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ATLAS METALOGRÁFICO
by Mats Hillert
A Brief Introduction to the Microstructures of Metallic Materials -

How They Appear and How They Can Be Modified
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Preface
Table of Contents 13 chapters, 62 pages, 613 images
Index Alphabetical, 137 entries
Image-number If you want to show the images with an

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only.
Examples from If you have never seen the printed version

of the Metallographic Atlas, these
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it looks like.
Last change: 24 of Nov 1996

Lars Fredrik Larsson
larsf@matsc.kth.se
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The Image Archive at MSE
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Royal Institute of Technology
Stockholm, Sweden.
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På svenska, tack !
Restricted access !
Metallographic Atlas As an example we here
publish a free but
by Mats Hillert. limited version.
613 images in b/w accompanied by Here is information
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Examples
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Last change: 18 of Dec 1996
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Det digitala bildarkivet på Materialvetenskap
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Institutionen för Materialvetenskap, KTH.

(Till Institutionens hemsida . Till KTH's hemsida .)
In english, please !
Lösenord krävs !
Metallografisk Atlas
Som exempel visas här en
av Mats Hillert. begränsad version.
613 bilder i svartvitt åtföljda av Här finns information

beskrivande texter. om hur lösenord
erhålles.
Exempel
Sju bilder i 24-bits färg med förklarande texter. Fritt tillgängligt !
Bilder av metallers mikrostruktur som används
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Under konstruktion.
Arkivet Endast för internt bruk.
Har du synpunkter eller önskemål , skicka oss e-post.

larsf@matsc.kth.se
http://klara.met.kth.se/ia/index-s.html [26-06-1999 02:57:48 p.m.]

Atlas-index
[Föregående index] [In english, please.]
av Mats Hillert
En kort introduktion till de metalliska materialens mikrostruktur -

hur den uppkommer och hur den kan modifieras.
Här ser du endast miniversioner av bilderna.

Klicka på en minibild för att ladda ner den större bilden.
Om du ställer in din WWW-bläddrare så att den använder ett externt
hjälpprogram för att visa jpeg-filer så kommer du att se bilden i ett
separat fönster och kan ha den tillhörande texten synlig samtidigt.
Förord
Innehållsförteckning 13 avsnitt, 62 sidor, 613 bilder
Index Alfabetiskt register

(endast på engelska)
Bild-nummer Om du vill visa utvalda bilder med en

OH-projektor e.dyl. så kanske du
index föredrar denna version med enbart
bildnummer.
Exempel från den Om Du aldrig sett den tryckta

versionen av Metallografisk Atlas, så
tryckta versionen ger dessa exempelsidor en
uppfattning om dess utseende.

larsf@matsc.kth.se
http://klara.met.kth.se/ia/atlas/superindx-s.html [26-06-1999 02:57:51 p.m.]

Atlas-index
[Föregående index] [In english please]
Förord:
Avsikten med denna samling av mikrobilder är att ge ett rikhaltigt bildmaterial som komplement till de
mikrostrukturer som eleverna får stifta bekantskap med i olika kurser. Bilderna har i första hand ordnats
efter de principer som de avses demonstrera.
Den ledsagande texten betonar den principiella aspekten hos varje bild men har för övrigt hållits mycket
kort. I regel har informationen om materialets exakta sammansättning och bildens exakta förstoring
utelämnats eftersom detta ansetts oväsentligt från principiell synpunkt.
De flesta bilderna har tagits med ljusoptiskt mikroskop eftersom detta instrument kan användas för att
demonstrera de flesta av de grundläggande principerna inom metallografin om man bortser från
dislokationsstrukturer och kristallgränsers strukturer. Dessa områden täckes inte i föreliggande atlas.
Den största delen av bildmaterialet har tagits fram vid institutionen och jag vill främst tacka
forskningsingenjören P.-O. Söderholm för hans värdefulla insatser.
Vissa bilder som reproducerats från tryckta original har fått ett regelbundet Moirémönster på grund av
det dubbla rastreringsförfarandet. Detta är olyckligt och läsaren bör träna sig på att känna igen detta
mönster så att det inte misstolkas för en metallografisk struktur.
Mats Hillert
Föregående index Till sid. 1a
Last change: 29 of February 1996

larsf@matsc.kth.se
http://klara.met.kth.se/ia/atlas/forord-s.html [26-06-1999 02:57:53 p.m.]

Atlas-index
[Föregående index] [In english please]
Innehållsförteckning:
● Förord
● 1. Metallografisk teknik.
❍ a) Etsmetoder för att synliggöra mikrostrukturen hos ett material.
❍ b) ---"---
❍ c) Fysikaliska metoder att synliggöra mikrostrukturen hos ett material.
❍ d) --- " ---
● 2. Geometriska aspekter.
❍ a) Tillväxt från slumpvis fördelade kärnor
❍ b) Bildning av pelarkristaller
❍ c) Geometrisk textur pga deformation
❍ d) ---"---
❍ e) Geometriska effekter av ytspänningen
● 3. Tvillingbildning
❍ a) Tvillingbildning i fast tillstånd
❍ b) Tvillingbildning vid kristallisation

● 4. Rekristallisation
❍ a) Kärnbildning vid rekristallisation.
❍ b) Tillväxt vid rekristallisation.

● 5. Korntillväxt
❍ a) Kornstrukturen hos enfasiga material.
❍ b) Abnorm korntillväxt.
❍ c) Partikelförgrovning.
❍ d) Sfäroidisering.
● 6. Bildning av martensit
❍ a) Martensit i kolstål.
❍ b) Martensit i andra legeringar.

● 7. Utskiljning ur fast fas.
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❍ a) Allmän utskiljning.
❍ b) Korngränsinducerad utskiljning.
❍ c) Kornstorlekens betydelse vid utskiljning.
❍ d) Speciella effekter av korngränser på utskiljning.
❍ e) Utskiljning av ferrit i Fe-C.
❍ f) Utskiljning av ferrit i Fe-C, fortsättning.
❍ g) Utskiljning av cementit i Fe-C.
❍ h) Utskiljning av cementit i Fe-C, fortsättning.
❍ i) i) Inre oxidation.
❍ j) j) Utskiljning av austenit från delta-ferrit.
❍ k) k) Omvandlingar mellan alfa och beta i titan-legeringar.
● 8. Eutektoida reaktioner.
❍ a) Kooperativ tillväxt vid eutektoid reaktion.
❍ b) Perlit.
❍ c) Perlit, fortsättning.
❍ d) Isoterm omvandling.
❍ e) Urartad eutektoid reaktion.
❍ f) Acikulär eutektoid.
❍ g) Bainit.
❍ h) Bainit, fortsättning.
❍ i) Eutektoida reaktioner i legerade stål.
● 9. Primär utskiljning vid stelning.
❍ a) Formen på faser utskilda ur smälta
❍ b) Porbildning vid stelning.

❍ c) Segring
❍ d) Segring, fortsättning
❍ e) Sekundära faser vid stelning
❍ f) Ferritstrimmighet i stål
❍ g) Karbidstrimmighet.
● 10. Eutektisk stelning.
❍ a) Eutektiska strukturer
❍ b) Urartade eutektika
❍ c) Eutektiska lod

Atlas-index
❍ d) Segring i ternära system

● 11. Peritektoida reaktioner.
❍ a) Peritektoida reaktioner.
● 12. Gjutjärn.
❍ a) Vitt gjutjärn
❍ b) Vitt gjutjärn, fortsättning.

❍ c) Grått gjutjärn.
❍ d) Grått gjutjärn, fortsättning.
❍ e) Grafitformen i grått gjutjärn
❍ f) Segring i grått gjutjärn
❍ g) Fosfideutektikum.
❍ h) Grafitformer i gjutjärn
❍ i) Grafit och brott
❍ j) Austenitens omvandling i grått gjutjärn.
● 13. Andra legeringssystem.
❍ a) Silumin.
Last change: 17 of July 1996

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-index
Metallographic Atlas
Contents:
● Preface
● 1. Metallographic techniques.
❍ a) Etching methods to make the microstructure

visible.
❍ b) --- " ---
❍ c) Physical methods of inspection.
❍ d) --- " ---
● 2. Geometrical aspects
❍ a) Growth of nuclei with random distribution
❍ b) Formation of columnar crystals
❍ c) Geometric texture caused by plastic deformation
❍ d) ---"---
❍ e) Geometric effects of surface tension
● 3. Formation of twins
❍ a) Formation of twins in solid state transformations
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❍ b) Formation of twins during crystallization from a

melt
● 4. Recrystallization
❍ a) Nucleation during recrystallization
❍ b) Growth of crystals during recrystallization
● 5. Grain growth
❍ a) Grain structure of one-phase materials
❍ b) Abnormal grain growth
❍ c) Coarsening of particles
❍ d) Spheroidization
● 6. Formation of martensite
❍ a) Martensite in carbon steels
❍ b) Martensite in other alloys.
● 7. Precipitation in solid state.
❍ a) General precipitation.
❍ b) Grain boundary induced precipitation.
❍ c) The effect of grain size on precipitation.

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❍ d) Special effects of grain boundaries on

precipitation.
❍ e) Precipitation of ferrite in Fe-C alloys.
❍ f) Precipitation of ferrite in Fe-C alloys, fortsättning.
❍ g) Precipitation of cementit in Fe-C.
❍ h) Precipitation of cementit in Fe-C, cont'd
❍ i) Internal oxidation.
❍ j) Precipitation of austenite from delta-ferrite.
❍ k) Transformations between alfa and beta in
Ti-alloys.
● 8. Eutectoid reactions.
❍ a) Cooperative growth during a eutectoid reaction.
❍ b) Pearlite.
❍ c) Pearlite, cont'd.
❍ d) Isothermal transformation.
❍ e) Degenerate eutectoid reaction.
❍ f) Acicular eutectoid.

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❍ g) Bainite in steel.
❍ h) Bainite in steel, cont'd.
❍ i) Eutectoid reactions in alloyed steels.
● 9. Primary precipitation during solidification.
❍ a) Shape of phases formed from a melt
❍ b) Formation of porosity during solidification
❍ c) Microsegregation
❍ d) Microsegregation, cont'd
❍ e) Secondary phase formed on solidification
❍ f) Ferrite banding in steels
❍ g) Carbide banding in steel
● 10. Eutectic solidification.
❍ a) Eutectic structures
❍ b) Degenerated eutectic structures
❍ c) Eutectic alloys for soldering
❍ d) Segregation in eutectic alloys with impurities
● 11. Peritectic and peritectoid reactions.
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❍ a) Peritectic and peritectoid reactions

● 12. Cast iron.
❍ a) White cast iron
❍ b) White cast iron, cont'd
❍ c) Grey cast iron
❍ d) Grey cast iron, cont'd
❍ e) Shape of graphite in grey cast iron
❍ f) Segregation in grey cast iron
❍ g) Phosphide eutectic in cast iron
❍ h) Other shapes of graphite in cast iron
❍ i) Fracture through graphite
❍ j) Transformation of austenite in grey cast iron
● 13. Non-ferrous alloy systems.
❍ a) Silumin

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-index
Preface:
The purpose of this collection of metallographic micrographs was to demonstrate various phenomena
occurring in metallic materials due to solidification or solid state transformation. In order not to distract
the reader from the main principles, information on experimental details, such as alloy composition and
magnification, was kept to a minimum.
For the same reason no attempt was made to give a broad view of the microstructures typical of various
important alloy systems. Thus, most of the micrographs are arranged according to the phenomena they
are supposed to illustrate. Due to my own background, many micrographs show steels and cast irons,
which is unfortunate. However, it is my hope that the reader will accept that the phenomena they
illustrate are more general.
The accomanying text is used to explain the purpose of each micrograph and to give some understanding
of what mechanisms have operated.
The number of electron micrographs was kept to a minimum. They are mainly used here to amplify what
can be seen in a light microscope. The field of electron microscopy needs its own collection of
micrographs.
Most of the micrographs were produced in my own research group but some came frome other sources.
In most cases they can be identified because they show a Moiré pattern. I am grateful to all who have
thus contributed.
Stockholm, August 1991
Mats Hillert
Previous index To page 1a
Last change: 29 of February 1996

larsf@matsc.kth.se
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Atlas-1a
Go to page: [Previous] [Index] [Next]
1a. Etching methods to make the microstructure

visible
Click on the small images to view the large ones.
Micrograph 1. An etching reagent may attack different crystals with different rates depending
upon the difference in crystallographic orientation. There will thus be a sharp step at the crystal
boundaries. In the microscope one will see a black line. (This picture is a reproduction of a
previously printed picture. This has given rise to a so-called Moiré pattern, a regular pattern of
brighter and darker areas covering the whole picture. It is sometimes much finer than shown here.
See picture 3, for example.)
Micrograph 2. An etching reagent may colour different crystals differently due to their different
crystallographic orientation. In a black and white micrograph this may give rise to different shades
of grey. Picture 2 is taken on an fcc Cu-Zn alloy and shows that the grains have annealing twins.
Micrograph 3. An etching reagent may attack crystal boundaries and form grooves. They will
show up as black lines in the microscope. Oblique illumination can reveal that the black line is not
due to a step (as in picture 1). Actually, the grooves in picture 3 were formed by thermal etching
(annealing at high temperature in vacuum) and are deeper and wider than one normally gets with
chemical etching.
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Atlas-1a
Micrograph 4. An etching reagent may attack the surface of a crystal in such a way that facets of
low indices are formed. This may result in etch pits as shown here. In this case the facets are
{100}. The orientation of the crystal is thus revealed. This micrograph was taken on a
coarse-grained specimen of a bcc Fe-Si alloy.
Micrograph 5. This is another example of facetting etching where the whole surface has been
attacked. The material is pure Fe.
Micrograph 6. This is similar to picture 5 but the etching conditions were slightly different.
Micrograph 7. The attack of the etching reagent may depend on the chemical composition and
may not reveal the crystal boundaries if there is no sharp change in composition there. This
micrograph shows the inhomogeneous distribution of alloying elements in a Cu alloy, caused by
segregation during dendritic solidification.
Micrograph 8. The etching reagent may give solid reaction products which deposit on the surface,
usually as a dark or coloured film. The film sometimes cracks when the specimen is dried and a
pattern of lines may form which has some relation to the orientation of the crystal. This
micrograph is taken on an fcc Cu-Zn alloy and the horizontal line reveals a coherent twin
boundary.
Micrograph 9. The etching reagent may attack different phases in different ways. Here the thin
white phase has not been attacked at all. The grey matrix has been attacked and thus there is now a
step at the interfaces between white and grey crystals. In addition, the grey phase is grey because it

Atlas-1a
contained a hugh number of very fine particles of a different phase which was not dissolved and
stayed as dirt on the surface. The black phase was attacked in such a way that a solid reaction
product deposited on the surface. White and black phases are two different alloyed carbides and
the grey phase is martensite which has been slightly annealed.
Last change: 30 of Oct 1996

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-1b
1b. Etching methods, cont'd

Micrograph 1 (and 2). Most etching reagents attack different phases with different rates and
sharp steps will form at the phase boundaries. In the microscope they will show up as black lines.
This micrograph is taken on an Fe-C alloy containing martensite, ferrite and cementite. Martensite
is big white areas. A thin band of white ferrite is shown vertically. It has been attacked more than
the martensite and is thus at a lower level. Thus the black contours. Cementite is found in a fine
mixture with ferrite (so-called pearlite). Cementite is not at all attacked and should thus look
white, also, but it is standing above the ferrite, which was attacked. The pearlite areas thus appear
black when the lines cannot be resolved.
Micrograph 2. This micrograph is taken on the same area as picture 1 but with oblique
illumination coming from the left. It is thus easy to see that the band of ferrite has been attacked
more than the martensite.
Micrograph 3 (and 4). This micrograph is similar to picture 2 but the etching was heavier and the
martensite has thus been attacked and looks grey with a diffuse pattern in it.
Micrograph 4. The etching reagent may be so sensitive to the orientation of a crystal that some
crystals are hardly attacked at all. This is the case for so-called nital (1 % HNO3 in alcohol) on {100}
surfaces of bcc Fe (ferrite). The white area in the center is a grain of ferrite of this orientation and comparison with
picture 3 reveals that it is a small proeutectoid particle of ferrite which has later developed into pearlite by
collaborating with cementite on its continued growth.
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Atlas-1b
Micrograph 5. Many etching reagents are sensitive to orientation as well as composition. This micrograph is taken
on a single-phase fcc Cu alloy produced by casting. One can see annealing twins due to the effect of orientation.
The material has thus been deformed and annealed after casting. One can also see an effect of an uneven
distribution of alloying elements. This is a memory of segregation occurring during solidification. The annealing
has thus been too short to completely even out composition differences by diffusion.
Micrograph 6. One can apply different etching reagents one after the other and thus get different etching effects
overlapping. This specimen of a low-carbon steel was first etched in nital to show ferrite(white) and pearlite(thin
black regions). Then it was etched in a special reagent (Oberhoffer's etch) in order to reveal the distribution of P,
present as an impurity. A dark reaction product then deposited on the areas of low P content (large black regions).
It shows that P has segregated strongly during solidification. Black areas reveal the dendritic pattern of
solidification. It is evident that this steel has not been deformed mechanically. The shape of the black areas shows
that they represent the first, thin skeleton of dendrites. It is evident that P has had the tendency to remain in the
melt, leaving the first solid to form without much P.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-1c
1c. Physical methods of inspection

Micrograph 1. This micrograph is taken on a white cast iron and shows the eutectic mixture of
cementite(white)+austenite(grey because it has later transformed to various phases which are
attacked by etching). The etching reagent was nital. The cementite has not been attacked at all.
Micrograph 2. Same specimen as in picture 1 but now examined with polarized light. The
polarizer and the analyzer have had crossed positions and an ordinary metallic surface would
appear dark. However, cementite is not cubic. It is thus optically active which means that it rotates
the plane of polarization and some light may thus pass through the analyzer. The strength of this
effect is different for different orientations. One can thus distinguish between various crystals of
cementite. It is evident that the fine eutectic structure has formed by sidewise growth from the
long, coarse plates of cementite.
Micrograph 3. This is a specimen of pure Zn, which is a hexagonal metal. It is thus optically
active and can be examined under polarized light in the polished condition. Different grains rotate
the polarized light differently. We can here see that some grains contain thin regions of a different
orientation. They are mechanical twins, here formed by a very light deformation.
Micrograph 4. Cubic phases are optically inactive. However, sometimes they can be examined in
polarized light after the kind of etching which gives a thin layer of a reaction product if that
product is optically active. This micrograph shows electrolytically oxidized Al. Several fine grains
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Atlas-1c
with a dendritic pattern can be distinguished. Evidently, this quality of Al had some impurity
which gave rise to dendritic solidification and also to many nuclei. Two scratches can be seen as
thin, crossing lines. They formed during polishing and show up very well in this kind of
examination.
Micrograph 5. Cubic phases may also rotate the plane of polarization if the reflection is not at
right angle. Such reflection occurs on the sides of etch pits (see Fig. 1a:4). This is an Fe-C
specimen containing ferrite, in addition to martensite and cementite. The specimen has been etched
in a special reagent which covers the surface of ferrite with very small etch pits. They cannot be
seen individually but their effect on the plane of polarization is strong. Some grains of ferrite thus
appear white and some appear dark. We can here see that each grain of ferrite has two regions, one
free of other phases and the other containing thin lamellae of another phase, which is cementite.
That mixture should thus be regarded as very coarse pearlite. As with Figs. 1b:3 and 4, we may
thus conclude that ferrite grains may start to grow alone and may later on establish collaboration
with cementite.
Micrographs 6a and b. This is a silicate inclusion which is glassy and quite transparent. This is
why it appears dark in picture 6a with the exception of the center where the metallic interface in
the bottom has reflected the light straight back. On the other hand, in picture 6b the same inclusion
has been examined in polarized light and the oblique reflection on the sloping sides of the
inclusion has rotated the plane of polarization. Thus the inclusion looks bright except for the center
where the reflection is at right angle and along the dark cross which reveals the directions of the
polarizer and the analyzer.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-1d
1d. Physical methods, cont'd

It is often possible to distinguish between different phases already in the polished but unetched
condition because of different colour or different reflectivity. Micrograph 1 is from an Al-Cu-Si
alloy and it is easy to distinguish between Al(white), Al2Cu(grey) and Si(dark).
One can often enhance the difference by depositing a thin layer of some transparent substance. Micrograph 2
shows an alloyed steel with two types of carbides. The matrix was attacked by etching but the two carbides could
not be distinguished before depositing a layer by evaporization. They are now grey and dark.
Carbon steels are often tempered after quenching and the hardness of the martensite is thus decreased by
precipitation of the carbon as fine carbide particles. By etching of tempered martensite one can dissolve the ferritic
matrix and retain the fine carbides as a thin layer of dirt, which makes martensite appear dark. Micrograph 3
shows tempered (dark) martensite in a matrix of retained austenite in a high carbon steel where martensite is
plate-like.
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Atlas-1d
By deep etching of the matrix one can examine the shape of a second phase. Micrograph 4 shows a composite
material produced by directional solidification of a eutectic alloy. The section is almost parallel to the direction of
solidification and it is interesting to see some very long particles. Micrograph 5 is taken in another direction with a
scanning electron microscope after deep etching. It is here evident that most of the particles are rod-like but some
are plate-like. One of the advantages with the scanning electron microscope is its large depth of focus.
By complete dissolution of the matrix one can extract second-phase particles and examine their shapes.
Micrograph 6 is taken with a scanning electron microscope and shows an extracted particle of Si in an Al-Si alloy.
During martensitic transformations and mechanical twinning there will be shape changes which will show up on an
initially flat surface. Such changes can be revealed by oblique illumination and quantitative measurements of the
shape change can be made with a multiple interference method yielding a series of lines representing different
levels. This method is illustrated by micrograph 7, taken on pure Zn with mechanical twins. Micrograph 8 is
taken with oblique illumination.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-2a
2. Geometrical considerations
2a. Growth of nuclei with random distrubution
Photograph 1 shows the crystals in aluminum ingots with different additions of Ti. In picture 1a
there is no Ti and no nuclei have formed inside the ingot. All crystals have nucleated at the surface
and grown inwards in a columnar fashion. The Ti content has then been increased to 0.03, 0.06 and
0.10 % in 1b, 1c and 1d. The number of crystals nucleated at the surface has thus increased and
new nuclei appear in a central region of the ingots. They appear earlier the higher the Ti content is.
Within the central region the new nuclei seem to be randomly distributed and give rise to equiaxed
crystals (crystals with approximately the same width in different directions). One often talks about
the columnar zone and the equiaxed zone.
Micrograph 2 shows the structure of a crystallized polymer. The crystallization starts from nuclei
and proceeds with the same rate in all directions. Each unit is thus spherical during growth until
they impinge on each other (so-called hard impingement) and get a polyhedral shape. The
spherical shape can still be seen at the lower left part of the picture where the crystallization was
not completed when interrupted by cooling. The picture was taken with polarized light and the
crosses reveal the positions of the polarizer and analyzer.
Micrograph 3 shows a case where nuclei have formed at random inside the grains of a solid Al
alloy and each nucleus has grown into a plate-like crystal (so-called WidmanstŠtten plates). The
growth of each crystal has stopped when it was approaching other crystals, actually when it was
entering the depleted zone around other crystals (so-called soft impingement). Their actual shape
during growth is preserved rather well.

Atlas-2a
Micrograph 4 shows a solidified Al alloy where the nuclei were distributed at random. They have
grown with almost the same rate in all directions until impinging on each other. In contrast to
picture 2, the final crystal boundaries are here very jagged and reveal that the crystals were
actually dendritic during growth although they became compact when the solidification was
completed.
Micrograph 5 shows a similar case in a solidified Cu alloy. Here the etching method reveals a
dendritic pattern reflecting the shape at an early stage of solidification.
Last change: 13 of March 1996

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-2b
2b. Formation of columnar crystals
If nuclei form only on the surface and the crystals grow side by side into the material, the result
will be columnar crystals.
Photograph 1 shows the microstructure of a Cu ingot. The solidification started at the surface and
resulted in a wide zone of columnar crystals, the columnar zone. Then new nuclei started to form
in the melt remaining in the center, giving rise to an equiaxed zone.
Photograph 2 shows the directional solidification of two turbine blades, accomplished by

controlling the solidification with a strong temperature gradient. Columnar crystals have grown
upwards in the picture.
Micrograph 3 shows the zone between a weld and the original material in an Al alloy. Crystals in
the original material have grown into the melt and by growth side by side they have formed
columnar crystals. The weld has thus solidified without any new nuclei. The etching reveals a
dendritic pattern during growth but the columnar crystals became compact when the solidification
was completed.
Micrograph 4 shows two Cu plates joined by welding. The solidification has started at the contact
with the solid, fine-grained material, as illustrated in picture 3 and was not disturbed by any new
nuclei. The result is thus columnar crystals grown in the direction of the temperature gradient.

Atlas-2b
Micrograph 5 shows the microstructure of a thin band of Fe cooled from the austenitic condition
at 1100°C by being slowly pulled out of a furnace. Columnar crystals of ferrite have formed by
growing side by side in a zone of about 900°C. The rest of the band was quickly pulled out of the
furnace and a very fine-grained structure of ferrite was formed by the appearance of many new
nuclei (at the top of the picture).
Micrograph 6 shows a corner of a piece of 0.7 % C steel after decarburization for a long time at
750°C, interrupted by quenching. At 750°C the steel was in the state of austenite, and ferrite
started to form at the surface during the decarburization. The first crystals of ferrite to form then
continued to grow into the material as the decarburization proceeded. They grew side by side in
the direction of the carbon gradient and developed into columnar crystals. (The austenite appears
dark because it transformed to martensite on quenching and the specimen was then annealed.)
Micrograph 7 shows the opposite case where a layer of austenite has formed from the surface (at
the bottom of picture) by carburizing a piece of pure iron at 750°C. The process was interrupted by
rapid cooling and the austenite then transformed mainly to pearlite(dark) but some ferrite(white)
formed at the austenite grain boundaries, thus revealing the columnar shape of the austenite
crystals.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-2c
2c. Geometric texture caused by plastic

deformation
Micrograph 1 shows that non-metallic inclusions can be deformed when a steel is shaped by
rolling. Different inclusions can have different hardness and their deformation can thus be
different. The particle at the top has retained its original spherical shape, the one at the bottom has
deformed into a very long band. It mainly consists of MnS.
Micrograph 2 shows how a composite inclusion may deform. The main part is hard enough to
retain its original spherical shape but two minority phases have followed the flow of the
surrounding metallic material and have collected at both sides of the sphere.
Micrograph 3 shows the effect of rolling on hard but brittle inclusions (here Al2O3 ). They are
fragmented and the fragments are spread out into a band. A fracture first gives rise to a pore (3a) but it is gradually
closed by the flow of the metallic matrix (3b) and is finally completely filled (3c).
Micrographs 4a, b, c and d show the same phenomenon in a stainless steel with duplex particles of TiN and TiC.
Picture 4b shows very well how the metallic matrix flows into a void.

Atlas-2c
Micrograph 5 shows how the matrix crystals (ferrite) in a low carbon steel have deformed by heavy local
deformation at room temperature (so-called cold deformation). (The previous pictures on this page were taken after
hot deformation and the metallic matrix had time to recrystallize and no longer reveals the deformation.) The
following micrographs show observations made in the same specimen at high magnification.
Micrograph 6 shows that a long thin porosity may form at a very hard inclusion.
Micrographs 7a and b show long cementite particles which have fragmented and given rise to some porosity.
Micrographs 8a and b are from a region with less heavy deformation and here the cementite has just started to
break up into fragments.
To page: [Previous] [Index] [Next]

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Atlas-2d-e
2d. Geometric texture, cont'd
Micrograph 1 shows the solidification structure of a high speed steel. The etching reveals the
carbides as white particles. They are mainly collected in regions of eutectic structure between
dendrite arms.
Micrographs 2 and 3 show the same material after hot rolling to a reduction of thickness by 75
and 95 %, respectively. It is difficult to recognize the solidification structure in picture 3 but the
bands of carbide fragments are a typical feature and they represent eutectic regions.
Micrograph 4 shows an aluminum bronze, hot rolled in a condition of alfa+beta and with such a
composition that some beta(dark) is retained after cooling but some beta has been consumed by
growth of the neighbouring a grains.
Micrograph 5 shows a tungsten wire after a very heavy deformation. The crystals are very long
and thin.
Micrograph 6 shows the same material after annealing at 2700°C where recrystallization and
grain growth has occurred. The grain boundaries again fall mainly in the direction of the wire,
probably due to the action of non-metallic inclusions collected in bands in that direction.
Micrograph 7 shows a plate of a low carbon steel after cold rolling and annealing. The bands of
small dark particles consist of cementite and reveal the rolling direction. They have influenced the

Atlas-2d-e
recrystallization and grain growth of the ferritic matrix and the ferrite grains are thus elongated in
the rolling direction.
Micrograph 8 shows a cross section of a V shaped bar of steel produced by hot rolling of a steel
ingot. The etching reveals that impurities segregated to the center of the ingot during solidification.
In spite if the very heavy deformation, the high impurity region is still situated inside the material.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-2e-e
2e. Geometric effects of surface tension
Micrograph 1, 2 and 3 show different geometries in two-phase materials, annealed long enough
to bring them close to equilibrium. The difference in geometry is caused by the ratio of surface
tension in the matrix grain boundaries and the surface tension of the phase interfaces being
different. In picture 1 the surface tensions are about equal and the contact angles are about 120°. In
picture 2 the surface tension of phase interfaces is lower and the particles of the minority phase are
more pointed. In picture 3 the surface tension of the phase interfaces is only about half and the
minority phase is pulled out along the grain boundaries (so-called wetting). Notice that minority
particles not in contact with grain boundaries are spherical.
Micrograph 4a shows a specimen of a high purity steel after a special etching revealing
dislocations and subgrain boundaries. The specimen has been deformed slightly and annealed at a
moderate temperature where so-called recovery has occurred. The network of subgrain boundaries
resembles an ordinary network of grain boundaries which is the result of balancing surface
tensions. However, subgrain boundaries in contact with ordinary grain boundaries (thick, black
lines) have no effect on the direction of the grain boundaries. Evidently, the subgrain boundaries
have much lower surface tension than the ordinary grain boundaries.
Micrograph 4b shows a similar specimen. It is uncertain whether the central, vertical line should
be regarded as a subgrain boundary or an ordinary grain boundary. It is as black as the grain
boundary and it has caused an angle to form on it, indicating that it has an appreciable surface
tension.
Micrograph 5 shows a steel with a high S impurity. FeS and MnS have formed on solidification.
MnS is slightly darker than FeS. FeS seems to wet the grain boundaries whereas MnS seems to
http://klara.met.kth.se/ia/atlas/2e-e.html (1 de 2) [26-06-1999 02:59:46 p.m.]

Atlas-2e-e
form a series of particles. The grain boundary films of FeS are detrimental to the high temperature
strength (so-called red shortness) and can be avoided by adding more Mn.
Micrograph 6 shows three dark particles of MnS formed when the steel solidified. Two of them
formed above their melting point and their spherical shape reflects the isotropic surface tension of
the liquid MnS/liquid metal interface. One formed below its melting point and its facetted shape
reflects the anisotropy of the solid MnS/liquid metal interface.
Micrograph 7 shows an Al alloy after heating to partial melting.
Micrograph 8 shows the same area with a special kind of oblique illumination. It is evident that a
spherical pool of melt formed around each one of second-phase particles inside the Al grains. The
particles thus contain an alloying element which goes into the melt and decreases the melting
temperature. Many particles were in contact with grain boundaries and the melt they gave rise to
seems to wet the grain boundaries. On cooling, the Al grains have grown back into the spherical
pools and the dissolved part of the second phase has redeposited on the particles. In large regions
of melt at grain boundaries the Al grains have grown back in a dendritic fashion, allowing the
second phase to redeposit in the intervening spaces.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-3a-e
To page [Prevoius] [Index] [Next]
3a. Formation of twins in solid state

transformations
Micrograph 1 shows annealing twins in an a brass which has an fcc atomic arrangement. Such
twins can form by growth faults when a crystal grows at the expense of others during
recrystallization or grain growth. These twin boundaries are straight and parallel to 111 planes in
both twins. Often there are several parallel twin planes indicating that growth faults have occurred
repeatedly, roughly perpendicular to the growth direction. This phenomenon occurs frequently in
fcc metals with a low stacking fault energy but not in Al which is fcc but has a high stacking fault
energy.
Micrograph 2 is taken at a higher magnification and practically all grains show twins.
Micrograph 3 shows mechanical twins (deformation twins) in an fcc alloy of Cu with Cd.
Mechanical twins are not common in such materials.
Micrograph 4 shows plate-like martensite in an Fe-30%Ni alloy. Micrograph 4b is taken at a

higher magnification in an electron microscope and shows that at least some regions of the
martensite are composed of very thin parallel twins. They are probably formed by the action of
transformation stresses.

Atlas-3a-e
Micrograph 5 shows mechanical twins in a steel with a very low carbon content, formed by a
mechanical shock at low temperature. In this connection they are called Neumann bands. These
twins are primarily formed as thin lenses or plates with smooth sides but the matrix grain may later
on grow back and make their sides very jagged. The many black spots in the picture are oxide
particles caused by a high oxygen content in the steel melt, used to decrease the carbon content.
Micrograph 6 shows at a very high magnification that the sides of a twin can be very straight.
Micrograph 7 is taken on a piece of pure Fe which has been alloyed with Zn by diffusion from the
surface, shown at the bottom of the picture. The specimen was deformed slowly at room
temperature and the picture shows that the high Zn layer has deformed by the formation of
mechanical twins but the pure Fe has not. The whole material is ferritic (bcc). Evidently, the
addition of Zn promotes mechanical twinning of ferrite.
Micrograph 8 shows mechanical twins in pure Sn which has a tetragonal atomic arrangement.
Mechanical twinning is an important deformation mechanism in several non-cubic materials.
To page [Prevoius] [Index] [Next]

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Atlas-3b
3b. Formation of twins during crystallization from a

melt
Micrograph 1 shows the normal, equiaxed shape of Si crystals, grown from an Al-Si melt. Their
ideal shape is shown in Fig. 1d:6 and it reflects their cubic atomic arrangement (the diamond
structure).
Micrograph 2 shows the ordinary eutectic structure of Al-Si. Here the Si crystals are plate-like, a
shape which is explained by the presence of some twin boundaries parallel to the sides of each
plate. They promote growth at the edges and are thus responsible for the plate-like shape.
Micrograph 3 is taken with a scanning electron microscope and shows that an equiaxed crystal of
Si can also contain a series of parallel twin boundaries.
Micrograph 4 shows a typical morphology of crystals grown by means of twin boundaries. In this
case it is MnS which also has a cubic atomic arrangement but sometimes forms plates as shown
here.

Atlas-3b
Micrograph 5 shows a plate-like crystal of a complicated Al-Si-Fe phase formed in an Al alloy.

Etching reveals a series of twins which have probably promoted edgewise growth.
Micrograph 6 shows a flat (two-dimensional) dendrite of Pb formed from a water solution of a Pb

salt by electrolysis. Pb is cubic and the flat shape is explained by the presence of twin boundaries
promoting the edgewise growth.
Micrograph 7 shows a Ge crystal formed from a Ge melt. The shape and its explanation are the
same as in picture 6.
Micrograph 8 shows a microstructure sometimes found in Al produced by continuous casting

called feathery structure. Two crystalline orientations are revealed by the technique illustrated by
Fig. 1c:4. They represent two alternating twins. It is interesting to note that twin boundaries with
the black twin on the lower side are largely flat but those with the grey twin on the lower side are
wavy. These two types of boundaries are not equivalent, considering the growth direction. (The
white lines shown in the black twins are caused by microsegregation of some impurity).

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-4a-eng
4a. Nucleation during recrystallization
Micrograph 1 shows that nucleation during recrystallization can be promoted by non-metallic

inclusions (dark). In the particular etching used here new grains appear white but the old,
deformed material shows many black dots due to a high dislocation density.
Micrograph 2 shows that a grain corner can be a favourable site for the nucleation of a new grain
in a lightly deformed a-brass. See to the left of the center.
Micrograph 3 shows that nucleation of new grains inside an old grain may be promoted by the
intersection of shear bands.
Micrograph 4 shows that nucleation of new grains can be promoted by mechanical twins. This is
a picture of Neumann bands in a ferritic Fe-Ni meteorite.
Micrograph 5 shows that recrystallization may start by an original grain bulging out into a
neighbouring grain. This picture was taken on an fcc Cu-Cd alloy.

Atlas-4a-eng
Micrograph 6 shows a similar case from pure Al taken in an electron microscope, revealing that
the new part of the lower grain has a very low dislocation density whereas all the original material
has a high dislocation density.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-4b-eng
4b. Growth of crystals during recrystallization
Photographs 1a, b, c, d and e show the gradual recrystallization of pure Al. Evidently, the
process occurs by nucleation and growth.
Micrograph 2 shows that growth in a slightly deformed a brass can be favoured along a twin
boundary. See the center of picture.
Micrograph 3 shows recrystallization in a piece of a brass deformed in a very inhomogeneous

fashion. Recrystallization is complete to the left where the deformation was most severe and it
seems to follow deformation bands into less deformed regions to the right.
Micrograph 4 shows recrystallization during annealing of a steel specimen deformed by a Brinell

indentation. The sizes of the new grains depend upon the density of nuclei which reflects the
degree of deformation. Outside the ring of very large grains, the deformation was too small to
allow the nucleation of new grains.

Atlas-4b-eng
Micrograph 5 shows recrystallization during annealing of a cubic piece of steel which was first
compressed in the vertical direction. As in picture 4 the sizes of the new grains reflect the
deformation pattern.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-5a-eng
5a. Grain structure of one-phase materials
Photographs 1a, b, c, d and e show a simulation of normal grain growth using a soap froth
contained between two parallel glass plates. It can be seen that the average grain size increases by
the smallest grains shrinking and disappearing. The driving force is the lowering of the total
surface energy.
Micrograph 2 shows the result of normal grain growth in a metallic material. The geometry
resembles that of the bubble model.
Micrograph 3 shows the result of normal grain growth in a steel with a heterogeneous distribution
of impurities caused by segregation during dendritic solidification. The impurities seem to slow
down or stop the grain growth.
Micrograph 4 shows the network of grain boundaries in pure Ti after a rapid transformation from
the high temperature modification (bcc) to the low temperature modification (hcp). The very
jagged shape of grain boundaries shows that the new, hcp grains were very jagged when growing
from the old bcc grains. The grain boundaries would undoubtedly straighten out if the material
were annealed at a higher temperature but below the hcp-to-bcc transformation temperature.

Atlas-5a-eng
Micrograph 5 and 6 show the result of the same transformation in Ti alloyed with 0.5 and
1.0%Si, respectively. Here we are concerned with alloys and may identify the transformation as a
diffusionless transformation. As we go from picture 4 over 5 to 6, the transformation looks more
and more as a martensitic transformation in steel.
Micrograph 7 shows that the jagged grain boundaries, found when dendritic crystals impinge, can
straighten out by annealing. The driving force is the lowering of the total surface energy. The
present grain boundaries are seen as fairly smooth black lines. Their initial positions can be
imagined by studying the dendritic pattern, revealed by an etching method sensitive to differences
in composition.
Micrograph 8 shows that crystals formed by normal grain growth may contain annealing twins.
This is an fcc alloy (a brass).

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-5b-eng
5b. Abnormal grain growth
Micrograph 1 shows a low carbon steel with two different grain sizes, a so-called bimodal
distribution of grain sizes. This situation can occur when normal grain growth stops at some limit
but a few grains continue to grow in an abnormal fashion.
Micrograph 2 shows an extreme case of abnormal grain growth in a hypoeutectoid carbon steel
(i.e. a steel with less carbon than in pearlite) during heat treatment in the austenitic temperature
range. A very large grain of austenite formed at the center of the examined area. On cooling it
transformed mainly to pearlite(grey) but ferrite(white) formed at all grain boundaries and reveals
the fine grained structure in the surrounding material.
Micrograph 3a shows the surface layer of a 0.7%C steel, decarburized at 750°C. Ferrite is white
and austenite, which was transformed to tempered martensite by quenching and annealing, appears
dark. One can see that grains of ferrite have formed from the surface and grown side by side into
the interior, as explained for Fig. 2b:6. However, micrograph 3b was taken at a higher
magnification and reveals that a considerable number of small grains of ferrite have formed in
front of the columnar grains. This must have happened all the time in front of the decarburized
layer and it is evident that the columnar grains are capable of consuming the smaller ones as they
advance into the material as a result of the decarburization. This is a kind of abnormal grain
growth.

Atlas-5b-eng
Micrographs 4a och b show the same in a steel with a much lower carbon content. Here the
original material is in a state of ferrite+austenite during the decarburization and it it evident that
the columnar grains of ferrite, growing from the surface, consume the small, interior grains of
ferrite as the austenite grains disappear by decarburization.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-5c-eng
5c. Coarsening of particles
There is always some tendency of coarsening of the microstructure during annealing at high temperature.
The coarsening of the matrix grains in an essentially one-phase material is called grain growth and it has
already been discussed. The coarsening of a minority phase is called particle coarsening when the phase
is present as more or less separated particles in a matrix of the majority phase. The two coarsening
reactions may very well be coupled. They both have the same kind of driving force, the decrease of the
total surface energy.
Micrographs 1a and b were taken at the same magnification with an electron microscope, the
only difference being that picture 1b was taken after a long heat treatment. The particle shapes are
essentially the same.
Micrograph 2 shows a coarsened Widmanstätten precipitation. It is worth noting that the

plate-like shape can be preserved on coarsening.
Micrograph 3 shows a coarsened structure with cubic particles wheras they initially were
spherical. The change of shape here depends upon stresses between the particles.
Micrograph 4, 5, 6 and 7 show the coarsening of cementite particles initially formed by annealing
of martensite in a carbon steel. At the center of picture 4 one can see some martensite shaped as a

Atlas-5c-eng
chevron. It has the dark appearance, typical of tempered martensite. The rest of that picture shows
a coarser distribution of cementite due to the presence of many grain boundaries in the ferritic
matrix. Picture 5 is taken after a longer annealing and cementite particles can just be seen. A
chevron-like region at the center shows a few very small particles. Picture 6 is taken after an even
longer annealing and the cementite particles can now be seen very well. A chevron-like region at
the center is now free from cementite. Naturally, coarsening occurs by the growth of some
particles and dissolution of others. This series of pictures illustrates that particles at grain
boundaries have an advantage over particles inside a large unit of martensite. This is because the
balance of surface tensions gives a particle in a grain boundary a larger radius of curvature than an
isolated particle of the same volume. Picture 7 shows the same steel after an even longer heat
treament.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-5d-eng
Till sida: [Previous] [Index] [Next]
5d. Spheroidization
The driving force for particle coarsening is the decrease of the total surface area and thus of the surface
energy. Such a decrease can also occur by the breaking up of the initial particles into several if they are
initially plate-like and change to spherical. This process is called spheroidization.
Micrograph 1 shows the lamellar structure of the Al+Al6Mn eutectic between arms of an Al dendrite.
Micrograph 2 shows the same alloy after a long annealing just below the eutectic temperature. The plates of
Al6Mn have spheroidized.
Micrographs 3 och 4 show the same structural change during annealing of lamellar pearlite.
Micrograph 5 shows the structure of a rod-loke eutectic of Cu+Cu20. The rods of Cu20 were initially in the plane
of sectioning but they have spheroidized and what remains of a rod is now a string of beads.
Till sida: [Previous] [Index] [Next]
Last change: 16 of April 1996

larsf@matsc.kth.se
http://klara.met.kth.se/ia/atlas/5d-e.html [26-06-1999 03:01:09 p.m.]

Atlas-6a-eng
6a. Martensite in carbon steels
Austenite usually transforms to martensite if the rate of quenching is high enough to prevent
transformation by diffusion. In Fe-C alloys one may consider martensite as ferrite with a very large
supersaturation of carbon. The martensite transformation is accompanied be strong changes of shape and
volume. Strong stresses will thus build up and they affect the transformation in different ways depending
on the carbon content and the temperature of transformation. The martensite may thus look rather
different in different steel specimens.
Micrograph 1 shows a rather low carbon martensite, so-called lath martensite.
Micrograph 2 shows martensite with 0.7%C.
Micrograph 3 shows martensite with 1.7%C. It is plate-like or lense-shaped and a large fraction
of the austenite is retained on cooling to room temperature. The fresh martensite usually etches
white and the surrounding, retained austenite usually appears darker.
Micrograph 4 shows the same 1.7%C specimen after cooling in liquid air. Now most of the
retained austenite has transformed to martensite. The material, surrounding the large unit of
martensite along the center-line, has expanded and put the large unit under tension. The series of

Atlas-6a-eng
black horizontal lines across the large unit are cracks formed by that tension.
Micrograph 5 shows martensite in the same 1.7%C steel after quenching to room temperature and
annealing for 15 minutes at 150°C. The martensite has thus been somewhat tempered and thus it
now etches darker than the retained austenite. The depth of etching depends upon the crystalline
orientation. Martensite plates with a deeper etch look darker. (This specimen also shows some
white precipitation of cementite due to insufficient rate of quenching.)
Micrograph 6 shows a specimen of the same 1.7%C steel quenched to room temperature and
annealed at 250°C. The martensite is now darker but it is surrounded by fresh martensite(white)
formed during cooling from the annealing temperature.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-6b-eng
6b. Martensite in other alloys
Martensite transformations are found in many alloy systems and can result in very different
microstructures.
Micrograph 1 shows so-called epsilon-martensite in a steel of 12%Mn and 0.7%C. By epsilon

one here refers to the hcp modification of pure iron which may form under a very high pressure.
Hcp is composed of the same close-packed planes as fcc but they are stacked in a different way.
Using this plane as interface the epsilon-martensite can fit very well into the matrix austenite (fcc)
and will be found on 111 planes. The units of epsilon-martensite can be very thin and straight as
shown in this picture (white lines).
Micrograph 2 shows two types of martensite at a lower C content. In addition to the thin straight
lines of epsilon-martensite which have formed first, one can here see smaller units between them.
That is ordinary martensite, in this connection called alpha-martensite due to its relation to ferrite
(alpha).
● We regret the bad quality of this image.
Micrograph 3 shows a similar case. The alpha-martensite is here dark because of tempering.
● We regret the bad quality of these images.
Micrographs 4 and 5 show another example of two types of martensite formed in the same alloy

Atlas-6b-eng
system but at different compositions. Picture 4 is from a Cu-11%Al alloy and picture 5 from a
Cu-12.5%Al alloy. Both have been quenched from a state of beta (bcc) but the results are different.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-7a-eng
7a. General precipitation
Micrograph 1 shows a case of precipitation of one liquid phase from another. This can occur in an
alloy system with a liquid miscibility gap. Inside some of the large precipitated droplets one can
see another, finer precipitation of droplets, probably with a composition close to that of the first
liquid.
Micrograph 2 shows a fairly rare case of spherical particles of a solid phase formed by
precipitation from a solid matrix.
Micrograph 3 shows a more common case where the precipitated particles are plate-like,
so-called Widmanstätten plates.
Micrograph 4 and 5 show the precipitation of ferrite (bcc) from austenite (fcc) in Fe with 12.7
and 8.4 % Ni, respectively, formed by an extremely slow cooling of meteorites. The difference in
appearance mainly depends on the difference in the amount of untransformed austenite, which is
very small in picture 5.

Atlas-7a-eng
Micrograph 6 shows a precipitation on dislocations, so-called decoration of dislocations. This

technique of making dislocations visible depends upon the effect of dislocations to promote
nucleation. This picture was taken in an electron microscope.
Micrograph 7 shows the decoration of spiral dislocations.
Micrograph 8 shows a cementite particle precipitated at a fairly low temperature from a steel with
0.013%C. The complicated shape may depend upon some interaction with dislocations.
Micrograph 9 shows decoration of dislocations in a deformed material. The picture reveals the
presence of series of dislocations left in slip planes. This picture was taken in a light microscope.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-7b-eng
7b. Grain boundary induced precipitation
Grain boundaries play an important role for precipitation in a solid material. They promote nucleation as
well as growth.
Micrograph 1 shows a Widmanstätten precipitation in a bcc Al-Cu alloy. The particles are
rod-like rather than plate-like. The lower left part of the picture shows a grain where the rods lie in
the plane of sectioning. They all have the same orientation although there are other equivalent
orientations in the same grain. The reason why there is not a mixture of orientations as in Fig. 7a:3
is that the particles have not nucleated at random inside the grain but in contact with a grain
boundary. Due to the orientations of the two grains relative to the direction of the grain boundary,
only one particular orientation of the new phase was favoured.
Micrograph 2 shows a plate-like precipitation of ferrite from austenite in a hypoeutectoid steel

ingot. The magnification is very low and the structure is thus very coarse. The grain boundaries
have had a strong effect on the reaction and can thus be seen clearly. However, inside the grain one
can see a mixture of different orientations. It seems reasonable that these particles have nucleated
inside the grain and, if so, probably by non-metallic inclusions.
Micrograph 3 is taken on a piece of Cu-40%Zn, heated to 800°C and cooled slowly. At 800°C
this alloy should have been in a state of bcc, possibly with some fcc. At room temperature fcc
should predominate but some bcc should be left. The etching is sensitive to the fcc orientation.
Some fcc particles are white, others are grey whereas the darker background is bcc. In the center
one can see a group of white parallel plates. They should have a common origin. They have either
nucleated at a grain boundary or grown out from an undissolved part of an fcc particle. In the

Atlas-7b-eng
upper right quarter of the picture one can see a straight boundary between a white and a grey
region. That must be a twin boundary in the fcc phase and must originate from an undissolved fcc
particle with an annealing twin.
Micrograph 4 and 5 show the precipitation of gamma phase from beta in Cu-12.5%Al.
Nucleation has occurred at the grain boundaries. Growth has occurred along the grain boundaries
and into one of the grains. These Widmanstätten particles are shaped like dendrites which is very
rare but possible in this system because both phases are cubic and they are oriented with all their
cube axes parallel. (The structure now shown in the matrix is caused by a martensitic
transformation of the beta phase on cooling.)
Micrograph 6 shows a Ti-Ni alloy cooled from a state of bcc. On cooling, another phase has
precipitated, first as a thin layer along some of the grain boundaries and then as Widmanstätten
plates, nucleated at the grain boundaries. There was no nucleation inside the grains.
Micrograph 7 shows the precipitation of a grain boundary film of cementite from austenite,
formed by very slow cooling of a high carbon steel. More rapid cooling would also have given
Widmanstätten plates. (The reaction was interrupted by quenching and the matrix is now
martensite.)

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-7c-eng
7c. The effect of grain size on precipitaion
Micrograph 1 shows the microstructure of a carbon steel with 0.2%C which was austenitized at
850°C and then cooled slowly. Nucleation of ferrite occurred at the grain boundaries and growth
started along the grain boundaries. Below 727°C the reaction was interrupted by a eutectoid
transformation of the matrix giving pearlite. Widmanstätten plates can be seen in a few places only
and was there caused by the presence of an abnormally large grain of austenite.
Micrograph 2 is from the same specimen but is taken at a higher magnification. All the ferrite
shown here has precipitated at grain boundaries but because of the large volume fraction of ferrite
it is difficult to see exactly how the grain boundary network in the austenite might have looked.
Micrograph 3 is from a high carbon steel after complete austenitization and natural cooling. One
can see precipitation of cementite along the grain boundaries and some Widmanstätten plates,
presumably coming from the grain boundaries. The matrix has then transformed to pearlite.
Micrograph 4 is from the same steel but after a much slower cooling. The grain boundaries are
here filled with a thicker layer of cementite and there is no Widmanstätten cementite. The pearlite
is also much coarser.

Atlas-7c-eng

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-7d-eng
7d. Special effects of grain boundaries on

precipitation.
● 1+2
Micrograph 1 shows an Al alloy where Widmanstätten precipitation has nucleated inside the
grains. However, particles have also nucleated at the grain boundaries and grown along them. The
grain boundary precipitation is surrounded by a precipitation free zone, possibly caused by
diffusion to the grain boundary precipitation. At an extremely slow cooling this zone would extend
into the grains and grain boundary precipitation would play a more important role.
Micrograph 2 shows a similar case. The absence of Widmanstätten precipitation in the small
grain is explained by the section here going through the precipitation free zone. The boundaries of
that grain should be just above or below the examined section.
● 3+4+5
Micrograph 3 shows the real shape of a particle of M23C6 grown along a grain boundary in a stainless
steel. This particle was extracted by dissolving the austenitic matrix electrolytically.
Micrograph 4 shows how a grain boundary in an austenitic stainless steel has moved during precipitation of a Cr
carbide(dark). The grain boundary is shown as a black line and now goes in zig-zag from one grain of austenite to
another. Behind the grain boundary the austenite is depleted of Cr and is thus attacked by etching. This is why a
black line is formed and reveals the present position of the grain boundary. It may be concluded that grain
boundary diffusion is here important and by bulging out into a grain the grain boundary is able to pick up Cr and
feed it to growing carbide particles without using volume diffusion. The driving force for the migration of the grain
boundary probably comes from the steep Cr concentration gradient. The phenomenon is often called DIGM
(diffusion induced grain boundary migration).
● 6+7
Micrograph 5 and 6 show similar cases in the same specimen but here the carbide particles are growing with the
migrating grain boundary. The resulting structure looks like a eutectoid structure. This phenomenon is called

Atlas-7d-eng
discontinuous precipitation.
Micrograph 7 shows the precipitation of small carbide particles on mechanical twins (Neumann bands) in the
ferrite of an Fe-Ni meteorite.
● 8+9
Micrograph 8 shows the precipitation of fine carbides at steps in the boundary of an annealing twin in an
austenitic stainless steel. The straight, parallel parts of the boundary are coherent and do not promote nucleation.
This picture was taken in an electron microscope.
Micrograph 9 shows a similar case from another stainless steel. Here the nucleation at the step has also give rise to
Widmanstätten precipitation, the direction of which seems to coincide with the direction of the coherent parts of the
twin boundary. This may be why precipitation also occurs in those parts. (The faint line crossing the picture is a
scratch.)
Micrograph 10 shows a nodule of pearlite(dark) nucleated at a step in a twin boundary in austenite in an Fe-C
alloy. The picture also shows some plates of martensite.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-7e-eng
7e. Precipitation of ferrite in Fe-C alloys
Micrograph 1 shows typical shapes of grain boundary precipitation of ferrite from austenite (now
martensite due to interruption by quenching).
● 2+3
Micrograph 2 and 3 show the same for larger fractions of ferrite.
● 4 5 6 4+5+6
Micrograph 4, 5 and 6 show typical shapes obtained at a higher rate of cooling. Now there is
much Widmanstätten ferrite. Quenching was not applied in this case and the formation of ferrite
was instead interrupted by the formation of pearlite.

larsf@matsc.kth.se
http://klara.met.kth.se/ia/atlas/7e-e.html [26-06-1999 03:02:09 p.m.]

Atlas-7f-eng
7f. Precipitation of ferrite in Fe-C alloys, cont'd
All these pictures come from hypoeutectoid steels. They were first austenitized and then cooled to a
temperature where ferrite formed and finally quenched in order to transform the rest of the austenite to
martensite.
Micrograph 1 shows ferrite nucleated at a special, low-energy grain boundary. Evidently, the
particular structure of this boundary promoted the nucleation of ferrite in two crystalline
orientations, one giving rise to particles with a triangular section and falling in the grain boundary,
the other giving rise to Widmanstätten plates growing into both grains. It is possible that the
orientation relationship of the ferrite is not perfect to anyone of the neighbouring austenite grains
but is a reasonable compromise, thus making it possible for the ferrite to match with both austenite
grains but in different directions.
Micrograph 2 shows well developed Widmanstätten plates, probably nucleated by non-metallic

inclusions inside the austenite grain and probably each one growing on a different 111 plane in the
austenite, thus giving rise to a star-like arrangement of plates.
Micrograph 3 shows cases of Widmanstätten ferrite with side-branches. It is probable that the
orientation relationship between the particle and the matrix is not the perfect one and the two
different growth directions both give a reasonable matching between the two crystals.
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Micrograph 4 shows the result of growth of ferrite along a grain boundary. Each one of these
particles is growing in only one grain of austenite and the grain boundary has adjusted its position
in an attempt to keep in contact. The two ferrite particles have pulled the grain boundary in
different directions and between the particles the boundary has obtained an S shape. It is evident
that grain boundary migration can be caused by the action of surface tension.
Micrograph 5 shows how Widmanstätten ferrite, starting from a grain boundary, stops at a twin
boundary in the matrix austenite. The twin boundary goes vertically through the picture, close to
the left-hand side.
Micrograph 6 shows that a massive particle of ferrite, formed at a grain boundary, can develop a
Widmanstätten plate growing into one of the grains.
Micrograph 7 shows that a particle of ferrite formed at a grain boundary, on rapid cooling can
give rise to pearlite on one side (dark rim) and a series of fine, parallel Widmanstätten plates on
the other side. The orientation of this particle of ferrite was probably related to the orientation of
the austenite grain on the left-hand side.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-7g-eng
7g. Precipitation of cementite in Fe-C alloys
All these pictures come from hypereutectoid steels which were first austenitized and then cooled.
Cementite formed first and then the rest of the austenite transformed to pearlite.
Micrograph 1 shows at a low magnification grain boundary precipitation of cementite formed by

slow cooling.
Micrograph 2 shows a similar case at a higher magnification.
Micrograph 3 shows a similar case but with some Widmanstätten cementite due to a higher rate
of cooling.
Micrograph 4 shows a case with even more Widmanstätten cementite coming from a grain
boundary precipitate.
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Micrograph 5 shows Widmanstätten cementite formed directly on an austenite grain boundary

without a film of cementite covering the boundary.
Micrograph 6 is from a steel with a very high carbon content and a large grain size. It has been
cooled very slowly. The Widmanstätten plates of cementite are very coarse and it is easy to see
that they do not have sharp tips. This picture was taken at a low magnification.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-7h-eng
7h. Precipitation of cementite in Fe-C alloys, cont'd
Micrograph 1 is from a specimen with a carbon gradient. Ferrite has formed in the decarburized
surface layer and parallel plates of Widmanstätten cementite can be seen in the interior. They
reveal that the grain size was very large, considering that the magnification is low. It is interesting
to note that the plates of cementite occur in groups of parallel plates, indicating that they have a
common origin. They probably nucleated at a grain boundary, promoting nuclei of a particular
orientation. There is also some tendency to form Widmanstätten rods.
Micrograph 2 taken with polarized light which allows us to distinguish between cementite of
different crystalline orientations. It is evident that the complicated dark aggregate of cementite is
actually one crystal. It was formed from austenite with a very high carbon content and by rapid
cooling. It seems that a Widmanstätten particle of cementite can sometimes choose different
growth directions.
Micrograph 3 is from a Ni steel with a high carbon content. Two Widmanstätten plates of
cementite are shown, one going vertically through the picture. During slow cooling ferrite started
to form but Ni prevents the collaboration of cementite and ferrite to form pearlite. The explanation
is that Ni stabilizes austenite with respect to ferrite as well as cementite. It thus segregates to thin
regions of austenite found between outgrowths of cementite as ferrite transforms the bulk of the
austenite. (The white background in the picture is ferrite.) The reaction was interrupted by
quenching and the small region of austenite at the lower right corner is now martensite.
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Atlas-7h-eng
Micrograph 4 shows the effect of a twin boundary in the austenite. It seems that the parallel plates
of Widmanstätten cementite has given rise to a less plate-like precipitation on the other side of the
twin boundary.
Micrograph 5 shows that cementite may sometimes grow along a twin boundary. In this case the
twin boundary has also given rise to a large group of parallel Widmanstätten plates in each one of
the two grains of austenite.
● 6 7
Micrograph 6 shows a grain boundary precipitation of cementite which has some Widmanstätten
character. It has probably pulled the grain boundary with it. A case where this has definitely
occurred is shown in micrograph 7 where the presence of some very fine Widmanstätten plates,
formed on cooling, shows that the lower grain of austenite actually bulges out into the upper grain.
See just above the center of the picture. It is evident that there has been a tendency of the lower
grain to wet the cementite plates. This is thus a case of grain boundary migration driven by surface
tension. Compare with Fig. 7f:4.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-7i-eng
7i. Internal oxidation
Micrograph 1 shows a Cu alloy heat treated in air for a long time. A thick surface layer shows the
same microstructure as the interior but is darker due to a very fine precipitation of an oxide formed
with an alloying element. The alloying element is very sluggish and was able to diffuse only a very
short distance while oxygen diffused all the way from the surface.
Micrograph 2 shows the effect of oxidation on Ni with some Cr content. The result is an outer
oxide scale, mainly consisting of NiO and an internally oxidized surface layer with Cr2O3 in a Ni
matrix.
Micrograph 3 shows internal oxidation of a malleable cast iron kept for a long time at 900°C. A decarburizing
atmosphere was used in order to remove carbon and a ferritic surface layer was obtained. However, at the same
time the atmosphere was oxidizing. This explains the formation of small round oxide particles in the whole field of
view and of a dark grain boundary precipitate in the outer layer. These are probably two different oxides. (The two
large particles in the lower part of the picture are MnS.)
Micrograph 4 shows internal oxidation of a grey cast iron with flake graphite. Some graphite flakes close to the
surface have disappeared by oxidation and have left a porosity through which oxygen gas can flow. Internal oxygen
can thus spread from the walls of this porosity.
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Atlas-7i-eng
Micrographs 5a and b show a large non-metallic inclusion in a steel. During heat treatment oxygen has gone into
solution and diffused out into the surrounding metallic matrix where it has combined with some alloying element
with a higher affinity to oxygen than the metallic component in the inclusion.
Last change: 2 of June 1996

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-7j-eng
7i. Precipitation of austenite from delta-ferrite
Ferrite(alpha) is not only the low-temperature modification of pure Fe. It also forms at high temperature
and is there denoted by delta. When ferrite is present at high temperature in alloyed steels it is called
delta-ferrite. On cooling it may precipitate austenite in an intermediate range of temperature and that
austenite may be retained on cooling to room temperature.
Micrograph 1 is from an austenitic stainless steel casting. The white matrix is austenite, stabilized
by Ni. The dark phase is ferrite, stabilized by Cr or Mo. It reveals a dendritic solidification pattern.
It may be concluded that solidification started by the formation of dendrites of delta-ferrite, most
of which was later transformed to austenite, partly by a peritectic reaction towards the end of
solidification.
Micrograph 2 is from the same steel after heating to 1300°C and hot rolling. It indicates that
d-ferrite actually belongs to the stable state of this steel at 1300°C. Its distribution reveals that the
rolling direction was vertical in the picture but the dendritic pattern was destroyed by the rolling.
Micrograph 3 is from a different steel which solidified completely to delta-ferrite. Austenite then
formed, mainly as a Widmanstätten precipitation of plates and rods, and the remaining parts of
delta-ferrite reflect the progress of that reaction rather than the dendritic solidification.
Micrograph 4 shows the same alloy after heat treatment at 1300°C and rapid cooling. At 1300°C
the steel had about the same amounts of ferrite and austenite. Most of the ferrite transformed to
Widmanstätten austenite on cooling. Their extension at 1300°C is now revealed by the fine
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Atlas-7j-eng
mixture of ferrite(grey) and austenite(white).
Micrographs 5 is from a steel with 0.11%C and 12%Cr. At 1200°C it was in a state of
ferrite+austenite. The austenite transformed to martensite on cooling because the alloy content was
here too low to stabilize the austenite. Ferrite is the white phase.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-7k-eng
7k. Transformations between alpha and beta in Ti

alloys
Titanium has a low-temperature modification alpha(hcp) and a high-temperature modification beta(bcc)

with a transformation at 882°C.
Micrograph 1 shows an alloy of Ti-5%Al-2.5%Sn after quenching in water from 1177°C where it
was in a state of beta. It thus transformed to alpha by a martensitic transformation.
Micrograph 2 shows the same alloy after cooling in air. The alpha phase has here formed by
diffusion and is found as a grain boundary precipitate and as Widmanstätten plates.
Micrograph 3 shows the same alloy after slow cooling in the furnace. This has resulted in very
coarse Widmanstätten plates of alpha and the thin lines probably represent beta stabilized by Sn or
some impurity.
Micrograph 4 is from an alloy of Ti-6%Al-4%V after quenching in water from 1038°C. It has
probably transformed martensitically to alpha.
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Atlas-7k-eng
Micrograph 5 shows the same alloy after quenching in water from 954°C. The picture shows that
alpha(white areas) existed at 954°C due to the stabilizing effect of Al. The matrix represents beta
at 954°C but transformed to alpha on quenching.
Micrograph 6 is also from the same alloy after water quenching from 954°C but was then
annealed at 704°C for 2h. The alpha martensite then precipitated fine particles of high alloy
content. Compare with tempering of martensite in Fe-C alloys.
Micrograph 7 is from the same alloy after air cooling from 954°C. One can see the large white
areas of alpha, present at 954°C, and Widmanstätten plates of alpha formed in the previous regions
of beta.
Micrograph 8 is from an alloy of Ti-6%Al-4%Zr-6%Mo after cooling in air from 871°C where it
contained a large fraction of alpha(white). Some Widmanstätten plates of alpha seem to have
formed in the beta regions on cooling.
Micrograph 9 shows the same alloy after cooling in air from 913°C, where it contained less alpha.
The beta regions have precipitated white Widmanstätten plates of alpha on cooling.

Atlas-7k-eng
Micrograph 10 shows the same alloy after cooling in air from 932°C, where it contained very
little alpha. Instead, more alpha precipitated as Widmanstätten plates on cooling, evidently because
the beta regions here contained more of the beta stabilizing elements.
Micrograph 11 shows the same alloy after cooling from 954°C, where it was in a state of all beta
and coarse grained. Large plates of Widmanstätten alpha have formed on cooling.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-8a-eng
8a. Cooperative growth during a eutectoid reaction
The two new phases in a eutectoid reaction may collaborate and grow side by side to form a rather
regular two-phase structure. Its growth does not depend on any orientation relationship to the parent
phase and the growth rate is approximately the same in all directions. A eutectoid colony (or nodule) may
thus grow into several grains of the parent phase and become rather spherical.
Micrograph 1 shows an approximately spherical colony of the -eutectoid in Cu-Al. The growth
was interrupted by quenching and the rest of then transformed martensitically.
Micrograph 2 shows the growth front at a higher magnification. The lamellae have grown
edgewise.
Micrograph 3 shows a similar structure in an Fe-C alloy where the eutectoid structure is called
pearlite. Nucleation inside the specimen has given rise to roughly spherical nudules of pearlite.
Nucleation of many colonies on the surface (to the left) has given rise to columnar growth of
pearlite colonies.
Micrograph 4 shows pearlite at a higher magnification

Atlas-8a-eng
Micrograph 5 shows how pearlite continues to grow but forms a coarser structure when the
supercooling of the austenite is decreased by an increase of the temperature. The reaction was then
interrupted by quenching. The change in coarseness depends on the change in driving force. About
half of the driving force goes into surface energy of the eutectoid structure.
Micrograph 6 shows a region of pearlite sectioned almost parallel to the lamellae which thus look
much wider than they are.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-8b-eng
8b. Pearlite.
The appearance of pearlite in Fe-C alloys can vary considerably. All specimens shown on this page have
been completely austenitized, partly transformed by isothermal treatment at a lower temperature and then
quenched before the transformation was complete.
Micrograph 1 shows pearlite after an etching which has coloured the ferrite rather than removed a
layer. The picture thus shows the true volume fractions of the two phases. Cementite is white and
ferrite is grey.
Micrograph 2 shows a typical distribution of pearlite in a eutectoid steel. Almost all the pearlite
has nucleated at grain boundaries. Sometimes it grows only into one of the grains. This fact will
now be explained.
Micrograph 3 shows pearlite in a hypoeutectoid steel where the transformation started with the
formation of ferrite along the grain boundaries. The pearlite colony is thus prevented from growing
into neighbouring grains of austenite. The pearlite has its ordinary appearance close to the ferrite
but in the interior it has more ferrite than usual because of the lower carbon content.

Atlas-8b-eng
Micrograph 4 shows that pearlite can be prevented from crossing a grain boundary by a thin film
of grain boundary ferrite, even in a steel with a carbon content close to the eutectoid one.
Micrograph 5 shows ferrite and pearlite in a steel with a very low carbon content. The pearlite
here resembles a rod-like eutectic except close to grain boundary ferrite where it has the ordinary
appearance due to an increase of the carbon content.
Micrograph 6 is similar to picture 4 and again demonstrates how pearlite can be prevented from
crossing an austenite grain boundary by a thin grain boundary film of proeutectoid ferrite.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-8c-eng
8c. Pearlite, cont'd
Micrograph 1 is from a very coarse-grained material and is taken at a low magnification. It

demonstrates that pearlite may then nucleate inside austenite grains. At the center of such pearlite
nodules one can see a small dark spot.
Micrograph 2 shows such a pearlite nodule in an electron microscope. The black dot at the center
is now shown as a small white area. It is the cross section of an elongated non-metallic inclusion
which seems to have nucleated this nodule of pearlite. The chance of sectioning through the
inclusion would have been very small if it had not been elongated. This specimen was sectioned
perpendicular to the rolling direction.
Micrograph 3 shows pearlite in a hypereutectoid steel (i.e. a steel with more carbon than in
pearlite) cooled from a temperature in the austenite+cementite region. The dark nodules of pearlite
seem to be randomly distributed but were probably nucleated by some of the small white cementite
particles.
Micrograph 4 is from a specimen first kept just below the eutectoid temperature where very
coarse pearlite formed and then cooled quickly but not quickly enough to prevent all growth of
pearlite. Instead, small dark regions of pearlite, characteristic of a much lower transformation

Atlas-8c-eng
temperature, have formed in contact with the cementite edges.
Micrograph 5 is from a steel specimen quenched from the austenitic condition. However, the
quench was not sufficient to prevent all transformation by diffusion, as revealed by the small dark
regions.
Micrograph 6 shows such a dark region at a higher magnification. It extends along a grain
boundary. On one side it consists of very fine pearlite (to the left) and on the other side bainite. It
may be compared with Fig. 7f:7 although the grain boundary ferrite is here much thinner and
maybe even incomplete.
Micrographs 7 and 8 show that the fine lamellae of cementite in pearlite can be deformed
plastically even though cementite is a very brittle phase under ordinary conditions (see Figs. 2c:8a
and b ).

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-8d-eng
8d. Isothermal transformation
In order to demonstrate the isothermal technique of studying the progress of a solid state transformation
we have here applied the technique to two Fe-C alloys.
Micrographs 1a, b and c are from a eutectoid Fe-C alloy (0.8%C), first austenitized and then kept
isothermally at 700°C where pearlite forms. Its growth has been interrupted after three different
times. In each specimen one may evaluate the growth rate by measuring the radius of the largest
nodule or the thickness of the surface layer.
Micrographs 2a, b and c show the same technique applied to a hypoeutectoid alloy (here 0.4%C).
Ferrite comes first and increases from 2a to 2b but not much to 2c because it has almost reached its
equilibrium. Pearlite is first seen in 2b and there is at least one example of pearlite breaking
through the layer of grain boundary ferrite and crossing into the neighbouring grain. (Just below
the center.) The magnification is about twice that of pictures 1a, b and c.

larsf@matsc.kth.se
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Atlas-8e-eng
8e. Degenerate eutectoid reaction
Sometimes the two new eutectoid phases grow without establishing an efficient collaboration. The result
will be a much coarser structure. This may happen if one of the phases is present in large quantities
before the other one is nucleated. The additional amount of the first phase may then deposit on the
particles already present. One talks about a degenerated eutectoid reaction.
Micrograph 1 is from a high carbon steel cooled very slowly from an austenitic state. First thick
particles of grain boundary cementite formed. Below the eutectoid temperature (727°C) ferrite
nucleated and started to grow and cementite continued to grow. The new cementite simply
deposited on the previous cementite particles and cannot be distinguished in the picture. However,
from one edge of a cementite particle ferrite and cementite started to grow side by side and
gradually developed into a colony of pearlite by repeated branching. The reaction was then
interrupted by quenching and a thin layer of fine pearlite(dark) formed at the growth front of the
coarse pearlite. Ferrite is the white matrix occupying about half of the area in the picture.
Cementite is only slightly darker.
Micrograph 2 is also from a high carbon steel. It shows that the pearlite transformation has first
degenerated in contact with a cementite particle at a grain boundary but then ordinary pearlite
formed.
Micrograph 3 shows that the pearlite transformation may degenerate in the austenite rods in the
austenite+cementite eutectic of a white cast iron. Some of them seem to have transformed
completely to ferrite which is not possible, others show a layer of degenerated structure.

Atlas-8e-eng
Micrograph 4 shows another section through such a eutectic colony and it can here be seen that
each austenite rod contains some pearlite but it is easy to imagine that it can be missed by
sectioning in a perpendicular direction.
Micrograph 5 is from a very low carbon steel, air cooled from a state of austenite. First, large
amounts of ferrite formed and austenite remained in isolated regions, only. Then, cementite was
nucleated below the eutecoid temperature and pearlite would form if collaboration between the
two phases were established. This picture probably shows three previous regions of austenite. The
lower one was completely transformed to a coarse, degenerate structure before collaboration was
established. The other two regions gave a mixture of degenerate and ordinary pearlite.
Micrograph 6 shows a similar case.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-8f-eng
8f. Acicular eutectoid
In a eutectoid reaction where two new phases will form, it is possible that one of them does not wait for
the other one. The first one is sometimes regarded as the leading phase. The reason may be that it has the
correct orientation relation to the crystal of the parent phase to form Widmanstätten plates. The result
may be a more irregular and coarser structure than obtained by collaboration. This phenomenon will now
be illustrated using a Cu-11%Al alloy which was first kept in the region above the eutectoid
temperature.
Micrograph 1 shows a two-phase structure formed isothermally below the eutectoid temperature.
The parent phase has transformed martensitically by quenching. The structure looks acicular
(meaning "needle-like") and one may guess that the two-phase mixture contains parallel plates of
the white phase.
Micrograph 2 was taken parallel to the growth direction and the plate-like structure is more
evident here. This picture also shows the ordinary, lamellar eutectoid which indeed is much finer.
The fact that this structure grows without any orientation relationship to the matrix grain is
reflected by the lamellae being able to turn gradually whereas the acicular structure has a given
preferred direction.
Micrograph 3 is taken at a higher magnification and shows protruding tips of the white phase.
Evidently, this is the phase that does not wait for the other one and is responsible for the lack of
collaboration and gives the structure an acicular appearance. It is the leading phase.

Atlas-8f-eng
Micrograph 4 is a section perpendicular to the growth direction. The white phase here appears as
a matrix phase which emphasizes that it is the leading phase.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-8g-eng
8g. Bainite in steel
The acicular eutectoid structure in steel where ferrite is the leading phase is called bainite.
Micrograph 1 shows Widmanstätten ferrite grown in both directions from a grain boundary in a
hypoeutectoid steel. Close to the grain boundary the transformation is complete and one can see
small cementite particles in a ferritic matrix. Further out the plates of ferrite are still surrounded by
austenite.
Micrograph 2 shows another example and here one can see how the thin regions between ferrite
plates are being transformed to an irregular mixture of ferrite and cementite. This picture also
shows some pearlite which is much darker, indicating that it has a finer structure.
Micrograph 3 shows that the thin regions of austenite may transform to ordinary pearlite if the
Widmanstätten plates impinge on a growing pearlite colony.
Micrograph 4 shows that the irregular two-phase mixture may even form on the side of an
isolated plate of ferrite if the temperature is low enough.

Atlas-8g-eng
Micrographs 5 and 6 show completely transformed specimens. They contain pearlite and
two-phase regions of the acicular structure. When found in a completely transformed specimen, as
here, this structure is usually called bainite.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-8h-eng
8h. Bainite in steel, cont'd
Micrograph 1 shows a steel completely transformed from austenite at a low constant temperature.
Most of the volume is transformed to a two-phase mixture we may call bainite. Some larger areas
of pure ferrite can be seen, which can be classified as grain boundary ferrite. In addition, there are
some dark areas, consisting of pearlite which is finer than the bainite when formed at the same
temperature.
Micrograph 2 shows pearlite(dark) and bainite formed by isothermal treatment of a steel with
3%Mn. Again, pearlite is much finer and looks much darker.
Micrograph 3a shows the eutecoid structure at a three-phase junction in an Fe-C alloy. The
structures growing into the upper and lower grains may be classified as bainite. In the angular
grain of austenite to the right the structure is pearlite.
Micrograph 3b is taken on the same area but with a special etching which has not attacked any of
the eutectoid structure at the three-phase junction, proving that the ferrite orientation with respect
to the section is the same. It may be concluded that all this eutectoid structure was initiated by the
same nucleus of ferrite. Evidently, that nucleus had an orientation relation to two of the austenite
grains allowing it to develop in a Widmanstätten fashion into them. It did not have such a relation
to the third grain and could thus collaborate with cementite and form pearlite there.

Atlas-8h-eng
Micrograph 4 shows bainite formed at 400°C. Most of this bainite has contact with grain
boundaries.
Micrograph 5 shows a higher magnification. From such a picture it is difficult to see whether a
particular unit of bainite has contact with a grain boundary or not.
Micrograph 6 is from an Fe-C specimen transformed to some bainite and some pearlite at 445°C
and then heat treated at 693°C and finally quenched when there was still some austenite left. At
693°C the pearlite continued to grow but got coarser. Thin bainite units also continued to grow but
only as single plates of Widmanstätten ferrite. This observation supports that the ferritic
constituent of bainite has a Widmanstätten character.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-8i-eng
8i. Eutectoid reactions in alloyed steels
Micrograph 1 shows a grain boundary film of cementite and small nodules of fine pearlite formed
by isothermal transformation in a 12%Mn-0.7%C steel. This pearlite grows very slowly because
Mn must redistribute between ferrite and cementite.
Micrograph 2 shows a similar case from a 5%Mn steel at a higher magnification. The fraction of
cementite is about 0.5, indicating that the carbon content of this pearlite is very high. It is higher
than the average carbon content of the steel and this kind of pearlite grows with a slow rate which
allows carbon to diffuse from a large distance.
Micrograph 3 shows a similar case in a steel with 13%Cr. The bright zone of austenite (now
martensite), surrounding the dark pearlite along the grain boundaries, indicates that it has drawn
carbon from the surrounding austenite.
Micrograph 4 shows a thin film of grain boundary cementite and some two-phase nodules of
cementite+ferrite formed in a high carbon steel with 0.2%Si. They may be regarded as a kind of
pearlite nodules although cementite is the major phase. The thin black lines are ferrite which is
stabilized by Si and can thus form although the specimen is within the austenite+cementite
two-phase region.

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Micrograph 5 shows the same structure together with ordinary pearlite formed in austenite
dendrites of a white cast iron with some Si. The new type of pearlite is found as a 5 mm thick layer
around the interfaces to the eutectic structure.
Micrograph 6 from an Fe-Mo-C alloy under carburization, shows a eutectoid transformation of

M6C(dark regions) to a fine mixture of MC(white) and austenite(now martensite).
Micrograph 7 from an Fe-W-C alloy under carburization, shows the eutectoid transformation of Fe3W2(grey) to a
mixture of M6C(light grey) and ferrite(small white particles).
Micrograph 8 from an Fe-Mo-C alloy under carburization shows the eutectoid transformation of -ferrite to a
lamellar mixture of austenite(now martensite) and M23C6(white). The interface to the parent ferrite was rather flat
during growth but ferrite has started to grow back into the austenite lamellae during cooling to room temperature.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-9a-eng
9a. Shape of phases formed from a melt
We shall now discuss the shape of the first phase (often called primary phase or proeutectic phase) to
form from a liquid on cooling.
Micrograph 1 shows a well shaped dendrite of Cu2O precipitated from a Cu-O melt.
Micrograph 2 shows intersections of arms of an Al dendrite precipitated from an Si-Al melt.
Micrograph 3 shows a dendrite of a hexagonal phase, Zn.
Micrograph 4 shows a dendritic precipitate inside a non-metallic inclusion in steel. This inclusion must have been
liquid when the dendrite formed.
Micrograph 5 shows a similar precipitation inside smaller non-metallic inclusions. Their sizes were too small to
allow the dendritic shape to develop.

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Micrograph 6 shows two types of dendrites. The grey arms of a dendrite, shown in the background, belong to an
ordinary dendrite with preferred growth directions. The two spherical dendrites are more unusual. They seem to
have grown without any preferred directions. This is explained by the fact that these are dendrites of amorphous
silica.
Micrograph 7 shows the precipitation of Si from an Al-Si melt. The strong tendency of facetting has prevented Si
from forming dendrites.
Micrograph 8 shows another case of facetted crystals, SbSn.
Micrograph 9 shows a case of facetting where a particular crystallographic surface is much favoured and results in
plates.
Micrograph 10 shows the precipitation of Al6Mn from an aluminum melt. The tendency of facetting has here
resulted in long bars with a quadratic cross section.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-9b-eng
9b. Formation of porosity during solidification
Almost all metallic materials solidify under a decrease of volume. There is thus a tendency to form pores,
especially towards the end of solidification, when it becomes increasingly more difficult to compensate
for shrinkage by supply of more liquid.
Micrograph 1 shows a shrinkage porosity(dark) in a high carbon steel which has transformed to
some martensite on cooling. One can see part of a dendrite of austenite inside the pore. Evidently,
it was formed there before the remaining liquid was sucked out in order to compensate for
shrinkage in another part of the casting.
Micrograph 2 shows a long porosity formed in an Al alloy. Its shape indicates that it has spread
horizontally by fracture, caused by solidification stresses.
Micrograph 3 shows a porosity of an unusual shape. However, micrograph 4, which was taken
after etching, reveals that it is an ordinary shrinkage porosity and its elongated shape is caused by
the presence of large plates in the solidification structure.
Micrograph 5 shows a group of dendrites found in a large porosity inside a steel ingot.

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Micrograph 6 shows a group of plates sticking out into a large porosity in a white cast iron.
Micrograph 7 presents a section through one of them and it shows normal features of white cast
iron, a central plate of cementite(white) in contact with some arms of an austenite dendrite(grey)
and some eutectic structure of the two phases. The formation of this porosity allows us to see how
these structures looked at a certain moment during solidification.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-9c-eng
9c. Microsegregation
Microsegregation is a common phenomenon during solidification, especially dendritic solidification. It

results in a gradual change of composition of the solidified crystal which can be revealed in different
ways in the final material.
Micrograph 1 shows that the previous dendrites can be shown by etching due to
microsegregation. It should be noticed that this material now consists of massive crystals of a
single phase. This specimen was sectioned parallel to the surface of the ingot and through the
columnar zone. This is why most of the crystals appear as crosses with a right angle between the
arms. The growth direction which is perpendicular to the picture was a cube direction.
Micrograph 2 shows a more random orientation of dendrites. It is from the central, equiaxed zone
of an ingot.
Micrograph 3 The microsegregation here reveals a morphology typical of solidification in a

strong temperature gradient. The left-hand part shows the result of so-called cellular solidification
rather than dendritic solidification.

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Micrograph 4 shows at high magnification how the etching of a one-phase material can reveal the
dendritic shapes present during the early stages of solidification.
Micrograph 5 and 6 show that the microsegregation can give rise to a heterogeneous distribution
of particles precipitated afterwards in the solid material.
Micrograph 7 shows how the microsegregation of alloying elements in steel can affect the
coarseness of pearlite and thus be revealed.
Micrograph 8 shows a similar effect in regions of pearlite in a nodular cast iron although the
microsegregation actually exists in other regions as well.
Micrograph 9 is from a hypereutectoid steel and shows that pearlite is here situated between the
previous arms of a dendrite, i.e. in regions to solidify last. Ferrite, which forms before pearlite, was
thus disfavoured by the alloying elements enriched in the liquid phase, for instance Mn or Ni. This
distribution of ferrite and pearlite was accomplished by very slow cooling from a state of austenite.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-9d-eng
9d. Microsegregation, cont'd
Micrograph 1 shows the structure of an Al-10%Cu alloy with a primary, dendritic precipitation of
the Al phase and a eutectic of Al + Al2Cu between the arms of the dendrite. With this etching the dendrite
arms appear to be very homogeneous.
Micrograph 2 is from the same specimen but after a different etching. Here a strong effect of microsegregation is
revealed.
Micrograph 3 shows the same phenomenon in an Al-4%Cu alloy. The effect of microsegregation is less
pronounced here.
Micrograph 4 shows the same specimen at a higher magnification.
Micrograph 5 is from an Al-11%Mg alloy and microsegregation within the dendrite arms is here revealed by the
formation of a fine precipitate from the solid state.
Micrograph 7 and 8 show the same phenomenon in an Al-5%Mg alloy. The amount of eutectoid structure is here
very small.

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larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-9e-eng
9e. Secondary phase formed on solidification
By secondary phase one usually understands a phase formed between the arms of the primary dendrite
due to the enrichment of some alloying element or impurity. Usually, one also requires that it does not
establish collaboration with the primary, dendritic phase to form a eutectic structure. The concept
secondary phase thus usually refers to degenerated eutectic structures.
Micrograph 1 is from a white cast iron and shows that facetted crystals of MnS have precipitated
around the arms of an austenite dendrite. Mn and in particular S have segregated into the liquid.
(The remaining part of the liquid later solidified to a eutectic structure.)
Micrograph 2 2 shows another MnS particle which shows a tendency to grow as a dendrite.
Micrograph 3 shows a commercial Al-Si alloy which has been treated with Na in order to modify
the eutectic structure and make it finer. However, a secondary, plate-like phase has precipitated in
the liquid before the eutectic reaction. It seems that Na is able to force Si to grow together with Al
to form a fine eutectic structure but has no such effect on this other phase.
Micrograph 4 is also from an Al-Si alloy and shows the ordinary eutectic structure in this alloy

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system. (See Fig. 3b:2 ) The large black crystals are Si. However, there is a small region of liquid
which was the last one to solidify. It solidified to a very much finer structure than in the main part
of the material. This may be due to the action of some impurity segregated into the last liquid. We
can indeed see that this liquid contained some impurity because it has precipitated a secondary
phase(grey).
Micrograph 5 shows a similar case from a similar alloy. Here one can see a spherical region with
an even finer structure. The shape reveals that this must have been a spherical droplet, floating in
the ordinary liquid. It should thus contain impurities which have given rise to a miscibility gap in
the metallic liquid. This droplet itself may be regarded as a secondary phase which later on
transformed to solid phases.
Micrograph 6 shows a non-metallic droplet which has also precipitated from the ordinary liquid
due to a miscibility gap and it is thus a secondary phase. Later on it has probably precipitated
Al2O3 and the matrix may be glassy.
Micrograph 7 shows a Cu alloy with 5%Pb which segregates into the liquid during solidification and finally
precipitates as Pb-rich droplets.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-9f-eng
9f. Ferrite banding in steels
The inhomogeneous distribution of alloying elements due to segregation may affect the distribution of
phases even after rolling and heat treatment. In hypoeutectoid steels it is thus common to find ferrite in
bands if the cooling from austenitic condition was slow enough.
Micrograph 1 shows a hypoeutectoid steel cooled slowly to 750°C and then quenched in order to
transform the rest of the austenite to martensite. It can be seen that the ferrite has precipitated in
bands oriented in the rolling direction. Inside the thickest bands of ferrite one can see thin lines
representing non-metallic inclusions. They show that ferrite has preferred to grow in regions that
solidified late. This steel must contain an element which segregates strongly into the liquid and
promotes the formation of ferrite from austenite. It is probably P.
Micrograph 2 shows a typical picture of ferrite banding in a steel cooled slowly to room
temperature and thus containing ferrite and pearlite.
Micrograph 3 shows a specimen from a steel with ferrite bands which has been heated back to
750°C and then quenched. It is evident that the ferrite bands also show a resistance to be
transformed back to austenite.

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Micrograph 4 and 5 show ferrite banding in two steels with lower carbon contents.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-9g-eng
9g. Carbide banding in steel
Carbide banding can occur in hypereutectoid steels by the same reason as ferrite banding in
hypoeutectoid steels.
Micrograph 1 is from a high carbon steel, cooled slowly from the austenitic state. Some carbide
has precipitated in bands where the austenite has high concentrations of elements stabilizing the
carbide. Then carbide precipitated along grain boundaries and finally as Widmanstätten plates
before the matrix transformed to pearlite.
Micrograph 2 shows the same specimen at a higher magnification. One can see non-metallic
inclusions inside the carbide band, proving that the bands are situated in regions that solidified late
and should be enriched in alloying elements.
Micrograph 3 shows a steel with carbide banding which has been heated back to 750°C and
cooled fast enough for the austenite to transform to fine pearlite. One can still see a carbide band
but by dissolution of some of the carbide it now consists of separate particles and may thus be less
dangerous for the mechanical properties.

Atlas-9g-eng
Micrograph 4 shows a similar specimen but this one has been cooled slowly. The pearlitic
transformation has thus degenerated. Instead of forming lamellae in normal pearlite, the cementite
has here precipitated on small undissolved particles of cementite. This is the method of
soft-annealing used for hypereutectoid steels.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-10a-eng
10a. Eutectic structures
Micrograph 1 shows a rod-like eutectic in a Cu-O alloy of eutectic composition. The Cu2O
particles are here slightly coarser at the boundaries between eutectic colonies which makes those boundaries easily
visible.
Micrograph 2 shows a colony in another rod-like eutectic. This colony was sectioned close to its center and one
can see the radial arrangement of rods.
Micrograph 3 shows a similar case but this specimen was deep etched and examined in a scanning electron
microscope. The center of this colony was removed when the specimen was sectioned.
Micrograph 4 shows a rod-like eutectic formed during directional solidification.
Micrograph 5 shows a lamellar eutectic.

Atlas-10a-eng
Micrograph 6 shows an unusual arrangement of lamellae in a eutectic structure.
Micrograph 7 shows a lamellar eutectic in a system where one of the two eutectic phases has anisotropic growth
properties. These lamellae insist on growing in particular crystalline directions.
Micrograph 8 shows an unusual case where the minority phase has formed long bars with a star-like cross section
(grown perpendicular to the picture).
Micrograph 9 shows a small eutectic colony which did not have the same average composition as the liquid. It
seems that the supersaturation of the dark phase decreased gradually and finally that phase could no longer
collaborate with the other eutectic phase but started to grow in a facetted manner. It may be concluded that a phase
with some tendency for facetted growth may develop facets when grown under low supersaturation but not under
high supersaturation.
Micrograph 10 shows the eutectic structure in an alloy where one phase has a very strong tendency to form plates.
This tendency is demonstrated by a large plate, formed before the eutectic reaction and going diagonally through
the picture. This tendency also affects the eutectic reaction although the plates will then be much finer. This may be
called broom-like eutectic from its appearance in a section.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-10b-eng
10b. Degenerated eutectic structures
Micrographs 1, 2 and 3 are from Al alloys with Cu and show a dendritic precipitation of the
Al-rich phase. The liquid remaining between the dendrite arms has then solidified by a eutectic
reaction. In large regions one can see the same structure as found in alloys of eutectic composition.
In thin regions the eutectic reaction has degenerated more or less. Sometimes one can see only a
layer of Al2Cu placed between two arms of the Al phase.
Micrograph 4 shows a hypereutectic alloy of Cu-O. The solidification has started with the precipitation of Cu2O
dendrites and the picture shows some sectioned dendrite arms(dark). Then the rod-like eutectic has formed but the
Cu2O arms are surrounded by a thin layer without any rods. In these layers the eutectic reaction has thus
degenerated.
Micrograph 5 from the same system but taken at a lower magnification. The two arrows point to elliptical regions
without any rods. They represent regions of degenerated eutectic and dendrite arms are probably present just above
or below the examined section.
Micrograph 6 shows the formation of MnS particles in contact with an austenite dendrite in a white cast iron. The
MnS phase has a tendency to form facets and it has thus difficulties collaborating with the austenite to form a
normal eutectic structure. Instead, the eutectic reaction has degenerated. (This case was shown already in Fig. 9e:1
.)

Atlas-10b-eng
Micrograph 7 shows another MnS particle in the same specimen. This particle has started a normal eutectic
reaction by non-facetted growth from the corners. It seems that MnS may overcome its tendency for facetting if the
driving force for its formation is large enough.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-10c-eng
10c. Eutectic alloys for soldering
Eutectic or almost eutectic alloys are often used for soldering because of their lower melting points
(eutectic means easily melted) and the fact that they solidify in a narrow range of temperature.
Micrograph 1 shows two pieces of Al joined by soldering using an Al-12%Si alloy. Part of the Al
pieces dissolved in the melt which thus solidified to a structure characteristic of a hypoeutectic
alloy (containing Al dendrites).
Micrograph 2 shows two plates of Cu joined by soldering using an 80%Cu-15%Ag-5%Pb alloy

which has solidified eutectically after a primary precipitation of the Cu phase.
Micrograph 3 shows the same specimen at a higher magnification. One can here see that some Cu
has also precipitated on the surface of the Cu plate. A dark, diffuse contour indicates that the Cu
plate and the precipitated Cu phase have somewhat different compositions. The shape of the
contour indicates that some of the Cu plate dissolved in the melt, especially along the grain
boundaries.
Micrographs 4 and 5 show a similar case where two plates of Cu were joined by soldering using

Atlas-10c-eng
an alloy of 15%Cu-45%Ag-16%Zn-24%Cd.
Micrograph 6 shows two plates of a brass (Cu-Zn) joined by soldering with an alloy of
65%Pb-35%Sn. Evidently, this alloy is far from eutectic and it has solidified to a large fraction of
Pb dendrites. It can still be used with good result because it melts far below the melting point of
-brass and it solidifies with a relatively small solidification shrinkage.
Micrographs 7, 8 and 9 show the solidification structures of a series of Pb-Sn alloys which can
all be used as solders. Their compositions are 30%Pb-70%Sn, 37%Pb-63%Sn and 50%Pb-50%Sn.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-10d-eng
10d. Segregation in eutectic alloys with impurities
During solidification of a eutectic alloy an impurity behaves much like an impurity in an almost pure
metal. The impurity usually segregates to the liquid and finally gives rise to a new phase, either as a
"secondary phase", if it cannot collaborate to form a normal eutectic structure, or as a partner in a new
eutectic structure with one or both of the original eutectic phases.
Micrograph 1 shows the structure of a hypereutectic Al-Cu alloy with an impurity of Si. First, a
thin skeleton of an Al2Cu dendrite has formed, then the Al-Al2Cu eutectic has started to form.
Micrograph 2 shows the same specimen at a higher magnification. It is interesting to see that there are some
regions of well developed eutectic but most of the two-phase structure in this area is rather coarse. The
collaboration has not been very efficient. In addition, one can see a vertical row of small dark regions.
Micrograph 3 shows such regions at an even higher magnification. They consist of a fine eutectic with three
phases. Evidently, Si has all the time segregated to the liquid and finally its concentration is high enough to allow
the Si phase to precipitate. By some reason this phase has helped the other two to establish an efficient
collaboration and the resulting three-phase structure is very fine.
Micrograph 4 shows the structure of a white cast iron with an unusually high amount of P. First, dendrites of
austenite formed (rows of dark spots). Then cementite(white) started to form and grew as plates due to its strong

Atlas-10d-eng
tendency for facetting. The P content of the liquid was now high and it has a strong stabilizing effect on the liquid
phase. The amount of austenite to form together with cementite is thus small and it cannot be seen in the structure.
Finally, the remaining liquid solidified to a fine three-phase eutectic, Fe3P+Fe3C+austenite.
Micrograph 5 shows the same specimen at a higher magnification. The austenite now shows a pearlitic structure
formed on cooling. The three-phase eutectic is very fine. One can only distinguish the fine austenite whereas Fe3P
and Fe3C form a white background. They were not attacked by the etch.
Micrograph 6 is from a grey cast iron with primary dendrites of austenite and a fine austenite-graphite eutectic.
Impurities have segregated to the liquid during the eutectic reaction and have thus concentrated in regions between
the eutectic colonies where they caused the eutectic structure to be coarser. This phenomenon is also shown in Figs.
10a:1 and 10c:8 , but not in Fig. 10a:5 which may be a eutectic alloy with very low impurity contents. The high
concentration of impurities in the region between eutectic colonies in the grey cast iron is revealed in picture 6 by a
special etching technique which makes the austenite darker.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-11a-eng
11a. Peritectic and peritectoid reactions
Micrograph 1 shows the solidification structure in a peritectic alloy system. The composition was
65%Sn-35%Cu and large grey plates formed first. Below the peritectic temperature the white
phase started and should consume both the liquid and the grey, primary phase. However, in trying
to do so it forms a thin layer between these two phases (along the periphery of the primary phase,
thus the name peritectic) and the peritectic reaction will then slow down. On further cooling the
white phase precipitates as facetted bars growing into the liquid just like a primary precipitation
could do. Finally, there was a eutectic reaction yielding a very fine structure (dark).
Micrograph 2 shows a similar case from the Cu-Al system. The primary, grey phase is and the
white phase is 1.
Micrograph 3 shows a similar case from the Al-Mn system. The light grey phase is Al4Mn and the dark grey
phase is Al6Mn. Here the final eutectic appears white because the minority phase occurs as a very small fraction.
Micrograph 4 gives yet another example, now from a ternary alloy Al-10%Fe-15%Si. It should be emphasized
that the primary phase has not been able to disappear in any of these four cases although it should disappear by the
peritectic reaction, according to the phase diagrams. However, that reaction requires solid state diffusion through
the layer of the peritectic phase and is thus slow.

Atlas-11a-eng
Micrograph 5 shows a peritectoid (peritectic-like) reaction in the solid state during heating of a high carbon steel,
ferrite+cementite -> austenite. The austenite(now martensite) has formed a layer between ferrite and cementite.
This layer grows thicker until ferrite or cementite has been completely consumed. In this particular system the
eutectoid reaction is fairly rapid because of the high diffusivity of carbon through the layer of austenite.
Micrograph 6 shows a peritectoid reaction during carburization of an Fe-Cr-W alloy. Some particles of M23C6
formed first in a matrix of austenite(now martensite). Due to the continued carburization, a more carbon rich phase
could then form. The phase diagram shows that this phase should be cementite(M3C). It has formed as a dark, grey
layer between M23C6 and austenite because it has an alloy content between the values of those two phases. The
reaction can thus be classified as a peritectoid reaction.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-12a-eng
12a. White cast iron
Cast iron can solidify by two different mechanisms, white solidification and grey solidification,
depending upon cooling rate and alloy contents.
Micrographs 1, 2 and 3 show the microstructures of hypoeutectic, eutectic and hypereutectic

white cast iron. Primary austenite(dark) has a dendritic shape and primary cementite(white) is
plate-like. The eutectic structure (called ledeburite) is often very complicated because of the
tendency of cementite to retain its plate-like growth.
Micrograph 4 shows a case of ledeburite where the edgewise growth of cementite has dominated
completely. The eutectic structure thus looks like a group of cementite plates radiating from a
point of origin in a broom-like fashion. This arrangement was even more evident in Fig. 10d:4.
Micrograph 5 shows a case of ledeburite where the edgewise growth has dominated but there was
some sidewise growth giving rise to a rod-like eutectic structure.
Micrographs 6a and b show two perpendicular sections through a colony of ledeburite formed in
contact with a primary plate. It is evident that a rod-like structure can grow perpendicular to the

Atlas-12a-eng
flat side of a primary plate of cementite.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-12b-eng
12b. White cast iron, cont'd
Micrograph 1 shows eutectic colonies of ledeburite, each one formed from a primary plate of
cementite.
Micrograph 2 is from the same specimen and shows two colonies at a higher magnification. Each
colony has alternating layers of rod-like and plate-like structures.
Micrograph 3 shows a white cast iron with a large volume fraction of dendritic austenite(now
pearlite). Most of the eutectic structure is degenerated and one can see rather massive cementite. In
other places it contains austenite rods.
Micrograph 4 shows a similar case but one can also see some tendency of plate-like growth.


Atlas-12b-eng
larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-12c-eng
12c. Grey cast iron
Micrographs 1a, b and c show the progress of grey solidification. This cast iron was cast in sand
molds and the low cooling rate favoured the grey mode of solidification. However, the molds were
broken after different times and the rate of cooling was then high enough to yield white
solidification of the remaining melt. This technique can be compared with isothermal
transformation of steel, interrupted by quenching which transforms the remaining austenite to
martensite. The pictures show the radial growth of grey eutectic colonies (austenite+graphite).
Micrograph 2a shows a cast iron which has solidified to a grey surface layer and a few grey
colonies. Then white solidification started, probably by a nucleation event, and dominated the
remaining part of the solidification. We may conclude that the white structure grows much faster
than the grey structure if the temperature is the same. In the white region one can see dark
dendrites of austenite. They must have formed first and are probably present in the grey regions as
well although they cannot be seen there in this picture.
Micrograph 2b is from a similar casting but this one was fractured. It shows the same structure
and demonstrates the origin of the names grey and white cast iron. Grey iron looks grey when
fractured because the fracture goes through graphite. One is thus looking at graphite which is grey.
Micrograph 3 shows at high magnification two grey eutectic colonies with a fine structure,
so-called undercooled graphite.

Atlas-12c-eng
Micrograph 4 shows a cast iron solidified cempletely grey. A special etching technique reveals
the boundaries between eutectic colonies as white lines. It is evident that grey eutectic colonies,
although spherical during growth, finally get polyhedral shapes due to impingement. It is also
evident that there are two size classes. This phenomenon will be discussed in connection with Fig.
12d:4.
Micrograph 5 shows a similar cast iron but the etching technique was different and the colony
boundaries here appear dark.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-12d-eng
12d. Grey cast iron, cont'd
Micrograph 1 shows grey eutectic colonies at a high magnification. The graphite is here shown as
slightly curved plates and can be described as flake-like. The flakes have grown approximately in
radial directions.
Micrograph 2 shows grey eutectic colonies of similar structure at a lower magnification. They can
here be distinguished from each other because the boundary regions appear white with the present
etching, due to some segregation.
Micrograph 3 shows a grey eutectic colony with very fine graphite at the center(characteristic of a
high supercooling at the start of the eutectic reaction) and coarser graphite further out due to
recalescence caused by the heat of solidification.
Micrograph 4 is from a region of many small colonies as those shown in Fig. 12c:4. They contain
very fine graphite, proving that they formed towards the end of solidification when temperature
dropped again. This also explains why they are so many. Evidently, they have formed in relatively
large pools of liquid, left between the ordinary colonies. Towards the end of solidification the
temperature dropped below the previous minimum and the many new colonies nucleated and
solidified to a fine structure.

Atlas-12d-eng

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-12e-eng
12e. Shape of graphite in grey cast iron
The micrographs on this page were taken on polished but not etched specimens. It is thus easy to see the
graphite but sometimes it is difficult to see what is a colony.
Micrograph 1 is from a grey cast iron inoculated with graphite powder, which can easily be
identified because it is coarser than the graphite formed on solidification. Each graphite particle
has given rise to a colony but they are very small due to their great number.
Micrograph 2 shows a grey cast iron solidified at a lower temperature and without inoculation.
The graphite is thus finer and it is easy to see the austenite dendrites. There are probably austenite
dendrites in picture 1 as well but they are practically impossible to see.
Micrograph 3 shows an intermediate case where the dendrites can almost be seen.
Micrograph 4 shows in its central part a grey eutectic colony which started to grow at a high
supercooling, giving rise to a fine structure. Later on the temperature had risen considerably, due
to the heat of solidification, and the graphite is very coarse at the boundaries to other colonies.

Atlas-12e-eng
Micrograph 5 shows in its central part a colony with very fine structure (classified as undercooled
graphite) but the contour of the colony can be seen due to a coarser structure.
Micrograph 6 shows undercooled graphite at a higher magnification.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-12f-eng
12f. Segregation in grey cast iron
Micrograph 1 shows a grey eutectic colony but the boundary regions to neighbouring colonies
show a white structure. This is due to the segregation of P to the remaining melt until Fe3P starts to
precipitate. That phase triggers the formation of Fe3C and a three-phase eutectic structure will thus form,
Fe3P+Fe3C+austenite.
Micrograph 2 shows the white region at a higher magnification. The same eutectic, formed in a white cast iron,
was shown in Fig. 10d:5. It will be further discussed on the next page. In the same region one can see two grey,
facetted particles of MnS, indicating that S also segregates to the remaining liquid during the growth of a grey
eutectic colony.
Micrograph 3 shows the colony boundaries as thin, bright regions due to an etching effect of the high impurity
contents. The same etching was used in Fig. 12c:4 but now it is interesting also to see that the shape of the bright
regions indicate that these eutectic colonies have started to split up into cells growing side by side. This
phenomenon is the same as in so-called cellular solidification often found in directional solidification when the
conditions are between those giving a planar solidification front and dendritic growth.
Micrograph 4 shows an unusually well developed case of cellular growth of the grey eutectic in a cast iron. This
specimen solidified in a temperature gradient and growth occurred upwards in the picture.

Atlas-12f-eng
Micrograph 5a shows a grey eutectic colony after polishing but not etching.
Micrograph 5b reveals that regions of high impurity content have been trapped within the grey eutectic colony.
This can happen because the solidification front of the grey eutectic is very jagged.
Micrograph 6a and b give a similar pair of pictures. In only polished condition it is very difficult to distinguish
between the various colonies but the segregation of impurities makes the colony boundaries visible after etching.
This specimen is similar to the one shown in Fig. 12d:4.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-12g-eng
12g. Phosphide eutectic in cast iron
Micrograph 1 shows pearlite and the phosphide eutectic in a grey cast iron (Fe3P+Fe3C+austenite)
after etching in nital which only attacks austenite.
Micrograph 2 is from the same specimen but now etched in such a way that austenite in dark, Fe3P is grey and
Fe3C is white.
Micrograph 3 shows a different etching which made Fe3P dark, Fe3C white and austenite white with black
contours.
Micrograph 4 shows the same area after renewed polishing and etching in nital only, in order to show the
austenite.
Micrograph 5 was taken with an etching method similar to the one used for picture 3 but here it is easier to see the
austenite.

Atlas-12g-eng
Micrograph 6 is taken from the same specimen and etching. However, it shows a eutectic colony consisting of
only Fe3P(grey ) and austenite(white). It is evident that carbon has gone into the nearby graphite.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-12h-eng
12h. Other shapes of graphite in cast iron
Micrograph 1 shows graphite formed by annealing of white cast iron at 950°C and slow cooling,
so-called malleable cast iron. The cementite has decomposed by the precipitation of carbon as
graphite. The formation of pearlite on cooling was avoided by precipitating the carbon content of
the austenite on that graphite.
Micrograph 3 shows a different shape of graphite in a malleable cast iron.
Micrographs 4a, b and c show the compact form of graphite (called nodular graphite or
spheroidal graphite) formed on solidification of cast iron treated with Ce. The bright central spot in
pictures 4b and 4c is also graphite but these nodules were sectioned above their centers. Graphite
at the center of the section had its cleavage plane parallel to the section and fractured to give a
small, well reflecting area. It is evident that graphite nodules grow with the cleavage plane (which
is the hexagonal plane) perpendicular to the radius. Flake graphite is explained by the strong
tendency of graphite to give facets on the hexagonal plane. The surface of both types of graphite
are thus covered by the hexagonal plane. The crystal of a flake of graphite is bent slightly, the
crystal of a nodule of graphite is bent continuously around the whole periphery.

Atlas-12h-eng
Micrograph 5a shows two graphite nodules. For the larger one a layer seems to break off with the
fracture running along the continuously bent hexagonal plane. That may be the layer deposited
during cooling and coming from the carbon in austenite.
Micrograph 5b shows a sectioned nodule of graphite and a pore, left after a nodule. Actually, a
thin layer of graphite can still be seen around the wall of the pore. This nodule may thus have
fractured in the same way as the one in picture 5a.
Micrograph 6 shows graphite in a cast iron treated with an insufficient amount of Ce to give real
nodules.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-12i-eng
12i. Fracture through graphite
Micrograph 1 shows a fracture through a piece of grey cast iron. It follows the hexagonal
cleavage planes and can thus go easily right through an equator plane of a eutectic colony. The
fracture has here gone through the centers of several eutectic colonies and most of the fracture
surface is thus covered with graphite. This explains why grey cast iron is very brittle and why the
fracture looks grey.
Micrograph 2 shows a malleable cast iron which had not solidified to a completely white
structure. There was a grey surface layer and a few round eutectic colonies, similar to Figs. 12c:2a
and b. We can see fractures in the surface layer and in the colonies. It is evident that a perfect
malleable cast iron would be much stronger than this material. When producing a malleable cast
iron it is thus important to make sure that the materiel first solidifies to a completely white
structure.
Micrograph 3 shows at a high magnification that the graphite, formed during the heat treatment of
a malleable cast iron, can deposit on the periphery of the eutectic graphite if such graphite formed
during the solidification which was intended to be completely white.
Micrograph 4 and 5 show that grey colonies can sometimes be found inside white cast iron. From

Atlas-12i-eng
a fracture mechanics point of view they represent microcracks as large as their diameter.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-12j-eng
12j. Transformation of austenite in grey cast iron
This page concerns the eutectoid reaction austenite->ferrite+graphite. However, graphite cannot
collaborate with ferrite to give a normal eutectoid structure. Instead, the eutectoid reaction will
degenerate and carbon will deposit on the graphite particles already present, or temperature will decrease
enough to allow the remaining austenite to transform to pearlite. The eutectoid temperature for austenite
ferrite+cementite is lower than for austenite ferrite+graphite.
Micrograph 1 shows the degenerated reaction occurring in contact with a graphite flake. This
ferrite has formed by the simultaneous deposition of the austenitc carbon on the big flake of
graphite. This reaction was then interrupted by the remaining austenite transforming to pearlite.
Micrograph 2 shows a similar case but here the degenerated reaction went almost to completion.
Micrograph 3 shows a grey cast iron with eutectic colonies with fine structure in their central
parts. The degenerated reaction has been completed in these regions, probably due to the short
distances to graphite. The austenite in other regions was not yet transformed when the pearlite
reaction started and transformed the remaining austenite.

Atlas-12j-eng
Micrograph 4 shows a unit of graphite in malleable cast iron. The central region of austenite has
transformed to ferrite (and graphite), the rest to pearlite.
Micrograph 5 shows a nodular cast iron where the degenerated reaction has given a layer of
ferrite around each graphite nodule. The continued reaction is slow because it requires that carbon
diffuses through that layer in order to precipitate as graphite on the surface of the nodule. When
pearlite nucleates, it can transform the rest of the austenite.
Micrograph 6 shows a similar case from a nodular cast iron where the degenerated reaction was
almost completed.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-13a-eng
To page: [Previous] [Index]
13a. Silumin
Micrograph 1 shows a slightly hypoeutectic Al-Si alloy. One can see arms of an Al
dendrite(white) and a eutectic formed by Si as the leading phase.
Micrograph 2 shows the eutctic structure at a higher magnification. In connection with Fig. 3b:2
it was explained that Si, which is a cubic phase, can acquire the ability of growing as plates by the
presence of twin boundaries. The plates are arranged in the broom-like fashion characteristic of
cementite in some white cast irons (see Fig. 10d:4. and 12a:4 ) and of other phases with a strong
tendency to form plates (see Fig. 10a:10 ).
Micrograph 3 shows Al dendrites and a fine Al-Si eutectic produced by the addition of small
quantities of Na (so-called modified silumin).
Micrograph 4 shows this specimen at a higher magnification.

Atlas-13a-eng
Micrograph 5 is from a hypereutectic Al-Si alloy. First, Si precipitated as facetted crystels (see
Fig. 1d:6 ) and when the temperature decreased below the eutectic one, Al started to precipitate as
dendrites(white). Finally, a fine eutectic formed because this alloy was treated with Na. In spite of
the fact that Na promotes the formation of a fine eutectic structure, it is evident that the
collaboration between the two phases is still difficult, otherwise the eutectic structure should have
started to form soon after Al was nucleated and one should not see any Al dendrites.
Micrograph 6 shows a ternary Al-Si-Cu alloy. One can see the primary precipitation of Al as
white dendrites and two facetted Si crystals. Then there are two types of eutectic structures, both
composed of Al, Si and Al2Cu(grey). In the coarse type of eutectic structure Si has its characteristic plate-like
shape. In the fine type (upper right quarter of picture) Si seems to bend nicely and thus to collaborate well with the
other two phases to form a rather regular three-phase eutectic.
To page: [Previous] [Index]

larsf@matsc.kth.se

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Atlas-index
[Previous index] (Finns ej på svenska.)
Index:
a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
word page image only

-martensite 6b 6b:2
abnormal grain growth 5b -

acikular 6b
8g 8g:5
Al bronze 2d 2d:4
Al-Mn 11a 11a:3
Al-Si 3b 3b:2
amorphous silica 9a 9a:6
annealing twin 3a 3a:1
7b 7b:3
arm of dendrite 9a 9a:2

bainite 8g -
banding 9f -
9g
bimodal 5b 5b:1
branching 8e 8e:1
Brinell 4b 4b:4
broom-like eutectic 10a 10a:10
13a 13a:2
12a 12a:4
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Atlas-index
bulging 4a 4a:5
7d 7d:4
7h 7h:6

carburization 2b 2b:7
cellular growth 12f 12f:4
cellular solidification 9c 9c:3
12f 12f:3
coarsening 5c -
cold deformation 2c 2c:5
collaboration 1c 1c:5
8e
colony 8a
12c 12c:1
columnar 2b -
8a 8a:3
9c 9c:1
cooperative growth 8a -
Cu-Al 6b 6b:4
8f -
Cu-O 9a 9a:1
10a 10a:1
Cu2O 5d 5d:5

-ferrite 7j -
decarburization 2b 2b:6
5b 5b:3
decoration of dislokations 7a 7a:6
deep etching 1d 1d:5
deformation band 4b 4b:3
deformation twin 3a 3a:3

Atlas-index
degenerate 8e -
degenerate eutectic 10b -
dendrite 9a 9a:1
diffusionless 5a 5a:5
DIGM 7d 7d:4
directional solidification 2b 2b:2
discontinous precipitation 7d 7d:5

-martensite 6b 6b:1
edgewise growth 3b 3b:5

equiaxed 2a 2a:1
2b 2b:1
9c 9c:2
etch pit 1a 1a:4
1c 1c:5
eutectoid reaction 8a -
12j -

facet 1a 1a:4
facetting 9a 9a:7
feathery structure 3b 3b:8
ferrite 7e -
FeS 2e 2e:5
flake graphite 12d 12d:1

Ge 3b 3b:7
grain boundary film 7b 7b:7
grain boundary migration 7d 7d:4
7f 7f:4

Atlas-index
grain boundary network 2e 2e:4

grain growth, normal 5a 5a:1
grain size 7c -
grey cast iron 12c -
grey solidification 12c 12c:1

hot deformation 2c 2c:5
hypereutectoid 8c 8c:3
hypoeutectoid 5b 5b:2

impingement, soft 2a 2a:3
impingement, hard 2a 2a:2
inclusion 2c -
innoculation 12e 12e:1
internal oxidation 7i -
isothermal transformation 8d -

lamellar eutectic 10a 10a:5
lath martensite 6a 6a:1
leading phase 8f -
ledeburite 12a 12a:1

malleable cast iron 12h 12h:1
martensite 1a 1a:9
3a 3a:4
mechanical twin 1c 1c:3
3a 3a:3
meteorite 4a 4a:4
7d 7d:7

Atlas-index
microsegregation 9c -
minority phase 2e 2e:1
MnS 2c 2c:1
2e 2e:5
3b 3b:4
9e 9e:1
10b 10b:6
Moiré pattern 1a 1a:1

Neumann band 3a 3a:5
4a 4a:4
7d 7d:7
nital 1b 1b:4
nodular cast iron 12j 12j:5
nodular graphite 12h 12h:4
nodule 8a -
normal grain growth 5a 5a:2

Oberhoffer's etch 1b 1b:6
oxide scale 7i 7i:2

partial melting 2e 2e:7
Pb 3b 3b:6
pearlite 1b 1b:1
1c 1c:5
8a 8a:3
8b -
peritectic 7j 7j:1
11a -
peritectoid 11a -
phase interface 2e 2e:1

Atlas-index
plate martensite 6a 6a:3

pore 2c 2c:3
porosity 2c 2c:6
9b -
precipitation free zone 7d 7d:1
primary phase 9a -
proeutectic 9a -

recovery 2e 2e:4
recrystallization 4a -
retained austenite 6a 6a:3
rod-like eutectic 10a 10a:1

secondary phase 9e -
segregation 10d -
shear band 4a 4a:3
Si 3b 3b:1
sidewise growth 1c 1c:2
silica 9a 9a:6
silumin 13a -
soldering 10c -
spheroidal graphite 12h 12h:4
spheroidization 5d -
stacking fault 3a 3a:1
subgrain 2e 2e:4

tempered martensite 1d 1d:3
5c 5c:4
Ti 5a 5a:4

Atlas-index
Ti alloy 7k -
Ti-Ni 7b 7b:6

undercooled graphite 12c 12c:3

W 2d 2d:5
welding 2b 2b:4
wetting 2e 2e:1
7h 7h:6
white cast iron 12a -
white solidification 12a -
Widmanstätten 2a 2a:3
5c 5c:2
Widmanstätten austenite 7j 7j:4
Widmanstätten cementite 7g 7g:3
Widmanstätten dendrite 7b 7b:4
Widmanstätten ferrite 7e 7e:4
Widmanstätten plate 7a 7a:3
7b 7b:6
7g 7g:6
Widmanstätten rod 7b 7b:1
7h 7h:1
Widmanstätten side-branch 7f 7f:3

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-index
[Previous index]
This compact index will download the images only. If you want the accompanying text as well you
should use the other Table of Contents, reachable from the previous index.
Contents:
● 1. Metallographic techniques
❍ 1a, 1b Etching methods to make the microstructure visible.
■ 1a1 , 1a2 , 1a3 , 1a4 , 1a5 , 1a6 , 1a7 , 1a8 , 1a9
■ 1b1+2 , 1b3+4 , 1b5 , 1b6

❍ 1c, 1d Physical methods of inspection
■ 1c1+2 , 1c3 , 1c4 , 1c5 , 1c6a+b
■ 1d1 , 1d2 , 1d3 , 1d4 , 1d5 , 1d6 , 1d7+8

● 2. Geometrical aspects
❍ a) Growth of nuclei with random distribution
■ 2a1a-c , 2a2 , 2a3 , 2a4 , 2a5
❍ b) Formation of columnar crystals

■ 2b1 , 2b2 , 2b3 , 2b4 , 2b5 , 2b6 , 2b7
❍ c, d) Geometric texture caused by plastic deformation

■ 2c1 , 2c2 , 2c3 , 2c4 , 2c5 , 2c6+7 , 2c8
■ 2d1-3 , 2d4 , 2d5-6 , 2d7 , 2d8

❍ e) Geometric effects of surface tension
■ 2e1 , 2e2 , 2e3 , 2e4a-b , 2e5 , 2e6 , 2e7 , 2e8
● 3. Twin formation
❍ a) Formation of twins in solid state transformations
■ 3a1 , 3a2 , 3a3 , 3a4a-b , 3a5 , 3a6 , 3a7 , 3a8
❍ b) Formation of twins during crystallization from a melt

■ 3b1 , 3b2 , 3b3 , 3b4 , 3b5 , 3b6 , 3b7 , 3b8
● 4. Recrystallization
❍ a) Nucleation during recrystallization
■ 4a1 , 4a2 , 4a3 , 4a4 , 4a5 , 4a6
❍ b) Growth of crystals during recrystallization
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Atlas-index
■ 4b1a-e , 4b2 , 4b3 , 4b4 , 4b5

● 5. Grain growth
❍ a) Grain structure of one-phase materials
■ 5a1a-e , 5a2 , 5a3 , 5a4 , 5a5 , 5a6 , 5a7 , 5a8
❍ b) Abnormal grain growth

■ 5b1 , 5b2 , 5b3a+b , 5b4a+b
❍ c) Coarsening of particles
■ 5c1a+b , 5c2 , 5c3 , 5c4 , 5c5 , 5c6 , 5c7
❍ d) Spheroidization
■ 5d1 , 5d2 , 5d3 , 5d4 , 5d5
● 6. Formation of martensite
❍ a) Martensite in carbon steels
■ 6a1 , 6a2 , 6a3 , 6a4 , 6a5 , 6a6
❍ b) Martensite in other alloys

■ 6b1 , 6b2 , 6b3 , 6b4 , 6b5
● 7. Precipitation in solid state

❍ a) General precipitation
■ 7a1 , 7a2 , 7a3 , 7a4 , 7a5 , 7a6 , 7a7 , 7a8 , 7a9
❍ b) Grain boundary induced precipitation

■ 7b1 , 7b2 , 7b3 , 7b4-5 , 7b6 , 7b7
❍ c) The effect of grain size on precipitation

■ 7c1 , 7c2 , 7c3 , 7c4
❍ d) Special effects of grain boundaries on precipitation.

■ 7d1+2 , 7d3+4+5 , 7d6+7 , 7d8+9 , 7d10
❍ e) Precipitation of ferrite in Fe-C alloys

■ 7e1 , 7e2+3 , 7e4 , 7e5 , 7e6 , 7e4+5+6
❍ f) Precipitation of ferrite in Fe-C alloys, cont'd

■ 7f1 , 7f2 , 7f3 , 7f4 , 7f5 , 7f6 , 7f7
❍ g) Precipitation of cementite in Fe-C alloys

■ 7g1 , 7g2 , 7g3 , 7g4 , 7g5 , 7g6
❍ h) Precipitation of cementite in Fe-C alloys, cont'd

■ 7h1 , 7h2 , 7h3 , 7h4 , 7h5 , 7h6 , 7h7
❍ i) Internal oxidation
■ 7i1 , 7i2 , 7i3 , 7i4 , 7i5
❍ j) Precipitation of austenite from delta-ferrite

Atlas-index
■ 7j1+2 , 7j3 , 7j4 , 7j5

❍ k) Transformation between alfa and beta in Ti alloys
■ 7k1 , 7k2 , 7k3 , 7k4 , 7k5 , 7k6 , 7k7 , 7k8 , 7k9 , 7k10 , 7k11
● 8. Eutectoid reactions.
❍ a) Cooperative growth during a eutectoid reaction.
■ 8a1 , 8a2 , 8a3 , 8a4 , 8a5 , 8a6
❍ b) Pearlite
■ 8b1 , 8b2 , 8b3 , 8b4 , 8b5 , 8b6
❍ c) Pearlite, cont'd.
■ 8c1 , 8c2 , 8c3 , 8c4 , 8c5 , 8c6 , 8c7 , 8c8
❍ d) Isothermal transformation.
■ 8d1a+b+c , 8d2a+b+c
❍ e) Degenerate eutectoid reaction.

■ 8e1 , 8e2 , 8e3 , 8e4 , 8e5 , 8e6
❍ f) Acicular eutectoid.
■ 8f1 , 8f2 , 8f3 , 8f4
❍ g) Bainite in steel.
■ 8g1 , 8g2 , 8g3 , 8g4 , 8g5 , 8g6
❍ h) Bainite in steel, cont'd.

■ 8h1 , 8h2 , 8h3a+b , 8h4 , 8h5 , 8h6
❍ i) Eutectoid reactions in alloyed steels.

■ 8i1 , 8i2 , 8i3 , 8i4 , 8i5 , 8i6 , 8i7 , 8i8
● 9. Primary precipitation during solidification.

❍ a) Shape of phases formed from a melt.
■ 9a1 , 9a2 , 9a3 , 9a4 , 9a5 , 9a6 , 9a7 , 9a8 , 9a9 , 9a10
❍ b) Formation of porosity during solidification.

■ 9b1 , 9b2 , 9b3 , 9b4 , 9b5 , 9b6 , 9b7
❍ c) Microsegregation.
■ 9c1 , 9c2 , 9c3 , 9c4 , 9c5 , 9c6 , 9c7 , 9c8 , 9c9
❍ d) Microsegregation, cont'd.
■ 9d1 , 9d2 , 9d3 , 9d4 , 9d5 , 9d6 , 9d7 , 9d8
❍ e) Secondary phase formed on solidification.

■ 9e1 , 9e2 , 9e3 , 9e4 , 9e5 , 9e6 , 9e7
❍ f) Ferrite banding in steels.

■ 9f1 , 9f2 , 9f3 , 9f4 , 9f5

Atlas-index
❍ g) Carbide banding in steel.

■ 9g1 , 9g2 , 9g3 , 9g4
● 10. Eutectic solidification.

❍ a) Eutectic structures
■ 10a1 , 10a2 , 10a3 , 10a4 , 10a5 , 10a6 , 10a7 , 10a8 , 10a9 , 10a10
❍ b) Degenerated eutectic structures

■ 10b1 , 10b2 , 10b3 , 10b4 , 10b5 , 10b6 , 10b7
❍ c) Eutectic alloys for soldering

■ 10c1 , 10c2 , 10c3 , 10c4 , 10c5 , 10c6 , 10c7 , 10c8 , 10c9
❍ d) Segregation in eutectic alloys with impurities

■ 10d1 , 10d2 , 10d3 , 10d4 , 10d5 , 10d6
● 11. Peritectic and peritectoid reactions.

❍ a) Peritectic and peritectoid reactions
■ 11a1 , 11a2 , 11a3 , 11a4 , 11a5 , 11a6
● 12. Cast iron.

❍ a) White cast iron
■ 12a1 , 12a2 , 12a3 , 12a4 , 12a5 , 12a6
❍ b) White cast iron, cont'd

■ 12b1 , 12b2 , 12b3 , 12b4
❍ c) Grey cast iron

■ 12c1abc , 12c2ab , 12c3 , 12c4 , 12c5
❍ d) Grey cast iron, cont'd

■ 12d1 , 12d2 , 12d3 , 12d4
❍ e) Shape of graphite in grey cast iron

■ 12e1 , 12e2 , 12e3 , 12e4 , 12e5 , 12e6
❍ f) Segregation in grey cast iron

■ 12f1 , 12f2 , 12f3 , 12f4 , 12f5 , 12f6
❍ g) Phosphide eutectic in cast iron

■ 12g1 , 12g2 , 12g3 , 12g4 , 12g5 , 12g6
❍ h) Other shapes of graphite in cast iron

■ 12h1 , 12h2 , 12h3 , 12h4 , 12h5 , 12h6
❍ i) Fracture through graphite

■ 12i1 , 12i2 , 12i3 , 12i4 , 12i5
❍ j) Transformation of austenite in grey cast iron

■ 12j1 , 12j2 , 12j3 , 12j4 , 12j5 , 12j6

Atlas-index
● 13. Non-ferrous alloy systems.

❍ a) Silumin
■ 13a1 , 13a2 , 13a3 , 13a4 , 13a5 , 13a6
Last change: 11 of Mar 1997

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-1a-example pages
Metallographic Atlas - example pages from the printed version
Go to page: [ Previous ] [ Index ] [ Next ]

visible.
Micrograph 1. An etching reagent may attack different crystals

with different rates depending upon the difference in
crystallographic orientation. There will thus be a sharp step at the
crystal boundaries. In the microscope one will see a black line.
(This picture is a reproduction of a previously printed picture.
This has given rise to a so-called Moiré pattern, a regular pattern
of brighter and darker areas covering the whole picture. It is
sometimes much finer than shown here. See picture 3, for
example.)
Micrograph 2. An etching reagent may colour different

crystals differently due to their different crystallographic
orientation. In a black and white micrograph this may give
rise to different shades of grey. Picture 2 is taken on an fcc
Cu-Zn alloy and shows that the grains have annealing
twins.
http://klara.met.kth.se/ia/atlas/1a-ei.html (1 de 5) [26-06-1999 04:58:23 p.m.]

Micrograph 3. An etching reagent may attack crystal boundaries and

form grooves. They will show up as black lines in the microscope.
Oblique illumination can reveal that the black line is not due to a step
(as in picture 1). Actually, the grooves in picture 3 were formed by
thermal etching (annealing at high temperature in vacuum) and are
deeper and wider than one normally gets with chemical etching.
Micrograph 4. An etching reagent may attack the surface of a crystal in such a way that facets of low
indices are formed. This may result in etch pits as shown here. In this case the facets are {100}. The
orientation of the crystal is thus revealed. This micrograph was taken on a coarse-grained specimen of a
bcc Fe-Si alloy.

Micrograph 5. This is another example of facetting etching where the whole surface has been attacked.
The material is pure Fe.
Micrograph 7. The attack of the etching reagent may depend on

the chemical composition and may not reveal the crystal
boundaries if there is no sharp change in composition there. This
micrograph shows the inhomogeneous distribution of alloying
elements in a Cu alloy, caused by segregation during dendritic
solidification.
Micrograph 8. The etching reagent may give solid reaction

products which deposit on the surface, usually as a dark or
coloured film. The film sometimes cracks when the specimen is
dried and a pattern of lines may form which has some relation to

the orientation of the crystal. This micrograph is taken on an fcc

Cu-Zn alloy and the horizontal line reveals a coherent twin
boundary.
Micrograph 9. The etching reagent may attack different phases

in different ways. Here the thin white phase has not been
attacked at all. The grey matrix has been attacked and thus there
is now a step at the interfaces between white and grey crystals.
In addition, the grey phase is grey because it contained a hugh
number of very fine particles of a different phase which was not
dissolved and stayed as dirt on the surface. The black phase was
attacked in such a way that a solid reaction product deposited on
the surface. White and black phases are two different alloyed
carbides and the grey phase is martensite which has been
slightly annealed.


larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-1b-example pages
Micrograph 1 (and 2). Most etching reagents attack different phases with different rates and sharp steps
will form at the phase boundaries. In the microscope they will show up as black lines. This micrograph is
taken on an Fe-C alloy containing martensite, ferrite and cementite. Martensite is big white areas. A thin
band of white ferrite is shown vertically. It has been attacked more than the martensite and is thus at a
lower level. Thus the black contours. Cementite is found in a fine mixture with ferrite (so-called
pearlite). Cementite is not at all attacked and should thus look white, also, but it is standing above the
ferrite, which was attacked. The pearlite areas thus appear black when the lines cannot be resolved.
Micrograph 2. This micrograph is taken on the same area as picture 1 but with oblique illumination
coming from the left. It is thus easy to see that the band of ferrite has been attacked more than the
martensite.
http://klara.met.kth.se/ia/atlas/1b-ei.html (1 de 3) [26-06-1999 04:59:33 p.m.]

Micrograph 4. The etching reagent may be so sensitive to the orientation of a crystal that some crystals
are hardly attacked at all. This is the case for so-called nital (1 % HNO3 in alcohol) on {100} surfaces of
bcc Fe (ferrite). The white area in the center is a grain of ferrite of this orientation and comparison with
picture 3 reveals that it is a small proeutectoid particle of ferrite which has later developed into pearlite
by collaborating with cementite on its continued growth.
Micrograph 5. Many etching reagents are sensitive to orientation as

well as composition. This micrograph is taken on a single-phase
fcc Cu alloy produced by casting. One can see annealing twins due
to the effect of orientation. The material has thus been deformed
and annealed after casting. One can also see an effect of an uneven
distribution of alloying elements. This is a memory of segregation
occurring during solidification. The annealing has thus been too
short to completely even out composition differences by diffusion.

Micrograph 6. One can apply different etching reagents one

after the other and thus get different etching effects
overlapping. This specimen of a low-carbon steel was first
etched in nital to show ferrite(white) and pearlite(thin black
regions). Then it was etched in a special reagent
(Oberhoffer's etch) in order to reveal the distribution of P,
present as an impurity. A dark reaction product then
deposited on the areas of low P content (large black regions).
It shows that P has segregated strongly during solidification.
Black areas reveal the dendritic pattern of solidification. It is
evident that this steel has not been deformed mechanically.
The shape of the black areas shows that they represent the
first, thin skeleton of dendrites. It is evident that P has had the tendency to remain in the melt, leaving the
first solid to form without much P.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Atlas-1c-example pages
Go to page: [ Previous ] [ Index ] ( this is the last example page)
cementite(white)+austenite(grey because it has later transformed to various phases which are attacked by
etching). The etching reagent was nital. The cementite has not been attacked at all.
Micrograph 2. Same specimen as in picture 1 but now examined with polarized light. The polarizer and
the analyzer have had crossed positions and an ordinary metallic surface would appear dark. However,
cementite is not cubic. It is thus optically active which means that it rotates the plane of polarization and
some light may thus pass through the analyzer. The strength of this effect is different for different
orientations. One can thus distinguish between various crystals of cementite. It is evident that the fine
eutectic structure has formed by sidewise growth from the long, coarse plates of cementite.
Micrograph 3. This is a specimen of pure Zn,

which is a hexagonal metal. It is thus optically
active and can be examined under polarized
light in the polished condition. Different grains
rotate the polarized light differently. We can
here see that some grains contain thin regions of
http://klara.met.kth.se/ia/atlas/1c-ei.html (1 de 3) [26-06-1999 05:00:29 p.m.]

a different orientation. They are mechanical

twins, here formed by a very light deformation.
Micrograph 4. Cubic phases are optically inactive.

However, sometimes they can be examined in polarized
light after the kind of etching which gives a thin layer of a
reaction product if that product is optically active. This
micrograph shows electrolytically oxidized Al. Several
fine grains with a dendritic pattern can be distinguished.
Evidently, this quality of Al had some impurity which
gave rise to dendritic solidification and also to many
nuclei. Two scratches can be seen as thin, crossing lines.
They formed during polishing and show up very well in
this kind of examination.
Micrograph 5. Cubic phases may also rotate the plane of

polarization if the reflection is not at right angle. Such reflection
occurs on the sides of etch pits (see Fig. 1a:4). This is an Fe-C
specimen containing ferrite, in addition to martensite and
cementite. The specimen has been etched in a special reagent
which covers the surface of ferrite with very small etch pits.
They cannot be seen individually but their effect on the plane of
polarization is strong. Some grains of ferrite thus appear white
and some appear dark. We can here see that each grain of ferrite
has two regions, one free of other phases and the other
containing thin lamellae of another phase, which is cementite.
That mixture should thus be regarded as very coarse pearlite. As
with Figs. 1b:3 and 4, we may thus conclude that ferrite grains
may start to grow alone and may later on establish collaboration
with cementite.

Micrograph 6. One can apply different

etching reagents one after the other and
thus get different etching effects
overlapping. This specimen of a
low-carbon steel was first etched in nital
to show ferrite(white) and pearlite(thin
black regions). Then it was etched in a
special reagent (Oberhoffer's etch) in
order to reveal the distribution of P,
present as an impurity. A dark reaction
product then deposited on the areas of low
P content (large black regions). It shows
that P has segregated strongly during
solidification. Black areas reveal the
dendritic pattern of solidification. It is
evident that this steel has not been
deformed mechanically. The shape of the black areas shows that they represent the first, thin skeleton of
dendrites. It is evident that P has had the tendency to remain in the melt, leaving the first solid to form
without much P.
Go to page: [ Previous ] [ Index ] ( this is the last example page )

larsf@matsc.kth.se


visible.
Micrograph 1. An etching reagent may attack different crystals

with different rates depending upon the difference in
crystallographic orientation. There will thus be a sharp step at the
crystal boundaries. In the microscope one will see a black line.
(This picture is a reproduction of a previously printed picture.
This has given rise to a so-called Moiré pattern, a regular pattern
of brighter and darker areas covering the whole picture. It is
sometimes much finer than shown here. See picture 3, for
example.)
Micrograph 2. An etching reagent may colour different

crystals differently due to their different crystallographic
orientation. In a black and white micrograph this may give
rise to different shades of grey. Picture 2 is taken on an fcc
Cu-Zn alloy and shows that the grains have annealing
twins.
http://klara.met.kth.se/ia/free/atlas/1a-ei.html (1 de 5) [26-06-1999 05:07:19 p.m.]

Micrograph 3. An etching reagent may attack crystal boundaries and

form grooves. They will show up as black lines in the microscope.
Oblique illumination can reveal that the black line is not due to a step
(as in picture 1). Actually, the grooves in picture 3 were formed by
thermal etching (annealing at high temperature in vacuum) and are
deeper and wider than one normally gets with chemical etching.
Micrograph 4. An etching reagent may attack the surface of a crystal in such a way that facets of low
indices are formed. This may result in etch pits as shown here. In this case the facets are {100}. The
orientation of the crystal is thus revealed. This micrograph was taken on a coarse-grained specimen of a
bcc Fe-Si alloy.

Micrograph 5. This is another example of facetting etching where the whole surface has been attacked.
The material is pure Fe.
Micrograph 7. The attack of the etching reagent may depend on

the chemical composition and may not reveal the crystal
boundaries if there is no sharp change in composition there. This
micrograph shows the inhomogeneous distribution of alloying
elements in a Cu alloy, caused by segregation during dendritic
solidification.
Micrograph 8. The etching reagent may give solid reaction

products which deposit on the surface, usually as a dark or
coloured film. The film sometimes cracks when the specimen is
dried and a pattern of lines may form which has some relation to

the orientation of the crystal. This micrograph is taken on an fcc

Cu-Zn alloy and the horizontal line reveals a coherent twin
boundary.
Micrograph 9. The etching reagent may attack different phases

in different ways. Here the thin white phase has not been
attacked at all. The grey matrix has been attacked and thus there
is now a step at the interfaces between white and grey crystals.
In addition, the grey phase is grey because it contained a hugh
number of very fine particles of a different phase which was not
dissolved and stayed as dirt on the surface. The black phase was
attacked in such a way that a solid reaction product deposited on
the surface. White and black phases are two different alloyed
carbides and the grey phase is martensite which has been
slightly annealed.


larsf@matsc.kth.se

Micrograph 1 (and 2). Most etching reagents attack different phases with different rates and sharp steps
will form at the phase boundaries. In the microscope they will show up as black lines. This micrograph is
taken on an Fe-C alloy containing martensite, ferrite and cementite. Martensite is big white areas. A thin
band of white ferrite is shown vertically. It has been attacked more than the martensite and is thus at a
lower level. Thus the black contours. Cementite is found in a fine mixture with ferrite (so-called
pearlite). Cementite is not at all attacked and should thus look white, also, but it is standing above the
ferrite, which was attacked. The pearlite areas thus appear black when the lines cannot be resolved.
Micrograph 2. This micrograph is taken on the same area as picture 1 but with oblique illumination
coming from the left. It is thus easy to see that the band of ferrite has been attacked more than the
martensite.
http://klara.met.kth.se/ia/free/atlas/1b-ei.html (1 de 3) [26-06-1999 05:08:20 p.m.]

Micrograph 4. The etching reagent may be so sensitive to the orientation of a crystal that some crystals
are hardly attacked at all. This is the case for so-called nital (1 % HNO3 in alcohol) on {100} surfaces of
bcc Fe (ferrite). The white area in the center is a grain of ferrite of this orientation and comparison with
picture 3 reveals that it is a small proeutectoid particle of ferrite which has later developed into pearlite
by collaborating with cementite on its continued growth.
Micrograph 5. Many etching reagents are sensitive to orientation as

well as composition. This micrograph is taken on a single-phase
fcc Cu alloy produced by casting. One can see annealing twins due
to the effect of orientation. The material has thus been deformed
and annealed after casting. One can also see an effect of an uneven
distribution of alloying elements. This is a memory of segregation
occurring during solidification. The annealing has thus been too
short to completely even out composition differences by diffusion.

Micrograph 6. One can apply different etching reagents one

after the other and thus get different etching effects
overlapping. This specimen of a low-carbon steel was first
etched in nital to show ferrite(white) and pearlite(thin black
regions). Then it was etched in a special reagent
(Oberhoffer's etch) in order to reveal the distribution of P,
present as an impurity. A dark reaction product then
deposited on the areas of low P content (large black regions).
It shows that P has segregated strongly during solidification.
Black areas reveal the dendritic pattern of solidification. It is
evident that this steel has not been deformed mechanically.
The shape of the black areas shows that they represent the
first, thin skeleton of dendrites. It is evident that P has had the tendency to remain in the melt, leaving the
first solid to form without much P.

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Go to page: [ Previous ] [ Index ] [ this is the last example page]
cementite(white)+austenite(grey because it has later transformed to various phases which are attacked by
etching). The etching reagent was nital. The cementite has not been attacked at all.
Micrograph 2. Same specimen as in picture 1 but now examined with polarized light. The polarizer and
the analyzer have had crossed positions and an ordinary metallic surface would appear dark. However,
cementite is not cubic. It is thus optically active which means that it rotates the plane of polarization and
some light may thus pass through the analyzer. The strength of this effect is different for different
orientations. One can thus distinguish between various crystals of cementite. It is evident that the fine
eutectic structure has formed by sidewise growth from the long, coarse plates of cementite.
Micrograph 3. This is a specimen of pure Zn,

which is a hexagonal metal. It is thus optically
active and can be examined under polarized
light in the polished condition. Different grains
rotate the polarized light differently. We can
here see that some grains contain thin regions of
http://klara.met.kth.se/ia/free/atlas/1c-ei.html (1 de 3) [26-06-1999 05:09:18 p.m.]

a different orientation. They are mechanical

twins, here formed by a very light deformation.
Micrograph 4. Cubic phases are optically inactive.

However, sometimes they can be examined in polarized
light after the kind of etching which gives a thin layer of a
reaction product if that product is optically active. This
micrograph shows electrolytically oxidized Al. Several
fine grains with a dendritic pattern can be distinguished.
Evidently, this quality of Al had some impurity which
gave rise to dendritic solidification and also to many
nuclei. Two scratches can be seen as thin, crossing lines.
They formed during polishing and show up very well in
this kind of examination.
Micrograph 5. Cubic phases may also rotate the plane of

polarization if the reflection is not at right angle. Such reflection
occurs on the sides of etch pits (see Fig. 1a:4). This is an Fe-C
specimen containing ferrite, in addition to martensite and
cementite. The specimen has been etched in a special reagent
which covers the surface of ferrite with very small etch pits.
They cannot be seen individually but their effect on the plane of
polarization is strong. Some grains of ferrite thus appear white
and some appear dark. We can here see that each grain of ferrite
has two regions, one free of other phases and the other
containing thin lamellae of another phase, which is cementite.
That mixture should thus be regarded as very coarse pearlite. As
with Figs. 1b:3 and 4, we may thus conclude that ferrite grains
may start to grow alone and may later on establish collaboration
with cementite.

Micrograph 6. One can apply different

etching reagents one after the other and
thus get different etching effects
overlapping. This specimen of a
low-carbon steel was first etched in nital
to show ferrite(white) and pearlite(thin
black regions). Then it was etched in a
special reagent (Oberhoffer's etch) in
order to reveal the distribution of P,
present as an impurity. A dark reaction
product then deposited on the areas of low
P content (large black regions). It shows
that P has segregated strongly during
solidification. Black areas reveal the
dendritic pattern of solidification. It is
evident that this steel has not been
deformed mechanically. The shape of the black areas shows that they represent the first, thin skeleton of
dendrites. It is evident that P has had the tendency to remain in the melt, leaving the first solid to form
without much P.
Go to page: [ Previous ] [ Index ] [ this is the last example page]

larsf@matsc.kth.se

Access to The Image Archive at MSE

Stockholm, Sweden.
(To the HomePage of this department . To the HomePage of this Institute .)
På svenska, tack !
Due to the large amount of work put into the WWW-publishing of the Metallographic Atlas, we limit the
full access to registered users only.
To become a registered user, do this:
1. Send us US$10 .
Make sure your payment is accompanied with this ref.nr:
"Atlas 47000-5 1000-9" and your name and address.
Suggested payment methods:
❍ Eurogiro, account nr.1 56 53-9
with Postgirot Bank S-105 06 Stockholm, Sweden.
,include refnr "Atlas 47000-5 1000-9".
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❍ Check made payable to:
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❍ Cash.
2. Send us an email, fax or letter stating:

❍ Name, address, institute etc.
❍ The purpose of your use of the images.
❍ If you want; any preferred username/password.
After having registered your payment we will authorize your use of the Atlas on our Web-server.
The US$10 is a symbolic registration fee only. It does not authorize duplication or publication of the
images or texts. You may use the material in your own education and teaching.
Our address, etc:
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Access to The Image Archive at MSE
att: L.F.Larsson
Brinellvagen 23
S-100 44 Stockholm
Sweden.
Tel: +46 8 790 8386

Fax: +46 8 20 76 81
email: larsf@matsc.kth.se

larsf@matsc.kth.se
http://klara.met.kth.se/ia/free/about_access-e.html (2 de 2) [26-06-1999 05:09:21 p.m.]

Digitala Bildarkivet-exempel
[Föregående index] [In english, please.]
Digitala Bildarkivet vid MSE - KTH

Några vackra exempel:
Här ser du endast miniversioner av bilderna.

Klicka på en minibild för att ladda ner den större bilden.
Om du ställer in din WWW-bläddrare så att den använder ett externt
hjälpprogram för att visa jpeg-filer så kommer du att se bilden i ett
separat fönster och kan ha den tillhörande texten synlig samtidigt.
Klicka på de små symbolerna för att se de riktiga bilderna .
Det här provet av mässing har deformerats efter prepareringen. Vi ser glödgningstvillingar och
glidlinjer som ändrar riktning vid tvillinggränserna.
Det här provet av lågkolhaltigt stål visar det relativt ovanliga fenomenet mekaniska tvillingar i
BCC.
Flera typer martensit, och för martensitbildning karakteristiska fenomen kan observeras i denna
bild. Högkolhaltigt stål.
http://klara.met.kth.se/ia/free/samples/sample-s.html (1 de 2) [26-06-1999 05:09:30 p.m.]

Digitala Bildarkivet-exempel
Här ser vi tydligt hur en fas utskiljts som en bård runt en annan fas. Typiskt för en peritektisk
reaktion.
De här blafforna har uppkommit genom att ett litet cementitkorn lösts upp och kolet vandrat ut i
den vid högre temperatur austenitiska grundmassan. Vid en efterföljande snabb svalning bildades
bl.a. martensit. Värmebehandlingen uppkom pga en punktsvets strax intill.
Vi ser här effekten av varierande underkylning under perlitbildning. Utskiljningen har startat vid
låg temperatur där fin perlit bildas, därefter har temperaturen höjts och lamellerna blivit grövre.
Provet släcktes innan allt omvandlats.
Genom att anpassa etsningen av provet har vi här synliggjort koncentrationsskillnader av ett
segrande ämne. Därigenom ser vi också att detta material stelnade dendritiskt.
Vi har fler bilder. Många fler.

Tala om för oss vilka bilder du kan ha nytta av. Skicka datorpost till:
larsf@matsc.kth.se
http://klara.met.kth.se/ia/free/samples/sample-s.html (2 de 2) [26-06-1999 05:09:30 p.m.]

Image Archive-examples
Image Archive at MSE - KTH

A few examples:
Initially you will see only small versions of the images.

Click on the small image to download the large version.
If you make your WWW-browser use an external program to view
jpeg files you will be able to see the image in a separate window and
have the descriptive text visible at the same time.
Click on the tiny images to view the real ones (19.5 cm wide).
This brass specimen was deformed after the preparation. We see that the slip lines change direction
as they pass the boundarys of the annealing twins.
This low-carbon steel specimen shows mechanical twins in BCC, a low temperature and/or high
deformation rate phenomenon.
Several types of martensite, and characteristic phenomena of martensite formation can be observed
in this image. High carbon steel.
http://klara.met.kth.se/ia/free/samples/sample-e.html (1 de 2) [26-06-1999 05:09:32 p.m.]

Image Archive-examples
Here we clearly can see how a phase has precipitated as a thin layer on another phase. This is
typical of a peritectic reaction.
These blobs developed when a small cementite crystal dissolved and the carbon diffused out into
the austenitic matrix at high temperature. At the following quenching martensite and other phases
formed. The heat treatment was due to a spotweld nearby.
Here we notice the result of varying supercooling during the formation of pearlite. The
precipitation has started at low temperature where the lamellae becomes fine. Then the temperature
has been increased resulting in a more coarse structure. The specimen was quenched before the
pearlite transformation was complete.
By adjusting the etching of the specimen we have made visible the differences in concentration of
a segregating element. This also reveals the fact that this alloy has a dendritic solidification.
We have many more images.

Tell us which images can be useful to You.
Send mail to:
larsf@matsc.kth.se
http://klara.met.kth.se/ia/free/samples/sample-e.html (2 de 2) [26-06-1999 05:09:32 p.m.]

http://klara.met.kth.se/ia/free/images/W3-01/01-005.jpg
http://klara.met.kth.se/ia/free/images/W3-01/01-005.jpg [26-06-1999 05:10:00 p.m.]







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Atlas-index

[Previous index] [På svenska tack]

A Brief Introduction to the Microstructures of Metallic Materials -

Initially you will only see small versions of the images.

Index Alphabetical, 137 entries

Image-number If you want to show the images with an

Examples from If you have never seen the printed version

Last change: 24 of Nov 1996

http://klara.met.kth.se/ia/atlas/superindx-e.html [26-06-1999 02:57:42 p.m.]

The Image Archive

Department of Materials Science and Engineering

Do you have comments or requests; send us e-mail.

http://klara.met.kth.se/ia/index.html (1 de 2) [26-06-1999 02:57:47 p.m.]

Lars Fredrik Larsson

http://klara.met.kth.se/ia/index.html (2 de 2) [26-06-1999 02:57:47 p.m.]

Det Digitala Bildarkivet

Institutionen för Materialvetenskap, KTH.

613 bilder i svartvitt åtföljda av Här finns information

Har du synpunkter eller önskemål , skicka oss e-post.

http://klara.met.kth.se/ia/index-s.html [26-06-1999 02:57:48 p.m.]

[Föregående index] [In english, please.]

En kort introduktion till de metalliska materialens mikrostruktur -

Här ser du endast miniversioner av bilderna.

Index Alfabetiskt register

Bild-nummer Om du vill visa utvalda bilder med en

Exempel från den Om Du aldrig sett den tryckta

Last change: 24 of Nov 1996

http://klara.met.kth.se/ia/atlas/superindx-s.html [26-06-1999 02:57:51 p.m.]

Föregående index Till sid. 1a

Last change: 29 of February 1996

http://klara.met.kth.se/ia/atlas/forord-s.html [26-06-1999 02:57:53 p.m.]

[Föregående index] [In english please]

❍ b) Tvillingbildning vid kristallisation

❍ b) Tillväxt vid rekristallisation.

❍ b) Martensit i andra legeringar.

http://klara.met.kth.se/ia/atlas/indx-s.html (1 de 3) [26-06-1999 02:57:57 p.m.]

❍ b) Porbildning vid stelning.

http://klara.met.kth.se/ia/atlas/indx-s.html (2 de 3) [26-06-1999 02:57:57 p.m.]

❍ d) Segring i ternära system

❍ b) Vitt gjutjärn, fortsättning.

Last change: 17 of July 1996

http://klara.met.kth.se/ia/atlas/indx-s.html (3 de 3) [26-06-1999 02:57:57 p.m.]

[Previous index] [På svenska tack]

❍ a) Etching methods to make the microstructure

❍ b) Formation of twins during crystallization from a

http://klara.met.kth.se/ia/atlas/indx-e.html (2 de 5) [26-06-1999 02:58:02 p.m.]

❍ d) Special effects of grain boundaries on

http://klara.met.kth.se/ia/atlas/indx-e.html (3 de 5) [26-06-1999 02:58:02 p.m.]

❍ a) Peritectic and peritectoid reactions

Last change: 17 of July 1996

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Previous index To page 1a

Last change: 29 of February 1996

http://klara.met.kth.se/ia/atlas/forord-e.html [26-06-1999 02:58:04 p.m.]

Go to page: [Previous] [Index] [Next]

1a. Etching methods to make the microstructure

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Last change: 30 of Oct 1996

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