Helping Material of MTH202

http://vustudents.ning.com

Laws of Logic.

1. Cumulative Law

p∧q =q∧ p
p∨q = q∨ p 7. Identity Law

2. Associative Law p ∧t = p
p∨c = p
( p ∧ q ) ∧ r = p ∧ (q ∧ r )
8. Universal Bond Law
( p ∨ q ) ∨ r = p ∨ (q ∨ r )
p∨t =t
3. Distributive Law p ∧c = c
p ∧ (q ∨ r ) = ( p ∧ q ) ∨ ( p ∧ r ) 9. Negation Law
p ∨ (q ∧ r ) = ( p ∨ q ) ∧ ( p ∨ r )
p∨ ~ p = t (Tautology)
4. Idempotent Law p∧ ~ p = c (Contradiction)

p∧ p = p 10. Negation of t and c

p∨ p = p
~t =c
5. De-Morgans Law ~ c =t

~ ( p ∧ q ) = ~ p∨ ~ p 11. Double Negation Law

~ ( p ∨ q) =~ p ∧ ~ p ~ (~ p) = p
6. Absorption Law

p ∨ ( p ∧ q) = p
p ∧ ( p ∨ q) = p

http://vustudents.ning.com 1
 Set Identities.
Let A,B, and C be subsets of a Universal set U. then

1. Idempotent Law:
a. A∪A = A , b. A∩A = A
2. Commutative Law:
a. A∪B = B∪A , b. A∩B = B∩A
3. Associative Law:
a. A ∪ ( B ∪ C ) = ( A ∪ B) ∪ C ,
b. A ∩ ( B ∩ C ) = ( A ∩ B) ∩ C
4. Distributive Law:
a. A ∪ ( B ∩ C ) = ( A ∪ B) ∩ ( A ∪ C ) ,
b. A ∩ ( B ∪ C ) = ( A ∩ B) ∪ ( A ∩ C )
5. Identity Laws:
a. A∪ ∅ = A , b. A∩ ∅ = ∅
c. A∪ U = U , d. A∩ U = A
6. Complement Laws:
a. A ∪ Ac = U , b. A ∩ Ac = ∅
c. Uc = ∅ , d. ∅c = U
7. Double Complement Law:
a. ( Ac )c = A,
8. De-Morgan’s Law:
c c
a. ( A ∪ B ) = Ac ∩ Bc , b. ( A ∩ B ) = Ac ∪ Bc
9. Alternate Representation for Set Difference:
A − B = A ∩ Bc
10. Subset Laws:
a. A ∪ B ⊆ C iff A ⊆ C and B ⊆ C
c. C ⊆ A ∩ B iff C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B
http://vustudents.ning.com 2
 11. Absorption Laws:
a. A∪( A∩ B ) = A , b. A∩ ( A∪ B ) = A

Implications(Conditional)& Bi-Conditional

Implication (Conditional) →
1- a. p → q ≡ ~ q → ~ p, b. p → q ≡ ~p ∨ q
2- if p → q , then its inverse is ~ p → ~ q
3- if p→ q , then its converse is q → p
→ operator is not a commutative coz p → q ≠ q → p
4- if p → q , then its contra positive is ~ q → ~ p
so p → q ≡ ~ q → ~ p, so implication is equivalent to its
contra positive.

Bi-Conditional ↔
1- p ↔ q ≡ (p → q) ∧ (q → p)
2- ~p ↔ q ≡ p ↔ ~q

Laws of Logic.
1- Commutative Law : p↔q ≡ q↔p
2- Implication Law: p → q ≡ ~p ∨ q
≡ ~ ( p ∧ ~ q)
3- Exportation Law: ( p∧ q ) → r ≡ p → ( q→ r )
4- Equivalence: p ↔ q ≡ (p → q) ∧ (q → p)
5- Reductio ad absurdum: p → q ≡ ( p ∧ ~ q) → c
http://vustudents.ning.com 3
1.

Solution:

f: R R

g: R R

f(x) = x2 g(x) = 3x + 1

(fog)(x) = f [g(x)]

= f [3x + 1]

= (3x + 1)2

= 9x2 + 6x + 1

(gof)(x) = g [f(x)]

= g [x2]

= 3(x2) + 1

= 3x2 + 1

We observe that fog gof, that is the commutative law does not hold for the composition of
functions.

2.

Solution:

f: R R

f(x) = x2 - 3x + 2

(fof)(x) = f [f(x)]

= f (x2 - 3x + 2)

= (x2 - 3x + 2)2 - 3(x2 - 3x +2) + 2

= x4 + 9x2 + 4 - 6x3 - 12x + 4x2

- 3x2 + 9x - 6 + 2

= x4 - 6x3 + 10x2 - 3x.

http://vustudents.ning.com 4
3.

f: R R defined by f(x) = x2 + 3x + 1

g: R R defined by g(x) = 2x - 3

i. fog(x) = f [g(x)]

= f [2x - 3]

= (2x - 3)2 + 3(2x - 3) + 1

= 4x2 - 12x + 9 + 6x - 9 + 1

= 4x2 - 6x + 1

ii. gof(x) = g [f(x)]

= g [x2 + 3x + 1]

= 2 (x2 + 3x + 1) - 3

= 2x2 + 6x + 2 - 3

= 2x2 + 6x - 1

iii. fof(x) = f [f(x)]

= f [x2 + 3x + 1]

= (x2 + 3x + 1)2 + 3(x2 + 3x + 1) + 1

= x4 + 11x2 + 1 + 6x3 + 6x + 3x2 + 9x + 3 + 1

= x4 + 6x3 + 14x2 + 15x + 5

iv. gog(x) = g [g(x)]

= g [2x - 3]

= 2 (2x - 3) - 3

= 4x - 6 - 3

= 4x - 9

4.

f: R R defined by f(x) = x + 1

http://vustudents.ning.com 5
g: R R defined by g(x) = x - 1

fog(x) = f [g(x)]

= f (x - 1)

= (x - 1) + 1

=x

gof (x) = g [f(x)]

= g [x + 1]

= (x + 1) -1

=x

fog = gof = IR

IR is the identity function.

IR(x) = x.

5.

f: N Z0 defined by f(x) = 2x

g: Z0 Q defined by g(x) = 1/x

h: Q R defined by h(x) = 5x + 2

To verify associativity we have to prove that ho(gof) = (hog)of.

Consider

[ho(gof)](x) = h [(gof) (x)]

= h [g (f (x))]

= h [g (2x)]

= h [1/2x]

= 5 * 1/2x + 2

= 5/2x + 2

http://vustudents.ning.com 6
[(hog)of] (x) = (hog) [f(x)]

= (hog) (2x)

= h [g (2x)]

= h (1/2x)

= 5 * 1/2x + 2

= 5/2x + 2

6.

f: R R is the identity function

f(x) = x

fof (x) = f [f(x)]

= f (x)

=x

(ff) (x) = f (x) * f (x)

=x*x

= x2

What is the smallest integer N such that

a. ⎡N/7⎤ = 5 b. ⎡N/9⎤ = 6
SOLUTION:
a. N = 7 ⋅ (5 – 1) + 1 = 7 ⋅ 4 + 1 = 29
b. N = 9 ⋅ (6 – 1) + 1 = 9 ⋅ 5 + 1 = 46

http://vustudents.ning.com 7
EXAMPLE:
Use the Euclidean algorithm to find gcd(330, 156)
Solution:
1.Divide 330 by 156:

This gives 330 = 156 · 2 + 18

2.Divide 156 by 18:
This gives 156 = 18 · 8 + 12
3.Divide 18 by 12:
This gives 18 = 12 · 1 + 6
4.Divide 12 by 6:
This gives 12 = 6 · 2 + 0
Hence gcd(330, 156) = 6.

http://vustudents.ning.com 8