PSY 084: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
NOTES BY: SAGE NA CUTIE
PSY 037
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Professor: Jay-Ann Estrellanes Badon
CHAPTER 6: Conformity and Obedience
Conformity - A change in behavior or belief as a result of real
or imagined group pressure.
> is the overall term for acting differently due to the
influence of others.
Varieties of Conformity
Acceptance - occurs when you genuinely believe what the
group has persuaded to do
Compliance - is conforming to an expectation or request
without really believing in what you are doing.
Obedience - A type of compliance involving acting in accord
with a direct order or command
Classic Conformity and Obedience Studies
Establishment of Group Norm - Through repeated trials, a
group norm emerged, and individuals adjusted their estimates
to align with the collective perception within the group
Social Comparison - Sherif emphasized the role of social
comparison in this process, as individuals look to others for
guidance in ambiguous situations.
Norm Maintenance - Even when participants were later tested
individually, they tended to maintain group norms they had
adopted during the collective discussions.
Social Contagion - Social contagion refers to the spread of
behaviors, emotions, or ideas within a group through imitation
and influence. It's the phenomenon where individuals adopt
certain attitudes or actions because they observe and are
influenced by the behavior of others. Mood Linkage - Just
being around happy people can help us feel happier, a
phenomenon that Peter Totterdell and his colleagues (1998)
> the chameleon effect or mimicking someone else’s
behavior.
> Mass hysteria - Suggestibility to problems that spreads
throughout a large group of people.
> Mimicry - Unconsciously Echoing Others
Milgram’s Obedience Study
Milgram's Obedience Study explored how people comply
with authority. Participants were instructed to administer
electric shocks to others, unaware the shocks were fake.
Many obeyed authority figures, revealing the powerful
influence of authority on individuals' actions, even when
conflicting with their moral beliefs. The study highlights
social psychology dynamics in obedience.
What Predicts Conformity?
Group Size - group size plays a role in predicting
conformity, which is the tendency to adjust one's behavior or
beliefs to align with the majority. As group size increases,
the likelihood of conformity also tends to rise. Larger groups
create more social pressure to conform, as individuals may
feel a greater need to fit in or fear social rejection.
Unanimity - or the presence of a unanimous opinion within
a group, is another factor influencing conformity in social
psychology. When a group is unanimous in its views or
decisions, individuals are more likely to conform to avoid
standing out or facing dissent.
Cohesion - or the degree of closeness and unity within a
group, is another significant factor in predicting conformity in
social psychology. High group cohesion often leads to
increased conformity, as individuals within a tightly-knit
group may feel a stronger desire to maintain harmony and
avoid disagreement. The sense of belonging and social
acceptance associated with cohesive groups can amplify the
pressure to conform.
Status - Individuals may be more inclined to conform to the
opinions or behaviors of those perceived as having higher
status within the group. This tendency stems from a desire
to gain approval or acceptance from individuals who are
considered influential or authoritative.
Public response - or the visibility of actions in a group,
affects conformity. People are more likely to conform when
they feel they are being observed, as they seek approval
and avoid disapproval from others. The fear of judgment
intensifies the pressure to align with group norms.
Prior commitment - or a person's pre-existing commitment
to a particular position or belief, can influence conformity.
When individuals have publicly committed to a certain
viewpoint or action, they are more likely to conform to that
commitment, even in the face of opposing opinions. This
commitment creates a psychological desire for consistency,
leading individuals to stick to their initial stance to avoid
cognitive dissonance, the discomfort of holding conflicting
beliefs.
2 forms of Social Influence
that Explain why People will Conform to others
Normative Influence - Conformity based on a person's desire
to fulfill others’ expectations,often to gain acceptance
Informational Influence - Conformity occurring when people
accept evidence about reality provided by other people
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NOTES BY: SAGE NA CUTIE
Conformity Varies not only with Situations but also with
Persons.
> researchers have focused on three predictors: personality,
culture, and social roles.
Personality - Individual differences in personality traits, such
as the inclination to be independent or conformist, can
influence how people respond to social influence. For example,
those with a strong need for uniqueness might be less prone to
conformity compared to individuals who value social harmony.
Culture - Cultural factors play a significant role in shaping the
degree of conformity within a society. Some cultures may
emphasize collectivism and conformity to social norms, while
others may prioritize individualism and independence. Cultural
values and norms impact how people navigate social influence.
Social Roles - The roles individuals play in a group or society
can affect their likelihood of conforming. Different roles come
with varying expectations and norms, influencing how people
behave within those roles. For instance, someone in a
leadership role might feel less pressure to conform compared
to someone in a subordinate position.
CHAPTER 7: GROUP INFLUENCE
A group exists when two or more people interact for
more than a few moments, affect one another in some
way, and think of themselves as “us.”
THREE EFFECTS OF OTHERS PRESENCE
Social Facilitation
Social Loafing
Deindividuation
SOCIAL INFLUENCE IN INTERACTING GROUPS
Group Polarization
Groupthink
Minority Influence
SOCIAL FACILITATION
> The tendency of people to perform simple or well-
learned tasks better when others are present.
- The strengthening of dominant (prevalent, likely)
responses in the presence of others.
The Effects of Social Arousal
> Robert Zajonc reconciled apparently conflicting findings by
proposing that arousal
from others’ presence strengthens dominant responses (the
correct responses only on easy or well learned tasks).
Why Are We Aroused in the Presence of Others?
EVALUATION APPREHENSION
> As suggested by Nickolas Cottrell, is the anxiety we feel
when we think others are judging us.
DRIVEN BY DISTRACTION
> A concept by Sanders, Baron, and Moore, explains that
wondering how others are doing or how an audience reacts
distracts us.
SOCIAL FACILITATION
> Usually occurs when people work toward individual
goals and when their efforts, whether winding fishing reels or
solving math problems, can be individually evaluated.
SOCIAL LOAFING
> The tendency for people to exert less effort when they
pool their efforts toward a common goal than when they are
individually accountable.
> Free Riders - People who benefit from the group
but give little in return. “Paradise for parasites.
DEINDIVIDUATION
> Loss of self-awareness and evaluation apprehension;
occurs in group situations that foster responsiveness to
group norms, good or bad.
Group size - People’s attention is focused on the situation, not
on themselves. And because “everyone is doing it,” all can
attribute their behavior to the situation rather than to their own
choices.
Anonymity - The state of being anonymous or unidentified,
where a person's identity is concealed or unknown.
EXPLAINING GROUP POLARIZATION
INFORMATIONAL INFLUENCE
> Group discussion elicits a pooling of ideas, most of
which favor the dominant viewpoint. Active participation in
discussion produces more attitude change than does passive
listening.
NORMATIVE INFLUENCE
> We are most persuaded by people in our “reference
groups” — groups we identify with.
Social comparison - Evaluating one’s opinions and abilities by
comparing oneself with others.
Pluralistic ignorance - A false impression of what most other
people are thinking or feeling, or how they are responding
Experiments initiated by Serge Moscovici in Paris
identified several determinants of minority influence:
consistency, self-confidence, and defection.
• CONSISTENCY
Minority slowness effect: a tendency for people with minority
views to express those views less quickly than do people in the
majority.
PSY 084: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
NOTES BY: SAGE NA CUTIE
• SELF-CONFIDENCE
By being firm and forceful, the minority’s apparent
self-assurance may prompt the majority to reconsider its
position.
• DEFECTIONS FROM THE MAJORITY
When a minority consistently doubts the majority’s wisdom,
majority members become freer to express their own doubts
and may even switch to the minority position.
THE INFLUENCE OF LEADERS
Leadership - The process by which certain group members
motivate and guide the group.
Social leadership - Leadership that builds teamwork,
mediates conflict, and offers support.
Task leadership - Leadership that organizes work, sets
standards, and focuses on goals.
Transformational leadership - Leadership that, enabled by a
leader’s vision and inspiration, exerts significant influence.
CHAPTER 8: PREJUDICE
Prejudice- A preconceived negative judgment of a group and
its individual members.
-Negative attitude.
Stereotype- A belief about the personal attributes of a group of
people. Sometimes overgeneralized, inaccurate, and resistant
to new information. (and sometimes accurate).
-Negative evaluation.
Discrimination - Unjustified negative behavior toward a group
or members.
Prejudice is an attitude with three components
* Affective emotional Component (Feelings)
* Behavioral Component (Inclination to act)
*Cognitive Component (Beliefs or thoughts that make up
the attitude.)
Prejudice: Implicit and Explicit
IMPLICIT COGNITION - An unconscious or automatic
attitudes toward the same target
-What you know without knowing that you know
EXPLICIT COGNITION - A conscious and overt biases that
individuals hold towards certain groups.
-Openly expressing negative attitudes, beliefs, or
Stereotypes about others based on their group members.
RACIAL PREJUDICE AND STEREOTYPE
> Preconceived opinions or attitudes based on someone's
race or ethnicity, often involves negative beliefs to a particular
racial group.
GENDER
PREJUDICE, STEREOTYPE AND DISCRIMINATION
1. Gender Prejudice: Negative attitudes or judgments towards
individuals or groups based on their gender. It involves unfair
treatment or discrimination based
on gender.
2. Gender Stereotype: Simplified beliefs or generalizations
about how people of a particular gender should behave or what
roles they should have. These stereotypes may not accurately
represent the diversity of individuals within a gender group.
3. Gender Discrimination: Treating individuals unfairly or
unequally based on their gender. It involves denying rights,
opportunities, or privileges to individuals solely because of their
gender.
SEXISM: BENEVOLENT AND HOSTILE
• Benevolent sexism involves seemingly positive or
well-intentioned attitudes or behaviors towards individuals
based on their gender. However, it still reinforces traditional
gender roles and stereotypes.
> Benevolent sexism can be harmful because it
reinforces gender inequality and restricts individuals' choices
and opportunities.
• Hostile sexism refers to overtly negative and hostile
attitudes or behaviors towards individuals based on their
gender. It involves beliefs that one gender is inferior or
threatening to the other. This can manifest in various forms,
such as derogatory comments, harassment, or even violence.
> Hostile sexism perpetuates gender-based discrimination
and creates a hostile and unsafe environment for individuals.
LGBTQ PREJUDICE
refers to unfair treatment, bias, or negative attitudes towards
individuals who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual,
transgender, or queer/questioning.
LGBTQ prejudice can take different forms, such as:
1. Homophobia: Fear, hatred, or aversion towards gay or
lesbian individuals.
2. Transphobia: Bias or prejudice against transgender
individuals.
3. Stigmatization: Placing negative stereotypes or
judgments on LGBTQ individuals, leading to exclusion or
bullying.
4. Legal and institutional discrimination: Denying equal
rights or opportunities to LGBTQ individuals in areas like
marriage, employment, or healthcare.
5. Hate crimes: Acts of violence or harassment motivated
by prejudice against LGBTQ individuals.
MOTIVATIONAL SOURCES OF PREJUDICE
> Frustration and Aggression
> Superiority to Others
FRUSTRATION AND AGGRESSION
1.The Scapegoat Theory “displaced Aggression”
> When the cause of our frustration is intimidating or
unknown, we often redirect our hostility
2. The Realistic Group Conflict Theory
> prejudice arises from competition between groups
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for scarce resources.
SUPERIORITY TO OTHERS
1.Social identity theory
> people automatically categorize others, and favor their
ingroup over their outgroup
● ingroup- “Us” inside our group
● outgroup- “Them” outside our group
Socialization - biased attitudes or opinions formed about
individuals or groups based on preconceived notions, often
influenced by cultural, societal, or personal factors during the
process of social learning and interaction
Authoritarian Personality - has an intolerance for weakness,
a punitive attitude, and a submissive respect for their group’s
authorities
Religion and Racial Prejudice - biased attitudes based on
religious beliefs or racial differences, stemming from societal
influences that shape individuals' perspectives within the
broader cultural context.
COGNITIVE SOURCES OF PREJUDICE
outgroup homogeneity effect - Perception of outgroup
members as more similar to one another than are ingroup
members. Thus “they are alike; we are diverse.”
Own-race bias - The tendency for people to more
accurately recognize faces of their own race. (Also called
the cross-race effect or other-race effect.
Distinctive people - your difference from the others
probably made you more noticeable and the object of more
attention.
Vivid case - Our minds also use distinctive cases as a
shortcut to judging groups.
Group Serving Bias - Explaining away outgroup members
positive behaviors; also attributing negative behaviors to
their dispositions (while excusing such behavior by one’s
own group).
Just-world phenomenon - The tendency of people to
believe that the world is just and that people therefore get
what they deserve and deserve what they get.
CONSEQUENCES OF PREJUDICE
SUBTYPING - Accommodating individuals who deviate from
one’s stereotype by thinking of them as “exceptions to the rule.
SUBGROUPING - Accommodating individuals who deviate
from one’s stereotype by forming a new stereotype about this
subset of the group.
CHAPTER 13: CONFLICT AND PEACEMAKING DAFUQ
Conflict - A perceived incompatibility of actions or goals.
Peace - A condition marked by low levels of hostility and
aggression and by mutually beneficial relationships.
Conflicts happens Whenever two or more people, groups, or
nations interact, their perceived needs and goals may conflict
> Social Dilemmas > competition
> Perceived Injustice > Misperception
SOCIAL DILEMMAS
Social trap - A situation in which the conflicting parties, by
each rationally pursuing its self interest, become caught in
mutually destructive behavior.
Example:
> THE PRISONER’S DILEMMA - originated from a story
about two suspects questioned separately by the district
attorney (DA), the lawyer who can bring criminal charges
against suspects (Rapoport, 1960). The DA knows they are
both guilty but has only enough evidence to convict them of
a lesser offense. So the DA creates an incentive for each
one to confess privately
> THE TRAGEDY OF THE COMMONS - The
“commons” is any shared resource, including air, water,
energy sources, and food supplies. The tragedy occurs
when individuals consume more than their share, with the
cost of their doing so dispersed among all, causing the
ultimate collapse — the tragedy — of the commons.
> THE FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION eRROR - The
prisoner’s dilemma and the tragedy of the commons games
have several similar features. First, both games tempt
people to explain their own behavior as due to external
forces (“I had to protect myself against exploitation by my
opponent”) and to explain their partners’ behavior as due to
internal forces (“she was greedy,” “he was untrustworthy”).
Most never realize that their counterparts are viewing them
with the same fundamental attribution error (Gifford & Hine,
1997; Hine & Gifford, 1996).
EVOLVING MOTIVES - Second, motives often change. At first,
people are eager to make some easy money, then to minimize
their losses, and finally to save face and avoid defeat
OUTCOMES NEED NOT SUM TO ZERO - Games in which
outcomes need not sum to zero. With cooperation, both can
win; with competition, both can lose (also called mixed-motive
situations).
RESOLVING SOCIAL DILEMMAS - In real-life situations,
many people approach commons dilemmas with a cooperative
outlook and expect similar cooperation from others, thus
enabling their collective betterment
A. REGULATION
B. SMALL IS BEAUTIFUL
C. COMMUNICATION
D. CHANGING THE PAYOFFS
E. APPEALING TO ALTRUISTIC NORMS
Misperception - Many conflicts contain but a small core of
truly incompatible goals; the bigger problem is the
misperceptions of the other’s motives and goals.
Competition - The win-lose competition had produced intense
conflict, negative images of the outgroup, and strong ingroup
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cohesiveness and pride
Perceived Injustice - Even if someone agrees with the equity
principle’s definition of justice, they might disagree about how
to measure each person’s contributions.
HOW CAN PEACE BE ACHIEVED?
Cooperation - A shared goal that necessitates cooperative
effort; a goal that overrides people’s differences from one
another
Communication Three primary strategies
Bargaining - Seeking an agreement to a conflict through direct
negotiation between parties.
Mediation- An attempt by a neutral third party to resolve a
conflict by facilitating communication and offering suggestions.
> A third-party mediator may offer suggestions that enable
conflicting parties to make concessions and still save face
A. TURNING WIN-LOSE INTO WIN-WIN
B.unraveling misperceptions with controlled communications
Arbitration - Resolution of a conflict by a neutral third party
who studies both sides and imposes a settlement.
> Successful mediation is hindered when, as often
happens, both parties believe they have a two-thirds chance of
winning a final-offer arbitration
Conciliation - In such cases, small conciliatory gestures by
one party may elicit reciprocal conciliatory acts by the other
party. One such conciliatory strategy, graduated and
reciprocated initiatives in tension reduction.
GRIT - aims to reverse the “conflict spiral” by triggering
reciprocal de-escalation. To do so, it draws upon
social-psychological concepts, such as the norm of reciprocity
and the attribution of motives.
CHAPTER 10: ATTRACTION AND INTIMACY EW
Ostracism - ostracism refers to the act of excluding or ignoring
someone, deliberately making them feel isolated or unwelcome
within a group. This can be done in various ways, from subtle
avoidance to blatant rejection.
Cyberostracism - These negative consequences can even
occur from seemingly minor experiences of rejection, such as
being ignored on social media.
Proximity - People who live or work close together are more
likely to become friends
Interaction - Frequent interaction increases liking and
familiarity.
Physical attractiveness - refers to the degree to which a
person's physical features are considered aesthetically
pleasing or beautiful.
Attribution - refers to the process of assigning causes to other
people's behavior. We try to understand why people do what
they do, and our attributions can influence our feelings and
behavior towards them.
Ingratiation - is a specific type of behavior where someone
attempts to gain favor or approval from another person through
flattery, obsequiousness, or other forms of excessive kindness.
The Reward Theory of Attraction - We are attracted to those
we find rewarding and gratifying to be with.
Love - is a complex emotion that can be broken down into
three components: passion, intimacy, and commitment.
> Passionate love - is the intense feeling of excitement and
obsession that we often experience at the beginning of a new
relationship.
> Companionate love - is the deep affection and attachment
that we feel for our partner after the initial passion has faded.
Attachment Styles; There are three main attachment
styles: secure, avoidant, and anxious.
Secure attachment - is characterized by trust and comfort
in close relationships.
Avoidant attachment - is characterized by a fear of intimacy
and a tendency to withdraw from close relationships.
Anxious attachment - is characterized by a need for
approval and a fear of abandonment.
EQUITY - is the idea that partners in a relationship should
contribute equally. This can be in terms of emotional support,
practical tasks, or financial resources. When there is equity in a
relationship, both partners feel like they are getting out of the
relationship as much as they are putting in.
> Long Term Equity
> Perceived Equity and Satisfaction
Self-disclosure - builds meaningful connections by sharing
personal thoughts and feelings, fostering belonging and
vulnerability.
> Disclosure Reciprocity
Divorce - is the legal dissolution of a marriage, ending the
marital relationship between spouses.
Factors predicting marital dissolution:
Individualistic vs collectivistic cultures
Age at marriage
Length of relationship before marriage
Education and income level
Religious commitment
Similarity in age, faith, and education
Detachment process
Preoccupation: Dwelling on the lost partner
Sadness: Experiencing deep emotional pain
Detachment: Gradually letting go of the old relationship
Renewal: Focusing on the future and rediscovering oneself
CHAPTER 12: HELPING NG INAMO
SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY- Human relationships are
evaluated based on costs and rewards, guiding interactions
like a social economy.
INCREASING POSITIVE EMOTION Rewards that motivate
helping may be:
> External - These rewards often come from the external
environment or the other party in the interaction.
PSY 084: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
NOTES BY: SAGE NA CUTIE
> Internal - Psychological or emotional outcomes that influence behavior, particularly in children. However, coercing
individuals experience internally as a result of their social good deeds can reduce intrinsic motivation. Providing enough
interactions. justification for individuals to decide to help, without excessive
coercion, fosters altruistic motivation. Learning about altruism
Do-good/feel-good effect - Increasing positive emotions. can also sensitize individuals to perceive and respond to
others' needs.
GUILT (Feel bad, do good) - Guilt leads to much good. By
motivating people to confess, apologize, help, and avoid
repeated harm, guilt boosts sensitivity and sustains close
relationships. However, there are exceptions.

THE SOCIAL-RESPONSIBILITY NORM - Decrees that people

should help those who need help, without regard to future
exchanges

EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY - Life's essence is gene

survival, driving adaptive behaviors. Cooperation, essential for
evolutionary success, is facilitated by mechanisms like kin
selection, reciprocity, and group selection.
> KIN SELECTION – “If you carry my genes, I’ll favor
you” Evolution has selected altruism toward one’s close
relatives to enhance the survival of mutually shared genes.
The kin selection principle implies that nature (as well as
culture) programs us to care about close relatives
> RECIPROCITY – “We scratch each other’s back”
Genetic self-interest also predicts reciprocity. An organism
helps another, biologist Robert Trivers argued, because it
expects help in return (Binham, 1980). The giver expects later
to be the getter. Failure to reciprocate gets punished. People
despise the cheat, the turncoat, and the traitor
> GROUP SELECTION – “Back-scratching groups to
survive” Groups of mutually supportive altruists outlast groups
of non altruists (Krebs, 1998; McAndrew, 2002; Wilson, 2015).

Genuine empathy-based altruism - When empathetically

aroused, many individuals are motivated to assist others in
need or distress, even anonymously or when their own mood
remains unaffected.
Bystander effect - The finding that a person is less likely to
provide help when there are other bystanders.

Reverse Inhibiting Factors - Ambiguity in emergencies can

hinder helping. Clarifying the situation, making personal
appeals, and increasing feelings of responsibility can
encourage assistance.
Teach Altruism - Television portrayals of prosocial models