ROYAL MILITARY ACADEMY

Energy

Academic year 2021-2022

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1: Energy in the society – sketch of the problem ....................................................4

Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 4
Energy conversion ......................................................................................................................... 4
Energy consumption ..................................................................................................................... 4
The challenge ................................................................................................................................ 5
Energy supply – import............................................................................................................................ 5
Alternative sources ................................................................................................................................. 5
Demande side-Management (DSM) & Rational Energy Use (REU) ............................................................ 6

Conclusion..................................................................................................................................... 6

CHAPTER 2 : Conservation of energy .....................................................................................7

Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 7
Conservation laws in classical mechanics ...................................................................................... 7
Newton’s laws......................................................................................................................................... 7
The kinetic energy theorem ..................................................................................................................... 7
Equivalence mass-energy ........................................................................................................................ 8

CHAPTER 3: Transformation of heat into other forms of energy .........................................11

Concepts ..................................................................................................................................... 11
Thermodynamics....................................................................................................................................11
reversible transformations – work done during compression of a fluid....................................................11

The first law of thermodynamics................................................................................................. 12

The internal energy of an idea gas ..........................................................................................................13
The first law ...........................................................................................................................................13
State transformatons of an ideal gas without heat exchange ..................................................................13

The internal combustion engine.................................................................................................. 14

The Carnot cycle .......................................................................................................................... 15
Entropy and the second law of thermodynamics ........................................................................ 15
The second Law......................................................................................................................................15
The conclusion about it ..........................................................................................................................17

The heat pump (very sustainable way of heating) ...................................................................... 17

CHAPTER 4: Fossil fuels ........................................................................................................18

What happens during fossil fuel combustion? ............................................................................ 18
“Classic” energy converters for fossil fuels .................................................................................. 18
Heating ..................................................................................................................................................19
Conversion of heat into mechanical energy/electricy ..............................................................................20
Electric power plants ..............................................................................................................................21

Cogeneration............................................................................................................................... 23
Carnot inverted 4-3-2-1= Carnot Heat pump ............................................................................... 24

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Chapter 5: Nuclear energy ...................................................................................................26
Binding energy and the principle of fission and fusion ................................................................ 26
Binding energy of the nucleus.................................................................................................................26
Fission and chain reactions .....................................................................................................................27

The atomic bomb ........................................................................................................................ 29

The nuclear reactor (fission)........................................................................................................ 30
Pressurized water reactor – Nuclear reactors for electricity production ..................................................32
The use of MOX......................................................................................................................................32

Radiation issues and social acceptance of nuclear energy .......................................................... 32

Nuclear fusion (A LIRE, PAS ETUDIER) ......................................................................................... 33
Physical principles of fusion reactions.....................................................................................................33
confinement...........................................................................................................................................34
The hydrogen bomb ...............................................................................................................................34
Environmental damage from nuclear fusion ...........................................................................................35

Chapter 6: Renewable energy ..............................................................................................36

Indirect solar energy ................................................................................................................... 36
Hydroelectric power ...............................................................................................................................37
Wind energy...........................................................................................................................................39
Primary Biomass.....................................................................................................................................42

Direct solar energy ...................................................................................................................... 42

Solar water heating system (SWH) ..........................................................................................................42
Thermo-electric solar energy ..................................................................................................................43
Photovoltaic energy ...............................................................................................................................44

Chapter 7: Energy storage ...................................................................................................49

What is the problem ................................................................................................................... 49
Levelised cost of electricy............................................................................................................ 49
Storage of electricity ................................................................................................................... 50
Storage or demand side management ....................................................................................................50
Battery plants – Electrochemichal batteries ............................................................................................51
Pumped hydro storage (PHS) ..................................................................................................................51
Electrolysis and fuel cells: chemical energy in hydrogen – Power2gas (P2G) ............................................52
Others....................................................................................................................................................54

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 CHAPTER 1: ENERGY IN THE SOCIETY – SKETCH OF THE PROBLEM

INTRODUCTION

Quality of life and standard of living have been slightly improved thanks to the massive
production of energy which able us to be replaced by machines. We improved this in 20 years
with energy produced during 500 million years.

a. Primary energy: energy to be found;

b. Final energy: energy to be used/available for the people.

à Energy: joules [J] & Power: watt [W] = joule/sec

We also have to use the kilowatt hour (kW/h) for personal consumption and even the Mega Ton
Oil Equivalent (MTOE = 4,18.106 J) for the national annual energy consumption.

ENERGY CONVERSION

The law of conservation of energy is the most important one; energy is never lost but converted.
The actual efficiency of an energy conversion is sometimes significantly smaller than the
theoretical efficiency (which is most of the time already not so big). It is thus wrong to talk
about “energy consumption” because it’s only “converted” from a more to a less noble form.

Efficiency:
$ %&'(%))
𝜂= $ *+,%-

ENERGY CONSUMPTION

1. World

The new energy sources have continuously replaced other sources of energy, most often for
economic reasons. Ex.: wood, coal, oil. We also notice an exponential growth since the
Industrial Revolution with a total consumption of energy in the world in 2018 around 6x 1020 J
which represents 14 billion tons of oil.

The fact that we have cheap and abundant energy increase comfort and creates so new needs.
This leads to a linear relationship between energy consumption and the Gross Domestic Product
(GDP). Two developments in global consumption: (1) New energy sources replace other
sources, (2) Exponential growth since the Industrial Revolution. We can also put de GDP and
the energy consumption on a graph to see correlation between them: the energy ladder.

2. Europe – BEL

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EU has its own strategy to lead the way in matters of energy and climate policy: secure,
sustainable, competitive and affordable energy.

5 dimensions (interrelated):

• Energy security, solidarity and trust • Decarbonising the economy

• A fully-integrated internal energy • Research, innovation and
market competitiveness
• Energy efficiency contributing to
moderation of demand
The energy consumption in BEL was about 43 MTOE in 2013.: 49% petrol, 25% natural gas
and 17% electricity. We need to secure the supply for all forms of Final Energy (FE).

Belgian has a specific relation with its neighbouring countries to get enough energy.

This must be kept for all the different forms of FE:

• Chemical energy as fuel (for

transport, heating)
• Electrical energy (for appliances)
• Thermal energy (for heat)

Electric and thermal energy must be seen as

a vector of energy and not sources. Chemical
energy is supposed to be stable and can be
stored more easily.

Due to the difference in Nature of FE, the balance for each has specific constraints. The most
difficult for electricity is time because storage of electricity is expensive. One of the major
concerns in Belgium. We need to cooperate with other countries for electricity supply.

THE CHALLENGE

ENERGY SUPPLY – IMPORT

80% of our energy needs are covered by fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are made by organic matter
decomposed during the last 500 million years. That biomass was deposited on the surface of
the earth or on the bottom of the sea. This source is by definition relatively limited, as this
natural process of fossilization needs adequate circumstances of temperature and pressure, and
needs too much time as well. We thus have to consider that our fossil sources will run out in
the relatively near future.

ALTERNATIVE SOURCES

We can replace fossil fuels by renewable energy sources and nuclear ones which do not suffer
from the scarcity phenomenon.

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DEMANDE SIDE-MANAGEMENT (DSM) & RATIONAL ENERGY USE (REU)

There is an economic balance to find between the

offer and demand. Like we can see on the graph
(TRIAS), the “most sustainable energy is the saved
one”. The model is based on:

- Sufficiency: limit demand for energy

through rational use of energy;
- Sustainable energy sources as much as
possible to fulfil remaining demand;
- If necessary, use of fossil fuel energy as
efficiently and cleanly as possible.

CONCLUSION

1. Fossil fuel are a finite resource;

2. Security of energy supply is important because of its importance in our daily life.
Belgium has a particular security issue (“energy gap”) because of the closing of the
nuclear power stations;
3. Using fossil fuels (and so burning it) changes in the climate meaning the human can be
blamed for it.

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 CHAPTER 2 : CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

INTRODUCTION

We can divide all forms of energy in 5 different categories even it possible to pass from one to
another:

1. Kinetic energy (∆𝐸0*+ );

2. Potential energy (∆𝐸,1- );
3. Work (W);
4. Heat (Q);
5. Internal energy (∆𝑈).

We can put that relation of transformation in the Energy Conservation Law:

𝑊 + 𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + ∆𝐸0*+ + ∆𝐸,1-

This means that a mechanical energy of a body is the sum of its kinetic energy and its potential
one. For the chemical energy and the nuclear energy, we can approach in two different ways: it
can be made of kinetic or potential energy of the electrons (or neutrons and protons for nuclear)
of the atoms. In all practical applications, this energy will ultimately be provided in the form of
heat.

4,18. 10?@
1 𝑀𝑇𝑂𝐸 = 𝑘𝑊ℎ
3,6. 10@

Mass can be transformed in Energy but essentially in the form of heat.

CONSERVATION LAWS IN CLASSICAL MECHANICS

NEWTON’S LAWS

1. A body on which no external force is exerted is either at rest, or is moving along a

rectilinear uniform trajectory;
2. If we exert an external force on a body, it is then accelerated by : 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
3. For each force or action exerted on a body, there is an opposite force or reaction of the
same magnitude and direction. If there is a change

THE KINETIC ENERGY THEOREM

1. Elementary work

When we apply the 2d law of Newton on a vector dr:

𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹⃗ . KKKK⃗ KKKKKK⃗ . KKKK⃗

𝑑𝑟 = 𝑚𝑎 𝑑𝑟
LM
Thanks to the fact that 𝐹 = 𝑚 L- :

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 1
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑑( 𝑚𝑣 Q )
2

2. Application to a finite trajectory

We can calculate the amount of work between time 1

(A) and 2 (B) with the integral:
W
1
S 𝑑 T 𝑚𝑣 Q U = 𝑊VW
V 2

Meaning that:

1 1
𝑊VW = 𝑚𝑣WQ − 𝑚𝑣VQ = ∆𝐸0*+
2 2

We can thus conclude that the kinetic energy increases when the work is positive and vice versa
(e.g. turbines). That’s why we say that the kinetic energy theorem expressed the conservation
of energy.

3. Potential energy

If we consider a mass m moving from P to Pref because of its gravity (𝐹 =

? ?
𝑚𝑔). This means that in the distance AB: 𝑊VW = Q 𝑚𝑣WQ − Q 𝑚𝑣VQ and the
difference of the two different potential 𝑢[ and 𝑔:
W
𝑊VW = ∫V −𝑚𝑔𝑢
KKKK⃗.
[ 𝑑𝑧𝑢 [ = −𝑚𝑔𝑍(𝐵 ) + 𝑚𝑔𝑍(𝐴).
KKKK⃗

We find:

1 1
𝑚𝑣VQ + 𝑚𝑔𝑍(𝐴) = 𝑚𝑣WQ + 𝑚𝑔𝑍(𝐵)
2 2
We can now call the 𝑚𝑔𝑍 as the potential energy. Each value of Z has a potential energy. We
then know that: 𝐸0*+ + 𝐸,1- = 𝐸 = 𝐶𝑠𝑡 or that the sum of the deltas is equal to 0. This means
that if the potential energy decreases, the kinetic one will decrease. This is also the general form
of the conservation law of energy:

𝑊VW = ∆𝐸0*+ + ∆𝐸,1-

EQUIVALENCE MASS-ENERGY

We saw in the previous section the situation of a body which has ONLY kinetic and potential
energy. What if it has also other forms of energy?

1. Limitations of Newton’s laws

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We have to review the laws of a body that moves at high speed (close to the speed of light) but
this is not the case if the mass of the body increases with speed.
𝑚d
𝑚=
Q
e1 − 𝑣 Q
𝑐

2. The relativistic theorem of kinetic energy

L
The second law of Newton becomes: 𝐹⃗ = L- (𝑚𝑣⃗) with m from above. We can also assume that
there is no extra force giving rise to potential energy. If the particle has a speed 𝑣 = 0 at time
1, the work AB is used to create kinetic energy. We get than:
W M
KKKK⃗ = 𝐸0*+ = S (𝑚𝑣𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣 Q 𝑑𝑚)
𝑊VW = S 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟
V d

We can now replace the m’s with the above relation and find the kinetic energy:

𝑊VW = 𝑚𝑐 Q − 𝑚d 𝑐 Q

For Einstein, the relationship is the starting point to postulate the principle of equivalence of
mass and energy, and to extend the basic law of conservation of energy by invoquing mass. We
can thus rewrite it:

𝐸0*+ + 𝑚d 𝑐 Q = 𝑚𝑐 Q

Einstein proposed to give to this relation that the total energy of a moving body includes partly
its mass (𝑚d 𝑐 Q ) and a kinetic energy. Because E is the total energy:

𝑬 = 𝒎𝒄𝟐

Finally:

𝑊VW = ∆𝑚d 𝑐 Q + ∆𝐸0*+ + ∆𝐸,1-

The hypothesis of the equivalence of energy and mass is perfectly confirmed in fission and
fusion processes because the variation in rest mass is important.

3. Applications
a. Proton collides with antiprotons1 à two particles disappear = ANNIHILATION
which will give powerful bright flash during explosion
b. Fusion is a partial transformation (e.g. nuclear reaction) from nucleus of deuterium
(D) and tritium nucleus (T). We find a large amount of energy being released in
kinetic energy. They both have at the beginning a basic mass energy (𝑚d,k 𝑐 Q ) and

1
We do not have 100% natural antimatter on Earth meaning we cannot fully exploit the reaction

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 a kinetic energy. Total energy before and after reaction has to be the same (basic
chemical law).
This able us to find the ∆𝑚 being the mass defect (i.e. difference between the rest
masses of reactants and products of the reaction). When it is positive, kinetic energy
of reaction products is much larger than that of reactants. We can express the ∆𝑚 in
a percentage of the rest mass at the beginning transformed in energy.

4. The energy equivalent of the mass defect and heat

If we let the same reaction happen in a gas phase (or more precisely in a plasma), our D-T
mixture will be transformed in helium (like before) but we won’t get neutrons this time
because they will deposit their kinetic energy in the form of heat in the vessel surrounding
the gases.

We can thus conclude that the temperature of helium is much higher than that of the initial
mixture. Therefore, we can argue that the energy equivalent of the mass defect is ultimately
released in the form of an amount of heat (𝑄 = −∆𝑚d 𝑐 Q ). The system can then receive heat
Q from chemical reactions but also from nuclear reactions.

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 CHAPTER 3: TRANSFORMATION OF HEAT INTO OTHER FORMS OF
ENERGY

CONCEPTS

THERMODYNAMICS

à transformation of heat into other forms of energy but, pay attention because there are
difference between temperature and heat:

• Heat (Q) = exchange of Energy = Energy going in or out of system (J)

• T° is a property of an internal energy content

Thermodynamics is studying how an external medium act on real physical systems, fluids,
solids, etc. We have to determine the boundaries of the system which can be considered as
limited (isolate).

We will also consider the system as having NO kinetic energy. Sometimes, the action of the
environment has a considerable influence depending on the “walls” limiting the system. When
those walls are deformable, work can be provided to the system. If not deformable, work can
be exchanged as heat or through a force acting at distance (e.g. magnetic). Some walls are
“adiabatic” meaning they do not transfer the heat.

The thermodynamic system’s prototype is a fluid enclosed in a Carnot machine (cylinder closed
by a piston): work can be done on the fluid while the walls allow heat exchange.

A system enclosed in a container whose walls are adiabatic and NOT deformable, not subjected
to forces acting at a distance, reaches after long enough time a state which does not change any
more in time. We say that the system is in a state of equilibrium.

By extension, a system which is non-adiabatic and/or deformable is in equilibrium if heat/work

have stopped long enough. Each transformation will be extremely slow, so that the system goes
through a succession of equilibrium states. We call that the “reversible transformation”.

à ONLY an approximation of the reality

REVERSIBLE TRANSFORMATIONS – WORK DONE DURING COMPRESSION OF A

FLUID

Considering a certain quantity of homogeneous fluid/solid as the system in equilibrium, we find

that the rest of the system is determined by:

- Pressure (p) in pascals [Pa] meaning 1N/m2, 1 atm +/- 1 bar;

- Volume (V).

We can define it only with two quantities because the other ones can be found
when p and V are determined. In the case of having a system in an ideal gas: the

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law of Gay-Lussac tells us (with N = total number of molecules in V and k = Boltzmann
constant (= 1,38.10-23J/K):

𝑝𝑉
𝑇=
𝑁𝑘
The mole is also an important concept to understand: it represents a certain quantity of
molecules/atoms being equal to 6,022.1023 called the Avogadro constant. In standard
conditions of temperature (273K) and pressure (1 atm), the volume is 22,4L.

We can illustrate the transformation of a system in a (p, V) diagram also known as a Clapeyron
diagram. Each equilibrium is represented by a dot and the continuous transformation by a
continuous curve.

1) Position 1

When the piston goes down, the pressure exerted by it (with a certain force 𝐹⃗) is equilibrated
by the fluid resisting to it (with −𝐹⃗ ). This can be expressed by the sum of the weight of the
K⃗q ) and the atmospheric pressure exerted on the top surface (S) (𝑝V 𝑆𝑢
piston (mg𝑢 K⃗q ):

𝐹⃗ = mg𝑢
K⃗q + 𝑝V 𝑆𝑢
K⃗q
tq
By compressing the volume, the pressure will increase (p>p1): 𝑝 = 𝑃V + u

We can now calculate the work (W)

KKKK⃗
knowing that p1<p<p2: 𝛿𝑊 = 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟
with KKKKK⃗
𝒅𝒓 being the variation of
volume. Because dV is the variation
of volume, it will be negative when
the volume decreases (in this case) resulting in a positive KKKK⃗
𝑑𝑟
when the volume diminishes. If the fluid is compressed from
position A to B, we can express it by:
W
𝑊VW = − S 𝑝𝑑𝑉
V

The work is thus represented by the hatched area under

the curve. This illustrates what they are transmitted to
the outside environment which will then react. The
closed transformations (or cycle) illustrates the fact
that the system goes back to its initial state (if not like
here above, then it’s an “open process”). The reversible
cycle is illustrated with C on the pV diagram (work is
positive when anti-clockwise).

THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

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THE INTERNAL ENERGY OF AN IDEA GAS

The first law is the conservation of Energy: 𝑊 + 𝑄 = ∆𝑈 (Q>0 and N>0 if outside world gives
heat to the systems)

Ideal gas is a set of molecules (infinitely small) which do not exert force on each other.
However, they can exert force on the container walls surrounding them (Carnot machine).
Those molecules have Ekin even the container doesn’t move. The sum of all the Ekin = internal
E. (U)

If an external force gives work: 𝑊 = 𝐸0*+ + 𝐸,1- + D𝑈. SO, the work given by the outside
world will be 100% translated into internal 2 (U). If system does work to the outside world, U
decreases.

∆𝑈 > 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑈 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝑣 𝑣
𝑈= 𝑁𝑘𝑇, 𝑈 = 𝑝𝑉
2 2
(V = 3 or 5 depending on the gas)

When a system goes from A to B, W and Q are dependent on the path followed by the p-v
diagram while the DU is path independent.

THE FIRST LAW

LAW: No matter how the system at rest goes from state of equilibrium A to B, the outside
world always provides or receives the same amount of Energy. This energy can take a
mechanical or thermal form or both. It does an increasing or decreasing of U (DU).

𝑊 + (𝑄1 + 𝑄2) = D𝑈

𝑊 = −𝑄

(because system returns to its initial stage)

If the system is not at rest: 𝑊 + 𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + ∆𝐸}*+ + ∆𝐸,1-

STATE TRANSFORMATONS OF AN IDEAL GAS WITHOUT HEAT EXCHANGE

Basis:

• 𝑄=0
• ∆𝑈 = 𝑊
• 𝑑𝑈 = −𝑝𝑑𝑉

à Demonstration p.33

pV = cst (Carnot cycle = 2 isothermal + 2 isentropic)

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THE INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE
Gasoline engines: thermal energy becomes mechanical energy. The efficiency is low. (Because we lose
a part of the thermal energy). The movement of the piston is cyclic. This cyclic can be represented on
a p-V diagram and is called the cycle of Beau de Roches-otto.

The mixture at the beginning = air and petrol. But at the end, it is a mixture of air, water vapour
and CO2 and unburned fuel.

To give an thermodynamic description, we idealize our system into a simpler Carnot machine,
growing the values. We only consider the BCDE part.

The theoretical motor efficiency is the ratio of the mechanical Energy (-W) supplied by the
machine to the environment (outside world) about the thermal E QCO received by the motor
during the combustion:

−𝑊
𝜂=
𝑄~k − 𝑄•€•1)*+'

In a cyclic process, -W = Q here Q is the total amount of heat exchanged with the outside world:

Q = QCD + QEB à

‚ƒ ?
• ‚„
= ?d
= 𝐶𝑅

Theoretical h:

BUT

1) idealization so 0,6.0,6 = 0,36

2) We have frictions (20%) so 0,36.0,8 = 0,29 = 𝜂

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THE CARNOT CYCLE

In this course, all will be simplified into a Carnot cycle. Since it’s reversible, there is no
generation of entropy. The Carnot efficiency is a relative energy à “Real” efficiency consider
all frictions. So, h is decreasing.

In the Carnot cycle, there is no entropy creation. The reduced

heat is 0. The best (most efficient) cycle is the Carnot cycle
(because the surface under curve is bigger (WI).

Only heat exchange during the two isothermal steps.

𝑊 + (𝑄1 + 𝑄2) = ∆𝑈 → 𝑇° of 1 at beginning and end of the
cycle is the same.

𝑊 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 𝑇Q
𝜂=− = ⟺𝜂 =1−
𝑄? 𝑄1 𝑇?
à This able us to work only with two temperatures anymore.

Actually, an efficiency of 100% is only possible with T° = 0K =

-273°C. In practice, T° = +/- 300K. This efficiency is known as
relative content of exergy. Exergy is the maximum amount of
W which can be extracted from a certain amount of Q, during a
Carnot cycle.
Šdd
EXERGY = 1 - ‹Œ

ENTROPY AND THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Start with the Carnot cycle:

𝑄? 𝑄Q
+ =0
𝑇? 𝑄?

Amount of exchanged reduced heat = ratio of the amount of heat exchanged and the T° at which
it is exchanged (the T° of source and of the system because it is a reversible process à T =
Tsource = Tsystem):
d𝑄
= 𝑑𝑆
𝑇

The amount of reduced heat during a Carnot cycle is zero, then we take the integral of a cycle.

THE SECOND LAW

15
The amount of reduced heat exchanged during an irreversible transformation is always smaller
than during a reversible transformation. The integral of the reduced heat for an irreversible is <
0.

CYCLES AND ONE HEAT SOURCES

•
‹Ž
≤0 Q= Heat that the system
gives to the colder heat source

𝑊 = −𝑄 →𝑊 > 0

(example biking when we break)

The heat, exchanged with a source, can never be completely

converted into work. Reverse process is however always possible.

CYCLES AND TWO HEAT SOURCES:

From the second law, it is impossible to carry out a system whose only result would be the
hand-over of heat from a cold to a hot source. Some work is always needed.

A system not following a cycle process:

W W W
𝛿𝑄*••'M 𝛿𝑄•'M
S ≤S = S 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑆W − 𝑆V
V 𝑇&1%•}' V 𝑇&1%•}' V

The entropy of a system isolated from the outside world (Qin = 0):

𝑆V ≤ 𝑆W

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THE CONCLUSION ABOUT IT

1) Nature tends to an increase of entropy

2) Work and all forms of non-thermal E do not have entropy
3) Heat represents entropy (amount of reduced heat). It is impossible to fully transform
heat into work because that would make the entropy decreases.
4) Heat from a cold heat source cannot be fully converted into heat delivered to a hot heat
source because entropy would decreases. E with low entropy can be converted into E
with high E.
5) The difference in quality between high and low T° heat is technically expressed through
relative exergy content.

THE HEAT PUMP (VERY SUSTAINABLE WAY OF HEATING)

If we reverse the Carnot cycle: heat from cold heat source à hot heat source (= work)

There is the principle of a cooling (ex: fridge) installation of an air conditioning system and a
heat pump (ex: room inside a house).

Example: outside = -10°C and inside we want = 20°C. And we want 1KWh of heat inside :

𝑄Q = 1 𝑘𝑊ℎ

𝑄Q 263
𝑄? = 𝑄Q + 𝑊 ⟺ = = 0,9
𝑄? 293

𝑄? = 1,11 𝑘𝑊ℎ

1,11 − 1 = 0,11 𝑘𝑊ℎ

Meaning this must be provided by work somehow.

17
 CHAPTER 4: FOSSIL FUELS

WHAT HAPPENS DURING FOSSIL FUEL COMBUSTION?

Solid fuel are mainly made of carbon and the combustion of carbon is:

𝐶 + 0Q → 𝐶0Q + 𝑸 (= coal)

Coal isn’t only composed of carbon like we see here BUT the main part of the energy of
combustion comes from the carbon itself.

𝐶𝐻— + 20Q → 𝐶𝑂Q + 2𝐻Q 𝑂 + 𝑸 (= natural gas)

Natural gas is composed of 80-85% of methane. 𝐶𝐻— :

- HHV (High veating value) like liquid water

- LHV (Low heating value) like gas water

1𝑘𝑔 (𝐶 ) + 2,6𝑘𝑔(𝑂Q ) → 3,67𝑘𝑔 (𝐶𝑂Q ) + 𝟑𝟐, 𝟕 𝑴𝑱

1,85𝑚Š → 1,75𝑚Š

The ratio carbon/hydrogen for liquid fossil fuels is about halfway between natural gas and coal.
During the process of burning fossil fuels, greenhouse gas is formed (carbon dioxide = CO2)
and a lot of O2 is consumed. Solid fossil fuels produce more CO2 than gaseous or liquid fuels.
Emission of CO2/MJ of produced heat:

• Natural gas: 50-60 g

• Oil (petrol): 65-70 g
• Coal: 80-100 g

Other stuffs are released: sulphur oxides and nitrogen are released, which creates “acid rain”
and other types of pollution. It also forms particulate matter (PM). We also consume a huge
amount of O2.

The photosynthesis is the most important large-scale transformation of energy. During this
process, 0,023% (129.106 MTOE) of solar energy on earth is transformed into chemical energy
(30.103 MTOE).

6 𝐶𝑂Q + 5 𝐻Q 0 → 𝐶@ 𝐻?d 𝑂£ + 6 0Q

In other terms:

0,023% from 5,4.10Q— 𝐽 = 1,24.10Q? 𝐽 = 3000 𝑀𝑇𝑂𝐸 → 6.10Qd 𝐽 (14000 𝑀𝑇𝑂𝐸)

This energy can be used as biomass or after fossilization, as fossil fuel.

“CLASSIC” ENERGY CONVERTERS FOR FOSSIL FUELS

18
Three main types of use: heating,
mechanical work (propulsion),
electricity.

Exergie only depends on 1 T°. The

efficiency for 2 T2 is the outside
temperature. The Carnot efficiency
only represents the higher limit of
the efficiency.

𝑊 𝑇? − 𝑇Q 𝑇Q
𝜂}€•+1- = − = = 1− meaning TQ ≈ 300𝐾
𝑄? 𝑇? 𝑇?

Because from a theoretical point of view: if TQ equals 300 K, T? would be undefined

(unlimited). The exergy would be than:

300
1− = 100%
𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖

HEATING

The goal is to extract the maximum oh heat from the combustion and pass it to a heat transfer
medium (air or water). Example: boilers.

The conversion efficiency is +/- 70% and can reach 90% for oil or gas boiler.

useful final energy −𝑄Q

𝜂= =
needed primary energy that is paid for 𝑄?‹

Why the useful final energy? Because there

is no additional work needed.

Ex.: boiler with integrated enameled storage

tank, up to 26 kW with a capacity of 100
liters or 130 liters (35 kW). Efficiency is
than 98% (HHV)/ 109% (LHV) because we
decide with the most optimistic value of Q1
(otherwise they create energy from
nowhere).

è Needed primary energy to be paid for = Higher Heating Value of the fuel (LHV)
²³´µ ¶·µ¸·µ ¶¹ º¶»¼³½
1. η = ¾¾¿ ¶¹ µ²³ ´À¶·Áµ ¶¹ ·Â³Ã Á´µ·½´¼ Ä´Â
2. η = +/− 90% for boilers

The fuel generates hot water at 80-90°C to heat a room at 22°C à the fuel exergy is degenerated
during the process.

19
CONVERSION OF HEAT INTO MECHANICAL ENERGY/ELECTRICY
• Gasoline (vehicles) and gas engine have a power between 10 and 500 kW and diesel
(boats, car): 20 kW-40MW.
• Gas turbine (planes): 1-1000 MW
• Steam turbine (electrical production): 1-1000 MW

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE (DIESEL) – ICE

Internal combustion engine (ICE): average power = 100 kW = 135 hp.

We compress here only AIR what allows us to compress at a higher ratio!

There are many differences between diesel and gasoline (spark ignition) in the process and in
the consequence (diesel pollutes more).

GAS TURBINE – GT
The gas turbine h = +/- 25-30%. For air aircraft, until 40%.

STEAM ENGINE/TURBINE
Starting point of the Industrial Revolution and mass transport (locomotive). Steam engines can
handle more heat per unit of time than gas à more powerful. Steam engines have been replaced

STEAM ENGINE STEAM TURBINE

by steam turbines.

We use high pressure and low-pressure turbines to get the maximum of the stream!

20
The Steam T° = 425°C – condenser T° = 35°C à theoretical h = 0,36. In practice, it is a little
lower.

ELECTRIC POWER PLANTS

ONE-STAGE CONVERSION

Dynamics? You cannot “play”

with those powerplants meaning
you cannot modulate the
production without losing
energy. It’s because the primary
energy is in “solid force” which
means it’s very undynamic
because it takes a lot of time to
modify the production level.

1. Rankine Cycle

The cycle is called a Rankine cycle. It’s “h” is determined by the T° difference between the
condenser and the boiler.

This doesn’t look like a Carnot cycle because Carnot is ONLY applicable for gases !

2. Carnot Cycle

h > 90%
heat → mechanical energy → electrical energy

21
48% > 𝜂 > 32% → depending on the T° of the heat source

In case of a simple stage gas turbine, it is an open cycle gas turbine (OCGT). Compared to the
coal final power plants, their “h” is lower but the CO2 emissions too. The advantage of the
OCGT is their rapidity. The price of electricity is also more expensive.

TWO-STAGE CONVERSION

A better conversion “h” is good for the ecological foot print because it needs less primary
energy. This is why the CCGT was created.

GENERATOR 1
Heat Gas turbine (1200-1400°C) Electricity (h = 40%)
Q (400°-600°C) Steam turbine Electricity (h = 55-60%)
GENERATOR 2

Gas

→ 𝑸𝑨𝟐 = 𝑸𝑩𝟏
(absolute value)

Stream

𝑊V
𝜂V = −
𝑄V,?

𝑊W
𝜂W = −
𝑄W,?

WTOT = WA + WB

So, for two stages where the output of the first stage is recycled as input for the second one :

Stage A Stage B

22
 −𝑊-1-
𝜂-1- = = 𝜂V + 𝜂W (1 − 𝜂V )
𝑄?Q

COGENERATION

Cogeneration = CHP (stands for ‘combined heat & power’).

It is simultaneous conversion of the heat content of some fuel into electricity (“power”) and
“heat” simultaneously. It is an important method to save Energy and limit the CO2.

Always
with
losses

If the temperature is too low, we cannot raise the waste to produce electricity! But you can raise
this heat to heat 2 houses and something…! We won’t be able to recycle everything but a large
majority of it.
Primary
Energy
Savings
(P.E.S.)

0,35 + 0,5
𝜂=
1
𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
In order to find the input: 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 = 𝜼𝑬
. If you want to look at the efficiency at home, where
you wait the electricity, you have to consider some losses on the way between the plant and
home.

0,35 0,5
𝑃. 𝐸. 𝑆. = T + U − 1 (𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚)
0,55 0,9

23
 0,35 𝑥
Ô + Ö−1
0,55 0,9
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑃𝐸𝑆 = =1
0,35 𝑥
( + )
0,55 0,9

1
𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑷𝑬𝑺 = 1 −
0,35 𝑥
0,55 + 0,9

In this case:

- 0,35: Electricity production à relatively constant

- X: Because it’s the loss used to heat, but is is not always useful !! X à it’s a fraction of
what you used to heat.

So,

𝟏
𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑷𝑬𝑺 = 𝟏 −
𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒕é é𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒆 𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒕é 𝒅𝒆 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒖𝒓
𝜼𝑬
+ 𝜼𝑸

To produce the same quantities (of Q & elec) in the separate production, we need 1/2 unit of
primary energy while a CPH need 1 unit.

CARNOT INVERTED 4-3-2-1= CARNOT HEAT PUMP

The heat pump is a good solution to save primary energy for the production of low quality heat.
The heat pump cycle begins with the extraction of heat from the cold heat source (ex: air around
us) by means of a heat exchanger (= the collector/evaporator). This heat is collected by a
working fluid, which evaporates. This fluid is then compressed by a compressor, which
increases its internal energy in order to pass some heat (via the condenser) to the hot heat source.
The fluid described a good approximation of the Carnot cycle (thermodynamically).

The “W” illustrates the most

sustainable/renewable way of
producing energy but it needs a
mechanical work input.

The heat at T1 must be higher than in

the house at a level proportion to the
efficiency of the heating city.

The deeper we go, the higer

and more stable and constant
will the temperature be.

24
The coefficient of performance of the pump can be calculated thanks to:

|𝑄? | 𝑇?
𝐶𝑂𝑃 = =
𝑊 𝑇? − 𝑇Q

We search the higher 𝑇Q as possible. But it’s the temperature of the environment, so we
actually can’t have any influence on it. That’s why the heat pump will be less efficient during
winter. This is why it’s combined with an electrical resistance.

N.B.: for a refrigerator, we’ll put the Q2 on top of the fraction.

For a heat pump, h= COP because COP>1

1%-,%- L'M*}'
h= *+,%- L'M*}'

The high performance can be obtained because the final energy Q1 is at a low temperature
(T1). For an outside temperature of T2 = 10°C and an inside temperature of T1 = 20°, COP =
9,7 since 1 kWh would produce 9,7 kWh of heat. In practice, 5 > GP > 2.

The more important choice is the one of the heat distribution system (floor heating or radiators).

Average thermal production per year = 4x1010 J (+/- 1000 l of fuel).

Average COP = 3,2 (depends on the seasons).

Another type uses the ground source heat with a heat exchanger based on pipes in the ground.
Their COP is high.

25
 CHAPTER 5: NUCLEAR ENERGY

The reserves seem to be still OK for the moment. It would last longer than fossil fuels (that we
used way more than nuclear). There is no greenhouse gas production with nuclear energy
production because there is no burning of H2.

BINDING ENERGY AND THE PRINCIPLE OF FISSION AND FUSION

Matter is made up of molecules and atoms. Each atom is composed of a nucleus, surrounded
by a number of electrons.

BINDING ENERGY OF THE NUCLEUS

Each nucleus is composed of a nucleon with some protons (Z) and some neutrons (A-Z). A is
the mass number and Z is the atomic number. They appear in the notation to identify a nucleus.

𝑍 = ??𝑃 + (𝐴 − 𝑍). ?d𝑛 → V[𝑋

We will always have a negative delta of mass. We can translate the equation in:

- Z: Number of protons present in the nucleus

?
- ?𝑃 : Mass of proton
- A: Atom mass, it isn’t a normal number because the atom exists in more than one isotope
form.
- A-Z: number of neutrons
?
- d𝑛 : Mass of neutron
V
- [ 𝑋 : Mass will be lower than what we should get because a part of the mass is
transformed in energy.
QŠ£
Ex: ãQ𝑈 is the isotope of uranium which contains 92 protons and 143 neutrons.
If the A nucleons are far from each other and we want to join them, work is needed because
protons repelled each other. But this fusion reaction will provide more energy to the outside
world because, at a short distance, nuclear forces tend to bring n0 and pt closed together. The
network that is released is called blinding energy EB of the nucleus. Since the energy is supplied
to the outside world, it is negative. The larger it is, the more work the outside world has to do
separate the nucleus in its constituent parts. The larger it is, the more stable the nucleus.

26
Change in binding E/nucleon in function of atomic mass. The red line can be calculated thanks
to:

|𝐸W | 𝑐Q
= −∆𝑚.
𝐴 𝐴
with ∆𝑚 = 𝑚ä − (𝑍𝑚, + (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑚, ).
QŠ£
Example: ???𝑈 , always 92 protons so for the 235 one, we have 149 neutrons.

𝐸W = 7,5 𝑥 235 [𝑀𝑒𝑉 ] = 1800

If we separative it in 2: we find 8,5 [MeV]/nuclean. This means that we have a

𝐸W = 2 (𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑜 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓𝑠)𝑥 8,5 𝑥 199(ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑜𝑓 236) = 2000

So each fission reaction produce 200 (MeV)

N.B.: 1 MeV = 106.1,6.1019 jouls

|$W|
The binding E/nuclear V
is sort of a label for the stability of the nucleus (figure 2 last page).
The unit of the vertical axis (binding E/nucleon) is the MeV= mega electron volt = 1 MeV=
1,6x10-13. According to this graph, we see that the most stable nuclei are those whose mass
number is between 50 and 100. We can produce energy by nuclear fusion or fission.

We have different kinds of applications:

- Nuclear fusion (sun, H-bomb, research)

- Nuclear fission (natural, A-bomb, production of electricity):
o Natural: slow (which is different than non-radioactive);
o Induced fission chain reaction (by collision with neutrons).

N.B.: 232 TH and 238 U are ‘fertile’ à they only need a small manipulation to
become ‘fissile’.

FISSION AND CHAIN REACTIONS

The natural fission of an atom is extremely rare and is slow. There is a minimal amount of
energy needed to overrule the nuclear force, which binds the 2 fragments of the original half-
nuclei, which want to separate. There are only 3 radioactive nuclides in nature which split
spontaneously:

Large scale fission can only be achieved by bombing a nucleus with neutrons.

Example of fission of 235U:

27
The example shown ‘2 halfs’ of the uranium which is called a DN (Daughter Nuclei) which is
a nuclear waste. Just after the fission, those elements are certainly not on their most … state.
They need to be a rearrangement of the electrons in the orbitals (if takes years to happen). We
also see an escaping of some other elements in the second part of the equation (with a gamma
showing the radiation). The 2 neutrons released will be used directly after to produce 2 other
fission reactions. Finally, this fission produce 200 MeV.

The more time we use the same uranium be, the more difficult it is for the newly released
neutrons to find a uranium atom (because where it’s used, it’s gone).

In average, 2 or 3 neutrons escape from the fission of uranium. This is the principle of nuclear
energy: from n0, you can produce 2n0 and from those 2n0, you can produce 2 other n0:

However, not all nuclei can undergo induced fission by a neutron and not all neutrons cause
eventually a fission. To make certain nuclei fission, the neutron must itself have a minimum
amount of energy (ex: 1,2 MeV for 238U). Some others like 233U; 235U; 239Pu can already fission
under the impact of so-called thermal neutrons. In short, chain reactions are not always
happening.

Chain reaction is self-sustaining. To reach it, a critical mass must be

Principle of chain reaction
assembled because at the boundaries, n0 are frequently lost. This mass
is called the critical mass. For a supercritical mass, the multiplication
factor is > 1 and an explosion reaction may occur: this is a bomb. For
a nuclear reactor, the Power is constant and the multiplication factor
remains 1.
Critical mass of 235U = 53 kg. (only 0,7% of natural uranium is 235U).

The 235U is real sustainable source because we can find it in nature and we can initiate a
sustainable reaction. 0,7% of natural uranium is the 235 one, 99,3% is 238U. We cannot
separate them in a chemical way because they are the same element. So, we have to initiate it.

Dangers

28
THE ATOMIC BOMB

The simplest atomic bomb is based on the gun principle (ex:

Hiroshima).

Regarding the scheme, if there are

not enough elements, the reactive will end too quickly (neutrons go
outside). There is more leakage than energy production.
‹é' '+'•qê ,•1L%}-*1+
∆-
should be maximized.

The multiplicator factor k>1:

Two fragments of 235U have critical masses and to demote a bomb,

we project one mass in the other one by an explosive charge. The
meeting has to happen quickly to avoid premature ignition of the
individual mass. The critical mass depends on the material (100%
pure):

“Reflector” is a stage around the nucleons to reflect neutrons to

the outside. It decreases the critical mass needed.

“Compression” means that the elements are so close from each other’s that the neutrons hit
other elements really quickly which creates a very sensitive and even early ignition.

In order to start the chain reaction, small amounts of the 2 substances are put in contact (ex:
beryllium and polonium). It is called the initiator which produce the first neutron via a (α, n)
reaction.

A more sophisticated technique is the implosion technique (ex.: FatMan on Nagasaki).

29
THE NUCLEAR REACTOR (FISSION)

A subcritical mass 239Pu is compressed to a higher density and becomes supercritical. By this
technique, we avoid premature ignition. Uranium and plutonium, intended for bomb must be
very pure because otherwise the mass and the weight of the bomb is too big. 235U represents
only 0,7% of natural uranium, so has to be enriched with 238U. This is however a difficult
process. It can be done by gaseous diffusion or gaseous centrifugation. Since 239Pu is not found
in nature, it has to be produced in a nuclear reactor by transmutation of 238U:

The fission of the 235U is made into 2 daughter nuclei giving:

𝑛 + 235U → fission fragments + 2 or 3 neutrons + 200 MeV

‘n’ doesn’t need to much velocity because it has to hit the uranium slowly or even only touch
it. The neutrons come out as fast neutrons BUT we need them to initiate the next reaction.
That’s why we need a moderator. The 235U fission works best with “thermalized neutrons” (e.a.
water) because it moderates the speed of the incoming neutrons. In power plants, we use Low
Enriched Uranium (LEU) which is composed of 5% of 235 and 95% of 238. Because it’s very
costly to enrich the uranium to get more 235, it is necessary to optimize the use of the neutrons.
That’s why we will slowing down the newly produced neutrons.

In practice, it is a mixture of 238U and 235U (LEU or HEU), places in a reactor with fission of
235
U. The 2 neutrons will be produced. One goes with another nucleus of 235U and one with
238
U to form 239Pu. So, we produced the same quantity of 239Pu as the amount of 235U that
disappeared.

A reactor doing this job is called a converter. A reactor whose purpose is the production of
fissile material from non-fissile (fertile) material is a converter.

Attention: it cannot stay too long in the reactor because there is a danger that it becomes 240Pu
(not fissile à impurity)

30
In nuclear reactor, we try to keep the multiplicator factor constant and equal to 1:

Since it is LEU, the U mixed is no longer critical because the neutrons are lost for fission. More
fuel is needed to sustain a nuclear reaction based on fast neutrons (like in a bomb). But k = 1 is
difficult to keep.

So, U is introduced into the reactor in the form of control rods (the total insertion of the control
rods causes a complete stop of the reactor) (ex: bore acid), which are separately surrounded
by a moderator. It helps to stop the chain reaction. The role of the moderator is to slow down
the very fast fission neutrons to bring then back to their initial velocity (2 MeV) and cool down
the rods.

Two advantages of this:

• The neutrons are less absorb by the 238U nuclei

• They are more efficient for fission with 235U nuclei

The moderator is with heavy water (D2O); graphite (pure carbon) or ordinary pure water (H2O).

We produce fissile material by ‘simply’ produce power. We use naturel uranium and we can
create plutonium (for military use). The amount of 235U we put in a nuclear reactor, depends on
the desired power. They choose for 235U after WWII it’s because it can produce plutonium
that can be used for military purpose.

There are some consequences of the nuclear reactor fission:

• Daughter nuclei are radioactive;

• Neutrons also collide with 238U which means the formation of 239Pu (toxique, chain
reaction with fast neutrons and proliferation of bomb)

P = N x 200 MeV

N is the number of neutrons per second, capable of inducing a new fission reaction.

It is important to control N carefully because it controls rods.

Major part the 200 MeV

produced is HEAT. That’s
why we heat water to use
its steam.

The big drawck of the

decision: radio activity
everywhere.

31
 PRESSURIZED WATER REACTOR – NUCLEAR REACTORS FOR ELECTRICITY
PRODUCTION

In 2018, 454 reactors were producing 10% of total electricity consumption (global). Most of
them are PWR which are pressurized water reactors or BWR which is Boiling Water Reactor
(more efficient than PWR). In a BWR (ex: Fukushima), the steam that drives the turbine is
produced in the reactor vessel. There is more radioactivity (250 DARI for personnel-15 DARI
for population) risks than a PWR (PWR = more secure). In Belgium, 50% of electricity is
produced by 7 PWR reactors. PWR also power submarines. Since we have a mix of 235U and
238
U which becomes 239Pu and is a self-sustaining reactor (called breeder reactor), it can solve
the energy problem. But this is not sufficient because at some point, since the n0 are slaved
down by moderator and we use fast neutrons, which has consequences:

• 2,7 new n0 are created with fast n0 instead of 2,11 à more 238U nuclei can be
transformed into new fissile Pu.
• The critical mass of 239Pu increases.
à This means that breeder reactor is costly and most countries are still in the testing
phase.

Heat exchange
between clean
and radio active
water (pipe)

You take way the

heat produced by the
rods

NO RADIOACTIVITY

î•1L%}'L $+'•qê *+ ? ê'€• (0ïé)

Capacity factor = ð1t*+€) î (0ï) ä ñò@d (é)
≈ 90 𝑡𝑜 95%

THE USE OF MOX

MOX fuel = Mixed oxide fuel is a mixture if uranium oxides and plutonium oxides, with Pu
concentration of 8%. It is controversed because Pu is really toxic but at the same time, the use
of P is interesting to save uranium.

RADIATION ISSUES AND SOCIAL ACCEPTANCE OF NUCLEAR ENERGY

• Higher radiation in the direct vicinity

• Accidents (e.a. Tchernobyl, Fukushima)
• Half-life times (for the waste)
• Proliferation of WMD

32
Obtaining energy from fission of heavy nuclei is questioned since the risks. Most of the dangers
are related to radioactivity but also: operational risks, risk of an accident, waste storage and
proliferation of nuclear weapons (ex: Iran)

Radioactive radiation is set of particles and photons emitted by nuclei when nuclear reaction
takes place. Many products of fission are radioactive. The radioactivity unit is the becquerel
(1 Bq = 1 disintegration/sec) or the curie (1 Ci = 3,7 x 107 Bq). It causes damage to human
cells. DARI = Dose Annuelle due aux radiations internes. A DARI is the dose that a person
receives because of radioactive elements naturally present in its own body. The number of
disintegration (second for a reactor = nuclear inventory and during all its life = the cumulative
inventory. In BEL: 15 DARI, CT-Scan: 40 DARI where the legal limit for people working on
nuclear power plant is up to 250 DARI.

1) Risk for the personnel working there. Can be measured by the amount of µSv/h (Sv =
Sievert = Q.Gy (Gray)) absorbed by one person. The worker must be protected!
2) The b or a emitters (Pu) with a long half-time period can enter the body when you
breathe, eat or drink.
3) Radioactivity is a non-stationary process and you never know when it will be stopped
after the reactor has been shuttled down. Some can last for millennia.
4) Proliferation of nuclear weapons.

NUCLEAR FUSION (A LIRE, PAS ETUDIER)

PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES OF FUSION REACTIONS

Nuclear fusion consists of the combination of two light nuclei into one heavier nucleus. It is
possible to obtain as much energy by fusion from 1 litre of water, via deuterium present in
nature as the combustion of 300 liters of oil. This is an enormous potential of nuclear fusion.

Ex: Sun, Tsar bomba, Tokamak

D and T are both positively charged so they repel each

other by a force given by Coulon’s law. So first, we
need to do some work to overcome that force. The
energy, Emin = 0,4 MeV is needed to reduce distance
between D-T up to 3,7 x 10-15m. Then, attraction to
fusion can start. This explains why fusion reaction is
really difficult to achieve.

33
Usually, we give heat to the nuclei (10 000 k à thermonuclear Temperature) and D-T
dissociate into positive ions and negative electrons. We speak of a plasma state of the gas.

1 3
T 𝑚𝑣 Q U = 𝑘𝑇
2 2
Power density of a fusion reactor for a plasma pressure = 3,5 bars.

The reaction D-D and D-3He only produce 1% of the power of D-T reaction.

Tritium is radioactive so not present in nature. The fusion

reactor will produce the tritium itself.

Fusion is the mechanism for producing energy in the sun and in the stars: the fusion reactor
aims to achieve this process on Earth in a controlled manner. Also, every element up to Fe was
formed by fusion.

CONFINEMENT

We can compare a fusion reactor with the furnace of

a thermal power plant. The unusual thing: the very
high temperature at which combustion takes place in
the fusion reactor. The ITER reactor project, which
aims to show the technical feasibility of fusion.

Like in a furnace, we want that the “fire of fusion” is

self-sustaining. So, the heat released by the fusion
reaction should be sufficient to bring new fuel to the
thermonuclear temperature. The prototype reactor is
based on magnetic confinement where the good
insulation/confinement (of heat) is achieved by means
of strong magnetic fields. The plasma pressure is balanced by magnetic field pressure. The
confinement of a fusion plasma is difficult. The most successful machine until now is the
TOKAMAK.

Advantages: fuel (= hydrogen isotopes) and environmental advantage over fission.

THE HYDROGEN BOMB

In hydrogen bombs, some LID is brought to a thermonuclear temperature, using an A-bomb.

The A-bomb is the detonator of the fusion bomb. The production of LID is easier than fissile
material (no critical issue) so destruction power of H-bomb can be huge.

34
ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGE FROM NUCLEAR FUSION

In fusion, the situation is different than for fission. Here, the disturbance would lead to the
shutdown of the reactor. It is therefore inherently safe and radioactivity is very unlikely.

A comparison between fission and fusion reactor with the same output power shows that:

1) Instant inventories are almost equal

2) Inventory of fusion reactor consists of low volatile
substances (except tritium). It means that a lot of heat is
needed to make them escape to the air and then create an
accident (excluded).
3) Fission: radioactivity decreases after 30 years of 10-3 of its
initial value.
For fusion: radioactivity decreases after 30 years of 10-7 of its initial
value.

35
 CHAPTER 6: RENEWABLE ENERGY

Indirect solar energy: Direct solar energy:

• Hydroelectrically energy • Heat from solar energy - Water

• Wind energy heating
• Biomass energy • Solar thermos-electric
• Photovoltaic electricity

There is a constant growing energy demandsThere is a need to use renewable electricity because
it is more sustainable. If we want to decreases our carbon footprint, we have to increase either
nuclear (but possible accidents) either renewable. But, it is impossible to pass from nuclear to
renewable without good storage means. Nowadays we use a lot of fossil fuels which are not
unlimited. The principle of sustainable development means using as much as possible
renewables. We cannot control the wind, so the electric wind production isn’t constant or
modulable. So, we cannot always use the power when produced (ex: at night). We have the
same issue with the sun. It can produce a lot of electricity during the day, but then we need a
real big capacity to turn on when the sun goes down. But, it’s not so feasible on short notice,
perhaps it will become possible.

INDIRECT SOLAR ENERGY

The radiated power by the sun is L = 3,9 x 1026W but not everything reach the Earth. The origin of this
energy is the nuclear fusion:
4 ??𝐻 → Q—𝐻} + 2 ó?d𝑒 + 24,7𝑀𝑒𝑉

Here are some important data for the sun:

36
The total power that Earth receives from the sun, is split and used in different ways. The
sustainable supply of solar power is 10 x > power installed by humankind.

Because of the different angle on Earth, we cannot profit in the same way of the sun’s radiation.
Until 2000, the other-scale indirect use of solar power was hydroelectric power (+ use in
agriculture). On a smaller scale, exploitation of the wind power. We could think that by using
solar radiation, we would decrease the temperature of the Earth. But this is not true because all
applications that produce energy (ex: car) also emits heat. So, the global cooling is really small.

Until now, the energy efficiency had in the denominator the quantity of primary energy that
was paid for. But here, primary energy is the sun so it’s free!

𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

𝜂=
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

But, since input energy is free (sun), h has less importance. What is more important is the
availability of their input energy. This is a number between 0 and 1, called capacity factor or
yield:

𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 [𝑘𝑊ℎ] 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 1 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑁𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 [𝑘𝑊 ]𝑥8760 [ℎ]𝑖𝑛 1 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟

This is computed for one year because one year is the typical periodicity in the solar radiation.
There is also the Full Load Hours (FLH):

FLH = capital factor x 8760

This is the equivalent number of hours that the device would produce/consume the nominal P
in one year. It is important to note that solar energy is not distributed evenly on Earth. The
radiation is maximal in the desert area and the mountain regions.

HYDROELECTRIC POWER

RENEWABLE POTENTIAL ENERGY: RAINFALL

Oceans can be considered as gigantic reservoirs where water evaporates under the influence of
the sun. This water vapour falls as rain or snow. This rainfall can be holding back behind dams
and this mass of water then drive turbines in power stations. 19% of world electricity is

37
produced by hydroelectric energy. So, water in the dam is potential energy that can be
transformed into 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑀. 𝐺. ℎ

When mass flow equal 𝑄𝑚 (= 𝑑𝑀/𝑑𝑡), the turbine can develop a power:

𝑃é' = 𝑄t 𝑔ℎ

With ‘h’ [m] being the height of the following water. If we assume that conversion efficiency
is 75%, 𝑃ℎ',+'--1 = 7500 𝑄𝑣ℎ.

“Qv“= Qm/100 and its unity is “m3/s”.

Flow of rivers on earth is more or less = 8.105 m3/s and the height difference is = 880 m.

The max power of hydroelectricity is the 5.109 kW.

[𝑘𝑊ℎ]
𝐶. 𝐹. = (0,3.10ã = 34,2%
100.10Š[0ï] . 8760

PUMPED HYDRO STORAGE (PHS)

à Same mechanism to store electricity

When there is not enough, water-supplied by rainfall- a pump storage provides the advantage
of the hydroelectric power plant. There are two reservoirs (see picture). When demand is low
(night) water is pumped upwards and during peak (day) water goes downwards and drive the

38
generator. Their efficiency is 65-70%. One of the largest in Europe is situated in Coo-trois-
ponts.

We can turn on the turbines: 20-25 minutes to get the nominal power (6 turbines of 200 MW).

Problem: you can’t pump make water move from the above to the lower basin… so when the
lower is empty you can’t “store” energy anymore.

WIND ENERGY

This is another indirect

exploitation of solar energy. The
winds get their energy from the
solar heat which is absorbed on
the surface of the Earth. The
wind is the heat transformed in
kinetic energy. The goal of wind
turbines is to transform part of
this kinetic energy in
mechanical energy.

à We turn a linear kinetic

energy into a rotational kinetic
energy

1 𝑑𝐸
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 Q → 𝑃 =
2 𝑑𝑡
1𝑑𝑚 Q
𝑃ï = 𝑣
2𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑚
= 𝜌𝐴𝑣
𝑑𝑡

39
 𝟏
𝑷𝑾 = 𝝆𝑨𝒗𝟑
𝟐

With:
Lt
- L-
= quantity of air which passes through the cross surface of the blades;
- 𝜌 = air density = 1,3 kg/m3
- dm = mass of air passing through the wind turbine per unit of time,
- Base of the cylinder is equal to the area A and with a height = v.dt
- ½ 𝜌 = 0,6
- A = P . r2

The 𝜌𝐴𝑣 is an approximation because we can’t use electricity of this with only 3 pales. The
final 𝑷𝑾 gives us the upper limit because we suppose that we use the whole kinetic energy of
the incoming wind (which is IMPOSSIBLE in reality). We can get maximum 59% of this
kinetic energy used which is the limit of Betz. Part of this power is transformed into heat due
to friction forces. From that, we find:

0,59 . 0,6 = 0,36

If we can get 75% efficiency (meaning 25%

losses because of friction):

0,36 . 0,75 = 0,27

𝑃ï,'(( = 0,27𝐴𝑣 Š [𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡]

We should also note that the “v” (wind velocity)

has a big influence in the calculation because of A
its cubic exponent. On the other hand, if the
wind drops by two, you end up with a P divided
by eight, which can quickly become a problem.

40
 You need at least 100 wind turbines AT NOMINAL
POWER to replace one nuclear powerplant… The last
one has a real big torque which needs in reality really
strong foundations.

It seems logic that the highest wind velocity can be

found on the coast which explains the development of
huge wind camps.

Some observations from the graph:

- the V_nominal is what is used to determine the

nominal power of a given wind turbine. We cannot go
further than this nominal velocity because the generator
wouldn’t be able to transform all the energy (generator
= limiting factor)
- Wind is not at all present always at the same
velocity; most probable velocity = 6 m/s. What counts in
the power is v^3 as we explained before.

Each wind turbine has a nominal speed for which the design of the turbine has been optimized.
The nominal speed determines the maximum power that can be extracted from the wind. Any
mechanical (wind) power (to avoid damages) above the nominal power is not transformed into
elec. Some parts of law speed are not used too. (see the hachures in figure sup.).

𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛 1 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 [𝑘𝑊ℎ]

𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑁𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 [𝑘𝑊 ]𝑥 8760 [ℎ]

The capacity factor (CF) is better than the efficiency which is limited with the 0,27 factor.

𝑃€M'•€q'
𝐶𝐹 =
𝑃+1t*+€)

41
PRIMARY BIOMASS
There are two types:
1. Type 1: grown in order to produce biomass à crops (problem : take place of food crop
leading to food prices expansion.
2. Type 2: biomass produced by recycling waste
The biomass can be transformed into heat, into ethyl alcohol/fatty acid or into electricity:
• Heat by combustion
• Chemical energy in biofuels, replacing petroluen and having a comparable heat of
combustion.
• Electricity via a thermodynamic cycle

Today, the biomass = 10% of the world’s energy needs. Its use is mainly in developing
countries. Using too much type – I biomass (area of plantations) is not recommended anymore
because it is also our food so it can increase the price. In Belgium, area of the plantation for
biomass type-I is out of the question
because these areas are helping for
agriculture, nature conservation and
recreation. Biomass releases a lot of CO2
during production but also absorbs CO2
when it grows so CO2= 0. The biomass does
not contribute so the greenhouse effect.
Biomass energy is actually created by
transforming the sun’s energy. It can be put
into the sea in order to not need any space.

DIRECT SOLAR ENERGY

SOLAR WATER HEATING SYSTEM (SWH)

The main component of a water heating system based on solar energy is a solar water heating
(SWH) panel or absorber. To make this panel work you need a lot of insolation à. This panel
consists of a transparent cover where IR are absorbed; of an absorber of direct sunlight; of a
series of tubes were working fluid is heated; of an enclosure; of insulation on the sides. The
efficiency of conversion depends on the desired temperature which increases: the higher is the

42
 final temperature, the greater is the losses. The slower the water, the heater it becomes.

(Isolate from the outside)

Hot water

Cold water

Should be as dark as possible to be

We need a direct solar light (note diffused). Those panels appropriated for swimming pool
more absorbant

heating in the summer period or other demand for heat in summertime in Belgium. The best
efficiency are

BELGIUM

Of course, warming water with a delta of only 20° is not a good idea if we want to get a “warm”
shower. The ∆𝑇 depends also on the flow speed. We can calculate the efficiency:

𝐸1%-,%-
𝜂=
𝐸&1)€•

THERMO-ELECTRIC SOLAR ENERGY

Solar thermoelectricity = concentrated solar power (CSP).

Converting solar energy into electricity by use of a thermodynamic cycle has been studying for
long. Today, 3 types are studied:

- Linear cylindro-parabolic collectors;

- The disc-collectors;
- The power-tower units

43
The linear is composed of compressed water. We need a thermodynamic electricity production
cycle (up to 100°C). We put a tube at the focal point to move (cold) water which will be heated
after meters. At large scale (third picture), the reflection of each individual mirror drives at one
single point (the tower). The biggest problem of this is the maintenance.

They all rely on a concentration of the incoming solar radiation by the use of minors to
concentrate a large area into a smaller one. Electric power is produced when the heat (produced
by concentrated light) drives a generator by means of a thermodynamics cycle. The disc
collector is more interesting than the linear ones because it can use the two cycles of the sunlight
and can follow the sun during all day.

The working principle: the solar energy is used to heat the working fluid (water or molten salt)
which is stored providing thermal (heat energy at high temperature n insulated tanks for later
use. Then, this fluid is used in a steam generator to produce steam and generate electricity when
the electricity demand is higher.

PHOTOVOLTAIC ENERGY

In photovoltaic energy, the efficiency is not important but what is important is the capacity
factor where you compare the really
produced energy during one time frame (ex:
Conduction band (C) Completely empty one year) to the nominal power. This
nominal power is the electrical power that
Valence band (V) Completely filled would be given if the panels were under
light every day and 24h/dat. This is of
course not possible. In Belgium, if you
have > 10% it is already good.

THE THEORY OF ENERGY BANDS IN

A SOLID

The electrons located around the nucleus can only move in a well-defined orbit. They can take
an infinite but well-determined amount of energy values. This is the energy band model. At law
energies, these bands (where are the electrons) remain separated by wide energy gaps. The last
energy band completely filled by electron is called the valence band. By means, of this energy
band model, it is possible to indicate the difference between metals, insulators and
semiconductors.

There are two types of semi-conductors:

- Extrinsic (P): energetic gaps bigger, but filtrate the “move” à hole in the band to
welcome electrons
- Intrinsic (N): small distance between V and C meaning we don’t need a lot of
Energy to excite electrons (in order to move from V to C) à electrons with extra
energy they can move freely

44
For a substance to be a conductor, there must be a large number of electrons that can move
easily through the crystal. The electrons need to be free. But for an electron to move from one
atom to another, there must be space. Otherwise, the electron cannot move. This situation
occurs in a substance whose conduct band (the first
after the valence) is 100% empty. This substance is
the insulator. If the conduct band is partially filled,
this is a conductor. When the distance between a
100% filled valence band and the empty conduction
band is different from 0 but very small, this is an intrinsic semiconductor.

A P-N JUNCTION

Putting 2 semiconductors of different types of contact give rise to a difference in electrical

potential between the 2 media. Since in the p-material there are “holes” to be occupied by
electrons, the extra electrons that can move of the n-material are moving to occupy the holes.
It gives rise to an electrical field between the two. As soon as some of the electrons of the n-
material have charged the p-material negative, an electrical force arises which opposes the
arrival of news electrons. This difference in potential is around 0,5V and is formed in the
charged boundary layer, where black
and white dots are mixed.

By simply putting them aside, we can

see immediately a potential difference
(not a lot but enough for PV).

THE PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL

Let’s consider a p-m junction

illuminated by a light ray. A photon from the light ray can fall on an electron and excite it, so
the electron goes from the valence band to the conduction band (so crossing the forbidden”
band of the energy gap). The net charge of n-material and p-material will decrease so the
potential difference between the two sections decreases as well. If we connect the two sections,
a current I will flow, possible because there is a smaller potential difference in the illuminated
junction than in the not illuminated one. We then managed to convert the energy of light
photons into electric energy. This is the photovoltaic cell. The greater the incident light flux is,
the greater the current will be. Photon Energy

The photon has to excite an electron to pass from the V to the C à this
creates a potential difference (depending on the light incoming) =
electric current.

45
PRACTICAL REALIZATIONS OF SOLAR CELLS

There is a superposition of 2 slices. The upper one is the n-type and is very thin in order to be
transparent to light rays and make the charged boundary layer accessible. The photon has to
reach the ‘pn junction’, so the n-type layer has to be thin [nm].

The max power obtained = the peak power. (standard: solar flux of 1000 W/m2 – angle of 48°
cell temperature of 25°C.

There are different types of cells:

- Classical ones, made of crystalline silicon. The typical thickness is 200-400 µm

- The second generation includes amorphous silicon.
- The third generation includes a number of thin film technologies and are still being
developed.

EFFICIENCIES

The efficiency of a solar cell is the ratio of the electric power that is generated in the cell,
decided by the power of the photons incident on it.

- The spectral efficiency (hs)

46
In order for a photon to form an electron hole pair, its energy must be bigger than the width of
the forbidden zone. The width of the forbidden energy band cannot be too small or too large.
The highest spectral h is obtained with a forbidden energy band gap of around 1 eV and is hs
= 45%.

The wavelength (𝜆) of a photon is inversely proportional to its energy 𝐸,é Cst Planck ‘h’:

ℎ𝑐
𝜆=
𝐸,é

𝐸q = ℎ. 𝜈 = 1,1 [𝑒𝑉]

Tt should not be forgotten that for all photons with an energy Eph > Eg, only the part Eg of
their energy is useful during the pair formation while the remaining part Eph - Eg is converted
into heat (creating more losses). The smaller the width of the band, the more heat is lost.

- The collector efficiency (hc)

If an electron from the conduction band falls in the valence band. hc = 0,75.

- Total efficiency

hs.hc = 0,33 with a forbidden band gap of Eg = 1,5 eV.

47
The efficiency isn’t the only important factor because if the available surface is big enough, we
don’t need the same efficiency meaning we can find a cheaper system.

APPLICATIONS

The advantages of photovoltaic are the case of deployment and their reliability. The modules
don’t contain moving parts which decrease the chance of failure and possible maintenance
costs.

Some applications are:

• Autonomous photovoltaic system (ex: elec supply for a house)

• Grid connected systems (these systems are coupled to the network. (power from Wp to
MWp). A large photovoltaic power plant exists near Naples since 1995 with a yield of
14%.

VARIABILITY

Sun is not easy to manage because during the night there is no light meaning no production of
electricity. Moreover, the quantity of the sun has still a major influence on the available power.
That’s the big problem with renewable energy: we never have a stable source of energy. It’s
nearly impossible to manage it; certainly not to work only with “100% renewable”. We will
always need other ways to compensate for that variability. As we said before, the most
important factor is the yield (capacity factor).

It will be more suitable in sunnier countries than Belgium. The

production of photovoltaic in Belgium = 3563.106 kWh/year (=0,3
MTOE). Most of them are in Flanders.

48
 CHAPTER 7: ENERGY STORAGE

WHAT IS THE PROBLEM

It is needed to always secure the supply for all forms of Final Energy. It means a balance
between the production and the consumption. This balance must be kept for chemical energy,
thermal energy (but more difficult to store) and electrical energy (also difficult to store on a
large scale). The electrical market is the most difficult one to guarantee the security of supply.
Belgium need supply 24/7 but the amount varies in time (peak or not). Renewables are more
and more use but this can create a problem because they are intermittent as well! There is no
sun at night, for example.

We need to be independent of the energy point of view (on a rational scale, of course, which is
not always possible. Belgium is a real small place and densely populated. So, it can’t be easy
to change for renewable sources (e.g. Sun: the quantity of the sun that fall down on the surface
of Belgium is really small).

We have a small Full Load Hours (FLH) which is given by:

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 1 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟

𝐹𝐿𝐻 = 𝐶𝐹 . 8760 =
𝑁𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

As we saw in the previous chapter, in order to use photovoltaic as THE mean, the only solution
to get the needs fulfilled is to install 10x what we have for the moment. This could function
BUT we will still miss our source of energy (sun/light) during the night. That’s why we need
energy storage.

LEVELISED COST OF ELECTRICY

Another problem is that the energy market is liberalized. Private companies want first to make
profit. The cost (levelised cost of electricity = LCOE) is a decisive parameter for those
companies. PV and wind energy (on-shore) are cheaper technologies than the dynamic gas or
biogas power plant. However, coal-fired power plants (hard or browncoal) and CCGT are not
dynamic at all and so cannot compensate wind-electricity or solar PV.

This is LCOE in Germany in 2018:

GHI gives the General Horizontal Lumination. We see under the biogas that it gets the sun
almost all the year (7000 FLh). Gas is totally on the right because we only use it to compensate
for the lack of energy production (night and dark days).

49
 RENEWABLE Usual means (manageable)

STORAGE OF ELECTRICITY

STORAGE OR DEMAND SIDE MANAGEMENT

They are different solutions to match demand and offer: energy storage, demand side
management, interconnection to adjacent networks, etc.

Sometimes it is possible to shift the demand in electricity in time (=demand side management):
if big companies shift their activities when more electricity is available. But therefore firms are
paid! (so we lose money as well). Another possibility: private storage capacity in the device à
companies search the possibility to use electric vehicle that could sell the electricity from the
battery during peak demand and charge it during off-peak. Therefore, everybody should follow
that rule (plugged-in when parked).

The more straightforward solution is storing the energy generated from solar and wind power
(powerful batteries or potential energy stored in water at higher altitude). Then we have power
available 24/7. It depends on the amount that has to be stored and the time (seasonal storage or
diurnal storage).

50
BATTERY PLANTS – ELECTROCHEMICHAL BATTERIES

The variability of solar and wind power makes it hard to integrate them into the electric grid.
Installing banks of energy storage batteries into the electric grids means that we can add more
wind and solar energy. The batteries store renewable energy and when needed, they can release
it into the grid.

But there is a problem: conventional (cobalt-based) lithium ion batteries break down with the
number of cycles.

Battery storage was previously used. When AC grid was not ready, isolated lightning plants run
by wind turbines or internal combustion engines provided lighting and power to small motors.
The battery system could be used to run the load without starting the engine or when wind was
calm. A bank of lead-acid batteries supplied power to illuminate lamps and to start an engine
to recharge the batteries. They are 80 to 90% more efficient than never lithium-ion devices.
Some hybrid system (generation + storage) can alleviate the pressure on the grid when
connecting renewables or can be used to reach self-sufficiency and work off-the-grid. Those
are grid batteries co-located with renewable energy plants to increase or decrease the power of
renewables when needed. The batteries for energy storage don’t suffer from mass or volume
constraints but from the cost (because large amount of energy and power). It is calculated by
euro/capacity or euro/power. They are made for an amount of cycles meaning we will have to
replace them after a while.

Ex in Belgium: Battery of 10 MW, but 1000 too small…

Energy storage off the grid: for people who cannot access the electric grid or for those who
prefer to be self-sufficient, battery energy storage is the best. They can connect to solar panels
or wind turbines to provide reliable electric supply.
è Battery plants are today expensive and not completely realistic to store today’s energy.

PUMPED HYDRO STORAGE (PHS)

Another method of storing and producing large amounts of electricity to supply high peak
demand. When demand is low, excess electricity capacity is used to pumped water into a higher
reservoir: creation of mechanical potential energy. When demand is higher, water is released
into the lower reservoir through a turbine, generating electricity (like hydropower). The
efficiency is 70%. The example in Belgium is the pumping power plant of Coo,
generating/storing 1164 MW€ of power during at least 4 hours.

51
Example PHS: Coo I and II

ELECTROLYSIS AND FUEL CELLS: CHEMICAL ENERGY IN HYDROGEN –

POWER2GAS (P2G)

H2 still be available when fossil fuels are done and is an abundant element on Earth: it can be
generated from water by electrolysis. It can be used in fuel cells to generate electricity or in the
engine to replace diesel. It is invisible, odourless and nontoxic but highly inflammable (H2 is
really light molecules but you cannot store a lot of H2 at high pressure because of the risk of
fire). H2 has can feature an energy density higher than most hydrocarbon fuels. H2 is like
electricity, an energy carrier but nor a readily available energy source. However, it is most
stable than electricity so can be stored almost indefinitely of the walls of the research are big
enough. (Otherwise risk of reservoir leaks because the molecule H is really small).

52
Electricity can by converted in H2 by electrolysis and this H can be stored and eventually re-
electrified in fuel cells. The efficiency is 36%. However, there is much interest. This gas can
be sold as final energy before being re-electrified (ex: to drive a H2 internal combustion engine).

0% 0%
𝜂=6 𝜂=6

High-pressure stock
(flammable)

Split 𝑂Q 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻Q Reassemble 𝑂Q 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻Q

A typical application is capturing the intermittent electric energy from solar energy and wind
generators by electrolysis and storing it in the form of H2 and then using a fuel cell to convert
it back to electric energy in a control manner when it is required.

• Electrolysers: water can be split into its component part, H2 and 0, using a proton
exchange membrane technique. When a DC voltage is applied to the electrolyser, water
molecules are oxidized, releasing 0 and electrons + leaving H+ ions in the water. The
protons go to the proton exchange member where they meet electrons from the external
circuit, reducing the proton to H2 gas.
• Hydrogen storage: small amount of H2 (up to a few MWh) can be stored in pressurized
vessels at 100-300 bar. (Because it’s inflammable.) But, solid metal hybrids or
nanotubes can store H2 at a high density. H2 (large amount) can also be stored in
underground salt caverns at 200 bars.
• Hydrogen re-electrification: When H2 is re-electrified in fuel cells, efficiency is 60%.
• Hydrogen fuel cells: fuel cells convert chemical energy into electricity. The principle
is the same as for the electrochemical battery, except that in fuel cells the fuel (whose
chemical energy is converted into electricity) is extended to the fuel cell device.
Anode: 𝐻Q → 2𝐻 ó + 2𝑒 ü
?
Cathode : Q 𝑂Q + 2𝐻ó + 2𝑒 ü → 𝐻Q 0

A fuel cell is different cells connected to each other in

series or in parallel. This is the reaction between
conventional fuels and oxygen that produce 0,6 to 0,7
V per cell. Different types of cells are distinguished

• Proton exchange membrane cell

• Solid oxide fuel cell
• Phosphoric acid fuel cell
• Alkaline fuel cell

53
Now, we use the proton exchange membrane cell because of its reactivity but it is quite
expensive.

OTHERS

Some other technic exist, mostly for

high-power applications. Usually,
what we want is that they can deliver
high power (fast charging and/or
discharging in Watt) or that they can
store a lot (high storage capacity, in
Watt/hour).

Some examples

• Capacitors-the electrostatic battery: they store their energy in an electrostatic field.

Consists of 2 electrodes of >< polarity.
• Molten salt-a thermal battery: designed to capture the thermal energy from thermal solar
arrays and releasing it at night to generate steam for driving a steam generator.
• Flywheels- the kinetic battery: they store kinetic energy in high-speed rotating drum,
which is the motor of a generator. When surplus of energy is available, it is used to
speed up the drum, which drives the generator. RPM = 100.000
• Compressed Air energy storage-the pneumatic battery

Every technic has its particular properties. The colours indicate the round-trip efficiency:

Most important properties are:

• The power rating (scale of technic in MW)

• The discharge time (duration of storage before losing all stored energy in days)
$+'•qê 1%-
• The round-trip efficiency ( $+'•qê *+
𝑖𝑛 % )

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