LAB REPORT

Fluid Mechanics Lab

Submitted To:
Sir Zubair Sheikh
Submitted By:
Muhammad Furqan
2021-ME-16
Section A

University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore

 Table of Contents
Experiment no 8
Objectives ................................................................................................................................... 6
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 6
Total Energy loss ........................................................................................................................ 6
Darcy-Weisbach coefficient (f) ................................................................................................... 6
Significance of f .......................................................................................................................... 6
Theory ........................................................................................................................................6
Laminar Flow ............................................................................................................................. 7
Turbulent flow ............................................................................................................................ 7
Methodology............................................................................................................................... 7
Apparatus....................................................................................................................................7
Experimental Setup ..................................................................................................................... 8
Pipe friction Apparatus ........................................................................................................8
Water over mercury manometers .........................................................................................8
Hoffman Clamps .................................................................................................................8
High and low flow rates.......................................................................................................8
Flow control ........................................................................................................................8
Air bleeding valve ...............................................................................................................8
Procedure ....................................................................................................................................9
High Flow Rate Experiment ................................................................................................9
Low Flow Rate Experiment ............................................................................................... 10
Observations and Calculations .................................................................................................. 10
Table ................................................................................................................................. 10
Graph ................................................................................................................................ 11
Results and Discussions ............................................................................................................ 11
Conclusions .............................................................................................................................. 11
Experiment No 9
Objectives ................................................................................................................................. 12
Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 12
Meta-center and Meta-centric height ......................................................................................... 12
Archimedes Principle ................................................................................................................ 12
Buoyancy force ......................................................................................................................... 12
Floating and Immersed bodies ................................................................................................... 12
Restoring Moment .................................................................................................................... 12
Stability of floating or immersed bodies .................................................................................... 13
Theory ...................................................................................................................................... 13
Experimentally .......................................................................................................................... 13
Disturbing moment ............................................................................................................ 13
Restoring moment ............................................................................................................. 13
Equilibrium ....................................................................................................................... 13
Theoretically ............................................................................................................................. 13
Methodology............................................................................................................................. 13
Apparatus.................................................................................................................................. 13
Procedure .................................................................................................................................. 14
Observations and Calculations .................................................................................................. 14
Table ................................................................................................................................. 14
Graph ................................................................................................................................ 15
Results and Discussions ............................................................................................................ 15
Conclusions .............................................................................................................................. 15
Experiment No 10
Objectives ................................................................................................................................. 16
Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 16
Vortex....................................................................................................................................... 16
Types ........................................................................................................................................ 16
Free vortex ........................................................................................................................ 16
Forced Vortex ................................................................................................................... 16
Significance .............................................................................................................................. 16
Effects ...................................................................................................................................... 16
Theory ...................................................................................................................................... 17
Methodology............................................................................................................................. 17
Apparatus.................................................................................................................................. 17
Experimental setup .................................................................................................................... 18
Measurements of the apparatus .......................................................................................... 18
Surface profile determination ............................................................................................ 18
Vortex creation .................................................................................................................. 18
Determining the coordinates of forced vortex profiles........................................................ 18
Procedure .................................................................................................................................. 19
Positioning of bushed plug ................................................................................................ 19
Adjustment of the valve ..................................................................................................... 19
Fluctuation of water level .................................................................................................. 19
 Measurements of vortex surface profile ............................................................................. 19
Finding the angular velocity .............................................................................................. 19
Increase the angular velocity ............................................................................................. 19
Observations and calculations ................................................................................................... 20
Table 1 .............................................................................................................................. 20
Graph 1 ............................................................................................................................. 20
Table 2 .............................................................................................................................. 21
Graph 2 ............................................................................................................................. 21
Table 3 .............................................................................................................................. 21
Graph 3 ............................................................................................................................. 22
Table 4 .............................................................................................................................. 22
Graph 4 ............................................................................................................................. 22
Results and discussions ............................................................................................................. 22
Conclusions .............................................................................................................................. 23
Experiment No 11
Objectives ................................................................................................................................. 24
Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 24
Vortex....................................................................................................................................... 24
Types ........................................................................................................................................ 24
Free vortex ........................................................................................................................ 24
Forced Vortex ................................................................................................................... 24
Significance .............................................................................................................................. 24
Effects ...................................................................................................................................... 24
Theory ...................................................................................................................................... 25
Methodology............................................................................................................................. 26
Apparatus.................................................................................................................................. 26
Experimental setup .................................................................................................................... 26
Measurements of the apparatus .......................................................................................... 26
Surface profile determination ............................................................................................ 26
Vortex creation .................................................................................................................. 26
Determining the coordinates of free vortex profiles ........................................................... 26
Procedure .................................................................................................................................. 27
Positioning of apparatus .................................................................................................... 27
Adjustment of the feet ....................................................................................................... 27
Pushing the orifice ............................................................................................................. 27
Connection of inlet pipe .................................................................................................... 27
 Closing the apparatus outlet global valve ........................................................................... 27
Closing the bench outlet valve ........................................................................................... 27
Opening the bench valve ................................................................................................... 27
Maintains the water level ................................................................................................... 27
Measure the water surface profile ...................................................................................... 28
Close the bench valve ........................................................................................................ 28
Positioning of measuring gauge ......................................................................................... 28
Observations and calculations ................................................................................................... 28
Table ................................................................................................................................. 28
Graph ................................................................................................................................ 29
Results and discussions ............................................................................................................. 29
Conclusions .............................................................................................................................. 30
Experiment No 12
Objectives ................................................................................................................................. 31
Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 31
Drag force ................................................................................................................................. 31
Variation of drag coefficient...................................................................................................... 31
Pressure Drag ............................................................................................................................ 31
Friction Drag............................................................................................................................. 31
Drag Force Formula .................................................................................................................. 31
Theory ...................................................................................................................................... 31
Terminal Velocity ..................................................................................................................... 31
Creeping Flow .......................................................................................................................... 32
Experimental Drag .................................................................................................................... 32
Methodology............................................................................................................................. 32
Apparatus.................................................................................................................................. 32
Experimental setup .................................................................................................................... 33
Procedure .................................................................................................................................. 33
Observations and Calculations .................................................................................................. 34
Table ................................................................................................................................. 34
Graph ................................................................................................................................ 34
Results and Discussions ............................................................................................................ 34
Conclusions .............................................................................................................................. 34
 Experiment no 8
Objectives
 To measure losses in a constant cross section pipe.
 To determine the associated friction factor under a range of flow rates and flow regimes,
i.e., laminar, transitional, and turbulent.
 To discuss the Darcy-Weisbach coefficient through Hagen -Poiseuille equation and
Blasius equation.
 To compare the results obtained by theoretical as well as experimental values and draw a
graph between them.

Introduction
Total Energy loss
The total energy loss in a pipe system is the sum of the major and minor losses. Major losses are
associated with frictional energy loss that is caused by the viscous effects of the fluid and
roughness of the pipe wall. Major losses create a pressure drop along the pipe since the pressure
must work to overcome the frictional resistance.
Darcy-Weisbach coefficient (f)
The Darcy-Weisbach equation is the most widely accepted formula for determining the energy
loss in pipe flow. In this equation, the friction factor (f), a dimensionless quantity, is used to
describe the friction loss in a pipe. In laminar flows, f is only a function of the Reynolds number
and is independent of the surface roughness of the pipe. In fully turbulent flows, f depends on
both the Reynolds number and relative roughness of the pipe wall. In engineering problems, f is
determined by using the Moody diagram.
Significance of f
In engineering applications, it is important to increase pipe productivity, i.e. maximizing the flow
rate capacity and minimizing head loss per unit length. According to the Darcy-Weisbach
equation, for a given flow rate, the head loss decreases with the inverse fifth power of the pipe
diameter. Doubling the diameter of a pipe results in the head loss decreasing by a factor of 32 (≈
97% reduction), while the amount of material required per unit length of the pipe and its
installation cost nearly doubles. This means that energy consumption, to overcome the frictional
resistance in a pipe conveying a certain flow rate, can be significantly reduced at a relatively
small capital cost.

Theory
The energy loss in a pipe can be determined by applying the energy equation to a section of a
straight pipe with a uniform cross section:
If the pipe is horizontal:
Since vin = vout
The pressure difference (Pout ‒ Pin) between two points in the pipe is due to the frictional
resistance, and the head loss hL is directly proportional to the pressure difference.
As, ∆P = P1 -P2
∆h = ∆P / ρg
So, f = ∆Pd / l(1/2ρv2)
 f = 2g∆hd / lv2
This is known as the Darcy-Weisbach equation
where:
∆h = head loss due to flow resistance
f = Darcy-Weisbach coefficient
l = pipe length
d = pipe diameter
v = average velocity
g = gravitational acceleration.
Laminar Flow
For laminar flow, the Darcy-Weisbach coefficient (or friction factor f) is only a function of the
Reynolds number (Re) and is independent of the surface roughness of the pipe, i.e.:
f = 64 / Re
Turbulent flow
For turbulent flow, f is a function of both the Reynolds number and the pipe roughness height, .
Other factors, such as roughness spacing and shape, may also affect the value of f; however,
these effects are not well understood and may be negligible in many cases. Therefore, f must be
determined experimentally.
f can be determined by utilizing empirical formulas. These formulas are used in engineering
applications when computer programs or spreadsheet calculation methods are employed. For
turbulent flow in a smooth pipe, a well-known curve fit to the Moody diagram is given by:
f = 0.318 Re-0.25

Reynolds number is given by:

Re = Vdρ / μ

where v is the average velocity, d is the pipe diameter, and ρ and μ are dynamic and kinematic
viscosities of the fluid, respectively.

Methodology
The friction factor is determined by measuring the pressure head difference between two fixed
points in a straight pipe with a circular cross section for steady flows.
Apparatus
The following equipment is required to perform the energy loss in pipes experiment:
 F1-10 hydraulics bench,
 F1-18 pipe friction apparatus,
 Stopwatch for timing the flow measurement,
 Measuring cylinder for measuring very low flow rates,
 Spirit level, and
  Thermometer.
Experimental Setup
Pipe friction Apparatus
The pipe friction apparatus consists of a test pipe (mounted vertically on the rig), a constant head
tank, a flow control valve, an air-bleed valve, and two sets of manometers to measure the head
losses in the pipe
Water over mercury manometers
A set of two water-over-mercury manometers is used to measure large pressure differentials, and
two water manometers are used to measure small pressure differentials.
Hoffman Clamps
When not in use, the manometers may be isolated, using Hoffman clamps. Since mercury is
considered a hazardous substance, it cannot be used in undergraduate fluid mechanics labs.
Therefore, for this experiment, the water-over-mercury manometers are replaced with a
differential pressure gauge to directly measure large pressure differentials.
High and low flow rates
This experiment is performed under two flow conditions: high flow rates and low flow rates. For
high flow rate experiments, the inlet pipe is connected directly to the bench water supply. For
low flow rate experiments, the inlet to the constant head tank is connected to the bench supply,
and the outlet at the base of the head tank is connected to the top of the test pipe.
Flow control
The apparatus’ flow control valve is used to regulate flow through the test pipe. This valve
should face the volumetric tank, and a short length of flexible tube should be attached to it, to
prevent splashing.
Air bleeding valve
The air-bleed valve facilitates purging the system and adjusting the water level in the water
manometers to a convenient level, by allowing air to enter them.
 Pipe Friction Test Apparatus
Procedure
The experiment will be performed in two parts: high flow rates and low flow rates. Set up the
equipment as follows:
 Mount the test rig on the hydraulics bench, and adjust the feet with a spirit level to ensure
that the baseplate is horizontal and the manometers are vertical.
 Attach Hoffman clamps to the water manometers and pressure gauge connecting tubes,
and close them off.
High Flow Rate Experiment
The high flow rate will be supplied to the test section by connecting the equipment inlet pipe to
the hydraulics bench, with the pump turned off. The following steps should be followed.
 Close the bench valve, open the apparatus flow control valve fully, and start the pump.
Open the bench valve progressively, and run the flow until all air is purged.
 Remove the clamps from the differential pressure gauge connection tubes, and purge any
air from the air-bleed valve located on the side of the pressure gauge.
 Close off the air-bleed valve once no air bubbles observed in the connection tubes.
 Close the apparatus flow control valve and take a zero-flow reading from the pressure
gauge.
 With the flow control valve fully open, measure the head loss shown by the pressure
gauge.
 Determine the flow rate by timed collection.
 Adjust the flow control valve in a step-wise fashion to observe the pressure differences at
0.05 bar increments. Obtain data for ten flow rates. For each step, determine the flow rate
by timed collection.
 Close the flow control valve, and turn off the pump.
 The pressure difference measured by the differential pressure gauge can be converted to
an equivalent head loss (hL) by using the conversion ratio:
1 bar = 10.2 m water
 Low Flow Rate Experiment
The low flow rate will be supplied to the test section by connecting the hydraulics bench outlet
pipe to the head tank with the pump turned off. Take the following steps.
 Attach a clamp to each of the differential pressure gauge connectors and close them off.
 Disconnect the test pipe’s supply tube and hold it high to keep it filled with water.
 Connect the bench supply tube to the head tank inflow, run the pump, and open the bench
valve to allow flow. When outflow occurs from the head tank snap connector, attach the
test section supply tube to it, ensuring that no air is entrapped.
 When outflow occurs from the head tank overflow, fully open the control valve.
 Remove the clamps from the water manometers’ tubes and close the control valve.
 Connect a length of small-bore tubing from the air valve to the volumetric tank, open the
air bleed screw, and allow flow through the manometers to purge all of the air from them.
Then tighten the air bleed screw.
 Fully open the control valve and slowly open the air bleed valve, allowing air to enter
until the manometer levels reach a convenient height (in the middle of the manometers),
then close the air vent. If required, further control of the levels can be achieved by using a
hand pump to raise the manometer air pressure.
 With the flow control valve fully open, measure the head loss shown by the manometers.
 Determine the flow rate by timed collection.
 Obtain data for at least eight flow rates, the lowest to give hL= 30 mm.
 Measure the water temperature, using a thermometer.

Observations and Calculations

Length of pipe (l) = 0.5 m
Diameter of the pipe (d) = 0.003 m
Time taken (t) = 20 sec
Area of the pipe (A) = пd2/4 = 7.005 x 10-6 m2
μ = 1.002 x 10-6 kg.m/s2

Table
No. Change f f
Velocity f Reynolds
of in Flow rate theoretical theoretical
(m/s) experimental number
obs. heads (laminar) (turbulent)
1 0.155 0.00000545 0.77 0.03068 2307.5062 0.0277 0.0302
2 0.124 0.000005 0.7 0.02916 2116.97 0.0302 0.0468
3 0.097 0.00000475 0.67 0.0253 2016 0.0317 0.0471
4 0.083 0.0000044 0.622 0.0252 1867.5 0.03427 0.0484
5 0.05 0.0000029 0.41 0.035 1230 0.052 0.0537
Graph

0.06
Graph between f and Re
f experimental
f (Laminar)

Friction Fcator(f)
0.05 f (turbulent)

0.04

0.03

0.02
1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500
Renold's Number (Re)

Results and Discussions

At first we will take the heights both and calculate the difference between them which is head
loss we can say that after that we will measure the volume which is of water in ml and we will
convert it into m cube after that time with 20 sec we are able to calculate the flow rate of
measurement now this flow rate help us in finding the other unknowns now the flow rate as we
got is use to find velocity by area which we have calculated by using diameter now we will
calculate the f experimental and theoretically both the values of f experimental and theoretical
are now obtain looking toward the graph which we can see that we have taken Reynolds no on
the x axis which shows that Reynolds number is an independent quantity and f is on the y axis
which mean it is a dependent quantity the Reynolds number will remain same for both the
laminar and turbulent flow as we can see it in graph.
the Reynold no values is coinciding not completely because they have their f change from each
other if we extend a line to up we will see we can meet the Reynolds no now we have seen that
turbulent value is up and laminar value of graph or we can simply say line is down the reason
behind it was that the f of the turbulent is more than the f value of laminar the reason behind this
was that the formula for both of them differ a lot laminar contain Reynolds no in the
denominator and turbulent contain Reynold no in the numerator when it is multiplied by it we are
able to see that the value of f will be definitely greater not for the one with Reynolds no at
denominator but which have it in numerator the graph is indicating an exponential type of
degrading or decrease which is shown.

Conclusions
We will conclude the experiment as follows;
 The loss in the pipes can be founded in the Darcy-Weisbach equation.
 The Darcy-Weisbach coefficient is the loss in the energy of the fluid.
 The total loss is some of both major and minor losses.
 The Reynolds number of the flow deeply effects the frictional effects.
 The frictional lose is different for laminar and turbulent.
 Experiment No 9
Objectives
 To determine the Metacentric height of a floating body (i.e. a model of ship)
 To locate the position f center of Buoyancy, Mata center and Center of Gravity.

Introduction
Meta-center and Meta-centric height
The point of intersection between an imaginary line drawn vertically through the center
of buoyancy of a floating vessel and a corresponding line through the new center of buoyancy
when the vessel is tilted. The metacentric height (GM) is a measurement of the initial static
stability of a floating body. It is calculated as the distance between the center of gravity of a ship
and its metacenter. A larger metacentric height implies greater initial stability against
overturning. The determination of metacentric height is important while investigating the
stability of the floating bodies such as ships, during the design phase by theoretical computations
and after the ship have been built by inclining experiments.
Archimedes Principle
When a body is partially or fully submerged in fluid, it is forced upward by a vertical
force known as buoyant force. Archimedes principle states that the buoyant force has a
magnitude equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body and is directed vertically
upward. Buoyant force is a force that results from a floating or submerged body in a fluid
which results from different pressures on the top and bottom of the object and acts through
the centroid of the displaced volume.
Buoyancy force
The buoyant thrust on a body of weight and centroid acts through the centroid of the displaced
fluid volume and this point of application of the buoyant force is known as the center of
buoyancy of the body. For the body in equilibrium, the weight must equal the buoyant thrust,
both acting along the same vertical line. For small angle of heel, the intersection points of the
vertical through the new center of buoyancy, and the line produced is known as the metacenter, ,
and the body thus disturbed tend to oscillate about . The distance between point G and M is the
metacentric height.
Floating and Immersed bodies
If the floating body is bottom-heavy and thus the center of gravity G is directly below the
center of buoyancy B, the body is always stable. But unlike immersed bodies, a floating
body may still be stable when G is directly above B. This is because the centroid of the
displaced volume shifts to the side to a point B+ during a rotational disturbance while the
center of gravity G of the body remains unchanged.
Restoring Moment
If point B+ is sufficiently far, these two forces create a restoring moment and return the body to
the original position. A measure of stability for floating bodies is the metacentric height GM,
which is the distance between the center of gravity G and the metacenter M intersection point of
the lines of action of the buoyant force through the body before and after rotation.
Stability of floating or immersed bodies
The metacenter may be considered to be a fixed point for most hull shapes for small rolling
angles up to about 20°. A floating body is stable if point M is above point G and thus GM is
positive, and unstable if point M is below point G, and thus GM is negative. In the latter case, the
weight and the buoyant force acting on the tilted body generate an overturning moment instead
of a restoring moment, causing the body to capsize. The length of the metacentric height GM
above G is a measure of the stability: the larger it is, the more stable is the floating body

Theory
Metacentric height GM is both ways to be found out by either experimental or theoretically to
calculate this height we need some variables as well as some constants so as a result we are given
with a bunch of values and by comparing them we can easily calculate the percentage error and
draw a graph to compare these values.
Experimentally
Metacentric height can be calculated experimentally by using this technique
Disturbing moment
The disturbing moment comes out to be
Md = Px cosθ
Restoring moment
It can be written as
Mr = W GM sinθ
Equilibrium
For achieving equilibrium, we can write as
Mr = Md
GM = Px cotθ / W
Here,
P = load applied on the boat
W = weight of the boat
θ = deflection angle after changing the center of gravity
x = moment arm
Theoretically
In general, we can calculate the metacentric height by using the formula
GM = (b2 /12di) – (y – 1/2di)
Where,
b and di are constants and y are the height of center of gravity.

Methodology
Apparatus
 Metacentric Height Apparatus
  Water Tank
 Weights
 Ruler
Procedure
 Place the model of ship in the water tank.
 Shift the weight to zero position and note the corresponding angle of rotation.
 If it is on zero then its correct if not then notes the error and its direction.
 Now shift the weight to either left or right side by 0.5 inches. Note the angle against that
reading.
 Similarly shift the weight to 1 inch, 1.5 inches, 2’ inches, 2.5 and 3 inches and note the
corresponding value of angle.
 Similarly, move the weight to the other side and take at least 5 readings accordingly.
 Take mean of left and right angle and make a table and draw the graph

Observations and Calculations

Length (l) = 0.35 m
Breadth (b) = 0.2 m
Depth (d) = 0.075m
Weight (W) = 1.71 x g N
Load (P) = 0.306 x g N
di = 0.024 m
Table
Height of
Deflection
No. of center of Moment Theoretical Experimental
Angle % error
obs. gravity arm GM GM
θ (degrees)
y (m) x (m)
1 0.112 0.015 4.5 0.034 10 %
0.038
2 0.112 0.025 7 0.036 5.26 %
3 0.102 0.018 4 0.046 4.16 %
0.048
4 0.102 0.027 6.5 0.044 10 %
5 0.09 0.015 2.9 0.0529 12.98 %
0.06089
6 0.09 0.025 4.5 0.0568 6.64 %
7 0.1 0.025 5.7 0.0448 11.92 %
0.05089
8 0.1 0.035 7.7 0.0463 8.97 %
Graph

Graph between Theoratical and

Experimental GM
0.07

0.06
Theoratical
0.05

0.04

0.03
0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05 0.055 0.06 0.065
Experimental

Results and Discussions

In this experiment we will find out about the metacentric height the board width is measure the
depth is measured and by balancing it we will calculate the amount of center of gravity
represented by y the weight is specified and given as 1.71 kg as we first displace weight in the
fluid the fluid displaces which is the x shown as displacement the angel shown is the tilted angel
of the body now as we get all the values wd will put it in the formulas of theoretical and
geometrical geometric center after both of them are obtain we will plot a graph between them the
graph tells us about the relation between them in making the graph we will take metacentric
height theoretical on the x axis and geometric center experimental on the y axis as we are able to
see the graph the line in it is quite straight forward or we can say both are directly related to each
other if one is increasing the other value is also increasing and vice versa.

The procedure of determination of metacentric height, as well as its application to the stability of
floating bodies, has been discussed. For a stable equilibrium, the metacentric height must be above
of its center of gravity. in the formulas of theoretical and geometrical geometric center after both
of them are obtain we will plot a graph between them the graph tells us about the relation between
them in making the graph we will take geometric center theoretical on the x axis and geometric
center experimental on the y axis as we are able to see the graph the line in it is quite straight
forward or we can say both are directly related to each other.

Conclusions
We shall conclude the report as;
 The metacenter is very important for the building of ships.
 We can get the Meta center of a ship by this experiment.
 The experiment is valid for the floating body.
 The buoyancy force is very important in floating bodies.
 Metacentric height has advantages while calculating the thrust applied on ships during
experiments.
 Experiment No 10
Objectives
 To study and compare the water surface profiles of forced vortices.

Introduction
Vortex
A vortex is commonly associated with the rotating motion of fluid around a common centerline.
It is defined by the vorticity in the fluid, which measures the rate of local fluid rotation.
Typically, the fluid circulates around the vortex, the speed increases as the vortex is approached
and the pressure decreases. Vortices can occur naturally or be produced in a laboratory.
Types
There are two types of vortices
 Free vortices
 Forced vortices.
Free vortex
A free vortex is formed, for example, when water flows out of a vessel through a central hole in
the base. No external force is required to rotate the fluid, and the degree of rotation is dependent
upon the initial disturbance. Whirlpools in rivers flush, sink and tornadoes are examples of
natural free vortices.
Forced Vortex
A forced vortex, on the other hand, is caused by external forces on the fluid. It can be created by
rotating a vessel containing fluid or by paddling in fluid. Rotational flow created by impellers of
a pump is an example of a forced vortex in turbomachinery.
Significance
Studying natural phenomena such as hurricanes, tornadoes, and whirlpools (free vortices)
requires a full understanding of vortex behavior. It is also critical for engineers and designers to
be able to characterize forced vortices generated in machinery, such as centrifugal pumps or
turbines.
Effects
Vortices often have adverse effects, as have been seen during hurricanes, tornadoes, or scour
holes created downstream of a dam outlet; however, understanding vortex behavior has enabled
engineers to design turbomachinery and hydraulic structures that take advantage of these
phenomena. For example, hydrodynamic separators have been developed, based on vortex
behavior (swirling flow), to separate solid materials from liquids. This type of separator is used
in water treatment plants.
Theory
This experiment is performed by measuring the water surface profiles of a number of free and
forced vortices, and observing the differences. We will study the profiles of free vortices that are
produced when water flows from orifices of different diameters that are installed at the base of a
tank. Varying the size of the orifice creates changes in the flow rate, thereby changing the
rotational speed and size of the vortex profile. Forced vortices are created due to external forces,
so we will increase the rotational speed throughout the experiment to study the theoretical and
experimental relationships between the vortex surface profile and angular velocity.

In this experiment, the water is firstly moved at a constant speed i.e.

v = rω
hc = v2 / 2g
hc = r2ω2 / 2g
H = h o + hc
So,
H = ho + r2ω2 / 2g
Methodology
Apparatus
 P6100 hydraulics bench, and
 P6238: Forced vortices apparatus
Experimental setup
Measurements of the apparatus
The forced vortices apparatus consists of a transparent cylindrical vessel, 250 mm in diameter
and 180 mm deep, with two pairs of diametrically opposed inlet tubes of 9.0 mm and 12.5 mm
diameter. The 12.5 diameter inlet tubes are angled at 15° to the diameter in order to create a
swirling motion of the water entering the vessel during the forced vortex experiment. An outlet is
centrally positioned in the base of the vessel, and a set of push-in orifices of 8, 16, and 24 mm
diameter is supplied to reduce the outlet diameter to a suitable value and produce forced vortices
of different sizes.
Surface profile determination
The vortex surface profile is determined by a measuring caliper housed on a mounted bridge, that
measures the diameter of the vortex at various elevations. This provides the coordinate points
that are required for plotting the forced vortex profile.
Vortex creation
The forced vortex is created by positioning a bushed plug in the central hole of the vessel and
introducing the flow through 9 mm inlet tubes that are angled at 60° to the diameter. The water
inflow from these tubes impinges on a two-blade paddle. The water exits the vessel via the 12.5
mm angled inlet tubes that are used as entry tubes for the free vortex experiment. The two-bladed
paddle rotates on a vertical shaft supported by the bushed plug.
Determining the coordinates of forced vortex profiles
A bridge piece mounted on top of the vessel houses a series of needles to determine the
coordinates of the forced vortex profile. A 3-way valve allows water to be diverted through the
12.5 mm inlet tubes for the free vortex experiment, and 9 mm inlet tubes for the forced vortex
experiment.
Procedure
Positioning of bushed plug
Position the bushed plug into the outlet of the vessel and mount the two-blade paddle wheel on
the shaft, ensuring that the tapered edges of the blades angle upward.
Adjustment of the valve
Adjust the 3-way valve so that water flows into the vessel via the 60-degree outlet ports. Turn on
the pump, open the bench control valve, and allow the vessel to fill with water until water just
begins to overflow through the cutouts. Note that the inlet may need to be adjusted in order to
achieve a low-profiled, calm vortex. Water will now flow through these ports and impinge on the
paddle wheel before flowing out of the apparatus via the two 15-degree ports. After the vessel is
filled with water, adjust the outlet valve so that the water level remains stable.
Fluctuation of water level
If the water level fluctuates, raise the free end of the outlet tube above the grade line of the water
in the vessel, and then lower it again into the bench tank. Doing this will ensure that water
discharges at the same rate that it flows in, thereby helping to maintain the water level.
Measurements of vortex surface profile
After the water level is stable, measure the vortex surface profile. This is done by mounting the
measuring bridge to the vessel, and then lowering the needles until they are touching the profile
of the vortex. Lock them in place, then remove the bridge, and measure the height of each
needle. It is recommended that this be done with a graph or engineering paper.
Finding the angular velocity
Record the time that it takes for the paddles to make 10 revolutions in the vessel. You can find
the angular velocity of the flow by dividing the number of revolutions by the time.
Increase the angular velocity
Increase the inflow rate to achieve higher angular velocity, and repeat the process so that you
have four distinct vortex profiles. Note that as you increase the inflow, you will need to adjust
 the outlet flow to maintain the water level. As you increase the flow rate, change the count of the
revolutions to 20, 40, and 50.

Observations and calculations

Table 1
ω
No.
Time (Angular r ho Error
of Rev h(measured) h(calculated)
(sec) Velocity) (meters) (meters) %
Obs.
rad/sec
1 0.11 -0.106 -0.115 7.8
2 0.09 -0.126 -0.129 2.38
3 0.07 -0.136 -0.141 3.67
10 7.6 8.27 -0.158
4 0.05 -0.142 -0.149 4.9
5 0.03 -0.148 -0.154 4.05
6 0 -0.158 -0.158 0
Graph 1

Graph between h and r2

0.18

0.15

0.12

0.09
h

0.06

0.03

0
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014
r2
 Table 2
Time
No. for Revolution
Number r ho Theoretical Experimental
of number radian per %Error
of turns (meters) (meters) value value of height(m)
Obs. of tern second
(s)
1 0.11 -0.135 -0.138 2.17
2 0.09 -0.148 -0.153 3.26
3 0.07 -0.159 -0.164 3.04
13 10 8.168 -0.176
4 0.05 -0.167 -0.169 1.19
5 0.03 -0.173 -0.175 1.14
6 0 -0.176 -0.176 0
Graph 2

Graph between h and r2

0.18

0.15

0.12

0.09
h

0.06

0.03

0
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014
r2

Table 3
Time
No for Revolution
Number Theoretical Experimental value of
of number radian per %Error
of turns value height(m)
Obs. of turn second
(sec)
1 -0.12 -0.121 0.83
2 -0.134 -0.133 0.75
3 -0.145 -0.146 0.68
10
4 7.75 8.168 -0.153 0.15 2
5 -0.158 -0.158 0.63
6 -0.162 0.162 0
Graph 3

Graph between h and r2

0.18

0.15

0.12
h 0.09

0.06

0.03

0
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014
r2

Table 4

No. Time for Revolution Experimental

Theoretical
of No of turns number of radian per value of %Error
value
Obs. tern (s) second height(m)
1 -0.117 -0.108 7.6
2 -0.131 -0.128 2.29
3 -0.142 -0.138 3.4
10 7.6 8.26
4 -0.151 -0.144 4.8
5 -0.156 -0.15 4.3
6 -0.16 -0.16 0
Graph 4

Graph between h and r2

0.18

0.15

0.12

0.09
h

0.06

0.03

0
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014
r2

Results and discussions

Here is the graph shows which tells us that theoretical value is taken on the x axis and it is the
independent value both the theoretical and experimental values are approx. directly proportional
to each other we can see if one thing change the other is also change if one decreases the other
decrease the value of y axis is experimental which is dependent on theoretical This considers the
estimation of the body's profundity in the water. To obviously see the impacts of the vortex, the
needles are situated at different radii. In this way, it follows that the range of the needles from the
reference point or focus point straightforwardly corresponds with the level profile of the
constrained vortex

Conclusions
We will conclude the report as;
 A forced vortex takes high energy to maintain.
 The forced vortex can only create turbulent flow.
 The vortex produced is very unstable.
 The forced vortex is dependent on the speed of the propeller and viscosity of the fluid.
 A parabola is formed when fluid is revolved in a forced vortex.
 Experiment No 11
Objectives
 To determine the surface profile of a free vortex

Introduction
Vortex
A vortex is commonly associated with the rotating motion of fluid around a common centerline.
It is defined by the vorticity in the fluid, which measures the rate of local fluid rotation.
Typically, the fluid circulates around the vortex, the speed increases as the vortex is approached
and the pressure decreases. Vortices can occur naturally or be produced in a laboratory.
Types
There are two types of vortices
 Free vortices
 Forced vortices.
Free vortex
A free vortex is formed, for example, when water flows out of a vessel through a central hole in
the base. No external force is required to rotate the fluid, and the degree of rotation is dependent
upon the initial disturbance. Whirlpools in rivers flush, sink and tornadoes are examples of
natural free vortices.
Forced Vortex
A forced vortex, on the other hand, is caused by external forces on the fluid. It can be created by
rotating a vessel containing fluid or by paddling in fluid. Rotational flow created by impellers of
a pump is an example of a forced vortex in turbomachinery.
Significance
Studying natural phenomena such as hurricanes, tornadoes, and whirlpools (free vortices)
requires a full understanding of vortex behavior. It is also critical for engineers and designers to
be able to characterize forced vortices generated in machinery, such as centrifugal pumps or
turbines.
Effects
Vortices often have adverse effects, as have been seen during hurricanes, tornadoes, or scour
holes created downstream of a dam outlet; however, understanding vortex behavior has enabled
engineers to design turbomachinery and hydraulic structures that take advantage of these
phenomena. For example, hydrodynamic separators have been developed, based on vortex
behavior (swirling flow), to separate solid materials from liquids. This type of separator is used
in water treatment plants.
Theory
This experiment is performed by measuring the water surface profiles of a number of free and
forced vortices, and observing the differences. We will study the profiles of free vortices that are
produced when water flows from orifices of different diameters that are installed at the base of a
tank. Varying the size of the orifice creates changes in the flow rate, thereby changing the
rotational speed and size of the vortex profile. Forced vortices are created due to external forces,
so we will increase the rotational speed throughout the experiment to study the theoretical and
experimental relationships between the vortex surface profile and angular velocity.

As,
P + 1/2ρv2 + ρgz = constant
1/2ρv2 + ρgz = constant
v2 / 2g + z = constant
v2 / 2g = constant – z
Also,
v α 1/r
so, v = k/r
putting these values in the above equation we get,
k2 / 2gr2 = constant – z
hence,
depth α 1/r2
 log(depth) α -2 log(r)
Methodology
Apparatus
 P6100 hydraulics bench, and
 P6238: Free vortices apparatus
Experimental setup
Measurements of the apparatus
The free vortices apparatus consists of a transparent cylindrical vessel, 250 mm in diameter and
180 mm deep, with two pairs of diametrically opposed inlet tubes of 9.0 mm and 12.5 mm
diameter. The 12.5 diameter inlet tubes are angled at 15° to the diameter in order to create a
swirling motion of the water entering the vessel during the free vortex experiment. An outlet is
centrally positioned in the base of the vessel, and a set of push-in orifices of 8, 16, and 24 mm
diameter is supplied to reduce the outlet diameter to a suitable value and produce free vortices of
different sizes.
Surface profile determination
The vortex surface profile is determined by a measuring caliper housed on a mounted bridge, that
measures the diameter of the vortex at various elevations. This provides the coordinate points
that are required for plotting the free vortex profile.
Vortex creation
The free vortex is created by positioning a bushed plug in the central hole of the vessel and
introducing the flow through 9 mm inlet tubes that are angled at 60° to the diameter. The water
inflow from these tubes impinges on a two-blade paddle. The water exits the vessel via the 12.5
mm angled inlet tubes that are used as entry tubes for the free vortex experiment. The two-bladed
paddle rotates on a vertical shaft supported by the bushed plug.
Determining the coordinates of free vortex profiles
A bridge piece mounted on top of the vessel houses a series of needles to determine the
coordinates of the free vortex profile. A 3-way valve allows water to be diverted through the 12.5
mm inlet tubes for the free vortex experiment, and 9 mm inlet tubes for the f vortex experiment.
Procedure
Positioning of apparatus
Position the apparatus on the hydraulics bench so that the central outlet in the base of the vessel
is located over the weir trough.
Adjustment of the feet
Adjust the feet to ensure that the apparatus is level.
Pushing the orifice
Push the 24 mm diameter orifice into the central outlet located in the base of the apparatus.
Connection of inlet pipe
Connect the inlet pipe of the apparatus (situated on the 3-way valve) to the hydraulics bench
outlet, using the flexible pipe provided.

Closing the apparatus outlet global valve

Close the apparatus outlet globe valve, and position the 3-way valve so that water flows into the
vessel via the 15-degree inlet ports.
Closing the bench outlet valve
Close the bench outlet valve, and turn on the pump.
Opening the bench valve
Gradually open the bench valve, and allow the vessel to fill with water until water begins to
overflow through the cutouts.
Maintains the water level
After the vessel is slightly overflowing, slowly open the outlet valve so that the water level
maintains a stable height. Note that you can also adjust the bench valve to maintain a constant
water level.
Measure the water surface profile
After a constant water level has been achieved, measure the water surface profile, by adjusting
the measuring caliper to a desired radius, and then lower it into the vortex until the needles
evenly touch the walls of the vortex. At this point, record the height indicated by the caliper and
repeat the procedure for the remaining radii.
Close the bench valve
After completing your measurements, close the bench valve, turn off the pump, drain the
apparatus, and repeat the process for the remaining two orifices.
Positioning of measuring gauge
The vortex profile tends to wander, so the vortex diameter- measuring gauge arm should be
positioned at 90° to the main arm. This allows a meaningful vortex diameter measurement to be
made.

Observations and calculations

Table
No. of Radius Depth
log(r) log(d)
Obs. (r) (d)
1 90 1.95424 3.2 0.50515
2 80 1.90309 3.8 0.57978
3 70 1.84510 4.3 0.63347
4 60 1.77815 4.9 0.69020
5 50 1.69897 5.5 0.74036
6 40 1.60206 6.9 0.83885
Graph

Graph between log(d) and log(r)

0.9

y = -0.8978x + 2.2779
0.8

log (d) 0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4
1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0
log(r)

Results and discussions

Here is the graph shows which tells us that theoretical value is taken on the x axis and it is the
independent value both the theoretical and experimental values are approx. directly proportional
to each other we can see if one thing change the other is also change if one decreases the other
decrease the value of y axis is experimental which is dependent on theoretical This considers the
estimation of the body's profundity in the water. To obviously see the impacts of the vortex, the
needles are situated at different radii. In this way, it follows that the range of the needles from the
reference point or focus point straightforwardly corresponds with the level profile of the
constrained vortex
After carried out the experiment, the relationship between the both types of vortex velocity and
radius was determined. From the free vortex experiment, it shown that the velocity decreased
when radius increased. When comparing experimental velocity of free vortex with theoretical we
have calculated the depth profile of free vortex. Free vortex is the one which occurs naturally.
There is no effect of torque and external forces. The calculated depth is inversely related to the
square of radius. So, we can conclude that as the radius becomes lesser the depth increases
Conclusions
This report is concluded as;
 The free vortex is harder to make table in lab.
 The error ratio is very much.
 It is hard to take value because of complex experiment.
 The free vortex is very hard to maintain.
 It is a stable vortex type in nature.
 A hyperbola is formed when the fluid is revolved in a free vortex.
 Experiment No 12
Objectives
 To determine the drag coefficient of sphere of different materials
 To observe and analyze the drag of a moving body based on the speed of the body, the
shape and size of the moving body and the fluid through which the body is moving

Introduction
Drag force
An object moving through a fluid is subject to a drag force that acts upon an object in the
opposite direction to its motion. The magnitude of the drag force depends on the geometry of the
body, the physical characteristics of the fluid and the velocity of the object in the fluid. Drag is
the force acting opposite to the relative motion of the object moving in a fluid medium.
Variation of drag coefficient
As the drag coefficient varies with the geometry of the body, fluid viscosity, fluid density and
velocity. For the conditions used in this practical, the drag coefficient may be assumed to be
approximately constant. It is expected the drag coefficient will be somewhere in the range 0.2 –
0.6.
Pressure Drag
The drag force on a body consists of two components. One component is pressure drag, which is
caused by the air particles being more compressed on the front-facing surface of the body and
more spaced out on the back surfaces of the body.
Friction Drag
The other component of drag is the friction drag, which is caused by the friction of the fluid
applied against the surface of the moving body.
Drag Force Formula
This experiment will show how the drag force (FD) is a dependent on the speed of the moving
body (v), the size of the moving body (A) and the density of the fluid medium that the body is
moving through (ρf). The drag force can be defined as follows
Fd = CD ½ ρf v2A
Theory
Terminal Velocity
The settling of a particle in a fluid can be analyzed by the classic laws of sedimentation
formulated by Newton and Stokes. Newton's law yields the terminal particle velocity, which is
the steady velocity that an object has when its submerged weight is equal to the resistance or
drag force exerted by the fluid. At the terminal velocity (Vt), the sum of the forces is zero so
there is no acceleration and the velocity are constant. An object's submerged weight (Wsubm) is
its weight (Ws) minus the buoyant force (FB). The submerged will be upward if the buoyant
force is greater than the weight. The terminal velocity can be found by equating the submerged
weight of an object with the drag force (FD), i.e.,
FD = 6пμrv
Dividing both sides by kinetic energy we get,
 CD = 6пμrv / 0.5ρf v2(пr2)
𝜌𝑓 𝑣𝑑
CD = 24 /
𝜇
As,
𝜌𝑓 𝑣𝑑
Re =
𝜇
So,
CD = 24 / Re
This is the value of drag coefficient calculated theoretically and is given by a mathematician
called stokes hence is called stokes law
Creeping Flow
For Reynold's numbers less than about 0.5, the flow is called a creeping flow. The accelerations
(inertial forces) of the fluid particles around the object are so small that they are
insignificant. The first term dominates the equation, so

CD = 24/Re.

Substituting this value into Newton's law yields Stroke’s law for terminal velocity for Re < 0.5,
namely,

Experimental Drag
As we know that
F=W–B
F = ρoVg – ρfVg
F = Vg (ρo - ρf)
As the drag is equal to the downwards force and the sphere is settling with a terminal velocity so
again dividing both sides with the kinetic energy attained by the sphere during the drag the
equation becomes,
2(𝜌𝑜 −𝜌𝑓 )𝑉𝑔
CD =
𝜌𝑓 𝑣 2 п𝑟 2

Methodology
Apparatus
The apparatus consists of
 Three cylindrical tubes, each containing a different liquid. The density and viscosity of
each liquid are known.
  Spheres of known diameter and specific weight.

Laboratory Apparatus

Experimental setup
 Measure the diameter and obtain the mass of all five spheres of each set. Record these
values.
 Place one sphere at the top of the tube and prepare to start the timer.
 Release the spheres into the tubes.
 Start the timer when the sphere reaches the first mark.
 Stop the timer when the sphere reaches the second mark. Record the time.
 Retrieve the sphere by opening the first valve, closing it, then opening the second valve
to release the sphere in the beaker. Ensure that the two valves are never open at the same
time. Leave the spheres in the beaker.
 Repeat steps 2 to 6 for the other four spheres.
 Retrieve the spheres.
 Repeat step 7, two more times to have a total of three trials for each sphere. Do this for
both sets of spheres in their respective fluids.
 Perform a video analysis of the large aluminum sphere using the digital camera and
Logger Pro Software to record the time the sphere takes to travel from mark to the other
mark. This should be done once for each fluid.
Procedure
 Release a spherical object of known size and density near the top of one of the tubes.
 Determine the terminal velocity by letting the object come to its steady velocity and then
measuring the time required for it to fall a known distance.
 Calculate the submerged weight from
Wsubm = (rs - r) g"s.
  Calculate the drag coefficient from

 Calculate the Reynolds number from

Re = rVtd/m.
 Plot CD vs. Re on the drag coefficient graph.
 Repeat this procedure for a few different spheres in different liquids.
 Note that the results are consistent in terms of CD and Re and are independent of the
specific values of d, Vt, r and m.

Observations and Calculations

Table
No.
Sphere Diameter Reynolds Cd Cd
of Density Volume Distance Time Velocity
Types (m) No. (Theoretical) (Experimental)
Obs.
1 Mild Steel 0.00635 7850 1.34E-07 1.475 1.31 1.126 7138.387 0.003362104 0.45
2 Mild Steel 0.007937 7850 2.62E-07 1.475 1.21 1.219 9660.421 0.002484364 0.48
3 Mild Steel 0.009525 7850 4.52E-07 1.475 0.9 1.639 15585.479 0.001539895 0.32
4 Ceramic 0.006352 2500 1.34E-07 1.475 0.813 1.815 11509.277 0.002085274 0.17
5 Ceramic 0.009525 2500 4.52E-07 1.475 0.775 1.903 18099.266 0.001326021 0.24

Graph

Graph between Reynolds Number (Re) and Drag Co-

effecient (CD)
0.004
y = 24x-1
0.003
CD

0.002

0.001

0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000
Re

Results and Discussions

From this graph we are able to find out the time for this we are sable to throw the ball into the
tank first we will through the smaller ball of the ceramic which will take far much time than the
ball of steel which we have thrown now as we see it the other ball of ceramic with larger
diameter is drop which take less time as compare to the other. now for the calculation of C D we
will put into the formula and we will find out how it is after calculation we will put and see how
the graph is made.

Conclusions
This experiment is concluded as
 The experiment is important to show the importance of drag force in the falling of object
from fluid.
 The drag coefficient for every same shape object is same.
 The drag coefficient is not entirely dependent on the materials nature and is dependent on
the shape of the experimental object.
 The fluid is the only thing that is providing the drag force which I due to viscosity.