托福听力地质学背景知识

地质学(geology)是托福听力考试中的常见话题，是关于地球的物质组成、内部构

造、外部特征、各层圈之间的相互作用和演变历史的知识体系，是研究地球本身的

学科。需要与之区分的是地理学(geography)，是一门描述地球表面的科学。地理

学描述和分析发生在地球表面上的自然、生物和人文现象的空间变化，探讨它们之

间的相互关系及其重要的区域类型。

　　相信广大考生应该还记得中学时学过，地球的内部结构是一个同心状圈层构造，

由地心至地表依次分化为地核(core)、地幔(mantle)、地壳(crust)。地球地核、地

幔和地壳的分界面，主要依据地震波(seismic/earthquake wave)传播速度的急剧

变化推测确定。如果把地球内部结构做个形象的比喻，它就像一个鸡蛋，地核就相

当于蛋黄，地幔就相当于蛋白，地壳就相当于蛋壳。从地球的外部结构来看，则可

以分成大气圈(atmosphere)、水圈(hydrosphere)、生物圈(biosphere)和岩石圈

(lithosphere)，岩石圈包括地壳和地幔上部。地球上有七大洲和五大洋，分别是

亚洲(Asia)，欧洲(Europe)，北美洲(North America)，南美洲(South

America)，非洲(Africa)，大洋洲(Oceania)和南极洲(Antarctica);太平洋(Pacific

Ocean)，大西洋(Atlantic Ocean)，印度洋(Indian Ocean)，北冰洋(Arctic

Ocean)和南冰洋(Antarctic Ocean)。

　　大陆漂移学说(Continental Drift)
　　大陆漂移学说是有关于地球大陆之间关系的一种假说(hypothesis)。早在

1596 年，亚伯拉罕·奥特柳思(Abraham Ortelius)首次提出了这个观点，而对于这

个观点我们比较熟悉的则是阿尔弗雷德·魏格纳(Alfred Wegener)，他于 1912 年

相对完整地提出了这套假说。到了二十世纪六十年代，随着板块构造学说(Plate

Tectonics)的发展，大陆漂移学说得到了更多的支持。

　　如果仔细观察一下世界地图，我们会发现非洲和南美洲的海岸线似乎能像拼图

一样吻合在一起，早期的科学家们正是发现了这一点，才最终提出了大陆漂移学说。

魏格纳提出在中生代(Mesozoic)地球表面存在一个泛大陆(Pangea)，这个超级大

陆经过了分裂和两亿多年的漂移形成了现在的海洋和陆地。

　　除了非洲和南美洲海岸线的“锯齿状吻合”，还有很多其他的证据能支持大陆

漂移这个观点。魏格纳在研究古代气候的时候发现，各个大陆上存在某一个地质时

期形成岩石类型出现在现代条件下不该出现的地区。例如，在南极洲地区出现古珊

瑚礁(coral reef)和热带植物(tropical plants)化石(fossil);在赤道(equator)地区发

现有古代冰层。魏格纳还认为，大陆漂移对现代由海洋分隔的各大陆上动物和植物

的显著相似性提供了最好的解释。例如中龙(mesosaurus)这种淡水爬行类动物

(reptile)，在南美和非洲都能找到;存在于南极洲三叠纪(Triassic period)有许多陆

生爬行动物的化石在其他大陆同样存在。

　　板块构造学(Plate Tectonics)
　　板块构造学说以大陆漂移学说为基础，主要描述了地球岩石圈(lithosphere)

的大范围运动。在二十世纪五十年代末六十年代初，海底扩张学说(Seafloor

Spreading)发展起来了，大陆漂移学说也因此变得更为可信。1968 年法国地质学

家勒皮雄和麦肯锡、摩根等人提出了板块构造学说，作为一种新的大陆漂移学说，

它是海底扩张说的具体延伸。所谓板块，指的是岩石圈板块，包括了地壳和软流层

(asthenosphere)以上的地幔顶部。板块构造学说认为，不论大洋壳(oceanic

crust)还是大陆壳(continental crust)都曾发生并且还在继续发生大规模水平运动，

岩石圈板块在整个地幔软流层上像传送带般移动着。

　　1968 年勒皮雄将地球的板块分为太平洋板块(Pacific Ocean tectonic

plate)、亚欧板块(Eurasian tectonic plate)、非洲板块(African tectonic

plate)、美洲板块(American tectonic plate)、印度洋板块(Indian Ocean

tectonic plate)(包括澳洲)和南极洲板块(Antarctica tectonic plate)这六大板块，

以及一些其他的小板块。这些板块在运动中相互影响，板块交界的地方即板块边界

(plate boundaries)可以根据板块边缘的构造、活动性和板块内部整体性分为三种

类型：离散型(divergent boundaries)、聚敛型(convergent/collisional

boundaries)和剪切型(conservative transform boundaries)。板块边界是地壳

上极不稳定的地带，几乎所有的地震(earthquake)都分布在此，火山(volcano)也

大多数在边界附近，山脉的形成(mountain building)和海沟(oceanic trench)的

出现也都沿着边界进行。
 托福听力地理学背景知识
一、山
　　山，首先要对于一些著名的山或山脉要有了解，如：Alps 阿尔卑斯山、
Amides 安第斯山脉、Rockies 罗基山脉、Appalachians 阿巴拉奇亚山、Cascades 卡
斯卡达山脉、St. Helens 圣海伦斯山等。
　　山的考点有以下几点：
　　formation/age 即形成方式和年代的概念。
　　考生需要对于数字有足够的敏感度，包括高度(height)、长度(length)、海拔
(altitude)、年龄(age)等。
　　针对于山脉(mountain ranges)的形成方式，有两大原因。一是，板块的挤压或
碰撞(collision of tectonic plates)，考生需要知道两大学说，板块构造说(Plate
Tectonic)和大陆漂移学说(Continental Drifting)。对于地球构造的名词需要知道，地
壳(crust)、地幔(mantle)、地核(core)。二是，由于火山爆发(during volcanic
eruption/action)。
　　volcano---eruption/erupt
　　关于火山，常见考点就是对于火山的分类(classification)。
　　按照喷发周期(eruption cycle)，我们可以将火山分为三大类：active volcano 活
火山、Inactive/extinct volcano 死火山、Dormant volcano 休眠火山，也就是潜在的
活火山。
　　按照喷发强度(eruption intensity)，或者是火山结构决定，我们可以将火山分为
两大类：盾状火山(shield volcano)和复式火山(Composite volcano)。盾状火山的特点
是形状像盾牌，喷发周期短，喷发强度小。而复式火山有很多层，所以导致火山的
内部压强(pressure)大、密度(density)大，它的特点是喷发周期强，喷发强度大。
　　在做听力的时候，考生要注意听的方法：听火上的类型(type);听火上的位置(与
山的关系---与哪个山相连)(location—other mountain);次生灾害(productive
disasters)---火山灰(ash cloud/volcanic ash)、地震(earthquake)、山崩(landslide)、雪崩
(avalanche)、泥石流(mudslide)、杀生(kill creatures);听调查和调查者(survey research
results);听火山由静到动的过程(process)
二、湖
　　同样的，对于湖，考生需要对于五大湖有一个了解。背诵方法 SHMEO，是各
个湖的缩写。最大湖 Superior 最西边、二大湖 Huron、三大湖 Michigan---全部湖水
面积都在美国本土、第四湖 Erie、第五湖 Ontario 最东边。这五大湖都属于淡水湖
(Freshwater lake =Sweetwater lake)
　　最常考点：咸淡对比，湖水文章经常对比的出题。盐湖 saltwater lake---Great
Salt Lake 位于 Utah---容易对比。
　　对比有这几个方面：(1)date;(2)structure---outlet 出口—出盐分;(3)climate---
evaporation amount 蒸发量; (4)prehistoric lake 史前湖---e.g.：Great Salt
lake，Bonneville Lake 邦纳维尔湖。
三、海
　　常见考点有：
　　(1)oceanic volcanic island 海洋火山岛
　　要注意火山周围的海容易长 atoll(环状珊瑚岛)，尤其是在 tropical 热带，sub-
tropical 亚热带容易长。常见的是 lagoon 泻湖，海洋火山经过长时间的风化侵蚀没
了，但是珊瑚还在，造成珊瑚岛周围的海水稳定高，适合大规模产卵(mass
spawn)。
　　(2)oceanic current 洋流
　　洋流的交汇可以使得大量的浮游生物(plankton)的营养物质翻转，浮游生物的
特点是死后释放出毕生所吸收的所有海洋元素，供下一代浮游生物享用，他们仅仅
靠喝水存活，吸收海水中营养物质(nutrition)。洋流需要注意的有：冷暖流(cold
current/warm current)，即水平移动(horizontal movement)，这是由温度差
(temperature gap)造成的。与之相对应的是垂直移动(vertical movement)，这是由密
度差(density gap)造成的。
　　(3)iceberg/glacier 冰山，冰川
　　冰山顶(ice cap)、冰底(ice bottom)、冰层(ice layer/ice sheet)。
　　针对于冰山或冰川，它的形成(formation process)是必须要考的。核心词汇是再
冻(refrozen)、再化(re-melt)这之间的循环(circulation)。运动(movement)的核心词是
速度(velocity)。条件(condition)有冻雪(frozen snow)、常年低温(conserved/permanent
low temperature)、积雪(frozen snowàfrequentlyàfern =accumulated snow)。最后还要
注意环境和生态(environment/ecology)，关键方面：climate/landscape.
四、矿石洞
石(rock)：
igneous rock 火成岩，火山岩(lava---cool down)
Sedimentary rock 沉积岩，水成岩(eroded by sea/water/ocean water)
Metamorphic rock 变质岩(stress 压力/pressure 压强/heat 高温)
洞(cave)
(1)solution cave 酸溶洞(weak/mild acid 由中酸，弱酸溶解而成的)
(2)sea cave(eroded by water 经水侵蚀)
(3)lava cave(after volcanic action 火山运动之后)

地质学重点背景知识：
冰山 Glaciers
Glaciers exist where, over a period of years, snow remains after summer's end. They exist
in environments of high and low precipitation and in many temperature regimes; they are
found on all the continents except Australia and they span the globe from high altitudes in
equatorial regions to the polar ice caps. There is a delicate balance between climatic
factors that allows snow to remain beyond its season. ...
Scientists and skiers alike can note that within a few days of falling, snowflakes have
noticeably begun to change. ... The snowflakes are compressed under the weight of the
overlying snowpack. Individual crystal near the melting point have slick liquid edges
allowing them to glide along other crystal planes and to readjust the space between them.
Where the crystals touch they bond together, squeezing the air between them to the
surface or into bubbles. During summer we might see the crystal metamorphosis occur
more rapidly because of water percolation between the crystals. By summer's end the
result is firm -- a compacted snow with the appearance of wet sugar, but with a hardness
that makes it resistant to all but the most dedicated snow shovels! Several years are
usually required for the snow to settle and to season into the substance we call glacier
ice. ...
We can best determine the health of a glacier by looking at its mass balance. Each year
glaciers yield either a net profit of new snow, a net loss of snow and ice, or their mass
may remain in equilibrium. Scientists divide each glacier into upper and lower sections
termed the accumulation area, where snowfall exceeds melting during a year; and the
ablation area, where melting exceeds snowfall. An equilibrium line, where mass
accumulation equals mass loss, separates these areas. You can see it as the boundary
between the winter's snow and the older snow or ice surface. Its altitude changes annually
with the glacier's mass balance. To find mass balance, scientists measure the area of each
region and observe amounts of accumulation and ablation relative to preset stakes. After
density measurements are made they may calculate how much water has been added or
lost to the glacier. ...
After a series of positive mass balance years, the glacier may respond to the increased
thickness by making a glacial advance down valley. A series of negative years may cause
a glacial retreat, meaning that the terminus is melting faster than the ice is moving down
valley. ...
Glaciers have been likened to mighty rivers of ice. Although they move many times more
slowly, glaciers have equivalent changes in flow rate and often form falls of fast-moving
ice above slow-moving ice pools. Glaciers flow faster down their centers than at ice
margins, and more quickly at the surface than at the bed. ...
How fast a glacier moves is mostly dependent on the thickness of the ice, and on the
angle of its surface slope. Glacier speeds vary when changes are made in this geometry.
They respond to excessively high seasonal snow accumulations by generating bulges of
thicker ice that may move down valley many times faster than the glacier's normal
velocity.

Rainforest Layers
High temperature and rainfall production, more or less uniform throughout the year,
characterize the rainforest worldwide. The water that is required to maintain this
environment also threatens its existence. If left uncontrolled, the water that constantly
bombards the soil would leech out most of the valuable nutrients. Plants and animals in
this environment have developed adaptations to deal with the constant deluge and to
compete successfully for nutrients.
A closer look at the rainforest reveals that it is actually composed of four layers or
communities. Each layer has a unique set of environmental conditions and organisms
adapted to them. Read the descriptions below and watch for these layers and the infinite
variety of life forms that occupy them as you visit La Silva.
The Emergent Layer
The tallest trees are the emergent, towering as much as 200 feet (60 m) above the forest
floor with trunks that measure up to 16 feet (5 m) around. These huge trunks are usually
supported by buttress roots to brace against the high winds. Most of these trees are broad-
leaved, hardwood evergreens. They are exposed to greater fluctuations of temperature,
wind and rainfall than are their smaller companions. To hold water, leaves often have
thick, waxy layers. Emergent may take advantage of the greater air movement above the
canopy by developing winged seeds or fruits that are dispersed by wind to other parts of
the forest. Sunlight is plentiful and animals such as eagles, monkeys, butterflies, insect-
eating bats and snakes inhabit this layer, some never venturing below it.
The Canopy
The primary layer of the rainforest, the canopy, extends beneath the emergent, rising to
150 feet (45m). Most canopy trees have smooth, oval leaves that come to a point. A
possible explanation for this adaptation is that they shed rain quickly, discouraging the
growth of lichens and mosses. In cloud forests such as La Salve, the canopy is lower and
denser, formed by smaller trees with twisted crowns of tiny, leathery leaves. At these
higher elevations, the leaves have developed a highly reflective property that protects
them from the higher levels of intense radiation. This almost solid green shield filters out
80% of the light, preventing its transmission to the forest below.
Photosynthesis is everywhere. Flowers and fruits abound. Many species flower
simultaneously, aiding cross-pollination. In some species, flowers are produced on the
trunks, making it easier for bat pollinators to find their way to the flowers. Monkeys,
sloths, bats, tree frogs, ants, beetles, parrots, hummingbirds and snakes, to mention a few,
can be found here, often never touching the ground during their lifetime. Epiphytes, some
28,000 species worldwide, use every tree surface as a place to live. Hollow trunks of trees
and pools of water in bromeliads often are micro-communities within the Canopy.
The Understory
This area gets only 2-5% of the sunlight available to the canopy. This limited light
encourages the plant residents to devise unique ways to survive, such as the solar-
collecting dark green leaves. Plants that survive in the understory include dwarf palms
and soft-stalked species of families, such as the ginger family, acanthus and prayer plant
or Maranda. These plants seldom grow to more than 12 feet (3.5 m) in height. Understory
plants have a more difficult time with pollination because of the lack of air movement.
Most rely on insects. Some produce strong smelling flowers, others produce flowers and
fruit on their trunks. This phenomenon, known as cauliflowery, makes them more
conspicuous to aid the process of pollination and seed dispersal. Many animals live here,
including snakes, frogs, parakeets, leopards or jaguars and the largest concentration of
insects.
The Forest Floor
Almost no plants grow in this region of 0-2% light and 100% humidity. The few
flowering plants that live here tolerate deep shade. The floor itself is covered with a litter
of rapidly decomposing vegetation and organisms that break down into usable nutrients.
A leaf that might take one year to decompose in a temperate climate, will disappear in
just six weeks on the rainforest floor. A high proportion of the nutrients in the system are
locked in the large biomass (trees and other plant storage systems). There is heavy
competition for these nutrients. This is why many trees are so shallow-rooted. Large
mammals, such as tapirs, forage for roots and tubers. Insects, including termites,
cockroaches, beetles, centipedes, millipedes, scorpions and earthworms, along with the
fungi, use the organic litter as a source of food.

火山
世界上 60％以上的活火山都分布在太平洋沿岸新形成不久的巨大山脉和岛屿；另
外有集中在地中海、非洲东部和大西洋中部的地壳发生巨大破裂的地方。因为这些
区域的岩浆可以很容易的持续流出，所以成为活火山。

喷出的岩浆经过冷却凝结，如果将火山口堵塞，则需要一段时间，在这段期间，地
底的运动仍然活跃的进行着，因为火山口塞住，所以这股力量便在地底累积，等到
累积到相当的程度，就又产生另一次的火山爆发，此种类型的火山就称为休火山。

如果在地壳坚硬的地方，所有的裂缝都被堵住了，地底的岩浆再也不能爆发出来，
这类的火山就称为死火山。
LAVA
Lava is molten rock generated by geothermal energy and expelled through fractures in
planetary crust or in an eruption, usually at temperatures from 700 to 1,200 °C (1,292 to
2,192 °F). The resulting structures after solidification and cooling are also sometimes
described as lava. The molten rock is formed in the interior of some planets,
including Earth, and some of their satellites, though such material located below the crust
is referred to by other terms.
A lava flow is a moving outpouring of lava created during a non-explosive effusive
eruption. When it has stopped moving, lava solidifies to form igneous rock. The
term lava flow is commonly shortened to lava. Although lava can be up to 100,000 times
more viscous than water, lava can flow great distances before cooling and solidifying
because of its thixotropic and shear thinning properties.
Explosive eruptions produce a mixture of volcanic ash and other fragments called tephra,
rather than lava flows. The word lava comes from Italian, and is probably derived from
the Latin word labes which means a fall or slide. The first use in connection with
extruded magma (molten rock below the Earth's surface) was apparently in a short
account written by Francesco Serao on the eruption of Vesuvius between May 14 and
June 4, 1737. Serao described "a flow of fiery lava" as an analogy to the flow of water
and mud down the flanks of the volcano following heavy rain.

Giant Shield Volcanoes

The giant shield volcanoes on Mars are truly huge. The largest are three times as high as
the biggest Earth volcanoes. They also are bigger in diameter. Thus, the biggest volcano
on Mars is comparable to a pile of nearly 100 Hawaiian volcanoes. Despite this
difference in size, the Mars shields look a lot like shield volcanoes on Earth. Both have
the same broad flat profiles, large central calderas, and similar lava flow features. The
giant Martian shields are also much older than any Earth volcano. The youngest lavas on
the Martian shields are about 20 to 200 million years old. The oldest lavas are near 2.5
billion years old. Thus, these giant volcanoes were active for billions of years. This may
explain their large size. On Earth, plate tectonics is always moving volcanoes away from
their magma sources. Such movements are very slow, but they mean that most Earth
volcanoes have distinct lifetimes. In the Hawaiian Islands, for instance, volcanism lasts
for only a few million years on any given island. In contrast, the lack of plate tectonics on
Mars allowed volcanoes to just keep growing. The only limit on their final size was the
volume of lavas available.

Olympus Mons

a gigantic (about 600 km/375 mi in diameter) shield volcano on Mars, is larger across
than the length of the Hawaiian Islands strung together. The Mars Pathfinder Mission of
1997 returned data that Martian volcanic rocks appear to be similar to those found on
Earth, including some evidence of the rock andesite. The volcanism on the Earth's moon,
Mars, Mercury, and Venus mostly occurred billions of years ago; these planetary bodies
are now cold and dead. However, scientists have found evidence in Martian meteorites
that indicates volcanic activity on Mars may have occurred as recent as 150 million years
ago.

Mars has the largest volcano in the solar system, Olympus Mons. It is 26 km (16 mi) high
(almost twice as high as Earth’s Mount Everest) and covers an area comparable to the
state of Arizona. Near it, three other volcanoes almost as large as Arisa Mons, Pagonis
Mons, and Astraeus Mons form a line running from southwest to northeast. These four
volcanoes are the most noticeable features of a large bulge in the surface of Mars, called
Tharsis. Another volcano, Alba Panera, is also part of the Tharsis bulge, but is quite
different in appearance. It is probably less than 6 km (4 mi) high, but has a diameter of
1,600 km (1,000 mi). None of Mars’s volcanoes appear to be active.

The Tharsis bulge has had a profound effect on the appearance of the surface of Mars.
The Tharsis bulge includes many smaller volcanoes and stress fractures, in addition to the
large volcanoes. Its presence affects the weather on Mars and may have changed the
climate by changing the rotation of the planet.

季风
Monsoon is traditionally defined as a seasonal reversing wind accompanied by
corresponding changes in precipitation, but is now used to describe seasonal changes
in atmospheric circulation and precipitation associated with the asymmetric heating of
land and sea. Usually, the term monsoon is used to refer to the rainy phase of a seasonally
changing pattern, although technically there is also a dry phase. The term is sometimes
incorrectly used for locally heavy but short-term rains, although these rains meet the
dictionary definition of monsoon.
The major monsoon systems of the world consist of the West African and Asia-
Australian monsoons. The inclusion of the North and South American monsoons with
incomplete wind reversal has been debated.
The term was first used in English in British India and neighboring countries to refer to
the big seasonal winds blowing from the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea in the southwest
bringing heavy rainfall to the area.

现代人们对季风的认识有了进步，至少有三点是公认的，即：（1）季风是大范围
地区的盛行风向随季节改变的现象，这里强调“大范围”是因为小范围风向受地形
影响很大；（2）随着风向变换，控制气团的性质也产生转变，例如，冬季风来时
感到空气寒冷干燥，夏季风来时空气温暖潮湿；（3）随着盛行风向的变换，将带
来明显的天气气候变化。
　　季风形成的原因，主要是海陆间热力环流的季节变化。夏季大陆增热比海洋剧
烈，气压随高度变化慢于海洋上空，所以到一定高度，就产生从大陆指向海洋的水
平气压梯度，空气由大陆指向海洋，海洋上形成高压，大陆形成低压，空气从海洋
海向大陆，形成了与高空方向相反气流，构成了夏季的季风环流。在我国为东南季
风和西南季风。夏季风特别温暖而湿润。
　　冬季大陆迅速冷却，海洋上温度比陆地要高些，因此大陆为高压，海洋上为低
压，低层气流由大陆流向海洋，高层气流由海洋流向大陆，形成冬季的季风环流。
在我国为西北季风，变为东北季风。冬季风十分干冷。