Fuel 280 (2020) 118647

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Full Length Article

Experimental investigations of dairy scum biodiesel in a diesel engine with T

variable injection timing for performance, emission and combustion
⁎
Shaik Masthan Shareef , Dillip Kumar Mohanty
School of Mechanical Engineering, VIT-AP University, Amaravati, India

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The waste dairy scum oil containing triglycerides of fatty acids can be a potential candidate for production of
Dairy scum biodiesel biodiesel as an alternative for conventional fossil fuel. The present work investigates the performance, emission
Transesterification and combustion characteristics of dairy scum biodiesel in compression ignition engines corresponding to vari-
Injection timing able injection timing. The analysis was carried out with four different composition of biodiesel having 10, 20, 30
Combustion
and 100% of dairy scum oil. Based on brake thermal efficiency and lower emissions, the dairy scum biodiesel
Cylinder pressure
with 20% of dairy scum oil (DSB-20) has been considered as the optimum composition. Corresponding to the fuel
DSB-20, the highest brake thermal efficiency of 31.87% and lowest brake specific fuel consumption of 0.292 kg/
KW.h was achieved for injection 26° before top dead center. The hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions
are lowest for DSB-20 with 34 ppm and 0.06% respectively for injection 26° in advance to TDC. For injection 26°
before TDC, the cylinder pressure attained 53.12 bar with a pressure rise rate of 4.69 bar for unit crank angle.
Similarly both the heat release rate and cumulative heat release rate are highest for DSB-20 with injection 26°
before TDC. A better performance, emission and combustion characteristics for DSB-20 with injection 26° before
TDC are obtained than that for diesel with injection 23° before TDC. Hence DSB-20 can be successfully used as an
alternative to diesel in compression ignition engines with slight more advancement of injection timing.

1. Introduction well may be legitimately utilized in diesel engines with no major

Utilization of biomass waste as a useful energy resource has become
a need for mankind to replace the petroleum fuels in order to conserve
the environment and oil reserves. As the emissions from the internal
combustion (IC) engines working with petroleum products caused
genuine impact on humans, there is a huge scope to find an alternative
fuel which have comparable properties as petrol or diesel. Biofuel de-
rived from biomass is a cost-effective and environmentally benign al-
ternative to fossil fuels particularly in the context of rising petroleum
prices and increased concern over the contributions made by fossil fuels
towards global warming. A huge research exertion has been co-
ordinated towards utilizing the renewable energy sources as a fuel for
the diesel engines. Ethanol, vegetable oil biodiesel, methane, hydrogen,
CNG and LPG are the biofuels which are the most reasonable responses
to this search. Biofuel production incorporates biomass transformation
into biofuels as a substitute to the fossil fuels. In such manner biodiesel
produced from vegetable oils and their derivatives or the animal fats
can be used in diesel engines as they are sustainable, locally accessible,
nontoxic and having less emissions.
The biodiesel properties are around same as the diesel and it very
modifications in the engine. Biodiesels have few better combustion
attributes than diesel. Subsequently it is recommended for fuelling the
diesel engine with biodiesel and one ought to go with different com-
pression ratio and injection pressure [1]. The energy reserves of oil and
gas would get exhausted in near future as recommended by the experts
across the globe. Bio renewable crop based oils are the primary sub-
stitutes to the petroleum products. The utilization of inexhaustible Bio-
hydrogen in internal combustion engines will assume the significant job
in future [2]. Biodiesel and ethanol are the proposed alternative fuels
for the internal combustion engines. Biodiesel can be produced from the
oils like sunflower, canola, safflower and soybean. The utilization of
rapeseed oil methyl esters in diesel engine does not require any mod-
ifications. Biodiesel is inexhaustible, effectively biodegradable and
nontoxic with high Cetane number, flash point and very good lubricity
execution characteristics. However high viscosity, density and cloud
point along with low calorific value and volatility are some of the
disadvantages compared to pure diesel [3]. The major disadvantage of
biodiesel due to its high viscosity can be addressed by utilizing ad-
ditives or by altering the injection pressure [4]. There is a wide scope
for researchers to investigate the impact of fuel spray, combustion

⁎
Corresponding author at: School of Mechanical Engineering, VIT-AP University, Inavolu, Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh 522237, India.
E-mail address: shareefshaik1994@gmail.com (S.M. Shareef).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2020.118647
Received 27 January 2020; Received in revised form 21 June 2020; Accepted 5 July 2020
0016-2361/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S.M. Shareef and D.K. Mohanty
phenomena and emission as the higher density and viscosity of bio-
diesel will in general modify the spray characteristics, bringing about
fuel impingement on the piston and cylinder surfaces [5]. The hydro-
carbon (HC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are commonly lower
for biodiesel operation compared to the pure diesel. It is due to the high
amount of oxygen content present in the biodiesel which results in
complete combustion [6]. IC engines operated with biodiesel exhibit
low heat release rate, moderately higher combustion period, shorter
ignition delay and lesser CO, HC emissions than diesel operated en-
gines. Hence, biodiesel from the waste cooking oil can be considered as
the one of the alternative for the diesel [7]. Effective energy advance-
ment with less ecological contamination and improved performance of
the engine can be accomplished with streamlined parameters like in-
jection timing, pressure, angle of injection and water emulsions with
biodiesel [8]. Biodiesel blends having dimethoxymethane (DMM) ex-
hibit shorter ignition delay, combustion period, smooth combustion and
avoid knocking in the diesel engines [9]. The engines fuelled with di-
methyl ether (DME) and ultra-low sulphur diesel (ULSD) fuels at high
speeds have shown less NOX emissions [10,11]. Vegetable oil derivative
biodiesels are promising option for diesel engines because they are in-
exhaustible, eco-friendlily and effectively produced in rural zones
[12,13]. The mass generation of biodiesel utilizing waste cooking oil
can be a possible answer for quicker exhaustion of fossil fuel and nat-
ural debasement [14,15]. Similarly, the Jatropha blended diesel can be
a substitute as it exhibits high pressure, decreased ignition delay along
with high NOx, CO2 and lower smoke and particulate matter emissions
[16]. Biodiesel prepared from the sunflower oil has shown the prop-
erties which are close to diesel and they are within the standards of
ASTM D 6751 and EN 14214 [17]. Over 95% of edible oils can be used
as a source for the biodiesel production like palm oil, rice bran oil,
sunflower oil, soybean oil, coconut oil, canola oil, corn oil and peanut
oil etc. [18]. The distinctive biodiesel and its blends produced from
vegetable, fat oils namely coconut oil, sunflower oil, waste cooking oil,
rice bran oil, soybean oil, rubber seed oil, fish oil can be effectively used
in IC engines with good performance and lower emissions of CO, HC
and smoke [19–22].
The biodiesel can be developed by utilizing dairy waste scum with
ideal transesterification parameters. The biodiesel produced from the
dairy waste is an appropriate alternative fuel for the pure diesel with
prescribed ASTM 6751 standard properties. On the other hand, the
biodiesel production from the dairy waste scum can lower the cost of
production and solve the disposal problem for the dairy industry [23].
The thermo-physical properties such as density, calorific value, visc-
osity, pour point, cloud point, flash point, copper corrosion, ash content
and carbon residue of the dairy scum biodiesel developed with ideal
conditions are within the ASTM guidelines [24]. The biodiesel pro-
duced from the waste diary scum is having poor cold flow properties
which can be improved with the utilization of ethyl acetoacetate (EAA)
and ethyl levulinate (EL) [25]. The preparation of biodiesel from milk
scum has been analysed by Ramalingam et. al. through the process of
transesterification by converting waste milk scum into methyl ester and
glycerol [26]. Sivakumar et. al. investigated the composition of fatty
acids in diary waste scum oil by gas chromatography and carried out
the optimization of different parameters involved in transesterification
process [27]. Kavitha et. al. proposed the waste scum oil from the dairy
industry as a potential feedstock for biodiesel production by using nano
calcium oxide obtained from eggshell waste [28]. Krishnamurthy et. al.
adopted response surface methodology to optimize the reaction para-
meters of transesterification process for biodiesel production from dairy
scum and Hydnocarpus wightiana oil using Snail shell CaO nanocatalyst
[29,30].
Enhancement in the performance of the engine with biodiesel as a
fuel can be accomplished with slight alteration in engine and fuel. In
this regard, different researchers have investigated the engine perfor-
mances with slight adjustments in engine and fuel. In diesel engine,
Karanja oil biodiesel with the addition of additives can result in
2
Fuel 280 (2020) 118647
reduction of CO, NOx and smoke along with ignition delay and heat
release rate [31]. The experimental results have shown that the pon-
gamia pinnata biodiesel with nanoparticles of rice husk is able to en-
hance the brake thermal efficiency and HC, CO and NOx emissions
[32]. Proper distribution of nanoparticles in biodiesel can reduce the
smoke and emissions like HC, CO, NOx [33,34]. Increase in injection
pressure results in better mixing and proper atomization which leads to
proper combustion and high heat release [35]. Pongamia and jatropha
biodiesels register lower HC, CO, CO2 and NOx emissions than the
diesel in IC engines [36]. The waste cooking palm oil by increasing the
injection pressure in diesel engine has shown significant improvement
in performance and emission levels [37]. Calophyllum inophyllum oil
at high compression ratio took more combustion duration and lower
ignition delay phase compared to conventional diesel fuel [38]. At high
compression ratio, cylinder possesses high temperature which improves
the vaporization and performance of the engine with high NOx emis-
sions [39]. The diesel engine fuelled with transesterified tamanu oil at
high compression ratio shows significant decrease in emission levels of
CO, HC [40].
The higher compression ratio and advanced injection timing in a
diesel engine jointly results in improved BTE, BSFC and emissions [41].
Axial location of the nozzle plays a vital role in decreasing the emission
levels and specifically the CO emissions are reduced due to enhanced
combustion and higher cylinder peak temperature as a result of in-
creased nozzle axial position at higher engine speed [42]. By advancing
the injection timings, improved performance and emission levels can be
obtained [43]. At advanced injection timing with DSB as a fuel in diesel
engine, improved performance and emission levels can be achieved
[44]. Waste plastic oil as a fuel in diesel engine with retarded injection
timing compared to the standard injection timing results in improved
BTE and less HC, CO and NOX emissions [45]. However the levels of
NOx emissions increase with advance in the injection timing [46]. The
retarded injection timing strategies cause slight thermal losses, but the
soot formation can be reduced by homogeneous combustion [47]. Ef-
fective atomization and proper mixture formation along with the ex-
haust gas recirculation (EGR) system can effectively reduce the emis-
sion levels for an engine at specific load and speed [48]. Catalytic
converter can also be used for effective reduction in the emissions like
CO and HC for an engine at given speed and load [49]. Due to high
viscosity of the biodiesel, problems like deposition on injector, gum
formation, atomization of injection systems may arise when the engine
undergoes a longer run. Different methods like preheating of the fuel,
varying the injection timing, pressure, compression ratio and by adding
additives, implementing EGR, catalytic convertors, filters can be the
solution to the problems of high viscosity and low volatility. Effect of
injection timing on performance and emission characteristics with dairy
scum biodiesel (DSB) has been investigated in the present work.
2. Materials and methods
The production of biodiesel as an alternative from different waste
products is one of the most essential need of the day. The global energy
consumption is estimated to rise by 140% by 2040 and the energy
consumption in India is expected to be much more than the rest of the
world [50]. Keeping in view the very high cost of biodiesel production
from vegetable waste, the dairy waste scum can be used as a potential
candidate for production of biodiesel. India is the largest producer of
milk which accounts 18.5% of the global milk production [51]. Con-
sequently, a large scale of diary wastes are produced which contains
enormous amount of fatty acids, casein, lactose and inorganic salts
[52]. According to the report by government of India, the annual milk
production during 2014–15 was 146.3 million tons which has grown up
by 6.6% during the year 2017–18. It has been anticipated to attain the
milk production of 254.5 million tons by the year 2021–22 [53]. Scum
is a floating solid mass of comparatively less density formed by the
mixture of fats, lipids, proteins etc. obtained from dairy waste. A large
S.M. Shareef and D.K. Mohanty
Fig. 1. Raw diary scum and diary scum methyl ester.
scale dairy plant handling 5 lakh litres of milk per day generates around
250 to 300 kg of effluent scum per day. Hence millions of tons of wastes
from dairy industries in India are generated per day which are biolo-
gically unfavourable and creates serious problems of environmental
pollution [27,51]. Considering the abandon availability of waste diary
scum in India and the presence of large quantity of triglycerides in these
scum, the waste milk scum oil has been considered as a potential can-
didate for the biodiesel feed stock [28,51].
2.1. Preparation of biodiesel from the dairy waste scum
The waste milk scum was collected from nearby dairy industries in
skimmed form. It is a thin layered semisolid scum waste of turbid white
colour as shown in Fig. 1. The raw scum containing water, unwanted
waste, little amount of plastic etc., is heated at 55 – 60 °C to remove the
moisture and water particles. Further it was allowed to settle down so
that the unwanted solid wastes and suspended impurity particles can be
easily removed. Then oil was separated at the top and filtration was
carried out so that the oil becomes substantially anhydrous. Thus the oil
becomes ready to undergo transesterification process for generation of
biodiesel. The properties of the raw scum oil were determined ac-
cording to the respective ASTM standards of corresponding property
[51]. The properties such as kinematic viscosity at 40 °C, specific
gravity, flash point, cloud point, pour point, calorific value, acid value
and cetane number were estimated to be 4.6 cSt, 0.895, 182 °C, 4 °C,
2 °C, 37028 kJ/kg, 17.72 mg KOH/g and 58.6 for the raw scum oil.
However the dairy scum oil contains higher amount of free fatty acid
around 8 to 10% which significantly reduces the yield of biodiesel [51].
The fatty acid composition of the scum oil is presented in Table 1. The
scum oil contains 72.44% saturated fatty acids which mainly consists of
myristic, palmatic and steraic acid. Simultaneously, it contains 25.62%
of unsaturated acid components including oleic, linoleic and linolenic
acids. The higher content of free fatty acid produces saponification by
reacting with base catalyst during transesterification process which
makes the separation of biodiesel from water and glycerine quite dif-
ficult. Generally the free fatty acid content is half the acid value of the
oil [30]. The alkaline catalysed transesterification is not suitable for
yielding of methyl esters from raw oil containing fatty acid content
more than 2% [29]. The free fatty acid content was found to be 8.86%
by carrying out the free fatty acid test using the base titration
Table 1
Chemical composition of Dairy Scum Oil.
Name of Fatty Acid Carbon Content Fatty Acid (%)
Butyric 4:0 1.34
Capric 10:0 1.52
Caproic 8:0 0.68
Lauric 12:0 2.74
Myristic 14:0 12.86
Palmatic 16:0 38.92
Steraic 18:0 14.38
Oleic 18:1 24.64
Linoleic 18:2 0.62
Linolenic 18:3 0.36
3
Fuel 280 (2020) 118647
methodology. Hence the oil was pre-treated to reduce the acid content
and consequently the FFA content below 2% so that alkaline catalysed
transesterification can be carried out for generation of biodiesel. In the
present work, the pre-treatment of the oil was carried out by acid es-
terification using methanol and sulphuric acid as catalyst. The esterified
scum oil was found to have FFA content 1.64% and hence it was further
subjected to transesterification process in order to produce the bio-
diesel.
The acid esterified scum oil was taken to the transesterification
reaction set-up to mix with methanol and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) in
a reactor. Transesterification process being the most widely used
method for biodiesel production, this process is considered over other
processes such as blending, micro emulsification or pyrolysis. A catalyst
is used for initialising the transestrification reaction which can be either
base, acid or enzyme. The acid catalysts are too slow for industrial
processing while the enzyme catalysts are too much costly. Keeping in
view the above mentioned drawbacks, the alkali catalyst NaOH is
considered for this study as it is widely used in large scale for pro-
duction of industrial biodiesel. In order to achieve perfect mixing of the
reagents and the oil during transesterification, the mixture was sub-
jected to stirring at a constant rate manually by means of a glass rod for
around 2 to 2:30 h. During this period, the temperature was maintained
at 55–60 °C by putting the conical flask in a water bath and the tem-
perature of the reactant was controlled within the desired range by
using a thermostat. Afterwards, it was kept untouched for 12 h to get
biodiesel and glycerine layers separately. Due to density difference, the
glycerine gets deposited at the bottom of the flask which is further
separated and collected in a separate tank. The separated crude methyl
ester which is collected at the top layer is washed with hot water so that
unwanted acids, soaps and catalyst residues are removed. Finally, the
transesterified methyl ester is heated to 110–120 °C for dissolving the
unwanted water particles in it. Until getting the pure methyl ester, the
process was repeated. The production of Biodiesel through the trans-
esterification process is explained in Fig. 2. Beakers, filter, transester-
ification reactor with a stirrer, electrical heater, glycerine, biodiesel
tanks and control valves are the instruments required to prepare the
biodiesel.
Methanol, sodium hydroxide as a catalyst and raw dairy waste scum
are the raw materials used for the preparation of biodiesel. In the
present work, methanol is used as the alcohol because of its low cost
and favourable chemical properties. Sufficient amount of methanol is
essential to break the linkages among glycerine and fatty acids. The
molar ratio of alcohol to oil significantly affects the yield of fatty acids
methyl ester (FAME) and consequently the efficiency of the transes-
terification reaction and the cost of biodiesel production. High amount
of FAME is yielded at increased alcohol-oil molar ratio. At stoichio-
metric condition, the alcohol to oil molar ratio is 3:1 which means
3 mol of alcohol are required theoretically for each mole of oil.
However, to drive the transesterification reaction in forward direction
and complete the reaction with higher yield of methyl ester, the al-
cohol-oil molar ratio should be maintained in excess than the
Fig. 2. Experimental set-up for trans-esterification.
S.M. Shareef and D.K. Mohanty
theoretical stoichiometric ratio. The maximum methyl ester is yielded
at 100% excess of the methanol compared to the stoichiometric ratio
[27,28]. Beyond this ratio, addition of methanol doesn’t add to the
yielding of methyl ester. Considering the maximum yield, the me-
thanol-oil molar ratio of 6:1 has been maintained in the present work.
Similar to methanol, the catalyst NaOH plays an important role in the
formation of biodiesel. In order to achieve high yield of methyl ester by
complete reaction, higher concentration of catalyst is used. But very
high concentration of catalyst may lead to high soap formation due to
favourable conditions of saponification. Hence the optimum con-
centration was determined by hit and trial method.
The biodiesel produced from dairy scum has been named as DSB
followed by the number which represents the percentage of dairy scum
present in the produced biodiesel. The experimentation was carried out
with four variants of dairy scum biodiesel with 10, 20, 30 and 100% of
diary scum methyl ester. For example DSB10 contains 10% Dairy Scum
Methylester and 90% Diesel while DSB20 contains 20% Dairy Scum
Methylester and 80% of Diesel. For the preparation of a DSB10 blend
for the experimental work, 10% Dairy Scum Methyl ester and 90%
diesel in a beaker were collected on a measurable scale. Initially, the
well proportionate liquid fuel was mixed continuously for 15–20 min
with the help of a mechanical stirrer by regulating the rpm of the
stirrer. The well-mixed liquid was mounted on a magnetic stirrer within
3–5 min after the mixing done on the mechanical stirrer. Magnetic
stirrer speed was set to 600–700 rpm for a 30 min operation. In mag-
netic stirrer, a magnetic pellet was used for the mixing process. The
beaker was covered with the aluminium foil to avoid the elimination of
some valuable content from the mixture. With the magnetic stirrer,
90% of mixing was achieved and the particles of the size of nano level
were well mixed with the help of the ultrasonicator. The perfectly
mixed liquid was set to be placed in the ultrasonicator with the help of a
stand and the bath of ultrasonicator was filled with distilled water. The
temperature of the setup was adjusted within 45–50 °C and the process
was run for 30 min by taking the intervals for every 10 min. The vi-
brations produced through the sound waves inside the sonicator facil-
itate the mixing of the liquid completely at nano level. Then the fuel
was allowed to lose its heat in the next 3 to 5 min which was gained due
to the vibrations. The similar process was repeated for the DSB20 and
DSB30 before using them in the engine. The production of biodiesel
through the transesterification process has been explained with the help
of schematic diagram as shown in Fig. 3.
The various thermo-physical properties like density, viscosity,
flashpoint, fire point, calorific value and Cetane number of dairy scum
biodiesel (DSB) were determined in accordance with ASTM-6751
norms. Density was determined according to the ASTMD4052 norms at
the standard temperature of 15 °C using a hydrometer. The viscosity of
the blends were evaluated according to ASTMD445 at 40 °C tempera-
ture with the help of Redwood viscometer. The flash point temperature
is one indicator of the propensity of the sample specimen to shape a
combustible mixture of air under regulated test conditions. The flash-
points were evaluated according to the ASTMD93 using closed-cup
Pensky – Martens device in temperature range 40–260 °C. The calorific
value was measured by using a bomb calorimeter with the ASTMD5865
standards. The Cetane number is used to assess the combustion attri-
butes of diesel fuel oil in CI engines. The ASTMD613 standard proce-
dure was followed for the determination of Cetane number and the
testing was carried out on a range of 30 to 65. The Table 2 demonstrates
the thermo-physical properties of the produced biodiesel.
2.2. Experimental setup
The experiments for evaluation of different performance and emis-
sion parameters were carried out with a 4 S, single cylinder variable
compression ratio diesel engine. The engine is a make of Kirloskar oil
engines LTD with 3.7 KW (AV1) rated at 1500 RPM. Fig. 4 shows the
complete experimental set-up used for experimentation and analysis
4
Fuel 280 (2020) 118647
and the Fig. 5 shows the schematic diagram of the test engine setup.
Table 3 provides the complete information regarding engine specifica-
tions. Besides the experimental set-up includes burette, three-way valve
and stopwatch working on gravity method, 15 mm diameter orifice
meter with differential U tube water manometer, five point digital
temperature scanner along with coromel- aluminium thermocouples,
digital panel mounted tachometer with proximity sensor having model
number RC 100A with maximum speed of 4000 rpm, spring balance
torque arm with length of 0.135 m. Crank angle sensor and piezo sensor
are installed on flywheel and engine head for measuring the crank angle
and combustion pressure respectively. The variable compression ratio
(VCR) diesel engine is coupled to an eddy current dynamometer of
capacity 5 HP at 1500 rpm for digital load control and a pressure sensor
is installed on the cylinder head to capture the inside cylinder pressure
values. Temperature sensors are installed for measurement of the air
input temperature, exhaust air temperature, inlet cooling water tem-
perature, outlet cooling water temperature and room temperature.
Continuous water supply was provided to the eddy current dynam-
ometer casing to avoid the overheating. The engine was first run on
pure diesel to achieve the baseline parameters.
For measuring exhaust emissions such as carbon monoxide (CO),
hydrocarbons (HC), and nitrogen oxides (NOx), AVL Automotive
Emission gas Analyser is used. AC adaptor, O ring for the fine filter,
400 mm exhaust gas probe, condensation hose, gas out hose, the RPM-
pickup, rubber seal for leak test, two exhaust gas hoses, and RS232
cable DiGas 444 are the spare parts of the AVL Automotive Emission gas
Analyser. Front view of the gas Analyser consists of a LC display, au-
tomatic water separator with test gas fine filter, four functional keys
and test gas inlet. Rear view is having a ventilator, connection point for
gas calibration and test gas exit and two additional filters are provided
to protect the sample cells and water pump against condensation ma-
terials at the bottom view. This AVL Automotive Emission Gas Analyser
is having 0 to 10% volume measuring range and resolution of 0.01% for
carbon monoxide (CO), 0 to 20000 ppm volume measuring range and
≤2000:1 ppm volume or > 2000:10 ppm volume resolution for hydro
carbons (HC) and for NOx it is having the measuring range of 0 to
5000 ppm volume and resolution of 1 ppm volume. Before starting the
experiment, around 10 min of warm up time was given to the gas
analyser.
2.3. Uncertainty analysis
The accuracy of an experimental investigation can be manifested by
the uncertainty analysis. Uncertainty analysis is a vital approach to
prove the accuracy and reliability of experiments. Errors and un-
certainties can occur due to instrument selection, experiment condition,
calibration, environment and test planning [54,55]. The percentage
uncertainties of various parameters such as brake power, brake thermal
efficiency, brake specific fuel consumption were calculated by using the
linearized approximation method taking into account the uncertainties
of the instruments used for measurement of the respective parameters
[56]. The typical values of measurement accuracy and uncertainty of
various parameters are listed in Table 4. The total percentage un-
certainty of the measurement has been computed by applying the
principle of propagation of errors [55].
Total Uncertainty = Square root of [(Uncertainty of
BP)2 + (Uncertainty of BTE)2 + (Uncertainty of
BSFC) + (Uncertainty of HC) + (Uncertainty of CO)2 + (Uncertainty
2 2
of NOx)2] = 1.915
The overall uncertainty is well within the permissible range [57]
3. Results and discussion
The experiments were conducted in two phases. The first phase of
experiments were carried out to determine the optimal blending con-
figuration of the biodiesel while the second phase of experiments were
S.M. Shareef and D.K. Mohanty Fuel 280 (2020) 118647

Fig. 3. Trans-esterification process.

carried out for investigation of performance, emission and combustion

characteristics at variable injection pressure.

3.1. Determination of optimal biodiesel configuration

The initial phase of experiments were intended to get the optimal

blend of the dairy scum biodiesel from performance and emission point
of view. In this regard, the experiments were performed with a variable
compression ratio diesel engine at a constant speed and fixed com-
pression ratio for pure diesel and DSB blends having diary scum bio-
diesel ranging from 10 to 30% and 100% composition by volume. The
tests were carried out with variation of load from zero to full load
conditions with an increasing step of 20%. Different biodiesel blends
such as DSB-10, DSB-20, DSB-30 and DSB-100 were being prepared and
their impact on engine performance and emission were investigated to Fig. 4. Experimental set-up.
obtain an optimized blend ratio. The brake thermal efficiency and brake
specific fuel consumption are considered for study of engine perfor- brake thermal efficiency for dairy scum blends is lesser than that of
mance while hydrocarbon, carbon monoxide and NOx emissions are pure diesel for the engine operating at full load. The experimental re-
considered for study of emission parameters. The experimental results sults show that corresponding to full load condition, brake thermal
are compared with the diesel and based on the experimental outcome efficiency is 32.82% for pure diesel while it varies from 31.74% to
optimum blend for DSB is determined. 29.88% for DSB 10 & 30 respectively. On the other hand, for pure DSB
it is around 29.08% which indicates that there is a slightly decrease in
3.1.1. Brake thermal efficiency brake thermal efficiency with increase in diary scum methyl ester. The
According to the outcome of the tests conducted, it is perceived that variation of brake thermal efficiency (BTE) with brake power for diesel

Table 2
Properties of Dairy Scum Biodiesel & its Blends.
Properties DSB-100 DSB-10 DSB-20 DSB-30 Diesel ASTM Standard

3
Density (kg/m ) 874 836 841 846 832 ASTMD4052
Viscosity@40 °C (cSt) 4.29 2.74 2.79 3.11 2.68 ASTMD445
Flash point (°C) 126 57 59 64 53 ASTMD93
Fire point (°C) 137 68 71 76 62 ASTM D92
Calorific value (kJ/kg) 38,562 42,964 41,012 40,590 43,185 ASTMD5865
Cetane number 57 55.3 53.7 51.4 49 ASTMD613

5
S.M. Shareef and D.K. Mohanty Fuel 280 (2020) 118647

combustion of biodiesel leads to lower brake power [58,59]. Among the

different blends of dairy scum biodiesel, it can be observed that DSB-10
and DSB-20 blends have quite similar values of BTE and the difference
is merely 0.8% which is very much negligible. This fact is in close
agreement with the observations of Ong et. al. in a CI diesel engine with
different biodiesel blends [60]. It has also been observed from the ex-
periments that the variation of BTE with BP follow almost similar trend
like that of full load condition.

3.1.2. Brake specific fuel consumption

The BSFC was found to be 0.274, 0.291, 0.321, and 0.341 kg/kW.hr
for DSB-10, DSB-20, DSB-30 and DSB-100 respectively corresponding to
full load conditions, while it was found to be 0.25 kg/kW.hr for pure
diesel. Fig. 7 illustrates the variation of brake specific fuel consumption
(BSFC) with brake power for various blends of dairy scum biodiesel
Fig. 5. Schematic diagram of engine setup. 1. Kirloskar oil engine, 2.
(DSB) and pure diesel. Based on the experimental results demonstrated
Dynamometer, 3. Injector, 4. Pump, 5. Control panel, 6. Fuel tank, 7. Air-sta-
in Fig. 7, it can be concluded that the BSFC increases with increase in
bilizing tank, 8. Air filter, 9. Exhaust gas silencer, 10. Exhaust gas analyser, 11.
Crank encoder, 12. Data acquisition system.
the proportion of dairy scum methyl ester in the diesel. The experi-
mental results are having similar agreement with the results reported
by various researchers available in literature [61–63]. This results can
Table 3 be ascribed to higher viscosity and lower heating values of the bio-
Engine specifications.
diesels comprising of dairy scum methyl ester. The lower specific
Test rig name Computerized four stroke Single cylinder gravity, viscosity and higher calorific value of the diesel fuel leads to
variable compression ratio diesel engine with complete combustion resulting in lower BSFC compared to the biodiesel
eddy current dynamometer
blends. Due to higher viscosity, density and lower calorific value with
Name of the manufacturer Kirloskar oil engine LTD.
Model number AV 1 increase in dairy scum methyl ester, proper mixing of air and fuel
Engine type Vertical, 4-sroke cycle, single acting, totally cannot be achieved which in turn results in incomplete combustion
closed, high speed compression ignition diesel [59,64]. This is the main reason behind the increase in BSFC with diary
engine scum methyl ester.
Starting By hand cranking
NO OF Cylinder One
Is rating at 1500 rpm 3.7 (5.0) KW (bhp) max rated 5HP 3.1.3. Hydrocarbons emission
Is rating at 1800 rpm 4.4 (6.0) KW (bhp) The amount of hydrocarbon emission in the diesel engine varies
Direction of rotation Clockwise/anticlockwise when looking at significantly with the variation in speed and load. The outcome of the
flywheel end
experiments indicate that the HC emissions are lower for the same
Bore 80.0 mm
Stroke 110 mm diesel engine operation with dairy scum biodiesel (DSB) as compared to
Cubic capacity 0.553 L pure diesel. The variations in hydrocarbon emissions with brake power
Nominal compression ratio 16.5:1 VCR range 10:1 to 20:1 for dairy scum biodiesel (DSB) blends and diesel are presented in Fig. 8.
Fuel timing for standard engine 23 deg The HC emissions are found to decrease from 36 ppm to 33 ppm with
by spill (BTDC)
Inlet valve opens (BTDC) 4.5 deg
the increase in diary scum content in the biodiesel from 30 to 100%. On
Inlet valve closes (ABDC) 35.5 deg the other hand, the experimental outcomes show that DSB-10 has
Exhaust valve opens (BBDC) 35.5 deg 41 ppm HC emissions as compared to 38 ppm HC emissions for DSB-20
Exhaust valve closes (ATDC) 4.5 deg under full load condition. For pure diesel, it is found to be higher than
Loading device Eddy current dynamometer
43 ppm. Higher oxygen content and high cetane number leads to re-
Capacity of dynamometer 5HP at 1500 rpm
duced HC emissions [56,65]. The presence of more intrinsic oxygen in
the biodiesel with higher percentage of diary scum tends to improve
Table 4 combustion and ultimately facilitating complete combustion of the fuel.
Accuracies of Measurement. The complete combustion is achieved due to higher cetane number,
higher gas temperature and high oxygen content in biodiesel having
Parameter Accuracy Uncertainty (%)
higher content of diary scum.
BP ± 0.03 kW ± 0.3
BSFC ± 5 g/kWh ± 1.5 3.1.4. Carbon monoxide emission
BTE ± 0.5 ± 1.1 The CO emissions from IC engines play a significant role towards the
HC ± 10 ppm ± 0.2
increase in pollution and post a serious threat to the environment. The
CO ± 0.02% ± 0.2
NOx ± 10 ppm ± 0.2 CO emissions for dairy scum biodiesel and their corresponding blends
are found to be much less than diesel because they contain more
oxygen. As observed in the experiments, for diesel, DSB-10, DSB-20,
and various DSB blends is shown in Fig. 6. This can be ascribed to DSB-30 and DSB-100 at full load, the CO emissions are found to be
thermo-physical properties such as density, viscosity, adiabatic flame 0.078, 0.069, 0.060, 0.055 and 0.051% respectively. The CO emissions
temperature and calorific value. The dairy scum methyl ester possesses are estimated to be 53% higher in pure diesel as compared to complete
higher density and viscosity but lower adiabatic flame temperature and diary scum biodiesel having 100% composition. Since biodiesel con-
heating value. The calorific value is found to decrease with addition of tains higher oxygen content than pure diesel, improved combustion
dairy scum methyl ester which results in decrease of the brake thermal occurs and consequently CO emission decreases with increase in blend
efficiency with inordinately increase in the proportion of diary scum content [56,66]. For Diesel and DSB blends, the variation of CO emis-
methyl ester with diesel. The combustion gets affected due to lower sions with brake power (BP) is shown in Fig. 9. From the figure it can
calorific value and higher viscosity and consequently the uneven also be observed that the CO emissions initially follow a decreasing
trend with elevating load and subsequently rise significantly to full

6
S.M. Shareef and D.K. Mohanty Fuel 280 (2020) 118647

Fig. 6. Variation of BTE with BP for full load condition.

Fig. 7. Variation of BSFC with BP for full load conditions.

Fig. 8. Variation of HC emissions with BP for full load conditions.

7
S.M. Shareef and D.K. Mohanty Fuel 280 (2020) 118647

Fig. 9. Variation of CO emissions with BP for full load conditions.

load. The CO emission increases with increase in load for all biodiesels leads to massive part of combustion prior to the top dead centre (TDC).
irrespective of biodiesel concentration [56]. This is due to the possi- The engine performance and emission characteristics of a variable
bility that the cylinder temperature could be low at no load. Secondly, compression ratio diesel engine with diary scum blends such as DSB-10,
the reduced CO emissions might be due to the better combustion and DSB-20, DSB-30 and DSB-100 as a fuel have been investigated. As ob-
complete oxidation of the dairy scum blended biodiesel than pure served in experiments, the BTE of the engine decreases and BSFC in-
diesel. creases with increase in blend concentration. Simultaneously, the HC
and CO emissions decrease while NOx emissions increase with increase
in blend concentration. As compared to DSB-30 and DSB-100, the DSB-
3.1.5. Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) emission
20 blend is considered to be the best as it has better BTE, BSFC. The
The emission of NOx for Dairy scum Biodiesel (DSB) blends is found
DSB-10 blend has a comparatively higher BTE than DSB-20, but on the
to be greater than the diesel at full load. As observed in the experi-
other hand its HC, CO emissions are higher than DSB-20. Thus saving
mental operations, NOx emissions are estimated to be 956, 968, 994,
10% diesel is not healthy and suitable even though it has greater BTE. It
1016, 1046 ppm for Diesel, DSB-10, DSB-20, DSB-30 and DSB-100 re-
has also been observed from the experimental results that the brake
spectively at full load condition. For blends with lower biodiesel con-
power and brake thermal efficiency decreases while the NOx emission
tent, cetane number is higher which leads to shorter ignition delay.
increases as the blend concentration is increased beyond 30%. Other
Hence combustion pressure and temperature reduces and consequently
than dairy scum oil biodiesel, the waste cooking oil and sunflower oil
NOx emission reduces for lower content of biodiesel [56,67]. Fig. 10
biodiesel with lower and medium percentage of blends upto 30% can be
demonstrates the comparisons in NOx emissions with brake power for
substituted for diesel [68,69]. Also the experimental results show that
conventional diesel and Dairy scum Biodiesel (DSB) blends. The higher
increasing the dairy scum blend from 20 to 30% gives unfavorable re-
oxygen content in biodiesel blends than diesel facilitates complete
sults with respect to BTE, BSFC and NOx emissions. There is a slight
combustion which ultimately leads to higher level heat release rate and
improvement in HC and CO emission. Thus increasing the blend content
temperature. This may be attributed towards higher NOx emission
beyond 20% is not advisable as it doesn’t add any significant im-
during the premixed combustion stage of biodiesel. Besides, the desir-
provement to the performance or emission parameters, but the results
able combustion rate might also be another reason for it. Desirable
corresponding to BTE, BSFC and NOx emissions are not desirable.
combustion rate is due to the good homogeneous air fuel mixing which

Fig. 10. Variation of NOx emissions with BP for full load conditions.

8
S.M. Shareef and D.K. Mohanty
According to the findings of Ramalingam et. al., better performance and
emission are achieved for the dairy scum biodiesel with 20% blend as
compared to other blends [26]. Therefore, keeping in view a better
performance and lower emission, DSB-20 is regarded to be the optimum
blend.
3.2. Effect of injection timing
The various injection parameters regulate the performance and
harmful emissions of compression ignition engines fuelled with bio-
diesel blends to a great extent among which injection timing plays a
vital role. Injection timing is the time when the fuel injection to the
combustion chamber begins. With the advanced timing of the injection,
the combustion delay would be longer and the flame travel speed will
also be lower. This reduces the optimum pressure and power output of
the engine. As a result, fuel consumption per output power increases.
Advance in injection timing results in enhancement in turbulence of
mixture, rapid combustion, longer ignition delay, lower pressure and
temperature inside the combustion chamber [70 –72]. On the other
hand retardation in injection timing results in delayed combustion,
slower burning rate, shorter ignition delay, higher pressure and tem-
perature inside the combustion chamber [70,73,74]. Higher in-cylinder
pressure and peak cylinder pressure is observed for advanced injection
timing as compared to the standard injection timing. Since the standard
injection timing for the considered engine is 23° before TDC, injection
timing within a range from 20° to 29° before TDC has been considered
to enumerate the effect of both advanced and retarded injection timing.
3.2.1. Brake thermal efficiency
Fig. 11 represents the variation of brake thermal efficiency (BTE)
with brake power (BP) for various injection timings. The results are well
in agreement with the findings of Channappagoudra et. al. [75]. By
increasing the load on the engine, BTE increases. For pure diesel as a
fuel 23 deg btdc was the finest injection timing for attaining the better
BTE. But for DSB-20, compared to pure diesel BTE was decreasing at
23 deg b tdc because of higher fuel viscosity, less energy content and
increased fuel consumption for similar power output. The high viscosity
of the fuel leads to improper spray and air mixture which causes the
sluggish combustion with DSB-20. With the advanced injection timing,
BTE increases due to increased period of ignition delay. By having the
enhanced phase of ignition delay, much time is given for the air-fuel
mixing inside the chamber which helps to improve the combustion
Fig. 11. Variation of BTE with BP for full load condition at different IT.
9
Fuel 280 (2020) 118647
process by providing better mixture of air and fuel. It leads to higher
cylinder pressure, temperature and higher heat release resulting in in-
creased BTE. By retarding the injection timing (IT) to 20 deg b tdc from
23 deg b tdc, reduction of ignition delay causes improper mixing of air
and fuel which leads to low heat release rate and BTE. From the ex-
periment the, BTE values for Diesel-23 deg b tdc, DSB20-20 deg b tdc,
DSB20-23 deg b tdc, DSB20-26 deg b tdc and DSB20-29 deg b tdc at
maximum load conditions are found to be 31.96, 28.92, 30.92, 31.87
and 29.58% respectively. Thus 26 deg b tdc is considered as best in-
jection timing for DSB-20 as it has 31.87% of BTE which is nearer to
that of pure diesel having BTE 31.96%.
3.2.2. Brake specific fuel consumption
Fig. 12 illustrates the variation in Brake specific fuel consumption
(BSFC) with brake power (BP) for different injection timings (IT). From
the experiment, the DSB-20 values are compared with that of pure
diesel at part loads. By increasing the load on the engine, the BSFC is
decreasing for both the fuels. From the figure, it is observed that pure
diesel is having the lower BSFC compared to different injection timings
of DSB-20. This is due to the lower calorific value of DSB-20 than the
pure diesel as a result of which more biodiesel is being added into the
combustion chamber to achieve the same power output like pure diesel
[76,77]. At full load conditions, the experimental results show that the
BSFC were 0.28, 0.316, 0.306, 0.292 and 0.305 kg/kw.hr for Diesel-
23 deg b tdc, DSB20-20 deg b tdc, DSB20-23 deg b tdc, DSB20-26 deg b
tdc and DSB20-29 deg b tdc respectively. From the above experimental
results, the BSFC for DSB-20 at 26 deg b tdc is found to be 0.292 kg/
kw.hr which is less than that of DSB-20 corresponding to the injection
at 23 deg b tdc by 5%. For DSB-20, when the injection timing advanced
from 23 deg b tdc to 26 deg b tdc, much time is available for the pre-
paration of fuel and air mixture which leads to the improvement in
premixed combustion. Therefore advanced injection timing of 26 deg b
tdc indicates a comparatively lower BSFC of 0.292 kg/kw.hr for DSB-
20.
3.2.3. Hydrocarbon (HC) emissions
Fig. 13 represents the effect of injection timing on hydrocarbon
(HC) emissions with pure diesel and DSB-20 as fuels in a variable
compression ratio (VCR) diesel engine. Lean mixture in delay period
phase and improperly mixed fuel coming out from the injector nozzle
with less velocity are the two main reasons behind the HC emissions in
the engines. Lower HC emissions were observed from the obtained
S.M. Shareef and D.K. Mohanty
Fig. 12. Variation of BSFC with BP for full load conditions for different IT.
results for DSB-20 compared to pure diesel. This can be due to better
combustion efficiency for DSB-20 as the improved fuel-air mixture
preparation rate results in better premixed combustion [75,78]. From
the experiment, the HC emission results were found to be 43, 44, 36, 34
and 39 ppm for Diesel-23 deg b tdc, DSB20-20 deg b tdc, DSB20-23 deg
b tdc, DSB20-26 deg b tdc and DSB20-29 deg b tdc at full load condi-
tions. HC emissions are decreased for the advanced injection timing of
26 deg b tdc with DSB-20 as a fuel. It is due to the better mixing of air-
fuel and hence improved oxidation leads to complete combustion. From
the experimental data, it is observed that the HC emissions for ad-
vanced injection timing of 26 deg b tdc are lower compared to pure
diesel with injection timing of 23 deg b tdc.
3.2.4. Carbon monoxide (CO) emissions
Fig. 14 depicts the variation in CO emissions with brake power for
VCR diesel engine with diesel and DSB-20 as fuels corresponding to
different injection timings. Among all advanced injection timings, the
injection at 26 deg b tdc has shown the lower CO emissions at part loads
Fig. 13. Variation of HC emissions with BP for full load conditions at different IT.
10
Fuel 280 (2020) 118647
with DSB-20 as a fuel. It is attributed to rise in temperature and pres-
sure inside the cylinder, utilization of the leaner air fuel mixture and
better conversion rate of CO into CO2 due to the presence of large
amount of oxygen molecules in DSB-20 [41,75]. The CO emissions at
full load conditions obtained from the experimental results for Diesel-
23 deg b tdc, DSB20-20 deg b tdc, DSB20-23 deg b tdc, DSB20-26 deg b
tdc and DSB20-29 deg b tdc were 0.081, 0.1013, 0.068, 0.060 and
0.065% respectively. Compared to pure diesel of 0.081%, DSB-20 blend
with injection timing 26 deg b tdc exhibits lower CO emissions of
0.060%. CO emission decreases for 26 deg b tdc compared to 23 deg b
tdc for the same fuel due to increased combustion efficiency as a result
of better heat release rate during the premixed period. CO emissions are
decreased to 0.060 from 0.068% by increasing the injection timing to
26 deg b tdc from 23 deg b tdc.
3.2.5. Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) emissions
Fig. 15 represents the variation in oxides of nitrogen (NOx) with
brake power at different injection timings. While fuel consumption rate
S.M. Shareef and D.K. Mohanty
Fig. 14. Variation of CO emissions with BP for full load conditions for different IT.
increases with rising load and thus more heat is emitted during com-
bustion as the temperature of the combustion chamber increases,
leading to increased NOx emissions. The level of NOX emissions in-
creases with the advanced injection timing due to the influence of
premixed combustion period which results in high in cylinder pressure
and temperature [79,80]. The NOX emission results for Diesel-23 deg b
tdc, DSB20-20 deg b tdc, DSB20-23 deg b tdc, DSB20-26 deg b tdc and
DSB20-29 deg b tdc at full load conditions were found to be 956, 1002,
1015, 1115 and 1083 ppm respectively. NOX emissions for injection at
23 deg b tdc of 1015 increased to 1115 for the advanced injection
timing of 26 deg b tdc with DSB-20 as a fuel. This is primarily due to the
time available for fuel and air to mix properly which results in better
combustion and oxidation.
3.2.6. Cylinder pressure
Fig. 16 depicts the variation of cylinder pressure against crank angle
with diesel and DSB-20 as a fuel for full load conditions at different
injection timings. The injection pressure during the injection process
has been maintained fixed at 210 bar. The DSB-20 exhibited com-
paratively lower cylinder pressure value compared to the pure diesel
and when the injection timing is advanced, the gas pressure variability
Fig. 15. Variation of NOx emissions with BP for full load conditions for Different IT.
11
Fuel 280 (2020) 118647
at full load is also smooth as the engine noise is natural. The cylinder
pressure of 54.16 bar observed for diesel injected at 23 deg b tdc is the
maximum, followed by 53.12 bar for DSB-20 injected at 26 deg b tdc.
By advancing the injection timing to 26 deg b tdc from 23 deg b tdc,
increase of ignition delay phase and smoother running of the engine has
been observed. It is also noticed from the figure that the effect of ad-
vanced injection timing to 26 deg b tdc is very prominent on the per-
formance of the engine with DSB-20. The cylinder pressure values for
Diesel-23 deg b tdc, DSB20-20 deg b tdc, DSB20-23 deg b tdc, DSB20-
26 deg b tdc and DSB20-29 deg b tdc were found to be 54.16, 50.42,
51.11, 53.12 and 50.64 bar respectively for full load conditions. The
injection timing of 26 deg b tdc with DSB-20 has the maximum cylinder
pressure of 53.12 bar among the other different injection timings. It
may result in better combustion and oxidation due to proper mixing of
fuel and air, thereby releasing high chemical and heat energy resulting
in higher cylinder pressure. The results are similar to the trend reported
by Jaichandar et. al.[72] and Sharma et. al. [74].
3.2.7. Heat release rate
The variation in heat release rates with diesel and DSB-20 at max-
imum load conditions for different injection timings is shown in the
S.M. Shareef and D.K. Mohanty
Fig. 16. Variation of cylinder pressure with crank angle for full load conditions with different IT.
Fig. 17. Initially it is noticed that heat release rate has shown some
slight negative values during the ignition delay phase. This is con-
tributed because of the heat loss from the walls of the cylinder and the
cooling effect due to vaporization of DSB-20 blend. However, the heat
release rate becomes positive once the combustion starts. At injection
26 deg b tdc, the heat release rate for DSB-20 is lower than that of diesel
injection at 23 deg b tdc. It could be due to the lower calorific value of
DSB-20 and improper atomization resulting poor mixture of fuel and
air. Advancing the injection timing to 26 deg b tdc from 23 deg b tdc
results in increased combustion efficiency. Hence increasing the igni-
tion delay due to earlier injection of fuel provides more time for mixing
fuel and air which facilitates the pre combustion reactions for vapor-
ization [70,74]. Reduction in heat release rate and temperature is ob-
served by retarding the injection timing to 19 deg b tdc from 23 deg b
tdc which is due to reduction in ignition delay causing improper mixing
of fuel and air. For Diesel-23 deg b tdc, DSB20-20 deg b tdc, DSB20-
23 deg b tdc, DSB20-26 deg b tdc and DSB20-29 deg b tdc the heat
release rate values were 63.74, 51.63, 60.84, 61.11 and 58.66 J/crank
Fig. 17. Variation of HRR with crank angle for full load conditions with variable IT.
12
Fuel 280 (2020) 118647
angle respectively at maximum load conditions. However, injection of
DSB-20 at 26 deg b tdc has the highest heat release rate of 61.11 J/
crank angle among the other injection timings corresponding to same
fuel.
3.2.8. Cumulative heat release rate
Fig. 18 represents variation in cumulative heat release rate (CHRR)
with the crank angle at different load conditions by varying the injec-
tion timings. From the graph it is observed that the CHRR for 26 deg b
tdc is increased as the combustion progresses. It is attributed to high
amount of heat release as high amount of fuel is present in the opera-
tion. For Diesel-23 deg b tdc, DSB20-20 deg b tdc, DSB20-23 deg b tdc,
DSB20-26 deg b tdc and DSB20-29 deg b tdc, the CHRR results were
found to be 0.83, 0.76, 0.79, 0.811 and 0.786 J/crank angle at max-
imum load conditions. It is observed from the experimental results that
the CHRR increases with injection timings initially and attains a peak
after which it decreases for DSB-20. The highest value of CHRR is
achieved for DSB-20 at injection 26 deg b tdc which is nearly equal to
S.M. Shareef and D.K. Mohanty
Fig. 18. Variation of CHRR with crank angle for full load conditions with variable IT.
that of diesel injected at conventional injection timing. This can be
ascribed to quicker premixed combustion in the combustion chamber.
Due to advance in injection timing, ignition delay gets longer which
leads to accumulation of more fuel. Consequently the amount of fuel
burnt inside the combustion chamber during the phase of premixed
combustion increases resulting in higher heat release rate [74]. Also the
longer ignition delay lengthens the flammability zone causing an in-
crease in heat release rate [72].
3.2.9. Rate of pressure rise
The variation of rate of pressure rise against crank angle at max-
imum load conditions corresponding to various injection timings is
shown in the Fig. 19. For DSB-20, the advanced injection timing of
26 deg b tdc has resulted in higher rate of pressure rise value compared
to the standard 23 deg b tdc. Diesel is having the highest heat release
rate compared to the DSB-20 which is due to lower calorific value,
volatility and high viscosity of the DSB-20. By advancing the injection
timing to 26 deg b tdc, more time is available for the fuel and air to mix
properly which results in increased combustion efficiency leading to the
increased rate of pressure rise. After attaining the peak pressure, the
Fig. 19. Variation of RPR with crank angle for full load conditions with variable IT.
13
Fuel 280 (2020) 118647
curve drops to lower levels in the expansion phase. Similar to other
biodiesels, the cylinder pressure shows an augmentation phase corre-
sponding to advanced injection timing [70,81]. The experimental re-
sults provide the rate of pressure rise for Diesel-23 deg b tdc, DSB20-
20 deg b tdc, DSB20-23 deg b tdc, DSB20-26 deg b tdc and DSB20-
29 deg b tdc to be 4.97, 4.18, 4.54, 4.69 and 4.32 bar/crank angle
respectively at full load conditions. It is observed that the rate of
pressure rise for DSB-20 corresponding advanced injection timing of
26 deg b tdc is 4.69 bar/crank angle which is close to that of diesel with
standard 23 deg b tdc injection timing. The advanced injection timing
facilitates improved flame front and rapid combustion of the properly
mixed air-fuel mixture which results in higher cylinder pressure.
4. Conclusion
The performance, emission and combustion characteristics for dairy
scum biodiesel has been investigated. Based on the performance and
emission characteristics, DSB-20 has been found to be the optimal
composition of biodiesel as compared to DSB-10, DSB-30 and DSB-100.
Furthermore the injection timing has been considered for investigation
S.M. Shareef and D.K. Mohanty
in order to achieve enhanced performance and lower emission. The
experiments have been conducted to compare the performance, emis-
sion and combustion characteristics of diesel with conventional injec-
tion timing of 23° before TDC with that of the optimal biodiesel DSB-20
with injection 20°, 23°, 26° and 29° before TDC. The experimental re-
sults show that the brake thermal efficiency and brake specific fuel
consumption for DSB-20 with injection 26° before TDC are almost si-
milar to that of diesel with conventional injection of 23° before TDC.
From emission point of view, the HC and CO emissions for DSB-20 are
26.4% and 35% lower than diesel respectively. However there is a
slight increase in NOx emissions for DSB-20 as compared to diesel. The
cylinder pressure attains maximum value for DSB-20 which facilitates
complete combustion due to proper mixing of fuel and air. The rate of
pressure rise is maximum for DSB-20 with injection 26° in advance to
TDC compared to other injection timings. Both heat release rate and
cumulative heat release rate are maximum for DSB-20 with injection
26° before TDC than the other considered values of injection timing.
However the combustion parameters are well in match with that of
diesel with conventional injection of 230 before TDC. Thus keeping in
view the performance, emission and combustion characteristics, it can
be concluded that DSB-20 can be a suitable alternative for diesel in
automotive vehicles with a slight advance in injection timing.
Simultaneously, the use of diary scum as an alternate fuel can save the
environment and also the huge cost which is utilized for disposal of the
diary scum as a waste.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Shaik Masthan Shareef: Conceptualization, Methodology, Data
curation, Validation, Writing - original draft. Dillip Kumar Mohanty:
Investigation, Supervision, Writing - review & editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
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