An Introduction To Process Design - Watermarked Sample - 12th October

gassxy05@gmail.
com 21 Oct 2022
An Introduction to
Chemical Process
Design
Sample copy
Bart Hallmark
gassxy05@gmail.com 21 Oct 2022
About the author

Dr Bart Hallmark CEng CSci MIChemE SFHEA is a
graduate of the University of Cambridge, UK, and worked
as a lecturer and senior lecturer in the Department of
Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology at the
University of Cambridge up until August 2021. He
lectured extensively on the undergraduate course and led
process design education between 2008 and 2021. He also
ventured out into the real world from time to time and did
stints of work in ICI Chemicals and Polymers and BP.
During the 2020 Covid pandemic, he set up a YouTube channel, Dr Bart’s Lectures to provide online
teaching resources to the University of Cambridge, which has now gained a significant following
worldwide. Outside of his work, Bart can be found riding bicycles, motorbikes, trying to get up and
down mountains on skis and lying underneath an ancient Land Rover getting mostly covered in oil!
YouTube channel: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCTdbVC0zIPOWFUBP9LzUYXA
Sample copy
Although the author has made every effort to ensure that the information in this book was
correct at the time of writing, and while this book is designed to provide accurate information in
regard to the subject matter covered, the author assumes no responsibility for errors,
inaccuracies, omissions, or any other inconsistencies herein and hereby disclaims any liability to
any party for any loss, damage, or disruption caused by errors or omissions, whether such
errors or omissions result from negligence, accident, or any other cause.
Unless otherwise indicated, all material in this ebook © B. Hallmark, October 2021.
Table of contents
Preface ......................................................................................................................................................... 5
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 7
2. Process documentation ........................................................................................................................... 11
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 11
2.2 Process flow diagrams (PFDs) ................................................................................................... 11
2.4 Reading piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs) .............................................................. 18
2.5 Drawing P&IDs ......................................................................................................................... 32
2.6 Process data sheets and interlock schedules ................................................................................ 46
2.7 Summary................................................................................................................................... 50
2.8 Appendix 1-A: P&ID checklist .................................................................................................. 51
3. Chemical reactors .................................................................................................................................. 53
3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 53
3.2 Innovative engineering – example 1 ........................................................................................... 54
Sample copy
3.3 Understanding chemists ............................................................................................................. 56
3.4 Choice of reactor conditions and configuration ........................................................................... 58
3.5 Multiphase reactor systems ........................................................................................................ 59
3.6 Thermal effects in chemical reactors .......................................................................................... 79
3.7 Numerical modeling of chemical reactors................................................................................... 83
3.8 Mechanical design of chemical reactors ..................................................................................... 91
3.9 Summary................................................................................................................................. 108
3.10 Appendix 2-A – Matlab reactor simulation code ....................................................................... 109
4. Distillation optimisation ....................................................................................................................... 110
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 110
4.2 Innovative engineering – example 4 ......................................................................................... 111
4.3 Overview of distillation modelling and optimisation ................................................................. 113
4.4 Optimisation of feed location and stage count .......................................................................... 115
4.5 Optimisation of feed pre-heat ................................................................................................... 119
4.6 Optimisation of instrument location ......................................................................................... 121
4.7 Basic distillation control schemes ............................................................................................ 123

4.8 Developing a vessel layout....................................................................................................... 127
4.9 Summary................................................................................................................................. 133
5. Pressure systems .................................................................................................................................. 134
5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 134
5.2 Hazard assessment of pressure vessels ..................................................................................... 135
5.3 Pressure ranges for vessels ....................................................................................................... 141
5.4 Pressure relief devices ............................................................................................................. 142
5.5 Estimation of relief rate and relief device size .......................................................................... 147
5.6 Safe treatment and disposal of vented streams .......................................................................... 150
5.7 Summary................................................................................................................................. 156
6. Plant layout .......................................................................................................................................... 157
6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 157
6.2 Site selection ........................................................................................................................... 158
6.3 Plot layout ............................................................................................................................... 160
6.4 Other considerations that affect layout ..................................................................................... 166
Sample copy
6.5 Workflow for producing a layout design .................................................................................. 171
6.6 Summary................................................................................................................................. 177
7. Electrical power ................................................................................................................................... 178
7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 178
7.2 Electricity generation and distribution in the UK ...................................................................... 178
7.3 Grid equipment found on site ................................................................................................... 188
7.4 Supply options for new UK plant ............................................................................................. 191
7.5 Uses of electricity on plant....................................................................................................... 192
7.6 Basic electrical safety .............................................................................................................. 196
7.7 Case study – electrochemical processes and UK chlorine production. ....................................... 199
7.8 Summary................................................................................................................................. 205
8. References ........................................................................................................................................... 206

An introduction to chemical process design, 1st edition.

© B. Hallmark 2021.
Preface
This short book derives from a course on chemical process design that I taught at the University of
Cambridge, UK, between 2008 and 2018 and is intended to serve as a basic introduction to a number
of disciplines within the topic. Given the immense breadth and depth of this subject, the aim of this
book is to introduce and illustrate certain key points and concepts and to provide a template ‘workflow’
for certain procedures such as gaseous relief header design or distillation optimisation. Reference is
made to specialist design manuals for specific topics such that more information can be obtained by the
reader where necessary. The aim of this book is not to provide a definitive reference for all design
scenarios but rather to act as an introductory guide!
Process design, as a subject area, is a very open-ended task requiring a combination of fundamental
chemical engineering knowledge, creativity and experience. The first of these prerequisites can be
taught, and that is the aim of the readers’ degree course. The second point is somewhat inherent to the
individual, but education and exposure to design tasks can result in a certain amount of ‘learnt’
creativity. The final point relates to knowledge that can only be accrued by working with senior
engineering professionals who have specialist knowledge that can be imparted during the course of a
design task. The first experience of process design that the chemical engineering student has is typically
Sample copy
the undergraduate process design project, and it is with that in mind that this book has been written.
Thorough and accurate communication is a vital part of a successful design, and this is the starting point
of this book. The second and third chapters examine multiphase chemical reactors (it is assumed that
the reader has a basic working knowledge of single-phase reactor systems) and distillation optimisation
respectively. These chapters include elements of theory, practical design and optimisation for minimal
energy use. Chapter four introduces a subject that is not commonly covered in introductory texts,
namely pressure relief. Basic relief scenarios are introduced along with some guidelines as to how to
dispose of material that has been vented as a result of a relief scenario occurring. The fifth chapter
examines the basic principles of how to lay out a plant on a chemical site, and gives a workflow that
students can use during their first design projects. The sixth and final chapter, on electrical power, gives
an overview of one of the most important plant utilities along with examples of its use in electrochemical
processes.
The material in this course is a combination of that sourced from literature but also that sourced from
experience. I am indebted to Dr Mark Williamson for providing the material that formed the inspiration
for the sections on “how to draw a P&ID”. Stuart Fraser is gratefully acknowledged for providing the
original information relating to distillation optimisation that inspired chapter three. Thanks are also due
to Robert Skelton, Peter Thomas and Colin Deddis for providing material relating to aspects of design
-5 -

and plant layout. Drs James McGregor and Nicholas Darton are gratefully acknowledged for proof
reading sections of these notes that eventually became this book.
Finally, thank you to you, dear reader, for purchasing a copy of this book! I hope that you find it useful
both during your University course and, hopefully, for whatever you go on to do afterwards!
B. Hallmark, October 2021
Sample copy
-6 -

You may, rightly, be wondering what on earth yet another book on chemical process design can offer
to readers who are already overwhelmed with a mind-boggling choice of tomes! Well, I’m hoping this
book can act as both an inspiration and a short introductory guide to the subject that is easy to follow
but contains sufficient information and references to be both useful and informative.
The importance of chemical engineering – and good chemical engineering design – really cannot be
overstated! As a student, you may be used to chemical engineering being condensed into a series of
short exercises and long, painful, examinations that can get horribly competitive and stressful. Whilst
the various tools of assessment used by Universities are (mostly) a necessary evil, chemical engineering
and chemical engineering design especially, is not practiced this way in the real world at all!
Sample copy
CC BY-SA 2.0 – David Hawgood - https://tinyurl.com/y2kxc45d
You won’t have to do this anymore when you’ve left your educational environment!
Chemical engineering, today, is a collaborative, co-operative and very rewarding area to work in, and
is key to addressing some of humanity’s biggest challenges. I’ve listed below some of these challenges
and I’d like you to think for a minute how chemical engineering can make a huge and valuable
contribution to each of them:
 climate change;
 the energy transition;
 clean water for all;
 safe and sustainable food for all;
 manufacture at scale of new pharmaceuticals and vaccines;
 harnessing biotechnology to produce cleaner processes;
-7 -

 sustainable manufacturing of consumer-facing products.
If chemical engineering is an important enabling tool to help remedy many of the problems that
humankind has generated by its past activities, then chemical engineering design is the conduit through
which conceptual ideas become a safe, cost-effective, commercial reality. Design is a subject that
requires not just knowledge, but creativity, innovation and passion! In fact, to underline this, it’s worth
reminding ourselves where the word “engineer” actually came from in the first place.
In many countries across the world, the word “engineer” has become devalued since it is applied to
many trades and disciplines that are not engineering. For example, the person who fixes washing
machines might be called an “engineer” as might the person who unblocks drains. Whilst both of these
trades are valuable to society, they are not engineering! The root of the word “engineer” derives from
the Latin verb ingeniare, which means to create, to generate, to contrive or to devise. It also derives
from the Latin noun ingenium meaning cleverness – the same word that gives us the English word
ingenuity! So, being an engineer is all about generating and devising clever and creative solutions to
difficult problems (and not about unblocking drains, despite that being a valuable activity)! I would go
so far to say that engineering creativity is now key to the survival of the human species.
Sample copy
As an undergraduate in the 1990s, I was immensely fortunate to be introduced to the subject of
engineering design, and to its innovative problem-solving approach, by Prof. Ken Wallace (1944-2018)
of the Cambridge University Engineering Department. As his opening gambit, he told the assembled
bunch of freshers sitting in the lecture hall a great story about how to think about design cleverly, how
to keep an open mind and how to solve problems in a neat, simple and elegant fashion. The key principal
is to abstract the problem such that it opens up new routes to solving it. I’d like to relate the story he
told us to you here.
Suppose, one day, an engineer is mowing their lawn. OK, so our engineer is lucky enough to have a
lawn to mow in the first place and lawnmower with which to cut the grass!
-8 -

Then, all of a sudden, in a puff of smoke, the engineer’s lawnmower breaks down. Being a practical
soul, the engineer tries to mend it, but the lawnmower really has gasped its final breath and is
irreversibly broken! Oh dear. What to do?
The first response of our engineer may well be the thought “dammit, I can design and manufacture a
better lawnmower than this useless tool – one that doesn’t break!”. Here, however, is where we need to
stop and think. What are we actually trying to achieve? Are we trying to mow the lawn or are we trying
to keep the grass short? By instinctively wanting to design and manufacture a better lawnmower, our
Sample copy
engineer has fallen into a conceptual trap: (s)he is just attempting to mow the lawn in a better way.
However, if our engineer abstracts the problem to “designing and implementing a means of keeping the
grass short”, then (s)he suddenly can come up with a huge range of other possibilities that could work,
of which mechanical lawnmowers are only a subset. Our engineer may, for example, decide that the
best way to keep the grass short is to get a sheep or two and let them graze on it! Not only would this
keep the grass short, but it would also have the useful by-product of providing a low-carbon, organic,
natural fertiliser for the lawn as well!
So, I’d encourage you to always keep an open mind when it comes to design and remember that
engineering is all about ingenuity and creativity (as well as a lot of maths that enables you to keep things
-9 -

safe!). Since engineers rarely, if ever, work in isolation on their ingenious solutions to difficult
problems, it’s really important that they also learn how to communicate with one another effectively.
There are too many jokes, which sometimes often seem too close to the truth for comfort, about the
social engineer being the person that stares at your shoes (rather than theirs!). So, the first section of
this book is all about the importance of good, concise, communication within chemical engineering and
how to achieve it.
Sample copy
-10 -

2.1 Introduction
YouTube lecture: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bu_SvM0xD6A
This chapter examines, in detail, three of the important pieces of documentation that are
produced during the design process. Specifically, these are:
 the process flow diagram (PFD) and accompanying stream tables;

 the piping and instrumentation diagram (P&ID);
 data sheets.
Clear, accurate documentation is vital to the success of a design, hence the various standards
that underpin each of these documents are also referenced in the discussions that follow. In
addition, the various ways in which potentially ambiguous process complexities can be drafted
Sample copy
are examined, for example heat integration.
2.2 Process flow diagrams (PFDs)

The process flow diagram, or PFD, shows the arrangement of all the process equipment for a
given section of plant: essentially, the PFD is the process “road map” and its aim is to inform
the reader quickly, and simply as to how the process is connected together. The PFD is,
therefore, a very important design and communication document!
The PFD consists of a pictorial representation of every major item of capital equipment that is
present on the plant and all the major pieces process pipework that connect the process
equipment together. This includes equipment that is used for start-up and shut-down, in addition
to including duplicate equipment that is not standby equipment. An example of the latter would
be the illustration on the PFD of every reactor in a parallel system of reactors whereas a standby
pump in a pump set would not be included. Only process-essential valves are included on PFDs,
for example pressure reduction valves on main process pipes, and process utilities such as steam
and cooling water are shown using a ‘flag’ representation so that PFDs do not become
unnecessarily cluttered and hard to read. As such, the PFD can be used as an ‘aide memoire’
when it comes to producing and checking the first capital cost estimates of the plant.
- 11 -

Every piece of pipework, sometimes referred to as a “line” or a “stream” on a PFD, has its own
unique number such that its conditions and composition can be found in the stream table that
accompanies the PFD. Typical information that is shown in the stream table would be:
 the stream mass flow rate (kg/hr or tonnes/hr for steady state operation);
 the stream molar flow rate (kmol/hr for steady state operation);
 the stream composition (mole fraction for components with a defined molar mass such
as n-hexane, mass fraction for components without a defined molar mass such as wood
chips);
 the stream phase, pressure and temperature;
 the solids fraction, if applicable.
Other physical property information can also be included in the stream tables if it is deemed to
be suitably relevant. The magnitude of the flows shown in the stream table relate to the steady
state flowrate for continuous plant, or for the maximum batch size, measured in kg, in a batch
process. It is also useful to know the batch cycle time for a batch process. By including the
maximum batch size, the stream table can be used to size pipes and pumps.
Sample copy
Process flow diagrams are used for further design by, for example, specialist groups designing
individual unit operations or piping, by operational personnel for training plant operators, by
operations personnel for the creation of operating instructions and by plant engineers to
compare plant performance to design specification. Due to the number of groups that may use
a PFD, standardisation is vital. The symbols that are used for PFD development are standardised
under the remit of BS 1553 (1997); excerpts from this standard are given in Appendix A of
Towler and Sinnott (2008) and are also available as library symbols in programs such as MS
Visio®. In the case where a standardised symbol cannot be found, for example if a new piece
equipment has been developed, a user-defined symbol is acceptable. If non-standard symbols
are used, they should be simple, unambiguous and preferably be designed to be visually similar
to the unit operation that they illustrate.
In terms of presentation, a small stream table can be attached to the bottom part of the PFD. In
the case where the amount data in the stream table is very large, then sheets of separate stream
tables can be created. In addition, it is good practice to list out the key unit operations at the top
of the PFD. A simple PFD is shown in Figure 2-1.
- 12 -

A B C D E F G H I J
E-1-110: Off-gas E-1-111: C-1-130 E-1-112: C-1-130 V-1-120: Off-gas V-1-121: C-1-130
1 R-1-100: Oxidiser 1
condenser condenser reboiler knockout reflux drum
C-1-130: Crude P-1-140: Batch P-1-141: C-1-130 T-1-150: Oxidised

product column product pump feed pump product tank
2 2
E-1-110
1-11 To flare
3 1-9 3
V-1-120 E-1-111
V-1-121
Organics 1-2 1-10
4 4
1-7 To C-2-130
1-4
5 1-6 C-1-130 5
1-3
1-5
Oxygen 1-1
Sample copy
P-1-140 T-1-150
P-1-141
R-1-100
6 BATCH OPERATION 6
E-1-112
Line number 1-1 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5 1-6 1-7 1-8 1-9 1-10 1-11
1-8 To R-3-100
7 7
Acid Acid HP acid Light Heavy Condensate
Stream name Enriched air Feed Acid feed Offgas Volatiles
outlet storage feed ends ends return
Composition (mole fraction)
Methanol 0.00 0.14 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.23 0.05
Ethanol 0.00 0.20 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.14 0.00
8 8
Formaldehyde 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.32 0.00
Acetaldehyde 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.05 0.00
Formic acid 0.00 0.16 0.34 0.34 0.34 0.34 0.76 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00
Acetic acid 0.00 0.12 0.37 0.37 0.38 0.38 0.02 0.64 0.00 0.00 0.00
Water 0.00 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.22 0.33 0.07 0.27 0.00
9 Oxygen 0.32 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.00 0.12 9
Nitrogen 0.68 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.63 0.00 0.83
Sheet:1 of 4 BotE Designs Ltd
Batch time (hr) 0.5 0.5 0.5
Total mass (batch, kg) 800 860 860 Date:16/11/20 Drawing number:BotED-01-673-001
Mass flow (kg/hr) 50.0 100.0 100.0 40.0 60.0 53.3 13.3 40.0
Molar flow (kmol/hr) or total moles (kmol) 1.71 2.32 2.32 1 1.32 1.84 0.44 1.4 Title:Mixed alcohol oxidiser and crude
Drawn by:BH
Pressure (bara) 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.5 1.5 1.2 1.2 2.0 1.5 1.5 separation unit
Temperature (°C) 25 25 55 55 55 25 50 120 55 35 35 Paper size:
Revision:1.0
A3
Figure 2-1. Example of a simple PFD.
- 13 -

Note that on the PFD other information such as the author, the drawing revision, the date, and
client and the contracting company are all shown in the header bar. This information is
important to identify the PFD and, more importantly, its version. In the same way as the
statement of requirements, PFDs are subject to multiple revisions during the course of a design
so the importance of version control cannot be over-emphasised.
Showing batch processes on PFDs
When a process is batch, or a mixture of batch and continuous plant, clarity is essential. In
addition to the change of units the stream table, it is often useful to demarcate batch and
continuous plant visually on the PFD. This can be done in many ways, but perhaps the clearest
is to ‘box in’ either the batch or continuous part with a feint line making it clear which part of
the process is batch and which is continuous. An example of this is also shown in Figure 2-1.
Heat integration
Very often, the final design of a plant will involve significant amounts of energy recovery,
including heat integration. In addition to having a separate diagram that shows the configuration
of the heat exchange networks on the plant, heat integration needs to be shown unambiguously
Sample copy
on the PFD. The exact mechanism used to achieve this will vary depending on the complexity
of the heat integration, but two methods are shown here.
If the streams involved in heat recovery are in close proximity to one another, then simply
connecting one of the streams into the part of the heat exchanger that would usually connected
to a utility is sufficient. This is shown in Figure 2-2.
To RP unit
18
13
E 101
12
V 101
14
To C 102
11
10
E 100
15
C 100
9 16
E 103
P 100 E 102
17
Figure 2-2. PFD section illustrating heat integration between streams 17 & 18 and 10 & 11.
- 14 -

Illustrating heat integration as shown in Figure 2-2 may not always be very clear, especially if
the streams exchanging heat are on different pages of a PFD. In that case, use can be made of
the ‘flag’ notation usually reserved for utilities, and by showing the heat exchanger in which
the heat exchange is taking place twice. This is illustrated in Figure 2-3.
13
E 101
12
V 101
14
P-81
To C 102
18
11
10
E 100
17
15 To RP unit
C 100 18
10
9 16
E 103
P 100
E 102
17 E 100
11
Sample copy
Figure 2-3. Alternative illustration of heat integration between streams 17 & 18 and streams 10 &
11.
As can be seen in Figure 2-3, the hot fluid in stream 17 is passing through E-100 and exchanging
heat with stream 10. E-100 is shown on the PFD twice, in two different locations, one adjacent
to streams 17 and 18, and the other adjacent to streams 10 and 11. Care is required not to
‘double count’ this heat exchanger in any subsequent design work that relies on the PFD.
Stream tables
Stream tables, whether included on the PFD as shown in Figure 2-1 or whether included as
accompanying sheets to a set of PFDs, provide not only the information required to understand
stream composition and conditions but also provide a means of quickly checking mass balances.
In order to do this it is essential that mass flow information is included alongside molar flow /
mole fraction data, and that the layout of the tables is sufficiently clear to avoid misreading. As
an example, consider the stream table shown in Figure 2-4.
- 15 -

Line number 1-1 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5 1-6 1-7 1-8 1-9 1-10 1-11
Acid Acid HP acid Light Heavy Condensate
Stream name Enriched air Feed Acid feed Offgas Volatiles
outlet storage feed ends ends return
Composition (mole fraction)
Methanol 0.00 0.14 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.23 0.05
Ethanol 0.00 0.20 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.14 0.00
Formaldehyde 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.32 0.00
Acetaldehyde 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.05 0.00
Formic acid 0.00 0.16 0.34 0.34 0.34 0.34 0.76 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00
Acetic acid 0.00 0.12 0.37 0.37 0.38 0.38 0.02 0.64 0.00 0.00 0.00
Water 0.00 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.22 0.33 0.07 0.27 0.00
Oxygen 0.32 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.00 0.12
Nitrogen 0.68 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.63 0.00 0.83
Sample copy
Batch time (hr) 0.5 0.5 0.5
Total mass (batch, kg) 800 860 860
Mass flow (kg/hr) 50.0 100.0 100.0 40.0 60.0 53.3 13.3 40.0
Molar flow (kmol/hr) or total moles (kmol) 1.71 2.32 2.32 1 1.32 1.84 0.44 1.4
Pressure (bara) 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.5 1.5 1.2 1.2 2.0 1.5 1.5
Temperature (°C) 25 25 55 55 55 25 50 120 55 35 35
Figure 2-4. Example of stream table layout.
- 16 -

Visually, the stream table uses contrasting (but light) shading as a guide to the eye when reading
down the rows of the table. This shading can also be done horizontally so long as the
information remains clear and legible. Note also that every stream is not only numbered, and
that those numbers relate to the numbers shown on the PFD, but that there is also a brief
description of what the stream is. This assists the reader to locate the stream on the PFD.
In this particular example, it is convenient to give compositional data in mole fractions – this is
because each species has a defined chemical composition and molecular weight. In some
processes, for example those that involve biological systems or those that process natural
products, it would be more convenient to tabulate composition data in mass fractions. For
example, if a process combusts wood pellets in a fluidised bed using air as the fluidising
medium, it would be meaningless to calculate the mole fraction of wood; the mass fraction,
however, is a trivial calculation! Note also the number of significant figures that are used in
composition data: 2, maximum 3. It is highly unlikely during front-end design work (or any
other stage of the design work for that matter) that compositional information will be known
with any confidence to greater precision.
With regard to stream conditions, note that the minimum information that should be conveyed
Sample copy
is the temperature, pressure, molar flow and mass flow. If batch processes are present, then it
is usual to give the batch time and the total material mass: these data are used to size pumps
and pipes, so a measure of the peak flowrate is required, not the average flowrate!
Consider now checking the correctness of the mass balance of distillation column C-1-130. We
can see in Figure 2-1 that stream 1-6 enters this column and streams 1-7 and 1-8 leave it. With
reference to the stream table shown in Figure 2-4, we can very quickly see that the mass balance
is correct since 100 = 60 + 40. Note how quickly this check can be performed if the right data
are given, and when the data are presented in a clear and unambiguous manner!
- 17 -

2.4 Reading piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs)
YouTube lecture: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lI_hWsvjipM
The piping and instrumentation diagram is one of the most important documents that is
generated during the design process since it provides all the engineering information for the
design. As a consequence, P&IDs tend to be updated frequently and version control of the
document is vital. Due to the complexity of P&IDs, they can at first sight appear to be a daunting
diagram to understand, let alone to draw from first principles! Let’s start by figuring out how
to read the diagram.
Showing units operating and piping on a P&ID

The first thing to note is that all process equipment is shown on a P&ID, including:
 all pipes – principal pipes are shown by heavier lines,

 all valves – blacked out if closed by default, outlined if open by default,
Sample copy
 all vents and drains,
 all instrumentation & control loops,
 all safety devices,
 materials of construction also shown,
 all items are labelled with a unique identifier,
 all duplicate and standby equipment.
To help the reader understand the diagram, annotations are often applied to P&IDs to describe
any functionality that may be non-standard or specialist. P&IDs are also drawn using standard
sets of symbols – unit operation symbols are similar to those used for PFDs, but items such as
valves, control systems and sensors all have their own symbols, which define the exact item
that the designed wishes to be installed.
Pipes on P&IDs are all numbered uniquely. The number code designating any particular pipe
contains information relating to its nominal size, the fluid conveyed within it, the line number
(which is different to the PFD stream number due to the sheer number of lines illustrated on a
typical P&ID) and the materials of construction. Only standard sized piping should be chosen,
and fluid velocities should be chosen to avoid settling of suspended solutions where relevant
and to minimise pressure drops. Standard pipe diameters, termed “nominal diameters”, are
- 18 -

based on ANSI /ASME B36.10M and API 5L and a table showing some of these data is given
in Table 2-1.
Nom inal pipe size Nom inal diam eter Outside diam eter
(inches) (m m ) (inches) (m m )
1/8 6 0.405 10.29
¼ 8 0.54 13.72
3/8 10 0.675 17.15
½ 15 0.84 21.34
¾ 20 1.05 26.67
1 25 1.315 33.4
1¼ 32 1.66 42.16
1½ 40 1.9 48.26
2 50 2.375 60.33
2½ 65 2.875 73.02
3 80 3.5 88.9
3½ 90 4 101.6
4 100 4.5 114.3
4½ 115 5 127
5 125 5.563 141.3
6 150 6.625 168.27
8 200 8.625 219.08
10 250 10.75 273.05
12 300 12.75 323.85
Sample copy
14 350 14 355.6
16 400 16 406.4
18 450 18 457.2
20 500 20 508
24 600 24 609.6
Table 2-1. Nominal pipe sizes, and outside diameters.
Every pipeline shown on a P&ID will carry a unique line code, which will tell the engineer the
following information:
 the nominal diameter of the pipe;

 the contents of the pipe (fluid code);
 a unique line number;
 a code designating the material of construction of the pipe (material code);
 a code designating whether any thermal insulation or trace heating is used (insulation
code).
Abbreviations that relate to the nature of the process fluid and to the materials of construction
often vary from company to company and institution to institution: hence line codes you may
see used in industry may differ to that described above. For example, the line code 80-NIT-
1003-304 (shown in Figure 2-5), means that the pipe is 80 mm nominal diameter, that it contains
nitrogen, that the unique line number is 1003 and that the material is 304 stainless steel.
- 19 -

A process plant can have in excess of 100 P&IDs associated with it! So, when streams enter or
exit a P&ID, they should be flagged with a continuation code, which consists of the P&ID
number that the stream continues to (or has come from), and a grid reference on the diagram
where that stream can be found. For example, the entry flag shown in Figure 2-5 shows that the
stream originates on P&ID number 103 in grid cell H8.
Figure 2-5. Examples of line codes used in P&IDs
To avoid additional complexity, utility lines are typically shown with a flag indicating what the
utility is, for example that shown in Figure 2-6.
Sample copy
Process Water
Figure 2-6. P&ID utility flag.
For clarity, the direction of flow should be made clear on each process stream – beware of using
either too many or too few arrows however! Remember that clarity and accuracy are key
concerns when drafting P&IDs. Very often separate diagrams similar to PFDs are used to
illustrate how utilities flow around a plant – these are called utility flow diagrams.
Showing control schemes on P&IDs
There is a standardised way in which control scheme information is presented on P&IDs; this
is set according to ISA-5.1-1984 (R1992), formerly ANSI/ISA-5.1-1984(R1992). Excerpts
from this standard that relate to signal line conventions, instrument conventions, instrument
labelling conventions and flowmeter conventions are given in this section.
Signal lines, in the context of a P&ID, are the lines that connect together controllers, instruments
and active elements such as control valves; an example is given in Figure 2-7. These signals
can be conveyed by a number of different means, for example by electrical signals, by
pneumatic signals, or they could exist as a software link within a control program.
- 20 -

Signal line
FIC
Figure 2-7. Sketch of a signal line on a control valve.
The list shown in Figure 2-8 shows some of the more common symbolic representations of
signal lines that are in typical use. It should be noted that the ‘binary lines’ shown in Figure 2-8
refer to on/off control whereas the remainder refer to modulating (analogue) control.
Electrical
Electrical - alternative presentation
Pneumatic
Sample copy
Generic or undefined
Link with software
Electrical (binary signal)
Electrical (binary signal) – alternative presentation

Pneumatic (binary signal)
Figure 2-8. Standard representations of various types of control signal for P&ID use.
Instruments and instrument labelling

The way in which instruments are labelled and depicted symbolically on a P&ID tell the process
engineer what function they perform, where they are physically located and how they
communicate with other parts of the control loop that they belong to. In terms of instrument
labelling, typically an instrument label will consist of up to four letters followed by a number,
for example, “LRC 1001”. The first four letters indicate the function of the instrument, for
example “LRC” is shorthand for ‘level recorder controller’, which means a device that that is
not only a level controller but also logs level data over time. In past years, this recording
function was usually carried out by a stylus in the instrument plotting on a roll of graph paper
(a chart recorder); today, this function is carried out digitally using computer-based data
- 21 -

acquisition systems. The number that follows the letter code is simply a unique identifier such
that each instrument can be unambiguously labelled. A list of commonly-used letter codes that
is given in Table 2-2. Note that letters that are not listed here can be used for user-defined
measurements, and that there are a selection of less-commonly used third and fourth letters that
signify operations such as solenoids and other devices. For a complete list, the reader is advised
to consult ISA-5.1-1984 (R1992).
Sample copy
- 22 -

First letter Measured variable Devices that make a reading Devices that transmit information Controllers Switches and alarms
Indicates Just transmit Records Indicates Records Indicates

Records information Just controls High Low High and low
information information information information information information
A Analysis AR AI AT ART AIT AC ARC AIC ASH ASL ASHL

E Voltage ER EI ET ERT EIT EC ERC EIC ESH ESL ESHL
F Flowrate FR FI FT FRT FIT FC FRC FIC FSH FSL FSHL
FF Flow ratio FFR FFI FFRT FFRT FFIT FFC FFRC FFIC FFSH FFSL FFSHL
I Current IR II IT IRT IIT IC IRC IIC ISH ISL ISHL
J Power JR JI JT JRT JIT JC JRC JIC JSH JSL JSHL
L Level LR LI LT LRT LIT LC LRC LIC LSH LSL LSHL
P Pressure PR PI PT PRT PIT PC PRC PIC PSH PSL PSHL
PD Differential pressure PDR PDI PDRT PDRT PDIT PDC PDRC PDIC PDSH PDSL PDSHL
Q Quantity QR QI QT QRT QIT QC QRC QIC QSH QSL QSHL
S Speed SR SI ST SRT SIT SC SRC SIC SSH SSL SSHL
T Temperature TR TI TT TRT TIT TC TRC TIC TSH TSL TSHL
TD Differential temperature TDR TDI TDRT TDRT TDIT TDC TDRC TDIC TDSH TDSL TDSHL
W Weight WR WI WT WRT WIT WC WRC WIC WSH WSL WSHL
WD Differential weight WDR WDI WDRT WDRT WDIT WDC WDRC WDIC WDSH WDSL WDSHL
Sample copy
Z Position ZR ZI ZT ZRT ZIT ZC ZRC ZIC ZSH ZSL ZSHL
ZD Position deviation ZDR ZDI ZDRT ZDRT ZDIT ZDC ZDRC ZDIC ZDSH ZDSL ZDSHL
Table 2-2. List of instrument letter codes for controllers, readouts, switches and transmitters.
- 23 -

The symbol within which the identifying text is placed corresponds to where the instrument is
physically located and what style of instrument it is. In terms of location, typically a temperature
sensor and transmitter (the transmitter being the part that converts the weak temperature signal
into a form where it can be ‘understood’ by control equipment; either 4-20 mA, 0-10 V or a
proprietary data bus format) would be placed on the piece of equipment relevant to it. This is
termed ‘field mounted’, i.e. it is located on a vessel. The readout for this sensor is most likely
to be in the plant control room, the ‘primary location’. It may also be that a secondary readout
is available in some other location, for example, on the piece of equipment; this would be the
‘auxiliary location’ to assist with, for example with routine plant checks.
With regard to the style of instrument, these can be discrete instruments placed in a control
panel, or they could be an item that is included on a computer display alongside many other
instrument readouts. If the instrument in question performs a function that does not output a
display, for example a piece of logic within a programmable logic controller or an algorithm
within a computer, then separate symbols exist for each of these. Some examples of symbols
used for different instrument types and locations are shown in Figure 2-9: a full list is given in
ISA-5.1-1984 (R1992).
Sample copy
Primary
location,
accessible to Located on a
operator vessel
Single instrument
Instrument
appears on a
computer screen
Software
algorithm
Programmable
logic controller
Figure 2-9. List of symbols for instrument style and physical location.
- 24 -

Example P&ID
Now that we’ve briefly discussed how various items are illustrated on a P&ID, let’s look at a
simple example of a P&ID and learn how to read it. The P&ID that we’re going to examine is
shown in Figure 2-10 and only contains one vessel and its associated pipework: this is a really
simple P&ID compared to ones that can usually be seen on plant!
Sample copy
Figure 2-10. Highly simplified P&ID.
Firstly, let’s consider what’s shown on the vessel – for clarity an enlarged diagram of the vessel
is shown in Figure 2-11. Close examination of this diagram tells us that:
 the vessel has a “tag number”, in this case R-1-100, which should be the same tag
number that is given on the P&ID;
 every connection is shown that to and from the unit – this includes not only process
flows into and out of the vessel, but also any utility lines, nitrogen lines, vents, drains
and instrument connections. The two small parallel lines indicate a flanged connection,
and the number above the flange symbol shows the nominal pipe stub diameter (in mm)
that has been specified by the designer. If the flange symbol is not shown, then it
implied that a welded connection has been specified;
- 25 -

 hatches to allow human access to the vessel for inspection during shutdown are also
shown – again the diameter of the access is given in mm;
 all instruments are shown: in this case there is one pressure alarm (high / low) (PAHL),
two temperature recorders that also have low temperature alarms (TRAL) and a level
controller with recording functionality (LRC). Each of these instruments is connected
to R-1-100 by means of a 40 mm diameter flanged pipe stub, and any information
recorded by the instruments is shown on a shared display, probably a computer mimic
of the plant;
 pressure relief is provided by a relief valve, PRV-101, which has a relief pressure of
2.3 bara. The pressure relief valve (PRV) is connected to R-1-100 by means of a flanged
connection;
 the main process line connects to, and leaves, the vessel via 200 mm flanged pipe stubs;
 two normally-closed valves are connected to the base of the vessel: one is on a 200 mm
diameter flanged pipe stub and the other is on an 80 mm diameter flanged pipe stub.
These connections are most likely to be used as process drains;
 One vessel vent, or vessel nitrogen connection, is connected to the vessel via a normally
closed valve situated on an 80 mm diameter flanged pipe stub at the top of the vessel.
Sample copy
As can be seen, everything that appears on the vessel on the plant must appear on the P&ID!
Figure 2-11. Vessel shown on P&ID.
- 26 -

Let’s now consider how the pump, and the control valve preceding it, is shown. An enlarged
version of the valve and pump is shown in Figure 2-12.
Figure 2-12. Motor-controlled control valve and pump.
We can see to start with that the valve has a motor-controlled actuator (the M shown in the
round circle above the pump), that the valve is normally open (it is shown in outline rather than
blacked out in the manner of the drain valves in Figure 2-11) and that the control signal that
controls the valve position is electrical (one diagonal slash) derived from level controller LRC-
103. Furthermore, the position of the valve can be changed by an electrical signal coming from
Sample copy
the emergency shutdown system (ES in the diamond) and that if the electrical signal fails, then
the control valve will fail open (FO). Closer inspection of the symbol for CV-101 shows that it
is a symbolic abbreviation – this is designated by the asterisk. As we will see later on, a control
valve has a lot of associated valves and pipework to prevent valve or actuator failure shutting
down, or otherwise compromising, a process. Symbolic abbreviations are used to declutter
P&IDs and the arrangement of valves of pipes that corresponds to the symbolic abbreviation
for a control valve will be discussed shortly.
Turning our attention to the pump, we can again see that there is an asterisk by the symbol,
indicating that this too is a symbolic abbreviation. A pump never works in isolation since, if it
failed, it would compromise the operation of part, or all, of the plant. A typical pumping system
would consist of two or even three identically-rated pumps in parallel, only one of which would
operate at any given time. At the change of each operating shift, the operating pump would be
swapped around to ensure that all of the pumps in the system were functional. If any one of the
two or three pumps failed, there would always be another to take its place. A P&ID segment of
a typical pump set is shown in Figure 2-13.
- 27 -

Figure 2-13. P&ID segment showing two centrifugal pumps in parallel. Note the operational and
standby pump designated by the default valve positions.
Sample copy
In Figure 2-13, note how the operational pump has valves shown to be in the ‘normally open’
position and the standby pump has valves shown in the ‘normally closed’ (fully shaded)
position. Note also that drains are included such that residual fluid within the pumps can be
removed prior to disassembly. The nature of centrifugal pumps is such that they will not operate
if there is any gas in the entrant flow; the two pipe stubs with normally closed valves are vents
and are connected to the same point as the exit line on each pump. These vents can be used
during commissioning to bleed gas or vapour out of the process fluid lines to prevent the pumps
from having priming problems. Finally, note the use of non-return valves so that the operational
pump does not pump fluid in a loop around the pump system!
As was alluded to in Figure 2-12, control valves also need to be designed to be removed and
maintained, whilst keeping disruption to the remainder of the process to a minimum. A typical
control valve setup is shown in Figure 2-14. Note how, in this Figure, the control valve can be
easily isolated, a bypass flow can be put in place and the pressure drops across the two
alternative flow paths are matched by use of an orifice plate in the bypass loop. Again,
appropriate drainage has been designed into this system.
- 28 -

Figure 2-14. Typical P&ID segment for a control valve assembly.
It is often appropriate to use symbolic abbreviations on P&IDs for valves and pump sets since
drawing the full assembly each time would be laborious, repetitive and detract from the clarity
of the P&ID. Conventions tend to be user-defined, but they must be clearly noted on the bottom
of a P&ID when they are used. This is illustrated in Figure 2-15 and in Figure 2-16.
Sample copy
M
* *
P-1-110
* *Represents a pump- *Represents a motorised

set, with 1 running and M
* control valve with bypass loop,
1 standby pump isolation and vents & drains
Figure 2-15. A P&ID template showing abbreviations for pump sets and control valve assemblies.
- 29 -

Sample copy
Figure 2-16. Example of a P&ID section showing the symbolic abbreviations in the lower part of the diagram.
- 30 -

It can be very helpful to include notes with your P&IDs that give descriptive information about
aspects of the control system, about safety trips and alarms and about emergency shutdown
actions. It can also be useful to include notes about any other part of your P&ID that may require
further explanation. An example of such a note set is shown in Figure 2-17. Notes should be
brief, accurate and concise.
Sample copy
Figure 2-17. Example of a set of P&ID guidance notes.
- 31 -

2.5 Drawing P&IDs
YouTube lecture: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nk_MYO3wmmI
As mentioned in the previous section, the P&ID is the most detailed engineering drawing that
a process engineer authors, and it is therefore essential that information is not inadvertently
omitted. The key to ensuring that a high quality diagram is produced is to take a very logical
and structured approach to its drafting and to have a thorough review process once the diagram
is drawn. Bear in mind that it may take a significant number of drawing iterations to ensure all
relevant detail has been captured. The principal steps are:
i. specifying sufficient control loops for the degrees of freedom available to control the
unit, illustrating them clearly on the P&ID and ensuring that emergency shutdown
actions are catered for;
ii. ensuring that sufficient isolation for the unit, and for any instrumentation, has been
Sample copy
illustrated;
iii. specifying the systems required to gather any additional information about the unit;
iv. specifying safety trips;
v. specifying drainage systems for the unit, for instrumentation and for pipework;
vi. specifying vent and pressure relief systems for the unit and, if applicable,
instrumentation and pipework;
vii. specifying other systems required for the safe operation of the unit, for example
nitrogen blanketing systems and / or trace heating;
viii. completing the diagram with pipe sizing data and other information to assist the user
to understand it readily.
These steps will now be explored in more detail in the sections that follow. A P&ID preparation
checklist is included in Appendix A to act as an aide memoire.
Specifying control systems

The first step starts with taking the basic diagram for a unit operation that was illustrated on the
process flow diagram (PFD). Suppose, for example, we need to produce a P&ID for an adiabatic
3-phase separator that contains an aqueous liquid phase, an organic liquid phase and a vapour
phase. This unit would have been illustrated on a PFD in a similar manner to that shown in
Figure 2-18.
-32 -

Vapour
phase
Feed stream
Organic
liquid
Aqueous
liquid
Organic
liquid phase
Aqueous
liquid phase
Figure 2-18. Illustration of a three phase separator that would appear on a PFD.
To start with, we need to know the number of degrees of freedom that are present for controlling
the unit. A quick way of calculating this for the steady state is to use the relationship that:
Sample copy
Number of control degrees of freedom = number of connections – (total number of phases - 1) 1
For the adiabatic three-phase separator shown in Figure 2-18, therefore, there are two degrees
of freedom: typically flow rate and pressure. However, if we think about the unsteady state, the
inventory (the amount of liquid in the vessel) can change as a function of time, giving an
additional parameter than can be controlled. For a three-phase separator, two liquid phases exist
and hence two liquid levels can be controlled on top of the two steady-state degrees of freedom.
For a detailed discussion of inventory control, see Ponton, 1994. If the separator was non-
adiabatic then the physical system that adds or removes heat would count as an energy stream,
making one additional connection.
If the flow-rate of material entering the separator is already controlled, for example by another
unit in the process, then there are three remaining control loops that can be specified: pressure,
aqueous liquid level and organic liquid level. According to Ponton, level control should
generally be specified after the steady state degrees of freedom have been addressed. Let’s start
by adding pressure control to the unit: this is shown in Figure 2-19.
1
Ponton J.W., Chem. Eng. Sci., 49(11), 2089-2095, 1994.
-33 -

ES
Nitrogen
S
I Instrument
PAL PAH PIC
* P air
= 101 101 101
PV
Effluent 101
treatment
*
Vapour
phase
PIT
Feed stream
101
PI
101
Organic
liquid
Aqueous
liquid
Organic
liquid phase
Aqueous
liquid phase
Figure 2-19. Illustration of pressure control.
Sample copy
There are three components to the control system:
a. pressure measurement using pressure indicator PI101 and pressure signal transmission
using PIT 101 (pressure indicator transmitter);
b. calculation of controller response to the signal using PIC 101 (pressure indicator
controller)
c. pressure control using a control valve driven by PV 101 (pressure valve).
It is wise to always keep in mind how measurements are taken. A pressure sensing device needs
to be in physical contact with the fluid (vapour or liquid) that it is measuring. Note in Figure
2-19 that PI101 is connected to a small pipeline leaving the vessel. In addition, there is a
(normally open) isolation valve between PI101 and the vessel that can be shut should the
pressure indicator need replacing. The signal from PI101 is then converted to a standard
electrical signal, usually 4-20 mA, and transmitted along the electrical connection to PIC101.
PIC101 converts the 4-20 mA electrical signal from PI101 into a control signal that will instruct
the control valve to open to a certain percentage of fully open. Control valves can be driven by
electrical actuators (motors or solenoids) or pneumatic actuators: in this case a pneumatic
actuator has been selected due to the presence of a flammable organic liquid. This is a good
-34 -

example of inherent safety – there is no danger of electrical sparks if an electrical system isn’t
used!
Also connected to PIC101 are two alarms: PAL101 and PAH 101. These are, respectively, a
low pressure and high pressure alarm. Note that the symbols for PIC101, PAL101 and PAH
101 denote that they are displayed on a computer control system in a control room. This
contrasts against PI101, PIT101 and PV101: these are shown to be local to the vessel. The
numbers of all these instruments are the same since they all belong to control loop 101.
In order for an electrical control signal to drive a pneumatic valve, a current to pressure
convertor (I/P convertor) is required. An I/P convertor requires a compressed air supply, which
should be able to be isolated. It may also be necessary to have additional signals coming in to
the I/P convertor, typically those required by emergency shutdown systems (shown as a
diamond containing the abbreviation “ES”). These emergency signals will override the normal
control system. Note that in Figure 2-19 a symbolic abbreviation has been used for the control
valve, and it is assumed that the abbreviation has been defined.
Now that the steady state degrees of freedom have been used, let’s turn our attention to
Sample copy
inventory control. Figure 2-20 shows a control system that will control the position of the
aqueous interface.
ES
S
I Instrument
PAL PAH PIC
P air
101 101 101
PV
101
*
Vapour
phase
PIT
Feed stream
101
PI
101
Organic
liquid
LAL LAH LIC
102 102 102
Aqueous
liquid
ES
S
Instrument I
P
air PDE
102
PDT
LV 102 Organic
102 liquid phase
*
Aqueous
liquid phase
Figure 2-20. Level control of the aqueous interface.
-35 -

The structure of this control loop has a lot of similarity with the pressure control loop. The
liquid level is inferred from measuring the difference in pressure between the organic layer and
the aqueous layer: differential pressure sensing element PDE102 carries out this function. From
a practical standpoint, this pressure sensing element needs to be in good contact with both
liquids, hence the presence of two pieces of pipework equipped with appropriate isolation
valves. Liquid pressure sensors will be rendered inaccurate and/or unreliable if there any
trapped gas bubbles in these pipes due to bubbles compressing with applied pressure – it is
necessary to include small bleed valves on these pipes that could be used to remove trapped
vapour: these are marked as normally closed.
The final control system manipulates the aqueous liquid level. Again, this is carried out using
a differential pressure measurement between the vapour in the vessel and a known point in the
aqueous layer. This is illustrated in Figure 2-21. Again, the same practical consideration of
being able to remove vapour bubbles from the tube leading to PDE103 is important, hence the
inclusion of a normally closed bleed valve on this line.
ES
S
I Instrument
PAL PAH PIC
P air
101 101 101
Sample copy
PV
101
*
Vapour
phase
PIT
Feed stream
101
PI
101
Organic
liquid PDE
103
LAL LAH LIC
102 102 102 PDT ES
103
Aqueous S
LAL LAH LIC I Instrument
liquid P
ES 103 103 103 air
S
Instrument I
P PV
air PDE 103
102
PDT
*
LV 102 Organic
102 liquid phase
*
Aqueous
liquid phase
Figure 2-21. Three phase separator with all three control systems specified.
Unit isolation
Now that all the control systems have been specified, attention must be turned to the safe
isolation of both the vessel and the instrumentation attached to it. The key scenario to keep in
-36 -

mind is maintaining a safe working environment for whoever has to work on the vessel or
instrument during maintenance.
Typically, ’double isolation’ is recommended. This requires two independent and functionally
different methods of isolation placed in series: usually this consists of two isolation valves with
a spectacle plate between them.
If there is a significant length of pipework in between the valve and the spectacle plate, then
suitable vents and drains should also be specified on the pipework. Ideally, the pipework
between the spectacle plate and the valves should be kept to a minimum, but it may not always
be practical to do so. Don’t forget that a spectacle plate is essentially a blank piece of metal that
has be bolted into flange in the pipework to seal it off: if the pipework drains its liquid inventory
on the ground when the flange is unbolted, then this is not a safe working environment. Isolation
for the three-phase separator is shown in Figure 2-22, and for the control valve assembly in
Figure 2-23. In Figure 2-23, the bypass leg around the valve along with the nitrogen supply and
drainage pipe all contain normally closed valves since, in normal operation, the process flow
will be through the control valve.
Sample copy
ES
S
I Instrument
PAL PAH PIC
P air
101 101 101
PV
101
*
Vapour
phase
PIT
Feed stream
101
PI
101
Organic
liquid PDE
103
LAL LAH LIC
102 102 102 PDT ES
103
Aqueous S
liquid P
ES 103 103 103 air
S
Instrument I
P PV
air PDE 103
102
PDT
*
LV 102 Organic
102 liquid phase
*
Aqueous
liquid phase
Figure 2-22. Isolation system for three phase separator (shown in blue).
-37 -

Nitrogen
*
=
Effluent
treatment
Figure 2-23. Isolation, venting and draining for control valve.
Specifying additional measurements and safety trips

Often, the data obtained from the control systems does not give sufficient information to run
the process. Additional process measurements are often required. Suppose, in the case of the
three-phase separator, it is also desirable to know the mass flow rates of aqueous liquid and
vapour leaving the vessel. Let’s examine the liquid flow first.
Figure 2-24 illustrates a system that computes mass flow as a software operation in the control
room (MIR105) using two different measurements for comparison – the change in static head
of the vessel and the flowrate as recorded by using the pressure drop across an orifice plate.
Sample copy
Two measurements are taken since if both are the same, then a high degree of confidence can
be had in the data. If, however, the measurements differ then an alarm can be raised and the
data marked as being unreliable. This is far more preferable to a single measurement, the
accuracy of which cannot be verified.
-38 -

ES
S
I Instrument
PAL PAH PIC
P air
101 101 101
PV
101
*
Vapour
phase
PIT
Feed stream
101
PI
101
Organic
liquid PDE
103
LAL LAH LIC
102 102 102 PDT ES
103
Aqueous S
liquid P
ES 103 103 103 air
S WT
Instrument I 102
P PV
air PDE 103
FT MIR
102
PDT
105 105 *
LV 102 PDE Organic
FE
102 106 liquid phase
105
* **
Aqueous
liquid phase
Figure 2-24. Illustration of liquid mass flow measurement (in purple).
Sample copy PDE

105
Nitrogen
** =
Effluent
treatment
Figure 2-25. Isolation, venting and draining for orifice plate.
The static head of the aqueous layer, as measured by differential pressure element PDE102, is
processed local to the vessel by another piece of electronics that converts pressure to weight
(WT102). This signal is then transmitted electrically to the computer where MIR105 is
implemented. In addition, a differential pressure measurement is taken across an orifice plate
by PDE105. This pressure measurement is converted to a flow measurement by FE105 and then
transmitted electrically to the computer where MIR105 is implemented by FT105. Don’t forget
that in order to calculate a mass flow measurement from an orifice plate, the fluid density needs
to be known. For a liquid, this is often assumed to be constant since there is little significant
-39 -

variation over a typical range of temperature and pressures that correspond to normal process
operation.
Figure 2-25 illustrates the configuration of the orifice plate. As with the control valve, if the
orifice plate has to be removed it can be isolated with the process flow bypassed around it. The
liquid within the pipe cavity in which the plate sits can be drained, and nitrogen can be used to
flush out any harmful or flammable vapour.
Figure 2-26 illustrates the mass flow measurement system for the vapour phase. Only one flow
measurement is taken this time, which is from the orifice plate via FE104 and FT104. Unlike
the liquid mass flow measurement, gas phase density is strongly dependent on both pressure
and temperature: these two measurements are taken by PIC101 and the combination of TE107
& TT107 respectively.
In addition to measurements that give information to the operators, it will be necessary to

consider what additional safety systems are required. These are always specified independently
of the control system such that if the control system fails the safety system can still function.
Trips might include shutting down pumps automatically if liquid levels drop below a certain
Sample copy
amount, ensuring that emergency cooling systems operate if temperature limits are exceeded
etc.
ES
S
I Instrument
PAL PAH PIC
P air
101 101 101
TT FT MIR
107 104 104
TE FE PV
107 104 101
** *
Vapour
phase
PIT
Feed stream
101
PI
101
Organic
liquid PDE
103
LAL LAH LIC
102 102 102 PDT ES
103
Aqueous S
liquid P
ES 103 103 103 air
S WT
Instrument I 102
P PV
air PDE 103
FT MIR
102
PDT
105 105 *
LV 102 PDE Organic
FE
105
* **
Aqueous
liquid phase
Figure 2-26. Illustration of vapour mass flow measurement (in purple).
-40 -

Drainage
It is important to specify adequate drainage for all vessels and significant lengths of pipework.
Remember also that pipework containing spectacle plates will also need draining before the
spectacle plate can be used (unless the liquid inventory is small enough and safe enough to be
drained into a bucket). This is illustrated in Figure 2-27. In normal operation, drains are marked
as normally closed.
ES
S
I Ins trument
PAL PAH PIC
P air
101 101 101
TT FT MIR
107 104 104
TE FE PV
107 104 101
** *
Va pour
pha s e
PIT
Feed s tream 101
PI
101
Orga ni c
l i quid PDE
103
LAL LAH LIC
PDT ES
Sample copy
102 102 102
103
Aqueous S
LAL LAH LIC I Ins trument
l i quid P
ES 103 103 103 air
S WT
Ins trument I 102
P PV
air PDE 103
FT MIR
102
PDT
105 105 *
LV 102 PDE Orga ni c
FE
102 106 l i quid phase
105
* **
Aqueous
l i quid phase
Li qui d
effl uent
trea tment
Figure 2-27. Illustration of vessel and pipework drains (in grey)
Pressure relief, venting and nitrogen systems.

All vessels can be subject to overpressure and under-pressure if a process deviates from normal
operation. The consequences of a vessel rupturing due to overpressure can be catastrophic, as
can the effect of the subsequent pressure blast wave. It is therefore of paramount importance to
specify adequate pressure relief! Don’t overlook what has to happen to material that may exit
through a relief valve – it may be toxic and flammable and require further treatment before
coming into contact with the environment. Please see chapter 5 on pressure relief and pressure
safety for more information.
-41 -

In addition to process relief, vessels require vents. This is so that when they are drained, the
liquid can actually drain out as a gas displaces the liquid. It is not always appropriate to use air
as a venting gas since flammable atmosphere formation would again have catastrophic
consequences. A typical strategy is to purge with nitrogen to force out any remaining flammable
gases as the liquids are drained. If nitrogen is introduced into a pipeline or vessel, do not forget
to consider where the vapours are being purged to. The safe disposal considerations are much
the same as those considerations for the safe disposal of relief streams.
An example of pressure relief, venting and nitrogen purging for the three phase separator is
shown in Figure 2-28. Again, in normal operation valves on nitrogen purge lines and on vents
are normally closed.
Flare
ES
S
I Instrument
PAL PAH PIC
P air
101 101 101
TT FT MIR
107 104 104
TE FE PV
Nitrogen 101
107 104
Ambient, 2 bara
Sample copy
** *
Vapour
phase
PIT
Feed stream
101
PI
101
Organic
liquid PDE
103
LAL LAH LIC
102 102 102 PDT ES
103
Aqueous S
liquid P
ES 103 103 103 air
S WT
Instrument I 102
P PV
air PDE 103
FT MIR
102
PDT
105 105 *
LV 102 PDE Organic
FE
105
* **
Aqueous
liquid phase
Liquid
effluent
treatment
Figure 2-28. Nitrogen purge system (yellow) and venting and pressure relief system (green).
In this example, the vessel is protected by a single bursting disk. This is not uncommon, but
neither would be multiple relief devices such as relief valves or relief valve / bursting disk
-42 -

combinations. Under no circumstances must relief devices be able to be isolated leaving a

vessel unprotected.
Nitrogen purging has been specified for all major pipelines and for the vessel. In tandem with
this, vent lines have also been specified for all four major pipelines and the vessel. A decision
has been taken to route all vapours to flare. This is sensible for the current example, since the
vapour space will be organic vapours that are in equilibrium with the organic liquid and will
more than likely be flammable.
Finishing touches.
The P&ID is almost complete. All that remains now is to supply a few more details of the
materials entering and leaving the diagram and to give each of the pipelines, including effluent,
nitrogen and flare piping, piping codes. Is has been assumed that 60 mm nominal diameter pipes
are used for all pipelines except for main process piping, which is 120 mm nominal diameter.
This is shown in Figure 2-29.
60 - OV -1/105 - CS
Flare
ES
Sample copy
S
I Instrument
PAL PAH PIC
P air
101 101 101
TT FT MIR
107 104 104
TE FE PV
Nitrogen 60 - N2 -1/105 - CS
107 104 101
Ambient, 2 bara
** * Vapour
44°C 3.3 bara
Organic/
120- OV -1/102 - CS
aqueous liquid PIT
+ vapour 101
120- OVL -1/101 - CS
44°C 3.3 bara PI
101
Organic
liquid PDE
103
LAL LAH LIC
102 102 102 PDT ES
103
Aqueous S
liquid P
ES 103 103 103 air
S WT
Instrument I 102
P PV
air PDE 103
FT MIR
102
PDT
105 105 *
LV 102 PDE Organic liquid
FE
102 106 44°C 3.3 bara
105
* 120- OL -1/103 - CS **
120- OL -1/104 - CS
Aqueous liquid
44°C 3.3 bara
Liquid 60 - OL -1/105 - CS
effluent
treatment
Figure 2-29. Diagram complete with piping codes and detailed data on entry / exit flags
-43 -

The final diagram, of course, needs to be presented in the manner of an engineering drawing.
All symbolic abbreviations must be defined, and the drawing title, drawing authors, date and
drawing version must be included. It is also good practice to include a commentary that
describes:
a. how the major control loops work;

b. what the major safety trips are, how they are triggered and what subsequent actions
follow;
c. what the emergency shutdown actions are;
d. any additional information that is outside of information in (a) – (c) that is useful to the
engineer or operator;
e. a definition of the line codes;
f. a definition of the material codes used in the line codes.
An example of the completed P&ID is shown in Figure 2-30. Note in this Figure that the
explanatory notes are only illustrative and do not apply to the system shown!
Sample copy
-44 -

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
H H
G G
F F
E E
C
Sample copy D
B B
PDE
105
PDE
105
Example P&ID
Nitrogen Nitrogen
** = ** =
Drawn by:
A M.E. Williamson, B. Hallmark A
Effluent Effluent
treatment treatment Revision: 2 Date: 25th July 2018
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Figure 2-30. Completed P&ID
-45 -

An Introduction To Process Design - Watermarked Sample - 12th October

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

An Introduction To Process Design - Watermarked Sample - 12th October

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

gassxy05@gmail.

com 21 Oct 2022

About the author

YouTube channel: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCTdbVC0zIPOWFUBP9LzUYXA

2. Process documentation ........................................................................................................................... 11

2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 11

2.2 Process flow diagrams (PFDs) ................................................................................................... 11

2.4 Reading piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs) .............................................................. 18

2.5 Drawing P&IDs ......................................................................................................................... 32

2.6 Process data sheets and interlock schedules ................................................................................ 46

2.8 Appendix 1-A: P&ID checklist .................................................................................................. 51

3. Chemical reactors .................................................................................................................................. 53

3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 53

3.2 Innovative engineering – example 1 ........................................................................................... 54

3.4 Choice of reactor conditions and configuration ........................................................................... 58

3.5 Multiphase reactor systems ........................................................................................................ 59

3.6 Thermal effects in chemical reactors .......................................................................................... 79

3.7 Numerical modeling of chemical reactors................................................................................... 83

3.8 Mechanical design of chemical reactors ..................................................................................... 91

3.9 Summary................................................................................................................................. 108

3.10 Appendix 2-A – Matlab reactor simulation code ....................................................................... 109

4. Distillation optimisation ....................................................................................................................... 110

4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 110

4.2 Innovative engineering – example 4 ......................................................................................... 111

4.3 Overview of distillation modelling and optimisation ................................................................. 113

4.4 Optimisation of feed location and stage count .......................................................................... 115

4.5 Optimisation of feed pre-heat ................................................................................................... 119

4.6 Optimisation of instrument location ......................................................................................... 121

4.7 Basic distillation control schemes ............................................................................................ 123

4.8 Developing a vessel layout....................................................................................................... 127

4.9 Summary................................................................................................................................. 133

5. Pressure systems .................................................................................................................................. 134

5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 134

5.2 Hazard assessment of pressure vessels ..................................................................................... 135

5.3 Pressure ranges for vessels ....................................................................................................... 141

5.4 Pressure relief devices ............................................................................................................. 142

5.6 Safe treatment and disposal of vented streams .......................................................................... 150

5.7 Summary................................................................................................................................. 156

6. Plant layout .......................................................................................................................................... 157

6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 157

6.2 Site selection ........................................................................................................................... 158

6.3 Plot layout ............................................................................................................................... 160

6.4 Other considerations that affect layout ..................................................................................... 166

6.6 Summary................................................................................................................................. 177

7. Electrical power ................................................................................................................................... 178

7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 178

7.2 Electricity generation and distribution in the UK ...................................................................... 178

7.3 Grid equipment found on site ................................................................................................... 188

7.4 Supply options for new UK plant ............................................................................................. 191

7.5 Uses of electricity on plant....................................................................................................... 192

7.6 Basic electrical safety .............................................................................................................. 196

7.8 Summary................................................................................................................................. 205

8. References ........................................................................................................................................... 206

An introduction to chemical process design, 1st edition.

An introduction to chemical process design, 1st edition.

B. Hallmark, October 2021

An introduction to chemical process design, 1st edition.

An introduction to chemical process design, 1st edition.

 sustainable manufacturing of consumer-facing products.

An introduction to chemical process design, 1st edition.

An introduction to chemical process design, 1st edition.

An introduction to chemical process design, 1st edition.

YouTube lecture: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bu_SvM0xD6A

* Represents a pump- Represents a motorised