proceeding to next step. Torque bolts following Test Media Nitrogen Gas
the bolt tightening sequence. See Fig. 9 for Internal Pressure 580 psi (40 bar)
illustrations of the bolting sequence. It is Compressive Stress
necessary to follow a proper cross torquing on the Gasket 6000 psi (41.4 N/mm2)
sequence. If this procedure is not followed, the Resulting Leakage 0.070 cc/minute
flanges can be cocked or rotated. Then,
This is estimated to be approximately a 200 ppm
regardless of the amount of subsequent torquing,
helium leak rate.
they are unlikely to be brought back parallel.(See
Fig. 9 for Bolt Torque Sequence).
7. Repeat the above procedure applying TORQUE RETENTION DIN 52913 HOT CREEP TEST
incremental steps of the cross torquing pattern
TEST A
until the required stress is achieved. This may
Duration 16 Hours
require two (2) to three (3) cycles.
Temperature 572°F (300°C)
8. The final step in the bolting procedure is to Compressive Stress on Gasket
perform a final counter torque sequence. Initial 50.0 N/mm2 (7250 psi)
Starting at the next to last bolt that was Final 41.6 N/mm2 (6037 psi)
tightened, torque back around the tightening Compressive Load Lost 17%
sequence until the bolting pattern is completed. Compressive Load Retained 83%

FIGURE 9 — BOLT TORQUE SEQUENCE
4 Bolts 8 Bolts
1
1
5
0° 0°
45°
8
315°
90° 3 90° 3
4 270° 4 270°
135°
7
225°
180° 180°
6
Sequential Order 2 Rotational Order Sequential Order 2 Rotational Order
1–2 1 1–2 1
3–4 3 3–4 5
2 5–6 3
4 7–8 7
2
6
4
8
12 Bolts 16 Bolts
1 9
1 5
16 5
0° 30° 0° 22.5°
12 9 337.5° 45° 13
330° 60°
8 67.5°
315°
8 300° 90° 3 90° 3

12 292.5°
112.5° 11
4 270° 120° 4 270°
7
135°
247.5° 7
240° 150° 157.5°
14 225°
10 210° 180° 11 202.5° 180°
15
6
Sequential Order 6 2 Rotational Order Sequential Order 2 Rotational Order
1–2 1 1–2 10 1
3–4 5 3–4 9
5–6 9 5–6 5
7–8 3 7–8 13
9 – 10 7 9 – 10 3
11 – 12 11 11 – 12 11
2 13 – 14 7
6 15 – 16 15
10 2
4 10
8 6
12 14
4
12
8
16
82 SECTION 4
FIGURE 9 — BOLT TORQUE SEQUENCE
20 Bolts 24 Bolts
1 13 9
5 1 17
12 24 5
0° 18° 17 0° 15° 30°
342° 36° 345°
20 16 45° 13
324° 54° 330° 60°
9 8 21
72° 315° 75°
8 306°
90° 3 20 300° 90° 3
16 288°
12 285° 105° 11
108° 15
4 270° 4 270° 120° 19
126° 7 255°
252° 135°
10 22 7
234° 144° 19 240° 150°
162° 225° 165°
216° 14 15
18 198° 180° 210° 195° 180°
11 6 23
6 2 18 2
14 10
Sequential Order Rotational Order Sequential Order Rotational Order

1–2 1 1–2 1
3–4 13 3–4 9
5–6 5 5–6 17
7–8 17 7–8 5
9 – 10 9 9 – 10 13
11 – 12 3 11 – 12 21
13 – 14 15 13 – 14 3
15 – 16 7 15 – 16 11
17 – 18 19 17 – 18 19
19 – 20 11 19 – 20 7
2 21 – 22 15
14 23 – 24 23
6 2
18 10
10 18
4 6
16 14
8 22
20 4
12 12
20
8
16
24
TEST B ECOLE POLYTECHNIQUE TEST

Duration 16 Hours Tests were performed by Ecole Polytechnique,
Temperature 300°C (572°F) Montreal and presented at the ASME/JSME PVP
Compressive Stress on Gasket 1989 Conference.
Initial 50.0 N/mm2 (7250 psi) “Results indicated that the gasket performs quite
Final 47.9 N/mm2 (6952 psi) well at room temperature and exhibits good
Compressive Load Lost 4% tightness characteristics in that low initial gasket
Compressive Load Retained 96% compression creates a good seal and tightness is
maintained when gasket stress is subsequently
BLOW OUT TESTING
reduced. The optimum gasket stress range is from
Three samples were run all with the same
8,000 to 11,000 psi (55 to 76 Mpa). Above 11,000
results. Blowout of leakage did not occur.
psi (76 Mpa), the gasket continues to seal well but
Temperature 500°C (932°F) becomes sensitive to unloading.”
Pressure 345 Bar (5000 psi)

FIRE TEST WITH THE STEEL TRAP GASKET Valve body is filled with liquid kerosene.
Leakage for the Valve Body-Gasket combination Measurement of kerosene loss is noted during the
indicated no leakage as a result of the Fire Test. test run.
The Steel Traps used for the test were standard The valve is exposed to the flame and maintained
production version ring gaskets. ANSI B16.21 (6") at the 649°C (1200°F) temperature for a minimum
for Bonnet Flange. of 15 minutes.
To pass the test, leakage is not to exceed 30 After the 15 minutes burn period, the valve body
drops/minute when measured over a 10 minute is quenched with a water shower (stimulating fire
period. Minimum measurement resolution that can fighting) until the temperature of the valve is below
be observed is a few drops per minute. Generally, if 100°C (200°F).
no drops are observed the flange joint is “blotted” Leak test measurements are conducted for a
to detect a leak rate which may not be large enough minimum of 10 minutes after the test valve has
to form a drop. stabilized at the lower temperature and pressure. Leak
The fire test requires that the valve body rates are not to exceed 30 drops/minute (1.1 m/min).
containing the gasket be fully enveloped with fire The Steel Trap design is regarded as being so
throughout the burn portion of the test. safe and fool proof that a Steel Trap has been made
The valve gasket assembly is internally a permanent part of the test fixture. The prime
pressurized to 25 psi minimum (1.7 Bar). reason aside from safety is that the permanent
The valve body temperature is exposed to flame nature of the Steel Trap means that only the gasket
until the body temperature is a minimum of 649°C under test will have to be changed in future tests.
(1200°F). The 6" 300# valve is brought to
temperature within 15 minutes. No gland follower
adjustments are allowed during test period.
84 SECTION 4
SECTION 5
RUBBER GASKETING MATERIAL

Descriptions
Properties
R ubber gasket and sealing material applications A.W. CHESTERTON 132
involve all types of gases, liquids and solids. In A low cost, filled “red rubber” (SBR) gasketing
sealing these materials, a wide range of service sheet with cloth impressed finish for use in hot or
conditions, such as temperature and chemical cold water, low pressure steam, etc..., where
exposure may be encountered. softness and flexibility are not critical. Meets
It is, therefore, essential that all factors carefully ASTM D-1330-Grade II.
be considered to assure selection of the grade and
type of rubber gasket material which will deliver
optimum performance as well as economy. Table 1 FEATURES OF ELASTOMERS USED IN
which describes the features of each type of rubber GASKETING MATERIAL
and Table 2 which compares the properties should
aid in the proper selection of gasketing material. NATURAL RUBBER (NR)
A.W. Chesterton offers a range of synthetic Primarily employed as gasketing in all rubber
rubber and reinforced rubber products, all with the sheet form. Properties: exceptional elongation;
basic characteristics of rubber that allow infinite excellent tear strength; good wear resistance; low
design possibilities. permanent set; recovers well; resists most inorganic
A brief description of each product follows: salts, ammonia, mild acids and alkalies. Has poor
resistance to oils and solvents and many chemicals;
A.W. CHESTERTON 100 not recommended where exposed to ozone, oxygen
A quality “red rubber” (SBR) sheet compounded and sunlight.
to remain soft and pliable. It features smooth
surfaces and is particularly suitable for low BUNA-S (SBR — STYRENE-BUTADIENE RUBBER)
pressure or saturated steam, hot or cold water, Good mechanical properties; economical;
ammonia, and mild caustics to 250°F (120°C) and extensively seen as the common “red rubber” sheet
service pressure to 150 psi (10 Bar). Meets for gasketing. Suitable for hot and cold water, air,
ASTM D-1330-Grade I or II. steam and some mild acids. An all SBR sheet is
generally not recommended for oils or solvents, nor
A.W. CHESTERTON 119 in aggressive type applications, i.e. ketones, esters,
A black, blended (SBR) rubber compound with a etc...
cloth insert yielding a material of high strength,
rendering it adaptable to light hydraulic service. It NEOPRENE (CHLOROPRENE — CR)
may be used on hot or cold water, low pressure Excellent oil resistance, low permeability to
steam or ammonia to temperatures to 250°F gases; suited for non-aromatic gasoline and
(120°C) and pressures to 300 psi (21 kg/cm2). petroleum solvents; highly resistant to ozone,
sunlight, weather and aging. Will not propagate
A.W. CHESTERTON 120 flame. Used widely in automotive, aircraft and
A general purpose service diaphragm sheet for refrigerant type applications. A more expensive
water, steam and gas applications. Extremely used elastomer than SBR. Limited resistance to
as regulators and reducing valves. The cover is a chlorinated and aromatic solvents such as carbon
strong flexible neoprene rubber [CR] with a heavy tetrachloride, benzol and lacquer solvents.
cotton duck fabric.
NITRILE (BUTADIENE-ACRYLONITRILE RUBBER —
A.W. CHESTERTON 122-NN NBR)
Designed for oil or solvents and pressures where a Superior to neoprene in resistance to oils and
super-quality diaphragm sheet is indicated. The cover solvents, aromatic and aliphthalic hydrocarbons,
is oil-resisting neoprene. The fabric insert 8.5 oz. animal fats, carbon tetrachloride, lacquer solvents.
nylon. While steam has little effect, direct exposure of Has higher temperature resistance than SBR or
the fabric insert is limited to 250°F (120°C). Neoprene. Limited resistance against amines,
A.W. CHESTERTON 124 ketones, esters, ether and some organic acids.
Composed of a blend of oil resistant rubbers and
fortified with a carbon black compound for
gasketing against fatty oils, solvents, and non-
aromatic petroleum products. The temperature
range to 300°F (150°C).
86 SECTION 5
TABLE 1 TABLE 2
FEATURES OF ELASTOMERS ELASTOMER COMPARISON CHART
NR Natural rubber PROPERTIES NR SBR CR NBR

SBR Styrene-butadiene rubber ASTM D-2000/Mil. Std 417
CR Neoprene (chloroprene) Hardness Range:
NBR acrylonitrile/butadiene rubber Duro A 30-90 40-90 40-95 40-95
E Excellent Specific Gravity 0.93 0.94 1.23 1.00
VG Very Good Low Temp.
G Good Min Service °F -20 to 0 to -10 to -30 to
F Fair -60 -50 -50 -40
P Poor High Temp.
Max Service °F 185 195 220 240
PROPERTIES NR SBR CR NBR Resistance/Chemical Properties:
Oil/Gasoline P P G E Abrasion E G-E E G
Oxidation G F VG - E G Absorption-Water VG G - VG G G
Ozone P-F P VG - E F Acid-Concentrated F-G F-G G G
Radiation E E VG VG Acid-Dilute F-G F-G E G
Rebound:Cold E G VG G Adhesion to Fabrics E G E G
Hot E G VG G to Metals E E E E
Comparison Set G G F-G G Chemicals F-G F-G F-G F-G
Lacquer Solvents P P P F Cold E VG G F-G
Steam F-G F-G F F-G Heat G F-G VG G
Sunlight/Aging P P VG P Dielectric Strength E E G P
Oil Swell P P G VG Dynamic Properties E G F G-E
Tear G - VG F G F Electrical Insulation G-E G-E F-G P
Tensile Strength E G-E G G-E Flange P P G P
Water F-G F F F-G Heat Aging F F-G G G
Weather F F E F Hydrocarbon:
Aliphtalic P P F-G E
Aromatic P P F-G G
Oxygenated F-G G P P
Impermeability Fairly Fairly Low Low
Low Low
Oil:
Animal/Vegetable P-G P-G G VG
RUBBER GASKETING MATERIAL 87

A.W. CHESTERTON 100 Specific Gravity 1.61 gm/cc
A quality red rubber sheet (SBR) compounded to Hardness Durometer 70-85A
remain soft and pliable; suitable for low pressure or Tensile Strength 700 psi (min) (4.8 N/mm2)
saturated steam, hot or cold water, ammonia, and
Elongation 150% (min)
mild caustic soda to temperatures up to 121°C
Heat resistance ASTM D-573 after 70 hrs. @ 70°C (158°F)
(250°F).
change in hardness +15 point (max)
TECHNICAL DATA (TYPICAL) change in tensile strength +30 % (max)
ASTM D-2000 line call out: 2AA81OA13F16EA14 change in elongation -50% (max)
Maximum Operating Conditions: Water resistance ASTM D-471 after 70 hrs. @ 100°C (212°F)
Temperature (T) 121°C (250°F) volume change 10% (max)
Pressure (P) 10.3 Bar (150 psi) Compression Set ASTM D-935
PxT Limit 600 (20,000) 22 hrs. @ 70°C (150°F) 40%(Max)
Minimum Operating Temperature 70°F (-57°C)
This data is for guidance only. The ability of a Meets Standards: ASTM D-1330, Grade I; HHP-15E
gasket material to seal depends not only on the
quality of the material, but also the thickness of the
material, the design of the flanges, the amount of A.W. CHESTERTON 119
pressure exerted on the gasket by the bolts and how
the gasket is assembled in the flange and tightened. A black SBR rubber cloth inserted sheet with
high strength, rendering it adaptable to light
hydraulic service.
A.W. CHESTERTON 100 — PxT LIMIT
ASTM D-2000 line call out: 2AA710A13
PxT Limit 20,000 600 (for rubber component only)
Press (max) 150 psi 10.3 Bar
Temp (max) 250°F 121°C Operating Conditions:
Bar
psi
Maximum temperature 93°C (200°F)

145 10 Minimum temperature -57°C (-70°F)
Maximum pressure 21 Bar (300 psi)
116 8 gasket material to seal depends not only on the
material, the design of the flanges, the amount of
Internal Pressure

87 6 the gasket is assembled in the flange and tightened.
Specific gravity 1.61gm/cm3
Hardness Durometer 70-85A
58 4 Tensile Strength 1400 psi (9.66 N/mm2)(min)
PH compatible range 6 to 9
29 2 Heat resistance ASTM D-573 after 70 hrs. at 100°C (212°F)
change in hardness +15 points (max)
change in tensile -15% (max)
°C 25 50 75 100 125 150 change in elongation -40% (max)
0 Compression Set ASTM D-395B
°F 77 122 167 212 257 302
22 hrs. at 100°C (212°F) 35% (max)
Temperature
88 SECTION 5
A.W. CHESTERTON 120
A general service diaphragm sheet composed of
a compounded neoprene rubber cover over a heavy PxT Limit 20,000 600
duck fabric for use in steam, water and gas Press (max) 150 psi 10.3 Bar
applications. Construction consists of 1 ply of Temp (max) 300°F 150°C
Bar
psi
heavy duck fabric for each 1/16" of thickness.
145 10
ASTM D-2000 line call-out:
2BC710A14B14E14E34F17
(for rubber compound only) 116 8
Operating Conditions:
Maximum temperature 93°C (200°F)
Internal Pressure
Minimum temperature -57°C (-70°F)
87 6
material, the design of the flanges, the amount of 58 4
the gasket is assembled in the flange and tightened.
Specific Gravity 1.46 gm/cc 29 2
Tensile Strength 7.59 N/mm (min) 1100 psi
2

°C 25 50 75 100 125 150
0
Mullen Burst Test Data (1 sq. in. opening) °F 77 122 167 212 257 302
1 ply 2.17 N/mm2 (315 psi) Temperature
2 ply 4.52 N/mm2 (655 psi)
3 ply 6.55 N/mm2 (952 psi) This data is for guidance only and should not be
Heat Resistance ASTM D-573 after 70 hrs. at 100°C (212°F)
the sole means of selecting or rejecting a material.
change in hardness +15 points (max)
The ability of a material to seal depends not only on
change in tensile strength -15% (max)
the quality of the material but also the thickness of
change in elongation -40% (max)
the material, the design of the flanges and the
amount of pressure exerted by the bolts.
Fluid Resistance ASTM D-471 after 70 hrs. at 100°C (212°F)
ASTM Oil 1 Specific Gravity 1.41 gm/cc
change in hardness +10 points (max) Hardness Durometer 55-65 A
change in tensile strength 30% (max) Tensile Strength 800 psi (min.) (5.5 N/mm2)
change in elongation 10 to +15% Elongation 300% (min)
change in volume 10 to +15% Minimum Operating Temperature -40°F (-40°C)
ASTM Oil 3 Heat resistance ASTM D-573 after 70 hrs. at 100°C (212°F)
change in tensile strength 60% (max) change in hardness 15 points (max)
change in elongation 50% (max) change in tensile +15% (max)
change in volume 100% change in elongation -40% (max)
A.W. CHESTERTON 124 Fluid resistance ASTM D-471
A black moderately oil resistant material fortified ASTM Oil 1 after 70 hrs. @ 100°C (212°F)
with a carbon black compound for use to 150°C change in tensile -30% (max.)
(300°F) and 10.3 Bar (150 psi). change in elongation -30% (max.)
change in volume -10 to +15%
change in hardness ±10 points
ASTM D-2000 line call-out: BC608A14B14E14E34 Fluid resistance ASTM D-471
Maximum Operating Conditions: ASTM Oil 3 after 70 hrs. @ 100°C (212°F)
Temperature 150°C (300°F) change in tensile -70% (max)
Pressure 10 Bar (150 psi) change in elongation -25% (max)
PxT 20,000 (600) change in volume ±120% (max)
RUBBER GASKETING MATERIAL 89

A. W. CHESTERTON 132
A filled, “red rubber” (SBR) sheet gasketing
material suitable for use in low pressure steam, hot PxT Limit 20,000 600
or cold water, ammonia, etc. meets ASTM D-1330, Press (max) 150 psi 10.3 Bar
Grade II. Temp (max) 170°F 77°C
Bar
psi
145 10
ASTM D-1330, Grade II
Pressure (P) 10.3 Bar (150 psi) 116 8
PxT 600 (20,000)
Internal Pressure
Minimum Operating Temperature -57°C (70°F)
87 6
material, the design of the flanges, the amount of 58 4
the gasket is assembled in the flange and tightened.
Specific Gravity 1.76 gm/cc 29 2
Tensile Strength 2.8 N/mm2 (400 psi min)
Elongation 150% (min) °C 25 50 75 100
0
Heat resistance ASTM D-865; Air aged 94 hrs. @ 70°C °F 77 122 167 212
change in tensile 25% (max)
Temperature
change in elongation 25% (max)
Compression Set
ASTM D-395B 22 hrs. at 100°C (212°F) 40% (max)
90 SECTION 5
SECTION 6
VEGETABLE FIBER GASKETING MATERIAL
A.W. CHESTERTON 140

Properties
A W. Chesterton 140 consists of a cellulose A.W. CHESTERTON 140
. fiber base which has been impregnated with A vegetable fiber sheet chemically treated by a
a protein and glycerine binder. chemical process which renders it impervious to
This material has three outstanding properties. water, gasoline, alcohol and other solvents. It is
First, it has exceptionally good sealing properties, highly flexible and has excellent resistency.
better than many materials which are more costly. TECHNICAL DATA (TYPICAL 1/32” THICKNESS)
Secondly, it is highly conformable to compensate ASTM F-104 line call-out: F326128M6
for distortions in flanges.
Thirdly, it is chemically inert in the presence of Maximum Operating Conditions:
petroleum lubricants, (motor oils, etc.) automotive Temperature (T) 120°C (250°F)
gasolines, fuel oils and many organic solvents. Pressure (P) 15 Bar (250 psi)
A.W. Chesterton 140 contains an antimicrobial PxT (1/16 & below) 1270 (40,000)
compound to resist fungus organism. This data is for guidance only. The ability of a
A.W. Chesterton 140 provides excellent service gasket material to effect a seal depends not only on
in moderate duty, general purpose applications. the quality of the material, but also in the thickness
AWC 140 is suitable for service at temperature up of the material, the design of the flanges, the
to 250°F (120°C) and pressures 250 psi (15 Bar). amount of pressure exerted on the gasket by the
bolts and how the gasket is assembled in the flange
and tightened.
Specific Gravity 0.81
A.W. CHESTERTON 140 — PxT LIMIT Compressibility ASTM F-36G 25 to 40% (1000 psi load)
Recovery ASTM F-36G 40% (min)
PxT Limit 40,000 1270 Tensile Strength ASTM F-152 2000 psi (min) (140 N/mm2)
Press (max) 250 psi 17.2 Bar
Bar
psi
Temp (max) 250°F 120°C

ASTM Oil 3, 22 hrs. @ 30°C 5% (max)
290 20 ASTM Fuel B, 22 hrs. @ 30°C 5% (max)
Distilled Water, 27 hrs. @ 30°C 30% (max)
ASTM Oil 3, 22 hrs. @ 30°C 15% (max)
ASTM Fuel B, 22 hrs. @ 30°C 15% (max)
217.5 15
Distilled Water 22 hrs. @ 30°C 90% (max)
Meets Specification:
Internal Pressure
MIL-G- 12803-C; Grade P3313-B

H.H.P-96F, Type 1
145 10 SAE J90; Grade P-3313-B
72.5 5
°C 25 50 75 100 125 150

0
°F 77 122 167 212 257 302
Temperature
92 SECTION 6

Manual de Empaques

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CHESTERTON ®

The following are trademarks of A.W. Chesterton Company:

A.W. CHESTERTON CO. IS0 9001

FORM NO.073617 REV. 1 PRINTED IN USA 3/96

SECTION 1: COMPRESSED NON-ASBESTOS SECTION 3:

Material selection A.W. Chesterton Products

Current non-metallic, non-asbestos gasketing products have been investigated as suitable

SECTION 1: COMPRESSED NON-ASBESTOS

MINIMUM SURFACE STRESS (Smin)

MAXIMUM SURFACE STRESS (Smax)

HYDROSTATIC END THRUST (HET)

MINIMUM ASSEMBLY STRESS (Sa)

FLUID A.W.C. MAX. MAX. PRESS

allowable pressure is 33.8 Bar Flange pressure is defined as the effective

COMPRESSED NON-ASBESTOS GASKETING MATERIAL 11

MINIMUM SURFACE STRESS

(Smin) at working pressure.

COMPRESSED NON-ASBESTOS GASKETING MATERIAL 13

For an annular gasket

The technique involves maintaining a constant 2

HYDROSTATIC END THRUST (HET)

In closed vessels the internal pressure exerts a

COMPRESSED NON-ASBESTOS GASKETING MATERIAL 15

1.0 mm 2.0 mm 3.0 mm

max. for material

STEP 1 (Example 1) Smin = 62

Gasket Stress: N/mm2

STEP 3 (Example 1) Smax = 88

COMPRESSED NON-ASBESTOS GASKETING MATERIAL 17

Circular Four-Bolt Non-Circular Multi-Bolt Square Four-Bolt Circular Multi-Bolt

COMPRESSED NON-ASBESTOS GASKETING MATERIAL 19

COMPRESSED NON-ASBESTOS GASKETING MATERIAL 21

COMPRESSED NON-ASBESTOS GASKETING MATERIAL 23

FIGURE 4 — EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION

max. for material

STEP 1 (Example 1) Smin = 62

Gasket Stress: N/mm2

max. for material: 62 Bar

Gasket Stress: N/mm2

COMPRESSED NON-ASBESTOS GASKETING MATERIAL 25

max. for material: 172 Bar

Gasket Stress: N/mm2

max. for material: 454°C

max. for material: 83 Bar

Gasket Stress: N/mm2

max. for material: 399°C

COMPRESSED NON-ASBESTOS GASKETING MATERIAL 27

max. for material: 83 Bar

Gasket Stress: N/mm2

max. for material: 371°C

Gasket Stress: N/mm2

max. for material: 399°C

COMPRESSED NON-ASBESTOS GASKETING MATERIAL 29

max. for material: 131 Bar

Gasket Stress: N/mm2

100 3.0 mm 0.8 mm

versus max. for material: 482°C

COMPRESSED NON-ASBESTOS GASKETING MATERIAL 31

ASTM Oil 1, 5 hrs. @ 300°F 0-15%

A.W. CHESTERTON 190 — ARAMID/SBR 1160 80

and alkalies and inert gases up to 750°F. This

Maximum Operating Conditions:

COMPRESSED NON-ASBESTOS GASKETING MATERIAL 33

PxT 400,000 14,400 870 60