Chronological Table

Early Italy B.C.

B.C. L. Tarquinius Priscus. Forum drained. 616-579
c. 5000-c. 2000 Neolithic Age. Servius Tullius. 'Servian' organisation begun. 578-535
c. 2000-1800 Chalcolithic Age. Treaty with Latins. Temple of Diana on
1800-c. 1000/800 Bronze Age. Aventine.
c. 1800 Apennine culture begins. Etruscans and Carthaginians defeat Phocaeans c. 535
c. 1500 Apennine culture fully developed. off Alalia.
c. 1500 Terremare culture begins. L. Tarquinius Superbus. Capitoline temple. 534-510
c. 1400 Mycenaean traders in southern Italy. Treaty with Gabii. Roman territory extended
c. 1250 Mycenaean pottery in Etruria (Luni). to some 350 square miles.
c. 1200/1150 Late Bronze Age. Apennine and Terremare Etruscans defeated at Cumae, whereAristodemus 524
cultures draw closer. gains control.
c. 1000 (?), 900 (?), 800 (?) Iron Age begins.
c. 750 Iron Age huts on Palatine at Rome.
c. 750 Greek colonists at Ischia and Cumae.
c. 750-700 Advanced Villanovan or early Etruscan culture? Roman Republic
c. 700 'Orientalising' phase in Italy begins.
c. 700 Etruscan civilisation begins to flourish. Fall of Tarquinius and monarchy: establish- 509
c. 650 Etruscans begin to expand into Campania. ment of two annual magistrates (consuls).
c. 500 Etruscan expansion into northern Italy. Dedication of the Capitoline temple. Treaty
between Rome and Carthage.
War with Porsenna (who captures Rome?). 508
Early Rome Latins and Aristodemus of Cumae defeat 506
Porsenna's son at Aricia.
c. 800/750 Roma Quadrata. Iron Age settlement on Palatine. Migration of the Claudii to Rome. 504
c. 750-670 Septimontium: union of settlers of Palatine, First dictator appointed. 501
Cermalus, Velia, Fagutal, Cispius, Oppius and Battle of Lake Regillus between Rome and Latin 496
Caelius. League. Cult of Liber, Libera and Ceres
7th century City of the Four Regions: addition of Quirinal, introduced.
Viminal and part of Forum. Latin colony at Signia. 495
c. 625/600 Last Fo_rum burials. Etruscan influences begin First secession: plebeians assert their rights. 494
to appear at Rome. Latin colony at Velitrae.
6th century 'Servian' city, including Capitol and Esquiline. Treaty of Spurius Cassius with the Latins. 493
Corn imported from Cumae. Latin colony at 492
Norba.
Traditional Dates Raid of Coriolanus. 491
Spurius Cassius proposes agrarian law. Treaty 486
753-716 Romulus. of Rome with Hernici. Wars with Aequi and
715-673 Numa Pompilius. Cult of Vesta, etc., established. Vol sci: intermittently for next fifty years.
674-642 Tullus Hostilius. Destruction of Alba Longa. War with Veii. 482-474
c. 655 Demaratus migrates from Corinth to Etruria. Battle of the Cremera. 479
642-617 Ancus Marcius. Extension of Rome's power to Etruscans defeated off Cumae by Hiero of 474
coast. Syracuse.

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 A HISTORY OF ROME
B.C. B.C.
4 71 Lex Pub/ilia Voleronis: Concilium Plebis and First plebeian censor. Tarquinii and Falerii 351
tribunes recognised. reduced: forty years' truce.
469? Tribunes raised to ten. Gallic raid checked. 349 (or 346)
458? Minucius defeated by Aequi at Mt. Algidus; Rome's treaty with Carthage renewed. 348
Roman army rescued by Cincinnatus. Defeat of Antium and Satricum. 346
456 Lex Ieilia de Avenrino publicando. Falerii receives permanent alliance. Latin attack 343
451-450 The decemvirates. Publication of the Twelve on Paeligni.
Tables oflaw. First Samnite War. 343-341
449 Secession of the plebs. Valerian-Horatian laws: Mutiny in army and secession. Leges Genuciae. 342
rights of tribunes defined. Latin revolt. 340-338
44 7 Quaestors elected by the people. Comitia Tributa Leges Publiliae. 339
Populi perhaps established. Latin League dissolved. Many cities granted full 338
44 5 Lex Canuleia. Military tribunes with consular or half Roman citizenship. Roman colony at
power replace consulship. Antium (and Ostia?). Land confiscated from
444 Treaty with Ardea. Velitrae.
443 Censorship established. First plebeian praetor. 337
442 Latin colony at Ardea? Latin colony at Cales. 334
439 Minucius sees to corn-supply of Rome. Two new tribes created in Latium (total 332
433 Temple of Apollo. twenty-nine). Rome's treaty with Tarentum
431 Decisive defeat of Aequi on Mt Algidus. (or 303).
428-425 Rome wins Fidenae from Veii. Rome's thirty years' truce with the Senones. 332-331
421 Quaestorships increased to four: opened to Privernum captured and granted half-citizenship. 329
plebeians. Roman colony at Tarracina (Anxur).
418 Latin colony at Labici. Latin colony at Fregellae. 328
409 Three quaestors plebeians. Second Samnite War. 328-302
406 Anxur reduced. First use of prorogatio imperii. Lex Poetilia con-
404 Velitrae receives garrison. cerning debt (or 313). Roman alliance with
399 Lectisternium decreed. Neapolis, Nuceria and the Apulians. 326
396 Military pay introduced. Fall of Veii after long Roman defeat at Caudine Forks. Peace. Rome 321
(ten years'?) siege. Peace with Volsci. surrenders Fregellae.
393 Latin colony at Circeii. Two tribes created in northern Campania (total 318
390? Latin colony at Sutrium. thirty-one). Alliance with Teanum (Apuli)
390 Battle of Allia. Gauls sack Rome (387 according and Canusium. Roman prefects sent to Capua
to Polybius). andCumae.
38 8 Aequi defeated at Bola. Second Samnite War renewed. 316
38 7 Four rustic tribes created on Ager Veiens (total Luceria captured. Samnite victory at Lautulae. 315
now twenty-five). Revolt ofCapua to Samnites.
386-5 Latins, Volsci and Hernici defeated. Roman victory at Tarracina. Capua reduced. 314
385 Latin colony at Satricum. Latin colony at Luceria.
383? Latin colony at N epete. Fregellae, Sora, etc., recaptured. Latin colonies 313 (or 312)
382 Latin colony at Setia. at Suessa Aurunca, Pontia, Saticula and
381 Tusculum reduced. Interamna.
378 'Servian' Wall begun. Censorship of Appius Claudius. Via Appia and 312
377 Latins defeated after their capture of Satricum. Aqua Appia started.
Licinius and Sextius begin their agitation. Duoviri navales appointed. 311
367 Laws of Licinius and Sextius carried. Consulship Roman advance into Etruria. Treaties with 310
restored. Creation of curule aedileship. Cortona, Perusia and Arretium.
366 First plebeian consul. Creation of praetorship. Alliance with Tarquinii renewed for forty years. 308
Curule aedileship to alternate every year Alliance with Camerinum.
between patricians and plebeians. Revolt ofHernici. 307
361 Roman capture of Ferentinum. Anagnia stormed: granted half-citizenship. 306
3 59 Tarquinii revolts. 'Philinus' treaty with Carthage.
3 58 Hernici readmitted to alliance. Renewal of Repeal of reform of Appius Claudius. Flavius 304
treaty with Latins. Two new tribes created on publishes the legis actiones. Aequi defeated.
land from Antium (total twenty-seven). Samnite War ended. Alliance with Marsi,
357 Government tax on manumission. Maximum Paeligni, Marrucini and Frentani.
rate of interest fixed. Falerii revolts. Gallic Latin colonies at Alba Fucens and Sora. Half- 303
raid on Latium. citizenship for Arpinum. Temple of Salus at
356 First plebeian dictator. Rome.
354 Alliance of Rome and Samnites. Alliance with Vestini. 302
353 Caere defeated: 100 years' truce; grant of Lex Valeria de provocatione. Lex Ogulnia, opening 300
half-citizenship (or later). Priestly Colleges to plebeians.
352 Quinqueviri mensarii appointed (five men to help Two new tribes created, Aniensis and Terentina 299
debtors in trouble). (total thirty-three). Latin colony at N amia.

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 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE
B.C. B.C.
298 Latin colony at Carseoli. Alliance with Picentes. Cape Hermaeum, but Roman fleet wrecked
Gallic raid on Roman territory. off Pachynus.
298--290 Third Samnite War. Romans capture Panormus. 254
298 Rome captures Bovianum Vetus and Aufidena. Roman fleet wrecked off Palinurus. 253
296 Samnite raid on Ager Falernus. Roman colonies Victory at Panormus. Siege ofLilybaeum. 250
at Mintumae and Sinuessa. Claudius's naval defeat at Drepana. Roman 249
295 Roman victory over Samnites, Gauls and transport fleet wrecked.
Umbrians at Sentinum. Hamilcar Barca starts Carthaginian offensive in 247
294 Forty years' treaty with Volsinii, Perusia, western Sicily.
Arretium. Samnite victory near Luceria. Latin colony at Brundisium. 244
293 Cult of Aesculapius introduced. Lex Maenia ( ?). Roman fleet built from voluntary loans. 243
Roman victory over Samnites at Aquilona. Institution of praetor peregrinus. 242
292 Falerii reduced. Naval victory off Aegates Insulae. Peace. Roman 241
291 Venusia stormed; Latin colony there. occupation of Sicily. Falerii reduced. Latin
290 Peace with Samnites. Sabines granted half- colony at Spoletium. Two tribes created in
citizenship. Picenum (total thirty-five). 241(?) reform of
289 Mint and triumviri monetales established at Rome. the Comitia Centuriata.
Latin colony at Hadria. Revolt of the mercenaries against Carthage. 241-238
287 Lex Hortensia, giving plebiscita the force of law. Roman seizure of Sardinia: occupation and 238-225
284 Revolt of Vulci, Volsinii, etc. Senones ejected reduction of Sardinia and Corsica.
from Ager Gallicus. Roman colony at Sena. Intermittent campaigns against the Ligllrians. 238--230
283 Boii defeated at Lake Vadimo. Hamilcar goes to Spain. 237
282 Roman garrisons sent to Thurii, Rhegium and First play of Naevius. Gallic raids in northern 236
Locri. Roman fleet attacked by Tarentines. Italy.
281 Roman embassy to Tarentum. Temple of Janus closed. c. 235 the quadrigatus 235-234
280 Alliance with Vulci, Tarquinii and other issued.
Etruscan cities. Distribution of Ager Gallicus carried by 232
28~275 War with Pyrrhus. Flaminius.
280 Pyrrhus lands in Italy and defeats Romans at Roman embassy to Hamilcar in Spain. 231
Heraclea. Negotiations. Hasdrubal succeeds Hamilcar in Spain. 230
279 Battle of Asculum. First Illyrian War. Roman influence established 229-228
278 Rome's treaty with Carthage. Pyrrhus leaves on Illyrian coast.
Italy. Roman envoys at Athens and Corinth. 228
275 Pyrrhus, on return, defeated near Malventum; Praetorships raised to four. Sicily and Sardinia 227
he leaves Italy. governed by praetors.
273 Latin colonies at Paestum and Cosa. Caere Ebro treaty between Rome and Hasdrubal. 226
mulcted of some territory. Roman amicitia Invading Gauls defeated at Telamon. 225
with Egypt. Flaminius defeats Insubres. 223
272 Livius Andronicus to Rome. Anio Vetus aque- Battle at Clastidium; surrender of Insubres. 222
duct. Alliance with Velia, Heraclea, Thurii, North-eastern frontier secured to Julian Alps. 221-220
Metapontum. Surrender of Tarentum. Hannibal succeeds Hasdrubal. Saguntine appeal 221
270 Capture ofRhegium. to Rome.
269 First silver coinage minted at Rome. Revolt of Censorship of Flaminius; construction of Via 220
Picentes. Flaminia.
268 Picentes reduced: granted half-citizenship. Second Illyrian War; Demetrius defeated. 219
Sabines receive full citizenship. Latin colonies Hannibal besieges and captures (November)
at Beneventum and Ariminum. Saguntum.
267 War with Sallentini. Capture ofBrundisium. Second Punic War. 218-201
266 Apulia and Messapia reduced to alliance. Lex Claudia. Latin colonies at Placentia and 218
264-241 First Punic War. Cremona. Hannibal arrives in northern Italy.
264 First gladiatorial show at Rome. Latin colony at Battles ofTicinus and Trebia.
Firmum. Capture of Volsinii. Roman alliance Roman defeat at Lake Trasimene. Naval victory 217
with Mamertines. Roman army sent to Sicily. off the Ebro.
263 Latin colony at Aesernia. Hiero becomes ally of Roman defeat at Cannae. Revolts in central 216
Rome. Italy, including Capua.
262 Capture of Agrigentum. Tributum doubled. Hannibal in southern Italy. 215
261-260 Romans build fleet. Alliance of Carthage with Philip and
260 Naval victory off Mylae. Duilius celebrates Syracuse after death of Hiero. Hasdrubal
Rome's first naval triumph. defeated at Dertosa.
259 Roman occupation of Corsica. First Macedonian War. 214-205
257 Naval victory offTyndaris. Laevinus in Illyria. 214
256 Naval victory off Ecnomus. Regulus lands in Hannibal occupies Tarentum, except the citadel. 213
Africa. Roman siege of Syracuse.
255 Defeat of Regulus's army. Naval victory off Siege of Capua. Ludi Apollinares introduced. 212

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 A HISTORY OF ROME
B.C. B.C.
212/211 Introduction of the denarius. Roman alliance Placentia and Cremona resettled. The Scipios in 190
with Aetolia. Greece. Antiochus's fleet defeated.
211 Hannibal's march on Rome. Fall of Capua and Antiochus defeated at Magnesia. 190 or 189
Syracuse. Defeat of the Scipios in Spain. Latin colony at Bononia. Campanians enrolled 189
210 Twelve Latin colonies refuse contingents. Fall of as citizens. Fall of Ambracia. Peace with
Agrigentum. Scipio lands in Spain. Aetolia. Manlius raids Galatia.
209 Recapture of Tarentum. Capture of New Full citizenship granted to Arpinum, Formiae 188
Carthage. and Fundi. Treaty of Apamea. Settlement of
208 Death of Marcellus. Battle ofBaecula. Asia.
207 Hasdrubal defeated at Metaurus. Rome liquidates war-debt. Latins sent home from 187
206 Battle of Ilipa; final reduction of Spain. Aetolians Rome. Political attacks on Scipio. Via
make peace with Philip. Aemilia and Via Flaminia.
205 Scipio in Sicily. Peace ofPhoenice. Senatus consultum de Bacchanalibus. Ligurians 186
204 Ennius brought to Rome. Cult-stone of Mother defeat Philippus.
Goddess brought from Asia Minor. Scipio Cato censor. Basilica Porcia. Withdrawal of 184
lands in Africa. Scipio to Liternum. Death of Plautus. Roman
203 Scipio defeats Syphax and win!! battle of Great colonies at Potentia and Pisaurum. Philip
Plains. Armistice made and broken. Hannibal sends Demetrius to Rome.
recalled to Carthage. Mago defeated in Gaul. Death of Scipio. 18./3
203-202 Pact between Philip and Antioch us. Roman colonies at Parma, Mutina and Saturnia. 183
202 Scipio's victory at Zama. Aggressions of Philip Death of Hannibal. 183/2
and Antiochus. Aetolian appeal to Rome Lex Baebia. Lex Orchia (sumptuary). Latin colony 181
rejected. at Aquileia. Roman colony at Graviscae.
201 Peace with Carthage, which becomes a client Ingauni defeated. Revolt in Corsica and
state. Masinissa king of Greater Numidia. Sardinia. End of Achaeo-Spartan quarrel.
Appeal of Attalus and Rhodes to Rome First Celtiberian War. 181-179
against Philip. Lex Villia Anna/is. Latin colony at Luca. Apuani 180
200-196 Second Macedonian War. defeated. Foundation of Gracchuris in Spain.
200 War declared on Philip. Roman army sent to Birth of Lucilius.
Greece. Insubres sack Placentia. Basilica Aemilia begun. Accession of Perseus. 179
199 Lex Porcia. Death of Naevius. Aetolians join Expedition against the Istri. 178
Rome. Latins sent home from Rome. Roman colony at 177
198 Flamininus's victory at the Aous. Achaeans join Luna. Annexation of I stria.
Rome. Sardinia reduced. 177-176
197 Praetorships raised to six. Spain organised as Latins sent home. Two Epicurean philosophers 173
two provinces. Cethegus defeats the Insubres. expelled. Envoys sent to arbitrate between
Defeat of Philip at Cynoscephalae. Peace Masinissa and Carthage.
between Philip and Rome (winter). Revolt of Two plebeian consuls in office for first time. 172
Turdetani in Spain. Antiochus occupies Third Macedonian War. 172-167
Ephesus. Temporary court de repetundis. Latin colony at 171
196 Final defeat of Insubres by Marcellus. Flami- C arteia in Spain.
ninus's proclamation at Corinth. Smyrna Lex Voconia. Freedmen confined to one urban 169
appeals to Senate. Council with Antiochus at tribe. Quarrel between Senate and Equites.
Lysimachia. Hannibal suffete at Carthage. Defeat of Pereus at Pydna. Antiochus checked. 168
195 Lex Porcia. Repeal of Lex Oppia. Hannibal Delos declared a free port. Foundation of
exiled and joins Antiochus. Masinissa starts Cordoba in Spain (or 151).
raids on Carthaginian territory. Cato in Tributum discontinued. Perseus's library brought 167
Spain. War against Nabis. to Rome. Epirus plundered. Macedon divided
194 Roman colonies at Volturnum, Liternum, into four republics, Illyricum into three pro-
Puteoli, Salernum, Sipontum, Tempsa, tectorates. 1000 Achaeans deported to Rome.
Croton and Buxentum. Lusitani defeated: Production of Terence's Comedies. 166-159
war drags on intermittently. Roman evacua- Final reduction of Corsica. 163
tion of Greece. Lex Fannia (sumptuary). Expulsion of Greek 161
193 Latin colony at Thurii Copia. philosophers. Treaty with Jews.
192 Latin colony at Vibo Valentia. The Apuani Law against bribery. 159
checked. War declared on Antiochus (Octo- Roman campaigns in Dalmatia and Pannonia. 157-155
ber), who lands in Greece. Carneades and others lecture in Rome. 155
192-189 War with Antiochus. Oxybian Ligures defeated. 154
191 Lex Acilia, concerning the calendar. Boii Lusitanian War. 154-138
defeated by Scipio Nasica. Antiochus de- Second Celtiberian War. 153-151
feated at Thermopylae; withdraws to Asia Consuls enter office on Kalends of January. 153
Minor. War in Aetolia. Antiochus's fleet Carthage declares war on Masinissa. 151
defeated off Corycus. Rome rejects offer by Lex Aelia Fufia. Lex Aebutia, establishing a
Carthage to repay whole of indemnity. formulary system of legal procedure. c. 150

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 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE
B.C.
150 Return of Achaean exiles to Greece.
149-146 Third Punic War.
149 Permanent court de repetundis (Lex Calpurnia).
Publication of Cato's Origines. Siege of
Carthage begun. Rising of Andriscus in
Macedon.
148 Via Postumia.
14 7 Viriathus successful. Scipio Aemilianus in com-
mand at Carthage. Macedonia becomes a
Roman province.
146 Destruction of Carthage. Africa becomes a
province. War between Rome and Achaeans.
Sack of Corinth.
c. 145 Laelius's attempted agrarian reform.
144 Marcian aqueduct.
143-133 Third Celtiberian, or Numantine, War.
142 Censorship of Scipio Aemilianus. Stone bridge
over the Tiber.
13 9 Lex Gabinia: ballot for elections. Death of
Viriathus.
137 Lex Cassia: ballot in law-courts. D. Brutus
campaigns against the Callaici. Defeat and
surrender of Mancinus in Spain.
135-132 Slave war in Sicily.
133 Tribunate of Tiberius Gracchus: land-law.
Tribune Octavius deposed. Pergamum be-
queathed to Rome by Atallus III. Gracchus
killed. Scipio Aemilianus sacks Numantia and
settles Spain.
132 Quaestio to punish Gracchans. Land-commission
working. Sicily reorganised by Lex Rupilia.
Revolt of Aristonicus in Asia.
131 Lex Papiria: ballot for legislation.
130 Aristonicus defeated.
129 Death of Scipio Aemilianus. Province of Asia
organised.
126 Law of tribune Pennus de peregrinis. Unrest in
Sardinia.
125 Consul Fulvius Flaccus proposes to enfranchise
the Latins. Revolt of Fregellae.
124 Colony at Fabrateria for Fregellans. War against
Arverni and Allobroges in Gaul.
123 First tribunate of Gaius Gracchus, who proposes
many laws; re-elected tribune for 122. Lex
Rubria (?122) establishes Junonia on site of
Carthage. Castellum at Aquae Sextiae.
122 Further legislation of C. Gracchus. Opposition of
Livius Drusus. Balearic Islands subdued:
colonies at Palma and Pollentia.
121 First use of senatus consultum ultimum. Civil
disorder: Gracchus killed; his followers
executed by Opimius. Lex agraria. Defeat of
Arverni and Allobroges. Building of Via
Domitia.
120 Trial and acquittal of Opimius.
119 Marius, tribune, carries legislation. Abolition of
Gracchan land commission. Lex agraria.
118 Colony at Narbo Martius in southern Gaul.
Death of Micipsa: Adherbal, Hiempsal and
Jugurtha joint rulers of Numidia.
117 Death of Hiempsal.
116 Jugurtha strengthens his position; senatorial
commission to Numidia.
115 Aemilius Scaurus consul.
B.C.
Marius in Spain. 114
Cn. Carbo defeated at Noreia by Cimbri. 113
Jugurtha sacks Cirta. War declared on Jugurtha. 112
Lex agraria (Lex Thoria?). Temporary agreement 111
with Jugurtha.
Mamilian inquiry. War in Africa: surrender of 110
Aulus Albin us.
Metellus gains some successes against Jugurtha. 109
Marius, elected consul, enlists proletarii and 107
succeeds Metellus: takes Capsa. Cassius
defeated by Tigurini in Gaul.
Birth of Cicero and of Pompey. Caepio's lex 106
iudiciaria. Marius penetrates western
Numidia. Bocchus of Mauretania surrenders
Jugurtha to Sulla.
Cimbri and Teutones destroy Roman armies at 105
Arausio.
Judiciary law of Servilius Glaucia. Marius, 104
consul II, reorganises Roman army. Lex
Domitia de sacerdotiis. Second Sicilian Slave
War.
Saturninus tribune: lex frumentaria, lex de 103
maiestate, land-allotments for Marius's
veterans. Marius, consul III, trains army in
Gaul.
Marius, consul IV, defeats Teutones near Aquae 102
Sextiae. M. Antonius sent to Cilicia to deal
with pirates.
Marius, consul V, and Catulus defeat Cimbri 101
near Vercellae.
Marius, consul VI. Saturninus's legislation. 100
Marius's co-operation with Saturninus and
Glaucia ends: rioting in Rome. Senatus con-
sultum ultimum. Marius restores order; deaths
of Saturninus and Glaucia. Birth of Julius
Caesar. Colony at Eporedia. Second Sicilian
Slave War ended.
Marius leaves Rome for Asia. Lex Caecilia Didia. 98
Revolt in Lusitania.
Sulla (praetor 97) ordered to install Ariobarzanes 96
on throne of Cappadocia. Ptolemy Apion dies:
bequeaths Cyrene to Rome.
Lex Licinia Mucia: expulsion order. Mithridates 95
ordered out of Paphlagonia and Cappadocia
by Rome. Tigranes becomes king of Armenia.
Death ofNicomedes III ofBithynia. 94
Condemnation of Rutilius Rufus. Censors sup- 92
press Latin rhetores.
Tribunate of M. Livius Drusus; his assassination. 91
Outbreak of Social War.
Roman setbacks in Social War. Lex Julia. 90
Victories of Strabo and Sulla. Lex Plautia 89
Papiria. Lex Pompeia.
Tribunate of Sulpicius Rufus. Proposal to 88
transfer command in Asia from Sulla to
Marius. Sulla siezes Rome, repeals Sulpicius's
legislation and carries some legislation. Marius
escapes. Social War confined to Samnites, who
gradually yield. Mithridates overruns Asia
Minor.
Cinna and Marius in control of Rome; massacre 87
of Sulla's supporters. Sulla lands in Greece;
siege of Athens. Cinna consul 87-84.
Marius, consul VII, dies. Flaccus and Fimbria 86
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 A HISTORY OF ROME
B.C.
sent to Asia. Sulla takes Athens and defeats
Mithridates's armies at Chaeronea and
Orchomenus.
85 Treaty of Dardanus with Mithridates. Settle-
ment of Asia.
84 New citizens distributed throughout the thirty-
five tribes. Cinna killed; Carbo remains sole
consul.
83 Sulla lands in Italy; supported by Pompey.
Murena begins a Second Mithridatic War.
82 Civil war in Italy, in which Sulla is victorious;
proscnpuons. Sertorius leaves for Spain.
Pompey crushes Sulla's opponents in Sicily.
Sulla orders Murena to stop fighting.
81 Sulla dictator. His constitutional settlement.
Reforms in criminal law. Pompey defeats
Marins in Africa. Sertorius driven out of
Spain.
80 Sertorius again lands in Spain. c. 80 Cicero's
pro Sex. Roscio Amerino.
79 Sulla resigns dictatorship. Sertorius defeats
Metellus Pius.
78 Death of Sulla. Lepidus challenges Sulla's con-
stitution. P. Servilius starts three years'
campaign against pirates in Lycia, etc.
77 Defeat and death of Lepidus. Pompey appointed
against Sertorius.
76 Agitation to restore power to tribunes. Sertorius
successful against Metellus and Pompey.
75 Lex Aurelia opens other offices to tribunes.
Cicero quaestor in Sicily.
75/74 Death of Nicomedes, who bequeaths Bithynia to
Rome.
74 Cyrene made a Roman province. Reinforcements
sent to Spain. M. Antonius given command
against the pirates. Mithridates invades
Bithynia: Lucullus sent against him.
73 Lex Terentia Cassia. Rising of Spartacus at
Capua. Lucullus relieves Cyzicus and defeats
Mithridates.
72 Successes of Spartacus. Assassination of Ser-
torius; his successor, Perperna, defeated by
Pompey, who settles Spain. Lucullus cam-
paigns against Mithridates in Pontus. M.
Lucullus defeats Thracian tribes. M. Antonius
defeated by pirates of Crete.
71 Crassus defeats Spartacus. Pompey returns from
Spain. Lucullus defeats Mithridates, who
flees to Tigranes.
70 First consulship of Pompey and Crassus. Restora-
tion of tribunician powers; reorganisation
of iudicia publica. Trial of Verres. Birth of
Virgil.
69 Lucullus invades Armenia and captures
Tigranocerta.
68 Mithridates returns to Pontus. Discontent in
Lucullus's army.
67 Lex Gabinia gives command to Pompey against
pirates whom he clears from whole
Mediterranean.
66 Lex Manilia gives Pompey command against
Mithridates, who is finally defeated. First
Catilinarian 'conspiracy'. Cicero praetor; his
de imperio Cn. Pompei.
564
B.C.
Crassus censor. Pompey campaigns in 65
Caucasus. Birth of Horace.
Pompey in Syria; end of Seleucid monarchy.
Cicero consul. Lex agraria of Rullus. Caesar
elected Pontifex Maximus. Birth of Octavian
(Augustus). Conspiracy of Catiline. Pompey in
Jerusalem. Death of Mithridates.
Defeat and death of Catiline. Clodius profanes 62
Bona Dea festival. Pompey settles East
(including making Syria a province). Returns
to Italy and disbands his army (December.)
Pompey's acta opposed by Senate; his triumph. 61
Trial of Clodius. Caesar governor of Further
Spain. Revolt of Allobroges. Aedui appeal to
Rome.
Caesar returns from Spain; agreement with 60
Pompey and Crassus: the First Triumvirate.
Caesar consul: his legislation. Pompey marries 59
Julia. Lex Vatinia gives Caesar Cisalpine Gaul
and Illyricum; Senate adds Transalpine Gaul.
Senate recognises Ptolemy Auletes as king of
Egypt.
Tribunate of Clodius; corn-law. Cicero exiled; 58
Cato sent to Cyprus, which is annexed.
Caesar defeats Helvetii and Ariovistus.
Ptolemy driven out of Alexandria.
Clodius and Milo riot in Rome. Return of 57
Cicero. Pompey sees to food-supply. Caesar
defeats Belgae and N ervii.
Unrest among triumvirs. Cicero attacks 56
Caesar's land-law. Conference at Luca (April).
Cato returns from Cyprus. Caesar campaigns
against Veneti and Morini.
Second consulship of Pompey and Crassus. The 55
three triumvirs receive fresh commands.
Pompey dedicates first stone theatre in Rome.
Caesar massacres Usipetes and Tencteri;
bridges the Rhine; invades Britain.
Pompey, near Rome, governs Spain through 54
legates. Death of Julia. Rioting in Rome.
Caesar's second expedition to Britain; revolt
in north-eastern Gaul. Crassus prepares for
Parthian campaign. Gabinius restores Ptolemy
to his throne. c. 54 death of Catullus.
Rioting in Rome; no consuls elected before 53
July. Crassus defeated and killed by
Parthians at Carrhae. Unrest in Gaul pacified
by Caesar.
Milo kills Clodius. Pompey sole consul until 52
August. Trial of Milo. Leges Pompeiae. Law of
the Ten Tribunes. Revolt of Vercingetorix in
Gaul; siege of Alesia; surrender of
Vercingetorix.
Optimate attacks on Caesar, who gains support 51
of Curio. Revolt of Bellovaci; siege of U xello-
dunum. Parthian invasion of Syria. Cicero
sent to Cilicia. Death of Ptolemy Auletes;
Ptolemy XII and Cleopatra joint rulers of
Egypt.
Curio vetoes decision about a successor to 50
Caesar. Pompey ill in summer. Curio's pro-
posal for Pompey and Caesar to disarm is
vetoed. Marcellus asks Pompey to save the
state. Tribunes leave Rome. Caesar, after
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE
B.C.
orgamsmg Gaul, crosses Rubicon into Italy:
beginning of civil war.
49 Pompey leaves for Greece. Caesar, dictator I for
eleven days, passes emergency legislation,
goes to Spain and defeats Pompeians at Ilerda.
Curio defeated and killed in Africa.
48 Caesar consul II. Disturbances in Italy; Milo
killed. Caesar crosses to Greece. Campaign of
Dyrrhachium. Pompey defeated at Pharsalus;
killed in Egypt. Alexandrine War. Cleopatra
queen of Egypt.
47 Caesar dictator II (in absentia); Antony, his
Master of Horse, attempts to maintain order
in Italy. Caesar leaves Egypt, defeats Phar-
naces at Zela, settles East, returns to Italy,
quells a mutiny, passes legislation and sails
against Pompeian forces in Africa.
46 Caesar's victory at Thapsus. Suicide of Cato.
Africa Nova organised. Caesar, dictator II,
consul III, returns to Rome and celebrates
triumph. Legislation. Reform of calendar.
Caesar leaves for Spain.
45 Caesar, dictator III, consul IV, defeats Pom-
peians at Munda. Returns to Rome; receives
exceptional honours.
44 Caesar, dictator IV (for life), consul V. Con-
spiracy. Murder of Caesar. Return of
Octavian from Greece. Antony receives com-
mand in Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul.
Cicero's first Philippics.
43 Antony's siege of Mutina raised; deaths of con-
suls Hirtius and Pansa. D. Brutus killed in
Gaul. Oct avian declared consul (August).
Triumvirate of Antonv, Octavian and
Lepidus (November). Pros~riptions; murder of
Cicero. M. Brutus in Macedonia, Cassius in
Syria.
42 Julius Caesar becomes Divus. Sextus Pompeius
controls Sicily. Brutus and Cassius defeated
at Philippi. Birth of emperor Tiberius.
41 Perusine War in Italy. Antony in Asia Minor,
meets Cleopatra and visits Alexandria.
40 L. Antonius surrenders Perusia to Octavian.
Agreement at Brundisium divides the Roman
world (October). Antony marries Octavia.
Parthian invasion of Syria. Herod recognised
as king of Judaea by Senate. Virgil's Fourth
Eclogue.
39 Agreement at Misenum between Antony, Octa-
vian and Sextus Pompeius. Ventidius defeats
Parthians at Mt Amanus.
38 Octavian marries Livia. Naval successes of Sex.
Pompeius. Victory of Ventidius at Gindarus.
Antony captures Samosata.
37 Pact of Tarentum; triumvirate probably re-
newed. Herod and Sosius capture Jerusalem.
Antony marries Cleopatra at Antioch.
Amyntas and Polemo made kings of Galatia
and Pontus respectively.
36 Octavian granted tribunician sacrosanctity.
Offensive against Sex. Pompeius, who is
defeated off Naulochus. Lepidus ceases to be
triumvir. Antony's retreat through Armenia.
35 Octavian in Illyria. Death of Sex. Pompeius.
B.C.
Octavian in Illyria. Antony invades Armenia, 34
celebrates a triumph at Alexandria. The
Donations of Alexandria.
Octavian consul II. Antony in Armenia. 33
Antony and Cleopatra winter at Ephesus. 33/32
Octavia divorced by Antony. Octavian publishes 32
Antony's will in Rome.
Antony and Cleopatra in Greece. 32/31
Octavian consul III (and successively to 23). He 31
defeats Antony at Actium and winters in Asia.
Tribunician power granted to Octavian. Suicide 30
of Antony, Octavian enters Alexandria,
suicide of Cleopatra.
Crassus campaigns in Balkans. Cornelius Gallus 30-28
in Egypt.
Octavian's triple triumph. Dedication of temple 29
ofDivus Julius.
Census held by Octavian and Agrippa; /ectio 28
senatus. Dedication of temple of Apollo on
Palatine. Mausoleum of Augustus begun.
Messalla in Spain.
The Principate
Constitutional settlement. Octavian, now 27
Augustus, receives imperium for ten years.
Triumph of Crassus. Augustus in Gaul and
Spain until 25. Agrippa builds the first
Pantheon.
Disgrace of Cornelius Gallus. 26
Arabian expedition of Aelius Gallus. 26-25
Marriage of Julia and Marcellus. V arro defeats 25
Salassi. Tarraconensis organised. Annexation
of Galatia. 25-23
Ethiopian War conducted by Petronius. 23
Augustus ill. Conspiracy of Caepio and Murena.
Constitutional resettlement. Augustus resigns
consulship and receives proconsulare imperium
maius and full tribunician power, etc. Death
of Marcellus. Agrippa sent to East. Publica-
tion of the first three books of Horace's Odes. 22
Augustus refuses dictatorship, and consulship
for life, but accepts the cura annonae.
Augustus in Greece and Asia for three years. 21
Agrippa marries Julia. 20
Roman standards returned by Parthians.
Tiberius enters Armenia and crowns
Tigranes. 19
Return of Augustus. Arch of Augustus in Rome.
Deaths of Virgil and Tibullus. Agrippa pacifies
Spain. 18
Augustus's imperium renewed for five years.
Agrippa receives imperium maius and tri-
bunicia potestas. Leges Juliae. Lectio Senatus. 17
Augustus adopts his grandsons, Gaius and
Lucius. Ludi Saeculares. Horace's Carmen
Saeculare. 16-13
Augustus in Gaul.
Agrippa in East. Noricum incorporated. 16
Tiberius and Drusus defeat Raeti and Vindelici, 15
and reach Danube.
Polemo receives Bosporan kingdom. 14
Return of Augustus; renewal of his imperium for 13
565
 A HISTORY OF ROME
B.C.
five years: Tiberius consul. Return of Agrippa.
Death of Lepidus. Dedication of Theatre of
Marcellus. Vinicius campaigns in Pannonia.
12 Augustus becomes Pontifex Maximus. Death of
Agrippa. Tiberius in Pannonia. Drusus
dedicates altar near Lugdunum.
11 Tiberi us divorces Agrippina and marries Julia.
9 Death ofDrusus. Dedication of Ara Pacis.
8 Augustus's imperium renewed for ten years.
Census held. Deaths of Horace and Maecenas.
Tiberius in Germany.
7 Rome divided into fourteen regiones.
6 Tiberius received tribunicia potestas for five years.
He withdraws to Rhodes. Paphlagonia
added to Galatia.
5 Augustus's twelfth consulship. Gaius Caesar
introduced to public life.
4 Death of Herod the Great.
2 Augustus, consul for thirteenth time, becomes
Pater Patriae. Exile of Julia. Dedication of
temple of Mars Ultor.
A.D.
1 Gaius Caesar in Syria.
2 Tiberius returns from Rhodes. Death of L.
Caesar. C. Caesar settles Armenia.
3 Augustus's imperium renewed for ten years.
4 Death of C. Caesar in Lycia. Augustus adopts
Tiberius, who receives tribunicia potestas for
ten years. Tiberius adopts Germanicus and
invades Germany. Lex Aelia Sentia.
5 Tiberius advances to Elbe.
6 Aerarium militare and office of Praejectus vigilum
created. Revolt in Pannonia and Illyricum.
Maroboduus king of the Marcomanni. Judaea
made a province; assessment by Quirinius,
legate of Syria.
8 Claudius becomes an augur. Pannonians give in.
Ovid banished.
9 Lex Papia Poppaea. Revolt in Dalmatia ended.
Arminius defeats Varus in Germany; loss of
three legions.
12 Triumph ofTiberius.
13 Augustus's imperium renewed for ten years.
Tiberius receives tribunicia potestas for ten
years and proconsular imperium, co-ordinate
with that of Augustus.
14 Lustrum. Death of Augustus. Accession of
Tiberius. Sejanus made a Praetorian Prefect.
Revolt of legions in Pannonia and Germany.
Drusus sent to Pannonia. Germanicus crosses
the Rhine against the Marsi.
15 Germanicus attacks the Chatti. Achaea and
Macedonia transferred from Senate to
Princeps and attached to Moesia.
16 Libo Drusus accused; suicide. Germanicus again
invades Germany: recalled.
17 Triumph of Germanicus; sent to East. Cn. Piso
legate of Syria. Earthquake in Asia Minor.
Cappadocia and Commagene organised as
imperial province. Revolt of Tacfarinas in
Africa. Death ofLivy.
18 Tiberius consul (III) with Germanicus. Germani-
cus in East. Armenia granted to Artaxias.
Germanicus goes to Egypt.
566
A.D.
Jews banished from Rome. Arminius killed. 19
Piso leaves Syria. Death of Germanicus at
Antioch.
Trial of Piso; suicide. 20
Consulship of Tiberius (IV) with his son Drusus. 21
Tiberius goes to Campania. Revolt of Florus
and Sacrovir in Gaul. Trouble in Thrace.
Castra Praetoria built in Rome. 21-22
Drusus receives tribunicia potestas. 22
Death of Drusus. 23
Defeat ofTacfarinas. 24
Cremutius Cordus accused; suicide. 25
Trouble in Thrace checked. Pontius Pilate 26
appointed prefect of Judaea.
Tiberius withdraws to Capreae. 27
Revolt of the Frisii. 28
Death ofLiva. Banishment of Agrippina. 29
Publication of the History of Velleius Paterculus. 30
Consulship (V) of Tiberius with Sejanus. Gaius 31
receives toga virilis. Sejanus put to death.
Macro appointed Praetorian Prefect.
Death of Agrippina. Financial trouble in Rome. 33
The Crucifixion of Jesus (probable date).
Tetrarchy of Philip incorporated into Syria. 34
Pilate sent to Rome by L. Vitellius, governor of 36
Syria.
Death ofTiberius. Accession ofGaius (Caligula); 37
he is consul with Claudius. Commagene re-
established as a client-kingdom.
Death and deification of Drusilla. Jewish dis- 38
turbances in Alexandria. Polemo II receives
Pontus and Cotys Armenia Minor.
Gaius goes to Rhine. Julia and A grippina exiled. 39
Gaius's expedition to the Channel; returns to 40
Rome. Ptolemy of Mauretania murdered;
revolt in Mauretania. Jewish embassy from
Alexandria to Rome. Agrippa I receives king-
dom of Antipas. Judaea restless.
Gaius murdered (24 January). Claudius made 41
emperor. The Chauci defeated. Claudius
settles Alexandrine trouble. Agrippa I receives
Judaea and Samaria. Exile of Seneca.
Revolt of Scribonianus in Dalmatia; his suicide. 42
Mauretania organised as two provinces.
Expedition to Britain. Lycia made an imperial 43
province.
Claudius's triumph for Britain. Achaea and 44
Macedonia transferred to Senate. Death of
Agrippa I; Judaea again made a province.
Thrace made a province. 46
Triumph of Aulus Plautius for conquest of 47
Britain. Censorship of Claudius and L.
Vitellius. Ludi Saeculares. Corbulo campaigns
against Frisii. Ostorius Scapula in Britain.
Messalina put to death. Claudius marries 48
Agrippina.
Seneca recalled from Corsica and made tutor of 49
Nero.
Nero adopted by Claudius as guardian ofBritan- 50
nicus. Agrippa II rules in Chalcis.
Burrus made Praetorian Prefect. Consulship of 51
Vespasian. Defeat of Caratacus in Wales. 51
or 52, Vologeses king ofParthia.
Gallio proconsul in Achaea. 51-52
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE

A.D. A.D.
53 Nero marries Octavia. Parthians occupy Conspiracy of Caecina Alienus and E prius 78
Armenia; Tiridates recovers his throne. Marcellus. Agricola governor of Britain (until
54 Death of Claudius. Accession of Nero. Claudius 85).
deified. Death of Vespasian (June). Accession of Titus. 79
55 Britannicus poisoned. Pallas dismissed. Corbulo Eruption of Vesuvius (24 August). Death of
goes to East. elder Pliny.
56 Praejecti aerarii replace quaestores aerarii. Fire at Rome. Destruction of Capitoline temple. 80
57 Nero forces senators and knights to take part Inauguration of Colosseum.
in Games. Death of Titus (September). Accession of 81
58 Nero refuses perpetual consulship. Corbulo Domitian.
captures Artaxata. Dedication of restored Capitoline temple. 82
59 Nero murders Agrippina and introduces Greek Triumph ofDomitian over the Chatti. 83
Games. Corbulo takes Tigranocerta. Domitian censor perpetuus. Recall of Agricola. 85
60 Neronia established. Corbulo settles Armenia; Decebalus of Dacia defeats legate of Moesia.
governor of Syria. Festus succeeds Felix as Inauguration of Capitoline Games. 86
governor of Judaea. Ludi Saeculares. Dacians defeated at Tapae. 88
61 Revolt ofBoudicca and the Iceni in Britain. Domitian returns to Rome and triumphs. Edict 89
62 Death of Burrus. Tigellinus made a Praetorian against astrologi and philosophi. Saturninus
Prefect. Seneca disgraced. Nero divorces hailed imperator at Moguntiacum.
Octavia and marries Poppaea. Octavia Palaces on Palatine finished. Domitian's cam- 92
murdered. Paetus surrenders to the Parthians paigns against Sarmatae and Suevi.
at Rhandeia. Death of Agricola. 93
64 Great fire in Rome. Persecution of Christians. Flavius Clemens and Acilius Glabrio put to 95
Domus A urea begun. Mission to Ethiopia. death. Expulsion of philosophers from Italy.
64--65 Cottian Alps made a province. Pontus incorpora- Assassination of Domitian (September). Acces- 96
ted in Galatia. sion ofNerva. Dedication of Forum Nervae.
65 Conspiracy of Piso. Suicides of Seneca and Lex agraria and social legislation. Rising of 97
Lucan. Death of Poppaea. Musonius Rufus Praetorians.
banished. Death ofNerva (January). Accession ofTrajan. 98
66 Nero crowns Tiridates in Rome and goes to Trajan, now emperor, returns to Rome. 99
Greece. Thrasea Paetus condemned. Con- The Panegyricus of Pliny. 100
spiracy of Vinicius. Temple of Janus closed. First Dacian War. 101-102
Death ofPetronius. Rebellion in Palestine. Second Dacian War. Dacia made a province. 105-106
67 Nero at Corinthian canal. Corbulo ordered to Annexation of Arabia Petraea. 106
kill himself. Vespasian in command in Judaea. Trajan dedicates Adam-klissi monument. Maxi- 109
Josephus surrenders to him. mus appointed to Achaea.
68 Nero returns to Italy; his death (June). Galba, Pliny sent to Bithynia. 111
accepted by Senate and Praetorians, enters Dedication ofTrajan's Forum. 112
Rome (autumn). Verginius Rufus opposes Trajan starts for Parthian War. 113
Vindex's rebellion in Gaul. Defeat and death Armenia annexed. 114
of Vindex. Vespasian begins attack on Jeru- Mesopotamia annexed. Jewish revolt in Cyrene. 115
salem. Ctesiphon captured. Revolt in East. Jewish 116
69 Galba killed and Otho hailed as emperor by revolt spreads.
Praetorians (January). Vitellius proclaimed Trajan dies in Cilicia. Accession of Hadrian. 117
emperor by armies in Germany, and sup- Hadrian arrives in Rome (July). 118
ported by Caecina and Valens. Otho defeated Consulship of Antoninus. 120
at Bedriacum; suicide (April). Rising of Civilis Hadrian travels in western provinces. Birth of 121
on the Rhine. Vespasian declared emperor in M. Aurelius.
the East. His forces under Antonius sack Hadrian visits Britain; orders building of Wall. 122
Cremona and capture Rome; death of Vitel- Moorish revolt.
lius (December). Vespasian emperor. Hadrian in Asia Minor. 124
70 Vespasian arrives in Rome (summer). Classicus's Hadrian at Athens. 129
attempted Imperium Galliarum. Civilis Hadrian founds Antinoopolis. Aelia Capitolina 130
crushed. Fall of Jerusalem. Restoration of founded on site of Jerusalem.
Capitoline temple started. Jewish revolt under Bar Cocheba. 131
71 Titus returns from Judaea; receives proconsular Alani invade Parthia. 134
imperium and shares tribunician power with Jews finally defeated. Reorganisation of Syria 135
Vespasian. Astrologi and philosophi expelled Palaestrina. Temple of Venus and Rome
from Rome. dedicated.
72 Armenia Minor added to Cappadocia. Hadrian adopts L. Aelius as Caesar. Plot of 136
73-74 Censorship ofVespasian and Titus. Servianus.
75 Agrippa II and Berenice visit Rome. Alani attack Death of L. Aelius Caesar (January). Antoninus 138
Media and Armenia. adopted as co-regent (February). Death of
76 Birth of Hadrian. Hadrian (July). Accession of Antoninus Pius.

567
 A HISTORY OF ROME
A.D. A.D.
138-139 Brigantes defeated by Lollius Urbicus. Defeat of Albinus near Lugdunum; suicide. 197
139 Dedication of Hadrian's Mausoleum. Britain divided into two provinces. Severus
140 First consulship of M. Aurelius. returns to Rome Qune) and then resumes
142 Antonine wall in Britain completed. Eastern campaign.
145 M. Aurelius marries Pius's daughter, Faustina. Caracalla proclaimed Augustus with Severus. 197-198
148 Nine-hundreth anniversary of the foundation of Severus captures Ctesiphon. 198
Rome. Severns visits Egypt, Syria and the Danube. 199-200
152 Peace re-established in Mauretania. Severus returns to Rome. Anti-Christian 202
152-153 Revolt in Egypt. measures.
154 Rising of Brigantes crushed. Consulship of Geta. Dedication of Arch of 203
157-158 Campaigns against Dacian tribes. Severns.
160 M. Aurelius and L. Verus consuls designate. Severus in Africa. 203-204
161 Death of Antoninus (March). Accession of M. Consulship of Caracalla and Geta. Murder of 205
Aurelius. L. Verus given title Augustus. Plautianus. Restoration of Hadrian's Wall
162 Parthians invade Armenia. L. Verus sent to the begun, after northern Britain had been over-
East. run by Scottish tribes.
163 Armenia recovered. Disturbances of Bulla Felix in Italy. 206-7
165 Plague spreads from East to Italy and the West. Severus leaves Rome for Britain. 208
165-166 Parthians defeated; Seleucia and Ctesiphon Severns campaigns in northern Scotland. 209
destroyed. Death of Septimius Severus at York. Geta and 211
166 Roman success in Media. L. Verus celebrates a Caracalla return to Rome.
triumph with M. Aurelius. Caracalla kills Geta and becomes sole emperor. 212
167 Plague in Rome. Marcomanni and Quadi cross The Constitutio A ntoniniana.
the Danube; northern Italy invaded. Iazyges Caracalla campaigns against Alamanni. 213
attack Dacia. Issue of the A ntoninianus silver coinage. 215
168-175 War against the Marcomanni, Quadi and Sar- Caracalla winters in Antioch and then advances 215-216
matae. eastwards.
169 M. Aurelius goes to northern front. Death of Caracalla murdered near Carrhae. Macrinus 217
L. Verus. becomes emperor, but suffers setback near
172 Marcomanni defeated. Revolt in Egypt. Nisibis.
174 M. Aurelius starts his Meditations. Quadi de- Elagabalus's supporters defeat and kill Macrinus; 218
feated. he is proclaimed emperor.
175 Iazyges defeated. Revolt of Avidius Cassius; Elagabalus arrives in Rome. ;219
crushed. M. Aurelius and Commodus go to E lagabalus consul. 220
the East. Elagabalus adopts his cousin as Alexander. 222
176 M. Aurelius and Commodus return to Rome; Elagabalus and Julia Soaemias murdered
triumph. (March). Severus Alexander becomes
177 Consulship of Commodus, now Augustus. emperor.
Defeat of Mauretanians. Ulpian, Praetorian prefect and jurist, murdered 223(?)
178-180 Disturbances on Danube. by soldiers.
178 M. Aurelius and Commodus go north. Ardashir Sass an ian king in Parthia. 22 7
180 Death of M. Aurelius (March). Accession of Consulship of Severns Alexander and Dio 229
Commodus. Pacification of Dacians, Quadi, Cassius.
Iazyges and V andali. Perennis is Praetorian Persians invade Mesopotamia and besiege Nisibis. 230
Prefect. Severns Alexander leaves Rome forE ast. 231
182 Conspiracy ofLucilla; her execution. Roman offensive against Persia fails. 232
184 Antonine Wall in Britain finally abandoned. Severus Alexander returns to Rome. 233
185 Perennis executed; Cleander Praetorian Prefect. Campaign against Alamanni. Pannonian troops 234
186 Pertinax crushes army mutiny in Britain. proclaim Maximinus Thrax emperor.
188 Revolt in Germany crushed. Death of Severns Alexander near Moguntiacum 235
190 Execution of Cleander. Pertinax suppresses (March). Maximinus accepted by Senate;
discrders in Africa. successful against Alamanni. Regulations
192 Murder ofCommodus (December.) against Christians enforced.
193 Pertinax proclaimed emperor (1 January); mur- Fighting against Dacians and Sarmations. 236-237
dered by Praetorians (March). Didius Julian us Persians attack Mesopotamia; capture Nisibis 237-238
emperor; killed Qune). Accession of Septimius and Carrhae.
Severus. Clodius Albinus in Britain granted The dates in this period are often uncertain, especi- 238-275
title of Caesar. Severus marches against ally for events on the .frontiers.
Pescennius Niger, who was proclaimed Gordian, proconsul of Africa, proclaimed 258
emperor by Syrian legions. Siege of Byzantium emperor; he rules with his son until killed
started. by the legate of Numidia. The Senate appoints
194 Defeat and death of Pescennius. Severns crosses Pupienus and Balbinus (April). Maximinus
Euphrates. murdered (May/June). Praetorians kill
196 Caracalla proclaimed Caesar. Fall of Byzantium. Pupienus and Balbinus and appoint the third

568
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE
A.D.
Gordian emperor Ouly). Goths and Carpi
attack across the Danube.
241 Timesitheus made Praetorian Prefect. Shapur I
succeeds Ardashir.
242 l'imesitheus starts campaign against Persians.
244 Murder of Gordian Ill. Philip, the Arabian,
makes peace with Persia and goes to Rome as
emperor.
245-247 War on Danube frontier.
247 Philip, son of the emperor, made Augustus.
Millenary of Rome's foundation.
248 Millenary Games in Rome. Decius settles Moesia
and Pannonia.
249 Decius made emperor by his troops. Kills Philip
and his son in battle near Verona. Goths
under Cniva renew attacks.
249-251 Persecution of Christians.
251 Decius's two sons proclaimed Augusti. Defeat
and death of Decius and his son Herennius
Etruscus on the Danube. Trebonianus Gallus
proclaimed emperor with Decius's other son,
Hostilianus, who dies soon. Volusianus, son
of Gallus, proclaimed Augustus.
252 Goths and barbarians attack northern frontier.
Persians attack Mesopotamia.
253 Aemilianus proclaimed emperor; defeat and
death of Gallus. Valerian proclaimed emperor
by Rhine armies. Aemilianus murdered by his
own troops. Valerian goes to Rome; his son
Gallienus proclaimed second Augustus.
254 Marcomanni attack Pannonia and raid Ravenna.
Goths ravage Thrace. Shapur captures Nisibis.
256 Franks attack Lower Rhine. Gothic attack by
sea on Asia Minor.
257 Valerian starts new persecution of Christians.
Renewed Persian invasion.
258 Martyrdom of Cyprian. 258 or 259 Gallienus
defeats Alamanni.
259/260 Valerian captured by Shapur.
260 Gallienus ends Christian persecution. Macrianus
and Quietus proclaimed emperors in East.
Postumus in Gaul (or 259). Revolts of
Ingenuus and then ofRegalianus in Pannonia.
261 Macrianus killed in battle against Aureolus.
Odenathus of Palmyra recognised as dux
Orientis. Quietus executed in Emesa.
262 Plague reaches Italy and Africa. Successes of
Odenathus against Persians. Dedication of
Arch ofGallienus at Rome.
267 Gothic invasion of Asia Minor.
267-268 Odenathus killed; Zenobia secures power in
name of infant Vaballathus.
268 Goths attack Thrace and Greece. Gallienus wins
victory at Naissus, but is murdered at Milan.
Claudius becomes emperor. Aureolus killed.
268/269 Postumus killed. Zenobia extends her kingdom.
269 Claudius's decisive victories over Goths.
270 Claudius dies of plague in Pannonia Oanuary).
Senate chooses Quintillus, but A urelian is
successful against him and against the
Juthungi. Dacia abandoned. Zenobia's troops
enter Alexandria. Death ofPlotinus.
271 Aurelian's Wall started in Rome. Aurelian
moves against Zenobia.
A.D.
Aurelian destroys Palmyra. Revolt in Egypt 273
crushed.
Aurelian defeats Tetricus in Gaul; he triumphs 274
and reforms coinage. Temple of Sun-god at
Rome.
Aurelian murdered in Thrace. Tacitus made 275
emperor.
Death of Tacitus. Murder of his brother Florian. 276
Probus becomes emperor.
Probus clears Germans and Goths from Gaul. 276-277
Probus campaigns against Vandals on Danube. 278
Probus settles Asia Minor. 279
Probus suppresses Bonosus in Gaul. 280
Probus murdered. Succeeded by Carus. 282
Death of Carus near Ctesiphon. Succeeded by 283
Carinus in West and Numerian in East.
Vahram II makes peace with Rome.
Numerian killed. Diodes succeeds. 284
Diocles defeats Carinus, who is killed. Diodes 285
takes name of Diocletian. Maximian named
Caesar.
Maximian becomes Augustus after defeating the 286
Bagaudae in Gaul.
Maximian fights against Alamanni and Bur- 286-287
gundians. Revolt ofCarausius.
Diocletian fights Sarmatians. Carausius defeats 289
Maximian.
Diocletian reaches agreement with Vahram. 290
Diocletian fights Sarmatians. 292
Diocletian suppresses a revolt in Egypt. 292-293
Constantius and Galerius appointed Caesars in 293
West and East respectively. Carausius killed
by Allectus, who holds Britain.
Constantius recovers Britain from Allectus. 296
Galerius defeats Narses, king of Persia.
Rebellion ofDomitius Domitianus in Egypt.
Diocletian's edict against the Manichaeans. 297
Domitius crushed. Gallienus's war against
Persia.
Maximian subdues Moors. 298
Diocletian's edict on prices. 301
Diocletian celebrates his Vicennalia in Rome. 303
Persecution of Christians begins at Nico-
media.
Diocletian and Maximian abdicate. Constantius 305
and Galerius succeeded as A ugusti, Severus
and Maximinus Daia as Caesars.
Death of Constantius at York. His troops pro- 306
claim Constantine emperor of the West.
Maxentius proclaimed at Rome and supported
by his father Maximian. Severus invades
Italy.
Constantine marries Fausta, Maximian's 307
daughter, and accepts Maxentius as Augustus.
Defeat and death of Severus. Galerius goes to
Italy but withdraws to Pannonia.
The emperors Diocletian, Galerius andMaximian 308
confer at Carnuntum. Licinius proclaimed
Augustus.
Death of Maximian. 310
Galerius at Nicomedia issues edict g1vmg 311
Christians legal recognition. Death ofGalerius.
Resumption of persecution (October-Novem-
ber). Rebellion in Africa crushed.
569
 A HISTORY OF ROME
A.D. A.D.
312 Constantine defeats Maxentius at the Milvian Ambrose bishop of Milan. 374-397
Bridge. Death of Maxentius. Gratian emperor in West. 375-383
313 Constantine and Licinius meet at Milan and V alentinian II. 375-392
agree to partition the Roman world. Licinius Huns drive Visigoths across Danube. 376
defeats Maximinus, who dies at Tarsus. Visigoths defeat and kill V alens at battle of 378
Licinius at Nicomedia issues a grant of freedom Adrianople.
of worship. Donatists condemned by council Theodosius I. 378-385
in Rome. Altar of Victory removed from Senate House. 382
314 Meeting of bishops at Aries. Revolt of Magnus Maximus in Britain. Death of 383
314-315 Constantine successful in a war with Licinius. Gratian.
315 Arch of Constantine erected at Rome. Arcadius. 383-408
316 Death ofDiocletian. Maxim us defeated and killed by Theodosius. 388
317 Crispus and Constantin us, sons of Constantine, E diets against paganism. Destruction of the 391
and Licinianus, son of Licinius, declared Serapeum.
Caesars. Revolt of Arbogast. Murder of Valentinian II. 392
320 Licinius takes measures against Christians. Eugenius proclaimed Augustus.
321 Constantine grants tolerance to Donatists. Battle of Frigidus. Deaths of Arbogast and 394
322 Constantine drives Sarmatians from Pannonia. Eugenius.
323 Constantine expels Goths from Thrace. Honorius. 394-423
324 War between Constantine and Licinius. Con- Death of Theodosius I. Division of Empire. 395
stantine victorious at Adrianople and Chryso- Arcadius emperor in East (till 408) and
polis. Licinius banished. Founding of Con- Honorius in West (until 434). Revolt of Alaric
stantinople started. and Visigoths.
325 Licinius killed. Christian Council ofNicaea. Alaric defeated by Stilicho in Greece. 396
330 Constantinople becomes the imperial residence. Barbarian invasion of Gaul. 406
33 7 Death of Constantine. Division of Empire Murder of Stilicho. Alaric invades Italy. 408
between this three sons. Theodosius II emperor in East. 408-450
Spain invaded by Vandals, Alans and Suevi. 409
A few further important dates are appended.
Visigoths capture Rome (23 August). Death of 4HJ
337-340 Constantinus II emperor in West. Alaric. Honorius tells Britain that it must
33 7-350 Constans. defend itself.
337-361 Constantius II in East. Valentinian III emperor in West. 425-455
340 Constans defeats Constantinus II and rules Vandal invasion of Africa. 429
West. Death of Augustine of Hippo. 430
350 Revolt of Magnentius, who kills Constans. The Theodosian Code. 438
351-2 Constantius II defeats Magnentius at Nursa and Vandals capture Carthage. 439
then rules whole Empire until 361. Britain's final appeal to Aetius. 446
357 Julian defeats Alamanni near Argentorate. Marcian emperor in East. 450-457
359 WarwithPersia. Battle between Aetius and Huns. Council of 451
360-363 Julian emperor. Chalcedon.
363 Julian's death on Persian Expedition; peace with Death of A ttila. 453
Persia. End of dynasty of Constantine. Murder of Aetius. Ostrogoths settle in Pannonia. 454
363-364 Jovian emperor. Maximus emperor in West. Vandals under 455
364-375 Valentinian I emperor in West. Gaeseric sack Rome.
364-378 Valens emperor in East. Ricimer captures Rome. 472
367 Gratian made a third Augustus. Britain Deposition of Romulus Augustulus, emperor in 476
attacked by Saxons, Picts and Scots. Situation West. Odovacer king in Italy. Zeno emperor
restored by Count Theodosius. in East and West.

570
 The Roman Emperors, from Augustus
to Constantine

Augustus B.C. 27-A.D. 14 L. Verus A.D. 161-169 Trebonianus A.D. 251-253

Tiberius A.D. f4-37 Commodus 180-192 Aemilianus 253

Caligula 37-41 Pertinax 193 Valerian us 253-260

Gallien us 253-268
Claudius 41-54 Didius Iulianus 193
Claudius Gothicus 268-270
Nero 54-68 Septimius Severus 193-211
Caracalla 211-217 Aurelian 270-275
Galba 68-69 Get a 211-212
Tacitus 275-276
Otho 69 Macrinus 217-218
Florian us 276
Vitellius 69 Elagabalus 218-222
Probus 276-282
Vespasian 69-79 Severus Alexander 222-235
Carus 282-283
Titus 79-81 Maximin us 235-238
Carin us 283-285
Domitian 81-96 Gordian I 238 Numerianus 283-284
Gordian II 238
Nerva 96-98 Diocletian 284-305
Balbinus 238 Maximian 286-305
Trajan 98-117 Pupienus 238
Constantius 292-306
Hadrian 117-138 Gordian III 238-244 Galerius 293-311

Antoninus Pius 138-161 Philip 244-249 Licinius 311-323

M. Aurelius 161-180 Decius 249-251 Constantine 306-337

571
0,
;j

1. Some Cornelii, Aemilii and Sempronii Gracchi

L. Aemilius Paullus C. Papirius Maso .,...

(cos.219) (cos.231) ~

L. Cornelius Scipio I ::X:

(cos.259) L. Aemilius Paullus = Papiria -
(cos.182 and 168) ~
Cn. Scipio Calvus P. Scipio = Pomponia 0
(cos.222) (cos.218) I 0. Fabius Maximus P. Scipio Aemilianus Aemilia = Cato ~
I I I Aemilianus, Africanus Livianus -<:
P. Scipio Nasica (2) L. Scipio Asiaticus (1) P. Scipio Africa nus = Aemilia Tertia (cos.145) (cos.14 7) (son of O
(cos.191) (cos. 190) (cos.205) I .I . Censor) _
1 1 1 1 1 0. Fab1us Max1mus •,
P. Scipio Nasica = Cornelia I P. Scipio L. Scipio Cornelia II =Ti. Sempronius Gracchus Allobrogicus ~

Corculum I I I (cos.177) (cos.121) O

(cos.1f:12) . . . . 1 . . 1 . • . 1 . . . . S;:
P. ScipiO Nas1ca Sc1p1o (adopted son) = Semproma T1. Sempromus = Claud1a, d. of App. Claud1us C. Sempromus = L1c1ma l'rt
(cos.138) P.Scipio Aemilianus Gracchus Pulcher (cos.143) Gracchus
(cos.147) (tr.pl.133) (tr.pl.123)
 2. Some Metelli, Claudii and others
G)
Q. Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus
Appius Clavdius Pulcher (cos.143)
~
(cos.143) 1----------------r-----------,-----------~----------------------r-------------------
------, ~
0. Metellus L. Metellus M. Metellus C. Metellus Caecilia = C. Servilius Vatia Caecilia I '
.------ I Balearicus (cos.117) (cos.115l Caprarius 0
Ti. Gracchus = Claudia App. Claudius I = P. Scipio
(cos.123) (cos.113) G)
(tr.pl.l 33). Pulcher
I Nasica (cos.111)
I
I I I ~
App.Ciaudius Caecilia Q. Metellus L. Metellus Q.Metellus M. Metellus
Pulcher Nepos (cos.98) Creticus (pr.69)
L. Metellus
(cos.68)
P. Vatia lsauricus
(cos.79)
-
I'
(cos.79) (cos.69) I ~
App. Claudius C. Claudius P. Clodius Clodia Clodia P. Vatia lsauricus t:tJ
Pulcher Pulcher (tr.58) = O.Marcius = L.Lucullus, I'
(cos.48)
{cos. 54) (pr.56) =Fulvia Rex (cos.68) (cos.74)
I ~
Clodia = Octavian I
Servilia
(2)0. Metellus (Betrothed to Octavian
(1) 0. Metellus = Clodia
Nepos Celer (cos.60) before he married Clodia)
(cos.57)

01
(j
(11

3. The Julio-Ciaudian Dynasty

(1) C.Caesar (d. 815 B.C.), = Aurelia

r-- ----- -- - 1
(2) C.Julius Caesar (the dictator) (3) Julia= M.Atius Balbus
( 1 00-44 B.C.)
(4) Atia = C.Octavius (d. 58 B.C.)

(5) Octavia minor = (a) M.Marcellus (6) C.Octavius (a) Scribonia

(64-11 B.C.) I (d. 41 B.C.) (AUGUSTUS CAESAR) (b) Livia = Tib. Claudius Nero
(b) M.Antonius (the triumvir) I (58 B.C.- I (d. 33 B.C.)
(83-30 B.C.) A.D. 29)
,.------'-----, by(a) h
by(a) by(b) I
I I
(7) M.Marcellus (8) Antonia minor (9) Julia= (a) M.Marcellus(No.7) (1 0) Tib. Claudius Nero (11) Nero Claudius Drusus
(43-23 B.C.) (36 B.C.-A.D.37) (39 B.C.-A.D.14) (b) M.Agrippa (TIBERIUS CAESAR) (38-9 B.C.) ~
=Julia (No.9) =Nero Claudius (c) Tib.Ciaudius Nero = (a) Vipsania = Antonia minor d
Drusus (No. 11 ) (No.10) (b) Julia (No.9) (No.8) ~
I -<
by1(b) by(a)
I I 0
~
--~- -----r r I I .,.,
(12) Gaius Caesar (13) Lucius Caesar (14) Julia (15) Agrippina (16) Agrippa (17) Drusus (18) Germanicus (19) Tib. Claudius ~
(20 B.C.-A.D.4) (17 B.C. -A.D.2) (d. A.D. 28) (14 B.C.-A.D.33) Postumus(12 Caesar (13 B.C.- Caesar (15 B.C.- Nero Germanicus 0
= Germanicus B.C.-A.D. 14) A.D. 23) A.D.19) = (CLAUDIUS CAESAR)=
Caesar (No.1 8) Agrippina (No.1 51. (a) Valeria Mas- ~
salina (b) Agrip-
pina (No.23)
(20) NeJO Caesar (21) Drusus Caesar (22) Gaius Caesar (23) Agrippina =(a) Cn. Domitius I
(A.D. 6-31) (A.D. 7-33) (CALIGULA) (A.D.15-59) (b) CLAUDIUS
by(a) by(a)
I I
I ,----
=(a) (25) Octavia (d. A.D. 62)
-------,
(26) Tib. Claudius Britannicus
(24) L.Domitius Ahenobarbus
(NERO CLAUDIUS CAESAR) (b) Poppaea Sabina (A.D. 41-55)

. (1 0) Tib. Claudius Nero, by (6) (18) Germanicus Caesar, by (1 0) (24) L.Domitius Ahenobarbus, by (19)
Adopt1ons:- AUGUSTUS CAESAR Tib. Claudius Nero. CLAUDIUS CAESAR