Ancient Egyptian

architecture

Spanning over three thousand years, ancient Egypt was not one stable civilization but in constant
change and upheaval, commonly split into periods by historians. Likewise, ancient Egyptian
architecture is not one style, but a set of styles differing over time but with some commonalities.
 Ancient Egyptian architecture

Top: Great Pyramid of Giza (c. 2589-2566 BC); Centre: Columns of the Great Hypostyle Hall from the
Temple of Karnak (c. 1294-1213 BC); Bottom: Temple of Isis from Philae (c. 380 BC-117 AD)

Years active c. 3100 BC-300 AD

The best known example of ancient Egyptian architecture are the Egyptian pyramids, while
excavated temples, palaces, tombs, and fortresses have also been studied. Most buildings were
built of locally available mud brick and limestone by levied workers. Monumental buildings were
built using the post and lintel method of construction. Many buildings were aligned astronomically.
Columns were typically adorned with capitals decorated to resemble plants important to Egyptian
civilization, such as the papyrus plant.

Ancient Egyptian architectural motifs have influenced architecture elsewhere, reaching the wider
world first during the Orientalizing period and again during the nineteenth- century Egyptomania.
Characteristics

Winged sun on a cavetto from the Medinet Habu temple complex. The winged sun represents a form
of the falcon god Horus, son of Isis, triumphant over his enemies. The image was also a common
protective device over temple entrances

The well preserved Temple of Isis from Philae (Egypt), with a pylon (a monumental gate of an
Egyptian temple)

Due to the scarcity of wood,[1] the two predominant building materials used in ancient Egypt were
sun- baked mud brick and stone, mainly limestone, but also sandstone and granite in considerable
quantities.[2] From the Old Kingdom onward, stone was generally reserved for tombs and temples,
while bricks were used even for royal palaces, fortresses, the walls of temple precincts and
towns, and for subsidiary buildings in temple complexes. The core of the pyramids consisted of
locally quarried stone, mud bricks, sand or gravel. For the casing, stones were used that had to be
transported from farther away, predominantly white limestone from Tura and red granite from
upper Egypt.

Ancient Egyptian houses were made out of mud collected from the damp banks of the Nile river. It
was placed in moulds and left to dry in the hot sun to harden for use in construction. If the bricks
were intended to be used in a royal tomb like a pyramid, the exterior bricks would also be finely
chiselled and polished.

Many Egyptian towns have disappeared because they were situated near the cultivated area of
the Nile Valley and were flooded as the river bed slowly rose during the millennia, or the mud
bricks and sun- dried brick of which they were built were used by peasants as fertilizer. Others are
inaccessible, new buildings having been erected on ancient ones. However, the dry, hot climate of
Egypt preserved some mud brick structures. Examples include the village Deir al- Madinah, the
Middle Kingdom town at Kahun,[3] and the fortresses at Buhen[4] and Mirgissa. Also, many temples
and tombs have survived because they were built on high ground unaffected by the Nile flood and
were constructed of stone.

Thus, our understanding of ancient Egyptian architecture is based mainly on religious

monuments,[5] massive structures characterized by thick, sloping walls with few openings,
possibly echoing a method of construction used to obtain stability in mud walls. In a similar
manner, the incised and flatly modeled surface adornment of the stone buildings may have
derived from mud wall ornamentation. Although the use of the arch was developed during the
fourth dynasty, all monumental buildings are post and lintel constructions, with flat roofs
constructed of huge stone blocks supported by the external walls and the closely spaced
columns.

Exterior and interior walls, as well as the columns and piers, were covered with hieroglyphic and
pictorial frescoes and carvings painted in brilliant colors.[6] Many motifs of Egyptian
ornamentation are symbolic, such as the scarab, or sacred beetle, the solar disk, and the vulture.
Other common motifs include palm leaves, the papyrus plant, and the buds and flowers of the
lotus.[7] Hieroglyphs were inscribed for decorative purposes as well as to record historic events
or spells. In addition, these pictorial frescoes and carvings allow us to understand how the
Ancient Egyptians lived, statuses, wars that were fought, and their beliefs. This was especially
true in recent years when exploring the tombs of Ancient Egyptian officials.
Ancient Egyptian temples were aligned with astronomically significant events, such as solstices
and equinoxes, requiring precise measurements at the moment of the particular event.
Measurements at the most significant temples may have been ceremonially undertaken by the
Pharaoh himself.[8][9]

Columns

Illustrations of various types of capitals, circa 1849–1859, drawn by the egyptologist Karl Richard
Lepsius

Illustrations of papyriform capitals, in The Grammar of Ornament

Illustration of other nine types of capitals, from The Grammar of Ornament

Columns with Hathoric capitals, at the Temple of Isis from island Philae
 Papyriform columns in the Luxor Temple

As early as 2600 BC the architect Imhotep made use of stone columns whose surface was
carved to reflect the organic form of bundled reeds, like papyrus, lotus and palm; in later Egyptian
architecture faceted cylinders were also common. Their form is thought to derive from archaic
reed- built shrines. Carved from stone, the columns were highly decorated with carved and painted
hieroglyphs, texts, ritual imagery and natural motifs. Egyptian columns are famously present in the
Great Hypostyle Hall of Karnak (circa 1224 BC), where 134 columns are lined up in 16 rows, with
some columns reaching heights of 24 metres.

One of the most important type are the papyriform columns. The origin of these columns goes
back to the 5th Dynasty. They are composed of lotus (papyrus) stems which are drawn together
into a bundle decorated with bands: the capital, instead of opening out into the shape of a
bellflower, swells out and then narrows again like a flower in bud. The base, which tapers to take
the shape of a half- sphere like the stem of the lotus, has a continuously recurring decoration of
stipules. At the Luxor Temple, the columns are reminiscent of papyrus bundles, perhaps symbolic
of the marsh from which the ancient Egyptians believed the creation of the world to have unfolded.

Giza pyramid complex

The Giza Necropolis stands on the Giza Plateau, on the outskirts of Cairo, Egypt. This complex of
ancient monuments is located some 8 kilometers (5 mi) inland into the desert from the old town
of Giza on the Nile, some 20 kilometers (12 mi) southwest of Cairo city center. This ancient
Egyptian necropolis consists of the Pyramid of Khufu (also known as the Great Pyramid or the
Pyramid of Cheops), the somewhat smaller Pyramid of Khafre (or Kephren/Chefren), and the
relatively modest- sized Pyramid of Menkaure (or Mykerinus/Mycerinus), along with a number of
smaller satellite edifices, known as "queens" pyramids, the Great Sphinx as well as a few hundred
mastabas and chapels.[10]

The three main pyramids at Giza, together with subsidiary pyramids and the remains of other structures at the Giza
pyramid complex

The pyramids, which were built in the Fourth Dynasty, testify to the power of the pharaonic religion
and state. They were built to serve both as grave sites and also as a way to make their names last
forever.[11] The size and simple design show the high skill level of Egyptian design and
engineering on a large scale.[11] The Great Pyramid of Giza, which was probably completed c.
2580 BC, is the oldest of the Giza pyramids and the largest pyramid in the world, and is the only
surviving monument of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.[12] The pyramid of Khafre is
believed to have been completed around 2532 BC, at the end of Khafre's reign.[13] Khafre
ambitiously placed his pyramid next to his father's. It is not as tall as his father's pyramid but he
was able to give it the impression of appearing taller by building it on a site with a foundation 33
feet (10 m) higher than his father's.[13] Along with building his pyramid, Chefren commissioned the
building of the giant Sphinx as guardian over his tomb. The face of a human, possibly a depiction
of the pharaoh, on a lion's body was seen as a symbol of divinity among the Greeks fifteen
hundred years later.[11] The Great Sphinx is carved out of the limestone bedrock and stands about
65 feet (20 m) tall.[11] Menkaure's pyramid dates to circa 2490 BC and stands 213 feet (65 m) high
making it the smallest of the Great Pyramids.[14]

Popular culture leads people to believe that Pyramids are highly confusing, with many tunnels
within the pyramid to create confusion for grave robbers. This is not true. The shafts of pyramids
are quite simple, mostly leading directly to the tomb. The immense size of the pyramids attracted
robbers to the wealth that lay inside which caused the tombs to be robbed relatively soon after
the tomb was sealed in some cases.[11] There are sometimes additional tunnels, but these were
used for the builders to understand how far they could dig the tomb into the crust of the Earth.
Also, it is popularly thought that due to grave robbers, future kings were buried in the Valley of the
Kings to help keep them hidden. This is also false, as the pyramid construction continued for
many dynasties, just on a smaller scale. Finally, the pyramid construction was stopped due to
economic factors, not theft.

New Kingdom Temples

Luxor Temple

Entrance to Luxor Temple

The Luxor Temple is a huge ancient Egyptian temple complex located on the east bank of the
River Nile in the city today known as Luxor (ancient Thebes). Construction work on the temple
began during the reign of Amenhotep III in the 14th century BC. Horemheb and Tutankhamun
added columns, statues, and friezes – and Akhenaten had earlier obliterated his father's
cartouches and installed a shrine to the Aten – but the only major expansion effort took place
under Ramesses II some 100 years after the first stones were put in place. Luxor is thus unique
among the main Egyptian temple complexes in having only two pharaohs leave their mark on its
architectural structure.
Hypostyle hall of Karnak Temple. Pictured is the largest precinct of the temple complex, dedicated to Amun-Re. The
columns are of sandstone.

The temple proper begins with the 24 m (79 ft) high First Pylon, built by Ramesses II. The pylon
was decorated with scenes of Ramesses's military triumphs (particularly the Battle of Qadesh);
later pharaohs, particularly those of the Kushite dynasty, also recorded their victories there. This
main entrance to the temple complex was originally flanked by six colossal statues of
Ramesses – four seated, and two standing – but only two (both seated) have survived. Modern
visitors can also see a 25 m (82 ft) tall pink granite obelisk: this one of a matching pair until 1835,
when the other one was taken to Paris where it now stands in the centre of the Place de la
Concorde.

Through the pylon gateway leads into a peristyle courtyard, also built by Ramesses II. This area,
and the pylon, were built at an oblique angle to the rest of the temple, presumably to
accommodate the three pre- existing barque shrines located in the northwest corner. After the
peristyle courtyard comes the processional colonnade built by Amenhotep III – a 100 m (330 ft)
corridor lined by 14 papyrus- capital columns. Friezes on the wall describe the stages in the Opet
Festival, from sacrifices at Karnak at the top left, through Amun's arrival at Luxor at the end of that
wall, and concluding with his return on the opposite side. The decorations were put in place by
Tutankhamun: the boy pharaoh is depicted, but his names have been replaced with those of
Horemheb.

Beyond the colonnade is a peristyle courtyard, which also dates back to Amenhotep's original
construction. The best preserved columns are on the eastern side, where some traces of original
color can be seen. The southern side of this courtyard is made up of a 36- column hypostyle court
(i.e., a roofed space supported by columns) that leads into the dark inner rooms of the temple.

Temple of Karnak

Example of inscriptions present throughout the complex. The upper regions are painted, suggesting (in canon with
other such temples) that the remaining columns and ceilings would have been brightly painted. The temple roof,
representing the heavens,[15] often bore images of stars and birds, while the columns often bore images of palms,
lotuses, and people.

The temple complex of Karnak is located on the banks of the Nile River some 2.5 kilometers (1.5
miles) north of Luxor. It consists of four main parts, Precinct of Amon- Re, the Precinct of Montu,
the Precinct of Mut and the Temple of Amenhotep IV (dismantled), as well as a few smaller
temples and sanctuaries located outside the enclosing walls of the four main parts, and several
avenues of ram- headed sphinxes connecting the Precinct of Mut, the Precinct of Amon- Re and
Luxor Temple. This temple complex is particularly significant, for many rulers have added to it.
However, notably every ruler of the New Kingdom added to it. The site covers over 200 acres (80
hectares) and consists of a series of pylons, leading into courtyards, halls, chapels, obelisks, and
smaller temples. The key difference between Karnak and most of the other temples and sites in
Egypt is the length of time over which it was developed and used. Construction work began in the
16th century BC, and was originally quite modest in size, but eventually, in the main precinct alone,
as many as twenty temples and chapels would be constructed.[16] Approximately 30 pharaohs
contributed to the buildings, enabling it to reach a size, complexity and diversity not seen
elsewhere. Few of the individual features of Karnak are unique, but the size and number of those
features are overwhelming.

Recreation of the temple complex, at Karnak visitor center

One of the greatest temples in Egyptian history is that of Amun- Ra at Karnak. As with many other
temples in Egypt, this one details the feats of the past (including thousands of years of history
detailed via inscriptions on many of the walls and columns found on site, often modified or
completely erased and redone by following rulers), and honors the gods. The temple of Amun- Re
was constructed in three sections, the third being constructed by the later New Kingdom
pharaohs. In canon with the traditional style of Egyptian architecture, many of the architectural
features, such as the inner sanctum of the complex, were aligned with the sunset of the summer
solstice.

One of the architectural features present at the site is the 5,000 sq m (50,000 sq ft) hypostyle hall
built during the Ramesside period. The hall is supported by approximately 139 sandstone and
mud brick columns, with 12 central columns (25 meters\69 feet tall) that would have all been
brightly painted.

Ramesseum
Ramesses' mortuary temple adheres to standard New Kingdom temple-architecture style. Oriented northwest to
southeast, the temple entrance comprises a number of stone figures, one located horizontally to the next. At center of
the complex was a covered 48-column hypostyle hall, surrounding the inner sanctuary.

Ramesses II, a 19th Dynasty pharaoh, ruled Egypt from around 1279 to 1213 BCE. Among his
many accomplishments, such as the expansion of Egypt's borders, he constructed a massive
temple called the Ramesseum, located near Thebes, then the capital of the New Kingdom. The
Ramesseum was a magnificent temple, complete with monumental statues to guard its entrance.
The most impressive was a 62- foot- tall statue of Ramses himself.[17] The base and torso are all
that remain of this impressive statue of the enthroned pharaoh; thus its original dimensions and
weight (approximately 1,000 tons) are based on estimates. The temple features impressive
reliefs, many detailing a number of Ramses' military victories, such as the Battle of Kadesh (ca.
1274 BCE) and the pillaging of the city of "Shalem".

Temple of Malkata

Under the tenure of Amenhotep III workers constructed over 250 buildings and monuments. One
of the most impressive building projects was the temple complex of Malkata, known among the
ancient Egyptians as the “house of rejoicing”, was constructed to serve his royal residence on the
west bank of Thebes, just south of the Theban necropolis. The site is approximately 226,000
square meters (or 2,432,643 square feet).[18] Given the immense size of the site, along with its
many buildings, courts, parade grounds, and housing, it is considered to have served not just as a
temple and dwelling of the Pharaoh but a town.

The central area of the complex consisted in the Pharaoh's apartments that were made up of a
number of rooms and courts, all of which were oriented around a columned banquet hall.
Accompanying the apartments, that presumably housed the royal cohort and foreign guests, was a
large throne room connected to smaller chambers, for storage, waiting, and smaller audiences.
The greater elements of this area of the complex are what have been come to be called the West
Villas (just west of the King's Palace), the North Palace and Village, and Temple.
The faience (glazed ceramic earthenware) tile (above) is a reconstruction of wall decoration fragments found at the
Temple of Malkata in stacks at the southwest corner.[19] The gold spirals here were painted with gold paint, whereas
the originals would have probably been covered by gold foil. Notably, similar patterns are found in the Pharaoh's
Palace.[19]

The temple's external dimensions are approximately 183.5 by 110.5 m, and consists of two parts:
the large forecourt and the temple proper.[18] The large front court is 131.5 by 105.5 m, oriented on
the east–west axis, and occupies the east part of the temple complex.[18] The western part of the
court is on a higher level and is divided from the rest of the court by a low retaining wall. The
lower court is almost square, whereas the upper terrace was rectangular in shape. The upper
section of the court was paved with mud bricks and has a 4 m wide entrance to it from the lower
part of the fore- court, connecting the base to the upper landing was a ramp enclosed by walls.[18]
This ramp and entrance were both at the center of the temple, with the same orientation as the
front court entrance and the temple proper.

The temple proper might be seen as divided in to three distinct parts: central, north, and south. The
central part is indicated by a small rectangular anteroom (6.5 by 3.5 m), many of the door jambs
including those of the antechamber include inscriptions, such as 'given life like Ra forever'.[18] A
12.5 by 14.5 m hall follows the anteroom from which is entered via a 3.5 m wide door in the center
of the front wall of the hall. There is evidence the ceiling of this chamber was decorated with
yellow stars on blue background, whereas the walls today show only the appearance of a white
stucco over mud plaster.[18] Notwithstanding, we might speculate given the numerous decorative
plaster fragments found within the room's deposit that these too were ornately decorated with
various images and patterns. Supporting the ceiling are six columns arranged in two rows with
east–west axis. Only small fragments of the column bases have survived, though they suggest
the diameter of these columns to have been about 2.25 m.[18] The columns are placed 2.5 m away
from the walls and in each row the columns are approximately 1.4 m away from the next, while the
space between the two rows is 3 m.[18] A second hall (12.5 by 10 m[18]) is accessed by a 3 m door
at the center of the back wall of the first. The second hall is similar to the first, first its ceiling
seems to have been decorated with similar if not identical patterns and images as the first.
Second, in the same way the ceiling is supported by columns, four to be precise, ordered in two
rows on the same axis as those of the first hall, with a 3 m wide space between them. In hall two,
at- least one of the rooms appears to have been dedicated to the cult of Maat, which suggests the
other three in this area might have likewise served such a religious purpose.[18]

The southern part of the temple may be divided into two sections: western and southern. The
western section consists of 6 rooms, whereas the southern area given its size (19.5 by 17.2 m)
suggests it might have served as another open court. In many of these rooms were found blue
ceramic tiles inlaid with gold around their edge.[18] The Northern part of the temple proper
consists of ten rooms, similar in style to those of the southern.

The temple itself seems to have been dedicated to the Egyptian deity Amun, given the number of
bricks stamped with various inscriptions, such as "the temple of Amun in the house of Rejoicing"
or "Nebmaarta in the Temple of Amun in the house of Rejoicing". Overall the temple of Malakata
shares many with other cult temples of the New Kingdom, with magnificent halls and religiously
oriented rooms with many others more closely resemble store rooms.[20]

Ancient Egyptian fortresses

Fortifications within Ancient Egypt were built in times of conflict between rival principalities.[21]
Out of all fortresses analyzed within this time frame, most (if not all) were built of the same
materials. The only exception to the rule were some fortresses from the Old Kingdom as
fortresses such as the fort of Buhen utilized stone with the creation of its walls. The main walls
were mainly built with mud brick but were reinforced with other materials such as timber. Rocks
were also utilized to not only preserve them from erosion as well as paving.[21] Secondary walls
would be built outside of fortresses main walls and were relatively close to one another. As a
result, this would prove to be a challenge to invaders were as they forced to destroy this
fortification before they could reach the main walls of the fort.[22] Another strategy was utilized if
the enemy managed to break through the first barrier. Upon making it to the main wall, a ditch
would be constructed that would be positioned between the secondary and first walls. The
purpose of this was to place the enemy in a position that would leave them exposed to the
enemy, making the invaders susceptible to arrow fire.[22] The position of this ditch walls within the
interior of fortresses would become demilitarized during times of unity; leading to them being
demolished. The parts that were used to construct said walls could then be reused, making the
overall design extremely beneficial.

Fortresses within ancient Egypt held multiple functions. During the Middle Kingdom Period, the
Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt would establish means of control throughout the Nubian Riverside by
creating fortified stations. The location of Egyptian fortresses were not exclusive to just the
riverside. Sites within both Egypt and Nubia would be placed on terrain that was either rocky or
sandy.[22] The purpose behind this method was to spread its influence throughout the region as
well as discourage rival groups from raiding the sites.[21] Inspections of these forts in Nubia have
led to the discovery of copper smelting materials, which suggest a relationship between miners
in the region.[21] The occupation of these Nubian forts suggests a trade relationship between the
two parties. Miners would collect the materials and would transfer them to these forts in
exchange for food and water. Up until the Thirteenth dynasty, Egypt would hold control of Nubia
through the use of these fortresses.[21]

Pelusium Fortress

The Pelusium fortress served as means of protection from invaders coming towards the Nile
Delta.[23] While the site served this role for more than a millennium, Pelusium was also known for
being a center of trade (both land and maritime). Trade was primarily conducted between Egypt
and the Levant.[23] While information is not concrete in terms of the fortresses establishment, it is
suggested that Pelusium was erected during either the Middle Kingdom period or during the Saite
and Persian periods from the 16th and 18th century.[23] Pelusium is also seen as an integral part
of the Nile as other ruins were found outside its borders, indicating that the area was large in
occupation. Architecturally, structures of Pelusium (such as its gates and towers) appear to be
built from limestone. A metallurgy industry is also indicated to have taken place at this site due to
the discovery of copper- ore.[23] Excavations of the site have also discovered older materials that
date back some of the early dynasties. The found materials include basalt, granite, diorite, marble,
and quartzite.[23] How these materials were utilized during the operation of is unclear as they may
have been placed at the location more recently.[23] Seeing as the fortress was placed in close
proximity to the Nile River, the fort was largely surrounded by both dunes and coastal lines.[23]
There are multiple reasons that caused the decline of the Pelusium fortress. During its existence,
events such as the Bubonic Plague appeared in the Mediterranean for the first time and multiple
fires within the fortress occurred.[23] Conquest from the Persians as well as a decrease in trade
could also be attributed to the increase also may have led to an increase in abandonment.
Officially, natural reasons are what led to Pelusium falling apart such as tectonic motions.[23] The
official desertion of the site is attributed to the time of the crusades.[23]

Fortress of Jaffa

Jaffa Fortress was prominent during the New Kingdom period of Egypt. It served as both a
fortress and a port on the Mediterranean coast. To this day, Jaffa serves as a primary Egyptian
port.[24] Originally under the control of the Canaanites, the site fell under the control of the Egyptian
Empire. Because of a lack of evidence, it is unclear as to what exactly caused the succession
from Canaanite to Egyptian occupation.[24] During the Late Bronze Age, the site was successfully
in holding campaigns from Pharaohs of the 18th dynasty.[24] In terms of its functions, the site held
multiple roles. It is suggested that Jaffa's primary function was to serve as a granary for the
Egyptian Army.

Rameses gate, which is dated to the Late Bronze Age, serves as a connection to the fortress.
Ramparts were also discovered with the fortress Upon excavation, the site hosted multiple items
such as bowls, imported jars, pot stands, and beer and bread which further emphasizes the
importance of these items to the area.[24] The discovery of these objects show a close
connection between the storing of food and the creation of ceramic items.[24]

Mastabas

Mastabat al-Fir’aun, where king Shepseskaf was buried, made of red sandstone, pink granite and Tura limestone
Mastabas are burial tombs that hold royal significance. As chosen by Egyptian rulers, many of the
tombs found throughout time were located along the Nile river.[25] The structural exterior regarding
Mastabas varies throughout history but there is a noticeable evolution of the course of Egyptian
dynasties. The mastabas of the First Egyptian Dynasty would be created through the use of
stepped bricks.[26] The design would then evolve by the time of the Fourth Dynasty as the
structural exterior change from brick to stone.[26] The reasoning behind the stepped designs of
mastabas is connected to the idea of "accession".[26] Lateral penetration was a concern in when
constructing tombs. In order to prevent damage to the structure, brickwork layers were placed
around the base of structure.[26] Mastabas from the old empire, took upon a pyramid design
structure.[25] This design was largely reserved for rulers, such as the king, and his family as a
means for burial.[25] Other design characteristics regarding mastabas from the old empire include
having rectangular outlines, walls that were slanted, which were made of stone and brick
materials, and having the axis of a building run both North and South.[25] Multiple elements make
up the interior of mastabas such as an offering chamber, statues for the dead, and a vault beneath
which held sarcophagi.[25] By the end of the old Empire, the usage of these tombs were
abandoned.

Gardens

Three types of gardens are attested from ancient Egypt: temple gardens, private gardens, and
vegetable gardens. Some temples, such as those at Deir el- Bahri, were provided with groves and
trees, especially the sacred Ished Tree (Persea). Private pleasure gardens are known from an
11th Dynasty tomb model of Meketra, and from tomb decoration of the New Kingdom. They were
typically surrounded by a high wall, planted with trees and flowers, and provided with shady areas.
Plants were cultivated for fruits and fragrance. Flowers included cornflowers,[27] poppies and
daisies, while the pomegranate, introduced in the New Kingdom, became a popular shrub. The
gardens of wealthier individuals were arranged around an ornamental pool for fish, waterfowl and
water- lilies. Vegetable plots, whether privately owned or belonging to temples, were laid out in
squares divided by water channels, and located close to the Nile. They were irrigated by hand, or
(from the late 18th Dynasty) by means of the shaduf.
Model of Meketra's house and garden from his tomb at Thebes, which consists of a shady grove of
trees surrounding a central garden; circa 1981–1975 BC; painted wood and copper; height: 39.5 cm
(159⁄16 in.); Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)

Architectural drawing of a garden, on a writing board; circa 1550–1295 BC; plastered and painted
wood; height: 23.5 cm (91⁄4 in.); Metropolitan Museum of Art
 Brickmakers getting water from a pool; circa 1479–1425 BC; tempera on paper; from the tomb of
Rekhmire; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Fresco which depicts the pool in Nebamun's estate garden; circa 1350 BC; painted plaster; height:
64 cm (maxim); British Museum (London)

Transformation and later use

The Abu Haggag Mosque is integrated into the pharaonic era 14th century BC Egyptian Luxor temple, which has made

it the oldest continously used temple structure worldwide

With the rise of ancient Roman and Coptic culture elements of ancient Egyptian architecture was
integrated and transformed as evident in Egyptian churches and later mosques.

The White Monastery, as well as the nearby Red Monastery are early coptic examples with ancient egyptian style
elements

Modern use

In the 19th and 20th century Egyptian architecture was used for modern architecture, giving rise to
Egyptian Revival architecture and later particularly Egyptian Theater cinemas and other themed
entertainment places.
The Washington Monument, a modern monument in Egyptian obelisk style.

See also

Art of ancient Egypt

Center for Documentation of Cultural and Natural Heritage

Edfu

Egyptian pyramid construction techniques

Egyptian Revival architecture

Egyptian revival decorative arts

List of ancient Egyptian sites

Medinet Habu

Urban planning in ancient Egypt

Coptic architecture

Notes and references

1. R. G. Blakemore, History of Interior Design and Furniture: From Ancient Egypt to Nineteenth-Century
 Europe, John Wiley and Sons 1996, p.100

2. Blakemore, 1996, p.107

3. W. M. Flinders Petrie, Kahun, Gurob, and Hawara, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner, and Co., London 1890

4. Charles Gates, Ancient Cities: The Archaeology of Urban Life in the Ancient Near East and Egypt,
Greece and Rome, Routledge 2003, p.101

5. Dieter Arnold, Byron Esely Shafer Temples of Ancient Egypt, I.B.Tauris, 2005

6. Blakemore, 1996, pp.107ff.

7. Arnold, 2005, pp.204ff

8. "Ancient Egyptian temples aligned with astronomical events". New Scientist. 203 (2724): 7. September
2009. doi:10.1016/S0262-4079(09)62307-1 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0262-4079%2809%2962307
-1) .

9. Belmonte, Juan Antonio; Shaltout, Mosalam (August 2010). "Keeping Ma'at: An astronomical approach
to the orientation of the temples in ancient Egypt". Advances in Space Research. 46 (4): 532–539.
Bibcode:2010AdSpR..46..532B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010AdSpR..46..532B) .
doi:10.1016/j.asr.2009.03.033 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.asr.2009.03.033) .

10. Winston, Alan. "An overview of the Giza Plateau in Egypt" (http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/giz
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11. Reich, Lawrence S. Cunningham, John J. (2010). Culture and values : a survey of the humanities
(7th ed.). Boston, MA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-495-56877-3.

12. "The 7 Wonders of the Ancient World" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110808170642/http://library.thi

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13. Lehner, Mark. "The Pyramid of Khafre" (http://puffin.creighton.edu/museums/cohagan/giza_khafre.h

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26 July 2011.

14. "Pyramid of Mankaure" (https://web.archive.org/web/20111002191314/http://www.nationalgeographi

c.com/pyramids/menkaure.html) . National Geographic: Egypt. National Geographic Society.
Archived from the original (http://www.nationalgeographic.com/pyramids/menkaure.html) on 2
October 2011. Retrieved 26 July 2011.

15. Gulio, Magli (2013). Architecture, Astronomy and Sacred Landscape in Ancient Egypt. Cambridge
University Press.

16. Wilkinson, R. (2000). The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt (https://archive.org/details/completete

mplesa00wilk_507) . New York, Thames & Hudson. pp. 154 (https://archive.org/details/completetem
plesa00wilk_507/page/n154) . ISBN 978-0-500-05100-9.
17. Dieter, Arnold (2003). The encyclopaedia of ancient Egyptian architecture (https://archive.org/details/
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a00diet/page/196) . ISBN 1-86064-465-1.

18. Koltsida, Aikaterini (2007). "A Dark Spot in Ancient Egyptian Architecture: The Temple of Malkata".
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Further reading

Arnold, Dieter. The encyclopedia of ancient Egyptian architecture. Cairo: American University in
Cairo Press, 2003.

Fletcher, Banister; Cruickshank, Dan, Sir Banister Fletcher's a History of Architecture,

Architectural Press, 20th edition, 1996 (first published 1896). ISBN 0- 7506- 2267- 9. Cf. Part
One, Chapter 3.

Hill, Marsha (2007). Gifts for the gods: images from Egyptian temples (http://libmma.contentd
m.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15324coll10/id/74020) . New York: The Metropolitan
Museum of Art. ISBN 978- 1- 58839- 231- 2.

Belmonte, Juan Antonio; Shaltout, Mosalam; Fekri, Magdi (2009). "Astronomy, landscape and
symbolism: a study of the orientation of ancient Egyptian temples". In Belmonte, Juan Antonio;
Shaltout, M. A. Mosalam (eds.). In Search of Cosmic Order: Selected Essays on Egyptian
Archaeoastronomy. Supreme Council of Antiquities Press. pp. 213–284.
Bibcode:2009iscc.book..213B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009iscc.book..213B) .
ISBN 978- 977- 479- 483- 4.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ancient Egyptian architecture.

AEgArOn - Ancient Egyptian Architecture Online, open source project (https://web.archive.org/w

eb/20130608025015/http://dai.aegaron.ucla.edu/)

Portals:  Ancient Egypt  Architecture

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