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Consumer willingness to purchase organic products:

Application of the theory of planned behavior

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DOI: 10.1080/20932685.2014.925327

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Consumer Willingness to Purchase

Organic Products: Application of the
Theory of Planned Behavior
a a a
Jennifer Maloney , Min-Young Lee , Vanessa Jackson & Kimberly
a
A. Miller-Spillman
a
Department of Retailing and Tourism Management, University of
Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
Published online: 18 Jun 2014.

To cite this article: Jennifer Maloney, Min-Young Lee, Vanessa Jackson & Kimberly A. Miller-
Spillman (2014): Consumer Willingness to Purchase Organic Products: Application of the Theory of
Planned Behavior, Journal of Global Fashion Marketing, DOI: 10.1080/20932685.2014.925327

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 Journal of Global Fashion Marketing, 2014
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/20932685.2014.925327

Consumer Willingness to Purchase Organic Products: Application

of the Theory of Planned Behavior
消费者购买有机产品的意愿：计划行为理论的应用
Jennifer Maloney, Min-Young Lee*, Vanessa Jackson and Kimberly A. Miller-Spillman

Department of Retailing and Tourism Management, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
(Received 17 September 2013; final version received 4 February 2014)

The organic industry continues to increase year on year, and organic apparel is the
second largest organic market in terms of generating annual sales. More and more
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retailers, such as Nike, Gap and Wal-Mart, are beginning to offer their consumers
organic apparel options. Despite this growth, there has been little research that studies
consumer purchasing behavior toward organic apparel products: most of the literature
about the organic industry focuses on the organic food market. This research applied
the Theory of Planned Behavior to examine consumer purchasing intentions toward
organic apparel products. Participants at a university in the southeastern United States
were asked to complete a questionnaire. Structural equation modeling was used to
analyze the data. Attitude and subjective norm were found to have a direct influence on
consumer purchasing intention. Perceived behavioral control and perceived
expensiveness were found to indirectly influence intention through attitude.
Awareness, an external variable, was found to indirectly influence intention and
directly influence attitude and perceived behavioral controls. Implications for organic
clothing retailers are discussed.
Keywords: organic apparel; Theory of Planned Behavior; consumer purchasing
intention; green fashion; consumer purchasing intentions

随着有机行业的销售年复一年的持续增长，有机服装成为第二年销售额最大的有机市场。越来
越多的零售商，如Nike, Gap, WalMart, 开始为消费者提供有机服装的选择。尽管对这种增长还很
少有研究有机产业中消费者对有机服装产品的购买行为意图的文献集中在有机食品市场。计划
行为理论已被用在以前的一些研究研究消费者对有机食品的购买意愿。本研究应用计划行为理
论探讨消费者对有机服装产品的购买意向。在美国东南部的一所大学的参与者被要求完成一份
问卷。我们共收集了144份调查，其中对142份可用的数据作进一步的分析。大多数的参与者是
女性（76%），34名男性参与者（24%）。参与者的平均年龄是20.99岁。结构方程模型被用来
对数据进行分析。该模型具有三个外生变量（意识，主观规范，和个人规范）和四个内生变量
（态度，消费者感知效力，昂贵感知，购买意愿）。AMOS是用于创建和分析的结构方程模型
（SEM）。结构方程模型显示良好的模型拟合：x2/df ratio ¼ 1.62; GFI ¼ .84; CFI ¼ .91;
RMSEA ¼ .07。变量，态度，主观规范，被发现有对消费者购买意愿有直接影响。知觉行为控
制和昂贵感知的发现间接通过态度影响消费者购买意愿。意识，一个外部变量，被发现间接
影响消费者购买意愿并且直接影响态度和知觉行为控制。数据隐含的意识是直接影响态度，昂
贵感知，与消费者感知的有效性，因此可以增加消费者的购买意愿，并影响他们购买有机服
装。也许，零售商应该考虑他们如何能传递更多关于他们的产品信息给消费者。这将创造一个
对有机产品更大的理解和提高购买意愿的潜在增加。即使厂商参与，消费者也可以获得的关于
有机服装产品潜力的有用的信息。昂贵的感知对态度有影响。如果认为购买有机服装是昂贵的
消费品，那么他们的态度会更为负，这会减少其对有机服装的购买意向。昂贵的感知变量可能

*Corresponding author. Email: mlee6@uky.edu

q 2014 Korean Scholars of Marketing Science

 2 J. Maloney et al.

比消费者感知效力对态度的影响更大，因为该国正面临着继2008年依赖经济低迷的经济现状。
零售商创造对有机服装的价格相关的积极的态度是很重要的。如果消费者有积极的协会，他
们对有机服装的态度会更积极，购买意愿也会增加。

关键词：有机服装，计划行为理论，消费者购买意向，绿色时尚，消费者的购买意愿

1. Introduction
Organic clothing was once a fringe product sought out by hippies and “tree huggers”,
but by 2010 over 75 major brands and retailers were beginning to profit from organic
clothing (Klara, 2010). The organic apparel and home goods industry is one of the top
three areas of growth in the organic market (Organic Exchange, 2007). There are several
reasons for this growth in the organic market, including an increase in access to
information about organic products and programs, an increase in the number of companies
seeking to make their business practices more organic and sustainable, and an increase in
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the amount of consumers trying to live a more organic and/or sustainable lifestyle
(Organic Exchange, 2007; Sung & Lee, 2011).
Some of the major brand names began to carry organic apparel in 2005: these include
not only some of the best-known labels, such as Levi’s, Adidas and Nike, but also top
retailers, such as H&M, Target, Nordstrom, Gap and Wal-Mart (Klara, 2010). Apparel
companies such as Nike, H&M and Wal-Mart have created programs that use either 100%
organic materials or a blend of organic and conventional materials (Organic Trade
Association, 2009). Kohl’s, Sears and Macy’s also sell organic clothing, bed sheets and
towels (Klara, 2010).
Discussions in the research literature focus on several important aspects of organic
products: that they undergo little or no chemical processing, use no toxic ingredients
during coloring and processing, and are not finished with chemical treatments. Other
discussions suggest that green clothing is considered to be non-allergic, good in quality, a
long-term fashion trend, and clothing that can support everyday style. However, evidence
of research focusing on the willingness of consumers to purchase organic products is
limited.
This research utilized the Theory of Planned Behavior to discover factors that
influence a consumer’s purchasing decision of organic apparel products. Research
questions include: (1) what influences consumers to purchase organic apparel products; (2)
what internal factors influence consumer purchasing intentions of organic apparel
products; and (3) what external factors influence the consumers’ purchasing intentions
toward organic apparel products?

2. Literature review
2.1 Green fabrics to organic fashion
Many clothing manufacturers have begun to use eco-friendly fabrics, also known as green
fabrics, which are used to produce organic clothing. According to researchers, organic
fashion refers to clothing and accessories that have been made with minimum use of
harmful toxins and chemicals during the manufacturing process and with limited impact
on the environment (Ethical Fashion Forum, 2013; Lea & Worsley, 2005; Padel & Foster,
2005). Green fabrics such as organic cotton, hemp fabric and bamboo fabric are used to
make organic clothing; other organic fabrics are made from natural fibers that come from
animal sources such as goats, sheep and silkworms. Animals farmed organically, without
 Journal of Global Fashion Marketing 3

the use of insecticides that can harm people and the planet, produce organic fibers.
According to Organic Instead (2013), unlike both mainstream natural and synthetic
fabrics, organic fabrics undergo little or no dangerous chemical processing, are colored
and printed with vegetable dyes and inks instead of with toxic ingredients and are not
finished with dangerous chemical treatments such as stain proofing.
There has been some research on the organic apparel industry. Casadesus-Masanell,
Crooke, Reinhardt, and Vasishth (2009) examined whether customers of the Patagonia
brand would be more willing to purchase apparel items made from organic materials or
from conventional materials. Patagonia uses 100% organic cotton in its products, and the
company also uses environmentally friendly fabrics such as chlorine-free wool, hemp,
recycled nylon and polyester and tencel lyocell, which is made from sustainable
eucalyptus trees. Consumers of Patagonia responded positively to the organic apparel
(Casadesus-Masanell et al., 2009). Hustvedt and Bernard (2008) tested the price premium
of organic socks to see if consumers would be willing to pay more for organic socks versus
conventional socks. The results showed the highest premium that consumers would pay
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for organic socks was $1.86. Laroche, Bergeron, and Barboaro-Forleo (2001) found that
consumers’ attitude toward environmental concerns influenced their willingness to pay
more for environmentally friendly products.

3. Conceptual framework and theoretical considerations

Many researchers have used the Theory of Planned Behavior or its components to examine
consumer purchasing behavior in regard to organic products (Arvola et al., 2008; Hustvedt
& Dickson, 2009; Jang, Ko, Shun & Lee, 2012; Kalafatis, Pollard, East, & Tsogas, 1999;
Lodorfos & Dennis, 2008; Sparks & Shepard, 1992; Thogersen & Olander, 2006). This
research used the Theory of Planned Behavior to examine consumers’ willingness to
purchase organic apparel products. Specifically, this research used the following variables
to study consumers’ purchase intentions: awareness, subjective norms, personal norms,
attitude, perceived expensiveness, and perceived effectiveness. We added the variable
‘awareness’ to the Theory of Planned Behavior as an external factor that could influence
consumers’ purchase intentions.

3.1 Awareness
Several studies suggest a consumer’s awareness and knowledge of organic products
influences their attitude toward organic products (Demeritt, 2006; Lodorfos & Dennis,
2008; Magnusson et al., 2001). Despite this, studies have found that consumers do not
fully understand what it means for a product to be certified organic (Demeritt, 2006;
Lodorfos & Dennis, 2008) and do not fully understand the labeling of organic products
(Demeritt, 2006). Magnusson et al. (2001) found that consumers had different levels of
perception on availability and knowledge of production methods among different organic
product categories. Lodorfos and Dennis (2008) reported a majority of consumers were
unaware of the benefits of organic products (Ingram, 2002), did not clearly understand
what the USDA Certified Organic Seal really means and felt food labeling was confusing
and did not carry enough product information.
Although consumers are beginning to increase their awareness of organic products,
Lockie, Lyons, Lawrence, and Mummery (2002) reported that there were areas where few
respondents understood the certification process for growing and producing organic products.
Lack of information may create a less positive attitude toward a product and, therefore, may
 4 J. Maloney et al.

decrease the potential to purchase a product. Consumers with a limited amount of information
on or understanding of a product are less likely to purchase it. Tanner and Kast (2003)
reported that action-related awareness was a predictor for green purchasing behavior, and that
appropriate knowledge or awareness is needed to form an appropriate attitude.
Ellen, Wiener, and Cobb-Walgren (1991) found that consumers who showed a high
concern for the environment and perceived consumer effectiveness seemed to have a
higher level of perceived knowledge than those who had low environmental concern and
perceived consumer effectiveness toward solving a problem. Awareness and knowledge
of environmentally friendly products may reinforce effectiveness of consumer decision
toward solving environmental problems (Stets & Biga, 2003).
Awareness and knowledge of environmentally friendly products also influences
consumers’ perception of expensiveness. Loureiro, McCluskey, and Mittelhammer (2002)
found a negative perception regarding premium pricing of organic products. Consumers who
have enough knowledge of organic cotton products by labels and have knowledge about
production process of organic products also notice the high premium price of organic
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products, which makes the products less appealing (Wang, 2007). Thus, consumer awareness
may influence perceived expensiveness. Based on the literature, it is expected that:
H1: Awareness will influence perceived consumer effectiveness (H1a) and perceived
consumer expensiveness (H1b).

3.2 Norms
Normative beliefs are composed of subjective norms. Studies have shown that normative
beliefs affect a consumer’s attitude and purchasing intentions with regard to organic
products (Ajzen, 1991). Subjective norms focus on the influence that others have on an
individual with regard to performing a certain behavior (Minton & Rose, 1997).
The higher one values the opinion of others and their perception of a certain action, the
more likely it is that an individual will or will not engage in a behavior, based on what
others think (Ajzen, 1991). Lee (2008) reported that of seven predictors of behavior for
purchasing green products, social influence had the biggest impact on adolescent
purchasing behavior. These findings suggest that peer influences reinforce a “norm” for
one’s environmentally friendly purchasing behavior and an increase in the intention to
engage in purchasing environmentally friendly products.
Personal norms focus on an individual’s own perception about whether or not they
should perform a certain behavior. Personal norms refer to consumers’ beliefs about the
actions they should perform, which influence the actions the consumers will perform
(Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). Thogersen and Olander (2006) explored interactions between
personal norms and how they affect purchasing behavior and found a high correlation
between attitude and personal norms. This study also found that personal norms influence
one’s shopping behavior. Consumers were more willing to change their purchasing habits
by the influence of others. Minton and Rose (1997) found that personal norms had a strong
effect on predictors that help to determine one’s product choice, information search and
recycling habits. Also, personal moral obligations are more likely to lead to actions related
to pro-environmental behavior.
Studies have found a connection between personal norms and other salient beliefs
presented in the Theory of Planned Behavior. Thogersen (2002) found that when
consumers were choosing whether to purchase organic or non-organic wine, the final
choice depended on the consumer’s personal norms once attitude and subjective norms
 Journal of Global Fashion Marketing 5

were controlled for. Personal norms have been found to arouse positive feelings about
“doing the right thing” when purchasing organic products. A high correlation was shown
between personal norms and attitude, and also between subjective norms and attitude
(Arvola et al., 2008). Other studies have supported the idea that personal norms are related
to attitude, subjective norms and behavioral beliefs (Conner & Armitage, 1998; Thogersen
& Olander, 2006). However, one study reported the contradictory finding that personal
norms have no significant association with green food purchases (Tanner & Kast, 2003).
Therefore, based on the literature:
H2: Awareness will influence attitude.
H3: Both subjective norms and personal norms will influence the intention to purchase
organic apparel and homeware.

3.3 Attitude
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Several studies have found that attitude has a strong influence on consumers’ purchasing
behavior regarding organic products (Grunert & Juhl, 1995; Hustvedt & Dickson, 2009;
Magnusson et al., 2001). Their findings indicated a positive attitude was related to an
increase in willingness to purchase organic food. Magnusson et al. (2001) also found that
attitude influenced consumers’ willingness to purchase organic food while examining the
attitude – behavior relationship. In a study looking at an individual’s intention to eat
organic vegetables, Sparks and Shepard (1992) reported a strong correlation between
attitude and behavior. Lodorfos and Dennis (2008) reported similar findings, with a strong
correlation found between attitude and intention. Based on the literature,
H4: Attitude will influence the intention to purchase organic apparel products.

3.4 Perceived behavioral control

Ajzen (1991, p. 183) describes control beliefs as “the resources and opportunities available
to a person must to some extent dictate the likelihood of behavioral achievement”.
Previous studies provide evidence in support of price as an indicator of whether or not
consumers choose to purchase organic products (Casadesus-Masanell et al., 2009; Lockie
et al., 2002; Magnusson et al., 2001; Sun, Kim & Kim, 2013; Wang, 2007). That is,
perceived expensiveness is based on price. As a controlled belief, if consumer perceived
the price of an organic product is more expensive than a regular product, a consumer may
not purchase the organic product. Perceived consumer effectiveness was included in this
research because evidence from previous studies suggested consumers believe that by
purchasing organic products, they are making a positive contribution to the environment
(Laskova, 2007; Minton & Rose, 1997).

3.5 Perceived expensiveness

Some researchers have studied price premiums and consumer willingness to pay these
premiums for organic products (Gil, Gracia, & Sanchez, 2000; Krystallis & Chryssohoidis,
2005; Wang, 2007). Other studies have examined consumers’ perceived expensiveness
with regard to organic products (Lockie et al., 2002; Thogersen & Olander, 2006). Still
other studies have examined consumers’ willingness to pay for organic products versus
conventional products (Hustvedt & Bernard, 2008; Hustvedt & Dickson, 2009).
 6 J. Maloney et al.

Consumers appear to be willing to pay different premiums for different organic

products, and willingness to pay for organic products differs across different product
categories (Gil et al., 2000; Krystallis & Chryssohoidis, 2005). Casadesus-Masanell et al.
(2009) reported consumers were willing to pay a higher price for an organic flannel shirt
when a similar conventional shirt was available at a lower price. Wang (2007) found that
52% of the consumers surveyed would pay a 50% price premium for a t-shirt made from
organic cotton, and 25% of the respondents were willing to pay at least a 10% premium
(Wang, 2007).
Contrary to this information indicating that consumers were willing to pay more for
organic or environmentally friendly products, other studies have suggested that consumers
are not willing to pay more for non-conventionally produced products (Loureiro et al.,
2002; Magnusson et al., 2001; Wang, 2007). Loureiro et al. (2002) found a negative
relationship between price and intention to purchase organic products. The high premium
price for organic cotton products was found to be the major barrier for a wide range of
consumers, making the products less appealing (Wang, 2007). Contradictory results were
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found in a study carried out by Lockie et al. (2002), who found that consumers who
purchase organic products are just as price-sensitive and can be just as reluctant to pay
more as consumers who do not purchase organic products. Therefore, it is expected that
perceived consumer expensiveness may influence attitude toward organic products.

3.6 Perceived consumer effectiveness

Organic products are viewed as helping to preserve the planet and reduce the effects of
global warming. Consumers who are concerned about the environment are looking for
ways to give back to the planet. Consumer effectiveness is defined as the effect of
consumer belief that their actions will make a difference towards solving a problem
(Laskova, 2007). Perceived consumer effectiveness has been studied in relation to the
salient belief of control in the Theory of Planned Behavior (Ellen et al., 1991).
A study by Laskova (2007) sought to determine the type of association that exists
between perceived consumer effectiveness (PCE) and consumer-specific environmental
behavior. The study showed that PCE was a strong moderator in the environmental
attitude – behavior relationship. The study also found that the subjects surveyed who
exhibited PCE-specific behavior were more likely to participate in pro-environmental
behaviors such as purchasing organic products. Straughan and Roberts (1999) found that
even if someone was concerned about the environment, he or she was unlikely to be
proactive about their concerns unless they felt that a person’s actions could have an effect
on the problems facing the environment.
Minton and Rose (1997) studied the question of a person’s environmental concern in
relation to their behaviors; the results indicated that the more concerned about the
environment one is, the more willing the person would be to exhibit behavioral intentions
related to helping improve the environment. Another study which looked at perceived
consumer effectiveness and its role in motivating behaviors that positively impact the
environment found perceived consumer effectiveness to be a significant factor in
predicting purchasing, recycling and contributions to an environmental group (Ellen et al.,
1991). Based on previous research on perceived consumer effectiveness and perceived
expensiveness, the following hypotheses will be studied:
H5: Perceived consumer effectiveness and perceived expensiveness will influence
attitude.
 Journal of Global Fashion Marketing 7

H6: Perceived consumer effectiveness and perceived expensiveness will influence

intention to purchase organic apparel products.

4. Methodology
4.1 Sample
A total of 144 surveys were collected, 142 of which offered data useable for further
analysis. A majority of the participants were female (76%); 34 participants were male
(24%). The average age of the participants was 20.99 years old. A majority of the sample
was white. Most of the students having either completed their sophomore or junior year in
college (83.1%). More than half of the participants stated that they were employed
part-time (62%) and had an income of less than $10,000 per year. An overwhelming
majority, 95.8%, stated that they were single.
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4.2 Instrument
The data were collected using a self-administered survey questionnaire. The questionnaire
addressed the following internal and external variables in relation to purchasing behavior:
purchasing intentions, perceived effectiveness, subjective norm, personal norm, awareness,
perceived expensiveness, and attitude. Survey items used were adapted from previous
research: awareness from Ellen et al. (1991) and Lodorfos and Dennis (2008); personal
norms from Thogersen (2002) and Thogersen and Olander (2006); subjective norms from
Thogersen (2002) and Thogersen and Olander (2006); attitude from Arvola et al. (2008);
perceived consumer effectiveness from Laskova (2007) and Kim and Choi (2005);
perceived expensiveness from Lodorfos and Dennis (2008), Magnusson et al. (2001)
and Tanner and Kast (2003); and purchase intention from Hustvedt and Dickson (2009) and
Lockie et al. (2002). Participants were asked to rank their response, using a Likert scale, on
the variables listed (1 ¼ strongly disagree; 5 ¼ strongly agree).

5. Results
5.1 Analysis of measurement model
The structural equation model was used to analyze the data. The software used to create
the structural equation model and analyze the data was AMOS version 18. A confirmatory
factor analysis (CFA) was performed first; based on the results of the CFA, the structural
equation model was then constructed and tested for further analyses. The measurement

Figure 1. Research model.

 8 J. Maloney et al.

model displays that there is a good model fit: x 2 (223) ¼ 352.55, p , .001; x 2/df
ratio ¼ 1.58; GFI ¼ .83; CFI ¼ .91; RMSEA ¼ .06. The reliability of each variable was
examined using Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability: the results are shown in
Table 1. The only factor that fell short of meeting the alpha level was perceived consumer
effectiveness. An alpha level of 0.70 is preferred for studies, but an alpha level of 0.60 is
commonly accepted (Moss et al., 1998). One item from personal norms was removed from
the measurement model because it showed low squared multiple correlations. This item
displayed high modification indices that could lead to improper factor loading.
The covariance modification indices were examined to determine if any pair of items
represented error variance.
The standardized path weights are used to measure the convergent validity (Table 1).
All of the paths seem to be significant (p , .05), and all have a t-value that is greater than
2. Since the reliability values were all acceptable and the path weights were found to be
significant, the validity of the variables was accepted.
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5.2 Analysis of structural equation model

The proposed model used has three exogenous variables (awareness, subjective norms and
personal norms) and four endogenous variables (attitude, perceived consumer
effectiveness, perceived expensiveness and purchase intention). AMOS was used to
create and analyze the structural equation model (SEM). The structural equation model
displays that there is a good model fit: x 2 (175) ¼ 284.00, x 2/df ratio ¼ 1.62; GFI ¼ .84;
CFI ¼ .91; RMSEA ¼ .07. Figure 2 and Table 2 show which pathways were significant
(p , 0.05) and supported the hypothesized relationships. Hypothesis 1 was supported
indicating that awareness influences the perceived behavioral controls. Results indicated
that awareness significantly influenced both perceived consumer effectiveness
and perceived expensiveness (p , .001). In addition, the relationship between awareness
and attitude was found to be significant, supporting hypothesis 2 (p , .001). This explains
that the level of awareness helps to determine whether the consumer will have a positive or
negative attitude toward purchasing organic apparel.
Hypothesis 3 was found to be partially supported. The results indicate a
significant relationship between subjective norms and intention (p , 0.05); however,
there was no relationship between personal norms and intention (p ¼ 0.19). Therefore,
normative beliefs overall partially influence the intention to purchase organic apparel
products.
The results also supported hypothesis 4, that attitude influences intention to purchase
organic apparel products (p , 0.05). However, hypothesis 5 was only partially supported.
The data reported no significant relationship between perceived consumer effectiveness
and attitude (p ¼ .19). Based on the data, it seemed that perceived consumer effectiveness
did not influence attitude. The data reported a significant relationship between perceived
expensiveness and attitude (p , .001). Hypothesis 6 was not supported ( p ¼ .11
and p ¼ .79 respectively). Results showed that perceived consumer effectiveness and
perceived expensiveness did not influence the intention to purchase organic apparel
products.

6. Discussion and conclusion

The purpose of this research was to discover which variables influence consumers’
purchasing behavior toward organic apparel products. Several new relationships among
 Journal of Global Fashion Marketing 9

Table 1. Standardized path weight (Confirmatory Factor Analysis).

Constructs Items Std. Estimate C.R.
Awareness How would you rate your knowledge of certified
organic apparel?a
Attitude Buying certified organic apparel instead of .74
(a ¼ .830) conventional apparel would feel like the morally
right thing to doa
Buying certified organic apparel instead of .79 9.38*
conventional apparel would feel like making a
personal contribution to something better
Buying certified organic apparel instead of .84 10.09*
conventional apparel would make me feel like a
better person
Personal norm I think I ought to choose certified organic apparel as .72
(a ¼ .742) often as possiblea
I feel I should choose certified organic apparel .80 9.71*
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instead of conventional apparel for the sake of the

environment
Do you feel an obligation to choose certified organic .50 6.26*
apparel if possible?
Subjective Most people whose opinion matter to me think that I .85
Norm ought to choose certified organic apparel as often as
(a ¼ .874) possiblea
I believe that most of my acquaintances choose .76 10.04*
certified organic apparel instead of conventional
apparel
Do you believe that people whose opinion matter to you .78 10.33*
think that you have an obligation to choose certified
organic apparel if possible
I believe that most of my acquaintances expect that I .80 10.76*
choose certified organic apparel instead of conventional
apparel
Perceived I can protect the environment by buying apparel that are .65
consumer friendly to the environmenta
effectiveness Each person’s behavior can have a positive effect on .52 4.55*
(a ¼ .602) society by signing a petition in support of promoting the
environment
I feel capable of helping solve the environment .53 4.62*
problems
Perceived If the cost of certified organic apparel was the same as .92
expensiveness nonorganic apparel, I would be more likely to buy more
(a ¼ .714) organic apparela
I cannot afford to pay more for certified organic apparel .33 3.32*
How often do you refrain from buying certified organic .44 4.28*
apparel because you think it is too expensive?
For me it is important that certified organic apparel is no .44 4.30*
more expensive than conventional apparel
Purchase I would gladly buy more certified organic apparel if I .70
intention could find ita
(a ¼ .810) How likely would you be to purchase a certified organic .82 8.29*
apparel product if you found one the next time you went
shopping for apparel
The next time you go shopping, how likely are you to .80 8.15*
purchase a certified organic apparel product
Notes: *Significant at p , 0.05.
a
The corresponding parameter is fixed to a value of 1.00 to set the scale of measurement.
 10 J. Maloney et al.

Figure 2. Structural equation model.

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Table 2. Standardized coefficients for the structural model.

Hypothesis Structural paths Std est Std error C.R.
H1 H1a Awareness Perceived consumer .59 .53 2.96*
effectiveness
H1b Awareness Perceived expensivenss .38 .54 2.73*
H2 Awareness Attitude .67 .67 3.07*
H3 H3a Subjective norm Purchase intention .28 .12 2.05*
H3b Personal norm Purchase intention 2.46 .31 21.30
H4 Attitude Purchase intention .80 .32 2.14*
H5 H5a Perceived consumer effectiveness Attitude .18 .16 1.31
H5b Perceived expensiveness Attitude .29 .07 3.10*
H6 H6a Perceived consumer effectiveness .30 .18 1.62
Purchase intention
H6b Perceived expensiveness Purchase .03 .09 .26
intention
*Significance at p , 0.05.

the main variables were identified in this study. Awareness was found to have an influence
on attitude, perceived consumer effectiveness and perceived expensiveness, similar to the
study by Ellen et al. (1991), which found a strong relationship between perceived
consumer effectiveness and knowledge. Based on the residual covariance, awareness
appeared to have an overall positive relationship with attitude, perceived consumer
effectiveness and perceived expensiveness. If consumers are to become more willing to
purchase organic apparel then, based on the results of this study, their awareness of organic
apparel needs to be increased; awareness would come before knowledge, as one has to
become aware of an issue, such as that of organic apparel, before one can become
knowledgeable about that issue.
Therefore, according to the results of this research, the amount of information about
organic apparel that is available should increase. Since the data showed that awareness
does directly influence attitude, perceived expensiveness and consumer perceived
effectiveness, it is likely that if there is an increase in awareness among consumers, the
 Journal of Global Fashion Marketing 11

willingness to purchase will be influenced. Perhaps retailers should determine how they
can increase their outreach to customers, offering them more information about their
products. This would create a greater understanding of organic products.
If we look to the organic food industry as a model for the organic apparel industry,
we can learn from its success. Given that availability of organic apparel products was
found to be important to purchasing such products (Hustvedt & Dickson, 2009), retailers
and manufacturers of organic apparel products need to ensure that these products are
readily available. One aspect that helped the organic food industry was the availability of
farmers’ markets. Therefore we should ask: what is the apparel equivalent of farmers’
markets? Where could a grass-roots effort conveniently place organic apparel products?
Perhaps art fairs held in city parks in the summer that feature multiple forms of art would
be one place for showcasing organic apparel. Another would be venues for those with skin
conditions that may be eased by organic apparel, such as health food or medical supply
stores.
Boutiques for the organic apparel industry would appear to be the equivalent to
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farmers’ markets in the organic food industry. Boutiques strategically placed in high traffic
areas next to grocery stores and large discounters would be premium locations to attract
consumers of organic apparel products. Since younger adults are more likely to believe
they are helping the environment by purchasing organic apparel, boutiques should target
that age group in marketing campaigns. Aggressive marketing for the organic apparel
industry is needed. Grass-roots efforts can be slow to produce results. Targeting specific
groups with aggressive marketing should improve sales. Groups such as those who
participate in pro-environmental behaviors, those with skin conditions that could be eased
by organic apparel and younger adults who believe their actions help the world would be
places to begin. Although some young adults were found to prefer style attributes of jeans
to ethical concerns (Jegethesan, Sneddon, & Soutar, 2012), this simply indicates that
product-specific and age-specific advertising and education is necessary. Other research
indicates that Generation Y consumers (age 18 – 25) believe that steps toward
sustainability should be taken and that every effort counts, despite having low levels of
knowledge of the holistic nature of sustainability and the adverse effects of the apparel
industry (Hill & Lee, 2012). This research indicates the need for concise and educational
marketing campaigns. If larger manufacturers of organic apparel partnered with large
retailers (Kohl’s, Target, K-Mart) for marketing campaigns, this could help educate large
audiences about organic apparel products.
Subjective norms were found to influence the consumer’s intention to purchase
organic apparel products. A person’s subjective norms are created based on how one
thinks others view himself. In other words, it seems that family and friends influence one’s
intention to purchase organic apparel products. These findings coincide with findings from
previous literature (Lee, 2008; Minton & Rose, 1997). Based on this finding, we suggest a
marketing campaign for organic apparel similar to the cell phone industry’s “family and
friends plan”, which could help spread the word about organic apparel (such as “buy one
get one free” offers). Personal norms did not seem to influence consumer intention to
purchase organic apparel. The findings from this study support findings from a study done
by Tanner and Kast (2003), which found that there is no significance between personal
norm and purchasing green products. Some of the studies on personal norms have reported
a relationship between personal norms and purchasing intention, which does not support
the results of this study (Minton & Rose, 1997; Thogersen & Olander, 2006).
The influence of other people appears to be more influential than one’s own perceptions of
one’s actions.
 12 J. Maloney et al.

Attitude was found to directly influence consumers’ purchasing intention. Attitude

appears to be the variable most directly influential toward purchasing intention. The other
variables studied (perceived expensiveness and awareness) indirectly influenced
purchasing intention through attitude. Grunert and Juhl (1995) found that a positive
attitude results in increased intention to purchase organic food, which is a similar concept
to the findings of this study.
The results of this study show that consumers viewed their awareness of organic
apparel as low (m ¼ 1.87). They perceived organic apparel to be more expensive than
conventional apparel. These two negative outcomes seem potentially to create a negative
attitude toward purchasing organic apparel on the part of the consumer. Since studies have
found that if consumers have a positive attitude toward organic products their willingness
to purchase increases, it is important that variables that influence attitude help to shape
attitude in a positive way. Using the unique advertising strategies of retailers such as
Target could create a positive attitude toward organic apparel. Celebrity endorsement in
partnership with a larger retailer would be another avenue to consider in increasing the
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positive attitude toward organic apparel.

Perceived expensiveness had an influence on attitude. If the consumer perceived
organic apparel to be expensive, their attitude would tend to be more negative, which
would reduce their intention to purchase organic apparel. The perceived expensiveness
variable might have had a bigger influence on attitude than perceived consumer
effectiveness because of the current economic situation that the country is facing,
following the economic downturn that began in 2008. Even though many consumers are
becoming more price-conscious, perceived expensiveness was not shown to influence
purchase intention directly; rather, it seemed to have an indirect effect. It is important that
retailers create a positive attitude toward organic apparel related to the price. If consumers
have a positive association then their attitude toward organic apparel would be more
positive and their willingness to purchase would increase.
The industry can use the results of this study to determine how to market their
organic apparel products to consumers. This study found that consumers view organic
apparel to be more expensive than conventional apparel. This may be true in some
instances; however, retailers need to get consumers to look past the price barrier so
that they will be more inclined to purchase organic apparel. Consumers’ price perception
also influences their attitude toward organic apparel products. The industry needs to
increase the availability of information about why organic products are more
expensive. This will allow consumers to increase their awareness and understand
the difference in the pricing of organic apparel versus conventional apparel. It might
also lower consumers’ price barrier with regard to organic apparel. Retailers can see
that price has an influence on consumer purchasing intention, and if perceptions
about price are changed, the intention to purchase organic apparel could be positively
influenced.
The results show that consumers have low awareness of organic apparel products.
Consumers do not feel that they have enough information about organic apparel,
which can negatively influence their purchasing decisions. If marketing strategies were
developed to improve information dispersion to consumers, their awareness of the
products could increase. Companies and organizations should make information
readily available to consumers so that they can easily become more aware and
knowledgeable about organic apparel products. If consumers can increase their awareness
about organic apparel products, their potential to purchase these products may eventually
increase.
 Journal of Global Fashion Marketing 13

7. Limitations and future research

This study examined consumers’ awareness of organic apparel products. The use of a
convenience sample in one location is a limitation, and future research should be expanded
to include other age groups and locations. In that way we could determine if these findings
are generalizable across other consumer groups and localities. Previous literature has
identified a gap between attitude and behavior. Even if participants state they are more
willing to purchase organic apparel, they may not do so the next time they are shopping.
Since the results from this study do not reflect consumers’ actual purchasing behavior,
future research could study the actual purchasing behavior of consumers in addition to
their planned behavior. This would allow researchers to develop an idea of where the
disconnect might be between attitude and behavior. This would also give insight into the
question of which variables influence the planned behavior, versus which variables
influence the actual behavior.
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