INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY 2ND TERM

INTRO TO SOCIAL FOOT IN-THE-DOOR TECHNIQUE

PSYCHOLOGY • Asking for a small commitment and, after

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
• The scientific study of how a person’s behavior
thoughts and feelings are influenced by the real,
imagined or implies presence of others.
gaining compliance, asking for a bigger
commitment
LOWBALL TECHNIQUE
• Getting a commitment from a person and then
raising the cost of that commitment

• Also looks at behavior and mental processes but
includes social worlds in which we exist
SOCIAL INFLUENCE
• The process through which the real or implied
presence of others can directly or indirectly
influence the thoughts, feelings, and behavior of
an individual.
CONFORMITY
• Changing one’s own behavior to more closely
match the actions of others.
• Cross-cultural research has found that
collectivist cultures show more conformity than
individualistic cultures
THAT’S NOT-ALL TECHNIQUE
• The persuader makes an offer and then adds
something extra to make the offer look better
before target person make a decision
OBEDIENCE
• Changing one’s behavior at the command of an
authority figure
GROUP POLARIZATION
• Tendency for a member involved in a group
discussion to take somewhat more extreme
positions and suggest riskier actions when
compared to individuals who have not
participated in a group discussion.

• Gender differences do not exist in conformity
unless the response is not private, in which case
women are more conforming than men.
GROUPTHINK
• Occurs when a decision -making feels that is
more important to maintain group unanimity
and cohesiveness than to consider the facts
realistically.
SOCIAL FACILITATION
When the performance of an individual on a
relatively easy task is improved by the presence of
others
SOCIAL EXPERIMENT
When the performance of an individual on a
relatively difficult task is negatively by the presence of
others

• Minimizing groupthink involves impartial
leadership, seeking outside opinions, stating
problems, in objective manner, breaking large
groups into subgroups, encouraging questions
and alternate solutions, using secret ballots, and
holding group members responsible for the
decisions made by the group.
COMPLIANCE
SOCIAL LOAFING
When a person who is lazy is able to work in a
group of people, that person often performs less well
than if the person were working alone, a phenomenon
ATTITUDES
• Tendencies to respond positively or negatively
toward ideas, persons, objects, or situations.

ABC MODEL OF ATTITUDES

• Occurs when a person changes behavior as a
result of another person asking of directing that
person to change AFFECTIVE The way a person feels
toward an object, person
or situation
BEHAVIOR The action that a person
takes regarding the

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 person, object or
situation
COGNITIVE The way a person thinks
about another person, an
object or situation
“Attitudes are often poor predictors of behavior
unless the attitude is very specific or very strong.”
ATTITUDE FORMATION
• Direct contact with a person, situation, object or
idea
• Direct instruction from parents or others
• Interacting with other people who hold a certain
attitude
• Watching the actions and reactions of others to
ideas , people, objects and situations.
Because attitudes are learned, they are also subject to change
with new learning.
ATTITUDE CHANGE
PERSUASION
• The process by which one person tries to
change the belief , opinion, position or course of
action to another person through argument
pleading or explanation.
KEY ELEMENT IN PERSUASION
SOURCE
There is a strong tendency to give more weight
to people who are perceived as experts, as well as those
who seem trustworthy, attractive, and similar to the
person receiving the message.
MESSAGE
The message should be cleared and well
organized it is usually more effective to present both
sides of an argument to an audience that has not yet
committed to one side or another.
TARGET AUDIENCE
People who are in the young adult stage of the
late teens to mid-20s are more susceptible to persuasion
than are older people.
COGNITIVE DISSONANCE
Discomfort of distress that occurs when a person's
actions do match the person’s attitudes.
• When people experience cognitive dissonance
the resulting tension and arousal are unpleasant
so people are motivated to change something so
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that unpleasant feeling and tension are reduced
or eliminated.
3 BASIC THINGS PEOPLE CAN DO TO REDUCE
COGNITIVE DISSONANCE:
1. Change the conflicting behavior to make it
match to the attitudes
2. Change the current conflicting cognition to
justify the behavior
3. Form new cognition to justify the behavior
SOCIAL CATEGORIZATION
A process of social cognition in which a person
upon meeting someone new assign that person to a
category or group on the basis of characteristic in the
person has in common with other people group which
whom the perceiver has prior experiences
One form of social category is the stereotype, in
which the characteristic use to assign a persons to a
category are superficial and belief to be true of all
members of the category
It allow people to access a great deal of
information that can be useful about others as well as
helping people to remember and organize information
about the characteristic of others.
LIKING AND LOVING
SOCIAL SUPPORT
• Approval, advice, assistance and comfort that
we receive from those with whom we have
developed a stable positive relationship.
CLOSE RELATIONSHIPS
• Relationship between people that are
characterized by loving, caring, commitment
and intimacy.
INITIAL ATTRACTION
INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION
• Strength of our liking or loving for another
person.
PHYSICAL ATTRACTIVENESS
• People are strongly influenced by this in terms
of choosing their partners
ATTRACTIVE PEOPLE
• More sociable, selfless and intelligent; have
more choices of their partners; more likely to be
offered jobs and may even lived longer
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SYMMETRICAL FACE AND BODY
• More attractive and seem to have a good genes
for reproduction
GENDER DIFFERENCES IN PERCEIVED
ATTRACTIVENESS
MEN
• Physical attractiveness of women is the most
important
• Likes younger women more
• More willing to have casual sex
WOMEN
• Social status of men is the most important
• Prefer older men
• Less willing to have sex (responsibilities)
WHY IS PHYSICAL ATTRACTIVENESS
IMPORTANT?
1. It is rewarding
2. They are seen as better friends and partners
PHYSICAL ATTRACTIVENESS STEREOTYPE
• Tendency to perceive attractive people is having
positive characteristics like sociability and
competence
PHYSICALLY ATTRACTIVE PEOPLE
• Seen as more dominant, sexually warm,
mentally healthy, intelligent and socially skilled;
they receive more social benefits
SIMILARITY: WE LIKE THOSE PEOPLE WHO
ARE LIKE US
• People who share same age, education, race,
religion, level of intelligence and
socioeconomic status: more likely to be
developed.
• Similarity matters because it makes things
easier.
• Finding similarities with another makes us
feel good and makes us feel that the other
person will reciprocate us.
STATUS SIMILARITY
SOCIAL EXCHANGE
• Principle that limits us from attracting such high
status.
• There will be general similarity in status among
people in close relationships
PROXIMITY LIKING
• Being around another person increase liking
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MERE EXPOSURE
• Tendency to prefer stimuli that we have seen
frequently
AFFECT AND ATTRACTION
• We tend to like other people when we are in a
good mood and not when we are in a bad mood.
AROUSAL AND ATTRACTION
• When we are aroused, everything looks so
extreme so love that is accompanied by arousal
(sexual or not) is stronger love than those
without it
CLOSE RELATIONSHIP: LIKING AND LOVING IN
THE LONG TERM
COMPASIONATE LOVE
• Love that is based on friendship, mutual
attraction, common interests, mutual respect,
and concern for each other’s welfare.
CLOSENESS AND INTIMACY
RECIPROCAL SELF-DISCLOSURE
• Tendency to communicate frequently, without
fear of reprisal, and in an accepting and
empathetic manner.
“Measuring Relationship Closeness”- Arthur Aron
and his collegues
COMMUNAL RELATIONSHIPS
• Close relationships in which partners suspend
their need for equity and exchange, giving
support to the partner in order to meet his or her
needs, and without consideration of the costs to
themselves.
EXCHANGE RELATIONSHIPS
• Relationships in which each of the partners
keeps track of his or her contributions to the
partnership
HAPPIER COUPLES
• Less likely to “keep score” of their respective
contributions
COMMITMENT
• Feelings and actions that keep partners working
together to maintain the relationship
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 TRIANGULAR MODEL OF LOVE BY ROBERT 3. Be fair in how you evaluate behaviors.
STERNBERG 4. Don’t do something dumb.
5. Do things that please your partner.
6. Have fun.
7. Stop fighting.

Chicago Social Health and Life Survey (Chicago

Health and Social Life Survey, 2011): not only that
87% of married partners believe that extramarital sex is
wrong but that the partners also seemed to act in
accordance with these values.

*Men are more jealous than women overall. Men are

more concerned than women about sexual infidelities of their
partners, whereas women are relatively more concerned
about emotional infidelities of their partners.

Margaret Stroebe and her colleagues (Stroebe,

ATTACHMENT STYLE
• One of the important determinants of the quality
of close relationships is the way that the partners
relate to each other.
Hansson, Schut, & Stroebe, 2008): people adjusted to
the loss of a partner, even one with whom they had been
together for a long time, although many did have
increased psychological difficulties, at least in the short
term.

a) Secure attachment styles INTRODUCTION TO

b) Anxious/ambivalent attachment style
c) Avoidant attachment style ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY
OTHER ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR
CONCERN
SELF-CONCERN Goals are met Goals are NOT • A psychological dysfunction within an
met individual associated with distress or
GOALS ARE SECURE AVOIDANT impairment in functioning and a response that is
MET ATTACHMENT ATTACHMENT
not typical or culturally expected.
Healthy feelings Healthy feelings
about the self and about the self but
5 D’S OF ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR
about important fears about
others connecting with DEVIANCE
others
GOALS ARE ANXIOUS/ FEARFUL
• A typical or not culturally expected
NOT MET AMBIVALENT ATTACHMENT • Something is considered abnormal because it
occurs infrequently; it deviates from the
Desires to reach out Relationships with average; or it defies social norms
to others but also others are poor but
anxious about the so is the self- DISTRESS
self concept
• Upset feelings/something is not
good/discomfort
OXYTOCIN • The person find their behaviors troubling
• Other persons find the behavior troubling
• Hormone that is important in female
reproduction and that also influences social DYSFUNCTION
behaviors, including the development of long-
term romantic attachments. • Behavior interferes with everyday personal,
social, occupational, and many other areas of
Frank and Anita Milford functioning

• Britain’s long-married couple DANGER

7 TIPS FOR LONG LASTING RELATIONSHIP • Person is at risk (danger to self) or risking the
safety of others (danger to others)
1. Be prepared for squabbles.
2. Don’t be negative.

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DURATION (schizophrenia, personality
disorders
• More than 2 weeks? EPISODIC - Individual is likely to recover
THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOPATHOLOGY within a few months only to
suffer a recurrence of the
• Psychopathology is the scientific study of disorder at a later time
psychological disorders. TIME-LIMITED - Disorder will improve
without treatment in a
• Clinical and counseling psychologists, relatively short period
psychiatrists, psychiatric social workers, and ONSET
psychiatric nurses, as well as marriage and • When/How the disorder began
family therapists and mental health counselors.

SCIENTIST-PRACTITIONERS 1. ACUTE – began suddenly

2. INSIDIOUS – develop gradually over an
• Many mental health professionals take a extended period
scientific approach to their clinical work
PROGNOSIS
1. Keep up with the latest scientific developments • Anticipated course of a disorder
in their field
2. Evaluate their own procedures to see whether 1. GOOD – individual will probably recover
they work 2. GUARDED – outcome doesn’t look good
3. Conduct research that produces new
information about disorders or their treatment ETIOLOGY

CLINICAL DESCRIPTION • The study of origins

PRESENTING PROBLEM
• Presents; a traditional shorthand way of
indicating why the person came to the clinic
CLINICAL DESCRIPTION
• Represents the unique combination of behaviors,
thoughts, and feelings that make up a specific
disorder
• To specify what makes the disorder different
from normal behavior or from other disorders.
• Has to do with why a disorder begins (what
causes it)
DISTAL CAUSE
• A condition that occurs relatively early in life but
may not show its effect may contribute to a
predisposition to develop a disorder.
PROXIMAL CAUSE (OR PRECIPITATING CAUSE)
• A condition that proves too much for a person
and triggers a disorder.

REINFORCING CAUSE

PREVALENCE • A condition that tends to maintain maladaptive

behavior that is already occurring.
• Number of people in the population as a whole
who have the disorder HISTORICAL CONCEPTIONS OF ABNORMAL
BEHAVIORS
INCIDENCE
MODELS
• Number of new cases that occurred during a
given period • SUPERNATURAL MODEL
• BIOLOGICAL MODEL
SEX-RATIO
• PSYCHOLOGICAL MODEL
• Percentage of males and females who have the
THE SUPERNATURAL TRADITION
disorder

COURSE DEVIANT BEHAVIOR has been considered a reflection

of the battle between good and evil
• Patter of development
• Great Persian Empire from 900 to 600 BC, all
THREE TYPES OF COURSE physical and mental disorders were considered
CHRONIC - Tend to last a long time, the work of the devil
sometimes a lifetime

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People turned to magic and sorcery
BIZARRE BEHAVIOR of people with psychological
disorders was seen as the work of the devil and
witches
EXORCISM
• Religious rituals were performed in an effort to
rid the victim of evil spirits
Shaving the pattern of a cross in the hair of the victim’s
head; securing sufferers to a wall near the front of a
church
STRESS AND MELANCHOLY
ENLIGHTENED VIEW
• Insanity was a natural phenomenon caused by
mental or emotional stress – it was curable
DEPRESSION AND ANXIETY
• Were recognized as illnesses, although despair
and lethargy were often identified with the sin of
acedia, or sloth
Treatment: rest, sleep, and a healthy and happy
environment; baths, ointments, and potions.
• Neighbors took turns in caring for them
TREATMENTS FOR POSSESSIONS
• The sufferer is largely responsible for the
disorder
POSSESSION
• Is not always connected with sin but may be
seen as involuntary and the possessed individual
as blameless.
If exorcism fails authorities do steps in making the body
inhabitable by evil spirits
• Confinement, beatings, and forms of torture
MASS HYSTERIA
• Fascinating phenomenon characterized by large
scale outbreaks of bizarre behavior.
SAINT VITUS’ DANCE/ TARANTISM
• Whole groups of people simultaneously run out
in the streets, dance, shout, rave, and jump
around in patterns as if they were at a
particularly wild party late at night
• Possession, insect bites
• Modern term: mass hysteria
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EMOTION CONTAGION
• The experience of an emotion seems to spread
to those around us (mob psychology)
CLINICAL ASSESSMENT AND DIAGNOSIS
ASSESSING CLINICAL DISORDERS
CLINICAL ASSESSMENT
• The systematic evaluation and measurement of
psychological, biological, and social factors in an
individual presenting with a possible
psychological disorder.
DIAGNOSIS
• The process of determining whether the
particular problem afflicting the individual meets
all criteria for a psychological disorder, as set
forth in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders, or DSM-5
ASSESSING PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS: KEY
CONCEPTS
• Concepts of Reliability, Validity, and
Standardization shall be reserved for
Psychological Testing/Assessment
CLINICAL INTERVIEW
• Clinical interview is the core of most clinical
work.
• It gathers information on current and past
behavior, attitudes, and emotions, as well as
a detailed history of the individual’s life in
general and of the presenting problem.
• Mental Status Examination
MENTAL STATUS EXAMINATION (MSE)
• Is the psychological equivalent of a physical
exam that describes the mental state and
behaviors of the person being seen. It
includes both objective observations of the
clinician and subjective descriptions given by
the patient.
WHY DO MSE?
• The MSE provides information for
diagnosis and assessment of disorder and
response to treatment.
• A Mental Status Exam provides a snap shot at
a point in time
• If another provider sees your patient it allows
them to determine if the patients status
has changed without previously seeing the
patient
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MSE COMPONENTS Epidemiological Research

• Appearance • The study of the incidence, distribution, and

• Behavior consequences of a particular problem or set of
• Attitude problems in one or more populations
• Level of Consciousness
• Orientation EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
• Speech and Language
• Mood • Involves the manipulation of an independent
• Affect variable and the observation of its effects
• Thought process
GROUP EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
• Thought content
• Suicidality and Homicidality Clinical Trial
• Insight/Judgment
• Attention Span • An experiment used to determine the
• Memory effectiveness and safety of a treatment or
• Intellectual Functioning treatments
RESEARCH METHODS IN ABNORMAL Placebo Control Groups
PSYCHOLOGY
• Placebo typically refers to inactive medications
EXAMINING ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR: IMPORTANT such as sugar pills. The placebo is given to
CONCEPTS members of the control group to make them
believe they are getting treatment
1. The nature of the problems people report
(answers the question “what”) Double-blind control
2. Causes, or etiology, of abnormal behavior
• Variant of the placebo control group procedure;
(answers the question “why”) not only are the participants in the study “blind,”
3. Treatment Evaluation (answers the question or unaware of what group they are in or what
“how”) treatment they are given (single blind), but so
are the researchers or therapists providing
HYPOTHESIS
treatment (double blind).
• An educated guess or statement to be supported Comparative Treatment Research
by data.
• The researcher gives different treatments to two
INTERNAL VALIDITY
or more comparable groups of people with a
• The extent to which the results of the study can particular disorder and can then assess how or
be attributed to the independent variable. whether each treatment helped the people who
received it.
EXTERNAL VALIDITY
SINGLE CASE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
• The extent to which the results of the study can
be generalized or applied outside the immediate • Involves the systematic study of individuals
study. under a variety of experimental conditions

RESEARCH DESIGN Repeated Measures

• The plan for testing the hypothesis. Affected by • A behavior is measured several times instead of
the question addressed, by the hypothesis, and only once before you change the independent
by practical considerations. variable and once afterward.

TYPES OF RESEARCH METHODS Withdrawal Design

CASE STUDY • A researcher tries to determine whether the

independent variable is responsible for changes
• Investigating intensively one or more individuals in behavior
who display the behavioral and physical patterns
Multiple Baseline
CORRELATIONAL STUDY
• Researcher starts treatment at different times
• Examining statistical relationship between across settings, behaviors, or people.
variables (positive and negative correlation)

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