ASSESSING THE VARIABILITY OF EXTREME WEATHER EVENTS AND

ITS INFLUENCE ON MARINE ACCIDENTS ALONG THE COASTAL

TANZANIA.

BY

ALI, FAKI ALI

REG.MScCNR/5/21/007/TZ

SUZA

A RESEARCH PROPOSAL SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL

FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF
THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE IN CLIMATE CHANGE
AND NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT OF THE STATE
UNIVERSITY OF ZANZIBAR

OCTOBER 2022
 i

DECLARATION
Candidate
This research proposal is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other
University or for any other award.
………………………… ………………………..
Signature Date

Ali,Faki Ali
REG.MScCNR/5/21/007/TZ
SUZA

Supervisors:
I as supervisor confirm that the research proposal reported was carried out by the candidate
under my supervision
…………………………. ……………………
Signature Date
Dr.Kombo Hamad Kai

……………………… ………………………..
Signature Date
Dr.Sara Abdallah Khamis
 ii

Table of Contents
CHAPTER ONE..............................................................................................................................................1
1.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................1
1.2. Statement of the problem....................................................................................................................3
1.3. Objective of the study.......................................................................................................................4
1.3.1 General objective............................................................................................................................4
1.3.2 Specific Objectives..........................................................................................................................4
1.4 Research questions............................................................................................................................4
1.5 Significance of the study....................................................................................................................5
1.6 Scope and limitations........................................................................................................................5
1.7 Assumptions......................................................................................................................................5
1.8 Conceptual framework......................................................................................................................5
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEWS........................................................................................................7
2.1 Definitions of the term Extreme........................................................................................................7
2.2 Marine accidents...............................................................................................................................7
2.3Factors contributing to marine accidents...........................................................................................8
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY.............................................................................................9
3.1 Study area..........................................................................................................................................9
3.2 Dataset............................................................................................................................................11
3.2.1 Research design............................................................................................................................12
3.3 Methodology...................................................................................................................................12
3.3.1Trend analysis test.........................................................................................................................12
3.3.2 Correlation Analysis......................................................................................................................13
3.3.3 t-test analysis................................................................................................................................13
CHAPTER FOUR..........................................................................................................................................15
4.0 Results.............................................................................................................................................15
4.1 Expected results..............................................................................................................................15
4.2 Expected outcome...........................................................................................................................15
4.3 Time planning..................................................................................................................................16
4.3 Financial budget..............................................................................................................................16
REFFERENCES............................................................................................................................................17
 iii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
EMSA European Maritime Safety Agency
FAO Food and Agricultural Organization
IPCC Intergovernmental panel for climate change
MAM March April May
OND October November and December
SIDS Small islands developmental state
TMA Tanzania Meteorological Authority
WFSA World fatality and safety associations
WMO World Meteorological Authority
ZDMC Zanzibar Disaster management commissions
ZMA Zanzibar Maritime Authority
 iv

TABLE OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1: Conceptual framework.................................................................................................6

FIGURE 2: Map of study area.........................................................................................................9

 v

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: work plan.........................................................................................................................13
Table 2: Financial budget..............................................................................................................13
 1

CHAPTER ONE

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The frequency of extreme weather events and natural disasters has increased in the past decades

worldwide (Solomon et al., 2007). These events affects all sectors of human life including

marine environment and results in significant loss of life, and threatening the economic and

social development. Also these events causes a lot of fatalities and casualties, disrupt livelihood

and income generating economic activities which have a long term implications for wellbeing,

future human capital and development Muttarac (2013). On global scales 8,835 disaster has

been reported to cause 1.94 million deaths, with US$2.4 trillion reported as the incurred cost

caused by extreme weather events which directly linked to meteorological and hydrological

conditions (WMO, 2019).

Marine sector which covers 71% of the earth’s surface is most important in global blue economy

including fisheries, transportation and trade (Sarwar, 2006). Marine environment comprises of

rich biological diversity (such as nutrients) than terrestrial and freshwater ecosystem (Maritime

and Agency, 2019). Studies have shown that over 3 billion peoples depends on marine resources

for sustaining their livelihood. Besides that, approximately 50% of all international tourist visits

the coastal areas including the small island Developing state (SIDS). Moreover, coastal and

marine ecosystems are reported to be among the most productive ecosystem which provide

varieties of services to the societies (Silver et,al 2006), and which worth about USD 3-6

trillion/year (Nations and On, 2009).

In Africa maritime transportation and shipping is very important. Over 90% of Africa’s import

and export are conducted on sea (AU, 2012). The UNCTAD (2018) has noted that African

continent accounts for 5% of marine import and export by volume, and the International
 2

Chamber of Shipping (ICS) has noted that about 90 percent of the global goods trade are carried

out by shipping industries, resulting to about 820 million people getting their income from

harvesting, processing, marketing and distribution of different species of marine products e.g.

fish (FAO, 2004)

Tanzania bordering Indian Ocean to the East has a coastal strip stretching from north to south

including small Islands of Mafia, Unguja and Pemba. Apart from transportation, peoples uses

marine resources for economic strategies and livelihood. Fishing sector become important

economic activities for income generations and export revenue. Tanzania fisheries sector provide

about 4 million jobs (35 percent of rural employment) (Jiddawi, Stanley and Kronlund, 2002).

Fisheries also important in nutrition providing about 22 percent animal protein (FAO, 2004).

In Zanzibar fisheries are highly practiced by artisanal or small scale fisheries which uses weak

gears within 12 miles territorial waters around Zanzibar, but in most cases fishing takes place

within 5 miles off the shoreline (Feidi, 2005). The Zanzibar islands are subjected to southwest

monsoon trade wind which blows from April to June (Kai et al 2020). These winds are

characterized by heavy rain causing cold water to sink down and create mixing. While this

happening resulting a periods of extreme weather events including wind, rainfall and water

waves which are highly dangerous and hazardous to marine users such as fisherman, navigators

and marine transporters (Msemo et al., 2021).According to TEMESA,On 2nd,Septyember 2022.

MV Mgogogoni which provide services from Ferry Dar Es Salaam to Kigamboni pushed away

by strong wind toward beach area and failed to provide normal services. Considering marine

accidents Samson (2002) Identified Human errors, technology, fire and bad weather being four

main causes of marine accidents. Despite of weather being mentioned as among the causes of

marine accident either limited or no studies have been documented to critically understand the
 3

impacts of extreme weather events and quantifying the evolution of associated marine accidents.

Thus, this study aims at assessing the variability of extreme weather events and its associated

marine accidents.

1.2. Statement of the problem

It is a well-known fact that maritime is one among the important sector towards the socio-

economic development of many countries which were surrounded by the sea or having inland

water bodies such as lakes and rivers. These are vital in term of availability and transportation of

useful resources such as fish oil and other mineral. They are also most valuable in carrying out

trade and industry, tourism and leisure activities. Studies including Sampson et al., (2002) have

noted that on global scale marine accidents are increasing. For instance, WFSA, (2014) have

shown that in a period of 14 years (2000 to 2014) around 160 accidents were reported to cause

16,880 fatalities worldwide. In many developing countries like Tanzania including Zanzibar

marine activities are practiced in traditional way which involves local or indigenous methods

(Abdalla, 2009).For instance, most of the fishermen in Zanzibar (Unguja and Pemba) are using

weak fishing gears which may not resists the worse conditions associated with extreme weather

conditions, hence resulting into number of accidence.

Also during 2009 the marine vehicle registered as MV faith sank near to Malindi port and results

into 9 death, the Sinking of mv spice Islander in 2011 at Nungwi with 2,764 casualties (ZMA,

2011) was among the worse accidents which touch the headlines and minds of most peoples in

world and Zanzibar in particular. Indeed, the bad weather conditions forced the speed boat Mv

Kilimanjaro II which was sailing from Pemba to Unguja to have about 15 people injured
 4

Apart from these cases are associated with large ships, there are various cases concerning to local

boat, dhows and fishing boat. For instance, on 4 th January, 2022 local boats sailing from

Chokocho to Kisiwa Panza (Pemba Island) capsized caused a death of 9 people.(ZRG,2022),

Also on 22nd,June,2022 small fishing boat namely “Ndio Dunia” capsized with four fisherman’s

at Nungwi-Tanga channel (ZRG,2022). Despite of having significant cases of the impacts of

the extreme weather events, but either limited or no studies has been conducted to understand the

level and strengths of severe weather events in causing the marine accidents and hazards. Thus,

this study is aimed to understand the influence of the variability of extreme or severe weather

events and their associated marine accidents.

1.3. Objective of the study

1.3.1 General objective
The main objective of the study is to access the influence of the variability of extreme weather

events and their associated marine impacts or accidents in Zanzibar channel

1.3.2 Specific Objectives

i. To analyze the trends and variability of extreme weather events including wind, rainfall

and oceanic wave in Unguja and Pemba Channel

ii. To determine the influence of oceanic waves on marine accidents over Zanzibar.

iii. To examine the relationship between extreme weather elements (rainfall, wind and

oceanic waves) and marine accidents.

iv. To access the influence of extreme wind on marine accidence over coastal area of

Zanzibar.
 5

1.4 Research questions

i. Do the extreme weather events in Zanzibar possess a known significant trend?

ii. How or to what extent oceanic waves contribute to the marine accidents over Zanzibar

Channel?

iii. Are there any relationship between extreme weather events (rainfall, wind oceanic

waves) and marine accident?

iv. To what existent do the extreme wind events influence marine accident over Zanzibar?

1.5 Significance of the study

The significance of this study lies on building awareness and knowledge to marine users on the

impacts of severe weather events to the marine accidents. Also increasing understanding of the

weather related marine accidents and how to alleviate these accidents including undertaking of

necessary precautions. Moreover, the study will be used as a base line by the responsible

institutions including Tanzania Meteorological Authority (TMA) and the Commission for

disaster and risk management for providing weather warning in marine areas which are very

prone to accidents.

1.6 Scope and limitations

The study will be conducted in Zanzibar channel using three weather parameters (Rainfall, wind

and Ocean waves) in which extreme values for that parameter will be analyzed. Time limitations

and financial constraints are among the issues which will limits the study to cover the whole

coastal area of Tanzania

 6

1.7 Assumptions
Apart from technical factors like availability of advanced equipment’s, poor educations and

training of staff and inadequate policies and procedures, this study assumes that the marine

accidents on the Zanzibar channel are largely influenced by adverse weather conditions

1.8 Conceptual framework

It illustrates the expected relationship between variables in the designed study (Maxwell, 2016).

Conceptual framework refers to a diagrammatic presentation or sketch description which shows

the variables to be studied and theoretical relationships between those variables (Jabareen, 2009).

It guides research process and determine the type of data to be collected. Below is the conceptual

frame work that was constructed to show relationship between weather elements as independent

variables (Weather variables) and marine accident as dependent variable

Dependent variable
Wind speed (km/h)
Independent variables

Marine accident
Ocean wave height
(m) (m)

Rainfall (mm)

Variables contributions on
marine accident

Accidents reductions Knowledge and Community Livelihood

awareness
 7

FIGURE 1: Conceptual framework

Source: Researcher, October 2022

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEWS

2.1 Definitions of the term Extreme
Different author in their different point of view have defined the term Extreme. For instance,

Extreme events are very severe or serious things that happen or take place in a particular area

and reaches a high degree of expectations(Karoly, 2011).Extreme events is an unprecedented

events in normal records. IPCC (2011) defined extreme events as the occurrences of variable

above (or below) the threshold values. Extreme weather events is the situations of occurring

weather variables above the normal values in a specific regions(IPCC, 2011). Events that have

extreme values of certain meteorological variables such as high precipitations, high wind

speed(Konisky, Hughes and Kaylor, 2016).

2.2 Marine accidents.

Marine accidents involves all events that occurred directly in the water bodies that endangers the

safety of vehicles its occupants or environment(Luo and Shin, 2018). Is an unintended event

involving fatality, injury, losses or damage, including the environmental damage(IMO, 2008).

Groenewing, (2018) identified four common causes of marine accidents which are bad weather,

human errors, fire and technological problem. Moreover, EMSA, (2008) illustrate strong

relationship between the weather condition and seriousness of accidents of ferry boats.
 8

Competitions among boat and dhows operators make them travelling despite having bad weather

conditions. This situation are highly contribute to marine accidents (Lennquist, 2012).

Furthermore, Faulkner, (2004) investigated that over 30 percent of marine accidents are caused

by bad weather and more than 25% remain completely unexplained.

Investigation show, that 755 marine accidents cases out of 3648 cases were directly related to

bad weather conditions like strong wind and rough wave height(Zhang and Li, 2017).According

to Zhang (2017) out of 755 accidents 58 cases are related with swell wave.

2.3Factors contributing to marine accidents

Factors leading to marine accidents varies from locations to another locations as well as from
time to time. After reviewed various literature inside and outside Tanzania the part highlights
common factors.
Severe Weather. Extreme weather including strong wind creates high swells and water waves
which disturb the stability of the vessel results in to accidents ()
Human Error. It is estimated that 80% of marine accidents over the world are caused by human
errors human error which results in the loss of life (Carepnter, 2013). According to Routa (2013),
Human error is the single most common cause of marine accidents which results in fatalities in
both developing and developed countries.
Overloading Problem. Overloading conditions is a measure problems in marine transport. The
stability of the vessel is disturbed results in to lose control and finally capsized (Degiuli et al,
2015)
Technology. In adequate design of boats and ships likely caused by radar failure, propulsion
failure, steering failure engine failure, hydraulic system GPS failure presents challenges in
marine industry and causes accident (Pedro, 2006)
 9

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Study area
The study will be conducted in Coastal Tanzania (Unguja and Pemba Chanel) which are located

in the Indian Ocean, Unguja channel is 35km off the coast of East Africa viewing from Tanzania

mainland and extends to Unguja Island. Pemba channel is found in northern side of Unguja

Island at Nungwi and extends to Tanga regions via Pemba Island (Abdalla, 2009). The traditional

means of transport to reach or to leave Islands is through travelling using ocean either by boats

or by dhow.

Socioeconomic livelihoods of Zanzibar community include agriculture, seaweed farming,

livestock and fishing activities. Artisanal fishing and farming are the major socioeconomic

activity of many Zanzibar communities.

Climatically, the area under study has balmy weather and warm tropical conditions, hot all the

year round with clear warm water and idyllic beaches. It lies on bimodal regime that has two

rainy seasons of MAM (long rains) which is wet, humid and mostly cloudy and OND (short

rains) with dry season which is warm, wind and mostly clear (Kai et al 2020). The coastal area of

Zanzibar has warm and saline water and average sea surface temperature 28-30 oC.(Khamis,
 10

Kalliola and Käyhkö, 2017).the shallow water of Zanzibar channel are generally warmer and

saline(McClanahan, 1988)

FIGURE 2: Map of study area

3.2 Dataset
The study will be conducted in coastal Tanzania and it will involves three types of data namely

(i) climate data (Wind speed, rainfall and Oceanic Waves) acquired from Tanzania

Meteorological Authority (TMA)) for the periods of 30 years from 1990-2020 using four
 11

meteorological observation stations of Zanzibar, Pemba, Tanga and Dar es Salaam (ii) Marine

accidents cases or data will be obtained from commision of disaster management of the second

vice president office (iii) Anecdotal data which will be obtained through interview and focus

group discussions with the head of quay, fisherman and dhow operators at the study sites of

Mkokotoni, Nungwi Malindi, Kojani, Mtambwe and Fundo.

3.2.1 Research design

The study will involve both quantitative and descriptive research design to investigate the

influence of extreme weather events on marine accidents in coastal Tanzania.

3.3 Methodology
In order to achieve each objective various methods will be adopted

3.3.1Trend analysis test

The extreme values for weather parameters will be selected from the set of data. The weather

events are referred as extreme when it reaches thresholds of 50mm per day, 40km/h and

2meters for rainfall, wind and ocean waves respectively(WMO, 2015). Trend analysis for

selected extreme weather events will be performed using Mann- Kendal test. The non-

parametric Mann-Kendall test is widely used in detecting trends of monoatomic variables in

meteorology and hydrology fields (Wang, He and Dong, 2019).The following mathematical

relationship will be used to identify trends of weather parameters

n −1 n
S=∑ ∑ sgn ¿ ¿ ¿)……………………………………………………………….. 1
k =1 k +1

{
+1 ,if ( x j−x k ) >0
sgn ( x j−x k )= 0 ,if ( x j−x k )=0 ………………………………………………………2
1 , if (x j−x k )<0

Where n= length of the sample, xk,xj = is from k=1,2 up to n-1 and j=k+1 up to n
 12

n(n−1)(2n+5)
Var (S) = …………………………………………………………………………3
18

The t test statistics Z is then will be computed by

{
s−1
,if S> 0
√ var ( S )
Z= 0 ,if S=0 ………………………………………………………………………4
s+1
,ifS <0
√ var ( S)

If Z˃0, it will indicate increasing trend and if Z˂0 it will indicate decreasing trend

3.3.2 Correlation Analysis

Correlations is the method of exploring relationship between variables under

considerations(Senthilnathan, 2019). Furthermore correlations is the simple means of comparing

dependent and independent variables (Wilks,2006).Therefore the relationship between Extreme

wind speed, Extreme rainfall and Oceanic waves to the marine accidents will be analyzed using

correlations formula below.

∑ ( xi−x )( yi− y )
r=
√∑ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿
Where

r= Pearson correlations coefficient

x =mean of variable x

y =mean of variable y

xi=value of x variable (dependent variable)

yi=value of y variable (independent variable)

Wind speed, Rainfall and Ocean waves are independent variables while the marine accidents

values are independent variables.

 13

3.3.3 t-test analysis.

T-test will be used to test statistical significance of the computed correlation value by using

confidence level 95%.the t-test formula is

r √ n−2
t=
√ 1−r 2
Where:

r=Pearson correlations coefficient

n=number of observation.
 14

CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 Results
The study results will be obtained from data analysis, then will be presented through seminars

workshops and other relevant platforms including departments and institutions dealing with

marine accidents like ZMA, Department of Disaster and risk management. The report will be

produced and will be submitted to the school for evaluations.

 15

4.1 Expected results

In this study we expect to obtain good associations between marine accidents and extreme

weather events on weather/climate parameters including wind speed, rainfall and ocean waves.

4.2 Expected outcome

The findings and results of this study will increase knowledge and awareness to fisherman, ships

and boat operators on the impacts of severe weather conditions on marine activities in order to

take necessary conditions. Indeed it will change the behavior of communities to listen the daily

weather forecasts and warning for their daily routine activities.

4.3 Time planning

Table 1: work plan

2022 2023
September

October

November

December

January

February

March
May

June

July
August
September

Description

Proposal stage
 16

Literature Review

Data collection

Data processing

Data analysis

Report writing

Final draft

Submission

4.3 Financial budget

Table 2: Financial budget

No ITEMS COST(Tsh)

1 Transport and data collection 1,000,000

2 Stationaries and printing 400,000

3 Data analysis 150,000

4 Other cost 200,000

TOTAL 1,750,000/=

REFFERENCES
Abdalla, S. (2009) ‘Maritime Law and Legislation in the Context of Administration of Maritime
Affairs : A Case Study of Zanzibar in Comparision with the Territories under the Sovereignty of
British Crown Master thesis’.

Code, C.M. et al. (2008) ‘I:\CIRC\MSC-MEPC\3\2.doc’.

Iii, L. (no date) LIFE III.

Jabareen, Y. (2009) ‘Building a Conceptual Framework : Philosophy , Definitions , and

Procedure’, pp. 49–62.
 17

Jiddawi, N.S., Stanley, R.D. and Kronlund, A.R. (2002) ‘Estimating Fishery Statistics in the
Artisanal Fishery of Zanzibar , Tanzania : How Big a Sample Size is Required ?’, 1(1).

Karoly, D. (2011) ‘What is an extreme ( weather or climate ) event ?’

Khamis, Z.A., Kalliola, R. and Käyhkö, N. (2017) ‘Geographical characterization of the

Zanzibar coastal zone and its management perspectives’, Ocean and Coastal Management, 149,
pp. 116–134. doi:10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2017.10.003.

Konisky, D.M., Hughes, L. and Kaylor, C.H. (2016) ‘Extreme weather events and climate
change concern’, Climatic Change, 134(4), pp. 533–547. doi:10.1007/s10584-015-1555-3.

Luo, M. and Shin, S.H. (2018) ‘Maritime accidents’, Routledge Handbook of Transport in Asia,
(June 2018), pp. 123–159. doi:10.4324/9781315739618.

Maritime, E. and Agency, S. (2019) ‘ANNUAL OVERVIEW OF MARINE CASUALTIES

AND INCIDENTS 2019’.

Maxwell, J.A. (2016) ‘Qualitative Study’, (June).

McClanahan, T. (1988) ‘Seasonality in East Africa’s coastal waters’, Marine Ecology Progress
Series, 44, pp. 191–199. doi:10.3354/meps044191.

Msemo, H.E. et al. (2021) ‘What Do Weather Disasters Cost? An Analysis of Weather Impacts
in Tanzania’, Frontiers in Climate, 3(April), pp. 1–11. doi:10.3389/fclim.2021.567162.

Nations, U. and On, C. (2009) ‘Multi-Year Expert Meeting on Transport and Trade Facilitation :
Maritime Transport and the Climate Change Challenge’, (December).

Report, S. et al. (no date) Managing the risks of extreme events and disasters to advance climate
change adaptation.

Sampson et al. (2002) ‘The causes of maritime accidents in the The causes of maritime accidents
in the period’. Available at: www.sirc.cf.ac.uk.

Senthilnathan, S. (2019) ‘Usefulness of Correlation Analysis’, SSRN Electronic Journal

[Preprint], (July). doi:10.2139/ssrn.3416918.

Wang, X., He, K. and Dong, Z. (2019) ‘Effects of climate change and human activities on runoff
 18

in the Beichuan River Basin in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau, China’, Catena, 176(January),
pp. 81–93. doi:10.1016/j.catena.2019.01.001.

WMO (2015) ‘Guidelines on the Defintion and Monitoring of Extreme Weather and Climate
Events’, Wmo, (December 2015), p. 62. Available at:
http://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/wcp/ccl/documents/GUIDELINESONTHEDEFINTIONANDM
ONITORINGOFEXTREMEWEATHERANDCLIMATEEVENTS_09032018.pdf.

WMO ATLAS OF MORTALITY AND ECONOMIC LOSSES FROM WEATHER , CLIMATE

AND WATER EXTREMES (2019).

Zhang, Z. and Li, X.M. (2017) ‘Global ship accidents and ocean swell-related sea states’,
Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences, 17(11), pp. 2041–2051. doi:10.5194/nhess-17-
2041-2017.

Abdalla, S. (2009) ‘Maritime Law and Legislation in the Context of Administration of Maritime
Affairs : A Case Study of Zanzibar in Comparision with the Territories under the Sovereignty of
British Crown Master thesis’.

Code, C.M. et al. (2008) ‘I:\CIRC\MSC-MEPC\3\2.doc’.

Iii, L. (no date) LIFE III.

Jabareen, Y. (2009) ‘Building a Conceptual Framework : Philosophy , Definitions , and

Procedure’, pp. 49–62.

Jiddawi, N.S., Stanley, R.D. and Kronlund, A.R. (2002) ‘Estimating Fishery Statistics in the
Artisanal Fishery of Zanzibar , Tanzania : How Big a Sample Size is Required ?’, 1(1).

Karoly, D. (2011) ‘What is an extreme ( weather or climate ) event ?’

Khamis, Z.A., Kalliola, R. and Käyhkö, N. (2017) ‘Geographical characterization of the

Zanzibar coastal zone and its management perspectives’, Ocean and Coastal Management, 149,
pp. 116–134. doi:10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2017.10.003.

Konisky, D.M., Hughes, L. and Kaylor, C.H. (2016) ‘Extreme weather events and climate
change concern’, Climatic Change, 134(4), pp. 533–547. doi:10.1007/s10584-015-1555-3.

Luo, M. and Shin, S.H. (2018) ‘Maritime accidents’, Routledge Handbook of Transport in Asia,
 19

(June 2018), pp. 123–159. doi:10.4324/9781315739618.

Maritime, E. and Agency, S. (2019) ‘ANNUAL OVERVIEW OF MARINE CASUALTIES

AND INCIDENTS 2019’.

Maxwell, J.A. (2016) ‘Qualitative Study’, (June).

McClanahan, T. (1988) ‘Seasonality in East Africa’s coastal waters’, Marine Ecology Progress
Series, 44, pp. 191–199. doi:10.3354/meps044191.

Msemo, H.E. et al. (2021) ‘What Do Weather Disasters Cost? An Analysis of Weather Impacts
in Tanzania’, Frontiers in Climate, 3(April), pp. 1–11. doi:10.3389/fclim.2021.567162.

Nations, U. and On, C. (2009) ‘Multi-Year Expert Meeting on Transport and Trade Facilitation :
Maritime Transport and the Climate Change Challenge’, (December).

Report, S. et al. (no date) Managing the risks of extreme events and disasters to advance climate
change adaptation.

Sampson et al. (2002) ‘The causes of maritime accidents in the The causes of maritime accidents
in the period’. Available at: www.sirc.cf.ac.uk.

Senthilnathan, S. (2019) ‘Usefulness of Correlation Analysis’, SSRN Electronic Journal

[Preprint], (July). doi:10.2139/ssrn.3416918.

Wang, X., He, K. and Dong, Z. (2019) ‘Effects of climate change and human activities on runoff
in the Beichuan River Basin in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau, China’, Catena, 176(January),
pp. 81–93. doi:10.1016/j.catena.2019.01.001.

WMO (2015) ‘Guidelines on the Defintion and Monitoring of Extreme Weather and Climate
Events’, Wmo, (December 2015), p. 62. Available at:
http://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/wcp/ccl/documents/GUIDELINESONTHEDEFINTIONANDM
ONITORINGOFEXTREMEWEATHERANDCLIMATEEVENTS_09032018.pdf.

WMO ATLAS OF MORTALITY AND ECONOMIC LOSSES FROM WEATHER , CLIMATE

AND WATER EXTREMES (2019).

Zhang, Z. and Li, X.M. (2017) ‘Global ship accidents and ocean swell-related sea states’,
Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences, 17(11), pp. 2041–2051. doi:10.5194/nhess-17-
 20

2041-2017.