Groundwater School Notes

Australian
Groundwater
School
The
Notes
These notes were produced by partners and associates of the

Centre for Groundwater Studies with funding support from the
National Water Commission through its Raising National Water
Standards Program.
Australian Groundwater School
The Notes

Editors: Ian Acworth, Colin Hazel, Tony Laws Charles Lawrence.

These notes were produced by partners and associates of the Centre for Groundwater Studies CGS
with funding support from the National Water Commission through its Raising National Water
Standards Program.

Established in 1987, the Centre for Groundwater Studies has now merged with the National
Centre for Groundwater Research and Training (NCGRT). The NCGRT is pleased to be the home of
Australia's preferred groundwater industry training program, run with outstanding success for
twenty years by the Centre for Groundwater Studies. You will continue to find groundwater short
course program information and registration at www.groundwater.com.au

ISBN: 978‐1‐875753‐31‐4

For correspondence regarding these Notes please contact:

Professor Ian Acworth
Water Research Laboratory,
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering
King Street, MANLY VALE 2093
NSW, AUSTRALIA
Tel +61 2 9949 4488 Ex 226
Fax +61 2 9949 4188
i.acworth@unsw.edu.au

FRONT COVER IMAGE
Paul White, hydrogeologist with GNS NZ, opening a Christchurch artesian well.
Photographed by Joel Voortman, Industry Training Consultant, in 2008 at the 3rd Getting to Know GW‐SW Field Trip.
Preface
History of the Australian Groundwater Schools
Established in 1962, the Australian Water Resources Council (AWRC) was established by the Common-
wealth and State Governments as a non-statutory body. As all water resources in Australia are vested in
the crown and separately administered by individual governments, one of the first actions of the AWRC
was to identify the nature and extent of the country’s water resources. The document A Review of Aus-
tralia’s Water Resources, 1963 was the outcome of this initiative. This was the first time that the water
resources (both surface water and groundwater) of the country had been catalogued and consolidated
into one document and openly discussed. The document identified many areas where more attention
was required and made recommendations to address them. One of these areas was serious deficiency in
groundwater education in Australia. In an endeavour to help overcome this deficiency, the AWRC held
the first Groundwater School in Adelaide in 1965.
This School was convened in haste and the enormous contributions, both in organising and lecturing, made
by a few individuals at this School cannot be overlooked. Reg Shepherd, John Holmes, Bill Williamson,
Eugene Dris O’Driscoll, Bernie Credlin, Chris Bleysase, Erik Smith and Gerry Burton were outstanding.
The groundwater industry in Australia owes them a great debt.
The first Groundwater School, held in a community hall at the beach at Glenelg, SA, was intended to train
groundwater practitioners in the theories and application of techniques to better understand, investigate,
assess, develop and manage groundwater resources and to protect them for future generations. The
lecturers came mainly from government authorities but also included some from education and research
authorities such as universities and the Commonwealth and Scientific Research Organisation (CSIRO).
The first school attracted participants from both the public and private sectors. It was of two weeks
duration and was very well attended.
Learning from the first School, the Underground Water Committee of the AWRC decided that the School
could be improved by inviting a groundwater specialist to provide input on groundwater hydraulics.
Consequently Mr. Stan Lohman from the United States Geological Survey (USGS) was invited to be
the principal lecturer at the second School which was to be held in Adelaide in 1967. The School was
strongly supported by the USGS.
The contribution made by Stan Lohman was so well received that the Committee decided to follow up
with another overseas specialist for the third School in 1970 with Dr John Ferris of the USGS invited to
be the principal lecturer.
For the 4th (1973), 5th (1975) and 6th (1978) Schools, the Committee invited Colin Hazel from the
Queensland Irrigation and Water Supply Commission to be the principal lecturer. His lectures were
consolidated into a volume entitled Groundwater Hydraulics Lecture Notes, 1973 and were metricated
for the 5th School in 1975. The Australian Mineral Foundation (AMF) was established in Adelaide to
provide specialist services to the Australian mining and petroleum industries. The AMF provided the
location for all Schools between 1973 (4th ) and 1987 (9th ).
For many years the cost of running the Schools was met by the Commonwealth and State governments and
there was no registration fee for representatives from those contributing organisations. Each organisation
was able to send as many participants as it chose. The only limiting factor was the travel costs incurred
by those participants from outside of Adelaide.
In 1987 the then Federal Government established two new groundwater centres. The Centre for Ground-
water Management and Hydrogeology (CGMH) at the University of New South Wales and the Centre for
Groundwater Studies (CGS) in Adelaide. These two centres were given responsibility to run the Ground-
water Schools by the Australian Groundwater Committee. State agencies also stopped subsidising the
costs of the Schools and the next School (10th ), presented by the UNSW Centre in Sydney in 1989 and
convened by Dr Michael Knight, charged fees for the first time and reduced the duration from 2 weeks
to 1 week. A specialist short course was presented in the second week on mine water problems and was
led by Don Armstrong and Col Dudgeon. The 11th School was also held in Sydney in July 1991 and
Australian groundwater school notes i

was again organised by the CGHM. The second week in this case was devoted to DPAPL contamination
and was led by a panel from the US including Prof Chin-Fu Tsang and Dr Doug MacKay. The ICI
contamination problem at Botany in Sydney was very much an issue at the time and the courses were
very well attended.
In 1993 the responsibility for running the Schools was permanently assigned to CGS and the 12th was
held in Adelaide in 1993. Trevor Pillar has been in charge of organising the Schools presented by CGS
since 1995. CGS organises the venues, lecturers, content and administrative backup for the Schools but
does not provide technical input. CGS liaises closely with the various State Agencies to identify needs
and locations for the Schools and to help identify and organise the lecturers. Lecturers are drawn from
government, private industry, educational establishments and research authorities to provide the best
available input for the participants. The Schools have also been held in different locations throughout
Australia.
The number of topics to be covered has increased since 1965 and as it is a short course, it is not possible
to cover all topics in great depth. The course is meant to be introductory to enable the participants to
be aware of and have a reasonable grasp on the fundamentals of groundwater and where problems can
and do exist. But of equal importance to the technical input are the contacts made at the School and
where to turn if further information or knowledge is required.
Reflecting the changes in our society and its environmental concerns the backgrounds of the participants
have changed from predominantly engineering and hydrology in the 1960’s - 1980’s to more than 50%
environmental scientists and resource managers in recent Schools. It should be remembered also that
environmental scientists were few and far between for the first twenty years of the Schools. However, a
firm understanding of groundwater occurrence, hydrology and groundwater hydraulics is still required if
these social concerns are to be addressed adequately.
The CGS and the CGMH both established formal postgraduate course work programs that catered for
training at a higher level than was possible in the 2 weeks of the original Groundwater Schools. More
advanced short courses are also available through the CGS but the topics covered at the Groundwater
Schools are still regarded as prerequisites to such courses and the Schools are still in demand and still
well attended.
Twelve Schools were held between 1965 and 1993. From 1995 to 2007 inclusive, twenty four Schools have
been conducted by CGS. The School locations are shown in Table 1.
While acknowledging the heavy involvement by individuals in the early days of the Schools it is also
important to acknowledge the contributions made in recent years. Since 1995 more than 150 people have
provide input to the Schools by way of lectures, field trips and demonstrations and by chairing sessions or
complete Schools. However, there has been heavy involvement by a few during this period and it would be
remiss not to mention them because without them the Schools would not be what they are today. Apart
from Trevor Pillar and his efficient staff and the government authorities who give him valuable assistance
in running the Schools in each State, Ian Acworth, Don Armstrong, Chris Barber, Phil Commander,
Greg Davis, Robert Ellis, Richard Evans, Colin Hazel, Andrew Herczeg, Tony Laws, Charles Lawrence,
Andrew Love, Simon Toze and Michael Williams have all contributed very long hours of their valuable
time to ensure that the knowledge and understanding of groundwater is properly imparted to our young
practitioners. We thank them and all others who have contributed over the years.
The content of the Schools has changed and evolved with the years and has been variably influenced by
the numerous different presenters that have been involved. At each School, a comprehensive set of notes
is given to attendees. The notes have been prepared by a large number of presenters with the result
that their structure had become a little loose by 2005. It was recognised that a reorganisation of the
material was required with standardisation of terminology and the elimination of repetition. This has
been recognised by the National Water Council and funds made available to the CGS in 2007 to carry
out a rewrite of the notes. The output of that project is presented here.
Editors Comments
In preparing this new version of the Australian Groundwater School Notes, the editorial committee have
Australian groundwater school notes ii

Table 1: Groundwater school locations to end 2008
School Year Location School Year Location
1 1965 Adelaide 2 1967 Adelaide
9 1987 Adelaide 10 1989 Sydney
11 1991 Sydney 12 1993 Adelaide
13 1995 Perth 14 1995 Brisbane
15 1996 Melbourne 16 1997 Sydney
17 1998 Adelaide 18 1999 Brisbane
19 2000 Perth 20 2000 Melbourne
25 2003 Adelaide 26 2003 Melbourne
27 2004 Brisbane 28 2004 Perth
33 2007 Melbourne 34 2007 Hobart
had available previous lectures prepared by many different presenters. We have attempted to edit and
supplement this material to provide a single coherent set of notes with common terminology and use of
symbols. The decision was made to make the Notes available on a CD rather than as a printed set so
that extensive use of colour graphics could be used.
The Editorial Committee consisted of Ian Acworth (Chair), Colin Hazel, Charles Lawrence and Tony
Laws.
The NWC in their funding of this rewrite of the Notes requested an independent editorial review of the
work be undertaken as a part of the contract. Phil Commander, a well known hydrogeologist from the
WA Geological Survey and the Department of Water, accepted the onerous responsibility of reading the
entire set of notes and making editorial comment. We would like to place on the record our thanks to
Phil for this huge task that he has diligently undertaken.
Finally, some chapters have been reviewed by colleagues not previously involved with the Groundwater
School. Dr Martin Andersen is thanked for his input to the groundwater chemistry and groundwater
isotope chapters. Dr Mark Littleboy is thanked for his review of the salinity chapter.
Terminology
There is considerable variability in terminology in the hydrogeology field that reflects the comparatively
young age of the science. Books by engineers, geologists, agriculturalists, soils scientists and botanists all
refer to groundwater (or ground water). To add to this varied group are different spelling styles that exist
in Europe and the U.S. It can be argued that the science should take it’s lead from the US Geological
Survey (USGS) as this organisation has made many extensive studies freely available (without copyright)
and has consistently carried out definitive work in the area. For this reason we have decided to adopt
the USGS glossary of terms for these notes; with one exception. We will spell groundwater as one word
throughout.
Australian groundwater school notes iii

Appendices
A detailed glossary for use in these notes is presented in Appendix A and every effort will be made to
set this as the standard.
A review of occupational health and safety measures as applied to field work is given in Appendix B.
A complete list of all presenters at groundwater schools - that we can find record of - is given in Ap-
pendix C.
Australian groundwater school notes iv

The International System of Units - SI
SI is the accepted symbol for Système International d’Unités (International System of Units), the modern
form of the metric system finally agreed in 1960 by the supreme international authority on units of
measurement, the General Conference of Weights and Measures (CGPM).
Supplementary and Derived Units
Some supplementary and derived units employed in the system are given below; the degree Celsius is not
strictly an SI unit but is used with the system.
Table 2: SI Quantities
Quantity Unit Name Unit Symbol
Area square metre m2

Volume cubic metre m3
Velocity metre per second m s−1
Acceleration metre per second per second m s−2
Frequency hertz Hz
Density, (mass density) kilogram per cubic metre kg m−3
Momentum Kilogram metre per second kg m s−1
Moment of inertia kilogram metre squared kg m2
Force newton N (kg m s−2
Moment of force (torque) newton metre Nm
Pressure, stress pascal Pa (N m−2
Viscosity: kinematic metre squared per second m2 s−2
Viscosity: dynamic pascal second P a s(N s m−2
Surface tension newton per metre N m−1
Energy, work, quantity of heat joule J (N m)
Power, radiant flux watt W (J s−1 )
Temperature degree Celcius ◦
C
Thermal conductivity watt per metre kelvin W m−1 K
Heat capacity joule per degree kelvin J K −1
Specific heat capacity joule per kilogram per degree Kelvin J (kg K)−1)
Quantity of electricity coulomb CA s
Electric potential volt V (W A−1 )
Electric field strength volt per metre V m−1
Electric resistance ohm Ω(V A−1 )
Electric conductance siemens S (A V −1 )
Electric capacitance farad F (A s V −1 )
Magnetic flux weber Wb (V s)
Inductance henry H (V s A−1 )
Magnetic flux density tesla T (W m−2 )
Magnetic field strength ampere per metre A m−1
Definitions of Fundamental Units
metre (m) The metre is the length equal to 1 650 763.73 wavelengths in vacuum of the radiation
corresponding to the transition between levels 21 0p and 5d5 of the krypton-86 atom.
kilogram (kg) The kilogram is the unit of mass; it is equal to the mass of the international prototype
of the kilogram.
second (s) The second is the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the
transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium 133 atom.
ampere (A) The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors
of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and placed 1 metre apart in vacuum, would
produce between these conductors a force equal to 2 × 10−7 newton per metre of length.
Australian groundwater school notes v

kelvin (K) The kelvin, unit of thermodynamic temperature, is the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermody-
namic temperature of the triple point of water.
candela (cd) The candela is the luminous intensity, in the perpendicular direction, of a surface of
1/600 000 square metre of a black body at the temperature of freezing platinum under a pressure
of 101 325 newtons per square metre.
mole (mol) The mole is the amount of substance of a system which contains as many elementary entities
as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon 12.
Derived SI Units with Special Names
hertz (Hz) The hertz is the number of repetitions of a regular occurrence in 1 second.
newton (N) The newton is that force which, applied to a mass of 1 kilogram, gives it an acceleration
of 1 metre per second squared.
pascal (Pa) The pascal is the pressure produced by a force of 1 newton applied, uniformly distributed,
over an area of 1 square metre.
litre (l) 1000 litres = 1 cubic metre.
joule (J) The joule is the work done when the point of application of a force of 1 newton is displaced
through a distance of 1 metre in the direction of the force.
watt (W) The watt is the power which in 1 second gives rise to energy of 1 joule.
coulomb (C) The coulomb is the quantity of electricity carried in 1 second by a current of 1 ampere.
volt (V) The volt is the difference of electric potential between two points of a conducting wire carrying
a constant current of 1 ampere, when the power dissipated between these points is equal to 1 watt.
ohm Ω The ohm is the electrical resistance between two points of a conductor when a constant potential
difference of 1 volt, applied to these points, produces in the conductor a current of 1 ampere, the
conductor not being the seat of any electromotive force.
farad (F) The farad is the capacitance of a capacitor between the plates of which there appears a
difference of electric potential of 1 volt when it is charged by a quantity of electricity of 1 coulomb.
weber (Wb) The weber is the magnetic flux which, linking a circuit of 1 turn, would produce in it an
electromotive force of 1 volt if it were reduced to zero at a uniform rate in 1 second.
henry (H) The henry is the inductance of a closed circuit in which an electromotive force of 1 volt
is produced when the electric current in the circuit varies uniformly at the rate of 1 ampere per
second.
tesla (T) The tesla is equal to 1 weber per square metre of circuit area.
The Multiplying Prefixes
The SI prefixes for multiplication are given in Table 3. Examples:

gigahertz (Hz), megawatt (MW), kilometre (km), centimetre (cm), Gigalitre (Gl) milligram (mg), mi-
crosecond (µs), nanometre (nm)
The Greek Alphabet
Many quantities in the Ground Water School Notes are shown with Greek alphabet symbols. Table 4
gives a summary of the Greek alphabet and English language equivalents.
Australian groundwater school notes vi

Table 3: The multiplying prefixes
Prefix Name Prefix Symbol Multiplication Factor
tera T 1012
giga G 109
mega M 106
kilo k 103
hecto h 102
deca da 101
deci d 10−1
centi c 10−2
milli m 10−3
micro µ 10−6
nano n 10−9
pico p 10−12
Table 4: The Greek Alphabet
Greek Character Greek Name English Equivalent

Upper Case Lower Case Upper Case Lower Case
A α alpha A a
B β beta B b
Γ γ gamma G g
∆ δ delta D d
E epsilon Ĕ ĕ
Z ζ zeta Z z
H η eta Ē ē
Θ θ theta Th th
I ι iota I i
K κ kappa K k
Λ λ lambda L l
M µ mu M m
N ν nu N n
Ξ ξ xi X x
O o omnicron Ŏ ŏ
Π π pi P p
P ρ rho R r
Σ σ sigma S s
T τ tau T t
Υ υ upsilon Y y
Φ φ phi Ph ph
X χ chi Ch ch
Ψ ψ psi Ps ps
Ω ω omega Ō ō
Australian groundwater school notes vii

Contents
1 Importance of groundwater in Australia 1
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Global water balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 Groundwater and society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.2 Impacts of groundwater abstraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Water supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.1 Geological and palaeoclimatic controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.2 Recent temperature changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2 Hydrogeology 9
2.1 What is hydrogeology? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Factors affecting groundwater occurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3 Occurrence of groundwater in Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4 Groundwater in sedimentary basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4.1 The Paleozoic and Mesozoic sediments of the Great Artesian Basin . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4.2 The Tertiary Murray Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4.3 The Late Paleozoic to Mesozoic Perth Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.5 Groundwater in fractured rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.5.1 Weathered granites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.5.2 Fractured sandstones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.6 Groundwater in Tertiary palaeochannels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.7 Groundwater in surficial deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.7.1 Swan Coastal Plain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.7.2 Sand dune aquifers of the east Australian coast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
viii
CONTENTS
2.8 Groundwater in basalts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.9 Groundwater on oceanic islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.10 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3 Surface water hydrology 30
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.1.1 The distribution of water on the planet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.1.2 The global water balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.1.3 Residence times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.1.4 The Australian water balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2 Extraterrestrial radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2.1 Incoming radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.2.2 Effect of variations in the earth-sun distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.2.3 Effect of earth’s rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.2.4 Effect of latitude and curvature of the earth’s surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.3 Radiation budget within the atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.3.2 Estimate of incoming short wave radiation Rc at ground surface . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.3.3 Estimate of long wave radiation (Rb ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.3.4 Net radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.4 Hydrological cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.4.1 Hydrology as a science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.4.2 The history of hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.4.3 Central concept in hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.5 Rainfall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.5.1 Rainfall in Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.5.2 Rain gauges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.5.3 Radar estimates of rainfall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.5.4 Measurement of snow fall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.5.5 Minimum density of precipitation gauge network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.5.6 Errors in rainfall measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Australian groundwater school notes ix

CONTENTS
3.6 Rainfall analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.6.1 Data presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.6.2 Residual mass curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.6.3 Spatial variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.7 Streamflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.7.1 Measurement of stream flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.7.2 Stage measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.7.3 Non-recording stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.7.4 Recording stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.7.5 Automated recording stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.7.6 Pressure transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.7.7 Remote operation of recording stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.8 Discharge measurement methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.8.1 Volumetric measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.8.2 Dilution gauging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.8.3 Current metres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.8.4 Float method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.8.5 Hydraulic structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.8.6 Manning equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.9 Rating curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.10 Evapotranspiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.10.1 Measurement of evapotranspiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.10.2 Calculation of potential evapotranspiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4 Groundwater hydraulics 74
4.1 Units and terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.1.1 SI units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.1.2 Groundwater terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.2 Physical properties of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.2.2 Water density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
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4.2.3 Water viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.2.4 Fluid pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.2.5 Water compressibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.2.6 Surface tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.2.7 Summary of water properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.3 Physical properties of soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.3.1 Surface area of soil particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.3.2 Bulk density, water content, and porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.3.3 Relationships between variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.3.4 Typical values of physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.3.5 Water content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.3.6 Porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.4 Water potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.4.2 Osmotic potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.4.3 Matric and pressure potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.4.4 Gravitational potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.4.5 Velocity potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.4.6 Systems of units for the total soil water potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.5 Hydraulic head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.5.2 Piezometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.5.3 Equipotentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.5.4 Potentiometric maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.5.5 Gradient of the hydraulic head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.5.6 Flow nets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.5.7 Measurement of head at flowing wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.5.8 Factors affecting the hydraulic head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.6 Sea water intrusion in coastal aquifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.6.1 The Ghyben-Herzberg relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
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CONTENTS
4.6.2 Hydraulic head in groundwaters of varying density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.6.3 Calculation of environmental-water head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.6.4 Structure of the interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.6.5 Control of intrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.7 Introduction to Darcy’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.7.1 The Darcy Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.7.2 Hydraulic conductivity and intrinsic permeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.7.3 Specific discharge and average linear velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.7.4 Homogeneity and heterogeneity of hydraulic conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.7.5 Isotropy and anisotropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.8 Limitations of the Darcy approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.8.1 Darcian continuum and the representative elementary volume . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.8.2 Upper and lower limits of Darcy’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.9 Flow in fractured rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.10 Hydraulic continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.10.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.11 Grain-size analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.11.1 Grain size distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.11.2 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.12 Field measurements of hydraulic conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.12.1 Slug tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.12.2 Geophysical and geological logs of bup-cone:figores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.13 Transport equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.13.2 Groundwater transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.13.3 Transport equation in 3 dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.13.4 Flow in a confined aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.13.5 Flow in an Unconfined Aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.14 Groundwater flow equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
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4.14.2 Conservation of fluid mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.14.3 Steady-state flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.15 Water storage in the unsaturated zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.15.1 The Specific Yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.16 Confined aquifer storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.16.1 Non-Steady State Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.16.2 Specific storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.17 Barometric efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
4.18 Tidal efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5 Recharge, Discharge and Surface Water Groundwater Connectivity 132
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5.2 Recharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.2.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.2.2 Spatial variability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.2.3 Temporal variability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.2.4 Factors Impacting Recharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.3 Recharge estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
5.3.1 General notes and various definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
5.3.2 Tracer techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
5.3.3 Lysimeters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
5.3.4 Water balance equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5.3.5 Catchment basin studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
5.4 Discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5.4.1 Types of discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5.5 Connectivity of surface water and groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
5.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
5.5.2 Interaction of lakes or wetlands with groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.5.3 Hyporheic zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.5.4 Groundwater discharge to the ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
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6 Groundwater Ecosystems 162
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
6.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
6.3 Groundwater dependent ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
6.3.1 Aquifer and cave systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
6.3.2 Ecosystems dependent on the surface expression of groundwater . . . . . . . . . . 166
6.3.3 All vegetation dependent upon the subsurface presence of groundwater . . . . . . . 166
6.4 Hydrogeological framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
6.4.1 Local vs regional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
6.5 Determining groundwater dependence of ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
6.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
6.6 Identification of different ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
6.6.1 Ecosystems certainly and entirely dependent on groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
6.6.2 Ecosystems highly dependent on groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
6.6.3 Ecosystems with proportional dependence on groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
6.6.4 Ecosystems which may only use Groundwater opportunistically or to a very limited
extent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
6.6.5 Ecosystems with no apparent dependency on groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
6.7 Case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
6.7.1 Groundwater resource development in a tropical savanna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
6.7.2 Groundwater resource development in a temperate woodland . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
6.7.3 Management of lakes on the Swan Coastal Plain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
6.7.4 Groundwater resource development in the arid zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
7 Surface geophysical investigation methods 181
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
7.1.1 Physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
7.1.2 Geophysical surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
7.1.3 Modelling and inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
7.1.4 Available survey methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
7.2 Hydrological properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
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7.2.1 Porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
7.2.2 Hydraulic conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
7.2.3 Groundwater flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
7.3 Electrical methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
7.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
7.3.2 Electrical conductivity or resistivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
7.3.3 Factors influencing the electrical conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
7.3.4 Electrical field methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
7.3.5 EM conductivity profiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
7.3.6 Apparent electrical conductivity ECa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
7.3.7 Vertical electrical sounding (VES) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
7.3.8 Electrical conductivity imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
7.3.9 Time domain EM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
7.4 Seismic methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
7.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
7.4.2 Wave terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
7.4.3 Elastic coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
7.4.4 Seismic waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
7.4.5 Energy sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
7.4.6 Seismic equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
7.4.7 Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
7.4.8 Refraction at an interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
7.4.9 Critical refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
7.4.10 Seismic waves in homogeneous ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
7.4.11 A single sub-surface interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
7.4.12 Travel time equation for a single horizontal interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
7.5 Airborne surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
7.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
7.5.2 Case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
7.6 Selected case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
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7.6.1 Geophysical investigation and monitoring of landfills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
7.6.2 Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
7.6.3 Defining the extent of a landfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
7.6.4 Monitoring leachate levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
8 Water well drilling - methods, design and maintenance 230
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
8.2 Drilling methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
8.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
8.2.2 Cable-tool drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
8.2.3 Rotary methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
8.2.4 Drilling fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
8.2.5 Air drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
8.2.6 Reverse circulation rotary drilling methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
8.2.7 Down-hole hammer drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
8.3 Well construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
8.3.1 Grouting bore casing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
8.3.2 Sand screens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
8.3.3 Packing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
8.3.4 Well screen installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
8.3.5 Bore development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
8.4 Borehole failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
8.4.1 Physical processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
8.4.2 Chemical processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
8.4.3 Microbial processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
8.4.4 Operational factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
8.4.5 Structural and mechanical factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
8.5 Borehole abandonment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
8.6 System re-evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
8.6.1 Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
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9 Geophysical logging 261
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
9.1.1 Logging equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
9.1.2 Borehole effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
9.1.3 Available sondes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
9.1.4 Quality assurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
9.1.5 Log interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
9.1.6 Log selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
9.2 Caliper logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
9.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
9.3 Resistivity logging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
9.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
9.3.2 Spontaneous-potential logging (SP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
9.3.3 Single point resistance (SPR) log . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
9.3.4 Normal resistivity logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
9.3.5 Bed correlation using normal resistivity logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
9.4 Fluid logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
9.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
9.4.2 Fluid temperature logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
9.4.3 Fluid conductivity log . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
9.4.4 Fluid flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
9.4.5 Borehole video cameras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
9.4.6 Water quality measurements (HYDROLAB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
9.5 Nuclear logging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
9.5.1 Fundamentals of nuclear geophysics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
9.5.2 Detection of radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
9.5.3 Counting statistics and logging speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
9.5.4 Use of radioactive sources in well logging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
9.6 Gamma logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
9.6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
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9.6.2 Sources of gamma radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
9.6.3 Gamma spectrometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
9.7 Gamma gamma logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
9.7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
9.7.2 Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
9.7.3 Log interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
9.8 Neutron logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
9.8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
9.8.2 Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
9.8.3 Neutron probes for soil moisture measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
9.8.4 Thermal neutron capture by chlorine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
9.9 Electromagnetic induction logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
9.9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
9.9.2 Operating principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
9.9.3 Response to a horizontally layered earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
9.9.4 Examples of field data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
10 Well hydraulics 300
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
10.2 Review of definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
10.2.1 Flowing and non-flowing bores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
10.2.2 Unconfined aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
10.2.3 Confined aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
10.2.4 Leaky aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
10.2.5 Anisotropy and heterogeneity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
10.2.6 Bounded aquifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
10.2.7 Steady state and non-steady state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
10.2.8 Compressibility α and β . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
10.2.9 Specific storage (Ss ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
10.2.10Storativity or storage coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
10.2.11Diffusivity ( Kb
S ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
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10.2.12Leakage factor (L) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
10.3 Groundwater flow equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
10.4 Analytical solution methods to the radial flow equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
10.4.1 The Theis solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
10.4.2 Multiple-well systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
10.4.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
10.4.4 Treatment of boundary conditions using analytical methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
10.5 Numerical solutions to the radial flow equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
10.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
10.5.2 Numerical solution results for a confined aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
10.5.3 Results for a finite well diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
10.5.4 Results for a bounded system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
10.5.5 2D Radial flow model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
11 Pumping test preparation and pumps 324
11.1 Planning a pumping test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
11.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
11.1.2 Pre-test planning for an aquifer test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
11.1.3 Test design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
11.1.4 Observation bores and piezometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
11.2 Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
11.2.1 Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
11.2.2 Water levels or hydraulic heads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
11.2.3 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
11.2.4 Water quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
11.3 Interpretation and reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
11.3.1 Processing the data - possible corrections to drawdown data . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
11.3.2 Reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
11.4 Test pumping non-flowing bores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
11.4.1 Antecedent conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
11.4.2 Constant discharge test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
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11.4.3 Recovery test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
11.4.4 Constant drawdown test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
11.4.5 Step drawdown test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
11.4.6 Step drawdown test (Extended first step) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
11.4.7 Variable discharge/variable drawdown test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
11.4.8 Multiple aquifer testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
11.4.9 Applicability of testing procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
11.4.10Pump stoppages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
11.5 Testing flowing bores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
11.5.2 Risk in closing low pressure bores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
11.5.3 Flow recession test (Constant drawdown) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
11.5.4 Static test (Recovery) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
11.5.5 Dynamic (Step drawdown) tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
11.5.6 Opening dynamic test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
11.5.7 Closing dynamic test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
11.5.8 Order of tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
11.6 Borehole pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
11.6.1 Positive displacement pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
11.6.2 Variable displacement pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
11.6.3 Air lift pumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
12 Pumping test interpretation 348
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
12.2 Confined aquifer analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
12.2.1 Straight line solutions - The Jacob Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
12.2.2 Recovery test data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
12.3 Semi-confined (leaky) aquifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
12.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
12.3.2 Radial flow equation for a leaky aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
12.3.3 No storage in the aquitard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
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12.3.4 Storage in the leaky confining layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
12.3.5 Example data set from a leaky aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
12.4 Unconfined (water table) aquifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
12.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
12.4.2 Steady-state analysis of unconfined aquifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
12.4.3 Non-steady state flow equation for an unconfined aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
12.4.4 Type Curve Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
12.5 Large Diameter Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
12.6 Pumping-test analysis - corrections to data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
12.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
12.6.2 Anomalies in drawdown readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
12.6.3 Partial penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
12.6.5 Possible development during pumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
12.6.6 Water temperature variations in hot bores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
12.6.7 Variation in barometric pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
12.6.8 Tidal effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
12.6.9 Other factors to be considered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
12.7 Identifying aquifer type from test data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
13 Single well tests 379
13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
13.1.1 Well loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
13.2 Constant drawdown tests in flowing bores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
13.3 Step drawdown test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
13.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
13.3.2 Well efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
13.3.3 Skin effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
13.4 Solution methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
13.4.1 Hantush - Bierschenk analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
13.4.2 Eden-Hazel method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
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14 Sample collection and monitoring 406
14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
14.2 Groundwater level monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
14.2.1 Water-level measuring devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
14.2.2 Manometer boards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
14.2.3 Accuracy requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
14.3 Water quality sample collection and field measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
14.3.1 Well purging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
14.3.2 Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
14.3.3 Field chemistry measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
14.3.4 Sample control, storage and transport for laboratory analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
14.3.5 Quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC) samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
14.3.6 Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
14.4 Flow measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
14.5 Monitoring network design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
14.5.1 Point source monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
14.5.2 Regional-scale monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
14.5.3 Bore design for monitoring and sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
15 Groundwater chemistry 427
15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
15.2 Basic aquatic chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
15.2.1 Groundwater solution and concentration units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
15.2.2 Chemical reactions and equilibrium constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
15.2.3 Field parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
15.3 Origin of solutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
15.3.1 Rainfall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
15.3.2 Rock weathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
15.4 Conservative ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
15.4.1 Chloride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
15.4.2 Br− /Cl− Ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
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15.4.3 Nitrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
15.4.4 Non-conservative ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
15.5 Techniques for study and interpretation of chemical tracers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
15.5.1 Data requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
15.5.2 Conceptual models and graphical methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
15.5.3 Geochemical modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
15.6 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
15.6.1 Recharge measurement using chloride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
15.6.2 Tracing the origin of salts and inter-aquifer mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
15.6.3 An integrated hydrogeologcal and hydrochemical investigation: The East Midlands

Triassic aquifer, UK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
15.6.4 Chloride and Carbonate chemistry to assess recharge and discharge in a karstic
aquifer: The Otway Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
15.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
16 Groundwater isotopes 454
16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
16.1.1 Atomic sub-structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
16.2 Stable isotopes of the water molecule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
16.2.1 Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
16.2.2 Fractionation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
16.2.3 Rayleigh distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
16.3 General applications of stable isotopes of the water molecule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
16.3.1 Mechanism and sources of recharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
16.3.2 Mixing of groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
16.3.3 Discharge rate estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
16.3.4 Hydrograph separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
16.3.5 Palaeoclimate and palaeorecharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
16.3.6 Example: The use of stable isotopes of water from the Maules Creek Catchment in
northern NSW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
16.3.7 Example: The use of chloride and strontium Sr 2+ stable isotopes to investigate
sources of water during a seawater intrusion experiment at Skansehage, Denmark . 465
16.4 Carbon isotopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
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14
16.4.1 Principles of C dating of groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
16.4.2 Correction procedures for estimating carbon-14 ages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
16.4.3 Example: Adelaide Plains Tertiary Aquifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470

14
16.4.4 Summary of C methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
16.5 Chlorine-36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
16.6 Chlorofluorocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
17 Groundwater microbiology 477
17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
17.2 Pathogens in groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
17.2.1 Public health surveillance methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
17.2.2 Pathogens - Microbial contamination of aquifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
17.2.3 Pathogen death and decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
17.2.4 Pathogen transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
17.2.5 Regulations for microbial quality of drinking water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
17.3 Geochemical effects of microbial processes within aquifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
17.3.1 Electron transfer reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
17.4 Bioremediation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
17.4.1 Hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
17.4.2 Chorinated hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
17.4.3 Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
17.4.4 Bioremediation exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
17.5 Undesirable microbial effects on extraction systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
17.5.1 Metal deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
17.5.2 Biofouling and aquifer clogging and corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
17.5.3 Production of undesirable odours in distributed groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
17.6 Techniques for the Analysis of Microbial Communities in Aquifers and Groundwater . . . 489
18 Storage and retrieval of groundwater data 492
18.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
18.2 Components of a GIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
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18.2.1 Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
18.2.2 Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
18.2.3 Organisational issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
18.3 GIS database development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
18.3.1 Meta data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
18.3.2 Data exchange standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
18.3.3 Existing official Australian borehole databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
18.3.4 Georeferencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
18.4 Spatial data models used in GIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
18.4.1 Cell-based model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
18.4.2 Vector-based model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
18.4.3 Choice of data models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
18.5 GIS applications in hydrogeology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
18.5.1 Data integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
18.5.2 Linking GIS and models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
18.5.3 Example applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
19 Groundwater flow modelling 508
19.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
19.1.1 Purpose of modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
19.1.2 Scale of modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
19.1.3 Types of model available . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
19.2 Modelling protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
19.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
19.2.2 Conceptual model development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
19.3 Mathematical models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
19.3.1 Flow system representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
19.3.2 Aquifer representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
19.3.3 One-dimensional cartesian flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
19.3.4 Boussinesq equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
19.4 Numerical solution methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
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19.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
19.4.2 Discretisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
19.5 Finite difference method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523

∂2h
19.5.1 FD Discretisation of ∂h2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
19.5.2 FD Representation of Laplace’s Equation in 2D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
19.6 Iterative solution methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
19.6.1 Successive over relaxation (SOR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
19.7 Boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
19.8 FD representation of the time derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
19.9 Model codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
20 Dryland salinity 530
20.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
20.1.1 Predictions of future salinity impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
20.1.2 New evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
20.1.3 Existing salinity classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
20.2 What is dryland salinity? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
20.2.1 Site features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
20.2.2 Salinity classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
20.2.3 Salinity development over time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
20.3 Source of salts for dryland salinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
20.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
20.3.2 Original source of salt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
20.3.3 Natural occurrences of salts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
20.3.4 Salt from rain water (cyclic salt) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
20.3.5 Salt from irrigation water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
20.3.6 Salt from rock weathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
20.3.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
20.4 Which salts? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
20.5 Salinity and climate variability or climate change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
20.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
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20.5.2 NSW Salinity Audit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
20.6 Appropriate salinity investigation methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
20.7 Possible process for salty clay formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
20.7.1 Aeolian entrainment and landscape accession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
20.7.2 Soil formation processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
20.7.3 Mobilisation of dust deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
20.7.4 Links of aeolian material with salinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
20.8 Salinity models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
21 Groundwater contamination 558
21.1 Introduction and definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
21.2 Sources of groundwater contamination and pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
21.3 What happens to contaminants in aquifers? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
21.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
21.3.2 Physical transport with groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
21.3.3 The concept of ecosystem partitioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
21.3.4 How do partition and reaction affect the distribution of contamination in aquifers? 579
21.4 Examples and case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
21.4.1 Point sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
21.4.2 Dispersed source contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
22 Groundwater quality protection 597
22.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
22.1.1 Why should we protect groundwater? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
22.1.2 Characteristics of groundwater pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
22.1.3 Sources and extent of contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
22.1.4 The need for groundwater protection in Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
22.1.5 The conduit effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
22.2 What do we mean by groundwater protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
22.2.1 The link with allocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
22.2.2 Controlling and managing land uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
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22.2.3 Protecting groundwater for its beneficial use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602
22.2.4 Regulators perspective vs landowners or developers perspective . . . . . . . . . . . 605
22.3 Approaches to groundwater protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
22.3.1 Forms of Intervention in Controlling and Managing Land Use . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
22.3.2 Responsible agencies and legislative powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608
22.4 Policy objectives for groundwater protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
22.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
22.4.2 New South Wales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
22.4.3 Victoria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612
22.4.4 Queensland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612
22.4.5 South Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
22.4.6 Western Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
22.4.7 Tasmania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
22.4.8 Northern Territory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
22.4.9 Setting the objectives for groundwater protection policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615
22.4.10Determining the principles for groundwater protection policy . . . . . . . . . . . . 615
22.5 Developing groundwater protection strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
22.5.1 Catchment based strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
22.5.2 Land use/activity based strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627
22.6 Public and industry involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627
23 Dewatering for mines and temporary works 629
23.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
23.2 Reasons for dewatering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
23.3 Dewatering measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632
23.3.1 Barrier methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633
23.3.2 Protective layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636
23.3.3 Boundary pillars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
23.3.4 Compressed air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638
23.3.5 Grouting from underground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641
23.4 Passive protection - gravity drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642
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23.4.1 Seepage faces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642
23.4.2 Sump pumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
23.4.3 Horizontal drain holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644
23.4.4 Drainage galleries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644
23.5 Active protection - water removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
23.5.1 Deep bores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
23.5.2 Vacuum spear point systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
23.5.3 Eductor bore systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
23.5.4 Electro osmosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
23.5.5 Dewatering shafts and drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
23.6 Safety margins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
23.6.1 Open cut or surface mines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
23.6.2 Underground mines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
23.7 Implications of dewatering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
23.7.1 Water Supply And Water Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
23.7.2 Environmental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654
23.8 Some simple analytical models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654
23.8.1 Single bore dewatering system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
23.8.2 Equivalent bores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656
23.8.3 Multiple bores - bore fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656
23.8.4 Strip pits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656
23.8.5 Galleries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
23.8.6 Final void . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
24 Managed aquifer recharge 662
24.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662
24.2 Water sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
24.2.1 Surface water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
24.2.2 Storm-water runoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
24.2.3 Reclaimed water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664
24.2.4 Potable water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664
Australian groundwater school notes xxix

CONTENTS
24.3 MAR Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664
24.3.1 Surface spreading or retention structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664
24.3.2 Pit or borehole devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667
24.4 Case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668
24.4.1 The Burdekin Delta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
24.4.2 Bundaberg area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671
25 Groundwater resource management 672
25.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672
25.1.1 What is groundwater management? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673
25.1.2 Why do we manage groundwater? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674
25.1.3 When do we manage groundwater? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675
25.1.4 How do we manage groundwater? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675
25.2 Basis of groundwater management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677
25.3 Sustainable yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
25.3.1 The concept of sustainable yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
25.3.2 Quantifying sustainable yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681
25.4 The management cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682
25.5 Management approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684
25.5.1 Management plans in Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686
25.5.2 Allocation and licensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692
25.5.3 Issuing of licences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694
25.6 What have we learned so far? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694
25.7 Management issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695
25.7.1 Groundwater use in excess of sustainable yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696
25.7.2 Groundwater accretion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698
25.7.3 Saltwater intrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698
25.7.4 Community involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698
25.8 Water trading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699
25.8.1 History of water trading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699
25.8.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699
Australian groundwater school notes xxx

CONTENTS
25.8.3 Types of trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699
25.8.4 Benefits of trading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
25.8.5 Impediments to trading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701
25.8.6 Methods of trading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703
25.8.7 Current trading situations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707
25.9 Future directions in groundwater management and planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709
A Glossary of Terms 732
B Groundwater Field Work - OH&S Aspects 748
B.1 Health and Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748
B.2 Personnel and Their general Responsibilities for Occupational Health and Safety . . . . . 749
B.3 Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749
B.3.1 Chemical Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749
B.3.2 Drilling hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750
B.4 First aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750
B.4.1 DRABC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750
B.4.2 Bleeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 752
B.4.3 Heat Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 752
B.5 Poisonous animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754
B.5.1 Mosquitoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754
B.5.2 Ticks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755
B.5.3 Sandflies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755
B.5.4 Leeches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755
B.5.5 Snakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755
B.5.6 Bush Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756
B.6 Manual Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757
C List of Presenters from previous Groundwater Schools 759
Australian groundwater school notes xxxi

List of Figures
1.1 Water level and climatic changes over the past 120,000 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Average annual temperatures for London, UK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1 Basic concepts in hydrogeology (Wikipedia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2 Aquifer types in Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3 The Great Artesian Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.4 Multi-layered aquifers in the GAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.5 Mound spring discharge from the GAB. Note the palaeo discharge mound in the background 15
2.6 Capped & piped artesian bore at Rockwell station, SE Queensland. The property name
reflects a large well excavated in rock by Aboriginals (though not artesian) . . . . . . . . 15
2.7 West to East cross-section through the Murray Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.8 Early Miocene geomorphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.9 Quarternary geomorphology of the Murray Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.10 Areas of fractured rock and porous aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.11 Isometric diagram showing disposition of weathering grades developed in granite . . . . . 19
2.12 Possible fracture configurations and the implications for groundwater supply . . . . . . . . 21
2.13 Daylesford Springs capped to allow to be controlled. (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.14 Carbon dioxide rich spring water at Ballymore in NSW. (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.15 Irrigation bore for rice growing in the MIA. (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.16 Palaeodrainage channel (deep lead) typical of those in the MIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.17 Geological model of a palaeochannel on the Namoi River in NSW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.18 Perched groundwater lake on North Stradboke Island, Queensland (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . 25
2.19 Hexagonal cracks formed during cooling can often transmit significant quantities of ground-
water (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.20 Freshwater lens beneath an island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
xxxii
LIST OF FIGURES
2.21 Aquifers can be perched well above the regional water level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.22 Extensive sand dune aquifer systems or systems developed on low permeability layers . . 28
2.23 Upconing of saline groundwater below a pumping well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.1 Distribution of Land and Ocean with Latitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.2 The global water balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.3 Water balance of the six continents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.4 Seasonal variation in solar radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.5 Variation in the radius vector and the solar declination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.6 Radiation balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.7 Automated climate station (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.8 Radiation data for a climate station at Maules Creek in northern New South Wales. Data
shows hourly measurements of solar radiation; net radiation and rainfall . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.9 Hydrological cycle - showing water fluxes normalised to a 100 units of precipitation on land 46
3.10 Average rainfall over Australia based upon the 1961 to 1990 record provided by The Bureau
of Meteorology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.11 Mean annual rainfall for the period 1900 to 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.12 Tipping bucket rain gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.13 Chart output from a pluviograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.14 Snow gauge in the Snowy Mountains (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.15 Double mass curves for rainfall stations in the Peel catchment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.16 Residual mass curve showing the dry first half of the 20th century and the wetter second
half . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.17 The Todd River - dry bed (Photo Wikkipedia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.18 The Todd River in full flow (Photo JW) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.19 Storm cell brewing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.20 Storm cell moves into the mountains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.21 Run off starts rapidly in the mountains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.22 Channel flows - river not occupying complete channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.23 Channel flows out on to the flood plain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.24 Sufficient energy to move small boulders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.25 Flood front moving at walking pace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Australian groundwater school notes xxxiii

LIST OF FIGURES
3.26 Full width of river channel flooded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.27 Standing waves formed as flood moves through a culvert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.28 Do not camp or park in a wadi! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.29 Stage measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.30 Typical stilling well installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.31 Dye gauging in a stream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.32 Water wheel gauge in an irrigation channel (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.33 Typical cable way installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.34 Vertical velocity profile in a typical turbulent river . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.35 Velocity profile for the Kaskaskia River in Illinois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.36 Mean-section method and Mid-section method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.37 Rectangular weir used to gauge flow from a culvert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.38 V notch weir in a stream gauging station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.39 Rating curve for the River Ganges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.40 Average areal PE for June - BOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.41 Average areal PE for December - BOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.42 Average areal annual Evapotranspiration - BOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.43 Aerodynamic, radiation and total evaporation at Bauchi, Northern Nigeria . . . . . . . . 73
3.44 Aerodynamic, radiation and total evaporation at Denver, USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.45 Aerodynamic, radiation and total evaporation at the Seychelles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.1 The Water Table and Potentiometric Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.2 Unconfined and confined aquifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.3 Perched aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.4 Relation between texture and porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.5 Solution channels in a limestone showing major anisotropy in distribution (E)(Photo RIA) . . 87
4.6 Environment producing a very uniform sand deposit (A)(Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.7 Poorly sorted material (conglomerate) (B)(Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.8 Poorly sorted material - (conglomerate cemented with calcrete) (D)(Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . 87
4.9 Hydraulic Head, Elevation Head and Pressure Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.10 Measurement of Horizontal and Vertical Hydraulic Gradients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Australian groundwater school notes xxxiv

LIST OF FIGURES
4.11 Relationship between flow lines and ∇h for isotropic and anisotropic conditions . . . . . . 95
4.12 Vertical flow net showing piezometric levels beneath undulating terrain . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.13 Vertical flow net showing piezometric levels beneath a hill slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.14 Borehole flowing under artesian pressure (Photo CH) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.15 Water level response to the Boxing Day Sumatra earthquake - measured in the USA . . . 98
4.16 Simple rainfall recharge in a shallow unconfined aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.17 Rainfall recharge into a regional aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.18 Tidally influenced levels in an unconfined coastal aquifer - Botany Bay, Sydney . . . . . . 98
4.19 Recharge into a confined coastal aquifer with atmospheric pressure variation . . . . . . . . 98
4.20 Gyben-herzberg relationship for hydrostatic equilibrium between fresh water and salt water
at the coast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
4.21 Darcy concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.22 Darcy’s experimental apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.23 Heterogeneity and Anisotropy of Hydraulic Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.24 Layered Heterogeneity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.25 Relationships between specific discharge and hydraulic gradient for sands and clays . . . . 110
4.26 Simultaneous ground-water flow on different time scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.27 Grain-size analysis of a river sand showing sorting criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.28 WRL slug test equipment (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.29 Example of Field Data obtained with the WRL Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.30 Interpretation of Field Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.31 Steady flow through an unconfined aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.32 Elemental Control Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4.33 Specific yield: the quantity of water released by a unit drop in the water table . . . . . . 126
4.34 Example of barometric efficiency in a fractured granite bore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.1 Unsaturated zone chloride profiles prior to clearing (a) and post clearing (b and c) . . . . 138
5.2 Lysimeter designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
5.3 Schematic showing design of the mini-suction lysimeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5.4 Soil suction ’trident’ installed in silica at the base of the soil ped Photo D. McG . . . . . . . . 141
5.5 Soil plugs placed back on top of the lysimeter block and channel laid for suction line at
120 cm depth Photo D. McG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Australian groundwater school notes xxxv

LIST OF FIGURES
5.6 Typical savanna catchment area (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
5.7 Granite inselberg in Northern Nigeria (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
5.8 Relationship between annual rainfall and recharge at Samaru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
5.9 Location map for the Howard River study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.10 In situ moisture profiles for a uniform swelling clay soil calculated for a water table depth
at 9 m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.11 Schematic representation of the annual water balance in the Howard River Basin . . . . . 147
5.12 Water balance model at Bauchi, Northern Nigeria - Initial SMD 50 mm . . . . . . . . . . 148
5.13 Water balance model at Bauchi, Northern Nigeria - Initial SMD 250 mm . . . . . . . . . . 149
5.14 Recharge vs rainfall plot for Bauchi Model data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5.15 Every spring has a spirit to look after it in some parts of the world (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . 151
5.16 Types of Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
5.17 A gaining stream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
5.18 Losing stream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
5.19 River bank abstraction from the Elbe River, Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.20 Major spring flow through the base of the stream emmanating from volcanic rocks around
Rotorua in New Zealand (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.21 Difference in run-off between a limestone dominated catchment and a basement dominated
catchment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.22 Water level in lakes and bores in Centennial Park, Sydney (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
5.23 Multi-channel manometer board in use to measure vertical head differences . . . . . . . . 156
5.24 Interactions between streams, lakes and groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5.25 Complex flow systems established under variable topography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5.26 Discharge at the break in slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.27 Gaining stream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.28 Schematic of a pool and ripple system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.29 Pool and riffle system in Colorado . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.30 Meander belt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.31 Typical groundwater interface with sea water at a passive plate margin beach . . . . . . . 159
5.32 Multiple interfaces between fresh groundwater and sea water in Florida . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.33 Beachface dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Australian groundwater school notes xxxvi

LIST OF FIGURES
6.1 Seepage from the Mereenie Sandstone in the West MacDonald Ranges west of Alice Springs
support this permanent pool of water in an otherwise arid region (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . 163
6.2 Semi-permanent discharge from an alluvial aquifer supports flow in a tributary of the
Namoi River in northern New South Wales (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
6.3 karst development in Mesozoic Limestone from the Yemen (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
6.4 Small endemic communities of fish living in the spring (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
6.5 harpacticoid copepod from cobble bar at foot of sandstone cliff, Running Waters. Fluid
EC in the hole was 5034 microS/cm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
6.6 cyclopoid copepod from Ilamurta Well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
6.7 Duck-billed platypus reliant on a continuing supply of fresh water which is maintained by
groundwater base flow into the riverine environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
6.8 River Red Gums on the Murrumbidgee (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
6.9 Ground-water discharge from the sandstone aquifer supports the palms at Palm Valley in
the Northern Territory close to Alice Springs (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
6.10 River flow supported only by groundwater discharge from a limestone aquifer in the Yemen
(Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
6.11 False colour composite showing GDEs around a limestone block in Northern Zambia (Photo
RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
6.12 Diagram of Groundwater Vegetation Relationship; (a) Current Possible Situation and (b)
Future Situation (from Hatton and Evans (1998) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
6.13 Generalised hydrogeological cross-section of the Exmouth groundwater area as a represen-

tation of the aquifer on the Cape Range peninsula. The hatched line is the lower limit of
significant karst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
7.1 Varying form of the bedrock interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
7.2 Variation of primary and secondary seismic wave velocities as a function of porosity . . . 188
7.3 Tank apparatus to demonstrate conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
7.4 Ground conductivity meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
7.5 GEONICS EM-38 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
7.6 EM31 shoulder carried for a salinity survey (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
7.7 EM-31 mounted on a QUADCYCLE (Photo R Beazly) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
7.8 High Resolution EM Survey Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
7.9 EM31 Survey over clays containing variable salt loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
7.10 Apparent conductivity values for a 3 layer model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
7.11 Iterative calculation of a model using Zhody’s method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
7.12 Distribution of current flow between two current electrodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Australian groundwater school notes xxxvii

LIST OF FIGURES
7.13 Arrangement of electrodes and cables for ECI fieldwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
7.14 Electrical imaging equipment from ABEM seen deployed in the field (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . 203
7.15 Electrical conductivity image at Clare on the Liverpool Plains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
7.16 Time domain data interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
7.17 Amplitude, wavelength and frequency of a wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
7.18 Amplitude and period of a wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
7.19 Shot gun and weight-drop seismic sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
7.20 The Terraloc Mark 6 Seismograph produced by the ABEM Company . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
7.21 Terraloc-6 showing cable connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
7.22 Typical seismic record display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
7.23 Schematic of a typical geophone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
7.24 Reflected and refracted wave energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
7.25 Refraction, critical refraction and reflection at an interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
7.26 Generalised wave diagram over an interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
7.27 Travel times for a single sub-surface layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
7.28 Model generated waves for a 2-layer model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
7.29 Geometry for a 1 layer problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
7.30 Arrival times over a single horizontal layer model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
7.31 Travel times over a 1 layer model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
7.32 Typical seismogram over a 1 layer model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
7.33 Brigalow Belt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
7.34 Electrical image across a landfill with clear definition of base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
7.35 Ground conductivity (EM31) survey to delineate contamination plume due to leakage
through a dam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
8.1 Standard design for an abstraction well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
8.2 Cable-tool drilling rig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
8.3 Cable-tool rig installing an abstraction bore on the Liverpool Plains (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . 236
8.4 Cable-tool rig drilling soft limestone (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
8.5 Reamers for use with a cable tool rig (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
8.6 Rotary Drilling Rig Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Australian groundwater school notes xxxviii

LIST OF FIGURES
8.7 Rotary rig about to spud in (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
8.8 Air lifting a bore to improve yield (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
8.9 Water well drilling site, showing mud pits and rig tilted while geophysical logging in
progress to determine design parameters (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
8.10 Mud pits for rotary driling (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
8.11 Tri-cone roller drill bits (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
8.12 Tri-cone drill bit (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
8.13 Rotary rig set up for deep drilling (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
8.14 Rotary table (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
8.15 Mobile mud system with shaker tables (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
8.16 Centennial Park mud pits (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
8.17 Air hammer drill bit (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
8.18 Drag bit for use in soft formations (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
8.19 Placing grout behind the casing by pumping through the casing using a plug. . . . . . . . 247
8.20 Stainlees steel wire-wound screen with centalisers attached prior to installation. PVC
casing stacked behind the screen. (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
8.21 Screen placed inside casing which is then drawn back using hydraulic jacks or the rig
hydraulics, to expose the screen to the formation. This system is common when a natural
pack is used. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
8.22 Screen placement before and after gravel packing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
8.23 The pump at David Phillips field removed in July 2003 (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
8.24 Corosion of the rising main from the David Phillips bore (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
8.25 Precipitation of iron compounds within the headworks at David Philips Field (Photo RIA) . . 254
8.26 Corroded mild-steel casing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
8.27 Clogged orifice plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
8.28 Clogging in discharge pipeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
8.29 Plots of s/Q vs Q for data from Clark et al., 1988 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
8.30 1. Original step test data; 2. Later test showing increase in C, but the same B - suggesting
a deterioration in the condition of the borehole; 3. Later step test showing increase in B,
but the same C, suggesting a deterioration in the aquifer condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
9.1 ABEM resistivity and water quality logging equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
9.2 Geovista logging equipment set up in a river bed (Photo W Timms) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
9.3 Integrated geophysical logs from a sandstone aquifer. Saline water is encountered at 225 m 266
Australian groundwater school notes xxxix

LIST OF FIGURES
9.4 Three-arm caliper system under testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
9.5 2 arm caliper log - part of the Geovista suite Photo W Timms) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
9.6 Caliper Logs from 4 Arms, Three Arms Averaged, and a Single Arm . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
9.7 System circuitry for the SP and SPR logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
9.8 Short and long normal resistivity logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
9.9 Normal resistivity log correlation in the English Chalk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
9.10 Geothermal profile and effect of inflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
9.11 Characteristics of a temperature log in a fractured aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
9.12 Concentration of sodium chloride as a function of temperature and fluid EC . . . . . . . . 278
9.13 Combined flow logs for Bore A2 at West Thurrock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
9.14 Combined flow logs for Bore A3 at West Thurrock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
9.15 Comparative logs measured above a screen in a borehole showing water quality before and
after pumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
9.16 Gamma log variations with logging speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
9.17 Composite logs for a bore drilled in granite at Baldry in western NSW . . . . . . . . . . . 284
9.18 Gamma spectra from the La Trobe Valley Coals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
9.19 Density logs from the Botany Sands Aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
9.20 Porosity Logs from the Botany Sands Aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
9.21 Neutron capture processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
9.22 Neutron soil moisture survey equipment (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
9.23 Impact of growing lucerne - drying the soil profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
9.24 Little change under fallow - some wetting up from fracture flow at 3m . . . . . . . . . . . 292
9.25 Neutron profiles at the Borden Spill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
9.26 Resistivity profiles at the Borden Spill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
9.27 EM39 logging in progress (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
9.28 EM fields established in the EM39 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
9.29 EM-39 Log - Signal contribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
9.30 EM-39 response function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
9.31 Predicted EM-39 response to a layered earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
9.32 Combined gamma and bulk EC logs for Kensington Racecourse Bore . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
9.33 Combined gamma and bulk EC logs for Kensington Park Bore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Australian groundwater school notes xl

LIST OF FIGURES
10.1 Flowing artesian bore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
10.2 Unconfined and confined aquifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
10.3 Leaky aquifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
10.4 Sequence of aquifers and aquitards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
10.5 Variations in the distribution of hydraulic conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
10.6 Types of boundary condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
10.7 Transmissivity calculation for aquifers with layering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
10.8 2D results from a finite difference model developed using an EXCEL spreadsheet . . . . . 308
10.9 Radial Flow to a Well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
10.10Table of values for the Theis well function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
10.11Composite Pumping Cones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
10.12Change in drawdown due to a barrier boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
10.13Change in drawdown due to a recharge boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
10.14Recharge boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
10.15Barrier boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
10.16Semi-log plot of drawdown for conditions within the restrictions set out by the Theis analysis317
10.17Log-log plot of drawdown: Theis conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
10.18Semi-log plot: Well storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
10.19Log-log plot: Well storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
10.20Semi-log plot: Recharge boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
10.21Log-log plot: Recharge boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
10.22Semi-log plot: No-flow boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
10.23Log-log plot: No-flow boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
10.24Control screen for RADFLOW after Johnston and Cosgrove 2003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
10.25Matching field data with forward solutions to the radial flow equation . . . . . . . . . . . 323
10.26Hydraulic head variation in the x-z plane: abstraction well at the left hand side . . . . . . 323
11.1 Work-over rig used for setting pumps in abstraction bores Photo C H . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
11.2 Test pumping rig with flexible rising main Photo C H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
11.3 Schematic of a pumping test data logger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
11.4 Head components of a pumping system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Australian groundwater school notes xli

LIST OF FIGURES
11.5 Deep well vertical turbine pump (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
11.6 Submersible pump installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
11.7 Air Lift Pumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
12.1 Log-log plots of the drawdown data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
12.2 Log-log plots normalised by t/(r*r) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
12.3 Semi-log plot of drawdown showing a straight-line solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
12.4 Distance drawdown plot at 240 minutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
12.5 Solution to steady-state analysis in a confined aquifer problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
12.6 Fully penetrating well in a leaky confined aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
12.7 Values of the leakage function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
12.8 Plots of log of dimensionless drawdown as a function of time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
12.9 Leaky aquifer response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
12.10AQTESOLV soultion to the Maules Creek leaky test data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
12.11Cross-section of a pumped unconfined aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
12.12Type curves for drawdown data from fully penetrating wells in an unconfined aquifer . . . 368
12.13Water-Table type A Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
12.14Water-Table type B Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
12.15Cross-section of a confined aquifer pumped by a large diameter well . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
12.16Papadupolos-Cooper curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
12.17Characteristic drawdown plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
13.1 Log-log plot showing impact of changing the abstraction well radius. Data derived by
numerical modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
13.2 Semi-log plots demonstrating the error in t0 values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
13.3 Distribution of head losses around a pumping well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
13.4 Flowing artesian bore in the GAB of Queensland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
13.5 Constant head (flowing artesian) interpretation for the Richmond No 3 Bore (Hazel, 2008) 385
13.6 AQTESOLV solution for the Richmond Town data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
13.7 Typical Step-Drawdown Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
13.8 Analysis for Saudi step-test data using the Hantush-Bierschenk approach . . . . . . . . . 391
13.9 Plot of specific drawdown vs discharge rate for Saudi data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Australian groundwater school notes xlii

LIST OF FIGURES
13.10AQTESOLV solution for the Saudi confined sandstone step test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
13.11Diagrammatic representation of a step-drawdown test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
13.12The Eden-Hazel method: Arithmetic plot of sw(n) versus Hn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
13.13Eden-Hazel method: Plot of An /Qn versus Qn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
13.14Drawdown data for the Chile step test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
13.15Plot of Hn vs sw for the Chile step test example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
13.16Plot of An /Qn vs Qn for the Chile example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
13.17Richmond Town Bore No 3 Shut in test conducted by C Hazel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
13.18Drawdown, flow and the H function for the Richmond Town No 3 Bore test . . . . . . . . 404
13.19Plot of Hn vs sw for the Richmond data set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
13.20Plot of An /Qn vs Qn for the Richmond Town No3 data set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
14.1 Electrical dip meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
14.2 Data loggers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
14.3 Measuring the depth to water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
14.4 Schematic illustrating a typical transducer installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
14.5 Combination of fluid conductivity and water level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
14.6 Manometer board installed above a bundled piezometer (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
14.7 Manometer board results for David Phillips Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
14.8 Sampling from a bundled piezometer using a flow cell (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
14.9 Sampling from a fractured rock bore using a pump and flow cell (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . 418
14.10Flow monitoring with a weir tank equipped with baffle plates to stabilise the flow. The
head over the weir is measured with a transducer. (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
14.11In line flow meters (2) are shown at a pumping test monitoring site in Queensland (Photo: CH) 423
14.12Orifice meter used to monitor discharge during a pumping test. The height that water
rises in The manometer tube behind the orifice is proportional to the discharge. (Photo CH) . 424
14.13Orifice pipe set up on a small discharge line. (Photo CH) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
14.14Preparation of a bundle of mini-samplers prior to installation inside a hole cased using a

cable-tool rig (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
14.15Installation of the bundle (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
15.1 Conceptual diagram of the hydrological cycle incorporating processes affecting the trans-
port and reactions involving major ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
Australian groundwater school notes xliii

LIST OF FIGURES
15.2 TDS vs Na/(Na+Ca) for selected groundwaters around the world. The solid lines envelope
global river water compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
15.3 Mixing lines based on conservative and non-conservative ions from the Lincolnshire lime-
stone, UK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
15.4 Br − /Cl− versus Cl− for south-central Kansas, Tucson basin, with additional data for the
GAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
15.5 Example of hydrochemical evolution in a freshening aquifer along the Atlantic coast of the
US. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
15.6 Distribution of redox-sensitive species along a groundwater flow path showing the sequen-
tial loss of oxidised species (O2 , N O3− and SO42− ) and sequential release of reduced species
(M n2+ , F e2+ , H2 S and CH4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
15.7 Piper diagram of groundwater over the entire range of salinity (500 to 25 000 mg/L TDS)
for the Murray Basin with the arrows showing the evolution of water chemistry along the
flow lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
15.8 Molar ratio chemical plots for groundwaters from the SW Murray Basin, Australia N a+
versus Cl− (a) shows a trend along the seawater dilution line, though N a+ /Cl− vs. Cl+
(b) provides a more sensitive analysis of N a+ behaviour at the dilute end of the spectrum.
Note the discontinuity of data at Cl− < 120 mM and Cl− > 200 mM. Br − vs. Cl− also
shows evaporative signature with some enrichment of Cl− relative to Br − at the upper end
of the salinity spectrum (c). Distribution of Ca2+, M g2+ and HCO3− (d) & (e) indicate
control of Ca2+ & HCO3− by carbonate precipitation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
15.9 Modified Shoeller plot for depth variations through the eastern Murray Basin based on
major ion data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
15.10Cross-section of the East Midlands aquifer system (a) showing the location of boreholes
in the main redbed confined aquifer. Other parameters are plotted against temperature,
which is a proxy for depth and distance along the flow path: (b) Cl, (c) Br/Cl, (d) Mg/Ca,
(e) Na/Cl, (f) K/Na and (g) Li . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
15.11An 18 month long time series of (a) SIcalcite and pCO2 , and (b) and Ca/M g ratio in
groundwaters sampled from piezometers at distances of 10 m, 100 m, and 600 m from a
sinkhole in a karstic aquifer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
16.1 Comparison of deuterium and oxygen 18 (VSMOW) for rainfall and surface water. WMWL
(World Meteoric Water Line) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
16.2 Comparison of deuterium and oxygen 18 (VSMOW) for surface water and groundwater.
WMWL (World Meteoric Water Line) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
16.3 Map plot of the δ 18 O (h) signature in surface water and upper groundwater (< 30 m).
The blue numbers signify surface water samples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
16.4 Cross-sections for δ 18 O(h) data. (A) Northern and (B) along Maules Creek (see Fig. 16.3
for location of cross-sections). The blue numbers signify surface water samples . . . . . . 464
16.5 A) Cl− distribution in the aquifer during the intrusion. The groundwater abstraction is
to the right and the sea to the left; (B) 87 Sr/86 Sr ratio vs. 1/Sr showing the three end-
member water types; (C) fractions of water in the shallow aquifer originating from the
deep limestone aquifer; (D) flow processes during seawater intrusion elucidated using Cl−
and stable Sr-isotopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
Australian groundwater school notes xliv

LIST OF FIGURES
14
16.6 Summary of processes affecting C in the hydrological cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
16.7 Map of the Adelaide Plains showing sampled bores, measured % modern carbon and flow
direction for the confined aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
16.8 The relationship between δ 13 CDIC and 14

CDIC for the Adelaide Plains groundwaters . . . 472
16.9 Corrected 14 C ages for two transects along a hydraulic gradient in the Adelaide Plains
aquifers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
16.10Schematic diagram diagram showing processes affecting Chlorine-36 and Cl in groundwater 474
36
16.11Location of Cl sampling sites in the south western Great Artesian Basin . . . . . . . . . 475
16.12Plots of Chlorine-36 ages as a function of distance along two hydraulic transects in the
south-western Great Artesian Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
16.13The buildup of CFC-11 and CFC-12 concentrations in the atmosphere shows a steady
increase since commencement of production in the mid 1940’s. Because the solubility of
CFC’s as a function of temperature is known very well, it is a relatively simple matter to
convert CFC’s measured in groundwater to a recharge age if the recharge temperature is
known. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
17.1 Subsurface schematic (not to scale) of seepage pit, domestic well and geological features
associated with an outbreak of gastroenteritus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
17.2 Survival of polio virus in wetted soils under two different incubation regimes, aerobic
incubation at 23 ◦C and anaerobic incubation at 1 ◦ C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
17.3 The sequence of terminal electron-accepting microbial reactions, down gradient from a
source of organic contaminant in a normally aerobic aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
17.4 Diagram of the Vyredox system showing zones of metal oxidation external to an extraction
bore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
17.5 Cathodic depolarisation-mediated oxidation of iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
18.1 Geo-information data sources and data types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
18.2 The Universal Transverse Mercator Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
18.3 Representation of geographic data in the vector and raster data models . . . . . . . . . . 499
18.4 Geo-relational data model used in the ARC/INFO GIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
18.5 Overlay operation in the grid and vector based data models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
18.6 Data sets required for the establishment of a model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
18.7 Assembly of data sources and process for modelling at Maules Creek in northern NSW . . 505
18.8 3D geological model of basement beneath a Tertiary aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
18.9 A 3D geological model of the base of the Tertiary aquifers on the Namoi River beneath
Mount Kaputar (close to Narrabri, northern NSW). The regional surface elevation model
forms the basis for the model with all the unconsolidated sediments identified from drilling
records removed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
Australian groundwater school notes xlv

LIST OF FIGURES
19.1 Flow modeling using resistor/capacitance network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
19.2 Regional modeling using electrical techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
19.3 Hele-shaw model of a groundwater system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
19.4 Sand-tank model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
19.5 Portable sand-tank model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
19.6 Conceptual Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
19.7 Mathematical Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
19.8 A protocol for a groundwater model development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
19.9 Aquifer and flow-system conceptual models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
19.10Hydrostratigraphic model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
19.11Finite difference and finite element mesh discretisations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
19.12One dimensional finite difference approximation to a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
19.13Finite difference grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
19.14Convention for numbering of nodes using the grid-centered approach . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
20.1 Arears at risk of developing salinity - Land and Water Audit Report . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
20.2 Unsatisfactory salinity classifications in common use. Features of primary salinity and
dryland salinity are exactly the same - making classification impossible if based on the
presence of those features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
20.3 Classic occurrence of dryland slainity at Dicks Creek in the Yass River valley of NSW (Photo
RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
20.4 Water logged soils leading to death of trees and incipient salinity on the Tragowal Plains
in Victoria (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
20.5 Salt deposits around a leaking bore (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
20.6 Salinity in Western Australia - adjacent to cropping land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
20.7 Fate of gas erupted from a volcano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
20.8 Lake George water depth and salinity (after Tim Ransley, 2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
20.9 Playa lake deposits in Colorado, US (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
20.10Piper diagram for groundwaters at Yarramanbah, NSW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
20.11Composition of saline water from Yarramanbah as water is lost to evaporation. Top panel
shows no loss of dolomite, lower panel allows precipitation to occur. Halite is always the
last mineral to precipitate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
20.12Water level record for Lake George, showing a 100-year cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
20.13Cummulative departure from mean rainfall for Barraba Post Office, NSW . . . . . . . . . 547
Australian groundwater school notes xlvi

LIST OF FIGURES
20.14SWL records for bores drilled in the Peel catchment of NSW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
20.15Quaternary Dust Paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
20.16Dust storm over eastern Australia - 23 October 2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
20.17Modern dust activity near Narromine - 12 November 2002 (Photo John Leys) . . . . . . . . . . 552
20.18Recent dust activity in Western NSW - March 2003 - accumulations behind vegetation
(Photo John Leys) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
20.19Recent dust activity in Western NSW - March 2003 - accumulations behind stock fences
(Photo John Leys) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
21.1 Hydrological cycle: Urban components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
21.2 Potential sources of groundwater pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
21.3 Schematic of aquifer types and groundwater flow in a typical catchment . . . . . . . . . . 565
21.4 Comparison of size distributions of waterborne particles, dissolved substances, colloids and
micro-organisms, compared with aquifer pore/fissure sizes, and filter sizes . . . . . . . . . 568
21.5 Ecosystem interfaces for a surface water body, eg a lake. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
21.6 Multiphase processes in aquifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
21.7 Typical contaminant plume in groundwater from a LNAPL spill, and associated ”halo” of
gaseous vapour-phase contaminants in soil gas, produced by partitioning of NAPL with
solid matrix (sorption of residual NAPL), with soil gas (volatilization) and with infiltrating
water and groundwater (dissolution). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
21.8 Schematic of the ecological succession of redox reactions, after Stumm and Morgan, 1996 578
21.9 Breakthrough curves for one dimensional flow of non-reactive, and reactive (sorption and
decay) solutes continuously input to a column of porous material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
21.10Partition of DNAPL between solid, aqueous and gaseous phases, giving a halo of vapour
phase contaminat in soil gas (volatilization), residual DNAPL associated with aquifer ma-
trix above and below the water table (sorption of NAPL ganglia), partition of soluble
components into aqueous phases infiltrating water and groundwater (dissolution) and fur-
ther partition of aqueous phase with solid matrix (adsorption/partition) . . . . . . . . . . 582
21.11Redox (oxidation-reduction) zones brought about through contamination of oxygenated

groundwater by organic leachate (in this case petroleum hydrocarbons) . . . . . . . . . . 583
21.12Variation with time in the composition of gas generated from decaying domestic solid
wastes (after Farquhar and Rovers, 1973), showing the main stages of bacterial decay and
characteristics of leachates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
21.13Cross section through a plume of contamination from a fuel service station, showing dis-
tribution of benzene and toluene associated with a reduction in sulphate concentration in
groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
21.14TCE plume in groundwater beneath Jolimont, Western Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
21.15TCE depth cross-section across the flow direction, noting the centreline of the plume
estimated from contoured data obtained from sampling long-screened boreholes. . . . . . 590
Australian groundwater school notes xlvii

LIST OF FIGURES
21.16Advertisement of the film ”A Civil Action” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
21.17Map of the Woburn area, with positions of supply wells (circles and points H and G) and
possible sources of TCE in groundwater (R, U, C) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
21.18The nitrogen cycle, modified after Freeze and Cherry (1979) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
22.1 Polluted groundwater impacting on a surface water stream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
22.2 Tripartite approach to groundwater protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
22.3 Developing a groundwater protection plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617
22.4 WHPZ Delineation using hydrogeologic mapping (use of groundwater divides) . . . . . . . 621
22.5 Definition of Jurien water reserve from groundwater flow modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
22.6 Delineation of protection zones in South Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
22.7 Adaptive management approach to groundwater protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625
23.1 Heaving of excavation floor as overburden is removed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631
23.2 Barrier protection (cut-offs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632
23.3 Grouts and their range of application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634
23.4 Protective layers in the floor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636
23.5 Chemical grouting at Nagyegyhaza Mine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638
23.6 Protective layers (pillars) in the roof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
23.7 Boundary pillar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640
23.8 Air Injection Experiment in Hungary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641
23.9 Seepage face . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642
23.10Use of geotextiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
23.11Sump pumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644
23.12Active dewatering methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646
23.13Pump selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
23.14Drainage or relief bore. Note that in pumping bores there is a small vertical drainage down
the gravel pack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
23.15Spear point systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
23.16Eductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650
23.17Electro-Osmosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
23.18Dewatering Shaft and Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652
Australian groundwater school notes xlviii

LIST OF FIGURES
23.19Safety margins-open pit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652
23.20Safety margins-underground mine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
23.21Recharging Pumped Water to Maintain Water Levels in Sensitive Areas . . . . . . . . . . 657
23.22Groundwater Flow into a Strip Pit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657
23.23Multiple aquifer flow into a strip pit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658
23.24Flow to underground gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660
23.25Hydrogeological environments for mine voids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661
23.26Hydrogeological processes contributing to the salinisation of pit lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . 661
24.1 Rainwater capture in Aden, Yemen (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
24.2 Stormwater flowing to the Lachlan Ponds via the old Birdsfoot Gully drain at Astrolabe
Park, Sydney. (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664
24.3 Stormwater entry to Model Yacht Pond in Centennial Park, Sydney. Note the trash rack.
(Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664
24.4 Various MAR devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
24.5 Floods in a wadi bottom can occur almost without warning (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
24.6 Flow at Soussosfley in Namibia - draining beneath the sand dunes to reappear as spring
flow on the Atlantic coast (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
24.7 A dry dam built across a wadi bed in eastern Yemen (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666
24.8 Schematic of a sand dam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666
24.9 Infiltration ponds used to recharge the aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666
24.10Schematic showing the elements of soil aquifer treatment (SAT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667
24.11Residual flow of secondary treated wastewater at the Hawks Nest STP - SAT example
(Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667
24.12The floor of the infiltration basin scraped and placed with clean sand - SAT example (Photo
RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667
24.13Aquifer storage and recovery bore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668
24.14Aquifer storage transfer and recovery installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
24.15Recharge ponds in the Atlantis well field in South Africa (Photo RIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
24.16Litter strand line at the edge of Model Yacht Pond after a rainfall event (Photo RIA) . . . . . 670
25.1 The components of the hydrologic cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677
25.2 The Management Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683
25.3 Water planning: conceptual model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687
Australian groundwater school notes xlix

LIST OF FIGURES
25.4 Water planning process and plan content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688
25.5 Effort and requirements for groundwater management units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689
25.6 Typical management responses in groundwater management units in response to increasing

allocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689
25.7 Determining allocation and licensing requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692
25.8 Typical website Home Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704
25.9 Available allocations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704
25.10Historical trading information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705
25.11Example of government trading site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706
Australian groundwater school notes l

List of Tables
1 Groundwater school locations to end 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
2 SI Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
3 The multiplying prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
4 The Greek Alphabet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
1.1 Estimates of the water balance of the world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Water access, entitlements and allocations, in Australia, by water source for 2004/05 . . . 5
3.1 Distribution of land and ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.2 Distribution of water on the earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.3 Distribution of surface water on land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.4 Global water balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.5 Mean residence time of water on the earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.6 Comparison of Australian and global water balances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.7 Radiation - conversion factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.8 Approximate energies of natural phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.9 Albedo values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.10 WMO recommended minimum rain gauge density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.11 Roughness coefficients for the Manning equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.12 Mean monthly distribution of rainfall and evaporation for Sydney . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.1 Examples of SI units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.2 Properties of Water at 1 Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.3 Summary of water properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.4 Specific surface areas of generalised particles found in soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
li
LIST OF TABLES
4.5 Specific surface areas, cation exchange capacities and charge density for selected clay minerals 83
4.6 Densities of soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.7 Range of porosity values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.8 Systems of units for the water potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.9 Representative hydraulic conductivity values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.10 Udden-Wentworth size classification for sediment grains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.11 Grain-size calculation for a Botany sands sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.12 Conversion of terms between the mass and volume fluxes in the Darcy transport equation 120
4.13 Approximate (very) specific yields for various geologic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.14 Values of compressibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.1 Water balance study for the Samaru catchment basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.2 Groundwater balance at the Howard River Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.3 Variability of recharge derived from water balance studies at Bauchi, 10 degrees north . . 149
6.1 Geomorphic classification of wetlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
7.1 Comparison of methods of subsurface investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
7.2 Geophysical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
7.3 Conversion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
7.4 Frequency Ranges of GEONICS Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
7.5 Indicative Elastic Coefficients and Seismic Velocities for Selected Rock Types . . . . . . . 208
7.6 Representative Primary Wave Velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
7.7 Cross-hole derived characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
7.8 Physical properties of landfill sites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
8.1 Typical mash funnel viscosities for unconsolidated formation drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
8.2 Typical Pressure and Volume Capacities for Water Well Rigs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
8.3 Recommended mimimun uphole circulation velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
8.4 Recommended bore casing diameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
9.1 Response of logs to porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
9.2 Selection criteria for logging tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Australian groundwater school notes lii

LIST OF TABLES
9.2 Selection criteria for logging tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
9.3 Characteristics of three commonly occurring isotopes which emit gamma radiation. . . . . 283
11.1 Discharge from a horizontal pipe flowing full . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
11.2 Suggested durations for discharge tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
11.3 Recommended pumping test applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
12.1 Drawdown at observation bores N-1, N-2, N-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
12.2 Data for Steady State Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
12.3 Maules Creek Data- Leaky confined aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
12.4 Maules Creek data - leaky confined aquifer solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
12.5 Papadopulos-Cooper function values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
13.1 Richmond Town - Bore 3 (Hazel, 1975) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
13.2 Step drawdown test data (Clark, 1977) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
13.3 Pumping rate quantities for the Eden-Hazel method - applied to the Saudi Example . . . 395
13.4 Values of Hi for the confined sandstone example of the Eden-Hazel analysis . . . . . . . . 396
13.5 Step drawdown test data - Chile example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
13.6 Values of Hi for the Chile example of the Eden-Hazel analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
13.7 Richmond Town Bore No. 3 - Test Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
14.1 Reference salinity criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
14.2 Approximate DO concentrations of water exposed to atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
14.3 Sample preservation and handling requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
15.1 Conversion factors for chemical units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
15.2 Atomic weights and valencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
15.3 Major ion chemistry of rainfall (mg/L) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
15.4 Groundwater chemistry from various climatic regimes and geological formations. . . . . . 435
16.1 Isotopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
16.2 Isotopic signatures of water end members and a mixture of the two . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Australian groundwater school notes liii

LIST OF TABLES
16.3 Range of δ 13 C of some sources of dissolved inorganic carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
17.1 List of Australian and New Zealand standard methods for microbiological testing of water
for domestic and industrial use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
17.2 Potential waterbourne pathogens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
17.3 Etiology of waterborne disease outbreaks in untreated or inadequately treated groundwater

systems, 1971 - 1981 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
17.4 Migration of microorganisms in the subsurface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
17.5 Free energy change in the reduction of electron accepting/electron donating species . . . . 486
18.1 Summary of significant bore databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
18.2 Comparison between raster and vector data models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
20.1 Possible increase in dryland salinity in each State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
20.2 A salinity classification based upon total dissolved salts in solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
20.3 Studies reporting significant aeolian contribution to landscape in south-eastern New South
Wales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
20.4 Generalised Late Quaternary Piedmont Stratigraphy in the Belarbon-Nulchara Lake Re-
gion, Showing Major Phases of Aeolian Dust Influx to the Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
21.1 Summary of drinking water quality from National Water Quality Management Strategy
(NWQMS), 1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
21.2 Guidelines for pesticides in drinking water from NWQMS (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
21.3 Contaminants and sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
21.4 Hydraulic conductivities, bulk densities, porosities and effective porosities for common
sediments and rock types (after Wiedemeier et al, 1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
21.5 Matrix showing environmental compartments (water, atmosphere, soil,biota), contaminant

phases ( aqueous, non-aqueous [NAPL], gas, biota) and process(es) and quantitative rela-
tionships which define partition across interfaces between environmental compartments. . 569
21.6 Cation exchange capacities at pH 7, and points of zero charge (pHzpc ) for natural minerals,
from Jackson (1980) and Strumm and Morgan (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
21.7 Aqueous solubilities, Henry’s coefficients, octanol-water partition coefficients (Kow ) and
partition coefficients (Koc ) for several carbon normalised volatile organic compounds . . . 573
21.8 Dissociation constants (pKa values) for organic acids and bases, from Harris and Hayes
(1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
21.9 Typical contaminants found in LNALS and DNAPLs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
21.10Ecological succession of redox reactions which occur with a progressive lowering of redox
potential (Eh) under closed conditions, in the presence of excess organic matter (modified
after Stumm and Morgan, 1996) (g) = gas phase (s) = solid phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
Australian groundwater school notes liv

LIST OF TABLES
21.11Examples of leachates from domestic solid wastes in landfills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
21.12Summary of reported pesticide detections in Australian groundwaters, after Kookana et al

(1998) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
22.1 Example of groundwater protection areas/well field protection zones for public water sup-
plies in Western Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623
23.1 Rule of thumb guide for cement grouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635
23.2 Critical Hydraulic Gradients for the Various Rock Types (using clay as the standard) . . 638
25.1 Water access, entitlements and allocations, in Australia, by water source for 2004/05 . . . 707
25.2 Permanent and temporary water trades in Australia in 2004/05 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708
25.3 Source and destination of permanent trades South Australia and Victoria . . . . . . . . . 708
25.4 Extent and price of groundwater trade in Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709
B.1 CPR Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751
Australian groundwater school notes lv

Chapter 1
Importance of groundwater in
Australia
Contents
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Global water balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 Groundwater and society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.2 Impacts of groundwater abstraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Water supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.1 Geological and palaeoclimatic controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.2 Recent temperature changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1 Introduction
Although man’s observation of and utilisation of groundwater pre-dates biblical times, an appreciation
of the occurrence and movement of subsurface water is more recent. The overwhelming increase in our
knowledge of the discipline has only been achieved in the twentieth century.
Hydrogeology in its most simple form can be defined as the study of the relationship between geology and
the occurrence, composition and movement of aqueous fluids. In more recent times, there has been a shift
in emphasis from a science which was mainly interested in resource development to a science which is now
also concerned with addressing the fate of the solute load of groundwater and the interaction between
groundwater and other components of the hydrologic cycle. The science has become more focused on
the incorporation of fluid mechanics and the spatial variation in hydraulic characteristics of geological
systems at a whole range of scales. This shift in emphasis has occurred because of growing concern about
the impact of man’s activities on groundwater systems and because of greater competition for a resource.
The result of all of these evolutionary changes is the realisation that a successful description of an aquifer
system requires an integrated approach.
Mather [2004] reviewed the early development of the science of hydrogeology and suggested that the first
significant work was undertaken in the UK by William Smith (1769 - 1839). Smith reported a good
understanding of the stratigraphic control of spring lines. Prior to this work was a general understanding
of the importance of water supplies from beneath the ground, even if there was little understanding as
to how they got there. The well in a castle was as important as the castle wall in the development of
fortified settlements in Europe. Price [2004] records the early work of Dr John Snow on groundwater
contamination, where leakage from a sewer contaminated a water supply well and led to the last major
outbreak of cholera in London in 1854. It has long been understood, that from a military perspective,
1
Chapter 1. Importance of groundwater in Australia
an army requires water and Rose [2004] records the development of emergency groundwater supplies by
the British army throughout the major campaigns of the past 100 years.
Traditional Aboriginals largely relied on lagoons, springs, rockholes and shallow unlined wells for their
water supplies in Australia. Due to the importance of water for their survival, especially in the inland
regions of the NT, many watering points have been incorporated into Dreamtime stories. Many people
still lead a partially traditional lifestyle so these sites and stories are an important part of their culture.
Dreamtime stories tell of the creation and events about that particular waterhole.
During the past 100 years, contributions by Henri Darcy, Boussinesq, Dupuit, Thiem, King, Slichter,
Stearns, Tolman and Meinzer along with many others established the basis for our current understanding
of hydrogeology. More recent contributions by Theis, Jacob, Hantush, Boulton, Tóth, Chebotarev, de
Marsily and many other fine engineers and scientists further developed our understanding and ability to
measure and model subsurface processes in complex environments.
In Australia, hydrogeology, has not enjoyed the same rich history of development in basic thinking as
Europe and North America. Nevertheless over the past 50 years considerable contributions have been
made to the basic understanding of our groundwater systems by such people as Ogilvie, Gloe, Lawrence,
O’Driscoll, Williamson and many others. This upsurge in knowledge is largely related to injections of
Government funds in hydrogeological research in response to concerns about particular problems, that
is over development, salinisation and contamination resulting from land use practices. This chapter
concentrates on providing a basic understanding of the concepts involved in conceptualising groundwater
flow systems which range in scale from whole basins (e.g,̇ Great Artesian Basin) to local scale of less than
50 m.
It has been estimated that some eighteen percent (18%) of domestic water use in Australia comes from
groundwater. However, Perth is the only major capital city which relies on groundwater for approximately
60% of its municipal supply and many (>100,000) shallow garden supply bores. Alice Springs relies 100%
on groundwater with abstraction from the Mereenie Sandstone accounting for 70% with the remainder of
the supply from 2 smaller aquifer developments. Many smaller centres rely on groundwater for domestic
supplies, with an estimated 600 communities using groundwater as their principal drinking water source,
particularly in rural areas [ARMCANZ/ANZECC, 1995].
In addition to the use of groundwater as a drinking water supply, groundwater is widely pumped to use
as irrigation water to support farming communities.
It has become clear that groundwater’s role in the hydrological cycle has been undervalued in the past
in Australia. In stressing the need for groundwater protection ARMCANZ/ANZECC [1995] state,
groundwater plays a significant role as a resource which is necessary to sustain life, either as
a source of water for human use or as water which helps sustain life in surface waters such as
streams and wetlands in dry periods.
They also hint at reasons for groundwater’s relative importance being poorly perceived, stating
it [groundwater] is a pervasive resource, interacting with the land surface, streams and lakes,
but because it occurs below the earth’s surface, its occurrence and movement are generally
poorly understood.
It is the pervasive nature of groundwater that makes it so important, and as a nation we need to better
understand its role and behaviour. Groundwater processes and our ignorance of these have produced a
litany of water and land degradation problems in Australia. Over pumping and local overuse of aquifers
has given rise to resource depletion, and consequent ingress of lower quality water into important aquifer
storages. Conversely, it is the overabundance of groundwater, caused by land clearing for agriculture and
replacement of deep rooted native vegetation with shallow rooted annual crops or pastures, which has
contributed to dryland salinisation of water and land. Here, greatly increased recharge of aquifers has
Australian groundwater school notes 2

Table 1.1: Estimates of the water balance of the world

Volume % of Total % Fresh Residence
(km3 × 106 ) Water Water Time
Oceans 1338 97 ≈ 4000 years
Saline/brackish groundwater 12.870 1
Saltwater Lakes 0.085 0.006
Lakes and Reservoirs 0.091 <0.01 0.26 ≈ 10 years
Marshes and Wetlands 0.01 <0.01 0.04 1 - 10 years
Rivers 0.02 <0.01 0.006 ≈2 weeks
Soil Moisture 0.02 <0.01 0.05 2 weeks to 1 year
Fresh groundwater 10.53 0.76 30.06 2 weeks to 10000 years
Glaciers and permanent snow 24 1.74 68.7 10 to 1000 years
cover
Atmospheric water 0.01 <0.01 0.04 ≈10 days
Biospheric water 0.01 <0.01 0.003 ≈1 week
caused groundwater levels to rise. This has increased surface discharges giving rise to water logging in
some areas. More importantly in more arid regions, salts which have accumulated in soils over thousands
of years are remobilised and discharged at the surface, forming saline seepages and increased salt discharge
to streams. It has been estimated that more than 2.5 million hectares of agricultural land is currently
affected by dryland salinity, and the potential exists for up to 12.5 million hectares to become affected,
representing 5% of the nations currently cultivated land [Prime Minister’s Science, Engineering and
Innovation Council, 1999].
These examples serve to illustrate that, as with surface water systems, we need to be aware that altering
the water balance will inevitably have impacts well beyond the initial reason for initiating change. We
need to understand our groundwater and associated environmental systems better.
Many different types of groundwater occurrence are encountered in Australia. They are summarised in
a publication by Lau et al. [1987]. New Zealand hydrogeology is summarised in a more recent book
by White [2000].
1.2 Global water balance
Some 97.9% of all the fresh water (unfrozen) that is found on the planet is stored beneath the ground
(Table 1.1) as groundwater. This amounts to approximately 9.5 million km3 of water. At least 1,500
million people depend upon this resource for drinking water. In addition, groundwater is used to support
irrigation in many parts of the world.
The various components of the water cycle are shown in Table 1.1 [Freeze and Cherry, 1979, Gleick,
2000].
Freeze and Cherry [1979] point out that although groundwater is highly significant in volume terms, this
needs to be tempered by consideration of the relative residence time in aquifers (Table 1.1). The often
long residence or turnover times for groundwater contrast with those for rivers and streams particularly.
The long residence times have significant implications for the sustainable use of these resources.
Groundwater reserves are recharged for the most part by rain that infiltrates through the soil to pass
below the root zone of vegetation. These reserves are occasionally augmented by streams and rivers which
lose water through their beds to underground strata. Once underground, the water flows at rates ranging
from more than 10 m per day to as little as 1 m per year, until it reaches an outlet. This may take the

form of a spring or a system of small seepages that keep rivers flowing during droughts. In some places,
the groundwater discharge is sufficient to support a river. Where groundwater discharges but cannot be
drained away, a salt lake or playa will often form, particularly if the discharge occurs in a hot dry area.
The salt lakes which are a common feature in western New South Wales and northern Victoria occur
where groundwater in the Murray-Darling Basin aquifers discharge.
The time scales of groundwater flow are extremely long (Table 1.1). Water in the Great Artesian Basin is
older than 1 million years, but ages of 30,000 years are more common. The often great age of groundwater
means that it can often only be considered as a renewable resource at time scales of thousands of years.
Groundwater which becomes contaminated by any of a large number of processes, will naturally be
regenerated, if we can wait around long enough!
Occasionally, geological events trap groundwater underground, cutting it off from both a source of supply
and from its outlets. Climatic change may also deprive aquifers of any means of recharge, as has happened
under a number of regions which are now desert but which were formerly much wetter. Although aquifer
systems exist in all continents, not all of them are fed on a regular basis by rainfall. Those in north
Africa and the Arabian peninsula were formed more than 10,000 years ago when the climate was more
humid and are no longer replenished. Groundwater reserves which are no longer replenished are called
fossil water.
1.2.1 Groundwater and society
Groundwater is a key input to agriculture, health, industry and the environment [Burke and Moench,
2000]. Security of water supply has been fundamental in the establishment of many communities as
people have always chosen to settle in locations with reliable water supplies. Over the past 50 years,
the expansion of irrigated agriculture has played a lead role in food security. In India, for example, it
has been estimated that 70-80% of agricultural output is dependent upon groundwater. Farmers who
have access to a groundwater supply can long outlast their neighbours, who are solely dependent upon
surface water, whenever drought conditions occur. This means that they can stay on the land and be
much better placed to take advantage of the next wet spell.
Dependence on groundwater for domestic supply is increasing. In some parts of the world their is now
direct competition between rural and urban communities for control over groundwater supplies.
Who owns groundwater? Disputes between local farmers, states or nations are increasing. Aquifers
frequently cross international boundaries and the management of the resource is a major challenge,
especially considering the very low level of understanding of groundwater. Burke and Moench [2000]
give an excellent review of the many societal and management problems already encountered around the
world. They conclude that one of the major requirements for resource management is to first know the
resource.
In Australia, it is clear from the data given in Table 1.2 that groundwater provides an essential component
of water supply across all States and Territories. Management of these water water resources will be
returned to at the end of these notes in Chapter 25.
Transboundary aquifers
In October 2008, The UN General Assembly was reviewing a draft of a new international treaty to
safeguard underground water shared by more than one country.
The draft Convention on Transboundary Aquifers applies to 96% of the planet’s freshwater resources –
those that are to be found in underground aquifers, most of which straddle national boundaries.
Many shared aquifers are under environmental threats caused by climate change, growing population
pressure, over-exploitation, and human induced water pollution.

Table 1.2: Water access, entitlements and allocations, in Australia, by water source for 2004/05
ACT NSW2 NT QLD3 SA TAS VIC4 WA Australia
Surface Water
Number of entitlements 27 24,694 64 27,336 3,486 3,110 17,030 878 76,625
Entitlement volume (GL) 64 10,644 60 3,488 789 1,038 5,828 903 22,814
Allocated volume (GL) 64 7,136 60 na 789 1,038 4,370 903 na
Groundwater
Number of entitlements 114 93,416 102 21,255 6,179 - 8,484 16,635 146,185
Entitlement volume (GL) 660 2,658 80 909 854 0 852 1,644 6,998
Allocated volume (GL) 60 2,663 80 na 854 0 364 1,644 na
Surface Water and Groundwater1
Number of entitlements 12 0 0 0 734 0 0 0 746
Entitlement volume (GL) 1 0 0 0 17 0 0 0 19
Allocated volume (GL) 1 0 0 0 17 0 0 0 19
Notes:
1: Water access entitlements that allow holder to access both surface and groundwater supplies
2: Maximum available water has been used for allocated volume
3: Excludes 1,931 water licences without a volumetric entitlement volume
4: Volume taken has been used as a proxy for allocated volume
The draft treaty requires that aquifer states not harm existing aquifers and cooperate to prevent and
control their pollution. Prepared over the past six years by the UN International Law Commission with
the assistance of experts from UNESCO’s International Hydrological Programme, the treaty is intended
to fill a gap in the law.
To accompany the draft treaty, UNESCO is publishing the first-ever world map of shared aquifers.
It shows the aquifer locations and provides information about the quality of their water and rate of
replenishment by rainfall. So far, the inventory includes 273 shared aquifers – 68 are in the Americas, 38
in Africa, 65 in eastern Europe, 90 in western Europe and 12 in Asia.
The growth in the demand for water since 1950 has been met by the increased use of underground
resources. Globally, 65% of this water is devoted to irrigation, 25% to the supply of drinking water and
10% to industry.
Underground aquifers account for more than 70% of the water used in the European Union, and are often
the only source of supply in arid and semi-arid zones.
Aquifers supply 100% of the water used in Saudi Arabia and Malta, 95% in Tunisia and 75% in Morocco.
Irrigation systems in many countries depend very largely on groundwater resources – 90% in the Libya,
89% in India, 84% in South Africa and 80% in Spain.
One of the largest aquifers in the world is the Guarani Aquifer, extending over 1.2 million square kilo-
metres, shared by Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay.
1.2.2 Impacts of groundwater abstraction
A summary of the impact of groundwater abstraction was given by the United Nations Environmental
Program (UNEP) in 1996 for the USA. The problems identified by UNEP are a useful indication of the
sorts of problems associated with groundwater development world wide.
• Groundwater resources under the United States are estimated at 125, 000 km3, roughly the equiv-
alent of the flow of the Mississippi River for 200 years.
• Groundwater supplies more than half of US drinking water, and 96% of the drinking water consumed

in rural areas.
• Some 30% of the groundwater used in the United States for irrigation comes from one aquifer - the
Ogollala aquifer, running from Dakota to Texas.
• Dams along canals in Southern Florida are needed to prevent saltwater contaminating the Biscayne
aquifer which supplies drinking water to 3.5 million Floridians.
• Groundwater abstractions have lowered the ground by up to 3 metres in the Houston-Galveston
area, giving rise to coastal and inland flooding. Land in California’s San Joaquin Valley has sunk
by as much as 9 metres since the 1920’s.
• Over-abstraction caused water levels in the Northern Midwest aquifer system to fall by more than
300 m. Many Chicago suburbs switched to water from Lake Michigan and the water table has now
risen by 75 m since 1985.
• Radioactive waste from a former nuclear production facility near Richmond, Washington, has con-
taminated parts of the aquifer below.
• Some three million people are supplied from a three-layered aquifer below Long Island - but the
top layer is now contaminated by oil and petrol, septic tank effluents and pesticides.
A similar list could be compiled for Australia, but in most cases, the required investigation is yet to be
completed!
1.3 Water supplies
1.3.1 Geological and palaeoclimatic controls
Much of Australia has been land since Cretaceous times [Lau et al., 1987] and deep weathering with
associated duricrusts occurred over many surfaces during the Tertiary Period that began 65 Ma. At
about 80 Ma, tectonic rifting along the line of the present continental shelf in SE Australia cut off the
headwaters of Australian rivers then rising in Pacifica, beheading many rivers and reducing the sediment
supply to the sedimentary basins [Ollier and Pain, 1994]. An understanding of the part that groundwater
has to play in the development of deep weathering, and the groundwater resources associated with
deep weathering is only recently becoming appreciated [Ollier and Paine, 1996]. The western and central
Australian river systems, which can still be observed on remote sensing data acquired by satellite (SPOT,
Landsat) were active and integrated river systems existed in the early Tertiary period. Climate change by
the middle of the Tertiary caused a general reduction in rainfall and flow in the rivers diminished. This
was the result of northward drift of Australia away from Antarctica and the opening up of the Tasman
Sea allowing a circum-polar oceanic drift to become established.
Since the Late Pliocene the Australian climate has fluctuated through many cycles; part of the world
wide phenomenon of the Ice Ages. During glacial maxima, when ice covered large parts of the northern
continents and sea level was as much as 130 m lower than the present day, Australia was cold and dry,
with strong winds causing major dust storms and creating the linear dune systems readily seen in the
arid interior. Relict barchan dunes, now stabilised by vegetation, can still be seen on the riverine plains
and reached as far east as Wagga Wagga in NSW where their progress was stopped by the hills of the
Great Dividing Range. Glacial minima were marked by much increased rainfall, surface runoff, growth
of forests and growth of large lakes in inland regions. The sea level rapidly recovered to levels some
3 m higher than present. The progression from inter-glacial to glacial seems to have been one of slow
regression, while the return to warmer conditions happened very rapidly. Sea levels rose by as much as
500 mm per hundred years for much of the period 14,000 BP to 12,000 BP. These climatic variations have
had enormous impact. In the northern hemisphere, movement of ice has removed all older soils from
many places, with all existing soil only developed in the last 10,000 years. Great thicknesses of dust
(loess) were deposited as a result of the aeolian erosion of terminal morrains in many countries including

Figure 1.1: Water level and climatic changes over the past 120,000 years
northern Europe, China and New Zealand. Australian loess deposits are also known as parna and have
been shown to mantle large areas of the Riverine Plain of the Murray Darling Basin [Bowler, 1976].
Australia did not escape with Young et al. [2002] reporting a current average of 31.4 t/km2 /yr [Cattle
et al., 2002] of dust deposit at Gunnedah in the Namoi Valley and probably double that during the more
arid phases of the Pleistocene [McTainsh and Lynch, 1996]. It has been estimated by Cattle et al. [2002]
that dust deposition would have increased soil thickness in the Liverpool Plains area by 200 mm since
the end of the last glacial arid phase 13,000 years ago.
Australia has probably experienced seven or eight such oscillations in climate during the past 1,500,000
years, with the last glacial maxima occurring only 18,000 years ago.
Fig. 1.1 shows the best estimate of climatic changes over the past 100,000 years.
Clearly, such climatic change has a marked effect on the groundwater system with major variability in
groundwater recharge. One major consideration is that climate change occurs far more quickly than the
groundwater system can respond in many of the larger aquifers. This has major implications for the
development of natural salinity.
It is significant to note that groundwater moving through the Great Artesian Basin in eastern Australia
entered the aquifer as recharge some 1.5 million years ago. This was at the start of the Pleistocene
ice ages and before homo sapiens had yet fully evolved in Africa. Groundwater has been discharging
from the aquifer around Dalhousie Springs and at many other mound spring locations for just as long.
Sometimes discharging back to the surface where fresh water supplies were abundant, sometimes when
the groundwater discharge was the only water supply!
1.3.2 Recent temperature changes
The Meterological Office in the UK has published monthly average temperature data for London starting
in 1650. This long run of data can be used to investigate climate change and clearly shows the cool period
in Europe during the latter half of the 16th C when the River Thames used to freeze over every winter.
It also clearly shows the recent warming trend. There is considerable year to year variability and an 11
year running mean is also shown in Fig 1.2 which better represents the trends. It is thought that the
period of cold temperatures in the UK during the late 1600’s would have been matched by cool and dry

Figure 1.2: Average annual temperatures for London, UK
conditions in Australia.
Anthropogenic changes to the climate are considered to be the cause of the latest warming. If these
continue, then future droughts will be hotter and drier than in the past.

Chapter 2
Hydrogeology
Contents
2.1 What is hydrogeology? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Factors affecting groundwater occurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3 Occurrence of groundwater in Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4 Groundwater in sedimentary basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4.1 The Paleozoic and Mesozoic sediments of the Great Artesian Basin . . . . . . . 11
2.4.2 The Tertiary Murray Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4.3 The Late Paleozoic to Mesozoic Perth Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.5 Groundwater in fractured rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.5.1 Weathered granites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.5.2 Fractured sandstones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.6 Groundwater in Tertiary palaeochannels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.7 Groundwater in surficial deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.7.1 Swan Coastal Plain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.7.2 Sand dune aquifers of the east Australian coast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.8 Groundwater in basalts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.9 Groundwater on oceanic islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.10 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.1 What is hydrogeology?
There are several excellent references for hydrogeology. Fetter [2001] provides a good overview at an
introductory level whereas Domenico and Schwartz [1997] give a detailed description of the physical and
chemical aspects of hydrogeology.
Hydrogeology is the area of geology that deals with the distribution and movement of groundwater in the
soil and rocks of the Earth’s crust, commonly in aquifers as shown in Fig 2.1[Wikipedia, 2009]. The term
geohydrology is often used interchangeably. Some make the minor distinction between a hydrologist or
engineer applying themselves to geology (geohydrology), and a geologist applying themselves to hydrology
(hydrogeology).
Hydrogeology is very much an interdisciplinary subject; it can be difficult to account fully for the chemical,
physical, biological and even legal interactions between soil, water, nature and society. The study of the
interaction between groundwater movement and geology can be quite complex. Groundwater does not
always flow in the subsurface down-hill following the surface topography; groundwater follows pressure
gradients (flow from high pressure gradient to low) often following fractures and conduits in circuitous
9
Chapter 2. Hydrogeology
Figure 2.1: Basic concepts in hydrogeology (Wikipedia)
paths. Chapter 4 deals with the mathematics of groundwater hydraulics that can be used to predict the
movement of groundwater.
Traditionally, the movement of groundwater has been studied separately from surface water, climatology,
and even the chemical and microbiological aspects of hydrogeology (the processes are uncoupled). As
the field of hydrogeology matures, the strong interactions between groundwater, surface water, water
chemistry, soil moisture and even climate are becoming more clear.
2.2 Factors affecting groundwater occurrence
There are many factors affecting the occurrence of groundwater. These include the following:
• Rainfall
• runoff
• topography
• lithology
• structure
• vegetation and
• past climate
Groundwater is held in the pore or fracture spaces in a sediment or rock. Groundwater is recharged from
the surface where there is frequently a surplus of rainfall over evapotranspiration. The surplus either
percolates downwards below the soil profile to become groundwater recharge, or is used by plants during
transpiration. Heavy rainfall may saturate the soil and fall at such a rate that the soil can not absorb

the water. Run off then occurs and water moves directly to surface drainage lines. Clearly, the amount
of vegetation, the topography and the rainfall intensity all impact on this complex set of processes.
The porosity of the rocks and the type of rock (lithology) will impact on the quantity of water that is
stored as groundwater.
Groundwater is often of significant age. It is not unusual to find groundwater in Australia that is 10,000
to 30,000 years old. In fact, groundwater moving through the Great Artesian Basin takes 1.25 million
years between recharge and discharge. The climate has changed dramatically over these time frames and
it is quite possible that the water in the aquifer is old. Developing this groundwater supply is then akin
to mining the water.
Groundwater is frequently of a very good quality - fit to drink; although, salty groundwater can also
occur and even hypersaline groundwater is frequently found in Australia. This is often the result of low
rainfall and very slow groundwater discharge into a flat locality where the water can not easily escape to
the ocean.
2.3 Occurrence of groundwater in Australia
The occurrence of groundwater in Australia can be sub-divided as shown in Figure 2.2 produced by
Geoscience Australia (http://www.ga.gov.au/) (GA). GA have subdivided the continent into 5 aquifer
types:
1. Porous, extensive highly productive aquifers

2. Porous, extensive aquifers of low to moderate productivity
3. Fractured or fissured, extensive highly productive aquifers
4. Fractured or fissured, extensive aquifers of low to moderate productivity
5. Local aquifers of generally low productivity
2.4 Groundwater in sedimentary basins
Groundwater occurs in the primary and secondary (fractures) porosity of rocks deposited in large sedi-
mentary basins. The dark blue areas in Fig. 2.2 represent these basins. The Great Artesian Basin is by
far the largest basin. The areas of porous aquifer are shown in Fig. 2.10.
2.4.1 The Paleozoic and Mesozoic sediments of the Great Artesian Basin
The GAB is one of the largest groundwater basins in the world. The GAB spans across three states and
the Northern Territory over an area of 1.7 million km2 , (20% of the Australian landmass), and is formed
from middle Triassic to Cretaceous aquifers and associated confining beds. Recharge to the aquifers takes
place on the eastern margins of the basin in outcrop areas, and environmental isotope studies generally
support the contention that this takes place today. Natural discharge from the basin takes place as
concentrated outflow from springs, (such as the mound springs in SA), from vertical leakage towards the
regional groundwater table, inter basin leakage, and from artificial discharge from artesian and pumped
wells [Habermehl, 1983]. The water is predominantly fresh and in most areas is under sufficient pressure
that flowing artesian wells can be constructed. The first artesian bore was constructed at Bourke in 1878.

Figure 2.2: Aquifer types in Australia
Approximately 4,770 flowing artesian bores have been constructed to average depths of 500 m up to
depths of 2,000 m into the lower Jurassic aquifer. These bores were often left to flow into bore drains at
the surface and water was used to feed cattle. Unfortunately, the vast majority of this water evaporated
and the overall pressure in the aquifer declined. Today there are about 3,000 free flowing bores, 35,000
sub-artesian bores and more than 600 spring complexes around the margin of the Basin.
Hillier [1992] indicated that the annual flow from all wells in the basin was equivalent to a depth of
around 5 mm over the assumed recharge area, compared with annual rainfall of 625 mm. Thus despite
falling groundwater pressures in some areas, overall it is thought that there is sufficient water available
in the intake areas to accommodate adjustments in the hydraulic gradient. The amount of water used
is also only a very small proportion of that in storage. Despite this, there is considerable concern at the
wastage of water from uncontrolled flowing wells, and from leakage from some older, poorly constructed
wells.
It is reported [Hillier, 1992] that capping and rehabilitation of flowing wells will reduce abstractions by
an order of magnitude, and allow more efficient usage of the resource. A program is now in place to do
this. There are also 20,000 non-flowing wells, mainly in the higher aquifers, extending only up to several
hundred metres deep. Most shallow wells are found in the central parts of the basin, where the artesian
systems are too deep for economic abstraction, while deeper bores generally occur on the margins of the
basin.
Springs discharging around the margin of the Basin (Fig. 2.3) have supported Aboriginal occupation for
thousands of years prior to European settlement.
The GAB is predominantly a confined and closed groundwater basin comprising a complex multi-layered
system separated by largely impermeable units. The aquifers are largely continuous and extend across
the basin as shown in Figure 2.4. The aquifers occur at depths up to 3000 m.
Major issues for the management of the GAB are described by the Great Artesian Basin Consultative

Figure 2.3: The Great Artesian Basin

Figure 2.4: Multi-layered aquifers in the GAB
Council [1998] as:
• groundwater pressures have declined in a number of regions in the Basin and 1500 artesian bores
have ceased to flow. Spring flows have declined significantly and some springs have dried up.
• Up to 90% of artesian flow is wasted due to the use of open bore drains to distribute water across
properties and the large number of uncontrolled bores. There are about 27 000 km of bore drains
in Queensland, 6 000 km in NSW and about 1 000 km in South Australia. The longest individual
drains exceed 150 km.
• Distribution of artesian water by bore drains has negatively impacted on land sustainability and
conservation of biodiversity.
• There is a potential for groundwater contamination with the advent of more intensive farming in
the intake beds.
The discharge point of groundwater flowing in the GAB is frequently a mound spring as seen in Fig. 2.5.
2.4.2 The Tertiary Murray Basin
The Murray Basin occupies an area of about 280,000 km2 , and is composed of Tertiary age sediments
which are flat-lying but increase in thickness towards the centre of the basin. The maximum thickness is
around 640 m. A generalised map and cross section of the basin is shown in Fig. 2.7. The basin contains a
number of aquifers which contain groundwater with quality from good to highly saline, and with varying
bore yields. An important limestone aquifer underlies an area of around 30,000 km2 , which straddles the
SA/Victoria border region. This unit, 50-150 m thick at depths of up to 100 m below surface, provides
good quality water for town, industrial, irrigation and stock supplies. In the Mallee district, silts and
clays are found along with highly saline water.
In the Murray Basin, groundwater generally is under-utilised in all three states. Presumably this is partly
due to the availability of cheaper surface water resources for irrigation in this important agricultural area.

Figure 2.5: Mound spring discharge from the GAB. Note the palaeo discharge mound in the background
Figure 2.6: Capped & piped artesian bore at Rockwell station, SE Queensland. The property name
reflects a large well excavated in rock by Aboriginals (though not artesian)

Figure 2.7: West to East cross-section through the Murray Basin
The costs of surface water are reportedly $10-$14 /ML, and for groundwater $15-$30/ML. Additionally
there are capital costs for drilling of up to $25,000 for shallow wells and up to $75,000 for deeper production
wells. The latter report states that it is still economic to use groundwater costing $50/ML, although this
is highly dependent on the type of crop. Also, given recent policy changes relating to water pricing and
capping surface water allocations, it seems likely that costs of surface water will rise and conjunctive
use of surface water and groundwater will become increasingly common, given the availability of the
groundwater.
Despite the apparent under-utilisation of the groundwater resource, there is considerable concern that
in some areas local over pumping could take place, giving rise to degradation of the resource, and this
is already occurring. For example, the Angas-Bremer irrigation area on the western flank of the basin
abstracts 25 × 106 m3 /y of groundwater, which is causing ingress of saline groundwater to the aquifer [Ja-
cobson et al., 1991].
Recent changes indicate that long-term ”mining” of groundwater (abstraction above sustainable levels)
can no longer be tolerated. However, controlled depletion (short-term, reversible lowering of groundwater
levels) is encouraged, and monitoring of groundwater quality is being increasingly used to make sure
that resources are not being degraded (for example by salinity increases) beyond the beneficial use of the
water (ARMCANZ/ANZECC, 1995).
A significant problem has arisen in the Murray Basin from rising groundwater levels which result from
land-use changes over the last 100-150 years, particularly in the southern part of the basin. These
changes have thrown the hydrological system out of balance. They have greatly increased groundwater
recharge and have caused water logging of the surface in most irrigation areas on the Riverine Plain in
the southern part of the basin. Older irrigation areas (Kerang/Cohuna, Murrumbidgee IA) are reported
to have stable ”groundwater mounds” while newer areas have continually rising levels. Recent reports
suggest that dryland as well as irrigated agriculture has given rise to significant salinisation within the
basin. An estimated 75% of salt loads in streams within the basin are reported to have come from dryland
catchments [Prime Minister’s Science, Engineering and Innovation Council, 1999]. There is considerable
debate as to the most appropriate way to manage salinisation within the basin, but it is clear that this is

Figure 2.8: Early Miocene geomorphology
highly complex and there is no one panacea solution. The complexity and extent of the salinity problem
was thought to require a response at government level during the 1990’s, however, falling water levels in
fractured rock aquifers in the first decade of the 21st century has put this analysis in some doubt. On
the Riverine Plain in Victoria and some alluvial valley systems in New South Wales (Namoi) there is a
double problem with rising water levels in shallow aquifers and rapidly declining levels in deeper aquifers.
The geomorphology of the Murray Basin during the Early Miocene is shown in Fig. 2.8. The evolution
of the geomorphology in Quarternary time is shown in Fig 2.9.
2.4.3 The Late Paleozoic to Mesozoic Perth Basin
The onshore Perth basin extends from Augusta to just northeast of Geraldton, a distance of 1,000 km,
covering an area of 51,500 km2 . The basin consists of sedimentary rocks of Silurian to early Tertiary age,
overlain by a veneer of Quaternary surficial sediments. Most sediments are Permian-Cretaceous age, and
consist mainly of inter bedded sandstone and shale, sandstone and coal measures. The major aquifers in
the basin are Cretaceous and Jurassic sandstones.
The Perth Basin has been extensively investigated to identify water resources and also for oil and gas
exploration. Fifteen groundwater sources have been identified within the basin, from a variety of aquifers,
including the surficial formation, the Cretaceous Leederville Formation and the Jurassic Yarragadee and
Cockleshell Gully Formations. The mostly confined non-surficial systems are recharged either in outcrop
areas where they occur, or by downward leakage from surficial aquifers. It has been estimated that the
volume of groundwater in storage in these systems is very large compared with that renewed each year
through recharge, and that recharge has varied considerably in the last few thousand years. Given the
strategic position of these reserves close to Perth and the numerous other cities and townships along the
Western Australian coast, this has generated considerable debate as to whether such large and valuable
resources should be utilised through controlled and reversible depletion (as in parts of the Murray Basin)
to allow further development of the area [Allen et al., 1992].

Figure 2.9: Quarternary geomorphology of the Murray Basin
2.5 Groundwater in fractured rocks
Fractured groundwater regions in Australia are shown in Fig. 2.10. Groundwater in this category includes
water found in the weathered profile of granites and migmatites and the water found in individual fractures
in consolidated sedimentary rocks.
2.5.1 Weathered granites
Groundwater occurs in weathered granites as shown schematically in Fig. 2.11. The water first enters
the rocks along stress-relief fractures or into fractures associated with faults. The rock, which is initially
impermeable, becomes more so as chemical weathering acts upon the minerals present. The end result
is that localised patches of more permeable and porous material develop that can supply yields of up to
5 L/s for several hours. The result of weathering that normally follows fracturing in a granite or gneiss
(high grade metamorphic rock) are shown in Fig. 2.11. The different grades of weathering [Acworth,
1987, 2001b] give rise to different porosities.
Useful supplies of groundwater can often be found in the weathered profile developed upon fractured
basement rocks [Lau et al., 1987, Acworth, 1987]. Recharge is usually local and seasonal fluctuation in
water levels is often large, both of which reflect the heterogeneity of this type of aquifer. Well yields from
these are often low (a few L/sec) except in heavily fractured zones. Groundwater quality is generally
good in areas where there is high rainfall, but often poor in arid areas.
An estimated one third of all bores are in fractured rock systems in Australia, these being important for
stock watering and other uses. These supply an estimated 310 × 106 m3 /yr of water, equating to 10% of
total abstractions. The distribution of fractured rock provinces in Australia is given in Fig. 2.12.
2.5.2 Fractured sandstones
Fractured rock aquifers present unique problems in their investigation, evaluation and management,
largely because of their heterogeneous nature, and the dependence of aquifer properties on fracture

Figure 2.10: Areas of fractured rock and porous aquifer
Figure 2.11: Isometric diagram showing disposition of weathering grades developed in granite

distribution, connectivity and extent.
Fractured rock aquifers are characterised by high spatial variability in hydraulic conductivity, making
traditional hydraulic methods for estimating groundwater flow difficult to apply. The possible range
of fractures and fracture sets in rock are shown in Fig. 2.12. Note that the orientation and degree of
interconnection of fractures is critical in the development of effective pathways through which groundwater
can move. [Cook, 2003] has described the appropriate approach for investigation of fractured rock aquifers.
In Australia, examples of important areas where groundwater extraction from fractured rocks for irriga-
tion has the potential to stress the groundwater resource include:
• The Clare Valley, South Australia, where expansion of the viticulture industry is increasing demand
at a rapid rate;
• groundwater extraction from the Howard River Basin for Darwin’s water supply may be stressing
phreatophytic vegetation in the area, including rain forests and tourist springs.
• In New South Wales, approximately 30 towns in the New England region and central and southern
tablelands are partially dependent on water supplies from fractured rock aquifers.
• The Mereenie Sandstone in Central Australia provides water from fractures. The well known water
holes in the McDonald Ranges north of Alice Springs, and the water supply for Alice Springs, come
from this aquifer.
On a smaller scale, fracture patterns are less predictable. In the Clare Valley, groundwater availability
appears to be controlled by closely spaced (<20 m), small aperture fractures which have no obvious
surface expression. On a larger scale, it may be possible to improve the success rate of water-well drilling,
but bore siting remains problematic in areas where there are no obvious geological structures. Records
of unsuccessful bores (dry wells or low-yield wells) are not readily available, making reliable statistics
of success rates in different environments impossible to determine. However, in the Archean Shield of
Western Australia, approximately 2600 bores were drilled in 13 districts as part of a Government drought
relief program during 1969-70. The percentage of successful bores (where yield was sufficiently high for
the intended use) ranged from 23.5% in one district to 1% (AWRC, 1975).
Well interference is a commonly reported problem where there is a concentration of groundwater users
within a small region. The low and variable porosity and hydraulic conductivity of fractured rocks means
that drawdown can be very large, even for a low extraction rate. There are numerous reports of extraction
from deep irrigation wells drying up shallower domestic supplies (e.g. Dandenong Ranges, Victoria; Clare
Valley and Mount Lofty Ranges, South Australia). Because of the low storage of many fractured rock
aquifers, seasonal variations in the water table level tend to be very large, even though recharge may be
small. Long-term monitoring may be required to distinguish the effects of well interferences from natural
variations of the water table. Where there is a strong, preferred orientation of fractures, the draw down
cone can be highly anisotropic. Well field design in fractured rock aquifers will thus need to consider
fracture orientations.
In Central Victoria there is fracture flow of cold CO2 -bearing mineral water, principally in the Daylesford-
Hepborn area in Lower Palaeozoic sediments of the Great Dividing Range. These waters effervesce
naturally and are sought for drinking and bathing [Weaver et al., 2006, Shugg and Knight, 1994] as
shown in Fig. 2.13. Similar conditions occur at several locations in NSW with a bore at Ballymore shown
in Fig. 2.14.
Groundwater quality issues are also different in fractured rock aquifers from those in permeable, inter
granular flow systems. High water velocities through fractures mean that contaminants can potentially
travel large distances very quickly. The direction of contaminant migration may be difficult to predict
from hydraulic head data, particularly if there is a strong anisotropy in hydraulic conductivity. There
is currently little published information on the movement of contaminants through fractured rocks in
Australia, although it has been highlighted as a major concern in numerous overseas studies.

Figure 2.12: Possible fracture configurations and the implications for groundwater supply

Figure 2.13: Daylesford Springs capped to allow Figure 2.14: Carbon dioxide rich spring water at
to be controlled. (Photo RIA) Ballymore in NSW. (Photo RIA)
2.6 Groundwater in Tertiary palaeochannels
Water for irrigation is currently pumped from many of the palaeodrainage channels along the Murray
and Murrumbidgee catchments and also from channels close to the some of the tributaries of the Darling,
such as the Namoi and Gwyder systems. At Leeton in the MIA, some bores drilled only to 150 m produce
as much as 350 l/s of water with excellent quality (fluid EC of less than 200 µS/cm). Figure 2.15 gives an
example of one such bore where the water is being used to irrigate rice, and Figure 2.16 shows a typical
location of a palaeochannel which produce such supplies [Lau et al., 1987].
Note that the clay cover deposited over the aquifer in the Pleistocene (Fig. 2.16) will prevent the aquifer
from being as readily recharged now as it was before the clay was deposited. This may have significant
implications for the sustainability of resources.
The management of groundwater in Tertiary palaeochannels is a major concern as they represent the
primary water resource for a significant proportion of the irrigated agriculture in Australia. The old river
channel is frequently covered by a layer of silt and clay which makes the location of the channel difficult.
Fig. 2.17 shows the results of collecting all available geological data into a geological model of a Tertiary
channel on the Namoi River in northern NSW.
2.7 Groundwater in surficial deposits
Surficial aquifers occur in alluvium, colluvium, dune sands, calcrete and aeolianite, and are mostly of
Quaternary age. These exist mostly within 100 m of the surface.
The surficial aquifers are highly productive, with about 60% of abstractions in Australia coming from
these, supplying both irrigation and urban supplies [Lau et al., 1987]. However, some of these aquifers
are coming under stress through overuse. Water is stored in inter granular spaces in sands, alluvium and
colluvium and gravels. The water levels show marked seasonal fluctuations in response to recharge, as
most aquifers are unconfined and recharge takes place over a significant proportion of the aquifers. Hence,
unlike some of the deeper groundwater systems, annual recharge can be significant when compared to
the volume of water in storage.
However, groundwater abstractions are often concentrated close to point of use (a significant advantage of
groundwater resources), and as pointed out above, locally abstraction and natural discharge can greatly
exceed recharge, giving rise to resource depletion, saline intrusion and knock-on effect on surface water
ecosystems which are dependent on groundwater (lakes, wetlands, swamps etc) or for base-flow (rivers,
streams).

Figure 2.15: Irrigation bore for rice growing in the MIA. (Photo RIA)
Figure 2.16: Palaeodrainage channel (deep lead) typical of those in the MIA

Figure 2.17: Geological model of a palaeochannel on the Namoi River in NSW
These impacts can be alleviated to some extent by artificial recharge, but it has become increasingly
obvious that careful management is required for allocation of groundwater supplies from these aquifers.
2.7.1 Swan Coastal Plain
Sand aquifers on the Swan Coastal plain contribute over 70% of water supplies, and up to 35% of drinking
water supplies for the city of Perth and associated coastal areas. The aeolian sands and coastal limestone
(aeolianite) provide excellent aquifers which are readily recharged by winter rains. The groundwater sys-
tems also support extensive wetlands and swamplands throughout the plain, and groundwater discharges
to both ephemeral streams along the eastern edge of the plain and to the Swan river and Moore River
on the central and northern part of the plain as well as to the Indian Ocean in the west.
The pattern of recharge and surface discharge produces groundwater mounds where the phreatic surface is
at its highest elevation in the central parts of the plain, and decreases in elevation towards the discharge
points at the east and west margins and into westward flowing rivers and streams which traverse the
plain. The undulating surface of the sand dunes intercepts the phreatic (water table) surface in dune
swales, forming wetlands, damp lands and swamps, which are entirely dependent on groundwater for their
existence. Urban and agricultural development on the coastal plain have impacted wetlands to such an
extent that most of these in the urban and associated horticultural areas are eutrophic, and although there
has been considerable effort put into management of water levels through artificial recharge, conjunctive
use of groundwater and surface water, groundwater modelling and monitoring, water levels have shown
a steady downward trend since developments began in the 1950s. Some wetlands have disappeared and
others have been inundated from land drainage so that fringing vegetation has died. Phreatophytic
vegetation (deep-rooted trees and shrubs which obtain water from the water table) has also been severely
affected in some areas close to water supply well fields.
The situation on the Swan Coastal Plain is by no means uncommon, where exploitation of shallow fresh
groundwater supplies in unconfined aquifers beneath the expanding city not only draws down the ground-
water table, but also gives rise to contamination of water supplies from a wide range of activities. Perth
is relatively unique in that land-use restrictions have been applied to the developing city suburban areas,
to help minimise impacts on groundwater quality. Perhaps the most pressing problem in areas like the
Swan Coastal Plain is our lack of understanding of the dependence of natural ecosystems on groundwater,

Figure 2.18: Perched groundwater lake on North Stradboke Island, Queensland (Photo RIA)
which limits our ability to manage the resource whilst maintaining environmental sustainability. It is
clear that groundwater on the Swan Coastal Plain maintains a wide range of wetlands, supports phreato-
phytic vegetation, and also now has been identified as a significant driving force expelling nutrients from
anoxic sediments into the Swan River, causing nuisance algal blooms.
2.7.2 Sand dune aquifers of the east Australian coast
There are major aquifer systems in wind blown sands along the east coast of Australia. These include
the Botany Aquifer and the Tomago Sands in New South Wales and Moreton Island, Stradbroke Island
and Frazer Island in Queensland. Fraser Island is the largest sand dune island in the world.
Each of these aquifers systems contains very large quantities of fresh groundwater and supports complex
ecosystems associated with the groundwater discharge. Fig. 2.18 shows a major perched groundwater
lake (Brown Lake) on North Stradbroke Island.
2.8 Groundwater in basalts
In central to western Victoria is an extensive area of lava plain and valley flows, with over 250 scoria
and lava volcanoes. The unit is known as the Newer Volcanics and has a thickness of up to l20 m. It
is very heterogeneous and anisotropic depending on the occurrence of jointing and vesicular zones, with
bore yields ranging from l l/s to 60 1/s The groundwater salinity ranges from less than 100 mg/l TDS to
8000 mg/l TDS . The lower salinity groundwater occurs where local recharge is high as in the younger
unweathered flows and at volcanoes and scoria cones; however these waters are often characterized by
high nitrate concentrations. Although the groundwater is mostly used for stock and domestic purposes,
it is also used for irrigation and town supplies where yields permit. The volcanic plain itself is dotted

Figure 2.19: Hexagonal cracks formed during cooling can often transmit significant quantities of ground-
water (Photo RIA)
with numerous shallow lakes which act as throughflow lakes. More recently a number of these lakes have
dried up reflecting rainfall decline and the growth in groundwater irrigation. The basalt aquifers in that
part of the volcanic plain in the western suburbs of Melbourne are affected by a number of contaminant
plumes derived from waste disposal from industry in the immediate post WW2 period.
The basalts in Victoria represent the youngest of a number of chains of volcanoes that reaches from
Queensland through New South Wales to Victoria. The basalt lava flow often cools to give hexagonal
cracking that forms characteristic columns (Fig. 2.19).
2.9 Groundwater on oceanic islands
Groundwater is a vital source of water on many tropical islands. The island of O’ahu (Hawai’i) relies on
groundwater for 90% of its drinking water and about half of all water used for irrigation. During El Niňo
episodes, rains often fail in the Pacific and groundwater becomes the only source of water.
The occurrence of groundwater on oceanic islands depends upon the geology of the island. Volcanic
islands, such as Lord Howe, have groundwater associated with basalt as well as groundwater in calcrete
or sand deposits. In the Pacific Ocean, it is frequently the case that limestone has formed on top of
volcanic lava producing quite a complex aquifer system. Tribble [2008] has reported on a number of
typical occurrences from the Pacific.
The most important concept is that fresh water has a lower density than sea water and will therefore
tend to float on seawater in the aquifer. The interface between the two is susceptible to movement as
a result of groundwater abstraction. This makes the management of groundwater lenses a difficult issue
that requires careful monitoring. Fig. 2.20 shows the relationship between freshwater and groundwater.
Groundwater may occur at high levels in islands (Fig. 2.21) [Tribble, 2008] where lithological changes
give rise to perched aquifers; or may be more extensive at low levels (Fig. 2.22) [Tribble, 2008].

Figure 2.20: Freshwater lens beneath an island
Figure 2.21: Aquifers can be perched well above the regional water level

Figure 2.22: Extensive sand dune aquifer systems or systems developed on low permeability layers
The impact on hydraulic head measurements where salinity varies is discussed in Chapter 4 and specific
geophysical techniques applicable to this problem are presented in Chapter 7. There are significant issues
with groundwater dependent ecosystems that are also covered in Chapter 6. Groundwater development
may give rise to upconing as shown in Fig. 2.23 [Tribble, 2008].
2.10 Summary
Groundwater is a resource which is big, pervasive, vulnerable and enduring. Groundwater issues surround
us. They can almost overwhelm us, there is so much to be done to sustain and protect the resources,
and the surface water and ecosystems which they support, and to overcome the problems of salinity and
pollution.
We need to understand the fundamental processes controlling groundwater quantity and quality, and
there is still much to learn. Australian hydrogeologists are developing an understanding of groundwater
processes. We have seen the linkage between recharge rates and salinity, due to irrigation and dryland
clearing. We are still developing an understanding of the dependence of ecosystems on groundwater, and
nutrient and solute attenuation and interactions between groundwater and surface water systems. The
community has a right to expect us to understand these relationships. If we don’t who will?
We need to improve quantitative assessments to allow better resource management: the following would
seem to be most problematic:
• recharge estimation in fractured media

• surface water-groundwater interactions and ecosystem dependence on groundwater
• impacts of land-use change and waste management on groundwater, and
• remediation and restoration of degraded resources
• definition of capture zones for wells and springs
• optimisation of groundwater abstraction to allow resource and environmental sustainability
We are good on measuring concentrations, and poor on measuring mass fluxes to aquifers and assessing
”sustainable yield”. For total aquifer management we will need to develop such a capacity.

Figure 2.23: Upconing of saline groundwater below a pumping well
Our past failures have not been deliberate. They have been caused by not having a clear understanding
of the groundwater system, groundwater sources, or fluxes, flow mechanisms, discharge points, or rates
of attenuation of contaminants.
We need to educate communities as trustees. The local community is normally the best group to manage
their shared resource (certainly for unconfined aquifers and regional groups for confined aquifers) so
they can understand their problem and choose their own solutions. It is our role to provide them
with the knowledge they need to make intelligent decisions for themselves. Community participation in
groundwater management is essential.

Chapter 3
Surface water hydrology
Contents
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.1.1 The distribution of water on the planet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.1.2 The global water balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.1.3 Residence times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.1.4 The Australian water balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2 Extraterrestrial radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2.1 Incoming radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.2.2 Effect of variations in the earth-sun distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.2.3 Effect of earth’s rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.2.4 Effect of latitude and curvature of the earth’s surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.3 Radiation budget within the atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.3.2 Estimate of incoming short wave radiation Rc at ground surface . . . . . . . . 40
3.3.3 Estimate of long wave radiation (Rb ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.3.4 Net radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.4 Hydrological cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.4.1 Hydrology as a science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.4.2 The history of hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.4.3 Central concept in hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.5 Rainfall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.5.1 Rainfall in Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.5.2 Rain gauges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.5.3 Radar estimates of rainfall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.5.4 Measurement of snow fall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.5.5 Minimum density of precipitation gauge network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.5.6 Errors in rainfall measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.6 Rainfall analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.6.1 Data presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.6.2 Residual mass curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.6.3 Spatial variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.7 Streamflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.7.1 Measurement of stream flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.7.2 Stage measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.7.3 Non-recording stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.7.4 Recording stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.7.5 Automated recording stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
30
Chapter 3. Surface water hydrology
3.7.6 Pressure transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

3.7.7 Remote operation of recording stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.8 Discharge measurement methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.8.1 Volumetric measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.8.2 Dilution gauging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.8.3 Current metres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.8.4 Float method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.8.5 Hydraulic structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.8.6 Manning equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.9 Rating curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.10 Evapotranspiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.10.1 Measurement of evapotranspiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.10.2 Calculation of potential evapotranspiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.1 Introduction
Surface water and groundwater form major components of the hydrological cycle. Their study should
not be separated as water is continuously moving between the 2 domains.
The study of aquifer recharge requires knowledge of the rainfall and evaporation/evapotranspiration
occurring at a site. Understanding the factors that influence recharge necessarily involves understanding
elements of surface water hydrology. Quantitative estimates of aquifer recharge require accurate estimates
of the surface water components as well.
Groundwater dependent ecosystems are established where groundwater rejoins the surface water sphere
as base flow to streams and rivers. The recognition of a GDE requires that the flow in the stream or
river be understood and quantified at different stages of the river. In some parts of the world, 100% of
the river discharge is groundwater.
The recent emphasis on surface water and groundwater interconnectivity recognises these inter relation-
ships and their importance in supporting the associated ecosystems. For these reasons, it is necessary
to commence a detailed study of groundwater by recognising the place of groundwater in the overall
hydrological cycle.
3.1.1 The distribution of water on the planet
The oceans occupy 70.8% of the earth’s surface, leaving only 29.2% land mass. The distribution of land
and ocean between the northern and southern hemispheres is strongly biased towards land in the northern
hemisphere and ocean in the southern hemisphere. This is shown in Figure 3.1 [Philip, 1978].
In the northern hemisphere 51.5% of the surface is land and 48.5% ocean. In the southern hemisphere
the ratio is only 8.6% land to 91.4% ocean. The data is shown in Table 3.1.
This difference in distribution has a major impact upon climate. In particular, the lack of land between
35o South and 65o South leaves an uninterrupted west wind field around these latitudes. World climate
changed markedly during the Tertiary period when Australia finally split from Antarctica about 25 M
years ago, allowing the development of a circum-polar ocean current that effectively isolated the Antarctic
continent.
The majority of water on the earth occurs in the oceans, as shown by Table 3.2.
Water is held on the land in rivers and lakes, but not all of this water is fresh. Table 3.3 shows the
distribution of surface water on land.

Figure 3.1: Distribution of Land and Ocean with Latitude
Table 3.1: Distribution of land and ocean

Area Percentage
106 km2 %
Ocean Land Ocean Land
Northern Hemisphere 154.8 100.3 60.7 39.3

Southern Hemisphere 206.5 48.7 80.9 19.1
Earth 361.3 149.0 70.8 29.2
Total 510.3 100.0
3.1.2 The global water balance
The movement of water between the ocean and the land is in a long term steady state. The land is not
getting either wetter or any drier. Philip [1978] gives a global water balance as shown in Table 3.4 and
Figure 3.2. The runoff from the land to the ocean (315 mm) is the excess of the precipitation on land
(800 mm) over the evaporation from the land (485 mm). This is balanced by the excess of evaporation
from the ocean (1400 mm) over the precipitation over the ocean (1270 mm). Note that land occupies 29%
of the planet surface whereas the oceans cover 71%.
3.1.3 Residence times
Philip [1978] has also calculated the mean residence times for water in the various storages on the planet.
This data is presented in Table 3.5, and shows that, for example, the atmosphere only contains enough
water at any one time to support approximately 8 days of rainfall over the planet. Large volumes of
water are either saline or frozen, so the importance of the hydrological cycle in moving around the small
volume which is left, but which supports life, is critical.

Table 3.2: Distribution of water on the earth

Volume Percentage Average Based
as liquid of total depth on
water water area of
106 km3 m
Ocean 1338 97.3 3700 ocean

Ice caps and glaciers 29 2.1 80 ocean
Groundwater 8.4 0.61 56 land
Lakes and rivers 0.23 0.017
Atmosphere 0.013 0.00094 0.025 planet
Biological water 0.0006 0.000005 0.004 land
Total 1376 100 2700 planet
Table 3.3: Distribution of surface water on land

Volume Percentage of
total water
106 km3 on the Earth
Rivers 0.0017 0.00012

Freshwater Lakes 0.125 0.0091
Saline Lakes 0.105 0.0076
Total 0.23 0.017
3.1.4 The Australian water balance
The water balance of the six continents is shown in Figure 3.3, also from Philip [1978]. The vertical scale
in this figure is in millimetres of water per year, while the horizontal scale represents the continental
surface area in millions of square kilometres. It is clear that Australia is particularly dry. A comparison
of global and Australian water balances is given in Table 3.6.
Evaporation is less than the global average, not because there is less potential evaporation, but because
there is not enough rainfall available to evaporate. This implies that the hydrological balance is particu-
larly delicate in Australia and that small changes can produce major impacts. The significance of salinity
in Australia is related to the delicate nature of this balance.
3.2 Extraterrestrial radiation
Radiation is often quoted in a number of different units. Table 3.7 gives a summary of conversion factors.
Table 3.4: Global water balance

Precipitation Evaporation Runoff
103 km3 mm 103 km3 mm 103 km3 mm
Ocean 458.9 1270 505.8 1400 -46.9 -130

Land 119.2 800 72.3 485 46.9 315
Planet 578.1 1133 578.1 1133 0 0

Figure 3.2: The global water balance
Figure 3.3: Water balance of the six continents

Table 3.5: Mean residence time of water on the earth

Volume Rate of Mean
turnover residence
106 km3 106 km3 year−1 time
Oceans 1338 0.5058 2600 years

Ice caps and glaciers 29 0.00255 1100 years
Groundwater 8.25 0.0119 700 years
Lakes 0.23 0.00173 13 years
Soil water 0.03 0.0706 155 days
Rivers 0.0017 0.0469 13 days
Atmosphere 0.013 0.5781 8.2 days
Biological water 0.0006 0.0651 3.4 days
Table 3.6: Comparison of Australian and global water balances
All land Australia

surfaces
Precipitation 800 456

Evaporation 485 419
Runoff 315 37
Potential Evaporation 1132 1870
Ratio of runoff to precipitation 0.398 0.08

Ratio of evaporation to potential evaporation 0.43 0.22
3.2.1 Incoming radiation
The sun continuously emits short-wave electromagnetic radiation as a direct consequence of its high
surface temperature (≈ 5800 K). The Stefan-Boltzmann Law can be used to determine the energy flux
from a body if the surface temperature of that body is known. The relationship is:
Ξ = σT 4 (3.1)
where:
Ξ is the energy flux in Watts per square metre W/m2

is the emissivity of the surface, which is 1 for a black body and has values in the range 0 ≤ ≤ 1 for
other radiant surfaces.
σ is the Stefan-Boltzman constant, which has the value 5.67 × 10−8 W m−2 K −4 , and
T is the absolute temperature in degrees Kelvin ( K).
Table 3.7: Radiation - conversion factors

1cal cm−2 day−1 = 0.041868M J m−2 d−1
1M J m−2 d−1 = 23.884cal cm−2 day−1 = 0.408 mm day −1
1 mm day −1 = 2.45 M J m−2 d−1 = 58.6 cal cm−2 day−1
1 W m−2 = 0.0864 M J m−2 d−1 = 2.064 cal cm−2 d−1

The current best estimate of the energy flux at the top of the earth’s atmosphere (ΞE ) from a number of
satellite measurements is 1 367 ± 2 W/m2 . This value is not a true constant, since it can fluctuate during
the course of solar cycles.
It is worth comparing the quantity of solar radiation received by the earth each day with other phenomena
(Table 3.8) to get an idea of the scale of the sun’s output.
Table 3.8: Approximate energies of natural phenomena
Event Joules
Solar energy received by the earth in one day 1.5 × 1022

Strong earthquake 1019
Average Cyclone 1018
Major volcanic eruption 1016
Average Squall line 1015
Average summer thunderstorm 1013
The Atomic bomb at Nagasaki 1013
Burning of 7000 tonnes of coal 1013
Average forest fire 1012
Average local shower 1011
Average tornado 1010
Average lighting strike 108
Average dust devil 106
Individual gust of wind near the earth’s surface 104
A figure for the amount of short wave radiation reaching the earth’s surface in the general case can be
calculated. This figure is complicated by three factors:
1. The varying distance of the earth from the sun. The earth follows an elliptical path around the
sun, not a circular path,
2. The axis of rotation of the earth is inclined at 23.5o to the plane of the elliptic, and
3. The curvature of the earth’s surface.
3.2.2 Effect of variations in the earth-sun distance
The earth rotates around the sun in an elliptical orbit. The quantity of incoming radiation is therefore
affected by the change in distance between the earth and sun during the year. This is shown in Figure 3.4.
The correction factor for the solar constant (ΞE ) can be derived in terms of the radius vector. This is the
instantaneous Earth-Sun distance divided by the mean Earth-Sun distance. The radius vector (dr ) varies
from 0.983 in early January, when the Earth and Sun are closest, to 1.017 in early July, when they are
furthest apart (refer Figure 3.4). The flux of solar radiation at normal incidence outside of the earth’s
atmosphere can then be calculated for different seasons if the radius vector is known.
A good approximation for the radius vector is:

2π
dr = 1.0 + 0.017 × cos (186 − J) (3.2)
365
Where:
dr is the radius vector of the earth sun system.

Figure 3.4: Seasonal variation in solar radiation
J is the Julian day number - derived from adding the elapsed number of days to the current date starting
on January 1 st.
3.2.3 Effect of earth’s rotation
The result of the inclination of the axis of rotation to the plane of elliptic is that the solar zenith angle Z
changes with season. The solar zenith angle is defined as the angular distance of the sun from the local
vertical. The solar zenith angle varies with the latitude of the location and the time of the solar day.
Earth sun distances and the variation in the solar declination are shown in Figure 3.5.
The solar declination for any given day in the year can be approximated by:

2π
δ = 23.45 × cos (173 − J) (3.3)
365
where:
δ is the declination of the sun in degrees. The declination of the sun is its angular distance north (+) or
south (-) of the celestial equator List [1947].
J is the day number.
3.2.4 Effect of latitude and curvature of the earth’s surface
The incoming solar radiation at any latitude, day of the year and hour of the solar day (Ra ) can be
calculated if the latitude and solar time are known. The basic formula for computing the amount of solar

Figure 3.5: Variation in the radius vector and the solar declination

radiation (Ra) reaching a unit horizontal area at the top of the atmosphere in time t is:
d Ra ΞE
= 2 cos z (3.4)
dt dr
where:
dr is the radius vector

z is the sun’s zenith distance,
ΞE is the solar constant.
The sun’s zenith angle z is given by:
cos z = sin ϕ sin δ + cos ϕ cos δ cos h (3.5)
where:
ϕ is the latitude of the observer

δ is the sun’s declination.
Substituting Equation 3.5 into Equation 3.4 gives:

d Ra ΞE ΞE
= 2 (sin ϕ sin δ) + 2 (cos ϕ cos δ cos h) (3.6)
dt dr dr
Substituting for t its value in terms of h and integrating with respect to h over the period sunrise to
sunset (with the minor approximation that δ and dr remain constant through the day [List, 1947]), gives:

ΞE ΞE
Ra = h sin ϕ sin δ + cos ϕ cos δ sin h (3.7)
d2r π d2r π
Rearranging:
ΞE
Ra = (h sin ϕ sin δ + cos ϕ cos δ sin h) (3.8)
d2r π
The altitude and azimuth of the sun [List, 1947] are given by:
sin a = sin ϕ sin δ + cos ϕ cos δ cos h (3.9)
where:
a is the altitude of the sun (angular elevation of the sun above the horizon)
h is the hour angle of the sun (angular distance from the meridian of the observer)
The altitude of the sun is then a function of the latitude of the observer, the time of day (hour angle)
and the date (declination). When the sun’s altitude is zero, sin a = 0, Equation 3.9 can be solved to give
a value of the hour angle:
− sin ϕ sin δ
cos h = = − tan ϕ tan δ (3.10)
cos ϕ cos δ
or
h = cos−1 (− tan ϕ tan δ) (3.11)
or, if the latitude and declination are input in degrees, then Equation 3.12 gives the hour angle (in
radians) as required for later computation:

πϕ
πδ
h = cos−1 − tan tan (3.12)
180 180
The incoming radiation at the top of the atmosphere at the given latitude and time of the year can then
be calculated from:

ΞE πϕ πδ πϕ πδ
Ra = 2 h × sin sin + cos cos sin h (3.13)
dr π 180 180 180 180
where:
Ra is the extraterrestrial radiation [W m2 ],

ΞE is the average Solar Constant (1367 W/m2 ),
dr radius vector of the earth from the sun,
δ is the solar declination [degrees],
ϕ is the latitude of the observation location [degrees],
h is the sun hour angle [radians].
3.3 Radiation budget within the atmosphere
3.3.1 Introduction
The complexities of determining the quantity of radiation actually received at the earth surface and
available to evaporate water are shown in Figure 3.6.
Much of the short-wave radiation that reaches the atmosphere (Ra ) is dissipated before it strikes the
ground surface. Some is reflected back from clouds, some is absorbed by water vapour, oxygen, ozone
and carbon dioxide, some is scattered by particles. The fraction of the solar radiation which reaches the
earth is called Rs . It is the sum of the direct and scattered radiation. The radiation flux can be measured
by instrumentation or can be estimated from a variety of meteorological observations. A review of these
methods is given below. See Smith [1991] for further details.
The coefficients in Equations 3.14 and 3.16 that follow have been derived by regression analysis, comparing
measured data at specific sites with radiation estimates [Kowal and Kassam, 1978] for example. A variety
of regression constants and empirical approaches to the problem are reported in the literature. This is
further complicated by the use of a wide variety of units!
3.3.2 Estimate of incoming short wave radiation Rc at ground surface
Incoming short wave radiation can be estimated from measured sunshine hours according to Equa-
tion 3.14: n
Rc = (1 − α) as + bs Ra (3.14)
N
where:
Rc is the proportion of incoming radiation (Ra ) actually received at the ground surface and available for
heating the ground, photosynthesis and evaporating water.
as Angstrom ’a’ coefficient - approximated to 0.19,

Figure 3.6: Radiation balance
bs Angstrom ’b’ coefficient - approximated to 0.38,

n measured hours of bright sunshine [hr],
N total day length [hr],
α is the albedo of the surface,
Ra Extra terrestrial radiation [W m−2 ]
The Angstrom ’a’ coefficient can be thought of as the percentage of Ra that will strike the earth’s surface
travelling through the clouds. The ’b’ coefficient is the proportion that is impacted by cloud cover.
Clearly, the choice of these coefficients will significantly alter Rc.
The total day length can be calculated from Equation 3.15:

24 h
N= + 0.11 (3.15)
π
The constant 0.11 in Equation 3.15 represents an approximation to the fact that the sun begins to shine,
and the earth receive radiant energy, when the top of the sun’s disc appears above the horizon at sunrise -
and lasts till the whole disc disappears below the horizon at sunset. The spherical geometry is calculated
on the position of the centre of the sun’s disc.
A proportion of the incoming short-wave radiation is reflected back to the atmosphere as a result of the
reflectivity (albedo) of the surface. Values of the albedo (α) for various surfaces are given in Table 3.9
after Jury et al. [1991].
3.3.3 Estimate of long wave radiation (Rb )
The earth radiates as a black body and looses radiation to the atmosphere. This is particularly apparent
from rocks at night. The amount of black-body radiation is a function of the temperature and is reduced
by cloud cover and the humidity of the air. It can be calculated [Wiesner, 1970, Smith, 1991] from:

Table 3.9: Albedo values

Nature of Surface Albedo (α %)
Water 4 - 39
Fresh snow cover 75-95
Old wet snow 45 - 55
Light sand dunes 30 - 60
Meadows and fields 12 - 30
Forests 5 - 20
Water surfaces 3 - 10
Soil Surfaces
Dry Serozem 25 - 30
Wet Serozem 10 - 12
Dry Clay 23
Wet Clay 16
Dry Chernozem 14
Wet Chernozem 8
Crop Surfaces
Corn (New York) 23.5
Sugar Cane (Hawaii) 5 - 18
Pineapple (Hawaii) 5-8
Potatoes (USSR) 15 - 25
Short green grass (Rothampstead) 25
Dark Forest 5
Oak Woodland 18
Pine Forest 14
Bare Ground 10 - 20
4 √ n
Rb = σTav (0.34 − 0.14 ed ) 0.1 + 0.9 (3.16)
N
where:
Rb is the net long wave radiation [W m−2 ],

σ is the Stefan Boltzman constant
n is the number of hours of bright sunshine,
N is the total possible hours of bright sunshine,
Tav is the mean air temperature [ K] - The average of the daily maximum and minimum temperatures
◦
C + 273.2
ed is the vapour pressure [kPa].
3.3.4 Net radiation
The net radiation available at the earth’s surface is thus:
RNet = Rc − Rb (3.17)
The radiation received at the surface of the earth or the ocean heats the ground or the sea which in turn
heats the overlying air. The movement of this heated air forms the wind. The movement of the heated

Figure 3.7: Automated climate station (Photo RIA)
ocean water drives the ocean currents. Part of the available energy is used by plants to transpire water.
Part is also used to evaporate standing water directly to the atmosphere. The net radiation available
therefore directly impacts evapotranspiration (evaporation and transpiration) and thus directly impacts
the water balance. Quantification of net radiation is therefore extremely important in studies of the water
balance.
The calculations shown above provide an estimate for daily net radiation calculations that formed the
basis for climate studies. The basic measurements were made around the world at climate stations. In
the last 20 years, automatic climate stations have become available that allow measurements to be made
more widely. These stations (Fig. 3.7) have become standard in agricultural studies.
An example of radiation data over a 7 day period as recorded at a climate station is shown in Fig. 3.8.
Note in this example, that the backward long wave radiation continues through the night as the earth
cools and that the incoming short-wave radiation is limited to day light hours. The impact of cloudiness
is shown by the reduced radiation associated with the rain storm on 28 February 2008.
3.4 Hydrological cycle
3.4.1 Hydrology as a science
UNESCO [1979] defines hydrology as the physical science which treats the waters of the Earth, their
occurrence, circulation and distribution, their chemical and physical properties, and their reaction with
the environment. The study of the science of hydrology began with the development of the concept of the
hydrological cycle. The basis of the study of hydrology as a science is the study of the different paths in
the hydrological cycle through which water moves and the processes influencing this movement of water.
Fundamental to the study of hydrology as a science is the hydrological cycle.

Figure 3.8: Radiation data for a climate station at Maules Creek in northern New South Wales. Data
shows hourly measurements of solar radiation; net radiation and rainfall
3.4.2 The history of hydrology
Water has been of interest since ancient times when there was much speculation regarding the circulation
of water in the environment. This early speculation can be considered as the initial stages in the de-
velopment of the concepts associated with the hydrological cycle, but was mostly scientifically unsound!
This was particularly the case in the Ancient Greek and Roman Civilisations. Among the poets and
philosophers who commented on the circulation of water were Homer (circa 1000 BC), Thales, Plato,
and Aristotle in Greece and Lucretius, Seneca and Pliny in Rome. Anaxagoras of Clazomenae (Greek
Philosopher, 500 - 428 BC), however, developed a primitive hydrological cycle which consisted of the
following components:
• The sun - which lifted water from the sea into the atmosphere;
• Rain - which transported water from the atmosphere to underground reservoirs; and
• Springs - which transported water from the underground reservoirs to feed rivers.
An improvement of this concept was made by another Greek philosopher, Theophrastus (c. 372-287 BC)
who correctly described the atmospheric component of the modern hydrologic cycle; he gave a sound
explanation of the formation of precipitation by condensation and freezing. A further extension was
made by the Roman architect and engineer, Marcus Vitruvius (c. 0 AD), who conceived the idea that
groundwater was derived largely from rain and snow through infiltration from the ground surface rather
than directly from rainfall.
Independent consideration of the circulation of water in the environment occurred also in the ancient
Asian civilisations. The Chinese, for example, recorded rain, sleet, snow, and wind on Anyang oracle
bones as early as 1200 BC while rain gauge observations were made about 1000 BC. This development in
the recording of rainfall continued with systematic recording of rainfall commencing about 200 BC.
Much of this insight, however, was forgotten during the Middle Ages and it was not until the Renaissance
period that further developments in the concept of the hydrological cycle occurred. During this period,

there was a change from purely philosophical concepts of hydrology to an observational science. These
observations include:
• Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) who observed the velocity distributions in streams, among many
other aspects;
• Bernard Palissy (1510-1589) who showed that springs and rivers originated from rainfall; and
• Pierre Perrault (1608-1680) who measured runoff and showed that it was only a fraction of the
rainfall.
Other notable contributions were made by Galileo (1564-1642), Newton (1642-1727), Bernoulli (1700-
1782), Euler (1707-1783) and Lagrange (1736-1813).
This development in the science of hydrology continued during the nineteenth century; significant devel-
opments during this period were:
• A principle for evaporation was proposed by Dalton [1802]

• The theory of capillary flow was described by the Hagen-Poiseuille equation (1839);
• The Rational method for determining peak flow was proposed by the Irish hydrologist [Mulvaney,
1850].
• Darcy developed his law of porous media flow [Darcy, 1856],

• Rippl [1883] presented his diagram for determining storage requirements in reservoirs; and,
• Manning [1891] proposed his open-channel flow equation.
Quantitative hydrology was very immature at the beginning of the 20th Century with many empirical
equations being employed. These empirical approaches, however, are being replaced gradually with more
reliable and more rational analysis of observed data. Probably, the greatest influence on the study and
use of hydrology was the advent of the computer which enabled the analysis and application of the large
volumes of data needed for many hydrological problems.
3.4.3 Central concept in hydrology
The movement of water from the oceans to the atmosphere by evaporation, then over the land as water
vapour, through precipitation to the land surface, and back to the ocean as runoff or groundwater flow,
forms the hydrological cycle which supports life on the planet. Fig. 3.9 shows the major fluxes of water
in the hydrological cycle, normalised by considering 100 units of precipitation on land.
The global hydrological cycle is a gigantic distillation machine. The earth forms a vast heat engine and
the distillation process is one part of that engine. The efficiency of the engine is largely bought about by
the particular physical properties of the water molecule and the energy released as it changes state from
one energy state to another.
Clearly, the numbers in Figure 3.9 will vary from one location to another, but the essential elements will
remain the same. The engine is not stationary. Events such as volcanic eruptions, which reduce incident
energy by changing the albedo of the atmosphere, can quickly affect the balance, with results which have
far reaching consequences.

Figure 3.9: Hydrological cycle - showing water fluxes normalised to a 100 units of precipitation on land
3.5 Rainfall
3.5.1 Rainfall in Australia
The use of groundwater in Australia is inextricably related to availability of rainfall and degree of aridity
of climate. The pattern of rainfall and distribution of arid areas is shown in Fig. 3.10.
With climate change now accepted as a present threat, it is worth pointing out that the Bureau of
Meteorology data (BOM) shown in Fig. 3.10 is for the 30 year period ending in 1990. This is one of
the wettest periods in the last 200 years in eastern Australia and possibly should not be used for long-
term planning processes! A plot prepared from the BOM showing departure from the mean is shown in
Fig. 3.11. This shows a significant shift in climate that occurred around 1950. The 50 years before 1950
were markedly drier in eastern Australia than the 50 years after that time. It should also be remembered
that conditions in western Australia are different to those in the east. South western Australia was wetter
than average between 1917 and 1968 and has subsequently been significantly drier.
A comprehensive archive of Australian rainfall and climate data has been constructed from ground-based
observational data provided by the Bureau of Meteorology. This data has been analysed by the Queens-
land Department of Natural Resources and Mines and is available at http://www.dnr.qld.gov.au/silo
The total annual surface runoff from the continent is only about 440,000,000 cubic metres per year [Lau
et al., 1987], of which the majority discharges to the Gulf of Carpentaria and into the sea around Tasmania.
About one-third of Australia has uncoordinated drainage with no surface runoff.

Figure 3.10: Average rainfall over Australia based upon the 1961 to 1990 record provided by The Bureau
of Meteorology
.
Figure 3.11: Mean annual rainfall for the period 1900 to 2007
.

Figure 3.12: Tipping bucket rain gauge
Figure 3.13: Chart output from a pluviograph
3.5.2 Rain gauges
The amount of precipitation is usually measured by a rain gauge (aka pluviometre). The simplest rain
gauge is a daily read gauge (usually read at the same time each day - typically 09:00 in Australia). The
gauge consists of an accurately machined funnel which empties into a calibrated flask. A manual reading
of the water level in the flask gives a measure of rainfall in the previous 24 hours.
An alternative type of gauge is the pluviometre; pluviometres are continuously recording gauges. The
tipping bucket rain gauge (or pluviometre) shown in Figure 3.12 records the time at which a bucket of a
given size (usually 0.2 or 0.5 mm) has been filled by rainfall.
Shown in Figure 3.13 is a typical chart output from a pluviograph.
3.5.3 Radar estimates of rainfall
Radar (Radio Detecting and Ranging) and satellite measurement (remote sensing) of precipitation is
being used with advances in electronics increasing the viability of this form of measurement. Radar is
commonly used for obtaining a visual image of rainfall producing cells (typically thunderstorm cells) and

for tracking their movement.
Radar is now essential for:
• short-term warning systems - particularly for severe thunderstorms and tornadoes,

• providing precise information on the movement of hurricanes, and
• tracking balloon-borne targets which are used to measure the upper atmosphere.
Radar is microwave electromagnetic energy which is produced, typically in pulses, and radiated out
from a source. The microwave energy is reflected back from surfaces which have a contrasting dielectric
permittivity, and the reflected energy is sensed back at the source area. A knowledge of the radar
frequency and the time to receive the reflected energy can be used to estimate the distance to the
reflector.
The ability of a radar to detect and measure precipitation depends on a number of factors:
• the characteristics of the radar;

• the atmospheric conditions between the radar source and the precipitation;
• the distance from the radar to the precipitation; and
• the nature of the precipitation.
The detection of smaller objects requires higher frequency EM energy. Ten millimetre radiation is required
for the detection of cloud droplets, but 30 mm to 100 mm is required for precipitation. The strength of
the return beam is a function of the frequency and the distance to the reflector.
A typical weather radar will have a limited range of typically 200 km to 300 km. The distance will depend
upon the location of the radar and the topography in the area.
The strength of the radar echo also depends upon the size, concentration, shape and state (ice or liquid)
of the precipitation particles. The strength of the echoed from relatively small ice particles containing
no liquid water is approximately one fifth of that from an equivalent mass of liquid water drops. If ice
particles fall into warmer air and melt on the outside, the strength of the echoed will increase markedly.
3.5.4 Measurement of snow fall
The measurement of snow fall in a standard rain gauge is subject to considerable error due to turbulence
around the gauge and the tendency for snow to accumulate in drifts. The snow that is caught in the
gauge is melted and the water equivalent reported (Fig. 3.14). A water content of 10% of the snow
depth provides a rough approximation to the water equivalent, although the density of freshly fallen snow
may be much less than this.
In the northern hemisphere and in mountainous regions, the accumulation of snow on the ground is an
important hydrological parametre. In the Snowy Mountains, the accumulation of snow which melts in
the spring is the primary source of replenishment for the reservoirs which supply irrigation water to the
agricultural areas in the Murray Basin. The same process is common in many other areas of the world
and an accurate assessment of snow depth before the spring melt is used by hydrologists to assist with
management of water allocation for the following irrigation season.
A thick accumulation of snow can also mean a high flood potential, particularly if the snow is caused
to melt rapidly by warm rainfall. Melting snow also efficiently recharges soil moisture and underlying
aquifers. The slow release of water means that a minimum of water is lost to runoff.

Figure 3.14: Snow gauge in the Snowy Mountains (Photo RIA)
Snow surveys are made periodically through the winter to measure the thickness and density of the
accumulated snow. A thin-walled tune with a sharp leading edge is pushed through the snow pack to the
ground surface. The tube is then withdrawn and weighed. The weight of the empty tube is subtracted
to give the mass of the accumulated snow. A snow survey requires measurements along a traverse which
are repeated at regular intervals throughout the winter.
The Bureau of Meteorology reports a regular snow depth at several locations throughout the Snowy
Mountains using automated equipment. A gauge at Spencers Creek, out from Charlotts Pass, provides a
standard monitoring point for the Snowy River Catchment.
The snow pack survey, when combined with an estimate of the extent of snow cover, is used to assess the
water content which is held in storage in the mountains. Melting of the snow pack can only begin when
the snow temperature has risen to 0 ◦ C . Initial melt water clings to snow granules and is held by surface
tension, so that at least 2% to 8% of the snow pack must melt before runoff begins.
Lack of access to many mountainous areas means that a measurement of snow depth is not possible.
Remote sensing methods are increasingly in use to give an estimate of snow mass. Airborne or space
borne radar platforms provide a good estimate. This method makes use of the contrast in dielectric
properties between bare ground, water, and snow.
3.5.5 Minimum density of precipitation gauge network
The World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) have set minimum densities for rain gauge net works
if they are to provide a satisfactory basis for hydrology. These are shown in Table 3.10 after Wiesner
[1970]. Optimum networks are extensive and should allow accurate prediction of average and extreme
precipitation in all areas covered by the network. As rainfall is a relatively easy parametre to measure and
extensive long term records exist, much work has been carried out on the statistical analysis of rainfall
data and the methods of extrapolation available to cover variation in space and time.

Table 3.10: WMO recommended minimum rain gauge density
Type of Region Normal tolerance Maximum recom-

(area for one sta- mended area for 1
tion) station
Flat areas of temperate, 600 - 900km2 900 - 3 000km2

Mediterranean and trop-
ical zones
Mountainous regions 100 - 250km2 200 - 2 000km2
of temperate, Mediter-
ranean and tropical
zones
Small mountainous is- 25km2
lands with irregular pre-
cipitation
Arid and polar zones 1 500 - 10 000km2
3.5.6 Errors in rainfall measurement
Errors which can influence precipitation measurements include:
1. Use of a non-standard collector;

2. Initial wetting of the device;
3. Interval during tipping of a tipping bucket pluviometre;
4. Frictional effects for gauges based on the weight of water collected;
5. Wind effects; and
6. Non-vertical aspect of the gauge.
Wind effects are probably the most important source of errors. Because of this, various types of shield
have been proposed to ameliorate wind effects, e.g. Napier Shield and Alter Shield. Additionally, gauges
should be placed in locations where significant wind effects will not occur, i.e. locations remote from
trees, buildings, fences, etc.
3.6 Rainfall analysis
There are a number of problems with the analysis of rainfall data; probably, the most important of these
are:
• Consistency of data;
• Spatial variation in rainfall; and
• Temporal variation in rainfall.
3.6.1 Data presentation
Generally, the analysis of rainfall data requires the consideration of information obtained from rain gauges.
These data can be presented in two forms:

Hyetograph - The hyetograph is a plot of incremental rainfall depth as a function of time. It is

generally shown as a histogram, and gives the depth of rainfall over a given time period.
Mass Curve - A plot of cumulative rainfall depth as a function of time. The mass curve is the integral
of the hyetograph, or the hyetograph is the differential of the mass curve. The instantaneous rainfall
intensity is given by the slope of the mass curve.
3.6.2 Residual mass curves
In assessing rainfall data, particularly rainfall data over a number of years, it is necessary to check the
consistency of the data. This need arises from changes which are rarely, if ever, published but which will
influence and amend the records obtained from the gauge. Typical changes which may occur include:
• Changes in the gauge location;

• Changes in instrumentation; and
• Changes in observational procedure.
The usual test for consistency of data records is the Double mass curve analysis. This procedure can also
be used to test the consistency of other parametres such as evaporation with equal validity. The basis of
a double mass analysis is the comparison of a record at one gauge with concurrent records at one or more
adjacent gauges. Typically accumulated annual rainfalls are considered, although seasonal, or monthly,
accumulated rainfalls may also be considered. Fig. 3.15 shows rainfall stations in the Peel catchment
of northern New South Wales being tested for consistency by examining the linear relationship of the
curves.
Residual mass curves are used to demonstrate departures from mean annual rainfall. The amplitude of
the residual mass curve indicates the extent of the deficiency below, or surplus above, the mean. A small
amplitude indicates low variability of rainfall. A residual mass curve for Barabra in northern NSW is
shown in Figure 3.16. The data clearly show a major shift in climate occurring in 1947. This shift is seen
in a large number of plots for stations throughout the Tablelands of NSW [Rančić et al., 2009].
3.6.3 Spatial variation
Rainfall over a catchment will vary due to a number of features, such as catchment topography, storm
movement, etc. As a result, not all locations within the catchment will receive the same depth of
rainfall (or intensity). Analysis of many hydrological phenomena require estimates of the average depth
over a catchment, or require estimates of the rainfall depth (and pattern) on individual sub-catchments
within the catchment area. There are three main methods by which this required information can be
obtained [Fetter, 2001]:
1. Arithmetic Mean of all Stations;

2. Thiessen Polygon Method; and
3. Isohyetal Methods;

Figure 3.15: Double mass curves for rainfall stations in the Peel catchment

Figure 3.16: Residual mass curve showing the dry first half of the 20th century and the wetter second
half
3.7 Streamflow
3.7.1 Measurement of stream flow
To close the water balance we need to be able to estimate the volume of water leaving a catchment
through the river system. This is a reasonably straight forward procedure for a river that flows inside a
well defined channel and is perennial (runs all year), but becomes far more complicated for rivers that
do not flow continuously (intermittent) and occupy braided channels.
The photographs in Figures 3.19 to 3.26 show a major flow event in a braided stream draining the
mountains in Oman. It is extremely difficult to accurately gauge these ephemeral (responding only to
rainfall) flow events yet these are a major factor in the water balance for that area as the river loses water
continuously into the ground until, in many cases, the surface flow stops. Ephemeral flow events of this
type characterise the drier parts of Australia. For example, the Todd River is an ephemeral river in the
southern Northern Territory, central Australia. The origins of the Todd River begin in the MacDonnell
Ranges, it then flows through the center of Alice Springs and out into the Simpson Desert. Only under
very large flow events does surface flow make its way into Lake Eyre in South Australia. The dry bed of
the river is shown in Fig. 3.17 and a major flow at almost the same location in Fig. 3.18.
3.7.2 Stage measurements
Stage is usually used as an index for discharge calculation or to give levels in a reservoir. The measure-
ments are of basically the same parametre but have different applications:
Stream gauging - The range measurement on a river gauge is typically only a few metres and the
measurement can change rapidly with time as a flood event passes the river gauge,
Reservoir gauging - The range on a reservoir gauge can vary by as much as 100 m [Killingtveit et al.,

Figure 3.17: The Todd River - dry bed (Photo Figure 3.18: The Todd River in full flow (Photo JW)
Wikkipedia)
Figure 3.19: Storm cell brewing Figure 3.20: Storm cell moves into the mountains
1997] but the rate of change is very slow as the storage volume of the reservoir is large.
3.7.3 Non-recording stations
The simplest measurement of river stage in a flowing river is to use a staff gauge that has been surveyed
into a local bench mark. The staff gauge is similar to a surveying staff gauge but installed at a fixed
location that can be read from some distance away (above the flood). The staff gauge must be constructed
from hard and durable material that is also resistance to corrosion, rot and mechanical damage. The
essential measurements required of a stage measurement are shown in Figure 3.29.
Wind action and waves will frequently make the accuracy of the reading ≈1 cm at best. It is possible to
avoid this inaccuracy by the installation of a stilling tube with an open area at the base.
Crest gauges
A river stage board will normally only be read once a day and will not therefore record the maximum
flood that passes by. Various forms of crest gauge are used to overcome this. The crest gauge will record
the maximum height of water in the river. The simplest form of crest gauge comprises a vertical tube
with a small hole at the base. Inside the tube is a removable measuring stick and some finely granulated
cork. Some cork will adhere to the measuring stick and will indicate the maximum river stage achieved.
The time of the event is lost.
An alternative method is to use a graduated tape stuck to the staff gauge and impregnated with a soluble
dye. The dye will be dissolved by the river water - leaving a reliable tell tale for the top water level

Figure 3.21: Run off starts rapidly in the moun- Figure 3.22: Channel flows - river not occupying
tains complete channel
Figure 3.23: Channel flows out on to the flood Figure 3.24: Sufficient energy to move small boul-
plain ders
Figure 3.25: Flood front moving at walking pace Figure 3.26: Full width of river channel flooded
Figure 3.27: Standing waves formed as flood Figure 3.28: Do not camp or park in a wadi!
moves through a culvert
Figure 3.29: Stage measurements
reached.
Analysis of major flood events can often be carried out by observing the maximum height at which
floating debris is lodged in vegetation.
3.7.4 Recording stations
Non-recording stations are manually intensive and unsuited to uninhabited areas. They also give very
poor resolution of the variation in river stage with time. Typically, some form of automated station is
required. The traditional method of recording is to construct a stilling well that is in open contact with
the river through a tube that is not so small that it damps the measurement of river stage change but
not so large that material gets lodged in it during a flood event. A float is installed in the stilling well,
suspended over a pulley and held in position by a counter weight as shown in Figure 3.30.
As the river stage rises or falls, the pulley will rotate. This rotation can be used to drive a pen that
writes a continuous line on a chart. The chart is caused to move by a clockwork mechanism that may
rotate the chart once a day or once a week.
Chart recorders have been in widespread use around the world - but suffer from the following:
• pens failing and/or the ink drying out. This is a particular problem in arid areas.
• failure to change the chart at the appropriate time so that the record writes over itself making
accurate reading sometimes difficult,
• the charts have to be read manually. For this reason there remain thousands of unread charts in
offices around the world, waiting for staff time to be made available to digitize the chart records.
3.7.5 Automated recording stations
The simple mechanical float driven chart recorder was replaced by a bubbler system in many countries.
In this system, compressed air is fed to a tube that terminates beneath the lowest river level. A hole
in the base of the tube allows the air to bubble slowly out. The pressure in the tube is sensed using

Figure 3.30: Typical stilling well installation
a transducer. The pressure is directly related to the weight of water that must be overcome to allow
bubbles to escape from the base of the tube.
Chart recorders are being increasingly replaced by data loggers. One simple adaptation of the chart
recorder is to replace the pen and chart with an optical/magnetic shaft encoder attached to the pulley.
The encoder generates an electrical pulse every time the pulley shaft rotates. Gears can be used to
connect a smaller cog to the pulley that will rotate faster and produce a more complete record of the
river stage change. Alternatively, the movement of the pulley can be converted to an electrical resistance
using a potentiometre. The voltage from the potentiometre can then be recorded.
Data loggers can record the time of the pulse and store the record in memory. Removable memory cards
mean that the records can be returned to base for direct reading onto a computer data base.
A disadvantage to digital recording of the data is the requirement for electrical power. This can be
sourced from the mains, by replaceable battery packs or more frequently in a sunny climate, from solar
cell recharge to a battery bank.
3.7.6 Pressure transducers
Pressure transducers can be used to record the height of water above a reference point and do not require
the installation of stilling well. A pressure transducer works by converting the deformation of a thin
silicon diaphragm into an electrical signal. The silicon diaphragm is installed in a submersible mounting
and fixed at a known depth below minimum water level in the river. As the river stage rises/falls, the
diaphragm distorts in response to the varying pressure of the water. Data loggers can then be used to
calibrate the pressure change in terms of water level change and record the river stage. Two recording
methods are available, either:
• the logger can record the stage at a regular time interval (minutes or hours) or
• the logger can be programmed to continuously check the river stage and to record the time at which
the stage changes by a certain amount (typically 10 mm). In this way, the volume of data recorded
is much reduced but slightly more sophistocated processing of the data is required to achieve a
record of river stage against time.

3.7.7 Remote operation of recording stations
From the perspective of flood warning and management, it is necessary to be able to monitor the river
stage in real time. This is now routinely achieved by telemetry. Most data logging systems have the
ability to access the local phone system by fixed wire or via a mobile phone link.
The Bureau of metreology are now responsible for recording and presenting river gauge data and the
BOM web site provides a representative coverage across Australia.
3.8 Discharge measurement methods
A number of techniques exist for estimating the flow of water past a gauging station. These include:
• Volumetric measurement
• Dilution gauging
• Current metres
• Float methods
• Hydraulic structures
• Water wheels
3.8.1 Volumetric measurements
This is the simplest method of making a volumetric measurement but can only be used for low discharges
(typically less < 50 L/s. This can be used to monitor small spring discharges and very minor rivers
(streams). It is necessary to divert the complete flow into a measuring vessel. All that is then required
is the time taken to fill the vessel.
3.8.2 Dilution gauging
If a known amount of a conservative tracer is added to a river and turbulent mixing occurs, then the
concentration of the tracer can be measured and the discharge calculated. A tracer that is not already in
the river must be used and there must be no chemical reaction between the tracer and the river water.
In many countries sodium chloride is an appropriate tracer and the concentration can be measured by
using a fluid electrical conductivity metre. It is also possible to use a coloured dye if this can be safely
added to the water. Dye is seen in use in Figures 3.31.
Subject to the constraints outlined above, two different techniques exist:
1. constant injection and

2. bulk injection
Constant injection
For the addition of a tracer at a constant rate, the discharge is simply:

i
c= (3.18)
q+i

Figure 3.31: Dye gauging in a stream Figure 3.32: Water wheel gauge in an irrigation
channel (Photo RIA)
where:
q is discharge rate
i is the injection rate (in the same measurement units as q
c is the measured concentration
Solving for the discharge rate gives

i(1 − c)
q= (3.19)
c
Bulk injection
If a known amount of tracer is suddenly added to the river (Fig. 3.31), then, providing that all the tracer
passes the measuring point, the following holds:
Z T
i(t)dt c = I (3.20)
0
where:
I is the volume of tracer,

T is the time taken for all the tracer to pass the measuring point and
i(t) is the time dependent tracer discharge at the measuring point.
If i q then:
I
q = RT (3.21)
0
c(t) dt
where:
c(t) is the measured concentration.
The bulk injection method is particularly suitable for fast flowing turbulent rivers where other methods,
such as gauging with a current metre, would be difficult.

Figure 3.33: Typical cable way installation
3.8.3 Current metres
The basic principle in the use of current metres is to measure the flux of water through a river cross-
section by determining the velocity of the water at a large number of points in the cross-section. The most
commonly used flow metres are the propeller type velocity metres. The current metre can be operated
from a cable way, bridge, from a boat or by wading in the river if it is shallow enough.
The cross-section is defined by a wire with distance markings stretched over the river. The depth to the
river bed along the section is determined by probing the bottom, typically at low water when the drag
on the cable used to sound the bottom is least.
The discharge is calculated from the mean velocities in vertical cross-sections, usually at fifteen to thirty
evenly spaced points across the river [Boiten, 2000]. A cable way is used to suspend a flow metre for
large rivers as shown in Figure 3.33
Water flowing in a river is subject to friction as it comes into contact with the bed and sides of the
channel. As a result, the fastest water moves through the center of the channel at the surface. In
a standard turbulent velocity profile, the velocity at 0.4 times the water depth above the river bed
represents the mean velocity of the river water. A typical velocity profile is shown in Figure 3.34. If
only one measurement is taken, then a depth of 0.4 would be chosen. More typically, as many as 5
velocity measurements are made at the same distance from the bank and at different depths. Close to the
bottom, 0.2, 0.4, 0.8 times water depth and close to the surface are appropriate intervals but more could
be selected for deep flowing rivers. If only 2 measurement depths are chosen, then 0.2 and 0.8 times the
water depth would be appropriate as the average of these two is close to the vertical mean (Figure 3.34).
It is necessary to wait some time to get an average velocity so that the impact of turbulence is accounted
for.
One point method
vav = v0.6 (3.22)

Where:
vav is the mean water velocity

v0.6 is the measured velocity at 0.6 d from the water surface.

d is the stream depth
Two point method
vav = 0.5 (v0.2 + v0.8 ) (3.23)

d is the stream depth
Three point method
vav = 0.25v0.2 + 0.5v0.6 + 0.25v0.8 (3.24)

Which is a combination of the one and two point methods.
Five point method
vav = 0.1 (vs + 3.0v0.2 + 2.0v0.6 + 3.0v0.8 + vb ) (3.25)
vs is the measured velocity at the water surface.

vb is the measured velocity at the bottom.
Figure 3.35 shows the real velocity distribution in a river.
Once the mean velocity in each section is obtained, normally by numerical or graphical integration, the
total discharge is obtained by weighting each vertical velocity by a representative area. Two methods are
in use:
1. The mean section method, or

2. the mid-section area method.
The mean section method
In the mean section method, discharge is calculated for the trapezoidal segments between the verticals,
using the mean velocity in the confining vertical as a representative velocity. The flow within a trapezoidal
segment is then: i i+1

vav + vav di + di+1
Qpanel = × ×b (3.26)
2 2
The procedure is illustrated in Figure 3.36. For panels that lie against the banks the representative
velocity of the pannel can be calculated as 2/3vav . As the flow towards the bank is parabolic to use a
value of 1/2vav would underestimate the velocity.

Figure 3.34: Vertical velocity profile in a typical turbulent river
Figure 3.35: Velocity profile for the Kaskaskia River in Illinois

Figure 3.36: Mean-section method and Mid-section method
The mid-section area method
The mid-section area method calculates discharge in a rectangular segment centered on a vertical where
the measurements have been carried out. The mean velocity at the vertical times the cross-sectional area
is used as shown in Figure 3.36. The flow through a panne is then:
i 1
Qpanne = vav di × (bi + bi+1 ) (3.27)
2
3.8.4 Float method
The very simplest method of measuring the river velocity is to measure the time taken for a float to move
a set distance. Remembering that the mean velocity of the channel will be less than the surface velocity,
the speed of the float is multiplied by an empirical correction factor (typically 0.7 to 0.8) to derive the
mean river velocity.
3.8.5 Hydraulic structures
Under given conditions, hydraulic structures have known stage/discharge relationships. They can also
provide a stable hydraulic control in the channel. There are many different designs for hydraulic structures
and the criteria [Killingtveit et al., 1997] for choice of design include:
• Rating curve relationships

• capacity/cost relationships
• available head difference, possibility of raising the head unintentionally upstream and causing flood-
ing
• the sediment load in the river and
• fish migration through the structure
The two main categories installed are:
• raised structures with a full hydraulic jump (subcritical to critical/supercritical flow)

• submerged structures with a partial jump (critical/supercritical to subcritical flow).
The first category includes the standard 90o , 120o V-notch and rectangular weirs used for small flow
measurement while the second is the Crump weir installed in a river bed. Both weir designs involve
significant work in the channel bed and may be costly to install.

Figure 3.37: Rectangular weir used to gauge flow Figure 3.38: V notch weir in a stream gauging
from a culvert station
V-notch weirs
Fetter [2001] gives the following empirical (not subject to dimensional analysis) relationship for 90o weirs.
Q = 1.370H 5/2 (3.28)

Where:
Q is the discharge in m3 /s
H is the height of the backwater above the weir crest in metres
The weir plate must be accurately machined and maintained such that the edge of the weir is clean and
sharp. V notch weirs (Fig. 3.38) are suitable for low flow measurement but cause too much back up of
water if used for large flows.
Rectangular weirs
Rectangular weirs (Fig. 3.37) can accommodate larger flow rates without causing as much back water
build up. The flow rate through a rectangular weir can be determined [Fetter, 2001].
Q = 1.84 (L − 0.2H) H 2/3 (3.29)
Where:
Q is the discharge in m3 /s
L is the length of the weir crest in metres.
H is the height of the backwater above the weir crest in metres
In some areas the range of flow is very great and a combination weir is required with a V notch in the
base.
3.8.6 Manning equation
In open-channel hydraulics, the average velocity of flow can be found from the Manning Equation, viz:
1 2/3 1/2
V = R S (3.30)
n

Where:
V is the average velocity (m/s)

R is the hydraulic radius - the ratio of the cross-sectional area (m2 ) divided by the wetted perimetre (m)
S is the energy gradient, which approximates to the slope of the water surface
n is the Manning equation roughness coefficient.
The flow velocity depends upon the amount of friction between the water and the stream channel.
Smoother channels have less friction and, hence, faster flow. Channel roughness contributes to turbulence,
which dissipates energy and thus reduces flow velocity. Fetter [2001] gives values of Manning’s coefficient
which are shown in Table 3.11. The flow rate of the river channel is obtained by multiplying the average
Table 3.11: Roughness coefficients for the Manning equation
Roughness characteristic Manning Coefficient
Mountain stream with rocky bed 0.04 - 0.05

Winding natural stream with weeds 0.035
Natural stream with little vegetation 0.025
Straight, unlined earth channel 0.020
Smooth concrete channel 0.012
velocity by the cross-sectional area of the river channel. Note that the hydraulic radius and the gradient
are functions of the head and that the roughness can change with vegetation growth or erosion/deposition
in the river channel.
3.9 Rating curves
At each location where a river stage is measured, further detailed flow measurements are carried out
to estimate the volume of river discharge at each height of the river. A plot of discharge against stage
height is known as a rating curve for the river at that location. The rating curve can be used to turn
measurements of river stage into river flow and requires measurements of river discharge at a number of
different river stages. Figure 3.39 shows a rating curve for the River Ganges.
It is imperative that the stage discharge relationship be determined over the widest possible range of flow
conditions. The measurements at low to medium flow are well constrained by repeated gauging as shown
by the data for The Ganges (Figure 3.39). The rating curve becomes asymtopic to the x axis (flow) at
high river stage and therefore inaccuracy in the stage has a major impact on discharge at high flow rates.
A major problem with rating curves is their extrapolation to high stage measurements. A high stage
measurement represents a flood and it is typically very difficult to make accurate discharge measurements
during flooding. The river gauging station where the river stage is measured should therefore be selected
in a section of the river where the flood is constrained to the river channel. This is a typically not a
problem in humid regions where rivers occupy permanent well defined channels - but becomes a severe
problem in flat and/or arid areas where braided rivers exist. A braided river may flow in one of several
channels and will typically change the channel with little warning. A major flood will occupy the whole
valley, but smaller floods may occupy one of several channels.
The rating curve will need to be extrapolated for very low and high discharge measurements. If the
stage at zero flow is known, extrapolation to zero flow is simple. Extrapolation beyond field data at high
discharge is more difficult. The rating curve can be manually extrapolated by inspection. Some texts
suggest that a log log plot of the stage vs discharge be prepared and the straight line that (hopefully)
exists be linearly extrapolated.

Figure 3.39: Rating curve for the River Ganges
3.10 Evapotranspiration
3.10.1 Measurement of evapotranspiration
Potential evaporation can be calculated by considering the energy distribution caused by the net radiation
flux and by the advective transfer due to the winds. The calculation is somewhat complex and beyond
the scope of this introductory course, however there are many models developed to predict potential
evaporation and considerable research is underway to try and find a model that will satisfactorily predict
actual evaporation [Shuttleworth, 1993]. Evaporation occurs from open water surfaces whereas transpi-
ration occurs from vegetated surfaces. The combination of the two is often called evapotranspiration
(ET). Changes in evapotranspiration caused by land clearance have been the result of rising water levels
in parts of Australia.
ET is a large component of the water balance accounting for approximately 90% of the total rain falling
on the Australian Continent.
The calculation of potential evaporation requires daily measurements of net radiation, humidity, wind
run and average temperature. These are seldom available in the detail required for the calculation. In
the absence of accurate data, the quantity of water lost from an open pan is widely used. The Class A
pan is 122 cm in diameter, 25 cm deep and constructed from galvanized metal. The pan is placed in an
open area and fenced to stop animals drinking from it. The level in the pan is maintained constant by
adding or subtracting water from the pan daily. The evaporation, less rainfall, is established by a simple
water balance. The surface of the pan is left open. The loss of water to birds was found to cause less
error than that caused by covering the pan by a grill. The pan heats up more rapidly than the ground
around and this causes an overestimate of evaporation. Pan correction factors of between 0.58 and 0.78
have been established for USA pans - with a different correction factor used for each month.

Figure 3.40: Average areal PE for June - BOM
Australia has a somewhat less dense coverage of measurements, although the Class A pan is used. To
compensate for this there has been considerable recent research in predicting potential and actual evap-
oration using remote sensing data and long term rainfall and runoff data. Maps showing ET have been
published by Wang et al. [2000] and can be accessed from the web at http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/.
Examples of average potential ET for June and December are shown in Figures 3.40 and 3.41.

Figure 3.41: Average areal PE for December - BOM

Figure 3.42: Average areal annual Evapotranspiration - BOM
The BOM have adapted an areal formulation for aerial potential ET proposed by Morton [1983] that uses
the Priestly-Taylor equation with modifications to allow for advection. They also then used long-term
rainfall and runoff data from 77 catchments to obtain by water balance methods, reference estimates of
actual ET. The average annual actual ET is shown in Figure 3.42.
The importance of evaporation can be seen from the data in Table 3.12 which lists monthly average rainfall
and evaporation for Sydney. The two fluxes are very similar, indicating that runoff and infiltration could
be second order processes.
3.10.2 Calculation of potential evapotranspiration
There is a wide literature on the calculation of evaporation from vegetated surfaces with the Penman-
Monteith method Smith [1991] often taken as the basic approach. The theoretical analysis is beyond
the scope of this course however, a simplified form of the equation serves to introduce the concepts.
Fundamentally, the capacity of the atmosphere to evaporate moisture is the result of two processes:
• the radiation input to the ground surface

• the advection of moisture away from the point of evaporation by the wind.

Table 3.12: Mean monthly distribution of rainfall and evaporation for Sydney
Month Mean Mean

Rainfall Evaporation
(mm) (mm)
January 102 213

February 114 179
March 129 138
April 131 90
May 123 62
June 131 41
July 106 47
August 81 65
September 71 91
October 81 127
November 78 153
December 79 192
Total 1226 1398
If a short green grass crop is considered, where the availability of water is never restricting and the actual
evaporation that occurs is only limited by the capacity of the atmosphere to accept the evaporation (a
concept known as potential evaporation PE) then an equation that describes the process is:
900
0.408∆(Rn − G) + γ T +273 (U2 (es − ed ))
ET0 = (3.31)
∆ + γ(1 + 0.34U2 )
where:
ET0 Reference crop evapotranspiration [mm day−1 ]

Rn Net radiation at the crop surface [M J m−2 d−1 ]
G Solar heat flux [M J m−2 d−1 ] - is zero as a first approximation
T Average temperature [ ◦C ]
U2 Wind speed measured at 2 m height [m s1 ]
(es − ed ) Vapour pressure defecit [kPa]
◦ −1
∆ Slope of the vapour pressure curve [kPa C ],
◦ −1
γ Psychrometric constant [kPa C ]
900 [KJ −1 kg K]
In this analysis, the net radiation and humidity terms have been considered in detail before. The only
additional relationships required are expressions for ∆ and γ. These are as follows: The slope of the
vapour pressure curve (∆) can be calculated from Equation 3.32.
4098es
∆= (3.32)
(T + 237.3)2
where:
∆ Slope of the vapour pressure curve [kP aC −1] ( de

dT
s
).

T is the air temperature [ ◦C ]

es is the saturation vapour pressure at temperature T [kPa]
The psychrometric constant (γ) can be derived from Equation 3.33.
cp P P
γ= × 10−3 = 0.00163 (3.33)
λ λ
where:
γ is the psychrometric constant [kPa ◦ C −1

]
Cp is the specific heat of moist air = 1.013 [kJ kg−1 ◦
C −1
]
P is the atmospheric pressure [kPa]
is the ratio of the molecular weight of water vapour to that of dry air = 0.622
λ is latent heat of water [MJ kg−1 ].
Pressure should be corrected for elevation as approximately:
The analysis of the evaporation process is facilitated by grouping the terms as shown in Equation 3.34.
0.408∆(Rn − G) γ 900 (U2 (es − ed ))

ET0 = + T +273 = ETrad + ETaero (3.34)
∆ + γ(1 + 0.34U2) ∆ + γ(1 + 0.34U2 )
where:
ET0 is the reference evapotranspiration from a standard crop in units of [mm day−1 ]
ETrad is the contribution from radiation energy input [mm day−1 ], and
ETaero is the contribution from aerodynamic energy input [mm day−1 ].
The way in which these two contributions can vary is shown in Figure 3.43 from a sahel-type climate in
Nigeria; Figure 3.44 from a mountain climate at 2000 m elevation in Denver, USA and Fig. 3.45 from
a tropical island environment on the Seychelles. Note that the aerodynamic term becomes insignificant
during the summer months at the height of the rainy season. The humidity is close to 100% for long peri-
ods with the air unable to accept any more moisture unless radiation input increases the air temperature
and boosts the radiation component. By contrast, the aerodynamic term provides the only energy for
evapotranspiration in Denver in the winter when solar radiation is low. Note also the radiative cooling
during the winter in Denver.

Figure 3.43: Aerodynamic, radiation and total evaporation at Bauchi, Northern Nigeria
Figure 3.44: Aerodynamic, radiation and total evaporation at Denver, USA
Figure 3.45: Aerodynamic, radiation and total evaporation at the Seychelles

Chapter 4
Groundwater hydraulics
Contents
4.1 Units and terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.1.1 SI units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.1.2 Groundwater terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.2 Physical properties of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.2.2 Water density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.2.3 Water viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.2.4 Fluid pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.2.5 Water compressibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.2.6 Surface tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.2.7 Summary of water properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.3 Physical properties of soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.3.1 Surface area of soil particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.3.2 Bulk density, water content, and porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.3.3 Relationships between variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.3.4 Typical values of physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.3.5 Water content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.3.6 Porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.4 Water potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.4.2 Osmotic potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.4.3 Matric and pressure potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.4.4 Gravitational potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.4.5 Velocity potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.4.6 Systems of units for the total soil water potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.5 Hydraulic head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.5.2 Piezometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.5.3 Equipotentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.5.4 Potentiometric maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.5.5 Gradient of the hydraulic head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.5.6 Flow nets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.5.7 Measurement of head at flowing wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.5.8 Factors affecting the hydraulic head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.6 Sea water intrusion in coastal aquifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.6.1 The Ghyben-Herzberg relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
74
Chapter 4. Groundwater hydraulics
4.6.2 Hydraulic head in groundwaters of varying density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

4.6.3 Calculation of environmental-water head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.6.4 Structure of the interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.6.5 Control of intrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.7 Introduction to Darcy’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.7.1 The Darcy Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.7.2 Hydraulic conductivity and intrinsic permeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.7.3 Specific discharge and average linear velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.7.4 Homogeneity and heterogeneity of hydraulic conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.7.5 Isotropy and anisotropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.8 Limitations of the Darcy approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.8.1 Darcian continuum and the representative elementary volume . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.8.2 Upper and lower limits of Darcy’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.9 Flow in fractured rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.10 Hydraulic continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.10.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.11 Grain-size analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.11.1 Grain size distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.11.2 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.12 Field measurements of hydraulic conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.12.1 Slug tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.12.2 Geophysical and geological logs of bup-cone:figores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.13 Transport equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.13.2 Groundwater transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.13.3 Transport equation in 3 dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.13.4 Flow in a confined aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.13.5 Flow in an Unconfined Aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.14 Groundwater flow equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.14.2 Conservation of fluid mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.14.3 Steady-state flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.15 Water storage in the unsaturated zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.15.1 The Specific Yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.16 Confined aquifer storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.16.1 Non-Steady State Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.16.2 Specific storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.17 Barometric efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
4.18 Tidal efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4.1 Units and terminology
4.1.1 SI units
Reference to water flow through porous media is found in texts derived from a wide variety of disciplines
from geology through the agricultural sciences to civil engineering. With so many different professions
involved it is not surprising that a varied terminology has evolved and, in particular, the use of many
different units. In addition, the influence of American literature has been strong [Fetter, 2001] and these
sources use Imperial units or derivations (the foot pound second system). The result is a plethora of
definitions and units in common use. This leads to unnecessary complication and confusion.

The International System of units will be used in this School. The basic units in this system are the
metre (m) for length, the second (s) for time, the kilogram (kg) for mass, the Ampere (A) for elec-
tric current and the Kelvin (K) for temperature. A good reference for the SI system can be found at
http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/index.html. Basic SI unit definitions can be found in Appendix 1.
◦
Celsius temperature can also be used. The Celsius temperature is C = K - 273.15. Examples of SI
Units are given in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Examples of SI units
Quantity Unit Symbol
length metre [m]

area square metre [m2]
volume cubic metre [m3]
water content Kilogram water per kilogram dry soil [kg kg−1 ]
cubic metre water per cubic metre soil [m3 m−3 ]
density Megagram per cubic metre [M g m−3 ]
electrical conductivity millisiemens per metre [mS m−1 ]
resistance second per metre [sm−1]
specific heat joule per kilogram kelvin [J kg−1 K −1]
heat flux density watts per square metre [W m−2 ]
gas flux density gram per square metre per second [gm−2 s−1 ]
mole per square metre per second [mol m−2 s−1 ]
water flux density kilogram per square metre per second [kg m−2 s−1 ]
cubic metre per square metre per second [m3 m−2 s−1 ]
thermal conductivity watt per metre kelvin [W m−1 K −1]
diffusivity square metre per second [m2 s−1 ]
hydraulic conductivity kilogram second per cubic metre [kg s m−3 ]
cubic metre second per kilogram [m3 s kg−1 ]
metre per second [ms−1]
water potential joule per kilogram [J kg−1 ]
Joule per cubic metre (kilopascal) [kP a]
metre of water [m]
4.1.2 Groundwater terminology
Usage of the term aquifer is not well defined. It means different things to different people, and perhaps
different things to the same person at different times. The use is perhaps most confusing when referring
to a unit above the water table which could carry water if it were saturated. Is this a potential aquifer?
The term must always be viewed in terms of the scale and context of its usage.
The following definitions may be useful.
Aquifer a saturated permeable geologic unit that can transmit significant quantities of water under
ordinary potential gradients.
Aquiclude a saturated geologic unit that is incapable of transmitting significant quantities of water
under ordinary potential gradients.
Aquitard a saturated geologic unit that is capable of transmitting water under ordinary hydraulic
gradients but not in sufficient quantities to allow completion of production wells within them.
The definitions of aquifer and aquitard are purposefully imprecise with respect to hydraulic conductivity.
This leaves the possibility of using the terms in a relative sense.
Further definitions will be presented in the notes which follow.

Confined aquifer and the potentiometric surface
A confined aquifer lies between two aquitards. The hydraulic head in a confined aquifer lies above the
base of the upper confining layer and is generally referred to as the potentiometric surface or piezometric
surface.
In a confined aquifer, the water level in a bore hole drilled into the aquifer rises above the top of the
aquifer. The well is called an artesian well. In some cases the water level may rise above ground surface,
in which case the well is called a flowing artesian well.
The concept of a potentiometric surface is only rigorously valid for horizontal flow in horizontal aquifers.
Some hydrogeological reports contain potentiometric surface maps based on water level data from sets
of wells that have approximately the same depth but bottom in different aquifers or are not associated
with a well defined aquifer.
This type of potentiometric surface is essentially a map of hydraulic head contours on a two-dimensional
cross-section through the three-dimensional hydraulic head pattern that exists in the subsurface in that
area. If there are vertical components of flow, a condition which is generally true, calculations based on
this type of potentiometric surface can be grossly misleading.
The potentiometric surface in a confined aquifer may occur at the same elevation as that of the water
table in an overlying unconfined aquifer. The two surfaces will respond differently to any disturbance
such as recharge or pumping and may be easily differentiated if test data or monitoring information is
available.
Unconfined aquifer and the water table
An unconfined aquifer is an aquifer in which the water table forms the upper boundary. Perched aquifers
often occur above an unconfined aquifer, particularly after periods of recharge. The water level in a well
in an unconfined aquifer rests at the water table.
A number of these concepts are shown in Figure 4.1 and Figure 4.2.
Aquicludes
An aquiclude is generally formed from materials with very low hydraulic conductivity, such as clay or
shale. A clay may still contain a high porosity but as the water is held in clay by surface tension effects,
the hydraulic conductivity is still very low.
Aquitards
Aquitards release water from storage only very slowly. They can still represent significant groundwater
resources if an abstraction regime can be designed to slowly stress the aquitard. Aquitards contain water
that has been in storage for a long time and has reached chemical equilibrium with the matrix. This will
often mean that water released from storage in an aquitard is of a lower quality to that available in the
aquifer.
Perched aquifers
Perched aquifers can occur when the downward movement of ground water is impeded by a thin or
discontinuous aquiclude or aquitard as shown in Figure 4.3.

Figure 4.1: The Water Table and Potentiometric Surface
Figure 4.2: Unconfined and confined aquifers

Figure 4.3: Perched aquifer
Steady-state flow
Steady-state flow occurs when, at any point in a flow field, the magnitude and direction of the flux are
constant with time. Over long periods of time, the constant flux elements in an aquifer system reach
equilibrium. Long term recharge is balanced by long term abstraction and discharge. As a result, there
are no net changes in aquifer storage. The primary application of steady-state flow techniques is in the
analysis of regional groundwater flow problems.
Transient flow
Transient flow occurs when, at any point in the flow field, the magnitude or direction of the flux is
changing. An appreciation of transient flow is required for the analysis of well hydraulics and many
geotechnical and geochemical applications.
4.2 Physical properties of water
4.2.1 Introduction
Despite its common occurrence, water is a highly unusual substance. As it is a hydride of a non-metal
it can be compared with other hydrides. Most of these, however, are not liquid but gaseous (N H3 or
H2 O). Consequently, low temperatures or high pressures are needed to liquefy many hydrides. Yet water
is liquid at the relatively high temperature range of 0 ◦ C to 100 ◦ C and freezes readily to form ice. This
phenomenon is caused by the structure of the water molecule.
The water molecule consists of two hydrogen atoms joined by single covalent bonds to an oxygen atom.
The result of these two covalent bonds is to isolate a ”lone pair” of electrons in the outer electron shell
of the oxygen atom which therefore becomes locally electronegative. This localised charge distribution
polarises the whole molecule so that it behaves like a miniature magnet. The hydrogen atoms to the
exterior are electro positively charged.
Hydrogen bonds are formed between the oxygen atoms of one molecule and the hydrogen atoms of the

next forming (H2 O)2 in vapour. The angle between covalent bonds in a molecule of pure water is 105 ◦ C
. This imposes a three-dimensional structure on any assemblage of molecules.
In ice, irregular, roughly hexagonal and pentagonal bonding occurs. Liquid water is thought to resemble
the structure of ice, except that hydrogen bonding is more ephemeral, being rapidly made and broken
between molecules. At any instant in time the statistical chance of bonds being formed depends upon
the temperature. About 15% of the bonds are broken when ice melts at 0 ◦C and the total number of
bonds broken rises to 30% at 100 ◦C . Hydrogen bonding can explain not only the liquidity of water at
relatively high temperatures but also other important properties such as density, viscosity and surface
tension.
4.2.2 Water density
The density of a substance is its mass per unit volume.

mass
ρ= (4.1)
volume
The density of water depends both on temperature and the presence of dissolved solids. A knowledge of
the density of water is important in calculations of hydraulic head and water pressure. Density differences
between two bodies of water may cause flow to occur even where the elevations of the two bodies are
identical. Values of density for a range of temperatures are given in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: Properties of Water at 1 Atmosphere
Temperature Density Dynamic Viscosity Compressibility

at 10 ◦ C [kg m−3 ] ρ [kg m−1 s−1 ] µ [m2 N −1 ] β
0 999.8395 1.787 × 10−3 5.01 × 10−10

5 999.9720 1.567 × 10−3 -
10 999.6996 1.307 × 10−3 4.78 × 10−10
15 999.0996 1.139 × 10−3 -
20 998.2041 1.002 × 10−3 4.58 × 10−10
25 997.0449 0.8904 × 10−3 4.57 × 10−10
30 995.6573 0.7975 × 10−3 4.46 × 10−10
40 992.2158 0.6529 × 10−3 4.41 × 10−10
50 988.0363 0.5468 × 10−3 4.40 × 10−10
60 983.1989 0.4665 × 10−3 4.43 × 10−10
70 977.7696 0.4042 × 10−3 4.49 × 10−10
80 971.7978 0.3547 × 10−3 4.57 × 10−10
90 965.3201 0.3147 × 10−3 4.68 × 10−10
100 958.3637 0.2818 × 10−3 4.80 × 10−10
4.2.3 Water viscosity
The resistance to the movement of one layer of fluid over another adjacent layer is ascribed to the viscosity
of the liquid. The dynamic viscosity of a fluid is the property that allows fluids to resist relative motion
and shear deformation during flow. The more viscous a fluid the greater the shear stress at any given
velocity gradient. According to Newton’s law of viscosity,
dv
τ =µ (4.2)
dy
where:

τ is the shear stress,

dv/dy is the velocity gradient, and
µ is the dynamic viscosity.
The units of dynamic viscosity µ are centipoise N sm−1 × 10−3 .
In many problems involving viscosity, the magnitude of the viscous forces compared to the magnitude
of the inertia forces is of interest. Since the viscous forces are proportional to the viscosity µ, and the
inertia forces are proportional to the density ρ, the ratio µ/ρ is often involved. This ratio is called the
kinematic viscosity, with units of ms /s.
Viscosity is also temperature dependent as it is a function of the number of hydrogen bonds existing.
Values of viscosity for a range of temperatures are given in Table 4.2. The value of fluid viscosity influences
the rate of fluid movement through a porous medium.
4.2.4 Fluid pressure
The fluid pressure p at any point in a standing body of water is the force per unit area which acts at
that point. Under hydrostatic conditions, the fluid pressure at a point reflects the weight of the column
of water overlying a unit cross-sectional area around the point.
p = ρgψ (4.3)
where:
ρ is density,
g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.81m/s2 )
ψ is the height of the water column above the reference plane.
The units of pressure are pascals Pa or kgm−1 s−2 .
It is possible to express pressure relative to absolute zero pressure, but more commonly it is expressed
relative to atmospheric pressure. In the latter case, it is called gage pressure, as this is the pressure
registered by a pressure gage with atmospheric pressure as the reference.
4.2.5 Water compressibility
The compressibility β of a fluid reflects its stress-strain properties. Stress is the internal response of a
material to an external pressure. For fluids, stress is imparted through the fluid pressure. Strain is a
measure of the linear or volumetric distortion of a stressed material. When a fluid is stressed, the strain
occurs as a reduced volume (and increased density) under increasing fluid pressures.
d
Compressibility is defined as strain/stress dσ . It is the inverse of the modulus of elasticity. Units of
compressibility are m2 /N .
For a given mass of water

dρ/ρ
β =− (4.4)
dp
The compressibility of water has a very low value but is still dependent upon temperature. Values for a
range of temperatures are given in Table 4.2.

The compressibility of solids is usually designated by α where the units are the same as for fluids. Values
of α are several orders of magnitude greater than those for β. This inequality is of importance when
aquifer confined storage is calculated.
4.2.6 Surface tension
In studies of unsaturated flow, the surface tension σ, determines the capillary rise in porous media and
thus influences water uptake by plants and the size of the tension saturated zone or capillary fringe. The
surface tension directly affects the matric potential Φm .
The units of surface tension are Jm−2 . Surface tension is also a function of temperature, decreasing with
an increase in temperature.
4.2.7 Summary of water properties
A summary of the physical properties of water are given in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3: Summary of water properties
Property Value Units
Liquid Density 998.0 kg/m3

Solid Density 910.0 kg/m3
Vapour Density 1.73 × 10−2 kg/m3
Heat of Fusion 334 kJ/kg
Heat of Vaporisation 2.45 × 103 kJ/kg
J
Specific Heat 1.0 kg K
Relative Permitivity 80 -
W
Thermal Conductivity 1.0 mK
2
Kinematic Viscosity 1.0 m /s
Surface Tension 72.7 × 10−3 J/m2
4.3 Physical properties of soil
Notes in this section are based on soil physics texts [Campbell, 1985, Jury et al., 1991]. Soil is a three-
phase system made up of solids, liquids and gases. The solid phase contains mineral particles and organic
materials. The liquid phase consists of water and dissolved minerals. Liquids immiscible with water are
not considered here. The gas phase is composed of about 80% nitrogen, with oxygen and carbon dioxide
making up most of the remainder.
4.3.1 Surface area of soil particles
The surface area of particles directly impacts upon the amount of water adsorbed to the particle and
therefore to a range of other properties such as the bulk electrical conductivity and the cation exchange
capacity. Systems composed of dispersed particles of small size have a very large surface area per unit
mass of material.
The specific surface area of a particle is the surface area divided by the mass of the particle. Consider a
spherical particle of density ρ and radius R, then the surface area of the particle is a = 4πR2 . The mass

m of the sphere can be expressed as m = ρV = ρ4πR3 /3, where V is the volume. Thus, the specific
surface area s is given by:
a 3
s= = (4.5)
m ρR
The soil organic fraction often has an extremely high specific surface area (often as high as 1000 m2 g−1 .
Specific surface areas for generalised particles are given in Table 4.4 [Jury et al., 1991]. Specific surface
areas, cation exchange capacities and charge densities for selected clays are given in Table 4.5 [Jury et al.,
1991].
Table 4.4: Specific surface areas of generalised particles found in soil
Effective Specific
Diameter Mass Area Surface Area
Particle (cm) (g) (cm2) (cm2 g−1 )
Gravel 2 × 10−1 1.13 × 10−2 1.26 × 10−1 11.1

Sand 5 × 10−3 1.77 × 10−7 7.85 × 10−5 444.4
Silt 2 × 10−4 1.13 × 10−11 1.26 × 10−7 1.11 × 104
Clay 2 × 10−4 8.48 × 10−15 6.28 × 10−8 7.4 × 106
Table 4.5: Specific surface areas, cation exchange capacities and charge density for selected clay minerals
Effective Density of Charge

Surface Area CEC ×103
Clay Mineral m2 g−1 (me g−1 ) (me m−2
Kaolinites 5 - 20 0.03 - 0.15 6 - 7.5

Micas (Illites) 100 - 200 0.10 - 0.40 1.0 - 2.0
Vermiculites 300 - 500 1.00 - 1.50 3.0 - 3.3
Smectites 700 - 800 0.80 - 1.50 1.1 - 1.9
4.3.2 Bulk density, water content, and porosity
In a given amount of soil, the total mass Mt , is divided between the mass of gases Mg , the mass of liquid
Ml , and the mass of solids Ms . Similarly, the total volume Vt , is divided between the volume of gases Vg ,
the volume of liquid Vl , and the volume of solids Vs . Note that the volume of fluid Vf , is the sum of Vg
and Vl .
From these definitions, the following relationships follow:
Mt = Mg + Ml + Ms (4.6)
and
Vt = Vg + Vl + Vs (4.7)
Vf = Vg + Vl (4.8)
Particle density M g m−3 :

Ms
ρs = (4.9)
Vs

Dry Bulk Density M g m−3 :

Ms
ρb = (4.10)
Vt
Total porosity:
Vf Vg + Vl
φf = = (4.11)
Vt Vt
Gas filled porosity:

Vg
φg = (4.12)
Vt
Void ratio:
Vf Vg + Vl Vf
e= = = (4.13)
Vs Vs Vt − Vf
Mass wetness or mass basis water content:

Ml
w= (4.14)
Ms
Volume wetness or volumetric water content:
Vl
θv = φl = (4.15)
Vt
Gravimetric water content:
Ml
θg = (4.16)
Ms
Degree of saturation:
Vl Vl
s= = (4.17)
Vf Vg + Vl
4.3.3 Relationships between variables
The following relationships can be derived from equations 4.9 to 4.17.
ρb
φf = 1 − (4.18)
ρs
ρb
φg = φf − θv = 1 − − θv (4.19)
ρs
φf
e= (4.20)
1 − φf
Mass wetness and volume wetness are related by:
ρb
θv = w (4.21)
ρl

and
θv ρl
w= (4.22)
ρb
Porosity can be determined on a field sample of known volume by noting:

Vl Mt Vl
φl = θv = = × (4.23)
Vt Vt Mt
where Vl is determined by weighing the sample.
Bulk density (ρb ) can be related to fluid porosity by:
ρb = ρm (1 − φ) (4.24)
The bulk density can be determined by field measurement. A known volume of soil is taken from the
field using a core tube and transferred to the laboratory where it is heated for 24 hours at 105 ◦C in an
oven. The liquid is driven off and the dry sample weighed. Equation 4.10 gives a value for ρb .
Bulk density can also be determined on intact clods by coating them with a thin layer of paraffin wax
and measuring the volume by displacement.
4.3.4 Typical values of physical properties
Table 4.6 gives particle densities for typical soil constituents.
Table 4.6: Densities of soil

Component Density M g m−3 Component Density M g m−3
Quartz 2.66 Orthoclase 2.5 - 2.6

Clay Minerals 2.65 Mica 2.8 - 3.2
Organic Matter 1.30 Limonite 3.4 - 4.0
Water 1.00 F e(OH)3 3.73
Air (20 ◦ C ) 0.0012 Ice 0.92
4.3.5 Water content
Water content is usually measured on a mass basis by drying a sample at 105 ◦C , and then computing
the ratio of mass of water lost to dry mass of the sample (Equation 4.14). Oven-dry soil is assumed to
be at zero water content. Air-dry soil is in equilibrium with atmospheric moisture and therefore has a
moisture content greater than zero. The highest water contents attained in the field in a freely draining
soil are below the saturation value. Some pores always remain air filled. A typical maximum water
content for a soil with a porosity of 0.5 would be between 0.45 and 0.48. Near-saturation conditions are
only obtained for short periods following rain or irrigation. The soil quickly approaches a water content
termed field capacity. Field capacity water contents vary greatly, but often are approximately half of
saturation values. The terms saturated and unsaturated require some definition. The volumetric water
content (Equation 4.15) is the ratio of the water saturated pore space to the total volume.
The degree of saturation, described by Equation 4.17, is the ratio of the water saturated pore space to
the total pore space. For a fully saturated medium, the degree of saturation (s) is equal to unity, and

Figure 4.4: Relation between texture and porosity
is equal to the total porosity (φf ). At the contact between the lower part of a dry porous material and
a saturated material, the water rises to a certain height above the top of the saturated material. This
gives rise to the tension saturated zone or capillary rise zone. The driving force for this rise is the surface
tension of the water.
The water table is the point at which the pressure in the formation is exactly atmospheric. The in-
termediate zone lies above the tension saturated zone and consists of water in the form of thin films
adhering to pore space linings. This water is free to drain downwards under the force of gravity. The soil,
intermediate and tension saturated zones are collectively referred to as the unsaturated or vadose zone.
4.3.6 Porosity
Primary porosity is due to the properties of the soil or rock matrix.
Secondary porosity may be due to secondary solution or fracturing of the rock mass.
Various texture and porosity relationships have been described [Meinzer, 1923] and shown in Figure 4.4.
In Figure 4.4 six examples of porosity development are given, viz:
a Well-sorted sedimentary deposit having high porosity.

b Poorly-sorted sedimentary deposit having low porosity.
c Well-sorted sedimentary deposit whose porosity has been diminished by the deposition of mineral
matter in the interstices.
d High porosity deposit - such as a lava flow with vesicles - but the pore space is not connected.
e Rock rendered porous by solution.
f Rock rendered porous by fracturing.
An example of a limestone showing major anisotropy in pore distribution is shown in Figure 4.5.
A range of possible porosity values is shown in the Table 4.7 below.

Figure 4.5: Solution channels in a limestone show- Figure 4.6: Environment producing a very uni-
ing major anisotropy in distribution (E)(Photo RIA) form sand deposit (A)(Photo RIA)
Figure 4.7: Poorly sorted material (conglomer- Figure 4.8: Poorly sorted material - (conglomer-
ate) (B)(Photo RIA) ate cemented with calcrete) (D)(Photo RIA)

Table 4.7: Range of porosity values

Material φ(%)
Unconsolidated deposits
Gravel 25 - 40
Sand 25 - 50
Silt 35 - 50
Clay 40 - 70
Rocks
Fractured basalt 5 - 50
Karst limestone 5 - 50
Sandstone 5 - 30
Limestone, dolomite 0 - 20
Shale 0 - 10
Fractured crystalline rock 0 - 10
Dense crystalline rock 0-5
4.4 Water potential
4.4.1 Introduction
Water potential plays a similar role in water flow theory to the role of temperature in heat flow problems
or voltage in electrical circuit theory. Water flows in response to gradients in water potential. When
water potential is uniform across a boundary, no water will flow, even though water content may be
different on the two sides of the boundary.
The water potential is the potential energy per unit mass of water in the system, compared to that of
pure, free water at atmospheric pressure. The units of potential are Joules/kg and the dimensions of
2
these units reduce to TL2 .
The total water potential is the sum of several component potentials:
Φ = Φ m + Φo + Φu + Φp + ΦΩ + Φg (4.25)
where:
m is the matric potential,

o is the osmotic potential,
u is the velocity potential,
p is the pressure potential,
Ω is the overburden potential, and
g is the gravitational potential.
In general, only two or three of these potentials require consideration in any particular problem. The
required combination will depend upon whether a saturated problem or an unsaturated problem is being
studied.

4.4.2 Osmotic potential
Water molecules have a slightly unequal distribution of electrical charge as the result of the small angle
between the molecular bonds in the water molecule (105◦). The unequal distribution of charge is referred
to as a dipole moment. Other ions are attracted by the electric field surrounding the individual water
molecules and tend to cluster around them. The result of the clustering is to reduce the energy state of the
water. The hydrostatic pressure which balances the ionic attraction of the water molecules at equilibrium
in a solution is referred to as the osmotic pressure. The osmotic pressure is a significant component of
the total water potential in soil plant systems. The potential may be approximately calculated from the
following relationship.
Φo = −CχηRT (4.26)
where:
T is the temperature in degrees Kelvin,

R is the universal gas constant [8.3143 J/[K mol]],
Φo is the osmotic potential [J/kg],
C is the concentration [moles/kg],
η is the number of particles in solution for each mole of solute. η would equal unity for a non-ionising
solute, and 2 for a salt such as NaCl,
χ is an osmotic coefficient.
If mixtures of solutes are present, then the total osmotic potential is the sum of the individual contribu-
tions from the components. The osmotic potential can also be estimated from the electrical conductivity
of the soil saturation extract:
Φo = − 0.36σse (4.27)
where:
σse is the soil extract conductivity measured in mS/m.
4.4.3 Matric and pressure potentials
Texts on soil physics [Campbell, 1985, Hanks and Ashcroft, 1980] include reference to matric potential as
a separate entity which is always less than or equal to zero, and reference to a pressure potential which is
always equal to or greater than zero. Some authors [Freeze and Cherry, 1979] combine these potentials as
one; which is less than zero in the unsaturated zone and greater than zero in the saturated zone. There
is no consensus regarding this use and both approaches appear in the literature.
Matric potential
The matric potential is important as a driving force for flow in unsaturated soil and in the cell walls of
root cortex and leaf mesophyll tissue. The matric potential is measured using a tensiometer.
Matric potential is defined as the amount of work, per unit mass of water, required to transport an
infinitesimal quantity of soil water from the soil matrix to a reference pool of the same soil water at the
same elevation, pressure and temperature.

The matric potential under a curved air-water interface, such as exists in a capillary tube or soil pore, is
given by the capillary rise Equation 4.28.
2σ
Φm = − (4.28)
rρw
where:
r is the radius of curvature of the interface

σ is the surface tension
ρw is the water density.
Note that the sign of the matrix potential is always negative. This indicates that water is held in position
by surface tension effects and is not free to drain out of the pore space. Equation 4.28 can be used to find
the equivalent radius of the largest water filled pore in a soil at a given matric potential. For example, in a
soil at Φm = −100 J · kg−1 you would expect pores with radii larger than r = −2 ×7.27 × 10
−2
103 ×(−100) =
1.45 µm to be air filled.
At some water potential, probably less than 10−4 , the capillary analogy breaks down as most of the water
is absorbed in layers on particle surfaces rather than being held in pores between particles.
Pressure potential
The fluid pressure potential is calculated from:

p
Φp = = gψ (4.29)
ρw
where:
ψ is the depth of the water column above the reference point

p is the fluid pressure measured in Pascals
ρw is the fluid density, and
g is the acceleration due to gravity.
The fluid pressure is always positive as ψ is always greater than zero.
4.4.4 Gravitational potential
The gravitational component of the water potential is fundamentally different to any of the other com-
ponents since it is the result of ”body forces” applied to the water as a consequence of its position in the
earth’s gravitational field. The gravitational potential is calculated from
Φg = gz (4.30)
where:
z is the distance from the point of measurement to a reference level where Φg is taken as zero. The
reference level is usually taken at mean sea-level by hydrogeologists and the soil surface or the
water table by soil physicists.

4.4.5 Velocity potential
The velocity potential arises from the energy per mass which the water has as a result of its motion
(kinetic energy). The velocity potential is calculated as
u2
Φu = (4.31)
2
where
u is the velocity of the ground water.
The velocity potential is normally several orders of magnitude less than the pressure or gravity potentials,
as the velocity of ground water is generally very slow. The term is included here to facilitate comparison
with hydraulics (The Bernouli Equation).
4.4.6 Systems of units for the total soil water potential
There are several alternative systems of units in which the total potential and its components can be
described, depending upon whether the quantity of pure water is expressed as a mass, a volume or a
weight. These alternative systems can readily confuse, and a summary table is provided (Table 4.8).
These concepts are further developed in later lectures.
Table 4.8: Systems of units for the water potential
Description Symbol Name Dimensions SI Unit

L2
Energy per mass Φ Water Potential T2
J/Kg
M
Energy per volume p Water pressure LT 2
N/m2
Energy per weight h Hydraulic head L m
4.5 Hydraulic head
4.5.1 Introduction
In many problems involving prediction of flow in fully saturated aquifers, the water potential reduces to
the sum of the pressure and gravitational potentials,
Φ = Φ p + Φg (4.32)
From Equations 4.29 and 4.30, the total potential can therefore be written as
p
Φ= + gz (4.33)
ρw
If the density is constant, then ρpw may be substituted by gψ, where ψ is the height of the water column
above the reference point and z is the distance from the reference point to the datum plane.

Figure 4.9: Hydraulic Head, Elevation Head and Pressure Head
The gravitational constant g does not vary significantly with surface location and therefore, as long as
density is constant, Equation 4.33 can be divided by g to give
h= ψ+z (4.34)
where:
Φ
h is the hydraulic head g
,
ψ is the pressure head,
z is the elevation head.
The dimension of these head quantities is length.
This fundamental head relationship is basic to an understanding of saturated groundwater flow.
The relationships between hydraulic head, elevation head and pressure head are shown for a piezometer
and a flowing well in Figure 4.9.
4.5.2 Piezometers
The basic device for the measurement of hydraulic head is a tube or pipe in which the elevation of the
water level can be determined. In the laboratory, the tube is a manometer, in the field the pipe is called a
piezometer. It must be open at the base, so that water can flow into the pipe, and open to the atmosphere
at the top.
The point of measurement is at the base of the piezometer and not at the level to which water rises
inside the pipe. The open area section of the piezometer base should therefore be kept restricted to be
representative of the head in the zone of interest. The simple stand pipe piezometer in which the depth
to water is measured by a tape has been replaced to some extent by more complex designs incorporating
pressure transducers, pneumatic devices, and electronic components, allowing the remote collection and
recording of data. The availability of data at frequent time intervals and in a digital manner allows much
improved analysis of hydrogeological parameters.

4.5.3 Equipotentials
In two dimensions, lines can be drawn connecting points of equal hydraulic head. These are similar to
contours on the ground surface which define the surface topography.
In three dimensions, a surface of equipotential is created which is not possible to represent in two-
dimensions, other than to take a cross-section and to assume that there is not significant variation in the
third dimension.
Vertical cross-sections are commonly used in geotechnical work to calculate flow through embankments.
Horizontal cross-sections are often used in groundwater resources. These are also known as potentiometric
or piezometric maps.
4.5.4 Potentiometric maps
Field measurements of the hydraulic head at a number of different locations may be used to construct
a potetentiometric map. If the flux of groundwater can be approximated as horizontal, and vertical
components neglected, then measurements of hydraulic head in piezometers or bore holes can be used to
construct equipotentials.
NOTE THAT the construction of potentiometric maps from open bore hole data will produce a false
picture of flow conditions in an aquifer if vertical flow components are significant. Open bore holes often
provide the most efficient means for water to move through the aquifer and there are many instances of
two aquifers being unintentionally connected by a bore hole sunk to investigate aquifer conditions.
It is important to realise that the construction of an potentiometric map from well and bore hole data
implies that the conceptual model chosen represents horizontal flow only. This clearly causes problems
in the representation of recharge and discharge areas.
4.5.5 Gradient of the hydraulic head
Water moves in response to a hydraulic gradient. If there is no hydraulic gradient the water will remain
stationary. The hydraulic gradient can be simply calculated as the change in hydraulic head between two
points divided by the distance between the two points.
The hydraulic gradient is often calculated in the x-y plane and referred to as the horizontal hydraulic
gradient. In many important situations, the hydraulic gradient varies vertically. That is, if you could
measure the hydraulic head at different depths below the same location, the hydraulic head would change.
In a recharge condition, where water is entering the groundwater system, the vertical hydraulic gradient
is negative (z taken as positive upwards). The head will decrease as depth increases.
Under discharge conditions, where water is leaving the groundwater system, the vertical hydraulic gradient
is positive. The head will increase as depth increases.
Piezometers are usually installed in groups designed to investigate either the horizontal or vertical move-
ment of groundwater. The hydraulic gradient, either in the horizontal or vertical direction, can be
established from measurements on a group of piezometers as shown in Figure 4.10.
Mathematically, the gradient of the hydraulic head can be written as

dh
∇h = (4.35)
ds
where:

Figure 4.10: Measurement of Horizontal and Vertical Hydraulic Gradients
s is a distance parallel to the direction of ∇h.
If the value of ∇h is zero, then there will be no movement of water irrespective of the value of hydraulic
conductivity. The direction of groundwater flow is a function of the hydraulic conductivity and ∇h. For
an isotropic medium, ∇h is perpendicular to the equipotential and groundwater flows in the direction
of ∇h. For an aquifer with anisotropic hydraulic conductivity it is necessary to construct a hydraulic
conductivity ellipse (in two dimensions) or ellipsoid (three dimensions) to predict the direction of ∇h,
the direction of groundwater flow. An account of the method is given by Fetter. The effect of anisotropy
on the direction of groundwater flow is shown in Figure 4.11.
4.5.6 Flow nets
A flow net is a two-dimensional device constructed to describe groundwater flow in either an x-y plane
(horizontal) or an x-z plane (vertical).
Two sets of orthogonal curves can be constructed which describe the flow system. A set of equipotentials
defines the hydraulic head distribution and a set of flow lines, at right angles to the equipotentials (at
least in an isotropic domain). Flow nets are useful tools to help characterise a flow system. Examples of
vertical flow nets which can be used to demonstrate the occurrence of vertical groundwater flow in local
flow systems containing recharge and discharge are provided by Fetter.
A vertical flow net is shown in Figure ?? for undulating topography [Hubbert, 1940]. Figure 4.13 shows
typical recharge and discharge conditions down a hill slope.

Figure 4.11: Relationship between flow lines and ∇h for isotropic and anisotropic conditions
Figure 4.12: Vertical flow net showing piezometric levels beneath undulating terrain

Figure 4.13: Vertical flow net showing piezometric levels beneath a hill slope
4.5.7 Measurement of head at flowing wells
Where the hydraulic head in the aquifer is above ground surface, water will discharge under its own
pressure from a well and the well is called a flowing well or an artesian well (Fig. 4.14), To determine the
correct value of hydraulic head, the well must be capped and an accurate pressure gage installed. The
hydraulic head may then be derived from:
p
h=z+ (4.36)
ρg
where:
z is the distance to the reference plane

ρ is the density of the water
g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m s−2 )
p is the gage pressure in Pascals
Note that it may be necessary to correct the data for the temperature of the water or the density of the
water if the discharge is flowing up from depth in an artesian basin.
4.5.8 Factors affecting the hydraulic head
A list (not necessarily complete) of possible causes which can produce a change in water level is given
below:
1. Groundwater Recharge
2. Evapotranspiration

Figure 4.14: Borehole flowing under artesian pressure (Photo CH)
3. Tidal Effects near Oceans

4. Earth Tide Effects
5. Atmospheric Pressure Effects
6. Earthquakes
7. Groundwater Pumping
8. Deep Well Injection
9. Artificial Recharge
10. Agricultural Irrigation
11. Geotechnical Drainage
As an example of one of the more unusual effects on water levels, consider the impact of the 9.0 Scale
earthquake that caused the 2006 Boxing Day Tsunami around Sumatra. This record (Fig. 4.15) was
recorded at Fort Sam Houston in Texas(?) USA.
The data shown in Fig. 4.16 shows the simple response of ground water to rainfall recharge. The receiving
aquifer is free to discharge completely all the time with no regional impacts. By contrast Fig. 4.17 shows
what happens where recharge starts to build up the regional water levels. Fig. 4.18 illustrates recharge
in the presence of tidal impacts in an unconfined aquifer and Fig. 4.19 shows a similar response but in a
confined aquifer additionally impacted by the ocean tide and atmospheric pressure variation.

Figure 4.15: Water level response to the Boxing Day Sumatra earthquake - measured in the USA
Figure 4.16: Simple rainfall recharge in a shallow Figure 4.17: Rainfall recharge into a regional
unconfined aquifer aquifer
Figure 4.18: Tidally influenced levels in an un- Figure 4.19: Recharge into a confined coastal
confined coastal aquifer - Botany Bay, Sydney aquifer with atmospheric pressure variation

4.6 Sea water intrusion in coastal aquifers
Coastal aquifers may come in contact with the ocean and, under natural conditions, fresh groundwater
is discharged into the ocean. This has been recognised for very many years and the coastal zone is
an important source zone for minerals derived from groundwater that support fisheries. Estuaries in
particular, are complex environments where sea water and groundwater mix together. They can be
significantly impacted by a number of factors: rising sea level; decreasing rainfall - leading to decreased
recharge and freshwater head in the aquifer; increased abstraction of groundwater, etc. Fresh groundwater
will discharge at the ocean beach if the aquifer is homogeneous and isotropic. However, this is rarely the
case and there is frequently a reduction in permeability in the vertical direction when compared to the
horizontal direction. This may cause groundwater to discharge beneath fresh water some considerable
distance out to sea. The Romans recognised this and used to collect fresh water from springs beneath
the ocean by lowering a funnel to the ocean bed that was connected to a leather pipe to the surface.
With the increased demand for groundwater in many coastal areas, however, the seaward flow of ground-
water has been decreased or even reversed, allowing saltwater to enter and move inland in aquifers. This
problem is called sea water intrusion. If the salt water travels inland to bore fields, underground water
supplies become useless; moreover, the aquifer becomes contaminated with salt which may take years to
remove even if adequate fresh groundwater is available to flush out the saline water. The importance
of protecting coastal aquifers against this continual threat has lead to investigations pointing towards
methods of prevention or control of sea water intrusion.
Two investigators, Ghyben and Herzberg, working independently from each other, became aware of the
fact that in coastal aquifers, salt water existed below fresh water in locations on land close to the beach.
The depth at which it is encountered is dependent on the head of fresh water above mean sea level at that
point. They showed that, generally, it could be expected to be encountered first at a depth below mean
sea level which is approximately 40 times the head of fresh water above mean sea level, i.e. for every 1 m
of fresh water above mean sea level there should be approximately 40 m of fresh water below mean sea
level before the salt water is encountered. The depth to the salt water/ fresh water interface is based
on, among other things, the densities of the two fluids. In the evaluation of the relationship above it has
been assumed that the density of fresh water is 1,000 kg/m3 and that of the sea water is 1025 kg/m3 .
Ghyben and Herzberg worked their relationship assuming that they were dealing with hydrostatics. The
water is assumed to be stationary. This is clearly not the case if there is groundwater discharge, and in
reality, groundwater is moving both horizontally and vertically in the coastal zone and both components
of movement require accounting for. However, as an introduction, the Ghyben-Herzberg relationship
provides a useful starting point.
4.6.1 The Ghyben-Herzberg relationship
The basis behind the Ghybern-Herzberg relationship is given in Fig. 4.20.
At point A (in Fig 4.20) on the interface, for equilibrium to exist, the pressure on the salt water side of
the interface (ρAs ) must equal the pressure on the fresh water side (ρAf ).
From hydrostatics:
P Bs = ρs gz (4.37)
and
P Af = ρf gz + ρf ghf (4.38)
Where:
P Bs is the pressure at B on the salt water side

P Af is the pressure at A on the fresh water side

Figure 4.20: Gyben-herzberg relationship for hydrostatic equilibrium between fresh water and salt water
at the coast
ρf is the density of fresh water

ρs is the density of salt water
hf is the head of fresh water above mean sea level
z is the depth to the interface below mean sea level
Since the pressure at both locations at the same depth must be equal, we can set:
ρs gz = ρf gz + ρf ghf (4.39)
or, solving for z gives:

ρf
z= hf (4.40)
ρs − ρf
Example:
If in an investigation area, the densities of fresh water and salt water 1000 kg/m3 and 1026 kg/m3 ,
determine the depth below mean sea level at which the salt water interface will be encountered at a point
here the fresh water stands 0.5 m above mean sea level.
Solution:
ρf 1000
From Eqn 4.40: z = ρs −ρf
hf = 1026−1000
× 0.5 = 19.2 m below sea level.
The Ghyben-Herzberg concept is also applicable, with the same limitations, to confined aquifers, where
the potentiometric surface replaces the water table.
It should be remembered that sea water intrusion is quite natural and cannot be overcome completely.
What has to be determined is the magnitude of intrusion which will be acceptable in a particular area.
A fresh water flow to sea is necessary to stabilise the interface, and the position of the wedge depends on
the magnitude of the flow to the sea. A reduction in the magnitude of fresh water flow will result in a
movement of the toe of the wedge inland until stability is again achieved. A smaller fresh water flow is
associated with a smaller gradient which in turn results in a flatter wedge. If the magnitude of the fresh
water flow is increased, then the toe of the wedge moves seaward until stability is achieved and a steeper
wedge results. The operation of sea water intrusion is then a management problem.

4.6.2 Hydraulic head in groundwaters of varying density
Where the density of groundwater is variable, Equation 4.34 can not be used to calculate the hydraulic
head (Potentiometric head) as the density variation itself may lead to groundwater flow. This is a
particular problem when dealing with the intrusion of seawater or the calculation of groundwater flow
in the vicinity of saline lakes. The saline lakes problem has received much attention in Australia, with
particularly useful studies conducted around Lake Tyrrell Macumber [1991].
In the vicinity of saline lakes or the ocean, the groundwater density may vary in piezometers completed
at the same depth and at different distances from the lake shore and also in piezometers completed at
the same location but at different depths.
Point-water heads
Lusczynski [1961] defines a point-water head in groundwater of variable density, as the water level,
referred to a given datum, in a well filled with water of the type at the point (base) sufficient to balance
the existing pressure at the base of the piezometer. The point-water head is then:
pi
hp,i = zi + (4.41)
ρi g
where:
i any point in ground water of variable density,

ρi density of ground water at point i,
hp,i point-water head at i,
pi pressure at i,
zi elevation of i, measured positively upward,
g gravitational acceleration.
Calculation of fresh-water head
The fresh-water head at any point i in the ground is defined Lusczynski [1961], Holzbecher [1998] as the
head that would be developed in a variable density system if the pressure at the piezometer intake was
generated by an equivalent column of fresh water. For waters that have higher salinity contents than
fresh water, the head will be higher than the point-water head. The fresh-water head is then:
ρi ρi − ρf
hf,i = hp,i − zi (4.42)
ρf ρf
where ρf is the density of freshwater (often close to 998.3kg/m3).
4.6.3 Calculation of environmental-water head
Lusczynski [1961] demonstrates that fresh-water heads only define the hydraulic gradient in a variable
salinity medium when measured in the horizontal plane. Environmental-water heads are required to
define the hydraulic gradient in the vertical plane Acworth [2007].

Lusczynski [1961] demonstrates that when the head measurements are made with reference to mean sea
level as the datum, the environmental-water head can be defined in terms of the point-water head as:
ρi ρi − ρa
he,i = hp,i − zi (4.43)
ρf ρf
where:
i any point in ground water of variable density,

ρa average density of ground water between mean sea level and point i,
ρi density of water at point i,
ρf density of freshwater (998.3kg/m3),

hp,i point-water head at i,
zi elevation of i, measured positively upward,
g gravitational acceleration.
The average density between mean sea level and a depth zi can be calculated from the individual piezome-
ters or manometer board data Acworth [2007]. The half metre interval of the mini-piezometer tubes
provides a good approximation to the density distribution which can be calculated from:
1 z
Z
ρa = ρ dz (4.44)
zi 0
In general, the exact density of the water is unknown. It can be estimated (kg/m3 ) from the fluid
EC Stuyfzand [1993] by:
2
ρs = 1000 · 1 + 8.05 × 10−7 · RE − 6.5 × 10−6 · T − 4 + 2.2 × 10−4 · RE (4.45)
where:
T is the fluid temperature ( ◦ C )

RE is the residue on evaporation at 180 ◦C but which can be approximated as 0.69778 × ECfluid . The
fluid EC is measured in µS/cm.
In the case that there is a vertical variation in density, sufficient information is required to establish the
average density of water above the reference point. This can be estimated from geophysical logs Dasey
[2006] or from bundled piezometer information Acworth [2007].
4.6.4 Structure of the interface
Since the two liquids (fresh water and salt water) are miscible, the interface is not an ideal flow line of
zero thickness but a transition zone in which the water density varies from that of sea water to that of
fresh. Field measurements of interfaces have revealed a mixing zone ranging from a metre or so to some
hundred metres.
Some of the factors which can affect the location of the zone include tidal fluctuations, pumping and
natural recharge and discharge of fresh water. These influences cause the interface to shift continually
toward a new equilibrium position. Each movement, however, causes dispersion to occur, and a transition
zone with a salinity gradient is established.

Dispersion depends on the co-efficient of dispersion of the aquifer and the distance traversed by the
groundwater. The thickness of the transition zone at any location depends upon the co-efficient of
dispersion, the unsteady fresh water flow field, the hydraulic conductivity and the tidal pattern. One
could expect a thinner transition zone where the tidal range is small and thicker zone where the tidal range
is large. Acworth and Dasey [2003] describe the movement of the saline interface beneath a tidal creek
using geophysical methods. This work indicates the importance of dispersion, but also the significance
of variation in hydraulic conductivity in coastal sediments.
4.6.5 Control of intrusion
Once sea water intrusion develops in a coastal aquifer, it is not easy to control. The slow rates of
groundwater flow, the density differences between fresh and sea waters, and the flushing required usually
mean that contamination, once established, may require years to remove under natural conditions.
Several methods have been suggested to control intrusion. These include the reduction of pumping or
modification of pumping practices, artificial recharge to create a mound parallel to the coast or the
establishment of a pumping trough parallel to the coast.
However, as stated previously control of sea water intrusion is basically a management problem. The
allowable magnitude of intrusion must be decided upon and entered as a constraint on the system when
determining annual yield.
Bear in mind that 1 m of water applied to an aquifer will have an entirely different effect on the salt water
wedge than would a 1 m rise in water level.
It should be remembered that, while a certain fresh water flow is required to maintain a stable wedge it
is not always necessary that this flow be lost to the seas. Much of it could be intercepted by a series of
collector trenches parallel to the coast and utilised inland. Having said that, it is also clear that there
are significant environmental concerns if all discharging groundwater were to be inercepted. Estuaries,
in particular, would suffer badly.

Figure 4.21: Darcy concept
Figure 4.22: Darcy’s experimental apparatus
4.7 Introduction to Darcy’s Law
The hydraulic conductivity is a proportionality constant derived from experimental data in which the
gradient in hydraulic head is related to the water discharge through a constant cross-sectional area. The
original work was carried out by Henry Darcy.
The French hydraulic engineer Henry Darcy, published a report [Darcy, 1856] on the water supply in the
city of Dijon in 1856. In this report, Darcy described a laboratory experiment that he had carried out
to analyse the flow of water through sands. The results of this experiment can be generalised into the
empirical law upon which much of the later development of the science of ground water is based.
4.7.1 The Darcy Experiment
Darcy’s experimental apparatus may be generalised as shown in Fig. 4.21 and Fig. 4.22.
A circular cylinder of cross section A is filled with sand, stoppered at each end, and fitted with inflow
and outflow tubes and a pair of manometers. Water is allowed to flow through the cylinder until such
time as all the pore space is filled with water and the inflow rate Q is equal to the outflow rate.
An arbitrary datum is selected at elevation z = 0 , the elevations of the manometer intakes are z1 and
z2 and the elevations of the fluid levels are h1 and h2 . The distance between the manometer intakes is
∆L. The specific discharge (υ) (volume flux, or flux per unit volume) through the cylinder is defined as:
Q
υ= (4.46)
A
If the dimensions of Q are [L3 T −1 ] and those of A are [L2 ], then υ has the dimensions of velocity [L/T].
Darcy’s experiments show that when ∆L is held constant:

υ ≈ ∆h (4.47)
and, when ∆h is held constant
1
υ≈ (4.48)
∆L

where:
∆h is the head difference (h1 − h2 ) between the manometer intakes, and

∆L is the difference between the manometer intakes.
The proportionality constant in these relationships has been defined as the hydraulic conductivity. Darcy’s
Law can then be written as:
∆h
υ = −K (4.49)
∆L
or in differential form
dh
υ = −K (4.50)
dL
where:
h is the hydraulic head

dh/dL is the hydraulic gradient (or gradient of the water potential)
An alternative form of Darcy’s law can be obtained by substituting for specific discharge as,
dh
Q = −K A (4.51)
dL
Darcy’s Law for fluid flow through a porous media has applications in many branches of science, varying
from the oil and gas industry where it is used to describe the flow of several phases through a petroleum
reservoir, through the soil and agricultural sciences where it is used to describe flow in the unsaturated
zone and in plants, to medical science where the same relationship has been used to describe fluid flow
through the brain.
4.7.2 Hydraulic conductivity and intrinsic permeability
It is clear that the hydraulic conductivity must be a function of the porous medium, in that the porosity,
the degree of interconnectivity of pores, the grain size and sorting of the material will all have a bearing
on the value of hydraulic conductivity. It is also evident that the viscosity and density of the fluid must
influence hydraulic conductivity. It is intuitively obvious that the rate of movement of a thick oil through
a permeable medium will be slower than that of water, or gas, through the same medium.
The hydraulic conductivity is therefore a function of both the media and the fluid flowing through it. A
dimensional analysis of Equation 4.49 indicates that hydraulic conductivity has dimensions of [L/T] when
the water potential is expressed in metres head of water. These units are satisfactory if dealing with clean
water and a volume flux, rather than a mass flux, of water. Typical values of hydraulic conductivity are
given in Table 4.9 (Note that 1 m/s = 86, 400 m/day).
It is unusual to find a variable in nature which has a range of 15 orders of magnitude.
In attempts to further define hydraulic conductivity, experiments have been carried out with ideal porous
media consisting of uniform glass beads of diameter d. When various fluids of density and dynamic
viscosity are run through apparatus similar to Darcy’s under a constant hydraulic gradient, further
proportionality relationships are observed:
υ ≈ d2 (4.52)
υ ≈ ρg (4.53)

Table 4.9: Representative hydraulic conductivity values
Hydraulic Conductivity From To

ms−1 ms−1
Gravel 10−3 1
Clean Sand 10−6 10−2
Silty Sand 10−7 10−3
Silt, Loess 10−9 10−5
Glacial Till 10−12 10−6
Marine Clay 10−12 10−9
Shale 10−13 10−9
Unfractured Basement 10−14 10−10
Sandstone 10−10 10−6
Limestone 10−9 10−6
Fractured Basement 10−8 10−4
Basalt (Interflows) 10−7 10−3
Limestone Karst 10−6 10−3
υ ≈ µ−1 (4.54)
dh
Together with the original observation that υ ≈ − dL these relationships lead to a new definition of
Darcy’s Law:
Cd2 ρg dh
υ=− (4.55)
µ dL
The parameter C is another dimensionless constant of proportionality. For real soils it must include all
the influence of other media properties which affect the flux, such as grain size and distribution, grain
sphericity and roundness and the nature of the packing.
Comparison with the original Darcy equation shows that:
Cd2 ρg
K= (4.56)
µ
In this equation ρ and µ are properties of the fluid and Cd2 is a function of the medium alone. If we
define lower case k as
k = Cd2 (4.57)
then
kρg
K= (4.58)
µ
The parameter k is known as the intrinsic permeability. The term intrinsic permeability rather than
permeability is used, as in some earlier texts, hydraulic conductivity was also referred to as the coefficient
of permeability or simply, permeability. The term permeability is still in general use but restricted to
the physical properties of the medium. The intrinsic (or specific) permeability is widely used in the oil
industry where the existence of gas, oil and water in multiphase flow systems makes the use of a fluid-free
conductance term of use. Petroleum engineers have defined the darcy as a unit of permeability. The unit
is not in common use in the water industry.
The value of a darcy when expressed as square metres is 1 darcy = 0.987 ×−12 m2 .

If a material has significant permeability it must contain pores for the fluid to flow through. A material
may be porous however, but if the pores are not interconnected, it is not permeable. A full description
must therefore specify both porosity and intrinsic permeability.
4.7.3 Specific discharge and average linear velocity
The units of specific discharge υ in Equation 4.46, were noted to be velocity. It is important to realise
that the specific discharge does not represent the linear velocity at which water moves through the pore
space. It is an apparent velocity, representing the velocity at which water would move through the aquifer
if it were an open conduit. The cross-sectional area of the open pore space in the aquifer is much smaller
than an open conduit of the same dimensions, therefore the real fluid velocity through the pore space
will be significantly higher. The average linear velocity may be calculated from Equation 4.59.
Q K dh
uL = = (4.59)
φe A φe dL
where:
uL is the average linear velocity in the direction of L

φe is the effective porosity
The effective porosity is less than the total porosity, as some water remains trapped in dead-end pore
space and adheres to the grain surfaces. The total porosity for Botany sand is approximately 0.40, the
effective porosity is approximately 0.36.
4.7.4 Homogeneity and heterogeneity of hydraulic conductivity
When the hydraulic conductivity K is independent of position within a geologic formation, the formation
is homogeneous. When the hydraulic conductivity K is dependent on position within a geologic formation,
the formation is heterogeneous.
This can be expressed mathematically by examining the components of K in an x-y-z coordinate system.
For a homogeneous formation K(x, y, z) = C where C is a constant; whereas in a heterogeneous formation
K(x, y, z) 6= C , and C is no longer constant.
Three broad classes of heterogeneity exist [Freeze and Cherry, 1979].
Layered Heterogeneity - common in sedimentary formations and unconsolidated lacustrine or marine

deposits. The individual beds are each homogeneous, but the entire system is heterogeneous.
Layered heterogeneity can result in K contrasts of as much as 13 orders of magnitude.
Discontinuous heterogeneity - caused by the presence of faults, or other discontinuities.
Trending heterogeneity - where the properties of a sand, for example, change with distance from the
source. Trending heterogeneity is common in deltaic environments [Fetter, 2001].
4.7.5 Isotropy and anisotropy
If the hydraulic conductivity K is independent of the direction of measurement at a point in a geologic

formation, the formation is isotropic at that point.
By contrast, if the hydraulic conductivity K varies with the direction of measurement at a point in a
geologic formation, the formation is anisotropic at that point.

Figure 4.23: Heterogeneity and Anisotropy of Hydraulic Conductivity
To fully describe the nature of the hydraulic conductivity in a geologic formation, it is necessary to
use two adjectives, one dealing with heterogeneity and the other with anisotropy. For example, for a
homogeneous, isotropic system in 2 dimensions:
Kx (x, z) = Kz (x, z) = C1 (4.60)
Whereas, for a homogeneous and anisotropic system:
Kx (x, y) = C1 (4.61)
for all (x,z), and
Kz (x, y) = C2 (4.62)
for all (x,z), but
C1 6= C2 (4.63)
The relationship between heterogeneity and anisotropy is shown in Figure 4.23.
There is a relation between layered heterogeneity and anisotropy. A layered formation, as shown in Fig-
ure 4.24, with individual homogeneous and isotropic layers of hydraulic conductivity K1 , K2 , K3 , . . . , Kn
can be represented as a single anisotropic layer.
For flow perpendicular to the layering, the volume flux must be the same entering the system as it is
leaving. Therefore, if ∆h1 is the head loss across the first layer, ∆h2 the head loss across the second layer
etc., the total head loss is
∆h = ∆h1 + ∆h2 + . . . + ∆hn (4.64)
From Darcy’s Law we can equate the volume flux across each layer and then write:
∆h1 ∆h2 ∆hn ∆h
υ = K1 = υ = K2 = . . . υ = . . . = Kn = Kz (4.65)
d1 d2 dn d
where Kz is an equivalent vertical hydraulic conductivity for the system of layers. It can then be shown
from Equation 4.65 that
d
Kz = Pn (4.66)
i=1 di /Ki

Figure 4.24: Layered Heterogeneity
Pn
where d = i=1 di , and
n
X Ki di
Kx = (4.67)
d
i=1
In the field, it is not uncommon for layered heterogeneity to lead to regional anisotropy values of 100:1
or greater [Freeze and Cherry, 1979]. This is often the result of sedimentary depositional processes which
fluctuate in carrying capacity in response to climatic variation. A wet period will produce increased runoff
and increasing carrying capacity in streams. This will result in coarser grained material being mobilised.
A dry period will produce reduced runoff, reduced carrying capacity and silt or clay deposition on top of
the coarse sand.
4.8 Limitations of the Darcy approach
Darcy’s law provides an accurate description of the flow of ground water in almost all hydrogeological
environments. In general it holds for:
• saturated flow and for unsaturated flow

• for steady-state flow and for transient flow
• for flow in aquifers and aquitards
• for flow in homogeneous systems and for flow in heterogeneous systems
• for flow in isotropic media and flow in anisotropic media
• for flow in both rocks and granular media.
Although the Darcy relationship does have wide applicability, it is necessary to examine the limits which
do exist.

Figure 4.25: Relationships between specific discharge and hydraulic gradient for sands and clays
4.8.1 Darcian continuum and the representative elementary volume
Use of Darcy’s Law enables the actual microscopic flow of groundwater within the matrix to be replaced
by a macroscopically averaged description of the microscopic flow. Note that the dimensions of specific
discharge are length/time and that the macroscopic representation of the term is as a velocity. A detailed
theoretical analysis of the validity of using the macroscopic representation based upon the concept of
representative elementary volumes (REV) is given in several texts [Bear and Verruijt, 1987]. This concept
is essentially related to scale. Darcy’s Law breaks down if the scale of the problem is reduced to flow
around individual grains and only becomes valid when a sufficient volume of material is included that
the individual details of specific flow paths can be replaced by the specific discharge.
4.8.2 Upper and lower limits of Darcy’s Law
Darcy’s Law is a linear law. If it were universally valid, a plot of the specific discharge υ vs the hydraulic
gradient dh/dl would be a straight line for all gradients between 0 and ∞. A plot of specific discharge
against gradient is given for a permeable soil (I) and a clayey soil (II) in Fig. 4.25 [Galperin et al., 1993].
The flow through the permeable soil is shown to be linear at low gradients but to depart from linearity at
high gradients. The flow through a clayey soil is shown to have a threshold below which no flow occurs.
This threshold is referred to as the incipient hydraulic gradient or the seepage threshold. As the hydraulic
gradient increases above the seepage threshold, the specific discharge becomes linear.
Low flow
At very low gradients the law breaks down. There appears to be a threshold value of gradient below
which no flow occurs, particularly in fine grained materials. This threshold value is related to the energy
needed to break the hydrogen bonding of water around the fine grained (clay) particles. Experimental
data [Dudgeon, 1985] indicates that pure water behaves as a Newtonian fluid (obeying Darcy Law) down
to shear rates as low as 10−8 sec−1 , but that water containing dissolved air acts as a thixotropic non-
Newtonian fluid at shear rates below 10−4 sec−1 . Dudgeon also found that the viscosity of the water
could be altered by the input of energy resulting from shock or vibration. These changes were attributed
to changes in the molecular structure of the water.
It is probable that this aspect has little practical importance in groundwater studies, although predictions
of flow in large basins in which the gradient is very low and the groundwater has high values of total

dissolved solids may be suspect. For this reason there may be significant over estimates of available
resources in some areas.
High flow
At very high rates of flow, Darcy’s Law breaks down. The upper limit is usually identified in terms of the
Reynolds number Re , a dimensionless number that expresses the ratio of inertial to viscous forces during
flow. The Reynolds number for flow through porous media is defined as
ρυd
Re = (4.68)
µ
where:
ρ is the fluid density

υ is the specific discharge,
µ is the viscosity, and
d is a representative length dimension for the porous medium.
Darcy’s Law is valid as long as the Reynolds number based on average grain diameter does not exceed
some value between 1 and 10 [Bear, 1972]. For this range of Reynolds numbers all flow through the
granular media is lamina. For open channel or pipe flow, d is simply the channel width. Under these
conditions the transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs when R exceeds a value of approximately
2000.
It is more difficult to determine the value of d in a porous medium. T here is likely to be a range of
values over which Darcy’s Law becomes non-linear.
Turbulence occurs at higher Reynolds Numbers. These conditions are often encountered in fractured
rocks, kharstic limestone and cavernous volcanics. Turbulent flow may also occur close to a well in coarse
grained media, if the well is pumped at large discharge rates. Note that specific discharge falls propor-
tionately as turbulent flow sets in. This is of particular significance in designing dewatering operations in
mines dominated by fracture flow. Use only of Darcy’s law will predict larger quantities entering a mine
than can in fact occur due to the onset of turbulent flow close to the mine.
4.9 Flow in fractured rocks
The analysis of flow in fractured rocks can be carried out either with the continuum approach adopted
thus far, or with the non-continuum approach based upon the hydraulics of flow in individual fractures.
The continuum approach considers flow on a macroscopic scale.
The continuum approach for fractured rocks involves the replacement of the fractured media by a repre-
sentative continuum in which the spatially defined values of hydraulic conductivity, porosity, and com-
pressibility can be assigned. This approach is valid as long as the fracture spacing is sufficiently dense
that the fractured media reacts in a similar fashion to granular media. The conceptualisation is the same
with the exception that the REV is considerably larger than the REV for a granular medium.
It may be the case that the REV can exceed the volume which contains an abstraction borehole, and that
in these instances, conventional well hydraulics are not applicable, although Darcy’s Law does describe
satisfactorily the flow through the larger volume surrounding the abstraction site. For example, in a
limestone formation, it is possible to develop a groundwater flow model which will accurately quantify
the regional flow components, yet is not able to predict the abstraction rate from a borehole at any given

location. In the extreme, boreholes may be dry if drilled through the limestone at a location which does
not encounter a regionally connected fracture. If fracture spacings are irregular in a given direction,
the media will exhibit trending heterogeneity. If the fracture spacings are different in one direction to
another, the media will exhibit anisotropy. If the fracture density is extremely low it may be necessary
to analyse the flow in individual fissures. This approach is often used in geotechnical investigations of
slope stability.
Flow in individual fractures can be represented by the cubic law. For a given gradient, flow through a
fracture is proportional to the cube of the fracture aperture. For laminar flow between smooth parallel
plates the cubic law can be expressed by Equation 4.69.
ρgb2 ∂h
Q= (bw) (4.69)
12µ ∂L
where:
Q is the flow,
ρ is fluid density,
g is acceleration due to gravity,
µ is fluid viscosity,
b is the aperture opening, and
w is the fracture width perpendicular to b
The form of Equation 4.69 is clearly similar to the Darcy Equation.
4.10 Hydraulic continuity
4.10.1 Description
The concept of hydraulic continuity has been reviewed recently. Toth [1995] gives the following definition:
Hydraulic continuity is a phenomenological property of the rock framework. This property

is characterised quantitatively as the ratio of an induced change in hydraulic head (or pore
pressure) to an inducing change of head (pressure). Because pore-pressure changes propagate
through the rocks at finite velocities, hydraulic continuity is a relative property that depends
on the distance between the points of origin and observation of pressure disturbance as well as
on the hydraulic diffusivity (hydraulic conductivity/specific storage) of the rock-fluid system.
Consequently, continuity is a function of the scales of both space and time.
The essential elements of this concept are presented in Figure 4.26 [Toth, 1995].
4.11 Grain-size analysis
It has long been suspected that an indication of the hydraulic conductivity of sands could be established
from a detailed study of the grain-size distribution and much careful research has been undertaken
[Vukovic and Soro, 1992].

Figure 4.26: Simultaneous ground-water flow on different time scales
4.11.1 Grain size distributions
The distribution of different grain sizes in a sediment sample has an important impact upon the hydraulic
conductivity of a sand. A system to describe the grain size variation is therefore required. The simplest
system would be a simple histogram, but for various reasons, a cumulative frequency plot is more useful.
Grain size data can be used to classify material into silt, sand or gravel. There are two standards for
these subdivisions, the Wentworth size class and the Phi unit. The respective subdivisions are shown in
Table 4.10. Phi units can be defined as follows:
d
φ = − log2 (4.70)
d0
where:
d0 is the standard grain diameter of 1 mm and included to make the definition of the φ unit dimensionless.
The negative sign is to make the phi unit for the common sand grain sizes, which are less than
1mm, positive.
d is the grain diameter in mm.
The series of sizes is therefore 23 , 22 , 21 , 20 , 2−1, 2−2 , 2−3 mm respectively.
4.11.2 Analysis
There are several methods for the estimation of grain size in a sand. The simplest is based upon a set
of sieves. The sand sample is dried and weighed and then shaken through a set of sieves. The sample
retained on each sieve is then weighed and a curve plotted showing the cumulative frequency of the

Table 4.10: Udden-Wentworth size classification for sediment grains

Udden-Wentworth Phi Notation Wentworth Size
Limits (Diameters) φ Class
(mm)
4.00 - 2.00 -2.0 to -1.0 granule

2.00 - 1.00 -1.0 to 0.0 very coarse sand
1.00 - 0.50 0.0 to 1.0 coarse sand
0.50 - 0.25 1.0 to 2.0 medium sand
0.250 - 0.125 2.0 to 3.0 fine sand
0.125 - 0.0625 3.0 to 4.0 very fine sand
0.0625 - 0.031 4.0 to 5.0 coarse silt
0.031 - 0.0156 5.0 to 6.0 medium silt
0.0156 - 0.0078 6.0 to 7.0 fine silt
0.0078 - 0.0039 7.0 to 8.0 very fine silt
< 0.0039 > 8.0 clay
grain size distribution. If significant clay material is suspected then wet sieving should be used. There
is an Australian Standard Practice [Standards Association of Australia, 1976] which fully describes the
procedure. Typical grain-size data is shown in Table ??. The data can also be presented as a bar chart
or as a frequency plot as shown in Figure 4.27.
Table 4.11: Grain-size calculation for a Botany sands sample

Total weight of sample is 26.753 g
Sieve Sample Weight %
Size weight % Coarser
(mm) Retained Retained A
0.84 0.000 0.00 0.00

0.71 0.118 0.44 0.44
0.59 0.226 0.84 1.29
0.50 0.806 3.01 4.30
0.42 3.198 11.95 16.25
0.35 4.127 15.43 31.68
0.30 5.161 19.29 50.97
0.25 6.718 25.11 76.08
0.21 3.129 11.70 87.78
0.18 2.247 8.40 96.18
0.15 0.752 2.81 98.99
0.13 0.171 0.64 99.63
0.11 0.055 0.21 99.83
0.09 0.012 0.04 99.88
0.07 0.027 0.10 99.98
0.06 0.006 0.02 100.00
There are a number of characteristics of the grain size population which can be derived from the particle
size distribution data, viz:
M dφ median diameter. This is equal to the φ50 of the distribution.

Mφ mean diameter. This is calculated from
φ16 + φ84
Mφ = (4.71)
2
The Phi Deviation Measure is a measure of the degree of sorting in the sand sample and is calculated

Figure 4.27: Grain-size analysis of a river sand showing sorting criteria

from :
φ84 − φ16
σφ = (4.72)
2
The phi deviation is used as an indication of the sand depositional history. Dune sands are usually
very well sorted with σφ values between 0.20 and 0.40.
Phi skewness is a measure of the symmetry of the grain size distribution and can be derived from:
Mφ − M dφ
αφ = (4.73)
σφ
The phi skewness measure is zero for a symmetrical size distribution. If the distribution is skewed
towards the smaller grain sizes then the distribution is said to be negatively skewed.
de Effective grain size is determined as the grain size which represents the smallest 10% of the sample.
Cu The uniformity coefficient is a measure of the sand sorting expressed as:
d60
Cu = (4.74)
d10
A sample with a Cu less than 4 is well sorted; if the Cu is greater than 6, it is poorly sorted.
4.12 Field measurements of hydraulic conductivity
4.12.1 Slug tests
It is possible to determine in situ hydraulic conductivity by means of tests carried out in a single piezome-
ter or in an open borehole in which a section of the hole has been isolated by the use of packers [Hvorslev,
1951]. The tests are carried out by causing an instantaneous change in the water level in the section by
the sudden introduction or removal of a known volume of water. The recovery of the water level with
time is then observed.
When water is removed, the tests are often called bail tests; when it is added the tests are known as slug
tests. It is possible to create the same effect by introducing or removing a cylinder of known volume to
the piezometer.
Equipment designed at the WRL uses compressed air to push the water level down in the piezometer tube.
The equipment is shown in Figure 4.28. The water flows into the aquifer and a new equilibrium condition
is created whereby the water surface represents the water pressure in the aquifer and the pressure exerted
by the air trapped in the piezometer. The water level in the well is measured prior to the time that the
air is introduced by using a pressure transducer connected to a data logger.
Immediately after the air is released by opening the quick release valve the levels are measured frequently
(1 second intervals initially) as the water level rises back toward the static water level line. Figure 4.29
shows a logger record from a field test.
The height the water level rises above the static water level immediately upon lowering the slug is h0 .
The height of the water level above static water some time, t, after the slug is lowered is h. The data
are plotted by computing the ratio hh0 and plotting that versus time on semi-logarithmic paper. The
time drawdown plot should be a straight line. The analysis of the data shown in Figure 4.29 is shown in
Figure 4.30.
If the length of the piezometer is more than 8 times the radius of the well screen ( L/R>8 ), the following
formula applies:
r 2 loge (L/R)
K= (4.75)
2LT0

Figure 4.28: WRL slug test equipment (Photo RIA)
Figure 4.29: Example of Field Data obtained with the WRL Equipment

Figure 4.30: Interpretation of Field Data
where:
K is hydraulic conductivity,
r is the radius of the well casing,
R is the radius of the well screen,
L is the length of the well screen,
T0 is the time it takes for the water level to rise or fall to 37% of the initial change.
This relationship is one of many calculated available [Hvorslev, 1951] for differing piezometer geometry
and aquifer conditions.
Piezometers in low-permeability clays may take hours or days to recover and in these cases use of a
manual dipping method is adequate. Piezometers in sands, however, will react very quickly and the use
of a pressure transducer and data logger are required to obtain the data.
4.12.2 Geophysical and geological logs of bup-cone:figores
Hydraulic conductivity can also be estimated from the lithological logs provided by geologists working
at a site. This is based upon grain-size data obtained during drilling and the estimates of hydraulic
conductivity that these provide. The geophysical logs can then be used to further estimate hydraulic
conductivity by recognising the various units in a sedimentary sequence from their geophysical properties
and then extrapolating the hydraulic conductivity.
There is no unique relationship between the geophysical parameter of bulk electrical conductivity and
the hydraulic conductivity, despite many attempts to determine such a relationship.

4.13 Transport equations
4.13.1 Introduction
Any steady transport problem can be described in one dimension by a differential equation of the form
dC
J = −K (4.76)
dL
where:
J represents the flux density of energy or material,

K is a conductivity of some form, and
dC
dL is a gradient in concentration or potential.
The potential gradient is the driving force for the flow. If the conductivity and the flux density are
constant then Equation 4.76 can be easily integrated to give
C2 − C1
J = −K (4.77)
L2 − L1
where the subscripts indicate the values at positions L1 and L2 . If the J and K terms are not constant
then the integration can still be carried out, but some averaged value of these parameters must be used,
representative of the space between L1 and L2 . Equation 4.77 can be used to describe the steady flux
density of energy or matter (water) through the subsurface soil.
If the space is divided into a number of layers, and the conductance (K/∆L) of each layer as well as the
flux density of heat or material through the layer is known, Equation 4.77 can be used to solve for the
value of C for individual layers. This is similar to the tutorial problem in this week’s notes. One equation
in two unknowns may be written for each layer. One of the unknowns can be eliminated between each
of two equations representing adjacent layers with the exception of the top and bottom layers. These
conditions at the top and bottom form the boundary conditions. Values of the boundary conditions must
be supplied in order to solve the set of equations for all the layers.
The flow of water through the soil can be studied by the application of the transport equation approach
but first some description of the conductivity term in the transport equation for water flow is required.
4.13.2 Groundwater transport
Darcy demonstrated that the flux of water through a porous medium is directly proportional (for a
Newtonian Fluid) to the potential gradient.
The transport equation for flow can then be written as:

dΦ
Jw = −K (4.78)
dL
where :-
Jw is the water flux,

K is the hydraulic conductivity,
Φ is the water potential, and

L is distance.
The units of the variables in Equation 4.78 depend upon the definition of the flux and the potential.
It is this variation which leads to alternative formulations for the proportionality constant which con-
tain the different combinations of the intrinsic permeability, fluid density and fluid viscosity shown in
Table 4.12.
Table 4.12: Conversion of terms between the mass and volume fluxes in the Darcy transport equation
Mass Flux = Conductivity × Potential Gradient

2
Jw = - k ρµ × dΦ
dL

kg kg s J/kg m2 s−2
m2 s m3 m = m
⇓ ⇓ ⇓
2
÷ρ ÷ρ ×ρ
2
kg kg kg
m3 m6 m3
⇓ ⇓ ⇓
k dP
υ = - µ
× dL

m m3 s kg m−1 s−2

s kg m
Volume Flux = Conductivity × Potential Gradient
The flux may be defined either as :-
• a volume flux of water, or

• a mass flux of water.
The mass flux is easier to understand in terms of the physical quantities and is widely used in soil physics
and in the theoretical analysis Smiles [2000], Milburn [1979], Domenico and Schwartz [1990], but has the
disadvantage that it is more difficult to use in practice. The mass flux is first described below and then
the conversion to a volume flux is presented.
Mass water flux
The units of Equation 4.78 for this case are as follows:
kg M
Mass Flux Jw has units of m2 s1
with dimensions of L2 T 1
.
Water Potential Φ is defined as energy per unit mass with units of Joules/Kilogram and dimensions
2 2
of TM2LM which further reduce to L
T2 .
Hydraulic Conductivity has units of kg s M T

m3 , with dimensions of L3 . This represents the intrinsic
2
permeability (k) with units of m2 , multiplied by the square of the density ρ2 with units of kg
m6
and
M2 kg
dimensions of L6 , divided by the viscosity µ with units of P a s with dimensions of m s .
The mass flux has the advantage that the reference for the flux, the mass, is constant.

Volume water flux
The units and dimensions for terms in Equation 4.78 for this case are as follows:
3
Volume Flux υ The volume flux is the specific discharge. The units are mm2 s with dimensions of L
T.
The volume flux can be derived from the mass flux by dividing by the fluid density.
Water Potential P The water potential is now defined as energy per unit volume with units of Nm m3
2
and has dimensions of TM2 LL3 . The conversion from a mass basis to a volume basis for the potential
is achieved by multiplying by the fluid density.
The dimensions for the volume based potential reduce to those of pressure LMT 2 and provide a useful
insight into the nature of this potential. The ability to measure a negative gauge pressure is particularly
useful for measurements of water potential in the unsaturated zone.
To convert a water potential measured as a pressure to a potential measured in metres head of water, it
is necessary to divide by ρ g.
3 3
The proportionality constant (hydraulic conductivity) has units of mkg s with dimensions of L T
M −1 . It
2
represents the intrinsic permeability k, with units of m , divided by dynamic viscosity µ with units of
P a s ( mkgs )
The volume flux, is then seen to be proportional to the pressure difference between two gauges measuring
pressure in the system, and inversely proportional to the distance between the gauges.
4.13.3 Transport equation in 3 dimensions
For three-dimensional flow in a medium which may be anisotropic, a generalisation of the one-dimensional
equation is required.
In three dimensions, the specific discharge can be written:

kx ∂P
υx = − (4.79)
µ ∂x
ky ∂P
υy = − (4.80)
µ ∂y
kz ∂P
υz = − (4.81)
µ ∂z
where:
kx is the intrinsic permeability in the x direction

ky is the intrinsic permeability in the y direction
kz is the intrinsic permeability in the z direction
The water potential, represented as a pressure, or as a head, is a scalar quantity. It can be specified
anywhere in the space defined by the Cartesian co-ordinate system. We can define the gradient of this
field as:
∂P ∂P ∂P
∇P = i +j +k (4.82)
∂x ∂y ∂z

The three components of the specific discharge can then also be written as
k
υ = − ∇P (4.83)
µ
The gradient of P is a vector that represents the direction in which the pressure changes fastest. For
the condition that kx = ky = kz , the direction of ∇P is perpendicular to lines joining points of equal
pressure in the system. This will be the direction in which groundwater flows.
We could write a similar expression for the mass flux.
ρ2w
Jw = −k ∇Φ (4.84)
µ
4.13.4 Flow in a confined aquifer
For steady state flow in a confined aquifer, the Darcy equation can be used directly:
dh k dP
υ0 = Kb =− (4.85)
dL µ dL
where:
υ0 is the discharge per unit width of the aquifer,

b is the aquifer thickness
dh
dL
is the slope of the potentiometric surface (dimensionless).
4.13.5 Flow in an Unconfined Aquifer
In an unconfined aquifer, the fact that the water table is the upper surface complicates matters.
The gradient of the water table in an unconfined aquifer is not constant, it increases in the direction of
flow. This can be seen in Figure 4.31 below
The flow problem was solved by Dupuit and his assumptions are known as the Dupuit assumptions.
These are that:
• that the hydraulic gradient is equal to the slope of the water table, and
• for small water-table gradients, the flow lines are horizontal and the equipotentials are vertical.
Solutions based upon the Dupuit assumptions are of general use. One major flaw however, is that the
assumptions do not allow the development of a seepage face on the down flow side of an embankment or
dam. This restriction is a problem in geotechnical work and requires a more fundamental approach. For
regional water resource studies, the inaccuracy is not a problem. The solution to the flow equation for
an unconfined aquifer is:
1 h2 − h22
υ0 = K 1 (4.86)
2 L
where:

Figure 4.31: Steady flow through an unconfined aquifer
υ0 is the flow per unit width of aquifer,

h1 is the head at one side of the problem domain, and
h2 is the head at the other side, and
L is the distance between the two head measurements.
A number of simple problems can be solved analytically using the Dupuit assumptions.
In reality, these problems can as easily be solved by a simple model as well. For this reason, the use of
analytical methods is becoming less common.
4.14 Groundwater flow equations
4.14.1 Introduction
Darcy’s Law has provided a model to describe the flow of water in a saturated medium, and we have
considered various aspects of laboratory and field measurements of the hydraulic conductivity. If the
hydraulic head can be measured in the field, then we can predict the direction and rate of movement of
ground water. What is now required is a more rigorous model of groundwater flow.
4.14.2 Conservation of fluid mass
In words, the conservation of fluid mass can be stated as
mass inflow rate - mass outflow rate = change in mass storage with time
in units of mass per time.

Figure 4.32: Elemental Control Volume
This statement can be applied to a domain of any size, but consider the unit volume of porous media as
shown in Figure 4.32 where ∆x = ∆y = ∆z = 1. Such an element is usually called an elemental control
volume. The size of this control volume is chosen to be greater than the representative elementary volume
wherein the macroscopic average velocity holds as an accurate representation of the fluid flow. The law
of conservation of mass for steady-state flow through a saturated porous medium requires that the fluid
mass flux into any elementary control volume must be equal to the fluid mass flux out of the control
volume.
From Figure 4.32 the mass inflow rate through the face ABCD is Jx
In general, the mass outflow can be different from the mass inflow rate. The mass outflow rate through
the face EFGH and can be written as
∂(Jx )
Jx + (4.87)
∂x
The net outflow rate is then the difference between the inflow and outflow rates. The net outflow rate
through EFGH is
∂(Jx )
− (4.88)
∂x
Making similar calculations for the remaining faces of the cube, the net outflow through CDHG is
∂(Jy )
− (4.89)
∂y
and through BCGF is

∂(Jz )
− (4.90)
∂z
Adding these components of the mass flux in the three co-ordinate directions gives the net mass outflow
rate through all the faces:
∂(Jx ) ∂(Jy ) ∂(Jz )
− + + (4.91)
∂x ∂y ∂z
If the components of Equation 4.91 sum to zero - the system is said to be in steady state. This does
not mean that there is no flow of water through the system, simply that the same amount of water that
enters the REV leaves the REV. There is no change in the amount of water stored in the REV.
If the components of Equation 4.91 do not sum to zero, then there has to be a change in the mass stored
in the aquifer. The system is said to be in non-steady state and to solve the equation we need to consider
the ways in which the water can be stored in the aquifer. This will be returned to in detail later.

4.14.3 Steady-state flow
If we recognise that J = ρυ (from Table 4.12) then we can write Equation 4.91 for the steady state
condition as:
∂(ρυx ) ∂(ρυy ) ∂(ρυz )
− + + =0 (4.92)
∂x ∂y ∂z
If we assume that the fluid density does not change spatially, the density term on the left-hand side of
the equation can be taken outside of the partial differential operators so that Equation 4.92 becomes:

∂(υx ) ∂(υy ) ∂(υz )
−ρ × + + =0 (4.93)
∂x ∂y ∂z
Clearly ρ 6= 0 and therefore the terms in Equation 4.93 can then be further simplified. Substitution
of Darcy’s Law for the υx , υy , and υz components yields an equation for steady-state flow through an
anisotropic saturated porous medium as:

∂ ∂h ∂ ∂h ∂ ∂h
Kx + Ky + Kz =0 (4.94)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z
The expression is now positive because the specific discharge terms are negative in Darcy’s equation.
For an isotropic medium Kx = Ky = Kz , and if the medium is also homogeneous then K(x, y, z) =
aconstant. The equation then reduces to

∂ ∂h ∂ ∂h ∂ ∂h
K + + =0 (4.95)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z
or
∂2h ∂2h ∂2h

K + 2 + 2 =0 (4.96)
∂x2 ∂y ∂z
Equation 4.96 reduces to Laplace’s Equation when the hydraulic conductivity is homogeneous and
isotropic which, as K 6= 0, gives :
∂2h ∂2h ∂2h
+ 2 + 2 =0 (4.97)
∂x2 ∂y ∂z
The representation of the water flux as shown in Equation 4.97 forms the basis of groundwater modelling
for steady state flow. The solution to this equation describes the value of the hydraulic head at any point
in the three-dimensional flow field.
4.15 Water storage in the unsaturated zone
4.15.1 The Specific Yield
The storage term for unconfined aquifers is known as the specific yield Sy and represents the volume of
water that drains from a unit cross sectional area of the unconfined aquifer by allowing the water level
(water table) to fall by a unit amount. For saturated Botany Sands with a porosity of 35%, approximately
13
22% of the water will drain out under gravity and the specific yield is then 22%. Note that 35 (37%)
of the original water remains in the aquifer - held there by surface tension. To put this value of Sy into
perspective, a cubic metre of saturated sand will yield 220 L of water rapidly on draining and a further
130 L of water will be held in the sand by surface tension - available to support the growth of vegetation.
Plants can suck out a significant proportion of the 130 L but can never completely remove all the water
that is held in by surface tension.

Figure 4.33: Specific yield: the quantity of water released by a unit drop in the water table
The concept of specific yield can be shown in terms of moisture contents in the unsaturated zone.
The curve T1 in Figure 4.33 represents the moisture stored above the water table at time t1 , and the
curve t2 the moisture stored at some later time (lower water level). The effect of lowering the water table
causes the moisture stored in the hatched part of Figure 4.33 to be released as drainage. The rate at
which this drainage occurs differs for different soils. In general, coarse soils will drain quickly whereas
fine soils may take many days to drain.
Delayed drainage is a concept developed to account for the slower release of moisture from soils during
pumping tests and is directly related to the rate at which water drains from the soil.
The specific yield will only be equal to the porosity for very clean coarse gravels. For finer material, a
proportion of the water contained at saturation is held back in the soil by surface tension effects. The
quantity is sometimes referred to as specific retention where the sum of the specific yield and the specific
retention is equal to the porosity.
φ = Sy + Sr (4.98)
Field capacity moisture content is analogous to the amount of water contained in the soil when the specific
yield has drained away. Typical values of specific yield for a range of materials are given in Table 4.13.
4.16 Confined aquifer storage
4.16.1 Non-Steady State Flow
An analysis has been presented for steady-state flow conditions. We can now return to consider the
possibility that water can be taken into storage within the REV. A mathematical model that is generally
used to represent this possibility is:

Table 4.13: Approximate (very) specific yields for various geologic materials
Material Specific Yield
Coarse gravel 23
Medium gravel 24
Fine gravel 25
Coarse sand 27
Medium sand 28
Fine sand 23
Silt 8
Clay 3
Fine grained sandstone 21
Medium grained sandstone 27
Limestone 14
Dune sand 38
Loess 18
Peat 44
Schist 26
Siltstone 12
Tuff 21
Glacial till - silts 6
Glacial till - sands 16
Glacial till - gravels 16

∂Jx ∂Jy ∂Jz ∂(ρφ) ∂φ ∂ρ
− + + = =ρ +φ (4.99)
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t ∂t ∂t
Or, in volume terms, recognising that J = ρυ and that ρ is independent of location:

∂υx ∂υy ∂υz 1 ∂(ρφ) ∂φ φ ∂ρ
− + + = = + (4.100)
∂x ∂y ∂z ρ ∂t ∂t ρ ∂t
The terms on the RHS of Equation 4.100 represent the fact that to get more water into the already
saturated pore space we can either:
• compress the skeleton - therefore increasing the porosity, or

• compress the water - achieving a higher density.
Neither mechanism looks a likely candidate to allow much increase in storage and in reality the storage
coefficient for a saturated aquifer is many times smaller than the specific yield (Sy ) for an unconfined
aquifer. Clearly, concepts of elasticity are involved.
There has been much debate concerning the significance of the RHS terms in Equation 4.99. The first
hydrogeologist to give the problem attention was Meinzer [1928]. Jacob [1940] gave a mathematical basis
to the analysis and incorporated the compressibility of water into a later analysis in 1950. Terzaghi [1943],
working in the area of soil mechanics, realized the effect of pore water dissipation upon the deformation
of a saturated soil. The process is called consolidation and forms a major plank in soil mechanics theory.
Unfortunately the two streams of scientific endeavour seldom cross and only few workers acknowledge the
similar basis upon which much different terminology has been established De Wiest [1969]. The process is
further complicated by the soil science discipline approaching the same ground from yet another direction!
4.16.2 Specific storage
The concept of Specific Storage (Ss ) was introduced by Jacob [1940]. In effect, the change in mass
in the REV will be proportional to the change of head with time. If the head in the aquifer remains

constant it is reasonable to assume that there is no change in the quantity of water stored in the aquifer.
Mathematically, the proportionality is expressed as:

∂Jx ∂Jy ∂Jz ∂h
− + + ≈ (4.101)
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
The coefficient of proportionality has been called the specific storage Ss Freeze and Cherry [1979].

∂Jx ∂Jy ∂Jz ∂h
− + + = ρSs (4.102)
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
The specific storage is the volume of water released from a unit volume of aquifer for a unit decline in
hydraulic head. The Ss is multiplied by the density to maintain the equation as a mass flux.
Jacob [1940] provided an initial analysis of the specific storage by relating it to elastic properties:
Ss = ρg(βp + φβ) (4.103)
The compressibility of water (β) is approximately 4.6×10−10 (Table 4.2). Typical values of compressibility
of soil and rock (βp ) are given in Table 8.2 Domenico and Schwartz [1990].
Table 4.14: Values of compressibility
Material βp
(m2 /N )
Plastic clay 2.0 × 10−6 to 2.6 × 10−7

Stiff clay 2.6 × 10−7 to 1.3 × 10−7
Medium-hard clay 1.3 × 10−7 to 6.9 × 10−8
Loose sand 1.0 × 10−7 to 5.2 × 10−8
Dense sand 2.0 × 10−7 to 1.3 × 10−8
Dense, sandy gravel 1.0 × 10−8 to 5.2 × 10−9
Jointed rock 6.9 × 10−10 to 3.3 × 10−10
Sound rock < 3.3 × 10−10
Water at 25 ◦ C 4.8 × 10−10
We can then substitute the volume flux for the mass flux on the LHS of Equation 4.101 to give:

∂ρυx ∂ρυy ∂ρυz ∂h
− + + = ρSs (4.104)
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
∂ρ
The LHS of Equation 4.104 can be expanded by the chain rule to give terms of ρ ∂υ ∂x and υ ∂x . As the
x
∂ρ
density is not going to vary significantly with direction, the term υ ∂x can be ignored and we are left with
∂υx
ρ ∂x terms, and similar terms in the other two coordinate directions.
Using Darcy’s law for the υ terms and cancelling out the density (ρ) leaves:

∂ ∂h ∂ ∂h ∂ ∂h ∂h
Kx + Ky + Kz = Ss × (4.105)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂t
If we make the assumption that we are dealing with an isotropic hydraulic conductivity, Equation 4.105
can be further simplified as:
∂ 2 hx ∂ 2 hy ∂ 2 hz Ss ∂h
+ + = × (4.106)
∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z 2 K ∂t
Equation 4.106 can be solved numerically and forms the basis of much groundwater modelling work. The
inverse of the first term on the RHS of Equation 4.106 ( SKs ) is sometimes referred to as the hydraulic
diffusivity. In analysis of vertical movement of water in soil mechanics, this term is also known as the
coefficient of consolidation

Figure 4.34: Example of barometric efficiency in a fractured granite bore
4.17 Barometric efficiency
The storage coefficient of a confined aquifer may be approximated by utilising the barometric efficiency
(BE) of the aquifer. The storage coefficient (also known as the storativity) is defined as the specific
storage times the aquifer thickness (see the Glossary.)
A reduction in barometric pressure results in a rise in groundwater levels. This is clearly seen in
Fig. 4.34 [Acworth and Brain, 2008]. The ratio of the change in groundwater pressure to the change
in atmospheric pressure is called the barometric efficiency.
The barometric efficiency is defined as:

∆h
BE = ρg (4.107)
∆pa
Where:
ρ is the density of water

g is the gravitational acceleration
∆h is the change in potentiometric level due to ∆Pa
∆Pa is the change in atmospheric pressure
The barometric efficiency can be interpreted as a measure of the competence of the overlying confining
beds to resist pressure changes; thick impermeable rigid strata are associated with high barometric
efficiencies, whereas non-rigid confined aquifers will display lower values.
The barometric efficiency of unconfined aquifers is zero, i.e. a change in atmospheric pressure does not
result in a change in water level because the water level in an unconfined aquifer is defined as the level
where the water pressure is the atmospheric pressure.
It can be shown that the barometric efficiency is related to the storage coefficient of an aquifer by the
following equation:
ρgbφ
S= (4.108)
βw BE

Where:
S is storage coefficient
ρ is density of water
b is aquifer thickness
φ is aquifer porosity
BE is Barometric efficiency
βw is the compressibility of water.
Thus, from the barometric efficiency of a confined aquifer, an estimate of its storage coefficient can be
obtained [Timms and Acworth, 2005].
4.18 Tidal efficiency
Just as atmospheric pressure changes produce variations of potentiometric levels, so do tidal fluctuations;
both earth tides and ocean tides. The ocean tides vary the load on confined aquifers extending under the
ocean floor. The earth tides result from varying gravitational forces on the aquifer from both the moon
and the sun. These forces can cause expansion and contraction of the aquifer which result changes in
porosity and accompanying changes in groundwater levels.
Unlike the atmospheric pressure effect, tidal fluctuations are direct; i.e. as the sea level increases, so too
does the ground water level. The ratio of potentiometric level amplitude to tidal amplitude is known as
the tidal efficiency of the aquifer.
Jacob showed that tidal efficiency (TE) is related to barometric efficiency BE by:
T E = 1 − BE (4.109)
Thus, tidal efficiency is a measure of the incompetence of overlying confining beds to resist pressure
changes.
The storage coefficient of an aquifer can be computed from observations of the tidal efficiency by replacing
BE by 1 - TE in Eqn. 4.107.
It has been further shown that the amplitude h of groundwater fluctuation at a distance x from the shore
is given by : √
hx = h0 e−x πS/to T (4.110)
Where:
hx is the amplitude of groundwater fluctuations at distance x from shore

h0 is the amplitude of tidal fluctuations at the shore
x is the distance of the observation bore from the shore
t0 is the tidal period
T is the transmissivity

It has been further shown that the time lag tL of a given maximum or minimum water level in a bore
after high or low tide occurs can be obtained from:
p
tL = x (t0 S/4πT ) (4.111)
If the storage coefficient has been estimated from the tidal efficiency then a value of transmissivity could
also be estimated from Eqn. 4.107.

Chapter 5
Recharge, Discharge and Surface

Water Groundwater Connectivity
Contents
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5.2 Recharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.2.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.2.2 Spatial variability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.2.3 Temporal variability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.2.4 Factors Impacting Recharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.3 Recharge estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
5.3.1 General notes and various definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
5.3.2 Tracer techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
5.3.3 Lysimeters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
5.3.4 Water balance equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5.3.5 Catchment basin studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
5.4 Discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5.4.1 Types of discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5.5 Connectivity of surface water and groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
5.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
5.5.2 Interaction of lakes or wetlands with groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.5.3 Hyporheic zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.5.4 Groundwater discharge to the ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.1 Introduction
In the first decade of the 21st Century, there has been an increasing emphasis on understanding the
connectivity between surface water and groundwater. This is not new understanding, as this connectivity
is implicitly assumed whenever the hydrological cycle is described [Acworth, 2009]. Rather, it is the
increasing realisation that we need to more accurately understand all components of the hydrological
cycle if we are to manage water efficiently.
A related concern has become the accurate measurement of groundwater recharge - as it has been con-
sidered by some juristictions that diversion of water for agriculture should be limited to the quantity of
naturally occurring recharge. This concept has been linked to that of the safe yield of an aquifer. Put
simply, it is the belief that if we do divert/abstract less than the recharge of the aquifer, then the system
132
Chapter 5. Recharge, Discharge and Surface Water Groundwater Connectivity
will not be damaged irreparably. This at first sight seems plausible. However if all the recharge is di-
verted from the aquifer, then the discharge (baseflow) in the aquifer must also decline with the result that
many groundwater dependent ecosystems will also be negatively impacted. The health of groundwater
dependent ecosystems (Chapter 6) is often protected by law, so the accurate measurement of groundwater
discharge is also now required. The specification of recharge, discharge and the interconnected state of
surface water and groundwater are all facets of the same problem; the need to better understand the
hydrological cycle.
In practise, water resource development in the second half of the 19th C occurred during wetter than
average conditions, when there was sufficient water available in surface storages or as groundwater, that
inaccuracy in describing the various components of the hydrological cycle did not matter. With the return
to more normal climatic conditions, combined with further development of agriculture, it has become
necessary to better understand all components of the hydrological cycle so that optimum development
can occur.
The dis-connect between surface water and groundwater has also developed as a result of the subject area
being covered by two different disciplines. Geologists have often described groundwater systems while
engineers have worked to understand surface water hydrology. There have been many university courses
taught where the two disciplines are presented as completely separate entities. It is perhaps not surprising
then, that the interconnectedness has been overlooked, as to a first approximation the magnitude of the
flux (linkage) between the two is significantly less than components of the flux that occur within either
the groundwater or the surface water domains. Water moves relatively quickly through the surface water
domain with flood peaks (even in Australia) passing through river systems in days or weeks. Contrast
this to the very slow movement of groundwater where a speed of 150 m a year is fast!
Groundwater recharge and discharge processes will be described first and then a description of the various
ways in which surface water and groundwater are connected. Understanding these processes enables a
sensible conceptual model of an aquifer system to be developed (Chapter 19) and is therefore an essential
precursor to successful groundwater modelling [Rushton, 2003].
Recharge studies in some parts of Australia have developed somewhat differently from other parts of the
world and important international literature has not been part of the Australian debate, which has, to a
large extent, been dominated by concerns about salinity. The New South Wales Salinity Audit Review
published in 2008 observes that, as water levels are now falling in the vast majority of catchments that
were considered to be at risk of salinity, the causes of salinity are not simply rising water levels caused
by too much recharge beneath cleared natural vegetation, but are more related to climate change. This
chapter of the notes will not cover salinity or dryland salinity as this is covered by Chapter 20.
Groundwater recharge studies have been undertaken for a long time on the unconsolidated sands of the
Gnangara Mound in WA or the coastal sand dune systems of the Tomago aquifer in NSW. However, even
here, there remains significant debate concerning the actual quantity of recharge.
Recharge processes are also manipulated artificially in what used to be called artificial recharge but is
now more commonly referred to as Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR). This important area is covered
in Chapter 24 and will not be described further here.
5.2 Recharge
5.2.1 Definitions
Recharge is loosely defined as the quantity of water that drains down from the surface and reaches the
aquifer leading to an increase in the quantity of water stored in the aquifer and therefore to a rise in the
water level in the aquifer. Recharge differs from infiltration in that: Infiltration is the amount of water
per unit area that enters the soil profile over a given period. If the infiltration capacity of the soil is
greater than the rainfall intensity, then infiltration will be directly related to rainfall intensity. Once in

the soil, water can be lost back to the atmosphere either by direct evaporation, or, more importantly, by
evapotranspiration. The dynamics of this soil plant atmosphere system have been studied in detail and
it can be shown that recharge is directly proportional to the rooting depth of the plant cover and also to
the timing and duration of the rainfall events.
Deep drainage (also known as percolation) is the amount of water per unit area that moves vertically
downwards below the base of the root zone. There may be considerable thicknesses of material below the
soil root zone that are partially saturated by water. The fate of water in this unsaturated zone is often
very difficult to determine. If there is a low permeability layer below the root zone, some of the deep
drainage may move laterally and enter the stream system without entering the aquifer of interest. In a
multiple aquifer system, some of the recharge will occur via leakage from other aquifers.
5.2.2 Spatial variability
The mechanisms by which recharge occurs will vary and hence lead to a number of classifications of
recharge. The simplest divide is between diffuse (or local) and localised (or point) recharge:
Diffuse recharge is the recharge that results from deep drainage and which no significant lateral move-
ment occurs on the spatial scale of interest.
Localised recharge is the recharge that results from streams, lakes, run-off, etc., in which the water
moves laterally to the point where it recharges.
The main difference between these two forms of recharge is that the first occurs over all parts of the
landscape at fairly low rates. Localised recharge is the more obvious form of recharge but occurs over
small areas of the landscape. Although rates of diffuse recharge may be low, because they can cover a
large area they can make up a significant proportion of the overall recharge. Not all diffuse recharge need
occur through the whole of the soil matrix. Fractures, dissolution features, animal burrows, etc can carry
water quickly to the aquifer under saturated or near-saturated conditions. This is called preferential
pathway flow or bypass flow. For many geologies, the importance of this decreases rapidly as the depth
to groundwater increases.
5.2.3 Temporal variability
Recharge is generally not constant in time but varies according to rainfall. In semi-arid and arid areas
recharge is often dominated by infrequent large events (or series of events over a short period of time)
or by flooding (Fig. 3.19 to Fig. 3.27). The recharge contribution from large rainfall events is called
episodic recharge. Episodic recharge contrasts to conditions in less arid areas where there may be con-
tinuous localised recharge (say, from a stream) or regular seasonal recharge (when precipitation exceeds
evapotranspiration for some months each year). For both flood and episodic recharge, there are large
year-to-year variations, with single events, or sequence of events, contributing to a large fraction of the
overall recharge.
Land use is also used to describe the type of recharge. Recharge in dryland, irrigation and urban areas
are respectively called dryland, irrigation and urban recharge. In irrigation areas, recharge can occur
through a number of mechanisms including irrigated agriculture, supply and drainage channels, storage
and re-use basins. The amounts of water in this environment can be much higher than in dryland areas.
In urban areas, sprinklers, leaking pipes and stormwater run-off may contribute to recharge and again
may be much higher than in the surrounding agricultural area.
5.2.4 Factors Impacting Recharge
Many different factors affect recharge [Rushton, 1988, 2003].

1. At the land surface:

• topography
• rainfall: magnitude, intensity, duration and spatial distribution
• runoff, and ponding of water
• cropping patterns, the ratio of actual to potential evapotranspiration.
2. Irrigation:
• nature of irrigation scheduling,
• losses from canals and water courses,
• application to fields, land preparation and loses from fields.
3. Rivers:
• rivers flowing into the study area,
• rivers leaving the study area,
• rivers gaining water from or losing water to the aquifer
4. Soil Zone:
• nature of the soil, depth of soil, and soil hydraulic properties,
• the variability of the soil, both spatially and with depth,
• rooting depth in the soil, and seasonal changes in rooting depth,
• cracking of the soil as it dries out and expansion when it wets.
5. Unsaturated zone between the soil and the aquifer:
• flow mechanisms through the unsaturated zone,
• zones with different hydraulic conductivities,
• hysteresis effects in soil,
6. The aquifer:
• the ability of the aquifer to accept water,
• variation of aquifer condition with time.
Abstraction of ground water will have an impact upon elements of the hydrological cycle. It is often the
case that increased abstraction results in decreased base flow to rivers. The decrease in base flow can
have significant environmental impacts. Increased abstraction may also result in reduced water levels
and reduced evapotranspiration as shallow rooting vegetation dies.
Recharge normally occurs when there is an excess of rainfall over evapotranspiration and the soil is
saturated. The excess rainfall infiltrates below the soil and passes down through the unsaturated zone to
the water table.
5.3 Recharge estimates
There are a range of techniques used for estimating recharge. Broadly speaking, these are divided into
five categories, with a number of techniques and variations within each category:
Groundwater hydrograph methods These methods infer recharge from the groundwater response to
rainfall. In general, water tables need to be shallow and hydrogeological parameters, most notably
specific yield, are required as input. Comparison between different land uses is possible with a well
set-up piezometer network and monitoring the difference over a number of years. A transect of
piezometers can be used to infer longer term recharge to the system.

Soil tracer methods - these provide point estimates of mean annual drainage. In general, water tables
need to be deep. Comparison between different land uses is possible provided there are long term
land management practices in adjacent areas. Possible soil tracers include artificially applied tracers
(e.g. bromide, tritium), tracers from historical events (e.g. tritium, chlorine-36 from fallout from
nuclear tests) and natural tracers such as chloride and stable isotopes of water. The type of tracer
to be used depends mainly on the recharge rates with artificial tracers being useful at rates of >
100 mm/year, bomb tracers at rates greater than 10 mm/yr and chloride over the range.
Soil physical techniques - This includes a wide range of techniques such as lysimeters, neutron mois-
ture meters, zero flux method, and hydraulic gradient methods. At high recharge rates, lysimeters
are perhaps the most reliable technique and while having been used in semi-arid and arid en-
vironments is difficult for these climates. Neutron moisture methods are used as part of a water
balance technique, including meteorological station and modelling. The other techniques are largely
impractical.
Groundwater tracer methods - These can be used to infer mean annual recharge to the groundwater
system, as a whole, or parts of the aquifer. The type of tracer depends on the mean residence time
of the aquifer, i.e. the recharge rate. Possible tracers include carbon 14, CFCs and tritium. These
should be part of a whole groundwater study that includes hydrogeological investigations and full
hydrochemical analyses.
Modelling techniques - Modelling generally augments other techniques and must not be used by itself
to estimate recharge. Simply, there are too many parameters to fiddle. In some cases, there may
be enough previous measurements to constrain the modelling. Modelling techniques are also widely
varied including water balance modelling, crop modelling and groundwater modelling.
5.3.1 General notes and various definitions
Recharge to Confined aquifers
As a confined aquifer is fully saturated with a pressure surface that is above the top of the aquifer
(by definition) it is clearly impossible to recharge a confined aquifer by downward drainage of rainfall
infiltation. The only way in which a confined aquifer can be recharged is by lateral movement fom parts
of the aquifer where unconfined conditions exist. This situation is shown clearly in Fig. 4.2.
Time lags
If the groundwater response to rainfall is not quick, then hydrograph techniques become more difficult. An
example of this is in the Mallee Region of SE Australia, where the increased recharge due to clearance of
native vegetation for agriculture may take 50 years to reach the water table. In such cases, soil techniques
need to be used. Even in less extreme cases, delays in wetting fronts moving through the vadose zone
causes hydrographs to be muted.
Another important time lag is the time required for tracers to move through the groundwater system.
The mean residence time for aquifers can range from hundreds of years to millions. Hence, groundwater
tracers are often more relevant to estimating paleo recharge, rather than current recharge.
Magnitude of recharge and depth to water
It is unfortunate that one needs to know the answer before working out the way to determine it. But
this is the case! Some soil techniques such as lysimeters work well in high rainfall country. Artificial
tracers still require high fluxes of water to give credible answers (recharge rates 100 mm/yr). Natural
and ’bomb’ tracers can provide estimates of recharge for much lower recharge rates as found in semi-arid
and sub-humid climates. Soil techniques often do not work in shallow water table situations.

Groundwater hydrograph techniques require either shallow water table conditions or high recharge rates.
While some groundwater tracers, such as CFCs need both.
Modelling techniques
A number of computer models have been developed for plot-scale recharge (e.g. AgET, WAVES, APSIM)
and simulating groundwater response to recharge. For the former, soil and plant processes are simulated
in response to climate. In some cases, these may be treated simply as a ’tipping bucket’ or in some, to a
fair degree of complexity. As with most modelling efforts, the confidence in the outputs is directly related
to the data with which one can calibrate the models.
Costs and facilities
The techniques vary widely in ease of use. In most cases, the major cost is in drilling of boreholes, and
analyses costs are a minor addition to this. For water balance studies, frequent visits to the field may
be required which may be expensive in terms of time and labour. Most techniques require a degree of
expertise to interpret, especially since this needs to be done in the context of a holistic understanding
the catchment and the groundwater system. Specialist laboratories will be required for the chemical and
isotope techniques. In summary, most techniques are specialist and not to be underestimated in their
difficulty and cost.
Predictive capability
As with most scientific areas, a predictive capability first requires a good understanding of the processes
and inherent time lags. Techniques that measure trends are only suitable while no further stresses are
experienced or changes in processes occur. Hydrograph techniques fall into this category and generally
so do groundwater tracers. Soil tracers and modelling are useful for longer-term predictions.
5.3.2 Tracer techniques
The detonation of atomic bombs during the 1950’s produced enhanced levels of tritium 3 H in the atmo-
sphere. The tritium is radioactively unstable and decays in a predictable manner. It has a half-life of
12.3 years. The concentration of tritium relative to hydrogen is small and is measured in terms of tritium
units (TU). A TU is equivalent to 1 atom of tritium per 1018 atoms of hydrogen.
A peak of approximately 500 TU occurred during 1963-64. Prior to the start of testing, the natural
background TU was 5 to 10 units. Several authors have reviewed this technique [Allison and Hughes,
1975] but Stewart and Morgenstern [2001] provide an up to date account prepared by one of the best
isotope laboratories world wide.
By measuring the amount of tritium in groundwater it is possible to determine an approximate age of the
water relative to the atomic testing programme. Measurements of tritium are made in local rainwater
to establish a background level. Values of tritium greater than this indicate rainwater which has fallen
since the 1950’s. Low values of tritium indicate water which has been recharged before the 1950’s.
Tritium decays spontaneously. If there are no further detonations, then use of this technique based upon
bomb-pulse tritium will soon become unusable as the level of tritium in water will not be significantly
different from pre-bomb pulse water. However, as the accuracy of detection techniques has improved,
there is now the possibility of using cosmogenically produced tritium in a similar way. In effect, if there
is any tritium in the ground water, then it is evidence of more recent recharge, as natural decay reduces
the tritium concentration from the already low levels in rainfall to close to zero.

Figure 5.1: Unsaturated zone chloride profiles prior to clearing (a) and post clearing (b and c)
The presence of chloride in the soil has also been taken as an indicator of recharge conditions. This
approach is particularly valid where extensive vegetation cover is cleared for agriculture. It is argued, that
before clearing, chloride builds up beneath the root zone due to anion exclusion during transpiration. The
vegetation cover transpires all the available moisture with no downward leaching. When the vegetation
is cleared, rainfall leaches downward removing the chloride which can be detected as a pulse in the soil
on the way down to the water table. For this method to be used successfully it is assumed that the soil
profile is uniform and that there are no other sources of chloride.
The method has been used successfully on the Australian Mallee where sandy soils are covered by deep
rooted natural vegetation. The climate is semi-arid and the vegetation arguably uses all the available
rainfall with no deep recharge. Clearing of this deep-rooted vegetation for cultivation of cereal crops
allows rain to infiltrate during wet periods. The vegetation is no longer present to use the moisture and
deep drainage occurs with chloride leaching as the recharge pulse moves downward. The measurement
of chloride profiles over a period of years following clearing indicates a slow downward movement of the
chloride bulge. This is shown in Figure 5.1.
Geophysical techniques have been used to detect changes in the bulk electrical conductivity of the soil
profile which are interpreted to represent changes in the chloride content. Thus, a low bulk EC represents
a recharge zone, whereas a high bulk EC represents stable chloride and no downward leaching. The
presence of high chloride levels beneath some forest supports this model and has been instrumental in
development of the dryland salinity paradigm.
5.3.3 Lysimeters
Lysimeters are an attempt to quantify the recharge physically by isolating a representative element of the
soil and determining the deep drainage (percolation) which occurs. A sketch showing typical lysimeter
designs is shown in Figs. 5.2 [Lerner et al., 1990].
The lysimeter approach is clearly expensive. The construction of a lysimeter such that it is truly rep-
resentative of the local conditions is also a problem. They are most successful when used to estimate

Figure 5.2: Lysimeter designs

Figure 5.3: Schematic showing design of the mini-suction lysimeter
drainage beneath a crop where the soil conditions can be prepared uniformly and the crop planted on the
lysimeter to represent the local area around the site. Calculation of recharge beneath natural vegetation
is a problem in as much as preparation of a lysimeter badly disturbs the ground.
There has been recent success in the construction of mini-lysimeters by the Queensland DPI (Des Mc-
Garry, pers comm) to detect drainage below the root zone of irrigated crops. Fig. 5.3 shows a schematic
of the mini-lysimeter design. These devices can be used to quantify deep drainage. They are installed
beneath the crop rooting zone at between 1.2 and 1.5 m depth. Fig.5.4 shows a soil core with the vacuum
equipment fitted at the base so that a constant suction of approximately 150 mm can be applied. Fig. 5.5
shows the installation in a trench. The suction is maintained through nylon tube running back to a base
station where deep drainage water is measured using a tipping bucket gauge and collected for analysis.
A constant suction of 1500 mm is applied through the nylon lines to the wicks installed at the base of the
soil core.
5.3.4 Water balance equations
A general equation describing the water balance at the soil surface can be expressed as:
P + I − R = ET + D + ∆W (5.1)
where:
P is precipitation - including snow, frost and dew,

I is applied irrigation water,
R is surface run-off,

Figure 5.4: Soil suction ’trident’ installed in silica at the base of the soil ped Photo D. McG
Figure 5.5: Soil plugs placed back on top of the lysimeter block and channel laid for suction line at 120 cm
depth Photo D. McG

Figure 5.6: Typical savanna catchment area (Photo Figure 5.7: Granite inselberg in Northern Nigeria
RIA) (Photo RIA)
ET is evapotranspiration,
D is deep drainage or groundwater recharge, and
∆W is the change in soil moisture stored in the soil profile.
Each of the terms on Equation 5.1 represents flows or changes over a given time period. The drainage
term may be either positive or negative depending upon the hydraulic gradient in the soil beneath the
surface.
Infiltration occurs wherever there is a positive change to ∆W . In practice it is possible to get reasonable
measurements of P , I, R and ∆W . It is very difficult to measure ET or D. Imprecise estimates of these
two quantities often lead to misleading conclusions concerning the water balance. For example, if ET
is overestimated and the other quantities are well known, then deep drainage is often neglected. This
has led in the past to the conclusion that groundwater recharge hardly ever occurs in a semi-arid or arid
environment. This is incorrect, it is just episodic!
5.3.5 Catchment basin studies
There have been many paired catchment experiments where two similar catchments have been instru-
mented before some change in vegetation (often logging) occurs in one catchment. The various compo-
nents of the water balance change in response to the vegetation change. The CSIRO carried out detailed
work in Western Australia as a part of salinity investigations in the 1980’s. Another detailed study was
carried out in Northern Nigeria [Kowal and Kassam, 1978].
Samaru - Northern Nigeria
Kowal and Knabbe instrumented a small catchment on crystalline basement rocks on the campus of
Ahmadu Bello University at Samaru, close to Kaduna in Northern Nigeria. A similar area is shown in
Figure 5.6 and 5.7.
Rainfall in the savanna lands occurs as intense summer storms which last from May to September. At
the height of the rains there is an excess of water everywhere, but within a couple of months of the end of
the rains the soil has dried, crops harvested and the climate is dominated by dry winds blowing from the
Sahara Desert. Ground water recharge occurs in the wet period, but the amount of recharge is very much
a function of the rainfall intensity and duration. To obtain a better understanding of the operation of
the catchment water balance, Kowal and colleagues instrumented a small catchment. The water budget
was estimated from Equation 5.2, modified slightly from Equation 5.1. The catchment had a small water
supply dam with a spill way. The dam overflowed during the wet season and the discharge was carefully

monitored at the spill way.

P − Q − ∆W = ETa (5.2)
where:
P is total rainfall measured over the catchment basin of 607 ha,

Q is the total run off measured at the spill way, comprising surface run off and seepage draining into the
lake,
∆W changes in soil moisture were eliminated by making calculations over a complete water year. This
was clearly identified by the rise in the dry season water table which occurs when the soil moisture
deficit has been eliminated.
ETa was estimated by difference.
The water level in a series of piezometers was monitored to determine groundwater level changes.
The magnitude of the water budget components over a six year period is shown in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Water balance study for the Samaru catchment basin
Water year 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971
Duration (days) 377 350 371 390 330 360

Rainfall (mm) 1382 990 998 1196 884 775
Wet season duration (days) 190 191 169 209 143 129
Rain days 95 83 77 88 77 70
Date of rise in dry season water table 11/7 15/7 27/7 29/6 30/7 31/7
Cumulative rainfall (CP) before rise 506 419 516 381 460 391
Start of flow over spill way 11/8 17/7 15/8 25/7 25/8 26/8
Duration of flow over spill way (days) 124 118 62 113 56 54
Total spill-way discharge (mm) 429 239 130 450 275 257
Lake deficit (mm) 30 30 30 30 30 30
Total run-off and seepage (Q) 459 269 160 480 305 287
Run off (mm) 259 168 8 180 81 49
Seepage (recharge) (mm) 200 101 152 300 224 238
ETa (mm) 923 721 838 716 599 488
ETa - CP 417 302 322 335 119 97
The average value of ETa was 712 mm or about half the annual potential evaporation. The average value
of actual evapotranspiration during the wet season was 4.1 mm/day.
It is very important to note that while the total rainfall is an influence on the quantity of recharge, it is
useless as a predictor of recharge. The total rainfall vs recharge is plotted in Fig 5.8, where it is shown
that for this small data set there is only a correlation of 0.01! Wildly inaccurate results will be obtained
if recharge is assumed to be a simple linear function of rainfall. There are clearly other complicating
factors such as the grouping of rain periods.
Howard River, Northern Territory
Cook et al. [1998] reported a detailed study of the water balance for the Howard River that can be
compared with the earlier work in Nigeria as the climate is a similar tropical savannah. Samaru is at a
latitude of approximately 10.5 degrees north while Howard River is at 12 degrees south. The location of
the Howard River study is given in Fig. 5.9.

Figure 5.8: Relationship between annual rainfall and recharge at Samaru
The Howard River study area is approximately 30 km southeast of Darwin. The catchment area for the
gauged section of the river is 126km2 , with very low relief varying from 40 mAHD in the south to sea
level in the north. Drainage is poorly defined with a number of seasonal lagoons. The major aquifer
in the study area occurs in the Coomalie Dolomite, with greatest yields obtained from an upper unit
where solution cavities exist. This aquifer is at depth beneath weathered Bathhurst Island Formation
comprising interbedded mudstone, siltstone and sandstone.
The region has monsoon rains between November and March, followed by up to seven months of little
or no rainfall. Annual rainfall at Darwin averaged 1723 mm and ranged between 1200 and 2700 mm.
Pan evaporation for the region is approximately 3,000 mm/year. Wet season runoff ranges between 33%
of rainfall in average years to 48% in wet years, with monthly vales up to 80% [Cook et al., 1998].
Vegetation is dominated by open eucalypt woodland with small inclusions of paperbark. Understory
vegetation consists of speargrass, which dies shortly after the wet season ends.
In contrast to the earlier Nigerian study, Cook et al. [1998] established the various fluxes in the water
balance using advanced micro-meterological equipment. A 2500 m2 study plot was established near to a
nest of piezometers and very detailed dry and wet season measurements taken. Total evaporation from
the woodland was measured using the eddy flux correlation method. Sap flow was measured using heat
flow techniques to estimate the transpiration from the trees [Hatton et al., 1990]. This study included
one of the early uses of CFC’s to date groundwater.
Seasonal variation in groundwater level approached almost 13 m. Soil cores in the unsaturated zone
were recovered with wire-line core recovery equipment to a maximum depth of 9.5 m. Calculation of the
available water in the soil profile was carried out using laboratory measurements of water available at
different suctions. Critically, it was realised that the laboratory data required correction for overburden
pressures in the swelling clay soils that have developed. Fig. 5.10 shows profiles of volumetric water
content at the site [Cook et al., 1998].

Figure 5.9: Location map for the Howard River study

Figure 5.10: In situ moisture profiles for a uniform swelling clay soil calculated for a water table depth
at 9 m
The water deficit at the end of the dry season was estimated to be between 400 and 500 mm. However,
most of the moisture loss (250 - 400 mm) is required to return the soil profile to field capacity with only
a further 100 to 150 mm available to raise the water table. The average water table seasonal variation is
7 m so this implies a low specific yield for these soils of between 0.01 and 0.02.
Detailed measurement and simple water-balance modelling indicated that evapotranspiration in the wet
season was 810 mm (373 mm as transpiration by over storey trees) and 300 mm of evapotranspiration in
the dry season (175 mm transpiration by over storey trees). This gives an annual evapotranspiration rate
of 1110 mm. A summary of the water balance under the eucalypt savanna is presented in Table 5.2 and
a graphical indication of the water balance is shown in Fig 5.11.
Water balance model studies
The approach of estimating the potential evaporation then using moisture availability to correct the
value has worked well in many areas for predicting crop water requirements. The FAO have published
detailed recommendations for this analysis Allen et al. [1998]. Vardavas [1988] used a simple daily water
balance to predict run-off in the Magela Creek catchment close to Darwin that was later used to support
studies by Cook et al. [1998]. In the absence of detailed micro-meterological measurements, there is
little alternative but to employ a water balance method. The challenge is to determine what level of
approximation is appropriate, as the results of the analysis will be incorporated into water management
plans as will be seen in Chapter 25.
The issue is to understand the relationship between rainfall and recharge. Rainfall is readily available at
a network of measuring stations or can be established by relatively simple surface logging equipment. The
rainfall record is also the longest running set of climate data available. Deviation from average rainfall
must have an impact upon recharge, that in turn, must impact on groundwater levels. This important

Table 5.2: Groundwater balance at the Howard River Site

Wet Season Dry Season Annual Method
(Nov - April) (May - Oct)
A Rainfall 1585 135 1720 Rainfall gauging
B Evapotranspiration 810 300 1110 Eddy correlation,
heat pulse
C Runoff 570 20 590 Stream gauging
D Change in soil or +205 -185 +20 A-B-C
groundwater stor-
age
E Groundwater - - 200 Groundwater dat-
recharge ing
F Groundwater (+160) (+20) +180 E-D
recharge that
becomes baseflow
G Total change in soil +365 -165 +200 D+F
and groundwater
storage
Figure 5.11: Schematic representation of the annual water balance in the Howard River Basin

Figure 5.12: Water balance model at Bauchi, Northern Nigeria - Initial SMD 50 mm
point will be returned to in Chapter 20.
Ideally, if the climatic data and the soil characteristics are known, then it should be possible to calculate
the actual evapotranspiration directly and to use this in water balance studies. The resistance term rs
in the Penman-Monteith Equation [Allen et al., 1998] is a measure of the resistance to moisture flow
from the water table to the evaporating surface on the leaf. It is directly related to the unsaturated zone
hydraulic conductivity, which, as we have seen, is a function of the soil matric potential, and decreases as
soil moisture decreases. It should be possible therefore to relate the rs term to the soil moisture deficit
calculated using the water balance. This is the ’one-step’ approach favoured by the FAO.
The results of an approach along these lines is shown in Figure 5.12 Acworth [1981]. Data in Figure 5.12
have been calculated for a soil moisture resource of 50 mm, the equivalent of a short grass crop. Figure 5.13
shows the same calculations but for a soil resource of 250 mm - the equivalent of deep rooted natural
vegetation. The significance of human induced vegetation change on the hydrological cycle is clear.
The results from eight years of data analysed daily are presented in Table 5.3. The data in Table 5.3
indicates the variability of components in the water balance equation and the dependence on rainfall
distribution. Note particularly the data for 1970 and 1972. The rainfall in 1970 occurred in a number
of major storms rather than spread out over several wet periods. The result is that the soil system was
rapidly filled allowing recharge to occur rather than leaving the water in the soil zone to be available for
evapotranspiration. The major characteristics of the system are very similar in timing to those observed
at Samaru (Table 5.1). This is evidence that the method adopted in the water balance modelling is
reasonable.
The predicted recharge vs observed rainfall is shown in Fig. 5.14. The correlation coefficient of 0.8
indicates a sensible linear trend. However, the variability is still of major consequence if the results are
used to estimate safe yield!

Figure 5.13: Water balance model at Bauchi, Northern Nigeria - Initial SMD 250 mm
Table 5.3: Variability of recharge derived from water balance studies at Bauchi, 10 degrees north
Year 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1978 1979
Rainfall 1067 946 1102 929 739 1154 1182 991

No of rain days 80 67 60 68 61 93 92 83
Cummulative rainfall before rise 300 282 296 419 316 329 211 319
Day number of rise 188 198 190 202 195 185 16 193
Day number of seepage start 206 208 196 223 251 204 178 200
Day number of seepage end 326 322 326 295 285 319 306 306
Runoff 5 92 149 33 0 132 174 0
Base flow 217 207 276 118 15 247 263 162
ETa 848 655 682 801 742 767 755 837
Recharge 330 398 524 245 111 481 536 263
Length of growing season 138 120 112 124 124 123 134 131
Day number C value (80) reached 297 284 278 265 280 293 304 287
Day number D value (100) reached 348 331 318 316 313 327 343 318

Figure 5.14: Recharge vs rainfall plot for Bauchi Model data
5.4 Discharge
5.4.1 Types of discharge
Groundwater discharge is the loss of water from the aquifer of interest over a given period. Groundwater
Dependent Ecosystems exist where groundwater discharge occurs and are discussed in a later chapter.
Passive discharge of groundwater occurs where phreatophytic vegetation directly abstacts groundwater
through deep root systems. The quantity of water removed may be sufficient to halt active (spring or
base flow) discharge.
Groundwater discharge can occur by a number of means:
• discharge to the ocean, a stream or another aquifer,
• discharge to vegetation that uses the water to transpire. Such systems are often important ground-
water dependent ecosystems (Chapter 6).
• point discharge as a spring,
• discharge to a lake or wetland, or
• through groundwater abstraction by pumping.
The most readily observed groundwater discharge occurs as spring flow. A spring is a point where
groundwater flows out of the ground, and is thus where the aquifer surface meets the ground surface.
Dependent upon the constancy of the water source (rainfall or snowmelt that infiltrates the earth), a
spring may be ephemeral (intermittent) or perennial (continuous).

Figure 5.15: Every spring has a spirit to look after it in some parts of the world (Photo RIA)
Ocean Discharge
The quantity of discharge to the ocean is extremely difficult to establish. Wherever limestones aquifers
exist adjacent to the sea, this discharge will be very large. It is readily possible to detect groundwater
discharge to the ocean by the use of thermal imagery.
Springs
Springs have played a major role in the settlement of many lands and were probably instrumental in
the change from a hunter-gatherer society to an arable based society some 5000 years ago as the climate
became drier. Springs even become the subject of religious attention as shown in Fig. refspring1:fig.
Currently, there is much on going debate as to what constitutes spring water. Springs occur when
groundwater is caused to discharge at ground level. The bottled water industry labels their water as
spring water. In practise, many sites where water is taken for bottling are sites in which the chemical
quality of groundwater is good. Abstraction boreholes in the aquifer allow the water to be abstracted
before it flows to the surface as a spring. Fetter [2001] gives six examples of geological or hydrogeological
conditions which can give rise to a spring. These are shown in Figure 5.16.
5.5 Connectivity of surface water and groundwater
5.5.1 Introduction
Winter et al. [1998] from the U.S. Geological Survey published a seminal volume ”Ground Water and
Surface Water: A Single Resource”.
It can be down loaded as a .pdf file from http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/circ1139/pdf/front.pdf.

Figure 5.16: Types of Spring

Figure 5.17: A gaining stream Figure 5.18: Losing stream
Base flow
Streams in catchments overlying aquifers will be continuously fed with base flow from the aquifer, as long
as the hydraulic head in the aquifer is above the stream bed (Fig. 5.17). These streams are known as
gaining streams. The quantity of base flow will depend upon the hydraulic gradient between the aquifer
and the stream [Winter et al., 1998].
In a gaining stream, the water table slopes towards the stream so that there is a hydraulic gradient
towards the stream. Conversely, in a losing stream, the water table slopes away from the stream. A
stream which is normally a gaining stream may temporarily become a losing stream during a flood. The
water that moves into the aquifer is refereed to as bank storage by hydrologists. This water returns to
the stream after the flood peak has passed and the hydraulic gradient returns to its normal configuration.
Fig. 5.18 shows a losing stream.
Groundwater abstraction close to a river may reverse the normal hydraulic gradient creating a recharge
boundary for the aquifer. Water then flows continuously from the stream to the aquifer and towards the
abstraction bore. This effect is often utilised to filter river water using the channel bank sands, prior to
abstraction. An example of an installation of this type is given by Grischek et al. [1996] in Figure 5.19.
The River Elbe flows over Quaternary deposits consisting mostly of glacial gravels and coarse sands up
to 15m in thickness. Pumping from abstraction bores on the banks induces recharge from the river to
the aquifer.
There maybe more substantial flow into the beds of rivers from groundwater discharge or the springflow
is so large that it forms a stream straight away. The major springs associated with basalts aroun Rotorua

Figure 5.19: River bank abstraction from the Elbe River, Germany
in New Zealand come into this category, as shown in Fig 5.20.
The type of rock in the catchment will have a major impact upon the base flow response in a stream. If
rocks have little porosity and low storage, then the response to rainfall in the stream will be very spikey.
By contrast, rain falling on a limestone aquifer rapidly infiltrates and even major storms will have a very
subdued response in the streams which will continue to discharge water from storage. Data from Zambia
illustrates this difference in response. In Fig 5.21 the hydrographs from a limestone dominated catchment
and a basement dominated catchment are shown. The catchments are adjacent to each other outside
Lusaka.
5.5.2 Interaction of lakes or wetlands with groundwater
When lakes and wetlands occur in sands and gravels, they will be inextricably linked to the groundwater
system. The Lachlan Swamps or the ponds in Centennial Park provide good examples in the Botany
Sands Aquifer (Fig 5.22) where flow through the Botany Aquifer in Centennial Park is shown to be
directly related to the presence of ponds. Townley and Trefry [2000] gave a detailed assessment of the 3D
head distribution around lakes that can be used to better understand the movement of groundwater into,
through or from lakes. These authors carried out extensive work on the Swan Coastal Plain. Acworth
and Jorstadt [2006] introduced multi-channel manometry techniques for mapping the curvature of flow
lines close to lakes. This equipment is shown in Fig 5.23 and head profiles are presented in Acworth
[2007].
Fetter [2001] provides an indication of the possible relationship between streams, lakes and groundwater
in Figure 5.24.
Wherever groundwater flow directs water close to the surface (Fig 5.25), wetlands are likely.
Winter et al. [1998] give further examples shown in Figs 5.26 and 5.27. As shown

Figure 5.20: Major spring flow through the base of the stream emmanating from volcanic rocks around
Rotorua in New Zealand (Photo RIA)
Figure 5.21: Difference in run-off between a limestone dominated catchment and a basement dominated
catchment

Figure 5.22: Water level in lakes and bores in Centennial Park, Sydney (Photo RIA)
Figure 5.23: Multi-channel manometer board in use to measure vertical head differences

Figure 5.24: Interactions between streams, lakes and groundwater
Figure 5.25: Complex flow systems established under variable topography

Figure 5.26: Discharge at the break in slope Figure 5.27: Gaining stream
Figure 5.28: Schematic of a pool and ripple sys- Figure 5.29: Pool and riffle system in Colorado
tem
5.5.3 Hyporheic zone
Some gaining streams have reaches that lose water to the aquifer under normal conditions of stream
flow [Winter et al., 1998]. This local recycling of water is considered to be very important in cycling
nutrients from the ground into the stream system. The zone of interchange, which occurs vertically in a
pool and riffle system (Fig. 5.28 and Fig 5.29), or horizontally in a meander loop (Fig 5.30), is called the
hyporheic zone.
5.5.4 Groundwater discharge to the ocean
Introduction
One of the most complex zones where groundwater mixes with surface water, is at the beach. The USGS
Circular 1262 by Barlow [2003] is an excellent summary and can be down loaded from the web at
http://water.usgs.gov/ogw/gwrp/saltwater/index.html.
Fig. 5.31 gives a typical representation of the groundwater seawater interface zone drawn for the Atlantic
margin in the USA, but could equally represent any beach zone adjacent to a non-destructive plate
margin. The east and west coasts of Australia fall in this category.
Historical records of freshwater springs are evident as far back as 60 BC with recorded details of utilisation
and collection by separate colonies for land and ship uses. The Roman geographer, Strabo (63 BC - 21 AD)
recorded a fresh submarine groundwater spring near the island of Aradus (four kilometres from Latakia,
Syria, located in the Mediterranean), this water was collected by boat, using a lead funnel and leather

Figure 5.30: Meander belt
Figure 5.31: Typical groundwater interface with sea water at a passive plate margin beach

tube, and transported to the city as a source of freshwater [SCOR - LOICZ, 2004]. Water vendors in
Bahrain collected potable water from offshore submarine springs for shipboard and land use [Taniguchi
et al., 2002] The open structures of weathered limestone carbonates located along the coastal regions of
the Mediterranean, Persian Gulf, Black Sea and Red Sea are the host of submarine rivers with upwelling
offshore plumes where ancient mariners are believed to have restocked their freshwater supplies. Piing
the Elder (lst Century AD) recorded submarine ”springs bubbling fresh water as if from pipes” along
the Black Sea, and writings by Pausanius (2nd Century A.D.) tells of the citizens of Etruscan using
the coastal springs for ’hot baths’ SCOR - LOICZ [2004], Taniguchi et al. [2002]. The idea of fresh
underground springs is not a new concept, as the historical evidence shows us it is a remarkably old
phenomenon. However, it is only in the last couple of decades that the concept has earned increased
attention as the understanding that this process may represent a potentially important role in coastal
and freshwater management.
Confined or artesian aquifers are common off many coasts, and have been reported to outcrop from the
ocean floor at any depth, and any distance from the shore (recorded as far as 120 km offshore). The
Atlantic Margin Coring Project in 1979 revealed, ”relatively fresh groundwater occurs beneath much of
the Atlantic ocean shelf” [Johannes, 1980]. Off the coast of Western Australia, an artesian aquifer was
struck 6 m below the sea floor in 20 m of water [Johannes, 1980]; and offshore from Jacksonville, Florida,
a geologic exploratory well 43 km from land struck an artesian aquifer that flowed up the drill pipe and
had a hydrostatic head of 9 m above sea level [SCOR - LOICZ, 2004]. The variability in the factors
concerning SGDs: confined or unconfined; channelled or permeable sediment; seeping or flowing; tidal
oscillations or hydraulic heads; and, precipitation or urbanisation run-off are just some of the questions
defining the parameters of the SGD that need more detailed research before any management decisions
can be decided.
The occurrence of fresh water beneath the ocean is another indication that sea levels around the world
have been on average much lower than they are currently. When the sea level is lower, recharge and
discharge processes are also impacted. The rapid rise in global sea level that occurred approximately
13,000 to 11,000 years ago will have swamped coastal groundwater systems generated in the previous
50,000 years. As groundwater moves o slowly, it is not surprising that we still see off shore springs.
The dynamics of the tides and waves at the beach directly impact the discharging groundwater Turner
et al. [1996], Acworth and Dasey [2003] with groundwater being set up at an elevation close to the mean
high tide mark. This observation has a major implication for models of groundwater flow that use the
beach as a constant-head boundary.
Many possible configurations of fresh water and groundwater are possible. The controlling factor will
be the variation in hydraulic conductivity of the sediments. Fig 5.32 shows relationships in the Florida
aquifers [Barlow, 2003].
On a beach scale, there are many important processes that are under investigation [Taniguchi, 2002,
Moore, 1999, Hays and Ullman, 2007], with the chemical implications of mixing proving particularly
interesting. There is now a suspicion that groundwater flux to the oceans is a major source of contaminant
and nutrients. Fig 5.33 shows the dependence of vegetation on the beach to different salinity water. There
area also major implications for the biota.

Figure 5.32: Multiple interfaces between fresh groundwater and sea water in Florida
Figure 5.33: Beachface dynamics

Chapter 6
Groundwater Ecosystems
Contents
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
6.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
6.3 Groundwater dependent ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
6.3.1 Aquifer and cave systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
6.3.2 Ecosystems dependent on the surface expression of groundwater . . . . . . . . 166
6.3.3 All vegetation dependent upon the subsurface presence of groundwater . . . . . 166
6.4 Hydrogeological framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
6.4.1 Local vs regional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
6.5 Determining groundwater dependence of ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
6.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
6.6 Identification of different ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
6.6.1 Ecosystems certainly and entirely dependent on groundwater . . . . . . . . . . 172
6.6.2 Ecosystems highly dependent on groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
6.6.3 Ecosystems with proportional dependence on groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
6.6.4 Ecosystems which may only use Groundwater opportunistically or to a very
limited extent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
6.6.5 Ecosystems with no apparent dependency on groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
6.7 Case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
6.7.1 Groundwater resource development in a tropical savanna . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
6.7.2 Groundwater resource development in a temperate woodland . . . . . . . . . . 176
6.7.3 Management of lakes on the Swan Coastal Plain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
6.7.4 Groundwater resource development in the arid zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
6.1 Introduction
The recent references by Hancock et al. [2005] and Eamus et al. [2006] provides a good summary of
groundwater dependent ecosystems (GDEs). The importance of GDEs has only recently been appreciated
¯
¯ the ecological ¯
by community. From a groundwater resource perspective, the concept and importance of
base flows and spring discharge to rivers or the ocean has always been acknowledged [Freeze and Cherry,
1979]. Fig. 6.1 shows a permanent groundwater fed pool in the McDonald Ranges west of Alice Springs
in the Northern Territory. Groundwater seeps from the Mereenie Sandstone to balance losses from the
pool by direct evaporation from the pool surface and evapotranspiration by the associated vegetation.
Fig. 6.2 shows a semi-permanent stretch of Maules Creek upstream of its confluence with the Namoi
River in Northern New South Wales. Shallow groundwater commences discharging at the surface from
162
Chapter 6. Groundwater Ecosystems
Figure 6.1: Seepage from the Mereenie Sandstone Figure 6.2: Semi-permanent discharge from an
in the West MacDonald Ranges west of Alice alluvial aquifer supports flow in a tributary of the
Springs support this permanent pool of water in Namoi River in northern New South Wales (Photo
RIA)
an otherwise arid region (Photo RIA)
deep pools in the river bed alluvium less than 300 m upstream from the location shown in the Figure.
Flow continues along the stream channel for 10 kms before it disappears back below the alluvium surface.
The stream provides an important source of very clean cool groundwater for many months after a major
recharge event and supports various endemic species.
6.2 Definitions
What is a Groundwater Dependent Ecosystem? Eamus et al. [2006] provide the following definition:
An ecosystem can be defined as a set of living organisms that interact with themselves and with their
environment at a given site Eamus et al. [2006]. An ecosystem will seldom have any clearly defined
boundary.
In semi-arid and arid environments, ecosystems are almost entirely dependent upon the presence of
groundwater. This is why our ancestors initially settled around springs! In humid environments, the
dependency is somewhat less but may still be significant.
Eamus et al. [2006] define three simple classes of GDE. These are:
1. Aquifer and cave systems.

2. Ecosystems dependent on the surface expression of groundwater.
3. All vegetation dependent upon the subsurface presence of groundwater.
While noting that classifications such as those suggested by Eamus et al. [2006] are necessary to further
discussion, it will be accepted that the differences between 2 and 3 above are frequently unclear. How do
we classify ecosystems supported by variable groundwater depths. What do we mean by groundwater?
Does this comprise only water below the depth of permanent saturation? What about zones that are
periodically saturated with groundwater? Are these aquifers, etc. etc. etc?
This uncertainty leads to a further sub-classification:
obligate dependency - In species with obligate dependency, the absence of groundwater results in
the loss of the species. The fish in Fig. 6.4 show obligate dependency. If the spring failed, the fish
would be wiped out.

Figure 6.3: karst development in Mesozoic Lime- Figure 6.4: Small endemic communities of fish
stone from the Yemen (Photo RIA) living in the spring (Photo RIA)
facultative dependency - Species showing faculative dependency will use groundwater or surface wa-
ter when they are available. As groundwater is more stable that surface water, it is the presence of
groundwater that supports vegetation throughout long drought periods.
6.3 Groundwater dependent ecosystems
6.3.1 Aquifer and cave systems
Aquifer and cave systems where stygofauna (organisms living in groundwater) exist within or associated
with the groundwater form a major subdivision of GDE. karstic systems are clearly the easiest to com-
prehend here as the secondary porosity (holes) in the limestone karst are big enough to allow fish to
swim in. This is well demonstrated by Fig. 6.4 and Fig. 6.3 where unique communities of fish exist at
the karst spring and are completely limited to this location as the stream produced by the spring does
not flow very far down the river bed. Fractured rocks may also contain stygofauna of a similar size, but
sands and alluvium can only contain microscopic stygofauna. Examples of these are shown in Fig. 6.5
and Fig. 6.6 (Courtesy of Moya Tomlinson from UNE - collected on an IAH field trip to Alice Springs
area in September 2006).
Stygofauna that require groundwater to live are referred to (by the biological community!) as stygobites
(obligate groundwater inhabitants). The hyporheic zone falls into this category because these ecotones
support stygobytes!
Hypogean life exists in a continuum through different types of karstic, cave, porous and fissured aquifers.
Gilbert [1996] asserted that life there is as diversified as in the surface biotic milieu and that aquifers form
the most extensive array of freshwater ecosystems on our planet. That these ecosystems exist within the
groundwater makes the nature of their dependence absolute, albeit poorly understood and appreciated.
Obligate inhabitants of groundwaters, referred to, as stygobionts -collectively stygofauna- are extremely
diverse in Australia, especially in the northwest [Humphreys, 1999a, Wilson and Keable, 1999]. They are
characterised by a series of convergent morphological (and behavioural and physiological) features termed
troglomorphies (cave form) including loss of eyes, pigment and elongation of appendages and thus they
appear white, fragile and translucent. Recently a start has been made in determining the composition
and regional variation of the stygofauna in Australia [Humphreys, 1999a, Eberhard and Spate, 1995] but
knowledge of the basic biology and ecology is largely lacking.
From studies on the biology and ecology of stygofauna in Europe and America [Gibert et al., 1994]
several generalisations can be made concerning stygobites. By comparison with their lineage, stygal
species characteristically have sparse populations, are long lived, have slow growth rates, mature late and
have a small clutch size (often one or two) and are adapted to low food energy levels. In consequence the

Figure 6.6: cyclopoid copepod from Ilamurta

Well
Figure 6.5: harpacticoid copepod from cobble bar

at foot of sandstone cliff, Running Waters. Fluid
EC in the hole was 5034 microS/cm

population processes may be easily disrupted by anthropogenic impacts to the ecosystem.
Protected below the ground, the stygofauna contains entire major lineages (orders or classes) unknown
on the surface globally since the early Mesozoic era. In near coastal groundwaters alone, 10 new families
of Crustacea have been described in the last decade. Numerous major taxa (classes, orders, families
and genera), previously unknown in Australia, several even unknown in the southern hemisphere, have
recently been found inhabiting groundwaters in arid northwestern Australia [Humphreys, 2000, Watts
and Humphreys, 1999].
Aquifers important to stygofauna include near coastal groundwater affected by marine tides (anchialine
systems especially those in limestone and basalt Sket [1996], Yager and Humphreys [1996], Humphreys
[1999b], or Iliffe [2000]. Stygofauna also occur in karstic systems mainly in carbonate rocks and in river
gravels. Groundwater calcrete aquifers [Humphreys, 1999a, Watts and Humphreys, 1999] associated with
Recent hydrogeochemical cycles within the palaeodrainage channels of arid Australia [Morgan, 1993]
have also proven important. These stygofauna, especially those in saline waters, have not been reported
outside Australia.
While most areas that have been sampled yield at least some stygofauna, certain areas are notable. The
Nullarbor and the southwest karst areas are unexpectedly impoverished, while the Cape Range/Barrow
Island karst, and the groundwater calcretes of the arid Western Shield region are remarkably rich in
stygobionts [Humphreys, 1999a, Watts and Humphreys, 1999].
6.3.2 Ecosystems dependent on the surface expression of groundwater
Stream hydrographs usually have a component of groundwater base flow. Base flow is often vital to the
character and composition of in-stream and near-stream ecosystems.
In considering the significance of groundwater processes influencing ecosystems in rivers, it is postulated

that several key factors dominate the relative significance of rainfall (and hence runoff) as compared
with groundwater discharge, and the differing effects of fractured rocks as compared with porous media
aquifers. This consideration leads to two key hypotheses:
A key determinant of the dependence of ecosystems on groundwater is the volume of base flow and its
temporal variability, not the mean annual flow of the river. Where base flow is maintained in areas of
relatively low rainfall (eg. the Broughton River in South Australia) and the base flow is a high proportion
of the mean annual flow, it is presumed that there is a greater dependence by the ecosystem on this base
flow. That is, a unit change in base flow in a low rainfall region will cause significantly greater effect on
ecosystem health than in areas where rainfall is higher and/or the dry season is shorter. Base flow can
help maintain a wide variety of flora and fauna, which could not tolerate ephemeral conditions which
typically carry a high bed load and suspended load of sediment. An example is shown in Fig. 6.7.
6.3.3 All vegetation dependent upon the subsurface presence of groundwater
Terrestrial vegetation may depend to varying degrees on the diffuse discharge (root uptake) of shallow
groundwater, either to sustain transpiration and growth through a dry season (e.g. tropical woodlands)
or for the maintenance of perennially lush ecosystems in otherwise arid environments (e.g. streamside
vegetation like river red gums along usually dry river beds in interior Australia). There are groundwater-
dependent forests and woodland which lack the surface expressions of water normally associated with
wetlands, and thus it is necessary to add to the classification by Briggs [1981] three additional vegetation
types (upland woodland, upland forests and tree plantations) which may extract groundwater.
The two figures (6.8 and 6.9) show two different types of vegetation which have very different dependencies
on groundwater. In Fig. 6.8 River Red Gums on the floodplain of the river Murrumbidgee are periodically
inundated with water as shown here during periods of flooding. This is considered to be crucial to
replenishment of groundwater in semiconfined aquifers on which the vegetation depends in drier periods.

Figure 6.7: Duck-billed platypus reliant on a continuing supply of fresh water which is maintained by
groundwater base flow into the riverine environment.
Figure 6.8: River Red Gums on the Mur- Figure 6.9: Ground-water discharge from the
rumbidgee (Photo RIA) sandstone aquifer supports the palms at Palm
Valley in the Northern Territory close to Alice
Springs (Photo RIA)
River regulation through construction of dams and weirs has reduced the number of floods, giving rise
to vegetation stress within the floodplain ecosystem.
There are numerous schemes for classifying wetlands. Paijmans et al. [1985], Seminiuk [1987] and Seme-
niuk et al. [1990] together give a fairly comprehensive overview of classification schemes and their criteria.
A geomorphic classification of wetlands based on landform and water permanence provides the clearest
link to the role of groundwater in the maintenance of these systems. The classification adopted here,
from Hatton and Evans [1998] is given in Table 6.1.
Not all of the features in Table 6.1 involve groundwater in a direct or significant way. As well, these
features do not necessarily capture groundwater-dependent ecosystems in aquifers or in upland land-
scapes. To discuss the latter, additional terminology is invoked. Finally, understanding the nature of the
distribution, dependence and vulnerability of ecosystems on groundwater requires the definition of the
aquifer systems as local or regional [Evans et al., 1996].
The classification described above provides the physical background. Within each of these geomorphic
classes, different floristic assemblages (and their associated faunal components) occur. Thus, permanent

Table 6.1: Geomorphic classification of wetlands
LANDFORM
Water Longevity Basin Channel Flat Slope Highland
Permanent Inundation lake river
Seasonal Inundation sumpland creek floodplain
Intermittent Inundation playa wadi barlkarra
Seasonal Waterlogging dampland trough palusplain paluslope palusmont
water in a river may support streamside red gum communities in southern Australia, but support cajeput
communities in the Pilbara.
6.4 Hydrogeological framework
As shown above, streams and lakes have more complex relationships between groundwater discharge,
throughflow of surface water and recharge of groundwater [Townley et al., 1993]. Ecosystems develop
to exploit these conditions both in the surface streams and in the aquifer close to the surface water/
groundwater interface and deeper in the aquifer. This is the case for the rich stygofauna on the Western
Fortescue Plain where the extensive aquifer both discharges at and is recharged from Millstream depending
on the state of flow of the Fortescue River. From work elsewhere, this change in flow direction can be
expected to have profound effects on the stygofauna.
In Australia rich stygal communities occur in near surface waters to more than 150 m below the surface
but they may be expected from deeper systems; in Texas the artesian Edwards Aquifer contains even
vertebrate stygofauna from 600 m below the surface [Longley, 1992].
6.4.1 Local vs regional
To understand the importance of groundwater to various ecosystems, it is frequently helpful to be able

to separate local from regional groundwater processes. This distinction is useful because the temporal
nature of groundwater discharge may vary significantly depending upon the scale of the groundwater
resource.
Local processes are frequently those involving recharge and discharge occurring within hundreds or thou-
sands of meters of each other. Cause and effect with respect to hydrogeological response are relatively
easy to define. These local processes may be strongly influenced by recent climate and land use pat-
terns and hence may exhibit large temporal variability. Ecosystems may develop a more opportunistic
dependency on groundwater in such local systems.
At the other extreme, regional processes operate over many kilometres (up to thousands of kilometres).
These processes tend to be more temporally invariant, and hence ecosystem dependence may be more
complete (the best-known example of such complete ecosystem dependence on a regional system is the
mound springs of the Great Artesian Basin). However, in practice there is a continuum of scales, from
local through intermediate to regional. The identification of hydrogeological scale can be a useful indicator
of ecosystem dependence.

6.5 Determining groundwater dependence of ecosystems
6.5.1 Introduction
It is a general property of ecosystems that, should a physical resource be available within the biosphere,
it will be exploited. This is true for light, for nutrients, and for water. Further, where that resource is at
all limiting or in excess, there will develop some functional dependence on the timing and extent of its
availability or superabundance.
In the limiting case, most of Australia has either seasonal drought or a semi-arid to arid climate, and if
groundwater exists within the reach of organisms, ecosystems will develop which are to some extent reliant
upon it. Reducing the availability of groundwater may result in a gradual, proportional decrease in the
health or aerial extent of a given ecosystem; in other cases, a threshold of availability may be reached at
which the entire system collapses. Knowledge regarding this response for particular Australian ecosystems
is limited.
Like all other resources, superabundance can be harmful to ecosystems. That is, just as extreme solar
radiation can burn leaves, and excess micronutrients become toxic, many ecosystems are dependent on
groundwater not becoming too available. In much of Australia, changes in land use have increased
groundwater discharge, especially saline discharge, and as a consequence pose a major threat to a wide
variety of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. For example, in Western Australia, there are a large and
extensive number of ecosystems either already degraded by, or under threat from, rising saline watertables
and associated saline discharge to streams (EPA 1994). In other systems such as the Darling-Barwon,
the relative discharge of groundwater with respect to surface flows may be directly proportional to the
risk of algal blooms through a complex sequence of chemical, physical and biological reactions (Donnelly
et al. 1996).
Thus it is unlikely that there are ecosystems in Australia that exist in the presence of groundwater
that have no dependence upon it, and were groundwater to be made more or less available, would not
suffer. Were it to be shown that a woodland derived only ten percent of its annual transpiration from
groundwater, it may be unsafe to assume that denial of this resource would have only a trivial impact.
Nevertheless, intuitively one assumes that the magnitude of the dependence on groundwater is propor-
tional to the fraction of the annual water budget that ecosystem derives from groundwater. This aspect
of dependence is the principal criterion used to assess and rank significance here.
In Australia, there is a tendency to reflect a vegetation-oriented bias as vegetation health generally

underpins the health of an ecosystem. However, it is also true that some systems have faunal components
with a more direct dependence on groundwater. For instance, fauna may rely directly on groundwater as
a source of drinking water in the dry season via seepage, springs, etc, or as the direct source of habitat in
the case of aquatic animals (eg. crocodiles, turtles, fish, macro-invertebrates). The role of groundwater
in maintaining and supporting fauna which are not related to vegetation per se is very poorly known and
understood.
Secondary aspects used as significance criteria are (a) uniqueness and (b) vulnerability. The former
criterion addresses how well-represented the system, or critical components of the system, is nationally.
This entails not only biodiversity considerations, but cultural and aesthetic ones as well. The latter
criterion is also applied and discussed where appropriate, and is an attempt to consider not just the
degree of dependence as defined above, but the expected sensitivity to changes in the availability of
groundwater.
The extent to which ecosystems are dependent upon groundwater is frequently unclear. For example,
100% of water used for domestic and industrial purposes in Denmark is groundwater. Yet Denmark
receives considerable rainfall and the presence of groundwater is not obvious.
Groundwater use can be concluded by a positive answer to one or more of the following:

Figure 6.10: River flow supported only by groundwater discharge from a limestone aquifer in the Yemen
(Photo RIA)
• A stream or river flowing all year through an arid or semi-arid zone. Fig. 6.10 provides an excellent
example of such a case. The water is even coloured blue from the calcite dissolved in it - indicating
that is comes from discharge of a limestone aquifer.
• Does the fluid EC in the river decrease downsteam? This is a clear indication of dilution by influent
groundwater. The reverse, fluid EC increasing downstream may also indicate addition of salts by
influent groundwater of a lower quality, but may also indicate evaporative concentration.
• Does the quantity of river flow increase downstream even where there are no tributaries?
• Do plants flower and seed in the dry season? The mango in Africa is a good example of this.
Towards the end of the dry season, the tree produces copious fruit that are produced by tapping
groundwater reserves. The presence of a mango is then taken as an indication of groundwater at
depth. As actively growing vegetation absorbs infra-red radiation, the difference between infra-
red activity between two pictures, one taken in the wet season when general vegetation growth is
apparent, and the second taken towards the end of the dry season, when only the vegetation that
can tap groundwater grows, is a good way to locate groundwater. Fig. 6.11 is a good example of
this technique. The bright red colours in this false colour composite image show actively growing
vegetation. From field inspection, it was shown that the actively growing vegetation occurred along
the banks of perennial streams fed by groundwater discharge.
• Do plant water use measurements indicate more water use than that available by rainfall [Eamus
et al., 2006]? This is difficult and time consuming to establish. There is also a problem in the
definition of groundwater implicit in the question. The plants could simply be using moisture in
the deep soil zone above the permanent zone of saturation that is often taken to represent the
water table and the start of groundwater. Work in the Pilbara with stable isotopes has shown that
only some individuals in a population of E. camaldulensis use groundwater at depths of 25 m while
others in the same population use soil moisture. It is dangerous to generalise on water use at a
species level.
The use of stable isotopes (oxygen and deuterium) can also be used to indicate the origin of water in the
ecosystem. However, this technique relies upon the groundwater having a different isotopic signature to
rainfall - which is not always the case.

Figure 6.11: False colour composite showing GDEs around a limestone block in Northern Zambia (Photo
RIA)

6.6 Identification of different ecosystems
There is virtually no literature specific to the dependence of Australian ecosystems on groundwater, apart
from the mound springs of the Great Artesian Basin, the wetlands of the Swan Coastal Plain, and a small
but growing body of work on woodlands. Indeed, most of the environmental water allocation literature
in Australia ignores groundwater components of the water balance.
6.6.1 Ecosystems certainly and entirely dependent on groundwater
The following systems are undoubtedly dependent on groundwater, and were groundwater diminished
or modified only slightly, either below a threshold like the ground surface or such that a surface water
system stops flowing, then the ecosystem would essentially cease to be.
Ecosystems certainly and entirely dependent on groundwater include;
• mound spring ecosystems in the Great Artesian Basin and elsewhere

• karstic groundwater ecosystems of Exmouth Cape, Yanchep Caves, the Nullarbor and elsewhere
• channel water holes in the Central Australian Ranges
• saline discharge lakes of the western Murray Basin (e.g. Pink Lakes) and most other playa lakes
• streamside eucalypt and related vegetation (e.g. E. camaldulensis) along inland (frequently dry)
rivers and streams in the arid zone
• permanent lakes and associated ecosystems on the Swan Coastal Plain
• spring ecosystems of the Pilbara
• the inland stand of mangrove near Eighty Mile Beach?
• karstic groundwater ecosystems of Nullarbor [Bradbury and Eberhard, 1999]
• Cape Range and Barrow Island [Humphreys, 2000]
• Kimberley Devonian Reefs [Wilson and Ponder, 1992, Wilson and Keable, 1999] NSW Eberhard
and Spate [1995], Tasmania and elsewhere.
• groundwater calcretes in the arid zone [Humphreys, 1999a]
• stygofauna associated with groundwater-surface water interactions along water courses [Boulton
et al., 1998]
• anchialine ecosystems of Cape Range, Barrow Island, Christmas Island and eslewhere [Yager and
Humphreys, 1996, Humphreys, 1999b]
6.6.2 Ecosystems highly dependent on groundwater
In such systems, moderate changes to groundwater discharge or water tables would lead to substantial
decreases in the extent or health of the ecosystem. There is some significant chance that the ecosystem
would collapse, but this is not entirely certain. Ecosystems highly dependent on groundwater include;
• mesophyll palm vine-forests in the tropical north

• swamp sclerophyll woodlands and swamp scrub in solution hollows on the Eyre and Yorke Peninsulas
• karst ecosystems including those on the Nullarbor

• permanent water holes on the rivers of the Central Lowlands and South Australian Ranges (such
as those on the Cooper, Warburton, Kallakoopah and Strezlecki Creeks), and lakes in this region
such as Goyder Lagoon and Coongie Lakes, which support swamp sclerophyll woodlands, Lignum
swamps, Carex sedgelands, canegrass grasslands, submerged and emergent herb fields and floating
herbfields
• river pool ecosystems of the rivers of the Pilbara
• the near-shore stromatolite systems of coastal Western Australia
• RAMSAR-listed wetlands in the basalt plains of the Western District of Victoria
• Melaleuca spp. stands in the Upper South East of South Australia
• paperbark swamp forests and woodlands in the tropical north, northeastern uplands and Pilbara
• base flow systems of the southeastern uplands
• damplands on the Swan Coastal Plain
6.6.3 Ecosystems with proportional dependence on groundwater
For a number of systems, it is likely that a unit change in the amount of groundwater will result in
a proportional change in the health or extent of that ecosystem. In other words, were groundwater
discharge cut by half, one might expect some equivalent diminution of the ecosystem. Ecosystems with
proportional dependence on groundwater include;
• river pools and billabongs supporting herblands on the floodplains of the tropical north
• base flow and herbland ecosystems of the northeastern uplands, and the North Australian and
Kimberley Plateaux
• lake ecosystems on the lower Burdekin and similar rivers in the northeastern uplands and Carpen-
taria lowlands
• volcanic crater lakes and swamps of the Cape York Peninsula
• perennially green river plain grasslands on the floodplains of the North Australian Plateau
• tropical sclerophyll forests and woodlands on the North Australian Plateau
• permanent coastal lakes of dunes and beachridge plains supporting sedgelands, paperbark swamp
forests and swamp scrub in the southeastern uplands (e.g. on Stradbroke Island, Fraser Island, and
on the coast of northern New South Wales)
• permanent glacial lakes supporting wet tussock and Carex grasslands and Sphagnum swamps in
the southeastern uplands
• swamp heaths on the Hawkesbury Sandstone in the southeastern uplands
• Swamp sclerophyll forests on the inland floodplains of the southeastern uplands
• Eleocharis and Baumea sedgelands in lagoons of the inland rivers of the southeast.
• permanently flooded swamps and lakes of inland portions of the southeastern uplands, support-
ing Phragmites and Typha grasslands (e.g., the permanently flooded portions of the Macquarie
Marshes)
• permanent swamps and river pools supported by local base flow on Kangaroo Island
• swamp forests, swamp woodlands, swamp heaths, peat swamps, Carex sedgelands and Baumea
sedgelands along riparian areas of the Mount Lofty Ranges

• damplands and sumplands supporting paperbark and Banksia woodlands on the Swan Coastal Plain
• base flow ecosystems in southwestern Western Australia
• lake ecosystems supporting Baumia sedgelands and swamp heaths in Tasmania
• sedgelands and Sphagnum bogs on the fringes of Tasmanian rivers
• swamp heathlands, button-grass sedgelands, Carex sedgelands and Phragmites grasslands in Tas-
mania, where waterlogging is dependent on groundwater levels
• swamp scrub and Eleocharis and Baumea sedgelands in the near-coastal dune systems of the Upper
South East of South Australia
• alpine bogs in southeastern highlands on local groundwater flow systems
• ecosystems fringing the Gippsland Lakes in eastern Victoria
6.6.4 Ecosystems which may only use Groundwater opportunistically or to

a very limited extent
Groundwater may only play a significant role in the water balance of some ecosystems in times of extreme
drought or briefly at the end of a dry season. This role of groundwater may be critical in the longer term,
but the immediate impacts of substantial reductions in groundwater may be muted. Ecosystems which
may only use groundwater opportunistically or to a very limited extent include;
• swamp sclerophyll forests on the coastal floodplains of the southeastern uplands, and of the Lander-
Barkly Tablelands
• the jarrah forest and Banksia woodlands of southwestern Western Australia
• lignum shrublands on inland river systems
• the ecosystems of the Coorong
• the ecosystems of permanent lakes and swamps at the termini of inland rivers in the Central
Lowlands and South Australian Ranges (e.g., Lake Eyre exclusive of mound spring systems)
• intermittent floodplain lakes of the Central Lowlands
• Major ocean embayments such as Port Phillip Bay
• coastal mangrove and salt marsh ecosystems
6.6.5 Ecosystems with no apparent dependency on groundwater
There are a number of wetland ecosystems that do not depend on groundwater in any significant way. For
most of the Australian systems below, we cannot state this with certainty but only as a strong likelihood.
Ecosystems with no apparent dependency on groundwater include;
• seasonal floodplain lakes on minor creek systems in the tropical north.

• Phragmites grasslands at the Murray Mouth
• instream ecosystems of the Murray and Darling Rivers, at least with respect to the amount that
base flow contributes to the maintenance of the natural ecosystems
• terminal drainage basin lakes in the Central Lowlands such as Cobham Lake and Lake Bancania,
which are almost certainly surface water-driven

• intermittent and episodic wetlands of the arid zone with uncoordinated drainage
• the episodic lakes of the Sandland and the Yilgarn Plateau
• the rockpools and solution hollows of the Nullarbor Plain
• southern rainforests
6.7 Case studies
To highlight the biophysical, social and economic complexities involved in evaluating the significance of
ecosystem dependence on groundwater, the following case studies are given.
6.7.1 Groundwater resource development in a tropical savanna
The city of Darwin relies upon surface water impoundments for most of its supply (e.g. Darwin and
Manton Dams), but more local and higher quality groundwater resources below the tropical woodland
and swamp systems of the coastal plain surrounding the Howard River Basin were identified as a more
attractive source since the early 1960’s. Since then, this groundwater system has been exploited to a
limited degree by both urban and rural developments; this development of supply bores is concentrated
on the western side of the Howard Basin, an area with a relatively high degree of subdivision and rural
development. Further development of this supply is forecast for the groundwater systems Howard East
Basin, which underlies ”significant stands of natural vegetation” including swamp sclerophyll forests and
woodlands, swamp paperbark forests, and monsoon vine forests. In order to promote the sustainable
development of this resource, a series of studies have been undertaken to assess the dependence of these
ecosystems on groundwater, and the likelihood that exploitation of the aquifer will adversely affect their
health. The key issue is the degree to which these ecosystems use water in the surface aquifer system,
and whether or not this supply would be diminished or restricted if water were pumped from the higher
yielding layers at depth. Thus, it is crucial to understand the water balance of the Basin, and in particular
the balance between tree water use and lateral groundwater throughflow in the deeper system. There is
a 6-9 m recession in water levels in the upper aquifer during the dry season, which can be due to natural
groundwater throughflow and discharge, to evapotranspiration, or both. If it is largely the former, then
much of this volume could be sustainably exploited. If, however, the transpiration component is dominant,
then there could be grave consequences abstraction of groundwater for supply. Standard approaches to
hydrography have only limited value in this regard, for evaporation and net recharge in this system
are difficult to determine because of the large fluxes involved, the strong seasonality of rainfall, the
large amplitude (9 m) in groundwater levels, the lack of correspondence between the surface catchment
and groundwater catchment boundaries, the difficulty in determining the profile of specific yield and
conductivity of the aquifer, and the uncertain gauging of the Howard River in the wet season. There is
even conceptual uncertainty in how water moves through these systems.
To resolve these issues, it was determined that direct measurement of the transpiration and evaporation
components of the water balance were necessary, complemented by detailed characterisation of the regolith
profile, the water level behaviour, and indirect inferences on throughflow using isotopes and other tracers
such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s). The first ecosystem examined was the sclerophyll woodland, which
is the most widespread vegetation type in the region. Studies by the NT Power and Water Authority,
CSIRO and the Northern Territory University indicate that the trees use approximately 400-500 mm of
water over the dry season, leaving approximately 0 - 200 mm of throughflow (these figures are under
current review by CSIRO).
These figures are supported by isotope and CFC profile analyses. Although the transpiration term seems
to dominate the dry season water balance and thus flag concern over woodland health given pumping, it
is estimated that the unsaturated profile may hold enough water in the upper 6-9 m to supply the trees
with the water they need.

In addition to the evidence provided through the investigations referred to above, there is not yet any
qualitative evidence of a decline in sclerophyll woodland health in the vicinity of existing supply bores
in the Howard West Basin. In itself this would be a dangerous observation to rely on, given the length
of time these bores have operated and the confounding effects of rural development on the woodland.
Having established an initial estimate of woodland dependence on groundwater, the subsequent deter-
mination of risk must consider the significance of this ecosystem. There are vast tracts of sclerophyll
woodland of this type in northern Australia, so the woodland of the Howard East Basin is not unique,
nor is it protected from frequent disturbances like fire, vehicular traffic, livestock. It is probably only its
proximity to Darwin that raises its profile in the eyes of the community and land managers. In summary,
the biological, cultural and economic risks to groundwater development are relatively small.
In contrast, the paperbark woodlands and monsoon vine forests dotted about the same landscape are
far more limited in extent, less understood with respect to groundwater dependence, more likely to be
dependent, and at least in the case of vine forests, more biologically diverse and significant. Although
currently under investigation, indirect inferences based on leaf area index as discussed above suggest that
these relatively dense canopies are likely to be heavier users of groundwater than sclerophyll woodland.
The general uncertainty regarding groundwater movement through these systems, the extent of vegetation
dependence, and their likely response to groundwater pumping, combined with their higher biological
and cultural significance, urge greater caution in resource development. These factors also demand local
research and investigation aimed at reducing these uncertainties.
6.7.2 Groundwater resource development in a temperate woodland
The city of Geelong in Victoria uses several major storages as its primary water supply. Barwon Water
Authority has, however, also developed a major groundwater resource to act as a drought security supply
and to reduce the need for new surface water storages to meet peak summer demands. As such it is a
very effective conjunctive use scheme.
The groundwater bore field is located in the Barwon Downs Graben and four major production bores of
400 m depth are able to pump approximately 12 000 ML/year if required. The graben is recharged from
several regions where the key aquifers outcrop or subcrop. The major recharge area is about 5 km to the
north of the bore field where a tributary of the Barwon River, Boundary Creek, flows. It is well known
that Boundary Creek has a major base flow component and even during the major 1982/1983 drought
this stream continued to flow. Adjacent to the creek is a range of vegetation types, which are shown
on Fig.6.12. Tea tree stands are well developed close to the creek, while manna gum and messmate are
abundant on the mid slopes. It is postulated that these trees use groundwater as a major water source.
Higher up the slope the vegetation changes to peppermint and messmate. It is postulated that these
trees do not use groundwater (see Fig.6.12a).
As part of proving the sustainable yield of the bore field, a long-term (2 year) pumping test was carried
out. The key issue influencing the sustainable yield was the effect on the environment, and especially
the flow in nearby creeks. Substantial monitoring of the region and especially Boundary Creek was
undertaken. Approximately six months after pumping commenced, the flow in Boundary Creek ceased
and the observation bores in the region indicated a consistent picture of a regional fall in groundwater
level in the recharge area (Fig. 6.12).
It is clear that long term and permanent use at the Barwon Downs borefield would have a significant
impact on ecosystems in Boundary Creek and adjacent vegetation. Modelling is currently under way to
evaluate a variety of extraction scenarios that it is postulated will have lesser impacts on the environment.

Figure 6.12: Diagram of Groundwater Vegetation Relationship; (a) Current Possible Situation and (b)
Future Situation (from Hatton and Evans (1998)
6.7.3 Management of lakes on the Swan Coastal Plain
Concern over the future of sumplands, damplands and lakes on the Swan Coastal Plain grew through
the 1970’s, in recognition that a very large fraction of the original wetlands had already been lost to
development. A sequence of dry years in the late 1970’s resulted in declining groundwater levels in
the Perth region, and heightened concern for what are important aesthetic and environmental features
of the regions. The Perth Urban Water Balance Study [Cargeeg et al., 1987a] and [Cargeeg et al.,
1987b] was initiated in 1982 to develop regional scale understanding of the water balance, and the
interactions between the hydrological balance and wetland features. A key part of the study indicated
the need to identify capture zones, water level management and effective parameters of groundwater
models in plan for the flow-through lakes of the Swan Coastal Plain. Such information is necessary for
allocating groundwater to development and to the environment, and for protecting the quality of water in
environmental flows through the lakes. Research was needed to identify the necessary lake water levels,
buffer zones and model parameters for lake management.
These objectives were met by Townley et al. [1993], who examined the role of the lakes in the regional,
unconfined aquifer system. Through a combination of isotopic, piezometric and modelling investigations,
they were able to develop a conceptual model of groundwater flow-through, mixing, and their impact
on flow patterns through the regional aquifer. This conceptual model was parameterised as a numerical
model of flow and water balance, and was then used to identify opportunities to artificially manage lake
levels, minimise the impact of groundwater pumping, understand zonation and stagnation in the lakes
themselves, capture zones, and the transport of nutrients from within these zones to and from the lakes.
This case study is perhaps the most detailed and comprehensive examination of surface water-groundwater
interactions as they affect a wetland ecosystem in Australia. The research summarised in Townley
et al. [1993] was ultimately motivated by the perceived groundwater dependence and uniqueness of
lake ecosystems on the Swan Coastal Plain, and ultimately demonstrated the degree and nature of this
dependence, and the nature of the system’s vulnerability to changes in the groundwater regime, pollution
and land use change. Further, the modelling could also show the impact that changes in the lakes would
have on the regional groundwater itself.

6.7.4 Groundwater resource development in the arid zone
The development of the arid Cape Range peninsula in Western Australia relies on the abstraction of
groundwater along the northeast part of the range. Excessive abstraction from the borefields led to the
intrusion of saltwater in the north and, as much of the western side of the peninsula is under conservation
estate, expansion of the borefield southwards from Exmouth was identified as the preferred option.
Cape Range peninsula is an anticline of marine limestones fringed by a narrow wave cut coastal plain.
Karst development is primarily in the Tulki Limestone, the middle of three Eocene marine limestones
forming the range. It overlies the marly Mandu (Fig. 6.13). The ecology of the cave fauna indicates
that recharge occurs only after episodic heavy rainfall when the numerous deep sinkholes in the range fill
deeply but drain rapidly. The cave structure and drainage characteristics show that the rainfall rapidly
percolates through the highly cavernous Tulki Limestone and then flows in conduits developed at the
interface with the Mandu Limestone, draining down the slope of the anticline. The exploited aquifer is
where the karstic limestone is below sea level and comprises a thin freshwater lens overlying a salt water
wedge intruding from the coast (Fig. 6.13 from Water Corporation [1996]).
This near coastal aquifer contains a complex stygal community including a number of relict species and the
only two species of subterranean fish in Australia [Humphreys, 1999b], both protected under legislation.
Protection of the groundwater ecosystem was identified as a key factor in the environmental assessment
of the project.
In the absence of detailed knowledge of the biology of the stygofauna the key factors identified that
needed to be addressed were:
• salination of the freshwater either from saltwater intrusion inland owing to reduced groundwater
flow, or vertically as a result of upconing of the saltwater interface at the abstraction points
• entrainment of stygofauna in the abstracted water
• interception of dissolved and particulate organic matter from the groundwater flow by water ab-
straction
• the proportion of the aquifer directly affected by the borefield
• the potential mitigating effect of any chemoautotrophic energy production
To address these issues the scheme is designed to abstract 100 ML/ km/annum of groundwater through-
flow, or 60% of the total estimated throughflow of 168 ML/km/annum [Water Authority, 1995]. This is
considered the ’safe yield’ in terms of borefield operations in this aquifer.
Several special monitoring bores were established within and down gradient of the borefield, to allow visual
investigation, physicochemical profiling and fauna sampling through the salt water interface. Downhole
video observation in the bores established that some elements of the stygofauna inhabit both the fresh-
water and the saltwater layers, being especially populous at interfaces such as the water surface and
bore base. Diver observations in a similar system on the west coast of the peninsula demonstrated other
stygobiont species are restricted to the freshwater or to the saltwater layer.
Opportunistic sampling from long established but degraded production bores suggested numerous stygo-
fauna were entrained in the abstracted water. Controlled pumping from new bores equipped for pumping
with and without fine screening on the intake, showed that stygofauna entrainment was unlikely to be a
significant issue and that fine screening had no significant effect [Water Corporation, 1996].
Stable isotope (carbon and nitrogen) ratio analyses of components of the groundwater ecosystem suggest
that the system is fuelled by carbon fixed by photosynthesis (both C3 and C4 pathways) and found no
evidence of chemolithotrophic energy production [Water Corporation, 1996]. However, the latter has
been observed in the west coast anchialine system (Humphreys, in press [b]).

Figure 6.13: Generalised hydrogeological cross-section of the Exmouth groundwater area as a represen-
tation of the aquifer on the Cape Range peninsula. The hatched line is the lower limit of significant
karst

Dissolved organic carbon concentration was low (mean 3 mg L-1, SD 2.67 mgL-1, n=33, from Water
Corporation [1996]). Additional sampling in pre-pumped bores showed that the DOC was lower (mean
0.4 mg L-1) and was not, or largely not biodegradable. The groundwater samples contained bacterial and
DOC concentrations typical of unpolluted aquifers. The groundwater was aerobic and reduced chemical
species largely absent. Iron bacteria were not observed. These observations, together with the stable
isotope ratio analysis suggest that neither iron nor chemolithotrophic bacteria play an important role in
the bacterial or stygofaunal ecology of the region of the aquifer which was investigated. The stygofauna
appear to rely on allochthonous energy from the surface and the water is clearly depleted of available
carbon. This suggests that groundwater flow per se is not important in transporting organic matter in
the system and that the available energy is locked up in biofilms and stygofauna.
The cross sectional area of the freshwater lens was estimated from new bores and it was estimated that
only 1% of the freshwater in karst storage would be abstracted per year, even excluding the more saline
mixing zone section of the aquifer and this was considered a low impact [Water Corporation, 1996].
However, the reliability of the cross sectional model has not been established. Physico-chemical profiling
down the monitoring bores shows that the aquifer behaves quite differently in different regions that it
cannot be assumed to be a single system. Nor has it been established that the aquifer is largely suitable
for stygofaunal habitat.

Chapter 7
Surface geophysical investigation

methods
Contents
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
7.1.1 Physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
7.1.2 Geophysical surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
7.1.3 Modelling and inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
7.1.4 Available survey methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
7.2 Hydrological properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
7.2.1 Porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
7.2.2 Hydraulic conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
7.2.3 Groundwater flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
7.3 Electrical methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
7.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
7.3.2 Electrical conductivity or resistivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
7.3.3 Factors influencing the electrical conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
7.3.4 Electrical field methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
7.3.5 EM conductivity profiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
7.3.6 Apparent electrical conductivity ECa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
7.3.7 Vertical electrical sounding (VES) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
7.3.8 Electrical conductivity imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
7.3.9 Time domain EM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
7.4 Seismic methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
7.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
7.4.2 Wave terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
7.4.3 Elastic coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
7.4.4 Seismic waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
7.4.5 Energy sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
7.4.6 Seismic equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
7.4.7 Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
7.4.8 Refraction at an interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
7.4.9 Critical refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
7.4.10 Seismic waves in homogeneous ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
7.4.11 A single sub-surface interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
7.4.12 Travel time equation for a single horizontal interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
7.5 Airborne surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
7.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
181
Chapter 7. Surface geophysical investigation methods
7.5.2 Case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

7.6 Selected case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
7.6.1 Geophysical investigation and monitoring of landfills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
7.6.2 Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
7.6.3 Defining the extent of a landfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
7.6.4 Monitoring leachate levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
7.1 Introduction
Geophysics is used to measure remotely the bulk physical properties of the subsurface. The remote
measurements are then used to study the structure and nature of the subsurface. Inferences can be made
about the properties of subsurface materials which cannot normally be sampled directly and this then
enables an interpretation of subsurface structure.
Chapter 7 only seeks to give a broad introduction to this interesting, potentially very valuable but often
misused branch of groundwater studies. Books by Burger [1992] or Reynolds [1997] give comprehensive
reviews of the subject. Kirsch [2006] gives an extensive recent review of theory and methods. Several
journals also provide coverage of the area. These are (in no particular order):
• Geophysical Prospecting
• Geophysics
• Exploration Geophysics
• Ground Water
• Hydrogeology Journal
• Journal of Applied Geophysics
• Journal of Environmental and Engineering Geophysics
Global geophysics has been used successfully to probe the internal structure of the earth. Similarly,
measurements of physical properties made from satellites orbiting the planets of the solar system have
been used to infer the physical structure of the planets. Geophysical methods have been extensively
developed by the oil industry for the location of new oil fields and also by the mining industry for the
location of buried ore deposits. The greatest proportion of geophysical industry research and development
has been carried out to support these two areas and the groundwater geophysics (and environmental
geophysics) areas have mostly to build on this base.
Geophysics is used to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of subsurface exploration. Essentially
all information obtained by surface geophysical methods can be derived by drilling and sampling the
earth, but these direct methods of investigation are expensive and slow even when dealing with the
shallow zone of interest in most environmental and engineering studies. Although invasive techniques
only provide information relevant to the point of observation, this should be accurate and unambiguous.
Geophysics, on the other hand, attempts to provide the same information for some distance from the point
of measurement, normally from the ground surface, so that no direct contact is made with the subsurface
material. In this case, the conclusions drawn from the geophysical observations may be ambiguous and
inaccurate. However, this is offset by the speed of measurement, its low cost and the considerably detailed
coverage of the area which can be achieved (Table 7.1). Clearly geophysical surveys should not be carried
out if they do not result in cost efficiency.
Geophysical measurements may be made either from an aircraft, from a boat, along the ground surface
or in boreholes and mines. The use of one or other technique depends upon the scale of the problem.

Table 7.1: Comparison of methods of subsurface investigation
Direct methods Indirect methods

Drilling, trial pitting Geophysics
accurate less accurate

unambiguous ambiguous
point measurements detailed coverage
expensive inexpensive
Figure 7.1: Varying form of the bedrock interface
Geophysical methods commonly used in groundwater resource or groundwater contamination studies rely
upon surface and borehole measurements.
As a general rule, a geophysical method requires a lateral or vertical contrast in the physical property
being measured to allow some useful deductions to be made. Discontinuities in physical property normally
coincide with some geological or formation boundary, although different geological formations may have
the same physical properties and therefore the reverse is not always true. Figure 7.1 provides an indication
of the varying contrasts that occur as granite bedrock is weathered.
Surface geophysical measurements give bulk averaged estimates of the subsurface properties. Further
discrimination can be provided by making measurements in boreholes or on materials retrieved from
boreholes.
Most geophysical problems are of the inverse type. The physical property measurements are used to
infer the nature of the source. Partly as a result of the inverse problem and partly due to the inherent
variability of the ground, it is always advisable to use several geophysical methods to reduce the ambiguity
inherent in interpretation of a single set of data.
Geophysical methods are best used in collaboration with a limited drilling program. Consider a 1 ha
field in which 5 boreholes are drilled. Some would say that the uncertainty about ground conditions is
eliminated by having as many as 5 bores per hectare. What about reality? Each bore may sample a
50 mm diameter hole. This is an area of 0.00196 m2, or 0.0000196% of the total area per borehole! In
reality we know nothing about the remaining 99.99998 % of the area and drilling many other exploratory
boreholes will not help that much; as well as being expensive. The problem is severely exacerbated by
including the third dimension.
Geophysics gives the possibility of good extrapolation between boreholes that will significantly reduce
the uncertainty.
7.1.1 Physical properties
Geophysical methods make use of a number of differing physical properties associated with subsurface
soils and rocks. The principle properties and their associated methods are shown in Table 7.2:

Table 7.2: Geophysical Methods
Physical Property Geophysical Method
Electrical Conductivity Resistivity/Conductivity

Electromagnetic Resistivity/Conductivity
Seismic Velocity Seismic
Density Gravity
Magnetisation Magnetic
Radioactivity Radiometric
Dielectric Permittivity Radar
7.1.2 Geophysical surveys
All geophysical surveys involve three components:
• Planning and logistics,

• field data acquisition, and
• data interpretation.
The first stage of planning and logistics is probably the most important. The provision of the correct
equipment will normally determine the success of the survey. Similarly, if the data is not acquired
correctly then the interpretation will be seriously compromised. Ideally, a trial survey will be carried
out initially to ensure that the objective is achievable and that the recommended equipment does in fact
produce reasonable results at the site of interest.
Survey design begins with the selection of a specific geophysical technique for the given physical situation.
Factors such as target physical property, vegetation, soil type, target depth etc. are all critical, and it is
generally not possible to generalise about suitable techniques from one area to another.
Surveys are generally laid out in lines, with a certain density of stations along each line. The density is
determined by the target size; clearly we need more measurements than the minimum size of target. Too
low a density of measurement can lead to problems that include either missing the target completely, or
introducing the problem of aliasing.
The size of survey area thus depends on sample interval: there is a trade-off between speed and resolution.
Airborne EM surveys cover large areas with relatively coarse inter-line spacings. Ground-based surveys
are generally slower, but provide more detail. In many cases, it is useful to perform an initial coarse
survey followed by smaller-scale surveys in anomalous areas. Finally, repeatability of measurement is an
important requirement. Tie lines and repeat base stations are often performed.
In all geophysical techniques there is a trade off between depth and resolution; that is, the deeper the
target the lower the spatial and vertical resolution. For example, a small body 1 m by 1 m may be detected
at a depth of 5 m but not at 50 m.
7.1.3 Modelling and inversion
Sometimes called forward modelling, geophysical modelling involves testing a hypothesis of what structure
is compatible with the actual observations. The theoretical response can be compared with the observed
data to see how valid the model; a good fit to the data suggests that the hypothesis is valid. Modelling
also plays an important role in experiment design to test the ability of any geophysical technique to detect
or discriminate between targets.

Inversion is a slightly more sophisticated approach in which a model is automatically produced that
reproduces the observations in some optimal sense. These techniques usually require a sequence of
forward models to be prepared with the results compared to the field data in some statistical sense and
the forward model incrementally changed until a satisfactory result is achieved.
7.1.4 Available survey methods
There are many available survey methods and it is not possible to give a clear account of all in these
introductory notes. The majority of groundwater geophysics is carried out using either electrical or
seismic techniques. These will be introduced in a little more detail below.
Electrical methods
The electrical methods have traditionally been restricted to the use of low frequency current injection
into the ground via two electrodes. Electric current is transferred between the two electrodes by charged
ions in the ground water or through/along the matrix surface. The electrical potential field established
by the current flow is monitored by two further electrodes. Variations in electrical potential from those
expected in a homogeneous earth are indicative of lateral or horizontal variations in earth conductivity.
Electrical methods can be used either:
• to construct a profile of the variation in apparent bulk electrical conductivity at a particular depth
of investigation,
• to collect measurements at different electrode spacings around a common centre to form an electrical
sounding,
• or combined to produce an image of the electrical conductivity of the sub-surface.
Electromagnetic methods
Electromagnetic measurements can be made with magnetic dipole or loop methods in either the frequency
domain or the time domain. In such methods, a known frequency is applied from a transmitter loop of
wire, and measured at some other site by a receiver loop of wire. There are two main types; those which
use high-frequencies where coil separation is greater than the skin depth (called Slingram methods)
and those which use lower frequencies with skin depths greater than the coil separation (called Ground
Conductivity methods).
Very low frequency method
The very low frequency (VLF) method makes use of low frequency radiation from military transmitters.
As the electromagnetic wave front moves over the surface of the earth, the electric and magnetic fields
diffuse into the earth to shallow depths. Currents induced in conductors generate a secondary field which
causes the magnetic field at the surface to tilt from the horizontal. The angle by which the field is offset
from the horizontal is called the tilt angle. As the VLF method is essentially passive, making use of
the existing exciting energy provided by the military transmitters, it can be used to provide an efficient
light-weight and portable survey method.

Spontaneous potential method
Electric currents flow naturally beneath the ground as a result of many factors. Natural lightning strikes;
leakage of current from man-made artifacts; weathering of mineral bodies; streaming potential as a
result of ground-water flow; and as a result of reduction haloes associated with various bacteriologi-
cal/hydrogeochemical processes.
The spontaneous potential can be easily mapped in the field and used to investigate these phenomena.
Seismic method
Seismic methods are based upon the transmission of energy through the subsurface as the result of a
mechanical impact or explosion. The seismic energy is reflected and refracted at boundaries where the
seismic transmission characteristics change. The seismic energy arriving back at the surface (or in a
borehole) is recorded by a geophone. By measuring the time taken for the seismic wave front to reach
a geophone, calculations can be made of the depth to the reflector or refractor beneath the surface. As
the seismic transmission boundaries are normally associated with changes in geology, the depth to these
geological boundaries can then be inferred.
Seismic energy is transmitted through the earth by a number of different wave trains. The examination
of the different arrival times of these wave trains can also be diagnostic of subsurface structure and
properties.
Gravity method
The earth’s gravitational field is not uniform over an area but suffers perturbations as a result of local
variations in subsurface material density. Gravity anomalies due to geological structures are very small,
often less than one millionth of the earth’s field, but they can be measured directly with very sensitive
meters.
The gravity method can be used successfully to determine depth to bedrock and can provide a useful
confirmation of other geophysical surveys or be used alone.
Magnetic method
The earth’s magnetic field fluctuates both in space and time. Local perturbations in the magnetic field
are created by the presence of magnetic materials in the subsurface. Sedimentary rocks are generally
less magnetic than igneous and metamorphic rocks. Measurements of the local magnetic field variation
can often indicate the identification of lithological change. Buried ordnance can be successfully detected
using this approach.
Induced polarization method
Reference to some geophysical texts will show extensive discussion of the induced potential method.
More recently this has been recognised as a measure of the complex electrical conductivity of the sub-
surface. The electrical conductivity has both in-phase and out-of-phase components which are frequency
dependent. The magnitude of the out-of-phase component can be diagnostic of the subsurface mate-
rial. This property has been used extensively to map ore deposits and is now receiving attention in the
environmental geophysics field.

Radiometric method
There are some naturally occurring isotopes of minerals which are unstable and decay at random by the
emission of beta particles and gamma rays. This energy is released at characteristic frequencies which can
be used to identify the original isotope. Uranium, thorium and potassium are the main naturally occurring
isotopes. As these minerals are characteristically associated with particular geological formations, the
presence of these naturally occurring decays can be used to identify the geological formations.
The radiometric methods can also be used by artificially bombarding the formation with neutrons. The
manner in which the formation responds to this neutron activation can also be diagnostic.
Radar method
Radar is an electromagnetic method which operates in the 100 MHz to 10 GHz frequency range. At these
frequencies, the dielectric permittivity of the subsurface is more dominant than the electrical conductivity.
Electromagnetic energy is scattered and reflected at boundaries in the dielectric permittivity. Water has
a high (80) dielectric permittivity whereas rocks and some contaminants have low dielectric permittivity
values. Radar can often be used therefore to map water or air filled geological discontinuities.
7.2 Hydrological properties
7.2.1 Porosity
One of the most basic properties to be determined is how much water is present. If the sub-surface is
entirely saturated, then the porosity will be entirely water filled; if unsaturated, then we have a mixture
of air (or another gas) and water. In consolidated and unconsolidated sediments, the porosity depends
on the shape of the grains and the compaction. In general, near-surface sediments have high porosity
(10-70 %). Crystalline rocks have much lower primary porosity, with secondary porosity from fractures.
Porosity information can be derived from both electrical measurements and seismic measurements.
Electrical measurements
The most widely used relationship to determine porosity from electrical measurements is Archie’s Law.
This has been developed in the oil industry where it was used to predict porosity (and therefore oil
content) from the ratio of the fluid resistivity and the bulk resistivity.
σobs = aσw φm (7.1)
where:
σobs is the observed electrical conductivity at the surface,

σw is the conductivity of the water present,
φ is the porosity and
Archies Law does not work well for fluid conductivities of less than 1000 µS/cm; or for sediments con-
taining clay; or for partially saturated sediments. Modifications have been suggested to extend the
relationship as shown in Eqn. 7.2.

Figure 7.2: Variation of primary and secondary seismic wave velocities as a function of porosity
σobs = aσw φm S n + σs (7.2)

where:
σobs is the observed electrical conductivity at the surface,

σw is the conductivity of the water present,
σs is the conductivity of the solid grains
φ is the porosity and
S S is the saturation.
Archie’s Law is not the only relationship (see Acworth and Jorstadt [2006] for example), and in fact
physically-derived expressions are often more useful in defining a range of acceptable porosity. Two
other physical models may also be appropriate. These are when the water forms a film around the
grains σobs = 2/3φσw + (1 − φ)σs and when water is contained within tubes along grain boundaries
σobs = 1/3φσw + (1 − φ)σs .
Seismic relationships
Rocks of very low porosity, including most igneous and metamorphic rocks and evaporites, have velocities
which are controlled mainly by their composition and which can be well predicted from a knowledge of
the velocities of their component minerals. Depth of burial is important even in such low porosity rocks,
however, since microcracks may easily reduce the velocity measured at ground surface to little more than
half of its expected value. A confining pressure of about 1 kbar is sufficient to close the cracks, but this
corresponds to a depth of burial of 3000 m.
In rocks of medium to high porosity, the velocity (more particularly the P-wave velocity) will depend on
the nature of the fluid (normally air or water) filling the pore-space so that a schematic velocity-porosity
relationship will be as shown in Fig. 7.2. The shallow minimum in velocity at very high porosities
corresponds to the stage when grain contacts are minimal and compaction increases the density more
rapidly than the elastic moduli. Over the commonly occurring porosity range of 20% - 40%, the velocity-
porosity relationship is quite well approximated by the so-called time-average relationship (Equation 7.3).

1 φ 1−φ
= + (7.3)
V Vf Vm
where:
Vf is the velocity of the fluid filling the pore space.

Vm is the velocity of the matrix of granular material.
This equation is useful for estimating porosity φ from velocity or vice versa, using values of 300 m/s (air)
or 1500 m/s (water) for dry and saturated rocks respectively and an appropriate value of Vm , which will
rarely lie outside the range 5000-6000 m/s. Partially saturated rocks are found to have velocities close to
the dry value up to 80% - 90% saturation, when a rapid increase to the wet value occurs.
7.2.2 Hydraulic conductivity
The ability of water to flow through rock is governed by its permeability, or hydraulic conductivity.
Geophysical methods, particularly those measuring electrical properties, have sometimes been taken to
directly infer hydraulic conductivity, however this is not recommended as there is always significant non-
uniqueness due to other unknown parameters. In general, relationships developed in a local area can not
be extrapolated to adjacent areas in a catchment or to different rock types. There is no equivalent to
Archie’s Law to relate electrical conductivity to hydraulic conductivity, despite the intuitive nature of
the relationship. The major complicating factor is normally the clay content. An increase in clay content
will result in increased electrical conductivity (due to surface conduction σs ) but a decrease in hydraulic
conductivity due to clogging of pore space by clay particles.
7.2.3 Groundwater flow
A relationship between groundwater flow and electrical current flow also seems intuitive, however, in
most cases the relationship is too specific to be of practical use.
Groundwater flow in an aquifer can lead to quite large voltages, in some cases hundreds of millivolts. In
the electrokinetic effect, fluid motion drags Cl− ions in solution, causing a flow of current that is balanced
by the potential difference (known as the zeta potential) across the grain boundary. The electric field
that results is given by Eqn. 7.4.
ζ∇P
Ek = − (7.4)
ησw
where:
ζ is the zeta potential,

∇P
is the solution dielectric constant,
σw is the conductivity of the solution and
η is the fluid viscosity.
Mapping of the spontaneous potential around flow zones can yield good indications of, for example, piping
through a clay dam liner.

7.3 Electrical methods
7.3.1 Introduction
Geophysical techniques offer the possibility of rapidly and non-invasively assessing the presence of con-
tamination. Low frequency (DC) methods have been used successfully to map simple inorganic plumes.
See Barker [1990], Acworth et al. [1994] or Acworth [2001a] for example. Downhole measurements of
bulk electrical conductivity are particularly useful for contamination studies.
Site characterisation employing geophysical methods can provide detailed information on many aspects
of a contaminated site. Details of the general hydrogeology, or the presence of cultural information such
as buried pipes and tanks are all important. However, surface geophysics can often detect and map the
subsurface extent of inorganic and, to a lesser extent, organic contamination. Recent advances in both
methodology and equipment make the mapping of a contaminant plume in three dimensions a possibility.
7.3.2 Electrical conductivity or resistivity
In electrical circuit theory, it is possible to accurately measure the conductance of a component, because
the component has only limited dimensions. In geophysical surveys, many different components of the
ground may add to the total conductance and we need to normalise the conductance in terms of the
dimensions of the sample. For example, if we take a tank as shown in Figure 7.3, connect a battery and
volt meter in series, and fill it with sand and water, we could show that the conductance of the material
in the tank is determined as the ratio of the current flow to the voltage. This is Ohm’s Law written in
terms of conductance instead of resistance and can be written as.
I
G= (7.5)
V
If we take a number of tanks of differing dimensions and fill them with the same mixture of sand and
water we could show that the conductance was proportional to the area (A) of the end plates and inversely
proportional to the distance (L) between the plates.
The constant of proportionality is termed the conductivity and is a property of the sand and water mix
alone, or whatever else is placed between the plates. The conductance can then be written as :-
A
G=σ (7.6)
L
where:
σ is the conductivity with units of S/m,

G is the conductance [S],
A is the area of the tank end plates (m2 ), and
L is the distance between the plates (m).
Confusion is often caused by the use of both the conductance (and the conductivity) at the same time as
the resistance (and the resistivity). These terms are also shown in Figure 7.3. The resistivity is defined
as the proportionality constant shown in Equation 7.7.
L
R=ρ (7.7)
A

Figure 7.3: Tank apparatus to demonstrate conductivity

where:
ρ is the resistivity with units of Ωm,

R is the resistance in Ohms (Ω),
A is the area of the tank end plates, and
L is the distance between the plates.
The resistivity is simply the inverse of the conductivity and does not have any separate special significance
or physical properties.
The conversion factors shown in Table 7.3 are provided. Note that to derive a conductivity reading in
mS/m from a resistivity reading in Ohm metres the following relationship is used:
1000
σ= (7.8)
ρ
Table 7.3: Conversion Factors

Resistivity Conductivity
1 Ωm 1 S/m
1 Ωm 1000 mS/m
1000 Ωm 1 mS/m
1 Ωm 10 dS/m
10 Ωm 1000 µS/cm
100 Ωm 10 mS/m
10 Ωm 100 mS/m
100 Ωm 0.1 dS/m
The SI unit of measurement for conductivity is siemens per metre (S/m), but most groundwater mea-
surements are reported in µS/cm; electromagnetic surveys tend to be recorded in mS/m and soil science
measurements are often made in dS/m.
7.3.3 Factors influencing the electrical conductivity
The electrical conductivity of soil and rock is dominantly controlled by the following factors:
• the porosity available to be filled by fluid;

• the amount of fluid filling the porosity;
• the electrical conductivity of the pore-filling solution;
• the type and quantity of clay material present;

• the frequency (electrical) at which the measurement is made,
• and the presence of any humic material.
The presence of inorganic contaminants act to increase the fluid conductivity by providing a greater
number of charge carriers in solution. There is generally a linear relationship between the total dissolved
solids (TDS) at any location and the fluid electrical conductivity of the solution (σw ).

Most organic contaminants decrease the electrical conductivity [Olhoeft, 1986] but generally only by
a small percentage even with large amounts of organics. In general terms, the effect of the inorganic
contamination often swamps any reduction in electrical conductivity caused by the presence of organic
contamination.
It seems probable that, as the end products of most bioremediation pathways are inorganic compounds
caused by the release of ions and splitting of the benzyl rings, the electrical conductivity should increase
as a result of bioremediation.
Electrical conductivity is a useful tool for detecting organics when there is little inorganic contamination.
For example, petrol spills onto clean sands provide a good target for electrical conductivity methods.
7.3.4 Electrical field methods
A number of surface and borehole electrical techniques have been applied to the investigation of both
organic and inorganic contamination with varying degrees of success. These include the following:
• EM conductivity profiling,
• Electrical conductivity sounding, and
• Electrical conductivity imaging.
• Time domain EM
7.3.5 EM conductivity profiling
Electrical conductivity profiling will provide information on the presence of lateral variations in subsur-
face bulk electrical conductivity. The data is readily acquired using EM profiling equipment such as
that produced by GEONICS [McNeil, 1980]. Data acquired by these EM instruments are valuable for
site characterisation and for the location of buried objects, such as metal drums or scrap iron. The
instrumentation is excellent for a quick first appraisal of site conditions.
Ground conductivity meters (such as the GEONICS EM38, EM31 and EM34-3) operate at low frequencies
(called low induction numbers, or LIN) (see Fig. 7.4 after McNeill [1990]). In these cases, only the
quadrature phase is important and is linearly proportional to the ground apparent conductivity σa. To
obtain information on structures at different depths, different coil spacings are used. Ground conductivity
meters can be used in both horizontal and vertical dipole modes, with different sensitivities in each case.
A shallow EM survey instrument (EM-38) is shown in Figure 7.5. An EM31 being carried on a survey
is shown in Fig. 7.6. An EM-31 attached to a QUADCYCLE and used for extensive salinity surveys is
shown in Figure 7.7.
It is not possible to interpret the profile data acquired in a quantitative manner.
The electrical frequency at which each of the GEONICS equipment works is shown in Table 7.4. There
is a considerable frequency variation between the EM34-3 used at the 40 m separation and the EM38.
These instruments will give different values of apparent conductivity over uniform ground if the material
has a complex conductivity. This will be problematic with clay material, and makes the comparison of
data acquired with the various instruments possible only in a qualitative manner.
Eastern Australia has significant quantities of the expandable lattice mineral smectite in the clays derived
from the weathering of extensive Tertiary basalt flows. These clays in particular have a complex con-
ductivity [Acworth and Jankowski, 1997] and are not suitable for comparison of EM ECa values derived
from differing equipment coil configurations.

Figure 7.4: Ground conductivity meter

Figure 7.5: GEONICS EM-38
Figure 7.6: EM31 shoulder carried for a salinity survey (Photo RIA)

Figure 7.7: EM-31 mounted on a QUADCYCLE (Photo R Beazly)
Table 7.4: Frequency Ranges of GEONICS Equipment
Instrument Itercoil Dipole Coil Exploration Operating

Spacing Orientation Depth Frequency
(m) (m) (Hz)
EM-38 1.0 Horizontal 0.75 13,200

Vertical 1.5 13,200
EM-31 3.7 Horizontal 3.0 9,600
Vertical 6.0 9,600
EM-34 10 Horizontal 7.5 6,400
Vertical 15 6,400
EM-34 20 Horizontal 15 1,600
Vertical 30 1,600
EM-34 40 Horizontal 30 400
Vertical 60 400
EM-39 0.5 0.45 39,200
The general theory of operation is explained in the technical note by McNeil [1980]. In general terms, a
transmitter coil (Tx) is energised with an alternating frequency current operating at audio frequencies
(See Table 7.4). A receiver coil (Rx) is located a short distance (s) away from the transmitter coil. The
time-varying magnetic field arising from the alternating current in the transmitter coil induces very small
eddy currents in the earth.
The eddy currents generate a secondary magnetic field (Hz ), which is sensed, together with the primary
magnetic field (Hp ), by the receiver coil. In general, the secondary magnetic field is a complicated function
of the coil spacing (s), the operating frequency (f) and the ground conductivity (σ). GEONICS have
designed equipment such that, when operated at low induction numbers, the secondary magnetic field is
a simple function of the primary magnetic field.
The GEONICS equipment is excellent for rapid reconnaissance of ground conductivity and there are
many published examples of the successful use of this equipment. The instruments do not require any
ground contact, and can therefore be walked over a site to rapidly acquire data. These instruments have
different nominal depths of penetration increasing from approximately 1.5 m with the EM-38, through
approximately 6 m with the EM-31, to a range of depths from 7.5m to 60m with the variable frequency
EM-34.3. The EM-38 and EM-31 can be used by a single operator, whereas the EM-34.3 requires a two
operators to profile along at separations of 10 m, 20 m or 40 m.

Figure 7.8: High Resolution EM Survey Results
Data acquired by these EM instruments are valuable for site characterisation and for the location of buried
objects, such as metal drums or scrap iron. An example of a high resolution survey of a contaminated
site is shown in Figure 7.8. An example of a survey for salinity on the Liverpool Plains [Acworth and
Beasley, 1998] is shown in Figure 7.9.
7.3.6 Apparent electrical conductivity ECa
Electrical resistivity is the inverse of electrical conductivity. Convention dictates that measurements made
using galvanic techniques (electrodes and wire) are recorded as resistances (Ohms) whereas measurements
made using inductive techniques (EM) are recorded as conductances (Siemens), even though the physical
property being measured is the same. Measurements of electrical conductivity are presented with the
units mS/m. Measurements of electrical resistivity are presented as Ωm. Unfortunately, both sets of
definitions are in current use.
Ground conductivity meters produce a continuous measurement of ground ECa . The values of ECa
measured are a function of instrument calibration, coil orientation and coil separation. Values of ECa
measured by four-electrode methods are a function of ground conductivity and the configuration and
spacing between the electrodes. The separation between the coils, or the electrodes, principally determines
the volume of material sensed by the instrument. This concept is often extended to include a notional
depth of penetration of the technique, with larger separations producing greater depths of penetration.
The EC of a homogeneous volume of material is a function of many variables, including porosity, satu-
ration, clay content, grain size and shape, and the total dissolved solids in the saturating fluid. Changes
in any one of these may cause the EC to change. The ECa over ground containing zones of differing EC
represents a form of lumped average electrical conductivity value influenced by the values of EC in the
various zones. As the electrode or coil separation increases it will change the contribution to the ECa
from the individual zones, with the result that the ECa itself changes.
The difference between ECa and EC, can be demonstrated using standard electrical resistivity sounding
theory [Koefoed, 1979]. Consider a model, where the ground is represented by three horizontal slabs
of infinite lateral extent, each with different electrical conductivity values (EC1 = 20 mS/m, EC2 =
500 mS/m, and EC3 = 5 mS/m), and each separated by a sharp interface. Such a model is not uncommon
in salinity work. ECa values will change between the top layer value (EC1 ) and approach the bottom

Figure 7.9: EM31 Survey over clays containing variable salt loads

Figure 7.10: Apparent conductivity values for a 3 layer model
layer value (EC3 ) as the separation between the electrodes (or coils) is increased. The extent to which
the middle layer value is developed is a function of the conductivity contrasts and the layer depths. A
plot of ECa vs electrode separation is shown for a Wenner array in Figure 7.10.
ECa values follow a three-layer curve and vary between 20 mS/m (EC1 ), at an electrode separation of
1 m, and approach the EC3 value of 5 mS/m at an electrode separation of 1000 m. The intermediate layer
value is only poorly developed. Profile data obtained using any electrode spacing > 2 m would only show
intermediate values of ECa which do not correspond to either the value for EC2 or the value for EC3 .
The use of any one of these intermediate ECa values to estimate bulk property salinity for either the
EC1 layer, the EC2 layer or the EC3 layer will clearly produce incorrect results.
In general, the interpretation of ECa measured along a single profile line as though it is EC data will lead
to errors wherever the measurements are taken over inhomogeneous ground. It is therefore necessary to
resolve the individual values of EC from the ECa data before the various factors influencing EC within
each volume can be investigated.
Two approaches to the interpretation of the ECa data are possible. The first is to derive a statistical
relationship between ECa and EC along a particular profile line. The correlation is frequently improved
by including measures of clay content, or moisture content [Cook et al., 1992]. A disadvantage of this
approach is that the relationships derived are valid for one area and soil type alone, and frequently produce
misleading results if applied in other areas without the detailed investigation required to produce the
initial correlation. The second approach is to carry out a more complete sampling of the ECa distribution,
and to invert this data set to produce a true 2-dimensional, or preferably, 3-dimensional model of the EC
variation within each zone. Factors that influence the value of EC within each zone can then be derived.
The GEONICS EM-34 system has been used to sample the ECa at different penetration depths using
repeated passes over the same profile at different distances between the transmitter and receiver coils.
McNeil [1980] introduced functions to interpret this profile data in terms of different layer depths and
EC values, but the analytical functions employed do not allow a ready inversion of an extensive data set
over inhomogeneous ground.

7.3.7 Vertical electrical sounding (VES)
If the ground can be considered to be a sequence of flat homogeneous layers (plane layering), then the
vertical electrical sounding method can be used to determine the resistivity of each layer and the depth to
the top of the layer. In reality, it is only possible to determine 3 or 4 layers at a maximum because there
is a problem with equivalence. Variation from the condition of plane layering will significantly affect the
accuracy of the interpretation.
A VES is conducted using 4 electrodes in much the same manner as electrical profiling. Instead of moving
the four electrodes along a line and keeping the separation of the electrodes constant, in VES the spacing
between the electrodes is expanded about a fixed centre point. Measurements of apparent resistivity are
frequently made at 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128 and 256 m separation. At 256 m electrode separation,
the total distance between the two outer electrodes is 768 m. Clearly, the larger the electrode separation,
the greater the chance of deviation from the condition of plane layering. For this reason, the accuracy of
the method for determining conditions at depth reduces substantially.
The depth of penetration for a 4-electrode array is approximately equal to half the electrode spacing.
At half the electrode spacing, it can be shown that contributions to the measured apparent resistivity
are approximately balanced with 50% from greater than this depth and 50% from the zone between the
ground surface and that depth.
The field data is plotted in the same manner as Fig. 7.10. The interpretation of a sounding curve can be
carried out automatically. Fig. 7.11 shows one interpretation method after Zhody [1989]. The number of
layers in the interpreted model equals the number of digitised points on the sounding curve. The code for
this problem is public domain software from the USGS and is written in BASIC. A package containing
the code is available. An example of the use of this approach is presented in Figure 7.11.
The presence of lateral variation can be detected with any of the profiling devices described previously.
It is important to realise that the presence of an anomaly detected with a profiling device is a strong
evidence that the earth can not be represented in terms of a plane layer model and that a VES should
not be attempted in this area.
7.3.8 Electrical conductivity imaging
The results obtained with EM profiling give an averaged 1-D representation of bulk EC variation. They
are particularly valuable for detecting changes in conductivity as would result from channels or buried
dykes etc. Most situations of interest exhibit both lateral and vertical electrical conductivity variation.
For this reason, simple use of electrical conductivity profiling will not resolve the geometry of the plume
accurately.
A combination of techniques is required. Electrical conductivity imaging (ECI) [Acworth and Griffiths,
1985, Acworth, 1999, 2001b] is one way to approach this problem. The ECI approach uses galvanic meth-
ods rather than induction methods to measure the bulk electrical onductivity of the ground. Repeated
profiles at increasing electrode separation build up an apparent electrical conductivity image section. This
is a vertical slice through the ground which will enable the detection of contaminant plume geometry
variation with depth. ECI methods are based upon the use of four electrodes connected to the ground.
Four electrode arrays
In practise, four electrodes are required to measure a potential difference at the surface of the earth.
• A current source electrode C1 (+);

• a current sink electrode C2 (-);

Figure 7.11: Iterative calculation of a model using Zhody’s method

Figure 7.12: Distribution of current flow between two current electrodes
• and two potential electrodes, P1 and P2, to measure a potential difference between.
The distribution of current flow between two adjacent current electrodes is shown in Figure 7.12.
The Wenner configuration of four equispaced electrodes is commonly used in profiling work. A mea-
surement is made of the potential difference between the two potential electrodes and normalised by the
current flowing between the current electrodes. The result is a resistance measurement which may be mΩ
or Ω in magnitude depending upon the distance between the electrodes. The resistance measurement is
converted to a measure of apparent resistivity by multiplying by a factor as shown in Equation 7.9.
ρ = R × 2πa (7.9)
Data acquisition equipment
The collection of this data set requires use of multi-core cables and manual or automated profiling
procedures. A schematic showing equipment configuration is shown in Figure 7.13. Electrical imaging
equipment is shown deployed in Fig. 7.14.
The field data presented in Figure 7.15 took approximately 3 hours to acquire, comprising 350 m of image
line at a base electrode separation of 5 m. The same data acquired with automatic measuring equipment
such as the STING system or the LUND switching unit from ABEM would take a third of the time.
Interpretation methods
The apparent electrical conductivity image data can be interpreted in terms of discrete regions of homo-
geneous electrical conductivity by the use of various forward modelling interpretation procedures [Dey

Figure 7.13: Arrangement of electrodes and cables for ECI fieldwork
Figure 7.14: Electrical imaging equipment from ABEM seen deployed in the field (Photo RIA)

Figure 7.15: Electrical conductivity image at Clare on the Liverpool Plains
and Morrison, 1979a,b, van Overmeeren and Ritsema, 1988, Loke and Barker, 1995, 1996]. The inter-
pretation method proposed by Loke and Barker uses a resistivity transform based upon the contribution
sections of the electrode array to provide an initial model for the least squares fit using a finite difference
algorithm [Dey and Morrison, 1979b]. An example of data interpreted using this approach is shown in
Figure 7.15.
7.3.9 Time domain EM
In transient electromagnetics, a pulse of direct current is passed through the ground loop and the magnetic
field is monitored as it collapses following the current shutdown. As eddy currents are real particles (with
mass and momentum), they do not flow or stop instantaneously, but take time to establish and decay. In
Time Domain EM (TDEM) systems, a transmitter coil produces an on-off field (literally a square wave).
When the current in the transmitter coil is extinguished, eddy currents in the ground slowly dissipate,
causing a decaying secondary magnetic field Bs . As the primary field is switched off (i.e. Bs = 0), it is
easy to detect the secondary field decay. Two coil layouts are typically used. One is like the Slingram
arrangement with two separate coils, and the second is the coincident loop method, such as Sirotem.
An example of data interpretation from the TDEM method is given in Fig. 7.16.
7.4 Seismic methods
7.4.1 Introduction
The seismic method is the most commonly used geophysical method in exploration. There are three
types of application, viz.:

Figure 7.16: Time domain data interpretation

• Seismic refraction;
• Seismic reflection, and;
• Borehole seismics, including borehole to borehole and surface to borehole methods.
The seismic reflection method has been developed by the oil industry to the point that no exploration
wells are drilled for oil without a very detailed and expensive seismic reflection survey preceding the
decision to drill. More recently, and with the availability of extensive computing power in the field, this
method is being adapted to shallow investigations. In general however, this method is not suitable for
depths of less than 50 m.
The seismic refraction method is suitable for shallow investigation and is the method which will be
described in detail in these notes.
Borehole to borehole and surface to borehole methods can be extensively used in geotechnical investigation
work and also to provide velocity profiles to assist the interpretation of seismic reflection and seismic
refraction data.
The physical basis of the seismic method can be deduced from a simple experiment we have probably all
made - that of throwing a pebble into a pond! The impact of the pebble momentarily displaces a volume
of water. This disturbance then radiates out in the form of circular wave fronts or ripples. The arrival
of these ripples at a distant point can be deduced by measuring the displacement of the water surface at
that point. Typically, the waves will be reflected at the sides of the pond and will continue back across
the pond, often at a different angle.
The process which is easily observed on a pond is replicated inside the earth when two blocks of rock
suddenly slip past each other in an earthquake, or when a hammer is used to strike the surface of the
earth.
7.4.2 Wave terminology
The wavelength (λ) is the distance between two adjacent points on a wave front which have the same
displacement or phase. For the case of the ripple on the surface of a pond, the wavelength is the distance
between two successive peaks.
The amplitude (A) of the wave is the maximum displacement of a particle associated with the passage
of the wave. On the pond this would be the distance between the undisturbed pond elevation and the
top of the ripple.
The pattern of particle displacement in time and space for a simple sine wave is shown in Figure 7.17
and Figure 7.18.
The repetition rate of the waveform, or the time taken for two successive wave crests to pass by a fixed
observation point gives the period (T ) of the wave. The number of repetitions or cycles per second is
defined as the frequency (f) of the wave.
1
f= (7.10)
T
where:
f is the frequency [Hz] ( s−1 )

T is the period [s]

Figure 7.17: Amplitude, wavelength and fre- Figure 7.18: Amplitude and period of a wave
quency of a wave
The velocity V of a wave is clearly :

distance
V = (7.11)
time
or
V = fλ (7.12)
7.4.3 Elastic coefficients
There is an unfortunate overlap here between the Greek letters used to denote quantities in seismic theory
with those used in electrical theory. The context of the use should always be clear but be warned!
If a perfectly elastic (Hookean) material is subjected to a uniaxial compression or tension, a linear

relationship exists between the applied stress σ and the resulting strain :
σ = E (7.13)
where:
E is a constant of proportionality known as Young’s Modulus
The value of the strain is the ratio of the change in line length in its deformed state (lf ) to its initial
state (lo ).
lf − lo ∆l
= = (7.14)
lo lo
If a hookean solid is subject to uniaxial compression it will shorten in the direction of compression and
expand in the plane at right angles to the direction of compression.
If 1 represents the shortening in the direction of compression and 3 represents the expansion in the
plane at right angles to the compression, then the ratio of these two quantities is referred to as Poisson’s
Ratio (µ)
1
µ= (7.15)
3
where µ < 0.5
There are two further elastic constants which are also important. In an isotropic material subject to a
general change in pressure a change in volume will occur. The change from the original volume (Vo ) to
a final volume (Vf ), when compared to the pressure change is called the Bulk Modulus (K). It can be
defined as:

∆p
K= = β −1 (7.16)
∆V /Vo
where:
∆p is the pressure change,

∆V is the volume change Vf − Vo
Vo is the initial volume, and
Vf is the final volume.
β is the compressibility of the material.
The bulk modulus is the reciprocal of the compressibility and is therefore also referred to as the incom-
pressibility!
It is also possible to deform a solid by means of a simple shear. A shear strain γ is induced in response
to a shear stress σs . The ratio of these quantities is the rigidity modulus (G),
σs
G= (7.17)
γ
Some representative values for these quantities are given in Table 7.5 [Burger, 1992]. Note that each rock
type will cover a range of values and that these data are indicative only.
Table 7.5: Indicative Elastic Coefficients and Seismic Velocities for Selected Rock Types
Density Young’s Poisson’s VP VS

Rock Type ρ Modulus E Ratio µ
kg/m3 GN/m2 m/s m/s
Shale 2670 12.0 0.040 2124 1470

Siltstone 2500 13.0 0.120 2319 1524
Limestone 2710 33.7 0.156 3633 2319
Limestone 2440 17.0 0.180 2750 1718
Quartzite 2660 63.6 0.115 4965 3274
Sandstone 2280 14.0 0.060 2488 1702
Slate 2670 48.7 0.115 4336 2860
Schist 2700 54.4 0.180 4680 2921
Gneiss 2640 25.5 0.146 3189 2053
Marble 2870 71.7 0.270 5587 3136
Granite 2660 41.6 0.055 3967 2722
Gabbro 3050 72.7 0.162 5053 3203
Basalt 2740 63.0 0.220 5124 3070
Andesite 2570 54.0 0.180 4776 2984
Tuff 1450 1.40 0.110 996 659
Note: Units for Young’s Modulus are GN m−2 or GPa.
The rigidity and bulk modulii are not independent quantities and can be expressed in terms of the Young’s
modulus and Poisson’s ratio as:
E
G= (7.18)
2 (1 + µ)
and
E
K= (7.19)
3 (1 − 2µ)

Poisson’s ratio for shale is generally about 0.004; for tuff about 0.11; for silts and sands betwen 0.2 and
0.4. Poisson’s ratio for clays is between 0.4 and 0.5.
Young’s modulus for shale is approximately 10 GPa; for tuff 1.5 GPa; for silty clay between 0.007 and
0.008 GPa and 0.2 GPa for hard clay.
7.4.4 Seismic waves
There are two types of body wave which occur within a uniform homogeneous rock. One type of wave is
transmitted by particle movements back and forth along the direction of propagation of the wave. These
waves are referred to as longitudinal waves. As these waves have the highest velocity they are the first
waves to arrive at a receiver and are also referred to as primary waves (P-waves). Longitudinal waves are
also sometimes referred to as compressional waves. The particle motions which produce P-waves can be
thought of as a series of compressions and expansions which occur in the direction of wave propagation.
Sound moves through air in this manner.
The second wave type is the transverse wave in which particle motion is in the plane at right angles to
the direction of motion. These waves are referred to as secondary waves (S-waves) as they arrive at a
receiver after the primary wave. They are also called shear waves as the wave motion through the rock
causes the particles to be subject to a shearing motion. A common analogy for shear wave motion is the
transmission of wave energy along a rope. A flick of the end will send a wave along the rope, but the
only motion of the particles is in a direction at right angles to the wave propagation direction. Using
this analogy we can also explain the existence of vertical and horizontal polarisation of wave energy. If
the initial flick of the rope is in a horizontal plane then the wave is said to be horizontally polarised.
Similarly, if the initial energy is given in the vertical direction, vertically polarised waves result. When
seismic waves pass through interfaces or boundaries, there is often a transfer of energy between P waves
and S waves which result in new wave formation. The study of the polarisation of this energy can often
be diagnostic of soil structure.
In areas which are not homogeneous, such as the earth’s surface, two other wave types are generated.
These are the Rayleigh and Love waves. These travel at the interface or the surface of the earth and
cause ground roll. They are not generally used for seismic analysis but can cause difficulties in the field
by swamping the more useful P and S wave energy.
The surface wave travels more slowly than either body wave, and is generally complex. In the special case
of a homogeneous ground, the surface disturbance is caused entirely by the wave known as a Rayleigh
wave, in which both vertical and horizontal components of ground motion are present. The horizontal
ground motion is of rather smaller amplitude than the vertical, and is 90o out of phase with it, so that
the resultant path of an element of the medium during the passage of a Rayleigh wave cycle follows an
ellipse lying in the plane of propagation. The ground motion becomes negligibly small within a distance
from the free surface of the same order as the wavelength of the disturbance. The velocity Vr of the
Rayleigh wave is only about 10% less than the body shear wave velocity, the ratio VVsr depending only on
Poisson’s ratio.
If the ground were perfectly elastic, the amplitudes of the waves would decrease with range from their
source simply as a result of the spreading of the wave energy (proportional to the square of the amplitude)
over the increasing wave-front area. This is analogous with the amplitude of the wave in the pool
decreasing as the diameter of the wavefront increases. This area will vary as the square of the range
for spherically spreading body waves and linearly with range r for cylindrically spreading surface waves.
Body and surface waves would thus have amplitudes varying as 1r and √1r respectively.
The form of the pulse is determined by the relative amplitudes of the different frequency components which
make up its spectrum. Since these spectral components are equally affected by geometrical spreading, one
would not expect the pulse form to be changed during its propagation. Real earth materials, however, are
imperfectly elastic, leading to energy loss and attenuation of the seismic waves, that is, to an amplitude
reduction more rapid than would be expected from geometrical spreading alone. This attenuation is more

pronounced for less consolidated rocks and is also greater for higher frequencies, selective loss of the high
frequency components of a pulse leading to its progressive broadening in time as the pulse propagates.
Seismic wave velocities
The velocities of the P- and S-waves may be expressed in terms of the elastic constants.
s s
K + 4/3G E (1 − µ)
Vp = = (7.20)
ρ ρ (1 − 2µ)(1 + µ)
and s s
G E 1
Vs = = (7.21)
ρ ρ 2(1 + µ)
As the bulk modulus (K) and the rigidity modulus (G) are always positive and Poisson’s ratio is less
than or equal to a half, then the shear wave velocity must always be less than the primary wave velocity.
The ratio of the primary and shear wave velocities can be used to determine Poisson’s ratio directly by
solution of Equation 7.22.
r
Vp 1−µ
= (7.22)
VS 0.5 − µ
Because the rigidity modulus (G) is zero for liquids, S waves can not propagate through liquids.
Representative primary wave velocities for a variety of materials are given in Table 7.6.
Table 7.6: Representative Primary Wave Velocities
Material Velocity
(m/s)
Air 331.5
Water 1400 - 1600
Weathered Layer 300 - 900
Soil 250 - 600
Alluvium 500 - 2000
Clay 1100 - 2500
Unsaturated Sand 200 - 1000
Saturated Sand 800 - 2200
Unsaturated Sand & Gravel 400 - 500
Saturated Sand & Gravel 500 -1500
Granite 5000 - 6000
Basalt 5400 - 6400
Metamorphic Rocks 3500 - 7000
Sandstone and Shale 2000 - 4500
Limestone 2000 - 6000
It is apparent that only ranges of P-wave velocity such as those quoted in Table 7.6 can be expected to
correspond to a given lithological type and that the overlap between these ranges is such that a velocity
of 4000 m/s, for example, might correspond to anything from a well cemented sandstone or limestone to a
fractured igneous or metamorphic rock. Velocities within one formation, however, normally show a much

smaller variability than these figures suggest, and provided that some geological control is available, the
identification of such a formation from its seismic velocity in a local context is often quite practicable.
A guide to seismic P-wave velocities would be 500 m/s for dry unconsolidated material; 1500 m/s for
saturated unconsolidated material; 4000 m/s for sedimentary rocks and 6000 m/s for unweathered igneous
rocks. The following generalisations can be made:
• Seismic velocity increases as saturation increases

• Seismic velocity increases with consolidation of the sediments
• Velocities are all similar in saturated unconsolidated sediments
• Seismic velocity decreases as weathering increases
• Seismic velocity decreases as fracturing in bedrock increases
Energy sources used to generate seismic waves typically produce frequencies in the range 10 Hz to 100 Hz.
The wavelength of a P-wave travelling through saturated unconsolidated material will then be between
150 m and 15 m.
The ratio between the P wave and the S wave velocities can be useful. In general the following apply:
• Vs ≈ 0.6Vp for crystalline rocks

• Vs ≈ 0.5Vp for sedimentary rocks, and
• Vs ≈ 0.4Vp for soils and unconsolidated materials
A rule of thumb estimate for Rayleigh (surface) waves is Vr = 0.9Vs .
Different soil characteristics are also listed by the French Oil Institute as:
Table 7.7: Cross-hole derived characteristics

Material P Velocity S Velocity Density
(m/s) (m/s) (kg/m3 )
Vegetated soil 300 - 700 100 - 300 1700 - 2400
Dry sand 400 - 1200 100 - 500 1500 - 1700
Wet sand 1500 - 4000 400 - 1200 1900 - 2100
Clay 1100 - 2500 200 - 800 1800 - 2200
Siltstone 2000 - 3000 750 - 1500 2100 - 2600
Sandstone 3000 - 4000 1200 - 2800 2100 - 2400
Limestone 3500 - 6000 2000 - 3300 2400 - 2700
Chalk 2300 - 2600 1100 - 1300 1800 - 2300
Coal 2200 - 2700 1000 - 1400 1300 - 1800
Seismic wave attenuation and amplitude
As seismic waves move through the ground they cause small distortions of the mineral grains which are
the strains caused by the stress represented by the passage of the wave. The ground is not perfectly
elastic and some energy is lost due to the production of heat.
The reduction in energy of the wave is called the absorption. This can represented as:
I = I0 e−qr (7.23)

where:
I is the intensity of the energy

q is the absorption coefficient
r is distance
If I0 is the energy at some point, then this will have decayed to I at a distance r. In general, losses
due to absorption are greater at high frequencies than at low frequencies. For this reason, it is the lower
frequency energy which propagates the furthest through the earth.
7.4.5 Energy sources
Two seismic sources are commonly used in shallow seismic work:
• A weight drop, or hammer blow, and

• an explosive.
The simplest and most common form of a weight drop is a hammer. A hammer struck against a metal
plate lying on the ground surface can effectively generate sufficient energy to enable the seismic wave to
be detected at 100m distance. If a hammer does not impart sufficient energy then a variety of guided
weight drops can be used. The complexity of these is often a function of the ease of mobilising the weight
drop to the required site. A wide range of shallow seismic work can be carried out with a hammer striking
against a metal plate laid on the ground. The plate is used to get good seismic coupling between the
hammer and the ground. Clearly, seismic work on soft ground becomes a problem as the plate is knocked
into the ground and has to be dug out!
Explosives are used for cases where the energy imparted by a weight drop is insufficient. The explosive is
placed in a prepared drill hole and tamped down to improve the coupling between the explosive charge
and the ground. There are various types of explosive designed specifically for seismic work. Permission
to use explosives on a site may be a problem in some areas. A shot gun fired into the ground may also
provide an efficient seismic source and there are many variations on this theme available. The relative
energies for a variety of seismic sources are shown in Figure 7.19 [Burger, 1992].
Shear waves can be generated by imparting a shear stress to the ground surface. The most common
method used is to hit the side of a plate fixed into the ground, or the side of a timber placed on the
ground surface and held in place by parking a vehicle with its wheels on the timber. Opposing polarity
shear waves can be generated by striking either end of the timber.
Marine seismic sources include air guns and sparkers. These devices can only produce P-wave energy as
a result of the lack of shear strength of water.
A mechanical vibration device is often used for reflection surveys. The vibrator is truck mounted and
can act as a source of seismic energy at a specific frequency. Frequencies in the range 10H Hz to 550 Hz
are often used in reflection work. The complete signal is recorded from the geophone and the seismic
response of the ground obtained by deconvolving the frequency spectrum of the vibrator source from the
measured geophone signal.

Figure 7.19: Shot gun and weight-drop seismic sources
7.4.6 Seismic equipment
Signal recording
Seismic equipment consists of the receiver or geophone and a means of recording the output from the
geophone. The sophistication of equipment varies from the single channel seismograph which records the
output from one geophone to multi-channel devices which are typically 12- or 24-channels.
The seismograph accepts a signal produced by the seismic source which initiates a recording of the output
from the geophones. The seismograph recording used to be directly onto a chart recorder. The analogue
signal from the geophone is now digitized directly and recorded on a computer. As memory capabilities
have improved in portable computers the sampling rate and length of seismic record which is saved in
the computer have improved dramatically. Most seismographs now digitise the seismic signal and allow
1048 bytes for each signal. It is easy to see how the volume of data recorded by a 12 or 24 channel system
rapidly becomes a problem. Most modern seismographs are provided with a hard disc and a 3.5 inch
drive to download data onto. A typical modern seismograph is shown in Figure 7.20 and Figure 7.21.
The presence of computing power in the field also makes data interpretation in the field a possibility as
well. An example of a seismic record is shown in Figure 7.22.
The seismograph display often has the capability of several forms of data presentation. The seismogram
can be displayed as a simple wiggle trace or as an amplitude shaded signal as shown in Figure 7.22.
It is also possible to vary the amplification on each channel individually so that the signal from distant
geophones can be boosted in favour of those from geophones close to the source.
Filters can also generally be applied to each signal. In this way, the effects of transmission line interference
(high amplitude filter) or ground roll (low amplitude filter) can be removed.

Figure 7.20: The Terraloc Mark 6 Seismograph Figure 7.21: Terraloc-6 showing cable connec-
produced by the ABEM Company tions
Figure 7.22: Typical seismic record display

Figure 7.23: Schematic of a typical geophone
Signal stacking
Seismographs have the capacity to stack the seismograms derived from repeated signals. In this way, the
effect of cultural noise can be overcome. Noise is a major problem in surveys and is created by traffic,
industrial processes, farm equipment, and even trees. The best time to carry out a seismic survey in
non-urban areas is early in the morning when there is little wind. The wind blowing through trees can
set up low frequency noise in the ground which can swamp the seismic response from a hammer blow.
The wind blowing through grass and causing the grass blades to knock against the recording equipment
(geophones) can also be a problem.
Geophones
The geophone monitors the ground motion produced by the passage of the seismic wave train. The
geophone design basically consists of a cylindrical coil of fine wire suspended in a cylindrical cavity in
a magnet. The coil moves as a result of the ground motion and induces an electric current in the coil
which is proportional to the ground motion. The natural frequency of the geophone is damped to avoid
the output from these oscillations obscuring the ground motion.
A schematic of a geophone is given in Figure 7.23 [Burger, 1992]. A special multi-core cable is used in
seismic work, often with 12 pairs of connectors for the connection of 12 geophones.
7.4.7 Interpretation
Seismic refraction interpretation methods have been developed for a wide variety of subsurface config-
urations. The interpretation methods are based upon an analysis of the ray paths and the times taken
for seismic energy to travel the ray paths. Simple interpretations of two and three layers can be easily
derived. More complex, yet still simple in concept, methods are available to determine the depths to
uneven subsurface boundaries. The delay-time method and the generalised reciprocal method are two
more comprehensive interpretation techniques which can be used for detailed analysis.

Figure 7.24: Reflected and refracted wave energy
7.4.8 Refraction at an interface
Seismic wave energy is reflected or refracted when it passes across an interface. The relative amounts of
reflected and refracted energy depend upon the angle of incidence of the seismic energy to the interface
and upon the seismic velocity contrasts between the two layers. The relationship between the incident
angle and the refracted angle is known as Snell’s Law and is shown in Equation 7.24.
sin θi V1
= (7.24)
sin θr V2
where:
θi is the angle of incidence, and

θr is the angle of refraction.
V1 is the seismic velocities of the upper layer, and
V2 is the seismic velocity of the lower layer.
A P wave incident on a interface which separates materials of different seismic velocity creates a distur-
bance which gives rise to both a reflected and refracted P waves and S waves, as shown in Figure 7.24.
The percentage of energy which is transferred from one wave type to another is a function of the seismic
velocity contrast between the media and the angle of the incident wave front. The only case for which
an incident S-wave does not give rise to a reflected or refracted P-wave is when the S-wave is entirely
horizontally polarised.
The incident energy is partitioned in the process of refraction where the energy in each of the refracted
primary or shear waves sums to equal the energy in the incident wave train.
7.4.9 Critical refraction
The ratio of reflected to refracted energy is a function of the angle of incidence of the seismic wave front.
The angle of refraction increases as the angle of incidence increases until a point is reached when all
the energy is refracted along the horizontal interface. Further increase in incident angle causes complete
internal reflection of energy at the interface with no energy penetration into the underlying medium.

Figure 7.25: Refraction, critical refraction and reflection at an interface
The angle at which no further seismic energy penetrates a deeper layer and all energy is refracted along
the interface creating a head wave travelling at the velocity of the deeper layer is called the critical angle.
This critical angle is given by Equation 7.25.
V1
θic = sin−1 (7.25)
V2
The relationship is shown in Figure 7.25 after Burger [1992].
The full sequence of waves generated by a blast over an interface is shown in Figure 7.26 Burger [1992].
7.4.10 Seismic waves in homogeneous ground
The seismic velocity of homogeneous ground can be determined in the field using a seismograph, geophones
and an energy source.
The geophones are placed in a line at regular intervals and connected to a seismograph. A hammer is
used to strike the ground and the signals from the geophones are all recorded at the seismograph. The
hammer has an inertial switch connected to it which sends a zero-time signal to the seismograph and
causes the recording of the geophone response to begin.
The time for the wave front to reach each geophone is measured from a seismograph trace, and plotted
against distance. The time to reach each geophone is given by Equation 7.26.
x
t= (7.26)
V1
where:
t is the time for the wave to travel to the geophone

x is the distance from the shot (hammer) point to the geophone, and

Figure 7.26: Generalised wave diagram over an interface

Figure 7.27: Travel times for a single sub-surface layer
V1 is the velocity of seismic energy through the ground.
The first derivative of Equation 7.26 with respect to distance gives the reciprocal of the velocity. A plot of
arrival times (y-axis) against distance (x-axis) produces a straight line, whose slope is then the reciprocal
of the velocity.
dt 1
= (7.27)
dx V1
7.4.11 A single sub-surface interface
A generalised diagram showing the configuration of geophones and shot points, and a plot of the resulting
travel time data for a single horizontal interface are shown in Figure 7.27.
A synthetic seismogram for the velocity configuration shown in Figure 7.27 is shown in Figure 7.28
[Burger, 1992].
7.4.12 Travel time equation for a single horizontal interface
The geometry for a single subsurface layer is shown in Figure 7.29.
The total travel time for a seismic wave following the path shown in Figure 7.29 can be easily calculated.
The total travel time (TEG ) along the path E-M-N-G in Figure 7.29 must be:
EM MN NG
tEG = + + (7.28)
V1 V2 V1
Since
h1
cos θic = (7.29)
EM
and EM = NG, then
h1
EM = N G = (7.30)
cos θic

Figure 7.28: Model generated waves for a 2-layer model
Figure 7.29: Geometry for a 1 layer problem

Noting that EA = BG = h1 tan θic and that M N = x − 2h1 tan θic we can rearrange Equation 7.28 with
the objective of writing the equation only in terms of the layer velocities and depths. This will allow a
more readily derived solution.
h1 x − 2h1 tan θic h1

tEG = + + (7.31)
V1 cos θic V2 V1 cos θic
Utilising the relationship for the critical angle that

V1
sin θic = (7.32)
V2
and
sin θic
tan θic = (7.33)
cos θic
and substituting in Equation 7.31 we get:
2h1 2h1 sin2 θic x

tEG = − + (7.34)
V1 cos θic V1 cos θic V2
Rearranging Equation 7.34 produces:
2h1 1 − sin2 θic

x
tEG = + (7.35)
V1 cos θic V2
Using the relationship that sin2 θic + cos2 θic = 1 and the relationships listed previously we can simplify
Equation 7.35 as follows:
2h1 cos θic x
tEG = + (7.36)
V1 V2
p
2h1 1 − V12 /V22 x
tEG = + (7.37)
V1 V2
p
2h1 V22 − V12 x
tEG = + (7.38)
V2 V1 V2
After all that analysis, if we take the first derivative of the time with respect to distance we get:
dt 1
= (7.39)
dx V2
A plot of the time of arrivals against distance from a source, for a seismic wave refracted from an interface,
will give a straight line with a slope value equal to the reciprocal of the refractor velocity.
These relationships have been placed into an EXCEL file and used to produce the data shown in Fig-
ure 7.30 A plot of the data shown in Figure 7.30 is presented in Figure 7.31 and a typical seismogram for
this situation is shown in Figure 7.32 [Burger, 1992].
The depth to the interface between the first and second layers can be derived from Equation 7.38. If the
line defining the second layer velocity is extrapolated back to zero distance, a value of the intercept time
ti is produced. Setting x = 0 in Equation 7.38 and using the intercept time for a value of tEG allows a
solution for h1 , as shown in Equation 7.40.
ti V V
h1 = p 2 1 (7.40)
2 V22 − V12

Figure 7.30: Arrival times over a single horizontal layer model
Figure 7.31: Travel times over a 1 layer model

Figure 7.32: Typical seismogram over a 1 layer model
The distance from the shot point at which the refracted wave becomes the first arrival is known as the
crossover distance. Values of this can be seen in Figure 7.30. The crossover value is a function of the
velocity contrast and the depth to the refractor, and is important as it determines the distance from the
shot point that measurements have to be made to accurately determine the thickness of the first layer and
the velocity of the second layer. A value of the crossover time can be derived by equating Equation 7.26
with Equation 7.38 and solving for the distance.
r
xco V2 − V1
h1 = (7.41)
2 V2 + V1
Note that this equation could also be solved for the thickness of the top layer.
The critical distance is the minimum distance for a refracted wave to be received at the surface. It will
initially be a later arrival than the direct wave.
The equations above show how a simple 1D problem can be solved. They can be extended to many
different interfaces and to interface with irregular depths.
7.5 Airborne surveys
7.5.1 Introduction
Airborne surveys can cover large areas efficiently. However, to be financially viable, they must be used to
cover large areas. This tends to mean that they are commissioned by State agencies rather than individ-
uals. Geophysical methods can provide invaluable information to assist with the overall interpretation of
an area. The recent availability of Google maps is a good indication of the quantum leap in understanding
that is possible with a well calibrated remote sensing product. However, there has been a tendency to
over sell airborne geophysics in the same way that ground based geophysics has often been over sold.
There is no escaping the fact that geophysical methods require calibration based upon actual observation.
Having said that, geophysical methods provide an invaluable method to extend from, or between, known
conditions established by drilling and sampling. Geophysics can not be used to map groundwater or to
monitor regional groundwater movement.
The Federal Government financed an extensive evaluation of airborne electromagnetic surveys for the
detection and monitoring of dryland salinity. The results were mixed with the methods working well in

parts of WA but less effectively on the Liverpool Plains of NSW.
The appropriate use of airborne geophysics is that employed by English et al. [2004] where a fully
integrated approach to a specific problem has been undertaken. Airborne EM, radiometrics (gamma-ray
spectrometry), magnetics data were collected and calibrated by an extensive program of drilling, sampling
and downhole logging.
Key aspects of the executive summary from that work are quoted below to demonstrate the evolution of
the conceptual model for an area of investigation:
Intricate networks of drainage channels are well-defined in both the Total Magnetic Intensity
(TMI) and AEM Conductivity Depth Images (CDI) datasets. Concordance between magnetic
channels and high AEM conductivity relates to x-y space, and less so to z, the depth dimension.
Thus, it is not the magnetic gravels (which may make up only a few percent of a profile within
the alluvial channels) that are the high conductor. Rather, the high conductivity revealed
in the AEM relates to overlying and underlying alluvial clay deposits that encompass the
subordinate magnetic gravels within the buried channels.
The magnetically-defined channels correspond with both contemporary drainage networks
incised into the higher terrain and contiguous downgradient reaches of the same systems that
are now buried beneath onlapping Riverine Plain sediments. The latter buried palaeochannels
trend northward, contrasting with the present-day drainage in the plain, which flows westward.
Clearly, a complex history has been involved in the geologic and palaeoenvironmental evolution
of this area where the Murray Darling Basin meets the uplands.
Contouring of the elevation of the watertable indicates that the groundwater flow direction
beneath the Riverine Plain is westward, not northward as previously proposed. Therefore,
the impression conveyed in the northern part of the survey area by the TMI - and, to a lesser
extent by the AEM signature for clay-rich alluvium for the same area - dominated by north-
trending palaeochannels, does not relate to the hydrogeologic functioning of the system. Very
shallow groundwater saturates all substrate of the plain, palaeochannels and palaeo-interfluves
alike, regardless of the buried relief that is revealed in the imagery.
Saturated and unsaturated zones can not be readily discriminated from each other in the
AEM data. Closer to the hill crests conductivity highs are found to correspond with dry
substrate and down-gradient they relate to saturated sediments that are immersed in saline
groundwater, with no distinguishing difference in actual EM measurements (mS/m) or the
nature of the conductivity patterns. Only drill-hole data and watertable measurements can
discriminate between saturated and unsaturated zones in the subsurface. This resolution is
important to assessing the mobility of observed salt stores. It is necessary to sink as many
drill-holes as possible to ascertain the depths, salinities and gradient of the groundwater
system, regardless of the availability of airborne geophysics data.
The calibrated AEM datasets, used in conjunction with bore hydrographs and field obser-
vations, afforded retargeting of research within the catchment. The original focus on the
Violet Town Plain - which had been designated a priority area on the basis of the original,
uncalibrated AEM data - was redirected to adjacent areas where the reprocessed AEM re-
vealed distinctive high conductivity features. The FRRR research consequently focused on
the Miepoll and Baddaginnie areas in particular, with some additional work directed towards
the break-of-slope areas near the Strathbogie Ranges, and in Sheep Pen Creek sub-catchment.
The poor detection by the AEM of pervasive saline groundwater in fractured bedrock aquifers
- may present a similar limitation with application of the AEM technology for other frac-
tured Palaeozoic bedrock provinces around the edges of the Murray Darling Basin. This is
pertinent to future AEM surveys planned for regions that encompass fractured Palaeozoic
bedrock provinces such as Wagga Wagga, Kamarooka and the South West Goulburn region
and widespread exposures of this country rock elsewhere in the Lachlan Fold Belt. In such
regions, drilling and groundwater monitoring may be a more appropriate and cost-effective
strategy than conducting airborne surveys.
The understanding of salt stores, salt mobility and salinity risk and hazard in Honeysuckle

Creek catchment presented in this report has mainly been derived from conventional field-
based techniques with support from remotely sensed datasets. Recommendations to avert
salinity or to deal with already existing saline areas are derived largely from an appreciation
of physical processes operating over a range of spatial and temporal scales, and a general
understanding of catchment behaviour and climatic criteria.
The present study underscores the importance of integrating the use of all remotely sensed
datasets with drilling and field and laboratory analysis, and with as many supporting datasets
as can be acquired for a given area under investigation. System understanding, of given catch-
ments, and process understanding - of the underlying causes and mechanisms of landscape
and waterway salinisation in wider regions - are equally important. The present study par-
ticularly emphasises the need to establish the relationships between landscape and hydrology
in three dimensions. This framework then needs to incorporate knowledge about temporal
behaviour (the fourth dimension) and variations that relate to climatic drivers, albeit with
the tacit understanding of time lags inherent between surface hydrologic processes and re-
sponses in the groundwater system. Secondly, the approximate status quo with respect to
hydrologic equilibrium or disequilibrium and salt equilibrium or disequilibrium needs to be
established for any system under investigation. Understanding the balances between recharge
and discharge and between salt input and salt output, and scrutiny of salt load dynamics and
salinity trends in our streams are here regarded as more important than static mapping of
the distribution of substrate conductivities in a given system.
Recommended intervention measures stemming from the hydrogeological datasets and inter-
pretation of the airborne geophysical data are based on our current experience in the multi-
disciplinary Heartlands Initiative. The latter include low to medium rainfall agroforestry
trials being conducted within the Honeysuckle catchment. These are aimed at optimising
recharge reduction, commercially viable farm forestry, and the preservation or restoration of
threatened environments within the region. The experience gained through the Heartlands
work in recent years in both Honeysuckle and Billabong catchments has emphasised the im-
perative of fieldbased hydrogeological investigations towards understanding key features in
given systems and the dynamics of salinity. Drilling and measuring watertable depths and
groundwater salinities, in particular, are obligatory. Airborne geophysics datasets have been
found to be useful but not essential, particularly if the cost of research and on-ground action
is a limiting factor. Comprehensive salinity investigations leading to appropriate measures
to ameliorate salinity can be conducted using conventional hydrogeological techniques in the
absence of airborne geophysics datasets, but not vice versa. Sensible application of airborne
geophysics is wholly dependent upon follow-up drilling, calibration, substantial groundwater
data and system understanding.
7.5.2 Case studies
The Brigalow Belt in northern NSW extending into Queensland has been surveyed by the NSW DMR as
a part of a wider report that will be used to provide baseline information for investment. Fig. 7.33 shows
the detail that can be achieved from this type of survey. As stated above, it is frequently not possible
to say exactly what is causing the various anomalies that are detected by airborne methods, but any
conceptual model that is developed for an area requires that the airborne anomalies be accounted for.
7.6 Selected case studies
7.6.1 Geophysical investigation and monitoring of landfills
In the management and development of landfill sites it is often necessary to obtain information about the
dimensions and nature of the fill and saturating leachate, the nature and extent of any leachate plume and
the location of points of leakage through clay and plastic liners. Conventionally such investigation might

Figure 7.33: Brigalow Belt

Table 7.8: Physical properties of landfill sites.
Dry Fill Saturated Fill Bedrock (saturated)
Seismic velocity (m/ms) <1.0 1.2 - 1.8 >2.0

Electrical resistivity (Ohm m) 20 - 100 20 80 - 300
Density (kg/m3 ) <1500 1800 - 2200 2200 - 2600
Figure 7.34: Electrical image across a landfill with clear definition of base
involve the drilling of numerous boreholes through the fill and the surrounding area, a process which
is not only expensive, but which might be unacceptable if this results in breaches of any containment
barrier. The costs can often be considerably reduced, however, if geophysical techniques are employed.
A geophysical survey can have many advantages. It is not an invasive technique and so does not result
in breaches of the liner. Most geophysical techniques are also so rapid that they can be completed in a
fraction of the time required for drilling exploratory wells.
7.6.2 Techniques
Over the years a variety of geophysical techniques has been employed in landfill investigations with varying
degrees of success. Although the likely success of a geophysical survey depends on the environmental
conditions encountered at the site and on the subsurface geology, most modern methods will provide
useful information even in very difficult conditions. The choice of technique will depend on the properties
of the site and different geophysical techniques have different advantages and disadvantages, but various
problems associated with landfill sites may be economically investigated using geophysical techniques.
7.6.3 Defining the extent of a landfill
Geophysical surveys may be conducted across a filled landfill to define the depth extent and geometry
of the landfill. Both seismic refraction, gravity and resistivity sounding are suitable methods and can be
used to determine the fill thickness to within 10% - 20%. However, the preference these days is to use
electrical imaging to provide a visual although qualitative image along a section through the landfill (cf
Fig. 7.34).
Variations in the base or lateral extent of the landfill where this is thought to be a near-vertical interface
may be located using either seismic or EM profiling techniques. In cases where these techniques have
proved unsuitable for any reason then the gravity technique may be considered. One important advantage
of a gravity survey is that the measurements do not need to be conducted in straight lines and so the
presence of buildings especially near the edge of the landfill is no real obstacle to the survey. The landfill

site should, however, be reasonably flat and the elevation of each gravity station has to be accurately
surveyed.
7.6.4 Monitoring leachate levels
In principle, the determination of the depth of the water table when this is within the quarry fill is
easily resolved using resistivity sounding, which responds clearly to the very strong contrast in electrical
properties across this interface. However, although the level of leachate may be accurately determined in a
borehole, this may bear little relation to the distribution of leachate in the fill, which may be heterogeneous
in the extreme. Intercalated clay layers resulting from temporary caps laid down at intermediate stages
in the life of the landfill will lead to varying saturation and the occurrence of a number of perched
water tables. The generation of landfill gas will also result in irregular leachate saturation of the fill. In
these, often normal, circumstances the water table may be a meaningless concept and hence impossible
to determine geophysically. The best way round this problem is to investigate the nature of fill with
electrical imaging. The distribution of the resistivity is intimately related to the nature and saturation
of the fill material.
A plume of contaminated groundwater can normally be detected if its width and thickness are more than
10% of its depth. The conductivity of the contaminated water should be considerably higher (perhaps by
a factor of ten) than that of the surrounding groundwater. Electrical monitoring for leaks in the landfill
liner and observation of temporal changes in the electrical properties of the underlying sandstone may be
carried out by mapping the voltage pattern either on the surface of the landfill using moving electrodes, or
below the liner using a permanently installed grid of electrodes. The potential will increase in the vicinity
of any leak, which acts as a point electrode. Monitoring has been carried out over a period of eight years
at the Cleanaway-operated landfill at Sandy Lane, near Bromsgrove in UK. Presently the monitoring
system consists of more than 400 electrodes arranged in a grid beneath the high density polyethylene
geomembrane liner of the landfill. Regular monthly monitoring during installation has so far detected
more than 60 minor faults in the liner.
Contaminant leakage
Geophysical surveys are frequently employed in the investigation of contaminated land. Normally rapid
reconnaissance types of survey employ a ground conductivity instrument or magnetometer. Examples
have been given in earlier sections. Figure 7.35 shows a ground conductivity survey carried out to
delineate contamination caused by leakage from a settlement lagoon. Acworth and Jorstadt [2006] report
the use of electrical imaging to investigate a contaminant plume emanating from a suburban landfill in
the Botany Aquifer, Sydney.

Figure 7.35: Ground conductivity (EM31) survey to delineate contamination plume due to leakage
through a dam

Chapter 8
Water well drilling - methods, design

and maintenance
Contents
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
8.2 Drilling methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
8.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
8.2.2 Cable-tool drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
8.2.3 Rotary methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
8.2.4 Drilling fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
8.2.5 Air drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
8.2.6 Reverse circulation rotary drilling methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
8.2.7 Down-hole hammer drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
8.3 Well construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
8.3.1 Grouting bore casing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
8.3.2 Sand screens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
8.3.3 Packing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
8.3.4 Well screen installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
8.3.5 Bore development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
8.4 Borehole failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
8.4.1 Physical processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
8.4.2 Chemical processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
8.4.3 Microbial processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
8.4.4 Operational factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
8.4.5 Structural and mechanical factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
8.5 Borehole abandonment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
8.6 System re-evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
8.6.1 Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
8.1 Introduction
This chapter is intended for those who may engage a driller or use bore data. It is not intended to be
a drilling manual for use by a drilling contractor. The reference by ADITC [1996] is provided for that
purpose. In this way it is hoped to facilitate communication between the engineer or hydrogeologist and
the driller working at a site. Secondly, it is provided to give a better understanding of the drilling process
as a basis for better assessing reliability of bore hole data stored in databases. Accordingly, this chapter
230
Chapter 8. Water well drilling - methods, design and maintenance
takes a step by step approach through the process of drilling, constructing wells, their development,
maintenance and abandonment. The person letting the drilling contract will have to assess different
drilling organizations, choose the appropriate drilling method, while the engineer or hydrogeologist may
be required to make decisions on siting, design, testing, sampling, maintenance and decommissioning or
abandonment of wells.
Drilling techniques and water well design vary widely and depend on the type of geological formation
being drilled and on the purpose of the well. They have also evolved with the introduction of new
materials and technology, so there is now a wide selection of possibilities for design and construction.
The following terms are extracted from the glossary. There is considerable variation in the useage of
terms and we will try to follow the definitions set out in the glossary!
Exploratory borehole: - A borehole drilled for the specific purpose of obtaining information about the
subsurface geology or groundwater. Synonyms are investigation borehole, exploration borehole or
pilot borehole.
Hand-dug well: - A large-diameter, usually shallow, water well constructed by manual labour. Syn-
onyms are dug well or open well.
Water well: - Any hole excavated in the ground that can be used to obtain a water supply.
Observation borehole: A borehole constructed to obtain information on variations in groundwater
level or water quality. Also known as an observation well.
Piezometer: - A small diameter borehole or tube constructed for the measurement of hydraulic head
at a specific depth in an aquifer. In a piezometer, the section of the borehole (the screened section)
in contact with the aquifer is usually very short.
Drilled well: - A water well constructed by drilling. Synonyms are tube-well, production well or pro-
duction borehole.
Boreholes can be drilled for many different reasons. These include:
• water wells for town, stock, domestic or irrigation water supplies,

• for geotechnical investigation,
• as observation boreholes or piezometers
• for goundwater injection purposes, or
• for groundwater remediation.
The well design involves both recognition of the purpose of the well and an appreciation of the underlying
geology - whether the rock is hard or soft, deep or shallow, etc. Decisions concerning the well design
are frequently made only between the client and the driller, especially if the well is only for a shallow
production bores. However, in the case of deeper bores or networks of bores, a hydrogeologist should
be a part of the design team. This may involve detailed specifications for the drilling, noting that some
types of drilling rigs are more appropriate for certain geologic settings and well construction than others.
These specifications may include number of bores, location, target depth, frequency at which formation
samples are to be taken (eg 3 m and change in lithology), driller reporting requirements, choice of screened
interval and screen aperture, testing and water sampling protocols and health and safety issues.
Infrastructure for investigation and/or exploitation of groundwater can take many shapes and forms, from
conventional water wells to large excavations. The design for any particular work should be determined by:
site geology, geophysical logging techniques, nature of the water bearing zone, purpose of the construction
(monitoring, investigation, production etc.), yield required, water quality profile, soil rock stability profile,
life expectancy and cost.

The aim of production bore design is to create a stable hole in the ground into which groundwater can
move, and from which water can be pumped with the minimum of energy costs and the maximum possible
life expectancy.
There are many references available that provide guidance on bore construction [Aller et al., 1989, ADITC,
1996, Misstear et al., 2006]. This chapter will concentrate on the drilling and construction of water wells.
A water well design is directed at obtaining the maximum yield of water to the well. A contaminated
site investigation borehole is directed at recovering a small quantity of water from a specific depth.
The process of well design involves specifiying the physical materials and dimensions for the well. The
basic objectives include [Driscoll, 1986]:
• The highest yield with the minimum drawdown consistent with aquifer stability;
• A sand free water at the pump;
• A well life in excess of 25 years, and;
• Reasonable short-term and long-term costs.
This may appear to be a fairly straight forward process but in reality there are a large number of
parameters which must be optimised. The final well design will depend upon the use for the well. A low
cost supply for a farm will not be designed as carefully as a supply for a small town. Every well consists
of two main elements;
• the casing, and

• the intake portion.
The casing serves as a housing for the pumping equipment and as a vertical conduit for the water. In
consolidated formations, the rock may be sufficiently strong to stand unsupported. A casing is always
used in unconsolidated formations. The intake portion is always screened in an unconsolidated formation
to prevent sediment from entering the well. The intake zone may be left unscreened in a consolidated
formation.
A standard design for an abstraction well is shown in Figure 8.1.
Standard design procedure consists of the following steps;
• Choosing the casing material and casing diameter;

• Estimating the well depth;
• Selecting the length, diameter and material for the well screen;
• Choosing the screen slot size, and
• Choosing the completion method.
8.2 Drilling methods
8.2.1 Introduction
Various methods of drilling have been adapted to a number of factors: such as type of well required;
geologic conditions; desired usage of well; and available materials, including accessibility to site. The
most common drilling methods used in groundwater exploration, investigation or production are described
below. Methods of drilling are described in greater detail in [ADITC, 1996].

Figure 8.1: Standard design for an abstraction well

8.2.2 Cable-tool drilling
The cable-tool method, developed by the Chinese, has changed little over the millenia. With better
engineering and manufacturing skills, the materials used have evolved, but the basic method of raising
and letting fall a heavy weight suspended by a cable has remained. ADITC [1996] includes an excellent
review of the drilling steps and equipment for modern drilling using cable tool rigs.
Figure 8.2 shows a schematic of a rig.
In cable-tool drilling, the drill bit is attached to the lower portion of the weighted drill stem that, in turn,
is attached by means of a rope socket to the rope or cable. The cable and drill stem are suspended from
the mast of the drill rig through a pulley.
The cable runs through another pulley that is attached to a spudding beam. The beam is powered by
the rig engine and moves up and down, the bit is alternately raised and dropped by this action. Given
time, this method can penetrate all geological formations. A full string of cable tool drilling equipment
consists of five components:
1. Drill bit,
2. Drill stem,
3. Drilling jars,
4. Swivel socket, and
5. Cable.
Each of the tools is an integral part of the cable-tool system. The drill bit is usually a massive steel bit
with a chisel built into the base. Water flow channels are formed on either side of the bit to allow the
slurry to pass away from the cutting face. The drill stem adds weight to the bit and also increases the
length of the assembly. This increased length helps to keep the hole straight.
The drill jars consist of a pair of linked steel bars. When the bit is struck, it can be freed most of the
time by upward blows of the free-sliding jars. The stoke of the drilling jars is 230 mm to 450 mm. The
swivel socket connects the string of tools to the cable. The socket also transmits the rotation of the cable
to the drill bit. In this way, each subsequent stoke of the drill bit is rotated from the previous stroke,
and keeps the hole circular.
The wire cable that carries and rotates the drilling tool is called the drill line. It is 16 mm to 25 mm
in diameter and is a left-hand lay cable that twists the tool joint on each upstroke to prevent it from
unscrewing. The cable is suspended over the top of the mast, down to the spudding sheave on the walking
boom.
The cuttings are removed from the bottom of the hole by a bailer. This is generally a hollow metal
cylinder fitted with a flap valve at the base. The drilling tools are removed from the hole and the bailer
run in on a separate line.
In unconsolidated materials, a combination of pushing a casing into the ground and bailing the cuttings
from the inside can be used.
Tools for fishing lost materials or components of the drill string have been developed for cable tool
methods. An initial pilot hole can be reamed out to allow construction and installation of an abstraction
bore assembly. An assortment of reamers and other equipment can be seen in Fig 8.5. The long mast in
Fig. 8.3 allows casing runs of 12 m to be installed in one pass.

Figure 8.2: Cable-tool drilling rig

Figure 8.3: Cable-tool rig installing an abstrac- Figure 8.4: Cable-tool rig drilling soft limestone
(Photo RIA)
tion bore on the Liverpool Plains (Photo RIA)
Figure 8.5: Reamers for use with a cable tool rig (Photo RIA)

8.2.3 Rotary methods
The principle of rotary drilling is based on the controlled rotation and feed of hollow drill pipes attached
to a drill bit, by means of a power driven rotary table or the more versatile hydraulic top drive unit.
Cuttings are removed from the bit and flushed up the hole by circulating fluid or air under pressure.
The cuttings are delivered to the surface where they can be washed and collected for description. The
conventional rotary drilling fluid is mud; used particularly for deep water wells and petroleum wells. For
both it is necessary to use bore hole geophysics to determine the lithology, groundwater salinity and exact
boundary of units prior to placing casing and screens.
Rotary drilling methods were developed for the oil and minerals industries and have been adapted for
the groundwater industry. There are a number of possible variations, including:
• Direct mud rotary,

• Reverse circulation mud rotary,
• Air-flush rotary, and
• Down-hole air hammer.
The drill rig can often be equipped to drill using several of these methods. The manual produced
by ADITC [1996] provides detailed instruction on the drilling process.
In direct mud rotary drilling, mud is pumped down the inside of the drill pipe and recovered up the
annulus between the drill pipe and the formation. The annulus is created by using a drill bit, attached
to the bottom end of the drill pipe, with a larger diameter than the drill pipe. Compressed air can also
be used as a drilling fluid in the place of water. This may be a particularly good solution in areas where
there is no initial water supply available to mix a drilling mud.
Down-hole hammer rigs use a pneumatic hammer drill bit to cut through solid rock. An air compressor
is required to drive the drill bit, and drill cuttings are blown back to the surface via the annulus.
Reverse circulation rigs are larger than direct circulation rigs. They are used in formations where high
up-hole velocities are required to recover the cuttings to the surface. The drilling fluid is pumped down
the outside of the drill string and recovered up the inside of the drill pipe. The larger volumes of mud
and the larger pipe diameters require the use of a heavier drill rig as an operating platform.
The basic components of a rotary drilling rig are shown in Figure 8.6.
An excellent review of rotary drilling methods is provided by Driscoll [1986].
Figure 8.7 shows the setup of a water well rotary rig. The rig is mounted on the back of a lorry and the
mast raised using hydraulics. The rotational drive to the drill string is provided by either:
• A top-drive unit where a hydraulic motor is located on top of the drill string, as in Figure 8.7, or
• a rotary table where the weight of a top-drive assembly would be unstable, as shown in Figure 8.13.
Note the use of cement to allow the mud returned to the surface to be directed straight to the mud pits
shown in Figure 8.10, and the tri-cone roller drill bit, shown in close up in Figure 8.11.
Top-drive rigs are the most common rig used in water well drilling. They have been adapted from
technology used in the minerals industry for quarrying.
Figure 8.13 shows the set up of a rotary rig capable of drilling to several thousand metres. In this
configuration, the rotary-table drive is provided by a rotary table as shown in Figure 8.14.

Figure 8.6: Rotary Drilling Rig Components

Figure 8.7: Rotary rig about to spud in (Photo RIA) Figure 8.8: Air lifting a bore to improve yield
(Photo RIA)
Figure 8.9: Water well drilling site, showing mud pits and rig tilted while geophysical logging in progress
to determine design parameters (Photo RIA)

Figure 8.11: Tri-cone roller drill bits (Photo RIA)
Figure 8.10: Mud pits for rotary driling (Photo RIA) Figure 8.12: Tri-cone drill bit (Photo RIA)
Figure 8.13: Rotary rig set up for deep drilling Figure 8.14: Rotary table (Photo RIA)
(Photo RIA)

Figure 8.15: Mobile mud system with shaker ta- Figure 8.16: Centennial Park mud pits (Photo RIA)
bles (Photo RIA)
Figure 8.17: Air hammer drill bit (Photo RIA)

Figure 8.18: Drag bit for use in soft formations
(Photo RIA)
Mobile mud pits are often used and contain shaker systems for the geologist to extract cuttings from, as
shown in Figure 8.15. Mobile mud pits in use at Centennial Park ae shown in Figure 8.16.
Formation samples are normally taken by the driller for inspection by the geologist and for a grain-
size analysis. The frequency of sampling will be determined by the drilling contract, but is often every
metre. As a minimum, samples should be taken at every formation change. Minimum requirements for
formation sampling in Australia are set out in Minimum Construction Requirements for Water Bores in
Australia [Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zeland, 1997].
Drill bits
Various types of drill bit have been designed for drilling in different lithologies. A drag bit is used for
fast drilling in unconsolidated or semi-consolidated formations. Roller cone bits (tri-cone) are used in
consolidated sedimentary formations as shown in Figure 8.11 and Figure 8.12. Pneumatic button bits
are used for air drilling (Figure 8.17).
8.2.4 Drilling fluids
Introduction
The use of drilling fluids in the construction of bores is a large field in its own right. The subject is
covered in detail by Driscoll [1986].
The first drilling fluid utilised in rotary drilling was water. The entrainment of natural clay particles pro-

duced a mud and gave rise to the term drilling mud. Later on, specific clay compounds were deliberately
added to the mud to control the mud properties. The technology has developed to a point where many
different compounds can be added to the fluid to control its physical and chemical characteristics.
The control of the drilling fluid is fundamental to successful drilling using the rotary method. If the drill
cuttings are not removed to the surface from the cutting faces of the drill bit, the likely outcome is that
the drill string and drill bit will become lodged in the hole. Recovery of both is then a long (costly)
process and may result in the bore being abandoned with loss of the equipment in the bore. If the return
circulation of the fluid fails, drilling will stop while efforts are made to thicken the mud; increase the mud
flow; increase the density of the mud; or any other available technique to re-establish the flow. Rotary
drilling is often a 24-hour process for this reason.
Types of drilling fluids
Water based fluids are used in the water-well drilling industry. Water-based drilling fluids consist of the
following three phases:
1. a liquid phase,
2. a suspended-solid (colloidal) phase, and
3. cuttings entrained during the drilling.
Air-based drilling fluids may consist of only air, but more commonly have a surfactant added to create a
foam.
There are many different additives commonly used, including:
• flocculants to precipitate clay particles,

• dispersants (thinning agents),
• weighting materials to increase the fluid density,
• corrosion inhibitors,
• lubricants,
• bactericides, and
• lost-circulation materials.
The exact drilling fluid system chosen for a given project will depend upon the geology of the area and
the type of materials to be drilled. In general, air-based systems are used with rotary-hammer rigs to
drill through hard-rock formations, while water-based fluids with clay or polymer additives are used
in unconsolidated or soft sedimentary formations. Clean water is used for reverse circulation drilling
equipment.
Functions of a drilling fluid
The primary functions of a drilling fluid are :
• The removal of drill cuttings from beneath the drill bit to the surface. The rate at which cuttings
are removed depends upon the viscosity, density and up-hole velocity of the drilling fluid, and the
size, shape and density of the cuttings.

• The drilling fluid preserves the stability of the borehole wall and prevents expansion of swelling
clays. Water based fluids must provide a positive pressure to the borehole walls to prevent caving
and collapse of the formation. If collapse does occurs, the drill bit and string can become trapped
and the hole abandoned.
• The drilling fluid serves to both cool and lubricate the drill bit.
• The correct drilling fluid can control losses of fluid to the formation by creating a highly impermeable
cake of drill mud on the formation wall. The invasion of drilling fluids into the formation must
however, be minimised, as this material has to be removed from the formation during the well
development process.
• The physical characteristics of the drilling fluid require adjustment so that the drill cuttings drop
out readily at the surface and are not returned down the hole by the fluid circulation.
• The drill fluid returns the cuttings to the surface where the geologist may be trying to form a
geological log of the formations penetrated. The fluid should act to disguise the true nature of the
cuttings as little as possible.
• Lastly, the fluid should be able to suspend the cuttings in the borehole if the circulation of fluid
is halted for any reason. This ability is important as the settling to the bottom of the hole of the
cuttings in a deep bore can easily trap the drill string.
In many cases the drilling fluid will be unable to satisfy all the above criteria and continuous monitoring
of the physical properties of the fluid is advisable. The drilling fluids are commonly mixed in mud pits
dug close to the drill rig. Typical configurations are shown in Figure 8.11 and Figure 8.15.
The viscosity of a water-based fluid is measured with a marsh funnel. This is an inverted cone into which
a specified volume of fluid is placed. The viscosity of the fluid is related to the time taken to drain through
the bottom of the funnel. Typical viscosities, as measured by a marsh funnel, for various unconsolidated
formations are shown in Table 8.1 [Driscoll, 1986].
Table 8.1: Typical mash funnel viscosities for unconsolidated formation drilling
Materials Appropriate Marsh Funnel

Drilled Viscosities (seconds)
Fine sand 35 - 45
Medium sand 45 - 55
Coarse sand 55 - 65
Gravel 65 - 75
Coarse gravel 75 - 85
Lost circulation zones 85 - 120
The density of the fluid can be checked by weighing a sample of the fluid in a simple balance. In general,
the density of the drilling fluid must be high enough to counter any hydrostatic pressures encountered
in the bore. Groundwater encountered in an artesian aquifer under pressure can suddenly cause a blow
out of the drilling fluid unless the fluid density is increased by adding barite or some other high density
material.
It is worth remembering that the location of a sufficient supply of water to make up the drilling mud
is often one of the first problems to overcome at a new site. The water does not have to be absolutely
clean but should have a TDS of less than 5000 mg/L to allow efficient mud operation. A water tanker is
frequently part of the drilling operation with the task of hauling water to the site.

8.2.5 Air drilling
The use of air as the drilling fluid has become increasingly popular for water well work. A borehole
completed using air flush requires much less development time compared to the work carried out to
remove a drill cake from a mud drilled hole. The compressor is usually the key to successful air drilling
because insufficient air volume and pressure are the main causes of problems with this drilling technique.
Compressors are rated to deliver a given air volume at a certain operating pressure. The mechanics of
air-drilling are more complex than those of fluid drilling because the drilling fluid (air) is compressible
and also contains other fluids (such as water) which may be incompressible. For example, 21.2 cubic
metres of air at atmospheric pressure occupy 1.2 cubic metres at 1,720 kPa pressure.
Typical compressor ratings are given in Table 8.2 [Driscoll, 1986]).
Table 8.2: Typical Pressure and Volume Capacities for Water Well Rigs
Number of Pressure Volume

Stages (kPa) m3 sec−1
1 862 0.28 - 0.42

1 1,030 0.35 - 0.54
2 1,900 0.35 - 0.42
2 2,410 0.42 - 0.50
2 3,450 0.50
The compressors are rated for sea-level pressures and for air temperatures of approximately 15 ◦C .
Correction factors are required for operation at different temperatures and pressures.
Air drilling is relatively simple and effective. High pressure, high volume compressors are attached to
drilling rigs and used to clean out the cuttings. The circulation system is the same as with a fluid system
direct rotary rig. The air is passed through the drill column to the bit. All cuttings are quickly removed
up the annulus at a high velocity of 900 to 1500 m/min). Compressors are rated to deliver a given volume
at a certain operating pressure. Compressors connected in series will improve the pressure in an air
system; a parallel arrangement will increase the volume.
Uphole circulation velocity
The drilling fluid is used to remove cuttings from the bore. The viscosity of the fluid and the uphole
velocity will determine how efficient this process is. Viscosities and recommended uphole velocities are
given for different fluids in Table 8.3 [Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and
New Zeland, 1997].
Table 8.3: Recommended mimimun uphole circulation velocities
Circulating Marsh Funnel Recommended

Fluid Viscosity Uphole Velocity
(seconds) (m/s)
Air or mist 15 to 25
Water 26 0.6
Normal mud 32 - 40 0.4
Thick mud 50 - 80 0.2
Conventional circulation air drilling is performed where stable formations exist. Penetration rates are

fast, owing to the speed at which the cuttings are removed from the bit and up the hole. Set up time is
also quicker, as there is no necessity for mud tanks or pits. Sampling from an air-drilled hole is easier
and the sample is more representative and recognizable.
Air drilling however, loses its advantages when drilling unstable, unconsolidated formations, as the hole
is continually prone to collapse, or where drilling under high water inflows or under a considerable depth
of water. Water requires a minimum of 10 kPa pressure per metre depth to remove it from the bore hole.
The circulation system is the most important part of any drilling operation. If this system is poorly
designed or malfunctions, all other components of the operation will deteriorate or fail.
8.2.6 Reverse circulation rotary drilling methods
There is also the reverse rotary method in which mud or water goes down the outside of the drilling rods
and is sucked up the rod with the cuttings. This method is more appropriate for drilling larger diameter
bores.
The system incorporates a fish-tail blade, or roller type bit with no waterways or jets, just a large centre
hole. Large flanged drill pipe and water swivel of at least 150 mm ID is utilized. An open impeller, high
solids capacity, centrifugal pump, creates the suction necessary to remove the fluid and drilled cuttings
from inside the drill string. The fluid discharges into a large settling pit.
Advantages of the system include the ability to drill large diameter holes through medium and highly
drillable sedimentary formations, with up hole velocities that would not be available through conventional
circulation for the same diameter hole. Also in most cases, water can be used as the circulating medium.
There is minimum disturbance of the borehole walls, as the circulation fluid is gravity fed down the hole
(i.e. low velocity).
The two major disadvantages are:
• large amounts of water are required; and

• large cuttings such as 50 mm can block or damage the pump. A trap is usually fitted, however it
requires constant cleaning.
An alternative method is to use a dual tube system . This method uses a flush jointed, double wall pipe
in which the drilling fluid (air or liquid) moves by reverse circulation. The drilling fluid does not run
down the outside of the drill pipe, instead the flow is contained between the two walls of the dual wall
pipe and only contacts the walls of the borehole near the bit. Air or water is forced down the annulus to
lift the cuttings to the surface through the inner pipe.
8.2.7 Down-hole hammer drilling
Air circulation and in particular, the use of air circulation to drive a down-hole hammer unit, has changed
the nature of drilling of water wells and mineral exploration in indurated rock.
The down-hole drill provides drilling energy directly at the bit and is therefore much more efficient in
deeper and large diameter holes in hard rock. The hammering action comes as a result of a piston
moving up and down inside the tool. The up and down motion is created by air directed to either side
of the heavy piston by a valve or ports. For the hammer to operate at the bottom of the hole, the inlet
pressure must be adequate to overcome the back pressure of any water standing in the hole in addition
to the minimum pressure to make the hammer operate. Slow rotation (5 to 25 rpm) with a little thrust
is required. Hole diameters are upward of 100 mm. Air compressors with a minimum of 690 kPa and
10m3 /minute is required.

Table 8.4: Recommended bore casing diameters
Pumping Rate Bore Casing Diameter

m3 /day (mm)
<545 152
409 - 954 203
818 - 1910 254
1640 - 3820 305
2730 - 5450 365
4360 - 9810 406
6540 - 16400 508
Higher pressure, 2410 kPa gives faster penetration and can handle higher hydrostatic pressures ands
deeper holes. Higher volumes allow greater annular velocities and thus more effective removal of cuttings.
The difference between hole and rod diameter also affects annular velocity.
8.3 Well construction
The construction details are unique for each water well. Construction must be designed based on the
known geologic conditions and within cost and final use constraints. The bore usually comprises two
parts: blank casing to prevent entry of rock or water and a critical part of the well construction is the
entry of water from the aquifer. The form of this varies depending on the lithology and its shear strength,
and the purpose eg whether it is to maximize yield in which case one might attempt to maximize the
zone of entry, or to either sample water or measure hydraulic head at a specific point, in which case the
zone of entry may be narrow. Where the tapped material has low shear strength, such as sand, a screen
is necessary.
A preliminary selection of pumping bore casing diameters is shown in Table 8.4 [Driscoll, 1986].
8.3.1 Grouting bore casing
Often the casing is grouted in place. Grouting the annulus between the bore casing and the wall of the
borehole with cement or other sealing materials is usually done to prevent contamination of the aquifer
from the surface and contamination between aquifers; and to protect the bore casing against corrosive
waters.
Various types of cement are manufactured to accommodate different chemical and physical conditions
found in the subsurface environment such as high temperatures, high sulphate waters and cross con-
tamination between aquifers. Seals should be placed between the casing and the formation to prevent
downward leakage of surface water, and cross contamination between aquifers or artesian flow up the
outside of the casing. The materials chosen for the annular seal should have the following properties:
• be capable of placement from the surface;

• hydrate or develop sufficient set strength within a reasonably short space of time;
• provide a positive seal between the casing and the adjacent formations;
• be chemically inert to formations or fluids with which it may come into contact;
• be permanent, stable and resist chemical or physical deterioration.

Figure 8.19: Placing grout behind the casing by pumping through the casing using a plug.
The most commonly used materials for the annular seal are bentonite and cement. Bentonite expands
when mixed with water to form a tight seal. However, bentonite also has a very high cation exchange
capacity which may interfere with some applications. A bentonite slurry is generally prepared by mixing
dry bentonite powder into fresh water in a ratio of approximately 7 kg of bentonite to 25 litres of water
to yield 0.03 m3 of bentonite slurry. Once the slurry is mixed it is placed using a grout pump and a
tremmie pipe to place the seal at the required depth. Neat cement is not recommended for a seal with
PVC casing due to the heat released as the cement cures.
It is important that grout be mixed thoroughly and free of lumps before being placed. Most drillers avoid
using their mud pump on rotary rigs because of difficulties in cleaning out cement. Instead portable
grouting units that both mix and pump the cement are used.
Grout can be placed through a string of small diameter tremmie or grout pipe placed either outside or
inside the casing. When grouting outside of the casing the tremmie is slowly withdrawn from the bottom
but should remain below the surface of the cement. When grouting from inside the casing, the grout line
is attached to a float shoe at the bottom of the casing. The cement is then forced up the outside of the
casing until it reaches the surface. The grout line is removed and the float shoe is drilled out to allow
drilling to continue.
The casing method of grouting is useful for deep bores such as those in the Great Artesian Basin. In this
method the slurry is forced down the casing and into the annular space. It then moves up the annular
space to the surface. This is accomplished by placing a suitable plug into the bore then introducing the
required volume of cement to fill the annulus. A second plug is placed behind the cement to separate it
from the drilling fluid. The cement is pushed into place with the aid of the mud pump on the drilling
rig. When the cement appears at the surface the job is complete as shown in Fig. 8.19. The plugs that
were introduced to keep the cement separate from the drilling fluid are drilled out and easily removed.

Figure 8.20: Stainlees steel wire-wound screen with centalisers attached prior to installation. PVC casing
stacked behind the screen. (Photo RIA)
8.3.2 Sand screens
When the bore is fully developed a sand screen prevents the movement of fines (sand) into the bore, and at
the same time permit the movement of water into the well. The well should be designed so that minimum
well loss (i.e. turbulent energy loss as water enters the well from the aquifer) occurs during pumping.
For this to occur maximum transmitting capacity is required, resulting in low entrance velocities, which
in turn gives rise to reduce pumping costs.
There are various types and forms of screens available. Screens are either metallic or non metallic. The
metallic screens are either: wire meshed, slotted or punched bore casing; wire wound; stainless steel or
galvanised mild steel. The non metallic screens are either slotted PVC; resin bonded gravel surrounding
slotted PVC; or fiberglass. Wire wound screens of stainless steel are shown in Fig. 8.20. The screen has
a centraliser welded to it so that when it is placed in the bore it sits in the centre, allowing a gravel pack
to fed in around the screen. PVC casing is shown next to the screen in Fig 8.20.
In designing a well, aquifers that lie above the projected maximum drawdown level should be omitted
because they will dewater on pumping. This can cause problems of cascading water in the well, degassing
of water or exposure of screens to oxygen. All of these are detrimental to the life of the pump and well.
The length of screen is selected is based in the case of a production bore on the aquifer thickness and
type, and the transmitting capacity for the selected slot opening. These are calculated at the maximum
entrance velocity of 0.03 m/sec and using the following equation:
Q = n2πrl0.031000 (8.1)
Where:
Q = the transmitting capacity (l/s)

r = is radius of screen (m)
l = length of screen (m)
n = proportion open area (given by manufacturer for each slot size and diameter)

Where a greater thickness of aquifer is available for screening than required, the aquifer should be ranked
in order of hydogeological potential to determine more productive zones. This should be done after
examining the strata samples and geophysical logs (if available).The more permeable sections of the
aquifer are selected for screening. Blank sections of casing will separate the aquifers to be screened.
In unconfined aquifers the maximum screened length to obtain optimum yield is one third to a half of
the aquifer thickness for thick aquifers (> 45µm). For confined aquifers maximum screened length is 80
to 90% of the water bearing formation. If the formation overlying the aquifer is silt then the top metre
of the aquifer should not be screened. This is to avoid the possibility of slumping and/or bleeding of the
overlying material.
Aquifer material should be carefully sieved to establishing the exact size and percentage of materials
present. Collecting samples at 0.5 or 1 m intervals through the aquifer and sieving each sample usually
does this. The preparation of grain-size analysis data was covered in Chapter 4.
Commonly 5 to 10% of the sample, especially of the finer material, may have been lost in rotary mud
drilled holes. Also be very skeptical of samples taken from the bottom of the hole or after the hole has
been left standing for some time as this may contain material that has fallen down from higher up the
hole.
The selection of the screen aperture size is critical, if too large the bore will be unstable because of the
ingress of aquifer material and if too fine the bore will be inefficient. Where the aquifer is poorly sorted,
as in the example shown, the usual selection of slot size would be based on 60% of the material to pass
and 40 percent of the material to be retained. For the example shown this would mean that an aperture
of 0.020 inch (0.6mm) would be appropriate. However if there was doubt about the representativeness
of the sample or if the material is well sorted it would be prudent to choose to be more conservative,
choosing, for example, slot sizes that would retain 40-50% of the aquifer material.
8.3.3 Packing
Packing involves the establishment of a zone of inert material with no fines around the circumference
of the screened interval, which creates a ’zone’ of coarser material. The main uses of packing are to
reduce entry flow velocity and head loss and the risk of precipitating clogging material on the screen.
The decision as to whether to use a natural packed well or a gravel packed well is determined by the
grain size distribution that has been measured on the recovered material. Grain-size methodology was
covered in Chapter 4 and the grain-size distributions were given in Table 4.10.
Two types of packing are commonly used: natural pack; and gravel (artificial) pack.
Natural pack
In these wells, the object of development techniques (such as surging, pumping, jetting and using com-
pressed air) is to remove the finer grains from the formation adjacent to the screens, thus providing a
stabilised and more permeable zone for the water to pass through and enter the screens. The screen aper-
tures govern the percentage of the formation that can be removed by development, and the appropriate
aperture is determined by examining the cumulative per cent retained grain size distribution curve (cf
Fig 4.27) of formation samples. The development of a natural gravel pack is a good technique to use in
formations that have a wide range of grain size. A gravel pack is normally required for formations where
the grain-size distribution is very small. The Botany aquifer sample shown in Fig 4.27 is a good example
of sands that require a gravel pack.
Note: the uniformity coefficient is the ratio of two grain sizes namely, the size for which 60% of the
material is smaller (d60) and the size for which 10% is the smaller (d10). It is an index of the degree
of grain size non uniformity. Sand with a uniformity coefficient of three (3) has a relatively small range
of grain size while one with six (6) has a large range. Screens can be selected to allow up to 60% of

the formation to be removed during development depending on the variation of grain size in the aquifer
formation and on the stability and grain size of the overlying formation.
Gravel-pack wells
Gravel pack wells are usually highly efficient and are therefore preferred by many clients and drillers.
This method should be used when the uniformity coefficient of the aquifer material is less than 3 and
the effective grain size is less than 0.5 mm. The size grading of the gravel pack must be related to the
formation sand size to prevent migration of fines.
There are various methods for determining the appropriate grain size and grading for an artificial gravel
pack. A common method is to select a gravel pack material so that the median grain size of the pack is
5 times the median grain size of the aquifer. Alternatively, using the 70% retained size of the aquifer as
a datum, the pack particle size that is chosen can be:
• 4 times greater in size if the aquifer is fine grained and uniform;

• 6 times greater in size if the aquifer is coarse and non uniform;
• 6 to 8 times greater in size if the aquifer is highly non uniform and includes silt.
Having selected the size grading for the pack, the sand screen aperture is selected, generally based on
retaining 90% of the pack outside the screen. The thickness of the gravel pack does not need to exceed
75 mm. That is, an annulus of 50 to 75 mm around the screen will suffice.
The pack material should consist of well-rounded gravel preferably quartz or other inert material. What-
ever grading is selected for the gravel pack, it is often found that a compromise is necessary to suit the
range of sizes readily available from gravel screening plants. The size range of the material should be as
small as practicable.
8.3.4 Well screen installation
The pull back method as shown in Figure 9 is a common method of screen exposure where only a single
screened interval is proposed and the bore is drilled by a cable tool plant. Essentials of the method
include lowering the screen inside the casing to the full depth of the bore, then pulling back or lifting
the casing a sufficient amount to expose the whole screen to the water bearing formation. This process
is shown in Fig. 8.21.
Conditions sometimes make it impossible or undesirable to pull back the casing. In these cases the screens
may be bailed down into position. The first step is to install the casing in its permanent position, then
to telescope the screen inside the casing. This is sometimes attached to a bail down shoe and a bailing
pipe. The whole assembly is then sunk into the water bearing formation by operating a bailer inside the
screen or through the bailing pipe.
The single string casing/screen and gravel pack method is used extensively for all mud rotary drilled holes
involving multiple screened intervals. Once installed, a gravel pack may be added. It must be carefully
inserted to avoid an irregular annulus or bridging of the pack. Bridging is more likely to occur when
the annulus is less than 75 mm and care is not taken to evenly pack the gravel around the casing/screen
assembly. A centraliser should be attached to the outside of the screen to avoid the screen lying against
the edge of the hole and coming into direct contact with the formation (Fig 8.20). Fig. 8.22 shows the
installation in a bore, before and after the installation of a gravel pack.
Placing the gravel pack material can be done by a tremmie pipe, or evenly pouring it behind the casing.
In deeper, very large diameter bores, a conveyor system may be useful. The pack may need to be topped
up from time to time so an access tube should be left in place.

Figure 8.21: Screen placed inside casing which is then drawn back using hydraulic jacks or the rig
hydraulics, to expose the screen to the formation. This system is common when a natural pack is used.
Figure 8.22: Screen placement before and after gravel packing

8.3.5 Bore development
Bore development establishes effective connection between the aquifer and the bore. For mud drilled
holes this requires the removal of the drilling fluid (mud) and development by flushing of fines into the
hole for removal. The wall cake that develops during drilling has to be removed by either mechanical and
/or chemical breakdown.
Mechanical Methods
This can be done by:
• bailing with a bailer.

• surging with a surge block (see Figure 11)
• surging using a pump to lift and drop water in the hole (see Figure 11).
• high velocity air and water jetting opposite the screens (see Figure 11).
• pumping at rates in excess of those proposed for the bore in the long term.
• Back washing, i.e. pumping for 2 3 minutes, then allowing the column of water to drain back into
the formation.
A combination (in sequence) of one or more of these methods.
Chemical methods
With clay based drilling fluids a small amount of polyphosphate (calgon) before or during development
helps remove clays that have entered the aquifer during drilling operations. Polyphosphate disperses the
clay particles so they are easily removed. There are many other additives such as brand names; ASCA
200 or Bentonite Mud Remover (BMR) that are colloidal dispersants and are readily available on the
Australian market
Polymeric drilling muds will breakdown naturally within 3 days. Stabilisers (bactericides) are available
to lengthen the life of the drilling fluid. Likewise fastbreak chemicals are available from drilling fluid
suppliers to assist in the breakdown of their product. Lowering the pH of some polymer fluids to below
7.0 reduces the viscous characteristics of the fluid. Also the addition of enzymes or aluminum sulphates
is commonly used to break down polymer muds.
Development should proceed until aquifer ”fines” are removed from the aquifer and cease to enter the
bore. This may take a few hours to several days of development. As development is achieved the water
pumped from the bore will become clearer.
For air rotary drilled holes very little development is required because the hole is developed during the
flushing process of air drilling. However, care should be taken that air, water and dust don’t form mud
cakes that block water bearing cracks and fractures.
8.4 Borehole failures
The Construction Industry Research and Information Association (CIRIA) have produced a review of
monitoring, maintenance and rehabilitation procedures for abstraction wells [Howsam et al., 1995]. This
reference gives the following perspective based upon an international survey:

Figure 8.23: The pump at David Phillips field removed in July 2003 (Photo RIA)
1. Monitoring is given a low priority world-wide because of a lack of finance, organisational or logistical
resources, or insufficient expertise or co-ordination between the departments involved.
2. The most common cause of operational difficulties are sand ingress, fines migration and iron bio-
fouling, followed by encrustation, corrosion, anaerobic clogging and over pumping.
3. Borehole operational problems often reflect poor design or construction, and operational and bore-
hole pump problems outweigh those associated with the borehole structure iteself.
4. Although estimates of the percentage of boreholes which suffer from impaired performance ranged
from 0% to 100%, the available information suggests about 40% as a realistic figure for the number
of boreholes world-wide with operational problems.
5. Experience of rehabilitation attempts are commonplace and there is a general awareness (as opposed
to a good understanding) of available rehabilitation technologies.
6. Approximately 66% of rehabilitation attempts are ultimately unsuccessful, owing mainly to a lack
of monitoring data, resources or expertise, or to the degree of dilapidation of the boreholes.
7. There are many reported instances where rehabilitation could have been attempted but this was
not done because of a lack of finance, equipment and expertise; and also because it was felt that
drilling a new borehole would be simpler and more likely to succeed.
Monitoring of borehole performance should be undertaken as a regular exercise, as part of the ground-
water management program. Performance includes borehole yield, pump performance and water quality.
Failure to monitor the performance will most often lead to increased energy charges as the pumping water
level falls due to bore deterioration.
A recent borehole survey of the UNSW bores at Daseyville revealed the corrosion shown in Figure 8.23.
This level of corrosion clearly impacts on the bore efficiency! The corosion extended up the rising main
as shown in Figure 8.24 and precipitation had occured extensiviely inside the headworks at the top of
the bore (Figure 8.25).
There are four factors or processes which are important. The following notes are based on the CIRIA
Report.
1. Physical processes,

Figure 8.24: Corosion of the rising main from the Figure 8.25: Precipitation of iron compounds
David Phillips bore (Photo RIA) within the headworks at David Philips Field (Photo
RIA)
2. Chemical processes,
3. Microbial processes,
4. Operational factors, and structural and mechanical factors.
8.4.1 Physical processes
Clogging
Reduction in formation hydraulic conductivity due to clogging may be caused by the redistribution of
particulate matter in a number of ways:
1. drilling fluid invasion damage at the time of construction [Peden et al., 1982],
2. intermixing of aquifer horizons as a result of wash-out and caving during drilling and development,
3. inter-mixing of aquifer and gravel pack material due to high flows during operation, and
4. migration of aquifer material and infilling of the borehole and pumping system.
Problems arising from the drilling fluid can be overcome during construction by the use of appropriate
fluids and by careful monitoring and control of the fluid during use. Proper development after construction
should remove most of this material.
Mixing of two horizons which may have good hydraulic conductivity individually, can result from distur-
bance during drilling. The mixed media has a much reduced hydraulic conductivity.
Abrasion
Abrasion is caused by relatively high velocity particle laden water.This is usually encountered in borehole
casings or screens adjacent to high flow and high permeability zones and results in the enlargement of
slots in the screen.
Pump impeller wear is commonly reported, but there have also been cases of holes being ’sandblasted’
through rising mains and borehole linings. Milder forms of abrasion resulting in the removal of protective
coatings on casing, screen and pmp components can lead to more serious consequences such as corrosion.

8.4.2 Chemical processes
Clogging
The process of clogging can occur by chemical precipitation. The most commonly reported incrustations
are those of iron oxyhydroxide (sometimes associated with manganese deposits), iron sulphide and calcium
carbonate.
Precipitation of iron oxyhydroxide occurs when ferrous-bearing anaerobic groundwater becomes oxy-
genated, causing the conversion of soluble ferrous to insoluble ferric species. In groundwater environments
the ferrous/ferric balance is influenced by pH and redox potential (Eh). In some circumstances siderite
(iron carbonate) will precipitate out [Hem, 1985, Sung and Morgan, 1980].
Precipitation of black solid ferrous sulphide occurs as a consequence of sulphate reduction in anaerobic
conditions where hydrogen sulphide is produced and subsequently combines with ferrous iron in solution.
The precipitation of calcium carbonate is often quoted in literature but apparently not often observed.
The process is usually explained as follows: as groundwater approaches and enters a borehole there
is a drop in pressure, which causes carbon dioxide to be released, which in turn affects the carbon-
ate/bicarbonate equilibrium, with the result that calcium carbonate is precipitated. For many circum-
stances in and around a borehole, however, the pressure, flow and temperature conditions as measured
are not adequate to cause the deposits sometimes observed or predicted. This implies that understanding
of flow conditions around a borehole is not alvays as good as it should be; or that other factors play a
significant part.
Electro-chemical corrosion
Electro-chemical corrosion is the process whereby metal is lost to solution as a result of electrochemical
action involving the flow of an electric current between areas of metal of differing potential.
Corrosion occurs at the anode and hydrogen atoms are deposited at the cathode causing polarisation
which, if not removed, tends to inhibit further corrosion. Anodic-cathodic couples which form corroding
cells may result from a range of conditions; for example coupling of dissimilar metals, local variations or
impurities in the composition of a single metal, differing degrees of surface protection, exposure of different
parts to different conditions such as aeration or salt concentration, and differences in the treatment of
discrete areas of metal such as cold working, welding and screw cutting.
Among the possible effects of electro-chemical corrosion in groundwater abstraction systems are corrosion
of casing or screen joints, leading to sand ingress and possible complete structural failure of the borehole;
corrosion and enlargement of screen openings, leading to ingress of formation or gravel pack material
into the borehole; and corrosion and failure of pump components and the rising main [Clarke, 1980].
An example of a badly corroded mild steel slotted casing is shown in Figure 8.26 Naturally acidic or
naturally saline groundwater is highly corrosive to mild steel and an appropriate cement grout or inert
casing material should always be used in these circumstances.
8.4.3 Microbial processes
Clogging
Clogging by biofouling may affect the aquifer, borehole, pump or pipework.
There is increasing awareness and understanding of the importance of microcrobial processes [Howsam,
1988]. They include the following:

Figure 8.26: Corroded mild-steel casing
Figure 8.27: Clogged orifice plate Figure 8.28: Clogging in discharge pipeline

1. Groundwater was widely perceived as being bacteriologically ’pure’ except where obviously polluted.
However, it is now recognised that although groundwater does contain far fewer microorganisms
than surface water, it is not sterile. The soil through which recharge water passes on its way to the
aquifer is teeming with microorganisms. Some of these can adapt to conditions in the aquifer and
become residents; others can be introduced into the aquifer during drilling; and a further variety,
described as ultra-microcells, which have extremely slow rates of metabolism, are able to reside
in and travel long distances through the aquifer [Cullimore, 1992]. Experiments [Schneider et al.,
1997] have shown that many bores contain large populations of naturally occurring bacteria.
2. Biofouling can be enhanced by high velocities and turbulence, and iron biofouling is also enhanced
by oxygenation and high iron levels.
3. Drilling polymers can provide nutrients and can therefore contribute to microbial growth. This has
often been observed in both clay and sand aquifers.
4. The consequences of biofouling are visually obvious in some cases; for example, a slimy material
can be observed clogging the strainer of a retrieved pump. In other cases, however, the appearance
of the clogging material gives no clue that microbial activity is involved. Biofilms have the ability
to absorb minerals and trap inorganic particles such that their composition and therefore their
appearance can be highly variable. There are many bacteria (for example Gallionellla) which
can initiate and enhance the formation of commonly encountered iron deposits, whilst others are
associated with precipitation of calcium carbonate in natural environments.
The three principal elements usually associated with biofouling events are carbon (organic), nitrogen
(both inoganic and organic) and phosphorous (both inorganic and organic. The ratio of these 3 elements
to allow optimal growth has a C:N:P ratio of 100:1:0.25. All 3 elements have to be in forms potentially
available to the microorganisms.
Stuetz and McLauchlan [2004] have investigated the localised precipitation of iron bacteria around a
production bore at the Wakool pump field where shallow bores have been installed to lower the water
table and to prevent salinisation and water logging. They drilled 6 observation bores around a pump bore
that had become badly fouled. The results showed that only one of the observation bores encountered
high ferrous iron and that CCTV images showed that the pump well was badly fouled in the direction of
this observation bore. They conclude that the fouling was due to mixing of oxygenated water with high
iron content water.
Microbially-induced corrosion
This is a process which can occur in any part of the engineered system. Sulphate reducing bacteria
(SRB) occur in anaerobic environments and are associated with the corrosion of steel and concrete.
These microbes, which attach to and create biofilms on surfaces, are particularly hardy and have been
found in environments of extreme temperature, pressure and chemical condition.
Examination of typical corrosion-incrustation cell material (for example rust tubercles on a ferrous pipe
surface) has revealed the presence of sulphate reducing bacteria. Another significant factor is that bio-
corrosion can occur in macro-environments which would not normally be considered as corrosive. This
is because micro-environments can exist within the biofilm. Typically, a biofilm develops on a surface in
aerobic, apparently non-corrosive, conditions; oxygen is used up by bacteria in the upper surface layers of
the biofilm, creating anaerobic conditions suitable for growth of corrosion-enhancing, sulphate reducing
bacteria.
8.4.4 Operational factors
Inappropriate operating schedules can enhance many of the primary processes affecting the aquifer,
borehole, pump and pipework. Intermittent pumping may lead to increased particle redistribution (sand

pumping and fines migration) as a result of the higher velocities generated at start up; and may also lead
to increased oygenation of groundwaters in and around the borehole. The increase in oxygen can drive
an explosion in the numbers of aerobic bacteria, which use all the oxygen and turn the system anoxic
where the SRB bugs begin attacking surfaces.
As a second example, pumping boreholes at too high a rate, or pumping a group of borcholes together
with high levels of interference, may cause pumping water levels to fall below the top of the screen. This
again enhances oxygenation and therefore the potential for iron fouling. It also necessitates placing the
pump within the screen, thereby increasing the potential for sand pumping and fines migration, especially
at pump start up.
Regionally lowered water levels are likely to affect discharge and should be the first factor checked when
there is a reduction in borehole yield. Lowering of groundwater levels can also induce upconing of deeper,
less fresh groundwater, leading to a deterioration in pumped water quality
8.4.5 Structural and mechanical factors
This is a relatively common problem which can compound difficulties caused by the primary processes.
The most significant design factors are those which influence flow velocities in any part of the system; for
example screen diameter, length, slot size and open area in relation to aquifer properties and pumping
rate.
Examples of construction shortcomings include [Howsam et al., 1995]:
1. insufficient care taken when installing or joining the casing and screen string, which may lead to
parting of joints,
2. inappropriate use and improper placement of grouting materials, which may lead to ingress of
polluted or oxygenated waters into the borehole,
3. poor selection and installation of gravel pack, which may lead to movement of material through the
screen causing damage to the screen itself and to the pump, or to clogging of the gravel pack by
formation material,
4. poor drilling technique, leading to completion of a non-aligned or non-vertical borehole, or even to
instability, caving and collapse of a borehole.
8.5 Borehole abandonment
The life of a bore is limited by poor design and inappropriate operating regimes. Even a well designed
bore will fail due to corrosion at some stage and some thought should be given to abandonment of the
bore, especially if the bore has been screened over several different formations.
Considerable damage can be done to the groundwater resource by failure of bores - often leading to leakage
of poor quality water from a higher formation to a lower formation containing good quality water. In many
cases (if not most) in Australia, groundwater abstraction is taking palaeowater of extremely good quality
from depth. Contamination of this water by poor abandonment practices (often completely ignored) is
not reversible.
The bores need to be grouted from the base upwards to seal the formations. The casing sides will require
rupturing to allow grout into the annulus behind the casing. The use of CCTV before such an operation
is warranted.

Figure 8.29: Plots of s/Q vs Q for data from Clark et al., 1988
8.6 System re-evaluation
8.6.1 Economics
The financial loss due to system deterioration is particularly severe for large scale groundwater abstraction.
Energy demands account for between 60% and 70% of total costs [Helweg et al., 1983] and therefore
improvements in efficiency of the system are essential and should be high priority items. The economic
analysis as to when to take a borehole out of production for cleaning or maintenance, or when to replace
a pump, or to leave the system operating inefficiently for another 12 months to save the present cost of
maintenance, is a problem in optimisation.
The step-drawdown test can be used to re-evaluate the specific capacity of a well some time after in-
stallation. This provides the possibility of detecting loss of efficiency due to corrosion or incrustation of
the screen and loss of pumping equipment efficiency. Clark et al. [1988] give a detailed account of this
approach using repeated step testing with as many as 10 steps. An example of their data is given in
Figure 8.29.
The progressive deterioration in a bore, as evidenced by step-test results, has been conceptualised by
[Howsam et al., 1995] as shown in Figure 8.30.

Figure 8.30: 1. Original step test data; 2. Later test showing increase in C, but the same B - suggesting
a deterioration in the condition of the borehole; 3. Later step test showing increase in B, but the same
C, suggesting a deterioration in the aquifer condition

Chapter 9
Geophysical logging
Contents
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
9.1.1 Logging equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
9.1.2 Borehole effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
9.1.3 Available sondes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
9.1.4 Quality assurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
9.1.5 Log interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
9.1.6 Log selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
9.2 Caliper logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
9.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
9.3 Resistivity logging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
9.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
9.3.2 Spontaneous-potential logging (SP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
9.3.3 Single point resistance (SPR) log . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
9.3.4 Normal resistivity logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
9.3.5 Bed correlation using normal resistivity logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
9.4 Fluid logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
9.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
9.4.2 Fluid temperature logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
9.4.3 Fluid conductivity log . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
9.4.4 Fluid flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
9.4.5 Borehole video cameras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
9.4.6 Water quality measurements (HYDROLAB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
9.5 Nuclear logging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
9.5.1 Fundamentals of nuclear geophysics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
9.5.2 Detection of radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
9.5.3 Counting statistics and logging speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
9.5.4 Use of radioactive sources in well logging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
9.6 Gamma logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
9.6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
9.6.2 Sources of gamma radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
9.6.3 Gamma spectrometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
9.7 Gamma gamma logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
9.7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
9.7.2 Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
9.7.3 Log interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
9.8 Neutron logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
261
Chapter 9. Geophysical logging
9.8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

9.8.2 Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
9.8.3 Neutron probes for soil moisture measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
9.8.4 Thermal neutron capture by chlorine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
9.9 Electromagnetic induction logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
9.9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
9.9.2 Operating principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
9.9.3 Response to a horizontally layered earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
9.9.4 Examples of field data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
9.1 Introduction
Borehole geophysics may be defined as the science of recording and analysing continuous or point mea-
surements of physical properties made in bores or cased wells. These measurements are used to identify
the lithology and structure of formations and to make inferences regarding water quality, porosity and
permeability of formations. Borehole geophysics has the great advantage that measurements can be made
almost in the formation, whereas surface measurements can only be used to infer subsurface properties.
A wide range of borehole geophysical sondes have been developed, including oil field tools, coal investi-
gation tools, and specialised engineering geophysics tools [Keys, 1989].
9.1.1 Logging equipment
A logging system may be simply an analogue chart recorder monitoring the output from a down hole
probe, with the chart recorder motor activated by a pulse provided from a pulley shaft encoder, or
a completely digitised system with complex electronics contained in the sonde and relatively simple
electronics, often attached to a standard computer, on the surface. These two end members represent
the development of logging systems over the last twenty years. Equipment manufactured by ABEM
(http://www.abem.se/products/saslog/saslog.php) to measure down-hole resistivity and water quality
represents the evolution of the first approach (Fig. 9.1).
The ABEM equipment uses a multi-core cable to make measurements. The availablility of frequency
modulated signal transmission capabilities has allowed the evolution of single core cable equipment with
a simple winch and data acquisition unit on the surface controlled by a field laptop and down-hole sondes.
Equipment is available from a number of suppliers with AUSLOG in Brisbane (http://www.auslog.com.au/)
the main Australian supplier. A Welsh company (GEOVISTA) manufactures sondes that can be chained
together in such a way that as many as 15 parameters can be measured independently at the same time.
The GEOVISTA equipment is shown in Fig. 9.2 being used to investigate fracture flow in sandstone
beneath the Nepean River.
9.1.2 Borehole effects
The method by which the bore was drilled, completed and tested may have a pronounced effect on
the geophysical logs obtained in the bore. The objective of geophysical logging of a bore is to obtain
representative measurements of physical properties in the formation, or of fluids within the bore. The
drilling process disturbs the rocks near the borehole to varying degrees, and may open up hydraulic
pathways through a layered succession which would not otherwise exist.
The use of drilling muds will significantly alter the response of logs carried out in holes drilled in this
manner. Monitoring of the drilling mud properties is often required to decouple the effects of the mud
from the formation. This aspect has been developed in detail by workers in the oil industry and was

Figure 9.1: ABEM resistivity and water quality logging equipment
Figure 9.2: Geovista logging equipment set up in a river bed (Photo W Timms)

one of the influences behind the development of resistivity logs. Deep water bores drilled using mud also
require a similar analysis.
The major effect upon many geophysical logs is the diameter of the borehole. This may vary significantly
depending upon the drilling technology employed, and upon the care and experience of the driller. Two
other factors will impact upon the logs:
• The depth to the water table

• The type, diameter and length of bore casing installed.
Accurate interpretation of the geophysical logs requires detailed information to be available on these
matters.
9.1.3 Available sondes
The sondes available for borehole logging equipment include the following:
• Gamma,
• High sensitivity gamma,
• Gamma spectrometry,
• Gamma gamma (density tool),
• Spontaneous potential,
• Single point resistivity,
• Long (64”) and short (16”) resistivity,
• Caliper (one, three and four arms),
• Fluid temperature,
• Fluid conductivity,
• Fluid flow,
• Magnetic susceptibility,
• Electromagnetic induction,
• Neutron,
• Neutron neutron,
• Verticality,
• Water sample,
• Hydrolab water quality
• Sonic,
• Acoustic televiewer, and,
• Downhole TV.

9.1.4 Quality assurance
The subject of quality assurance in borehole geophysical logging is receiving more attention. It should
of course be possible to carry out logs with the same equipment at different times in the same bore,
or with different equipment at the same time in the same bore and obtain the same result. This has
unfortunately not been the case, and more attention is needed to ensure accurate calibration of logs and
standardisation of equipment.
9.1.5 Log interpretation
Most hydrogeological and contaminant log interpretation remains qualitative. This is the result of several
factors, but lack of equipment to calibrate, lack of training, and cost factors are all significant. By contrast,
log interpretation in the oil industry is highly advanced.
The single most important point is that the logs should be interpreted synergistically. No one log can
provide a complete interpretation. It is only by a consideration of information from all available logs
that an interpretation can be made. The combination of electromagnetic induction and gamma logs for
contamination studies is particularly useful.
An example of composite set of logs from a sandstone aquifer is shown in Figure 9.3.
Porosity measurement
There is no one log which is capable of actually measuring the porosity of a formation, however, the
porosity affects the response of many geophysical logs. The neutron, gamma-gamma and acoustic-velocity
logs are all sometimes incorrectly referred to as porosity logs. Resistivity logs are significantly affected
by porosity changes. The various logs respond differently to changes in total, effective, primary and
secondary porosity. Table 9.1 [Keys, 1989], shows some of these relatioships.
Table 9.1: Response of logs to porosity
Property Response to Response to Response to

Log measured total porosity effective poros- secondary
ity porosity
Resistivity Both resistivity No current flow Responds only to Detects sec-

and volume of through isolated effective porosity ondary porosity,
fluid in inter- pores affected by the
connected pores shape of pores
Gamma-gamma Electron density Both response to Does not distin- Does not distin-
rocks with sub- guish guish from pri-
stantial porosity mary porosity
Neutron Hydrogen content Best response to Does not distin- Does not distin-
rocks with mini- guish guish from pri-
mal porosity mary porosity
Acoustic velocity Average Only related Does not distin- Does not respond
compressional- to total poros- guish to secondary
wave transit ity when it is porosity under
time primary and most conditions
inter-granular

Figure 9.3: Integrated geophysical logs from a sandstone aquifer. Saline water is encountered at 225 m

9.1.6 Log selection
A list of criteria for the selection of logging tools is given in Table 9.2 [Keys, 1989].
Table 9.2: Selection criteria for logging tools
Log Type Properties Potential applica- Required bore- Other

measured tions hole conditions limitations
Spontaneous Electric potential Lithology, shale content, Uncased borehole Salinity differ-
potential caused by salin- and water quality filled with con- ence needed
ity differences in ductive fluid between borehole
borehole and in- fluid and intersti-
terstitial fluids tial fluids; correct
only for NaCl
fluids
Single-point re- Resistance of High-resolution lithol- Uncased borehole Not quantitative;
sistance rock, saturat- ogy; fracture location by filled with con- hole diameter ef-
ing fluid, and differential probe ductive fluid fects substantial.
borehole fluid
Multi- Resistivity of Quantitative data on Uncased borehole Normal logs pro-
electrode rock and saturat- salinity of interstitial filled with con- vide incorrect val-
ing fluids water; lithology ductive fluid ues in thin beds.
Gamma Gamma radiation Lithology - may be re- Any borehole None.
from natural or lated to clay and silt con- condition, except
artificial radio- tent and permeability; large diameter,
isotopes spectral identifies radio- or several strings
isotopes of casing and
cement
Gamma- Electron density Bulk density, porosity, Optimum results Severe borehole
gamma moisture content, lithol- in uncased bore- diameter effects.
ogy hole; qualitative
through casing or
drill stem
Neutron Hydrogen content Saturated porosity, Optimum results Borehole-
moisture content, ac- in uncased bore- diameter and
tivation analysis and hole; can be cal- chemical effects.
lithology ibrated for casing
Acoustic- Compressional Porosity, lithology, frac- Fluid-filled and Does not detect
velocity wave velocity ture location, and char- uncased, except secondary poros-
acter, cement bond cement bond ity; cement bond
and wave form
require expert
analysis.
Acoustic tele- Acoustic reflec- Location, orientation, Fluid-filled and 3- Heavy mud or
viewer tivity of borehole and character of frac- to 16-inch diame- mud cake atten-
wall tures and solution ter uate signal, slow
openings, strike and dip logging.
of bedding, and casing
inspection.
Caliper Borehole or cas- Borehole-diameter cor- Any conditions Deviated holes
ing diameter rections to other logs, limit some
lithology, fractures, and probes; signifi-
borehole volume for cant resolution
cementing difference be-
tween tools.
continued on next page

Table 9.2: Selection criteria for logging tools
Log Type Properties Potential applica- Required bore- Other

measured tions hole conditions limitations
Temperature Temperature of Geothermal gradient, Fluid-filled Accuracy and res-

fluid near sensor flow within borehole, lo- olution of probe
cation of injected water, varies.
correction of other logs,
and curing of cement
Conductivity Most measure re- Quality of borehole Fluid-filled Accuracy varied,
sistivity of fluid in fluid, flow within bore- requires tempera-
borehole hole, and location of ture correction.
contaminant plumes
Flow Flow of fluid in Flow within borehole, lo- Fluid filled Spinners require
borehole cation and apparent hy- faster velocities.
draulic conductivity of Needs to be
permeable interval centralised.
9.2 Caliper logs
9.2.1 Introduction
Caliper logs provide a continuous record of borehole diameter and are used extensively in hydrogeology.
These logs are often required for the interpretation of other logs and are also useful in obtaining informa-
tion on bore construction, the development of secondary porosity related to fracturing and on lithology.
Caliper logs may consist of one, three, or four arms. The basic principle consists of lowering the sonde
to the bottom of an unlined bore where an arm, or arms is/are extended sideways from the sonde and
held against the borehole wall by springs. Movements of the arm(s) are recorded by a displacement
transducer(s) and transmitted to the surface as the caliper log sonde is pulled up the bore hole.
The use of multiple arms rather than single arms results in more information relating to the bore geometry.
A single arm leads to considerable averaging, and may miss sub-vertical fractures completely. Some sondes
average the signal from multiple arms, but the best approach is to record the displacement from the arms
separately and transmit this information to the surface.
Figure 9.4 indicates the engineering that is involved in the design of a three-arm caliper log system.
Figure 9.6 after Keys [1989] indicates the principles involved.
The calibration of caliper sondes is achieved by placing them in cylinders of known diameter both before
and after logging.
9.3 Resistivity logging
9.3.1 Introduction
The short and long normal resistivity logs have been used as standards in bore logging for many years.
The principles are based upon the use of four electrodes in a similar manner to surface resistivity work.
Five electrode configurations are used.
• Spontaneous potential,

Figure 9.5: 2 arm caliper log - part of the Geo-

vista suite Photo W Timms)
Figure 9.4: Three-arm caliper system under test-

ing
• single-point,
• short and long normal, and
• lateral.
9.3.2 Spontaneous-potential logging (SP)
This is one of the oldest and simplest logs. The downhole sonde can comprise a simple lead electrode.
Whereas the equipment is simple, interpretation of these logs can be difficult, particularly in fresh water
environments. Due to the simplicity of the downhole sonde, is often run first down old bores, particularly
if conditions are unknown and there exists the possibility for getting the sonde caught in the bore.
The SP log is a record of electrical potentials that develop at the contacts between shale or clay beds
and a sand aquifer. The chief sources of spontaneous potential in the borehole are electrochemical and
electrokinetic or streaming potentials. Electrochemical effects, which are probably the more significant,
can be further subdivided into membrane and liquid-junction potentials. The SP log is often run as
part of a wider logging suite including the 16inch and 64inch logs described below. However, in its
simplest form, it is the output of millivolt meter connected to a chart recorder with inputs provided by
the downhole electrode and a surface electrode.
This logging technique was developed in the oil industry, where potentials created by the differential
invasion of drilling mud into sand and shales provided a ready means of discrimination. The log can
provide unpredictable and uninterpretable results when used in some fresh-water environments. The log
is also particularly prone to problems caused by stray currents and equipment problems. Stray ground
currents from distant electrical storms can render the log useless. Electric currents related to corrosion
of buried pipelines or well casing can produce anomalous potentials in the ground, as can nearby electric
motors.
9.3.3 Single point resistance (SPR) log
The single point resistance log is another very simple log to measure in the field. The circuit diagram for
both the SP and single point logs is shown in Figure 9.7 [Keys, 1989].

Figure 9.6: Caliper Logs from 4 Arms, Three Arms Averaged, and a Single Arm

Figure 9.7: System circuitry for the SP and SPR logs

Figure 9.8: Short and long normal resistivity logs
The two logs can be recorded simultaneously by a two channel chart recorder. Calibration of a single point
resistance log is carried out with a set of known resistances connected between A and B in Figure 9.7.
Interpretation of the logs tends to be qualitative.
9.3.4 Normal resistivity logs
Many water well logging systems have the capability to measure short and long normal resistivity logs.
The arrangement of electrodes is similar to that for surface electrical resistivity work where the potential
difference due to a positive and negative current electrode pair is measured. In the borehole application,
one current and one potential electrode are positioned remotely. They may be some distance from the
active pair of electrodes on the same sonde, or they can be positioned at the surface. The short normal
resistivity log is then acquired by measuring the potential due to a current source at 16 inches distant. The
long normal log is similarly acquired using an electrode separation of 64 inches. These separations have no
theoretical significance but rather a historical basis, and are maintained purely to allow standardisation
of logs.
A system schematic is shown in Figure 9.8 [Telford et al., 1976].
Each of these electrical logs can be recorded while logging rapidly as they depend upon potential field
effects.
The volume of investigation of the normal resistivity sondes is considered to be a sphere with diameter

approximately twice the distance between the downhole electrodes. Thus, examination of the 16 inch
and 64 inch logs together gives a measure of both the deep formation resistivity (from the long normal
log) and the formation close to the bore. Where drilling muds have been used to advance the bore, the
differential penetration of mud, as deduced from the short normal log, can be used as an indication of
porosity.
While the normal resistivity logs can be calibrated to measure accurately, it should be stressed that the
measurements made are of apparent resistivity and require correction to obtain true formation resistivities.
In practice, the logs are most often used for qualitative analysis. Correction factors include
• the resistivity of the invaded zone (if mud was used),

• the diameter of the bore,
• the bed thickness,
• the mud resistivity,
• the resistivity of adjacent beds, and
• the electrode separation (AM).
The resistivity of the formation is sometimes calculated automatically by the equipment. The true value
can also be calculated from a knowledge of the electrode separation using the relationship shown in
Equation 9.1.
Iρ 1 1 1 1 Iρ
∆Φ = − − + = G (9.1)
2π r1 r4 r3 r4 2π
where:
I is the current
ρ is resistivity
Φ is the potential difference
r1 is the distance between the first potential electrode and the first current electrode
r2 is the distance between the first potential electrode and the second current electrode
r3 is the distance between the second potential electrode and the first current electrode
r4 is the distance between the second potential electrode and the second current electrode.
The resistivity of the formation is then given by:

∆Φ 2π 2π
ρ= =R× (9.2)
I G G
where:
2π
G
is the geometric factor and varies for each specific array configuration as the distances between the
electrodes change.
R is resistance
Modern field equipment will measure the resistance directly. Temperature corrections for the effect on
the fluid electrical conductivity may also be required. Normal resistivity logs can only be acquired in
open formation and also require a saturated and conducting fluid in the bore to complete the electrical
circuits.
Resistivity logging is used extensively in the oil industry where many variations of the simple sondes
described above have been developed.

9.3.5 Bed correlation using normal resistivity logs
In some strata the normal resistivity logs can be used in isolation for correlation of marker beds over
large areas. The data shown in Figure 9.9 [Murray, 1982] shows bed correlation in the English Chalk over
a distance of several hundred kilometres. In this lithology, the identification of marker bands from drill
cuttings was impossible due to the white calcareous nature of the lithology and the presence of secondary
but prominent siliceous bands (flints).
9.4 Fluid logs
9.4.1 Introduction
The fluid electrical conductivity, temperature and rate of flow are properties which are commonly logged
in groundwater investigations. The measurement of these simple parameters can often determine the
movement of water within a fractured or cemented rock aquifer system, and therefore provide informa-
tion on the aquifer hydraulic conductivity. An excellent review of these techniques has been provided
by Buckley et al. [2001] as part of their review of techniques used to investigate Palaeowaters in Europe.
9.4.2 Fluid temperature logs
Equipment
The commonly available groundwater temperature logging tools use a glass bead thermistor to measure
the temperature of the bore water. Two logs are sometimes recorded, a temperature log and a differential
temperature log. The differential temperature is more sensitive to small temperature changes and there-
fore better at locating the movement of water into or out of the borehole column. Temperature logging
systems can be calibrated in thermal baths against a mercury thermometer. The accuracy of the log is
typically as high as 0.01 ◦C .
Movement of the temperature logging sonde disturbs the thermal profile in the water column. For this
reason, temperature logs are often run first in the borehole.
Interpretation
If there is no flow in or adjacent to the borehole, the temperature of the bore water will be a function of
the local geothermal gradient. Typical geothermal gradients vary between 1.5 ◦C per 100 metres to 2 ◦ C
per 100 metres. If the flow of groundwater in a bore is rapid, then there will be no change in temperature
with depth. This property is used to indicate flow into or out of the bore and to show the length of bore
over which the fluid is moving.
The effects of water flowing on the geothermal profile are shown in Figure 9.10.
It is generally the case in a fractured rock or a cemented aquifer, that the construction of a screened bore
or open hole will provide the highest hydraulic pathways for the movement of water. The entry and exit
points will be easily seen on the temperature log as shown in Figure 9.11.
Temperature logs can be used to locate the position of a cement grout which has been placed behind a
casing string. This is due to the exothermic reaction associated with cementing.

Figure 9.9: Normal resistivity log correlation in the English Chalk

Figure 9.10: Geothermal profile and effect of inflow

Figure 9.11: Characteristics of a temperature log in a fractured aquifer

Figure 9.12: Concentration of sodium chloride as a function of temperature and fluid EC
9.4.3 Fluid conductivity log
Equipment
Fluid conductivity is the reciprocal of fluid resistivity and can be measured by many commercially
available sondes. The units of measurement are typically mSiemens/metre (mS/m). The sonde may
be readily calibrated by measurements in specially prepared solutions of known electrical conductivity.
Fluid conductivity is directly affected by fluid temperature. Therefore the use of the two logs in com-
bination is necessary. The fluid conductivity is often corrected to a constant 25 ◦ C for comparison with
other logs.
Interpretation
Fluid conductivity logs can be used to map areas of saline contamination emanating either from the
ocean or from sites of contamination. Most contaminant plumes from landfill sites exhibit a higher fluid
electrical conductivity caused by the increase in total dissolved solids (TDS) in the ground water.
The TDS is linearly related to the fluid conductivity for a given water chemistry. If sufficient chemical
analyses have been carried out in an area to obtain this relationship, then further measurements of
fluid conductivity can be used to reasonably accurately map the TDS. The relationship between fluid
conductivity and the amount of sodium chloride in water is shown in Figure 9.12.
In general, a chemical analysis is available for the water and a value of fluid EC is routinely made at this
time.

Figure 9.13: Combined flow logs for Bore A2 at Figure 9.14: Combined flow logs for Bore A3 at
West Thurrock West Thurrock
9.4.4 Fluid flow
The rate of fluid movement in a borehole may sometimes be sufficiently high that an impeller flow meter
can be used in the bore to map changes in fluid flow rate. Impellers have a certain inertia to overcome
before they start to rotate. For this reason, they are not useful for monitoring very small flows. The
speed of the ground-water flow in the bore can be increased by the use of a shroud around the meter to
act as a constriction to the flow.
Heat pulse flow meters have been developed for detecting low flows. These devices work by emitting a
pulse of heat and then detecting its arrival at sensors mounted a fixed distance above and below the heat
source.
The fluid flow, temperature and conductivity logs taken an observation bores during pumping tests are
shown in Figures 9.13 and 9.14.
9.4.5 Borehole video cameras
Examination of the walls of a borehole is routinely carried out using a submersible video-camera (black
and white or colour). The focus, orientation, illumination, and direction of the camera can all be varied
from the surface. The signal is sent back to the surface and viewed on a monitor. The signal is also
recorded on video tape for later examination. Most systems also have the facility to record the depth of
the camera on the video tape.

Figure 9.15: Comparative logs measured above a screen in a borehole showing water quality before and
after pumping
9.4.6 Water quality measurements (HYDROLAB)
A full water quality log comprising DO, pH, EC, T and Eh can now be measured using a HYDROLAB
sonde and the GEOVISTA equipment. An example of output is shown in Fig 9.15.
9.5 Nuclear logging
9.5.1 Fundamentals of nuclear geophysics
The understanding and interpretation of gamma, gamma spectrometry, gamma gamma and neutron logs
requires an appreciation of the nature of subatomic particles and their decay characteristics.
The nucleus of an atom consists of protons with a mass of 1 unit and an electrically positive charge, and
neutrons with a neutral charge and a mass of 1 unit. The mass number (A) of the atom is equal to the
sum of the protons and neutrons. The atomic number (Z) is equal to the number of protons. Electrons
orbit the nucleus of the atom in orbitals which have shapes determined by the energy of the electron.
Electrons have a negative charge to balance the protons and a mass of 1/1,840 the mass of a proton.
Electrically neutral atoms have the same number of electrons as protons. Under some circumstances, an
atom can lose, or gain, one or more electrons and therefore become a charged molecule or ion.
Isotopes are one of two or more different states of the atom, with the same atomic number (Z), and
therefore the same chemical properties, but different mass numbers (A) due to the presence of additional
neutrons in the nucleus of the atom. For example, uranium consists of three isotopes with different mass
numbers of 234, 235 and 238, which can be separated by their difference in weight. These isotopes are
naturally occurring in rocks.

Stable isotopes are those that do not change their mass structure with time. Unstable isotopes decay by
changing their nuclear mass until they reach a stable state. These decay processes can take a very long
time. Almost 1,400 isotopes are known, of which 1,130 are unstable. However, only 65 unstable isotopes
occur naturally [Keys, 1989]. There are 104 known elements, of which 83 exist as more than one isotope.
Unstable isotopes change their mass structure spontaneously by the release of radiation. Radiation from
the nucleus occurs in the form of alpha particles, positive and negative beta particles and gamma photons.
X-rays are released by orbital electrons as they change from an orbital with a higher energy level to an
orbital with a lower energy level.
Alpha particles are stopped by a piece of paper; beta particles are stopped by a thin sheet of aluminum.
Gamma photons can penetrate a 100 mm of lead. Gamma photons are therefore monitored in geophysical
logging because they can pass through both rocks and the sonde to be detected by the logging equipment.
Neutrons can penetrate dense materials but are slowed and captured by materials that have a high
concentration of hydrogen, such as water.
The half-life of an isotope is the time taken for the isotope to lose one half of its radioactivity by decay.
Half-lives may vary from a few seconds to millions of years depending upon the nuclear mass structure.
9.5.2 Detection of radiation
The products of the radioactive decay of unstable isotopes (alpha, beta and gamma photon radiation) can
be measured by capturing the radiation and converting it to electronic pulses which can be counted and
sorted as a function of their energy content. The energy of radiation is measured in electron volts (ev).
Energy levels of thousands (kev) or millions (Mev) of electron volts are common. Radiation intensity is
measured directly as the number of pulses detected in unit time.
The most common type of radiation detector is a scintillation counter. Scintillation counters are labo-
ratory grown crystals which produce a flash of light when a gamma photon or neutron passes through
them. The scintillations are amplified in a photo-multiplier and the output is a pulse of electrical energy
whose amplitude is proportional to the energy of the radiation.
The number of pulses detected by a crystal in a particular radiation field will be proportional to the size
of the crystal. Sodium-iodide crystals are used to detect gamma photons and lithium-iodide crystals used
to detect neutrons.
Most detectors used in geophysical logging tools are side-collimated. That is, they receive energy from
a window open to the side of the borehole. The tool is often designed to be held against the side of the
bore as it is pulled to the surface. This is more important with neutron logging than gamma logging due
to the greater absorption of neutrons in water compared to gamma photons.
The pulses that are detected in the logging sonde are transmitted to the surface and counted by a rate
meter. An analogue rate meter converts the pulse to a DC voltage which is logged onto a chart recorder.
A digital rate meter counts the pulses for a pre-selected time period and then transmits a signal to a
digital-recording system. Clearly, the efficiency of the rate meter is fundamental to the effectiveness of
the radiation count. If the rate meter is too slow then two pulses coming close together will be counted
as one pulse, leading to an underestimation of the true radioactivity of the ground.
9.5.3 Counting statistics and logging speed
Although the half-lives of unstable (radioactive) isotopes are known accurately, it is not possible to
predict the actual decay event. Gamma photon emission has a poisson distribution, which means that
the standard deviation is equal to the square root of the number of radioactive decay events recorded.
Therefore, the greater the number of events recorded the greater the accuracy of the measurement.

Figure 9.16: Gamma log variations with logging speed
The statistical variations in the radioactive decay cause the rate meter counter to vary even when the
sonde is held at the same position. There is therefore a conflict between signal measurement accuracy and
logging speed. If the count rate is rapid enough and the measuring period sufficiently long, then the logs
will be repeatable. The trick is in determining the system parameters to achieve the log repeatability.
Digital rate meters produce a better representation of the true radioactivity than analogue rate meters.
The effect of the combination of logging speed and the rate meter selection strongly influences the accuracy
of the recorded log. Thin beds will be missed if the logging speed is too high. An example of the difference
between two logging speeds in the same formation is shown in Figure 9.16.
Keys [1989] gives a detailed discussion of the variation of log quality with the choice of analogue rate
meter time constant and logging speed.
The speed of logging also introduces an error in the depth estimation of lithological boundaries, an
underestimation of the thickness of thin beds and an overestimation of larger bed thicknesses. If accurate
resolution of thin beds is required then there is little option but to log at a slow and constant speed. This
is less a problem with motor controlled winches than hand-wound winches.
9.5.4 Use of radioactive sources in well logging
Radioactive sources are required for making gamma-gamma and neutron logs. The movement of these
sources is often controlled by State Agencies. No source is required for the gamma log as it measures

natural gamma photon activity.
9.6 Gamma logs
9.6.1 Introduction
The gamma log provides a record of the total natural gamma photon energy within a selected wave band
that is recorded within the vicinity of the logging probe.
9.6.2 Sources of gamma radiation
The energy of gamma photon radiation can be used to identify the isotope that emits the radiation.
Isotopes of uranium and thorium produce gamma radiation as they decay to produce end-member stable
isotopes. However, the main source of gamma rays monitored during hydrogeological logging is often the
isotope potassium-40. Potassium is abundant in feldspar material which weathers down to produce clays.
Uranium and thorium can also be concentrated in clay by the processes of adsorption and ion exchange.
Gamma logs are therefore fundamentally a means of monitoring lithology which has a high clay content.
Some characteristics of the three isotopes are given in table 9.3 [Keys, 1989]. These characteristics were
determined by the American Petroleum Institute (API) on 200 shale samples.
Table 9.3: Characteristics of three commonly occurring isotopes which emit gamma radiation.
Isotope Energy of Number Average Percentage of

major gamma of photons content in total gamma
peaks (Mev) per second 200 shale intensity of
per gram samples shale samples
Potassium-40 1.46 3.4 2 % Total K 19

4
Uranium-238 Series 1.76 2.84 × 10 6 ppm 47
in Equilibrium
Thorium-232 Series 2.62 1.0 × 104 2 ppm 34
in Equilibrium
Uranium is soluble in groundwater under some conditions. Uranium may therefore be mobilised and
concentrated and precipitate in sedimentary sequences other than clays or shales. The interpretation of
a gamma photon log can not be relied upon as a simple log of clay content. In contamination studies, the
disposal of artificially produced isotopes may also lead to the detection of high gamma photon activity.
Probe calibration
The API operates calibration pits for the standardisation of gamma probes. In general, probes designed
for groundwater investigation record the gamma photon activity in counts per second directly from the
equipment.
Interpretation of gamma photon activity logs
The interpretation of the log is qualitative and by synergistic comparison with other logs. The amplitude
of the gamma-log is changed by any borehole conditions which alter the density of the material which

Figure 9.17: Composite logs for a bore drilled in granite at Baldry in western NSW
the photons have to pass through. Gamma logs can be used through steel casing, although there may
be a drop in signal strength through the steel. Gamma logs work well through plastic casing and do not
require a saturated column of water. This property makes the gamma log a very useful log to run in
conjunction with the electromagnetic induction log in contamination studies.
Under most conditions, 90% of the gamma activity arises from material within 150 mm to 300 mm from
the borehole wall.
The material used to gravel pack a water well can strongly influence a gamma log. For example, if
the gravel pack material is a river sand with significant potassium feldspar material, a constant high
background activity level will be added to the log. By contrast, a thick gravel pack composed of dolomite
or some other low activity material, will subdue the gamma activity reaching the detector.
The location of the gamma probe in the borehole may cause problems in large diameter ( > 150 mm )
bores. The bores are seldom absolutely vertical and as the sonde is pulled up the bore, it will vary in
distance from the side wall, leading to a variability in log activity. This can be overcome by centering
the probe in the bore.
Changes in gamma log activity with time are common. These changes may reflect movement of uranium
daughter products along fracture lines or movement of isotopes from a waste disposal site.
Uranium isotopes are commonly released at an early stage in granite weathering. Under some circum-
stances, a gamma log can be used to locate the depth of the weathering front in granite.
A combined gamma ray and electromagnetic induction log is shown in Figure 9.17.

9.6.3 Gamma spectrometry
Gamma-spectrometry can be used to detect which radioactive isotope is present in the bore. This is
achieved by recording the gamma photon activity at several different frequencies. The equipment required
in the sonde is more complex in that the height of each pulse is required as additional information to
be transmitted to the surface. Gamma-spectrometry is widely used in the oil and minerals industry but
has not become accepted in the groundwater industry. This is probably due to a combination of lack
of training and increased cost of the equipment. An example of gamma spectrometry logs are shown in
Figure 9.18 from the LaTrobe valley.
Computer enhancement of the log at the surface can produce a quantitative plot of the total potassium,
thorium and uranium content in a bore. This identification permits better formation discrimination.
Gamma spectral data can be used to detect the source and identify the type of isotopes causing artificial
radiation, often associated with ground-water pollution plumes from waste dumps.
9.7 Gamma gamma logs
9.7.1 Introduction
The gamma-gamma log is also known as the density log. The log records the gamma radiation received
at a detector from a gamma source in the probe. The requirement for a gamma source makes this log
less attractive than the passive gamma log described above. However, the advantages of the tool have
long been recognised in the oil industry where it is a standard application.
9.7.2 Principles
Gamma-gamma probes contain a stable radiation source which is usually Cesium-137. The detectors in
the sonde are shielded from the source by a heavy metal such as lead or tungsten.
Gamma-gamma logging is based upon the principle that the attenuation of gamma radiation as it passes
through the rock is directly proportional to the electron density of the material. Gamma radiation is
absorbed in the rock material by three processes:
• Compton scattering,
• photoelectric adsorption, and
• pair production.
Compton scattering is the most important of these processes because the probe shell shields the low
frequency energy associated with photoelectric processes and pair production can not occur at energies
characteristically produced by Cesium-137.
The energy loss caused by Compton scattering is inversely proportional to the electron density. This is
related to the bulk density of the material by the ratio Z/A (atomic number / mass number).
9.7.3 Log interpretation
A properly calibrated log can be used to distinguish both the lithology and the borehole construction.
The main use is to measure bulk density and to convert this to porosity if the density of the mineral

Figure 9.18: Gamma spectra from the La Trobe Valley Coals

Figure 9.19: Density logs from the Botany Sands Aquifer
composition is known. This relationship is shown in Equation 9.3 for clean water.
(1−φ)
ρb = ρm (9.3)
where:
ρb is the density derived from the log,

ρm is the matrix density - known for a range of materials, and
φ is the formation porosity.
An example of density logs from the Botany Sands Aquifer is shown in Figure 9.19. Clear density
variations can be seen in the logs but a correlation with observed lithological changes was not always
apparent.
Density logs can be used to locate voids behind casing or in the formation. They can also be used to
locate the presence of cement grout behind casing.
Where information on fluid density is available then it is possible to calculate a log of formation porosity
from the Equation 9.4:
ρg − ρb
φ= (9.4)
ρg − ρf
where:
ρg is the grain density,

Figure 9.20: Porosity Logs from the Botany Sands Aquifer
ρb the bulk density, and

ρf the fluid density.
An example of a porosity log from the same bores in the Botany Sands Aquifer are shown in Figure 9.20.
9.8 Neutron logs
9.8.1 Introduction
Neutron logs require a source of neutrons in the sonde. Neutron detectors are also located in the sonde
and the difference between the source and received signals provides information on the lithology.
Two different configurations of sondes are used in the groundwater industry. The first uses a large neutron
source and detectors spaced at long spacing for the measurement of porosity. The second uses a small
source detector range and is used for measuring soil moisture in the unsaturated zone.
9.8.2 Principles
Neutron probes contain a source that can emit neutrons with a high frequency. The source material
varies but can contain beryllium and americium.

Two or more detectors are used in some modern probes. The probes are usually collimated and decen-
tralised against the borehole wall.
The flux of neutrons around a probe source can be thought of as a cloud of varying neutron density. Fast
neutrons emitted by the source undergo three possible interactions with the surrounding matter:
• inelastic scatter,
• elastic scatter, and
• absorption or capture.
These processes are shown diagrammatically in Figure 9.21.
Inelastic scattering can only take place with energetic (fast) neutrons shortly after their release from the
source. When this process occurs, the nucleus of the atom which has been impacted by the fast neutron
receives energy which it releases as a gamma photon as it decays back to a stable state again. As part
of this process the neutron energy is decreased. After a number of inelastic encounters, the neutrons
have slowed sufficiently for the second process to become significant. The second process is that of elastic
scatter.
In elastic scatter, the mass of the atom which the neutron hit determines the loss of energy by the
neutron. Light elements are the most effective at slowing (moderating) neutrons. As hydrogen is the
lightest element, it is the most effective at neutron moderation. The mass of the hydrogen atoms the
same as that of a neutron.
Most neutron capture takes place after the neutrons have slowed significantly. This occurs in zones which
have the highest water content. When a thermal neutron is captured by a nucleus, the nucleus becomes
excitepd and gives off a gamma photon so that it can return to a more stable, lower energy, state. The
cross-sections for thermal-neutron capture are highly dependent upon type of nucleus involved.
The process of neutron capture and gamma photon generation produce a gamma photon count which
is inversely proportional to the amount of water present in the rock for source detector spacings greater
than 300 mm. If the detectors are placed close to the source, then the number of moderated and captured
neutrons increases with increasing moisture content because the neutrons are not able to penetrate so far
into the surrounding formation. This is the process used in soil moisture probes.
A neutron log is not capable of detecting the difference between water bound on a clay surface and water
occupying interstitial porosity.
Neutron logs can be made through steel or plastic.
9.8.3 Neutron probes for soil moisture measurement
Introduction
The neutron soil moisture device consists of a compact radiation source and detector designed to be
installed in a narrow access tube in the ground. Figure 9.22 shows a neutron soil moisture survey
underway. The equipment is portable and easy to read. The access tubes are installed in the ground
by conventional methods such as rotary augering. Soil samples are taken during the augering for the
measurement of soil moisture by conventional methods.
The neutron logging device is mobilised to the field to take a series of measurements as required. In
general the equipment is lowered down the hole in increments of depth so as to build up a soil moisture
profile at that location. In this manner, the use of soil moisture by crops can be monitored and the value

Figure 9.21: Neutron capture processes

Figure 9.22: Neutron soil moisture survey equipment (Photo RIA)
of the soil moisture deficit established as a function of depth. The quantification of the soil moisture
deficit allows accurate irrigation scheduling and avoids the over-application of irrigation water.
Equipment design
The radiation source in the neutron logging device is usually radium-beryllium or americium-beryllium [Jury
et al., 1991]. The source emits high energy neutrons in the energy range 5 MeV (1600 km/s). These neu-
trons collide with the nuclei of atoms in the surrounding soil. Since the nuclei of most atoms other than
hydrogen are much heavier than the emitted neutrons, most collisions will not slow the neutrons. When
the neutrons collide with hydrogen, their similar mass causes them to be slowed substantially and to
reach energies characteristic of the thermal motion of hydrogen atoms (0.03 eV or 2.7 km/s) in the soil
after only a few such collisions.
The detector, which is mounted alongside the source, is only sensitive to thermal neutrons. The detector
cell is filled with BF3 gas. When the boron nucleus absorbs a slow neutron it emits an alpha particle
which is detected and counted. A count of thermal neutrons is therefore proportional to the moisture
content in the soil. A calibration curve can then be constructed from the soil moisture measurements
initially made on the soil samples and the thermal neutron count. Background hydrogen, present in
organic matter or in clays will register as a constant factor on the thermal neutron count. An example
of a soil moisture data set obtained using a neutron log is shown in Fig. 9.23 and Fig. 9.24.
9.8.4 Thermal neutron capture by chlorine
It has been shown [Schneider and Greenhouse, 1992, Acworth, 2001a] that chlorine efficiently captures
thermal neutrons and used this effect to map the progress of a PCE plume in the recent Borden DNAPL
spill experiment. The chlorine atoms in the DNAPL capture the thermal neutrons and are raised to a
higher energy state. They return to a normal state by emitting a gamma ray.
An example of one of the data sets is shown in Figure 9.25. The presence of the chlorinated hydrocarbon
is shown by a reduction in the neutron counts made at the detectors. A data set obtained by monitoring
the same event using electrical methods is shown in Figure 9.26

Figure 9.23: Impact of growing lucerne - drying Figure 9.24: Little change under fallow - some
the soil profile wetting up from fracture flow at 3m
9.9 Electromagnetic induction logs
9.9.1 Introduction
The popularity of the surface non-contacting electromagnetic systems produced by GEONICS (EM-31,
EM-34.3, EM-38) has expanded rapidly in the last ten years. More recently, the system has been extended
for borehole use by the EM-39. This logging tool has been specifically designed for use in small diameter
PVC lined bores. This system allows a continuous log of bulk formation electrical conductivity to be
measured and does not require a saturated column.
Basically, the EM-39 is a slim diameter (36 mm), short (1300mm) three-coil borehole induction bulk
electrical conduction logger which has been designed specifically for groundwater contamination work.
More recently, the GEONICS equipment has become available with a separate gamma log capability.
This provides the possibility of discrimination between the effects of clay content and fluid electrical
conductivity anomalies. This configuration is of particular use in the contamination area.
An EM39 logging set up is shown in Fig. 9.27.
9.9.2 Operating principles
The operating principles of the EM-39 sonde are the same as those for the surface mounted systems. A
small transmitter coil (Tx) in the probe induces eddy currents in the material surrounding the monitoring
well as shown in Figure 9.28. A coaxial receiver coil (Rx) measures the magnetic field generated by these
currents, which is directly proportional to the electrical conductivity of the ground.

Figure 9.25: Neutron profiles at the Borden Spill

Figure 9.26: Resistivity profiles at the Borden Spill

Figure 9.27: EM39 logging in progress (Photo RIA)
An inter coil spacing of 50 cm is used to allow good vertical resolution of thin beds. A single centrally
located focusing coil is used to minimise the signal contribution from the borehole fluid. This approach
produces a log which has a minimal contribution from the fluid and is focused out in the formation as
shown in Figure 9.29 [McNeil, 1986].
The sonde can be calibrated by measurements in air or by measurements in a lake of known fluid electrical
conductivity.
9.9.3 Response to a horizontally layered earth
In the general case, as the probe passes downward through a horizontally layered earth the response at
any given depth z is the integral from zero to infinity of the instrument response function as shown in
Figure 9.30 multiplied by the actual conductivity distribution [McNeil, 1986].
McNeil has published a computer program to model the response of a horizontally layered earth based
upon this relationship. The calculated response to a layered earth is shown in Figure 9.31.
Two factors are seen in Figure 9.31, viz:
• The sharp boundaries of the theoretical model are smoothed out, and
• Even though the bed thickness is 5 m the true value of bed conductivity is not reached.
9.9.4 Examples of field data
A review [Acworth, 1998] of gamma ray and electromagnetic logging methods for Botany Sands shows
the value of the method. Selected examples are given below.
Combined geophysics logs for parts of the Botany Aquifer are shown in Figures 9.32 and 9.33.

Figure 9.28: EM fields established in the EM39

Figure 9.29: EM-39 Log - Signal contribution

Figure 9.30: EM-39 response function
Figure 9.31: Predicted EM-39 response to a layered earth

Figure 9.32: Combined gamma and bulk EC logs Figure 9.33: Combined gamma and bulk EC logs
for Kensington Racecourse Bore for Kensington Park Bore

Chapter 10
Well hydraulics
Contents
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
10.2 Review of definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
10.2.1 Flowing and non-flowing bores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
10.2.2 Unconfined aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
10.2.3 Confined aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
10.2.4 Leaky aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
10.2.5 Anisotropy and heterogeneity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
10.2.6 Bounded aquifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
10.2.7 Steady state and non-steady state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
10.2.8 Compressibility α and β . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
10.2.9 Specific storage (Ss ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
10.2.10 Storativity or storage coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
10.2.11 Diffusivity ( Kb
S
). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
10.2.12 Leakage factor (L) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
10.3 Groundwater flow equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
10.4 Analytical solution methods to the radial flow equation . . . . . . . . . . . 309
10.4.1 The Theis solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
10.4.2 Multiple-well systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
10.4.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
10.4.4 Treatment of boundary conditions using analytical methods . . . . . . . . . . . 312
10.5 Numerical solutions to the radial flow equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
10.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
10.5.2 Numerical solution results for a confined aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
10.5.3 Results for a finite well diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
10.5.4 Results for a bounded system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
10.5.5 2D Radial flow model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
10.1 Introduction
In this Chapter we will present the derivation of groundwater flow equations that allow prediction of
the change in hydraulic head that occurs as a result of pumping from an abstraction well. This area is
normally referred to as groundwater hydraulics. Some terminology has been developed that is specific to
groundwater hydraulics so a review of these terms and the conceptual models that are associated with
them will be provided first.
300
Chapter 10. Well hydraulics
The groundwater flow equations can be solved analytically for a limited number of boundary conditions.
These analytical solutions are widely used and are provided in detail. Numerical methods can also be used
to solve the equations for a more extensive set of boundary conditions. The results from two numerical
analysis packages are ued to illustrate the power of these methods.
Chapter 11 will cover the preparations required for carrying out a pumping test at an abstraction bore
site. Chapter 12 will then cover the interpretation of pumping test data to determine aquifer properties,
where measurements have been made at a number of observation wells as well as the abstraction well.
Chapter 13 will examine available methods to interpret pumping tests carried out at single well tests.
10.2 Review of definitions
Before proceeding with the analysis, a number of terms are defined. These terms can be found in the
Glossary of Terms but are included here for convenience:-
Standing Water Level (S.W.L.): The depth from ground level to the water level in a non pumping
bore outside the area of influence of any pumping bore.
Static Head: This is the flowing bore equivalent of S.W.L. It is the height above ground level that water
at a particular temperature would stand if the casing were extended upwards. It is expressed as
metres or kilopascals.
Drawdown: The depth (distance) that the water level in a bore or well has been lowered from the
S.W.L. during pumping. It is measured at specified time after pumping commenced.
Residual Drawdown: The depth (distance) that the water level in a bore or well remains lowered from
the S.W.L. after pumping ceases. It is measured at specified times after pumping stopped.
Recovery: The amount by which the water level in a bore has risen at a given time after pumping
ceased. It is the difference between the Residual Drawdown after the given time and the hypothetical
drawdown if pumping had not ceased. When the water level returns to S.W.L. recovery is said to
be complete.
Available Drawdown: For a particular pump installation this is the distance between the S.W.L. and
the pump suction or the depth of water over the pump suction.
10.2.1 Flowing and non-flowing bores
For a long time, flowing and non-flowing bores were regarded by some authorities as being completely
different from one another and as a result the techniques used in testing and analysing them were different.
This idea is entirely wrong. The only basic difference between a flowing bore and a non-flowing bore in
a confined aquifer is that the ground level is lower than the standing water level (or static head) in the
case of a flowing bore and higher than it in a non-flowing bore as shown in Fig. 10.1. If, in the case of a
flowing artesian bore, the casing were extended high enough above the ground the water would stand in
the casing and a pump would have to be installed to discharge the water. The groundwater hydraulics
are the same for both types of bores and no differentiation will be made between the hydraulics of flowing
and non-flowing bores in later chapters on evaluation of aquifer properties.
10.2.2 Unconfined aquifer
An unconfined aquifer occurs where the top of the saturated zone is the water table. The hydraulic
pressure at the water table is equal to atmospheric pressure (Fig. 10.2a). Changes in atmospheric
pressure are immediately transmitted to the water table through the unsaturated porosity above the

Figure 10.1: Flowing artesian bore
Figure 10.2: Unconfined and confined aquifers
water table. Therefore there is no differential movement when the atmospheric pressure changes; in
contrast to a confined aquifer system.
10.2.3 Confined aquifer
The water pressure in a confined aquifer (Fig. 10.2b) is indicated by a potentiometric surface that is
above the top of the aquifer.
10.2.4 Leaky aquifer
The concept of a confined aquifer is good mathematically, but they rarely exist in practice. Fig 10.3
shows two possibilities where leakage occurs. In the first, clay, in an aquitard, caps the aquifer and water
drains slowly down from storage in the clay. In Australia, this is a particularly important concept because
many of the aquifers are overlain by silts rather than clays. The silts can leak large quantities of poor
quality water over time. The second concept in Fig 10.3 shows an aquifer overlying the aquitard that
overlies the aquifer. In this case we can have water draining down through the aquitard from the aquifer

Figure 10.3: Leaky aquifers
Figure 10.4: Sequence of aquifers and aquitards
as well as drainage from the aquitard. If there are fractures in the clay/silt - flow will be considerable.
The final figure (Fig 10.4) shows a sequence of aquifers and aquitards - similar to that which would exist
in a fluvial or estuarine environment.
10.2.5 Anisotropy and heterogeneity
Aquifers may be isotropic and homogeneous but are more usually anisotopic and inhomogeneous. The
various classes are shown in Fig. 10.5.
10.2.6 Bounded aquifers
A common assumption is that the aquifer is horizontal, of constant thickness and extends to infinity. In
fact, this assumption is ecessary to allow modification to the flow equation such that it can be solved
analytically. Clearly, in practice that is not possible and 3 types of bounded aquifers are recognised:
• barrier boundary (Fig. 10.6a)

• recharge boundary (Fig. 10.6b)
• aquifer of non-uniform thickness (Fig. 10.6c)

Figure 10.5: Variations in the distribution of hydraulic conductivity
Fig. 10.6 illustrates these 3 concepts.
10.2.7 Steady state and non-steady state
There are two types of equations derived in groundwater hydraulics. The first describes conditions in the
aquifer when the cone of depression has stopped expanding and conditions are said to be in steady state.
The water being abstracted by the water well is no longer coming from the aquifer by the development
of storage, but is flowing across the outer boundary of the cone of depression, or down from above in the
leaky case. Every pumping test will tend towards a steady-state condition after a long enough period of
time.
Non-steady state analysis has to take account of the release of water from storage. By definition, the
cone of depression is still expanding in size.
10.2.8 Compressibility α and β
Compressibility is important in the analysis on non-steady state flow. It describes the change in volume
or the strain induced in the aquifer or aquitard under a given stress. It has been described in detail in
Chapter 4 but is repeated here for completeness.
dVT /VT
α= (10.1)
dσe
Compressibility is expressed in m2 /m or P a−1. Its value for clay varies between 10−6 to 10−8 , for sand
from 10−7 to 10−9 , for gravel and fractured rock from 10−8 to 10−10 .
The compressibility of water is:

dVT /VT
β= (10.2)
dP
The compressibility of water at normal groundwater temperatures is approximately 4.4 × 10−10 P a−1 .

Figure 10.6: Types of boundary condition
10.2.9 Specific storage (Ss )
The volume of water that is yielded from a unit volume of a confined aquifer for a unit decline in hydraulic
head.
Ss = ρg (α + φβ) (10.3)
The dimensions of specific storage are L−1 .
10.2.10 Storativity or storage coefficient
This term relates to specific storage in the same manner that transmissivity relates to hydraulic conduc-
tivity. It is the integration of the specific storage over the thickness of the aquifer b.
S = ρgb (α + φβ) = Ss b (10.4)
10.2.11 Diffusivity ( Kb
S
)
The hydraulic diffusivity is the ratio of the transmissivity and the storativity of a staurated aquifer. It
governs the propagation of changes in head in the aquifer. Diffusivity has dimensions of L2 /(T )ime.

10.2.12 Leakage factor (L)
The leakage factor, or characteristic length, is a measure for the spatial distribution of the leakage through
an aquitard into a leaky aquifer and vice versa [Kruseman and de Ridder, 1990]. It is defined as:
r r
Kbb0 T b0
L= = (10.5)
K0 K0
The primes denote the property of the aquitard. Large values of L indicate a low leakage rate, whereas
small values of L indicate a high leakage rate.
10.3 Groundwater flow equations
The groundwater flow equations represent a mathematical model of the groundwater flow process. For
certain simple situations, the mathematical model as represented by the equations, can be solved by
analytical methods. The Theis method is an example of an analytical solution to the transient flow
equation (The Diffusion Equation) in two dimensions.
The equation for non-steady state flow of groundwater through an anisotropic medium was developed in
Equation 4.105 and is repeated here as:

∂ ∂(h) ∂ ∂(h) ∂ ∂(h) ∂h
Kx + Ky + Kz = Ss (10.6)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂t
For an isotropic medium where Kx = Ky = Kz and for an homogeneous medium where K(x,y,z) is
constant, Equation 10.6 reduces to :
2
∂ h ∂2h ∂2h

∂ ∂h ∂ ∂h ∂ ∂h ∂h
K + + =K + 2 + 2 = Ss (10.7)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x2 ∂y ∂z ∂t
Using the ∇ representation for the partial derivatives, and dividing through by the hydraulic conductivity
K, gives:
Ss ∂h
∇2 h = (10.8)
K ∂t
This equation is known as the diffusion equation. The solution h(x, y, z, t) describes the value of the
hydraulic head at any point in a flow field at any time. This equation can not be solved using analytical
methods. A full numerical analysis is required using either finite differences or finite elements.
The problem can be reduced from 3 dimensions to 2 dimensions if the following assumptions are made:
• the thickness of the confined aquifer is constant,

• the aquifer is of infinite extent, and
• that there are no vertical flow components in the aquifer which therefore makes the derivative of
the head with respect to vertical distance (z), equal to zero.
Then, multiplying the top and bottom of the right hand side of Equation 10.8 by the aquifer thickness
(b) gives the transient flow equation in two dimensions as:
∂2h ∂2h S ∂h
+ 2 = (10.9)
∂x2 ∂y T ∂t
where:

Figure 10.7: Transmissivity calculation for aquifers with layering
T is the aquifer transmissivity - the product of the hydraulic conductivity and the aquifer thickness,
S is the aquifer storage coefficient - the product of the specific storage and the aquifer thickness.
Note that the introduction of the transmissivity term is simply a mathematical necessity required to
simplify the equation for groundwater flow by moving from 3D to 2D. It does not have a geological or
hydrogeoloical reality in the same way that hydraulic conductivity does. A suitable value of transmissivity
must be established from consideration of the available information on hydraulic conductivity.
The transmissivity is defined above as the product of the aquifer hydraulic conductivity and the aquifer
depth (thickness). This could be interpreted as meaning that the transmissivity can only be defined for
homogeneous aquifer material. This is not the case. The transmissivity can be defined Rushton [2003]
as: X
T = Kx ∆z (10.10)
sat−depth
or: Z z=top
T = Kx dz (10.11)
z=base
Consider an aquifer comprised of three horizontal layers that acts as a single unit. The bottom layer of
15 m thickness has a hydraulic conductivity of 10 m/day; a 30 m middle zone has a hydraulic conductivity
of 1 m/day and the 5 m thick upper zone a K value of 20 m/day - as shown in Fig. 10.7. Applying
Eqn. 10.10, the transmissivity function with respect to depth can be generated and is shown on the right
-hand side of Fig. 10.7.
Radial flow
A solution to Equation 10.9 can be readily determined using numerical methods. The results from a
simple Finite Difference model worked on an EXCEL spreadsheet are shown in Fig. 10.8.
It is clearly shown in Fig. 10.8 that the flow to a well in a homogeneous aquifer will be radially symmetric.
It is therefore convenient to convert Equation 10.9 to radial co-ordinates, viz.:
∂ 2 h 1 ∂h S ∂h
2
+ = (10.12)
∂r r ∂r T ∂t
where:
p
r is the radial distance from the well r = x2 + y 2 .
The mathematical region of flow is a one-dimensional line through the aquifer, from r = 0 at the well to
r = ∞ at the boundary. A schematic of the flow regime is shown in Figure 10.9.

Figure 10.8: 2D results from a finite difference model developed using an EXCEL spreadsheet
Figure 10.9: Radial Flow to a Well

10.4 Analytical solution methods to the radial flow equation
10.4.1 The Theis solution
Theis [1935] utilised the heat flow analogy to arrive at an analytical solution to the radial flow equation
subject to a number of initial and boundary conditions. His solution, written in terms of the drawdown,
is Z ∞ −u
Q e
s = h0 − hr,t = du (10.13)
4πT u u
where:
r2 S
u= (10.14)
4T t
The solution is valid for the initial condition that:
hr,0 = h0 (10.15)
for all radial distances, and where h0 is the initial water level, or standing water level (SWL).
The solution requires that on the boundary at infinity, there is no drawdown in hydraulic head:
h∞,t = h0 (10.16)
for all times (t). A constant abstraction (pumping) rate Q at the well is also assumed in this solution:
The solution hr,t describes the hydraulic head at any radial distance r at any time t after the start of
pumping. Solution using an analytical approach is presented first and the numerical approaches will be
presented.
The integral in the equation is the exponential integral and is well known in mathematics. Tables of its
values are available (Fig. 10.10) or can be readily calculated using a programmable calculator and the
approximation shown below.
∞
e−u u2 u3 u4
Z
W (u) = du = −0.577216 − ln u + u − + − +... (10.17)
u u 2 × 2! 3 × 3! 4 × 4!
Substituting this function into Equation 10.13 yields:

Q
s= W (u) (10.18)
4πT
If the aquifer transmissivity (T ) and storativity (S) and the pumping rate (Q) are known, it is possible
to predict the drawdown at any distance (r) from a well at any time (t) after the start of pumping. All
that is required is to calculate the appropriate value of (u), use tables to get a corresponding value of the
well function W (u) and calculate the value of the drawdown. Similar relationships can be calculated for
observation points at different radial distances from the pump well.
10.4.2 Multiple-well systems
The drawdown in hydraulic head at any point in a confined aquifer in which more than one well is pumping
is equal to the sum of the drawdowns that would arise if each of the wells were pumped independently.
Figure 10.11 shows the effect of summing the contributions from different drawdown cones.

Figure 10.10: Table of values for the Theis well function

Figure 10.11: Composite Pumping Cones
For any system of n wells pumping at rates Q1 + Q2 + . . . + Qn , the arithmetic summation of the Theis
solutions can be used to derive the drawdown at a point.
Q1 Q2 Qn
s= W (u1 ) + W (u2 ) + . . . + W (un ) (10.19)
4πT 4πT 4πT
where
ri2 S
ui is 4 T ti
i is 1, 2, . . . , n
ti is the time since pumping commenced at well i, and
Qi is the pumping rate at well i.
10.4.3 Summary
It is convenient to summarise the assumptions implicit in the Theis solution to the radial flow equation,
viz.:
1. The aquifer has an infinite areal extent

2. The aquifer is homogeneous, isotropic and of uniform thickness over the area influenced by the
pumping test.
3. Prior to pumping, the piezometric surface and/or water table surface are horizontal over the area
influenced by the pumping test
4. The aquifer is pumped at a constant discharge rate
5. The pumped well penetrates the entire aquifer and thus receives water from the entire thickness of
the aquifer by horizontal flow

6. The aquifer is confined

7. The flow to the well is in unsteady state, i.e. the drawdown differences with time are not negligible
nor is the hydraulic gradient constant with time
8. The water removed from storage is discharged instantaneously with decline of head
9. The diameter of the pumped well is very small, i.e. the storage in the well can be neglected
10. Water passes from the aquifer through the well with no loss of head.
The large number of assumptions in the Theis analytical method demonstrates the difficulty of developing
methods for more complicated conditions using analytical methods. However, this has not stopped the
publication of numerous papers in the literature dealing with partial penetration, leakage, unconfined
flow, large diameter wells, etc. and the use of many different sets of type curves.
10.4.4 Treatment of boundary conditions using analytical methods
Significant vertical and lateral variations in hydraulic conductivity exist in real aquifers. They must at
some point be terminated by geological changes which form hydrogeological barriers. It is possible to use
the Theis method to approximate the drawdown in boreholes pumping from bounded aquifers using the
method of images. The cone of depression caused by pumping will extend through the aquifer until the
total abstraction is balanced by recharge or until the boundary of the aquifer is reached. There are two
fundamental types of boundary condition:
• A barrier or no flow boundary, or

• a fixed head or recharge boundary.
The effect of these two boundary condition types on a plot of drawdown against log time are shown in
Figure 10.12 and Figure 10.13.
Recharge boundaries
The ideal recharge boundary occurs when the cone of depression caused by pumping from a confined
aquifer extends up to a fully penetrating river. The river is considered to provide a constant head
boundary as shown in Figure 10.14.
The hydraulic situation can be modelled by using the concept of an imaginary or image well. The
imaginary well is located an equal distance on the far side of the river boundary to the distance from the
real well to the river boundary. The effect of the river on the drawdown in the real well can be calculated
using Theis theory by assuming that the image well is a recharging well and summing the drawdown
components from the real well and the image well as shown in Equation 10.20.
Q Q
s= W (uw ) − W (ui ) (10.20)
4πT 4πT
where
2
rw S
uw is 4T t
ri2 S
ui is 4T t
rw is the distance from the real well to the observation point,

ri is the distance from the imaginary well to the observation point,

Figure 10.12: Change in drawdown due to a barrier boundary
Figure 10.13: Change in drawdown due to a recharge boundary

Figure 10.14: Recharge boundary conditions

t is the time since pumping commenced at the well, and

Q is the pumping rate at the well
Barrier boundaries
Barrier boundaries are perhaps more common than recharge boundaries. The general geological model
and hydraulic model are shown in Figure 10.15.
The approach for analysis is similar to the recharge barrier case except that the image well is considered
to be an imaginary pumping well and therefore the drawdown components add together as show in
Equation 10.21.
Q Q
s= W (uw ) + W (ui ) (10.21)
4πT 4πT
where
2
rw S
uw is 4T t
ri2 S
ui is 4T t
rw is the distance from the real well to the observation point,

ri is the distance from the imaginary well to the observation point,
t is the time since pumping commenced at the well, and
Q is the pumping rate at the well
10.5 Numerical solutions to the radial flow equation
10.5.1 Introduction
Rushton and Redshaw [1979] published a simple finite difference radial flow model which was capable of
overcoming many of the restrictions imposed by the analytical solution to the flow equation established
by Theis.
In its simplest form it is a single layer model, although 2D models are also available.
The radial flow model provides an alternative approach to the the prediction of drawdowns in an aquifer
for various scenarios. The computer code can be easily prepared in a compiled language or a used on a
programmable calculator.
10.5.2 Numerical solution results for a confined aquifer
The use of a numerical approach can be demonstrated by a succession of models where the initial restric-
tions of the analytical solution described by Theis are removed. Consider an initial model where:
• Transmissivity is 500 m2 /day

• Storage Coefficients are 0.001 or 0.0001
• Well Diameter of 1 mm (insignificantly small)

Figure 10.15: Barrier boundary conditions

Figure 10.16: Semi-log plot of drawdown for conditions within the restrictions set out by the Theis
analysis
• A no-flow outer boundary at 10 000 m

• Abstraction Rate of 500 m3 /day
• Abstraction for 100 days
The results for the approximation to a Theis analysis are shown in Figure 10.16 where the drawdown is
plotted against the log of time (a semi-log plot). This method is used as the rate of change of drawdown
reduces as time extends and the resulting plot will be a straight line at a slope determined by the aquifer
parameters T and S. Data is also frequently plotted as a log-log plot where the log of drawdown is plotted
against the log of time. These plots always display a curved profile.
Note the down turn at approximately 10 days in the results for a value of S = 0.0001. This is the result
of dewatering of this aquifer due to the low storage, even though the outer boundary is at a radius of
10 km. The data presented as a log-log plot is shown in Fig 10.17.
10.5.3 Results for a finite well diameter
The impact of a finite well diameter of 300 mm is shown in Figure 10.18, with data presented as a log-log
plot in recovery shown in Figure 10.19. The outer boundary is still set as a no-flow boundary at 10 km.
Note that the drawdown in all wells is less than predicted by the first set of data. Conditions at the
abstraction well could also be interpreted as a recharge boundary close to the well. This aspect of well
storage makes monitoring of the abstraction well data at early times (less than 2 minutes) important if
the well hydraulics are to be sufficiently understood. The change in aquifer storage also has significant
impacts.

Figure 10.17: Log-log plot of drawdown: Theis conditions
Figure 10.18: Semi-log plot: Well storage

Figure 10.19: Log-log plot: Well storage
10.5.4 Results for a bounded system
The impact of a recharge boundary at 2 000 m is shown in Figure 10.20 for a semi-log plot and in
Figure 10.21 for a log log plot. A real abstraction well diameter of 300 mm has been kept.
The recharge boundary at a distance of 2 000 m is shown at each observation point at the same time.
The decline in water levels throughout the aquifer stops and a steady state is reached where abstraction
from the well is matched by flow accross the boundary. Note that this model would be the equivalent to
pumping from a 2 km radius island in a lake.
The impact of a no flow boundary at 2 000 m is shown in Figure 10.22 (300 mm abstraction well).
The impact of changing the outer boundary at 2 000 m from a recharge condition to a no-flow condition
is clearly seen. Note that the change in gradient occurs at all points at the same time again.

Figure 10.20: Semi-log plot: Recharge boundary
Figure 10.21: Log-log plot: Recharge boundary

Figure 10.22: Semi-log plot: No-flow boundary
Figure 10.23: Log-log plot: No-flow boundary

Figure 10.24: Control screen for RADFLOW after Johnston and Cosgrove 2003
10.5.5 2D Radial flow model
Johnson et al. [2001] have published a 2D radial flow model that solves the 2D radial flow equation.
Users can enter their own pumping test data and see if they can match the field data by changing
the layer hydraulic conductivities, thicknesses and storages. Examples of this approach are shown in
Fig. 10.24, Fig. 10.25. The ability to vary hydraulic conductivity with depth means that the hydraulic
head distribution can be calculated as a function of depth. This is illustrated in Fig. 10.26 and illustrates
the importance of having adequate piezometry for an investigation.

Figure 10.25: Matching field data with forward solutions to the radial flow equation
Figure 10.26: Hydraulic head variation in the x-z plane: abstraction well at the left hand side

Chapter 11
Pumping test preparation and

pumps
Contents
11.1 Planning a pumping test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
11.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
11.1.2 Pre-test planning for an aquifer test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
11.1.3 Test design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
11.1.4 Observation bores and piezometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
11.2 Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
11.2.1 Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
11.2.2 Water levels or hydraulic heads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
11.2.3 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
11.2.4 Water quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
11.3 Interpretation and reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
11.3.1 Processing the data - possible corrections to drawdown data . . . . . . . . . . . 333
11.3.2 Reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
11.4 Test pumping non-flowing bores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
11.4.1 Antecedent conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
11.4.2 Constant discharge test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
11.4.3 Recovery test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
11.4.4 Constant drawdown test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
11.4.5 Step drawdown test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
11.4.6 Step drawdown test (Extended first step) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
11.4.7 Variable discharge/variable drawdown test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
11.4.8 Multiple aquifer testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
11.4.9 Applicability of testing procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
11.4.10 Pump stoppages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
11.5 Testing flowing bores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
11.5.2 Risk in closing low pressure bores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
11.5.3 Flow recession test (Constant drawdown) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
11.5.4 Static test (Recovery) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
11.5.5 Dynamic (Step drawdown) tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
11.5.6 Opening dynamic test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
11.5.7 Closing dynamic test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
11.5.8 Order of tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
11.6 Borehole pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
324
Chapter 11. Pumping test preparation and pumps
11.6.1 Positive displacement pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344

11.6.2 Variable displacement pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
11.6.3 Air lift pumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
11.1 Planning a pumping test
11.1.1 Introduction
A pumping test, or pumped well test, may serve two objectives.
Well test - To provide information about the yield and drawdown of the well. These data can be used
to determine the specific capacity of the well which is a measure of hydraulic efficiency. This type
of test is called a well test, as it is the well rather than the aquifer which is being tested.
Aquifer test - To provide information from which the hydraulic properties of the aquifer can be deter-
mined. Properly planned and carefully conducted, the aquifer test may provide basic information
sufficient to attempt an inverse solution to the mathematical equation describing groundwater flow.
It would be common practice to carry out these two steps sequentially during the development of a
new abstraction well site. Accurate information on the specific capacity is required to enable a full
specification for a permanent pump. For this reason, much of the early testing is carried out with a test
pump installed in the well. This pump will have a wide range of head-discharge characteristics to allow
it to be to be used in the unknown conditions.
Well tests generally can be completed in a day and, in contrast to aquifer tests, do not require detailed
planning.
The step-drawdown test is commonly used as a well test. As this is the initial period of testing to
determine the hydraulic properties of the bore, there is little focus on the capacity of the aquifer to
determine long term yield capabilities. Some indication of this can be provided by observing the way in
which the water level recovers at the end of pumping.
An Australian Standard (AS 2368-1990) has been prepared by Standards Australia [Standards Australia,
1990] for Test Pumping of Water Wells. This chapter on testing of bores by pumping and by slug tests
gives a brief overview of the design and carrying out of pumping tests. The reader is assumed to have a
basic understanding of groundwater hydraulics. The main references used for these notes are Ferris et al.
[1962], Kruseman and de Ridder [1990], Dawson and Istok [1991] and Hazel [1975]. You are referred also
to the Australian Standard on Test Pumping of Water Wells (AS 2368-1990)and Misstear et al. [2006]
have also produced a useful and more recent review.
Generally pumping tests are carried out on bores for one of the following reasons:
1. To determine the hydraulic characteristics of the aquifer. These aquifer characteristics, such as
Transmissivity and Storage Coefficient, are used to determine the ability of the aquifer to store and
transmit water and hence assess its response to stresses such as recharge and discharge, or;
2. to determine the long term pumping capability of the bore itself under sustained pumping. This
is important for the correct selection of pumping equipment for commissioning of the bore or for
the determination of the number and spacing of bores to achieve a required objective; Occasionally
pumping tests are carried out for other reasons including;
3. to determine the existence and location of sub-surface boundaries which may affect adversely or
beneficially the long term pumping performance of a particular bore or

Figure 11.1: Work-over rig used for setting pumps in abstraction bores Photo C H
4. to check on the performance of a particular groundwater basin, or;

5. to determine the radius of influence of a bore for dewatering or interference purposes.
It is common practise to equip a work over rig to carry out pumping tests. Installation of a heavy pump
and rising main takes time and requires a lifting rig. The drill rig capabilities are only required to install
and remove the pump, so it is an unreasonable use of resources to tie up a drilling rig for the duration of
a pumping test. An example of a work over rig used for test pumping is shown in Fig. 11.1. A specially
adapted pump rig with flexible rising main is shown in Fig. 11.2.
11.1.2 Pre-test planning for an aquifer test
An aquifer pumping test is expensive and the number of tests carried out are normally strictly limited. All
available information concerning the aquifer, the boreholes and monitoring points should be established
as part of the pre-test planning exercise.
Radial flow modelling will be carried out to test the probable drawdowns and extent of drawdown as a
result of pumping from the new borehole. The results of this modelling will allow identification of the
critical locations for monitoring the development of the cone of depression. It is entirely probable that
extra monitoring points will need to be installed and that an additional drilling program will be required.
The pre-test study should enable identification of the aquifer type (confined or unconfined), an ap-
proximation of the transmissivity, and an identification of the other major fluxes in the aquifer. It is
particularly important to identify the pumping regime of other abstractors within the zone of influence of
the proposed test. The aquifer test characteristics will vary depending upon the available information. A
different testing programme is designed for an aquifer about which little if anything is known, compared
to a supplementary test in a well defined aquifer.
A location for discharge of the aquifer test water is required. It is important that this be some distance
away from the test site to avoid recirculation of the test water. This is not such a problem with a confined
aquifer but is very important in unconfined aquifer tests. It may be necessary to pump the water several

Figure 11.2: Test pumping rig with flexible rising main Photo C H
hundred metres away. If the water is to be added to an existing stream then flow gauging in the stream
is necessary before the test begins and again during the test.
Careful planing is required for the collection of the aquifer test data. Data collection is required very
frequently initially, and this requires two people if a dip meter is used. Personnel requirements can also
be considerable, especially when it is realised that the test measurements are required hourly throughout
the night.
11.1.3 Test design
The field procedure requires that a pump be installed in the bore or for flowing bores, a valve fitted to
control flow. Once discharge has commenced, observations of water levels from the test and observation
bores are made at selected times. Data are obtained in a way that is suitable to plot on a logarithmic time
scale. Analysis of plotted data solves for the constants in the flow equation which represent the hydraulic
parameters of the aquifer. This may appear to be straightforward, however, many factors including the
accuracy and ambiguity of data, and the skill, experience and understanding of the analyst will determine
the success of the analysis. Methods of analysis are presented in Chapter 12.
Proper test design is essential for the successful determination of aquifer properties and for the long term
pumping performance of a bore. The steps that follow are presented with the assumption that an initial
site investigation has been completed and that the geology and the aquifer types and water levels are
known and there are no local authority reasons why a bore should not be drilled or tested.
The test duration could depend on the type of aquifer being tested. If a simple confined aquifer is being
tested then the drawdown-log time relationship may settle down very quickly. However, if the aquifer
exhibits leakiness, delayed yield, boundary effects or the like, then the test duration may have to be
extended. These effects will only become apparent during the test and for this reason it is prudent to get
into the habit of plotting the test results on semi-logarithmic paper as the test progresses.
Conditions at the site impose constraints on pumping test design which should be recorded and taken
into account prior to the start of the design process. A few examples, some of which are irrelevant if the
bore is already constructed, are:

• limitation of placement (e.g. buildings, roads, railway lines or other bores)

• limitation on pumping rate(s)
• limitation on test duration
• local authority limitation on discharge of water
• location of the point of discharge for the pumped water to prevent recirculation
• use of an existing bore (this may limit number and location of observation bores, problems with
effects of bore storage, head losses)
• limitation on the placement of bores due to known presence of aquifer discontinuities, presence of
recharge and discharge zones
These limitations add complexities to the design of pumping tests and to the selection of the best means
of analysing them.
With knowledge of why the test is being carried out the test conditions can be specified. These include:
type of test, diameter of the pumping bore if the bore has not already been drilled, the pumping rate, the
number and location of observation bores, the depth and screen length of bores, and test duration [Driscoll,
1986, Kruseman and de Ridder, 1990]. Some of these conditions are discussed below. Once they have
been decided upon and the bore is ready for testing, all of the conditions relating to the bore and ancillary
equipment should be recorded on a Bore Setup Sheet, an example of which is given in the Appendices.
It should be stressed that the test design is an iterative process.
If the bore has not yet been drilled it may be necessary to select a bore casing diameter and a likely
pumping rate. The selected pumping rate should be large enough to insure that drawdown can be
measured accurately in the bores, but the selected rate should not result in excessive drawdown. For
unconfined aquifers ideally the water table should not be lowered by more than 25%. However, on
occasions this may have to be sacrificed in favour of higher productivity. The pumping rate may be
selected in a number of ways:
• By using empirical equations [Driscoll, 1986];

• by using the analytical solutions of the models to predict drawdown for a range of assumed pumping
rates, or;
• by carrying out short tests before the test proper, or;
• by seeking advice from the driller.
The depth of a new bore will usually be determined from the log of an exploratory bore or from logs
of nearby existing bores. The bore should be drilled to the bottom of the aquifer, if possible. The bore
screen, slots or perforations should be designed to keep the entrance velocity low (Chapter 8). As a
general rule, bores should be screened over at least 80% of the aquifer thickness because at this screen
length the groundwater flows towards the bore can be assumed to be horizontal. However, the length
screened depends very much on required use for the bore. Exceptions are:
• in unconfined aquifers, it is common practice to screen only the lower half or lower one-third of the
aquifer
• if the aquifer is relatively shallow and the available drawdown is not large then it may be better to
screen the lower one-third of the aquifer of the aquifer to get a better discharge rate from the bore.
This may result in higher turbulent head losses but would result in a more productive bore.

• in very thick aquifers, the length of the screen will be less than 80% (too expensive). Such a partially
penetrating bore induces vertical flow which can extend outward from the bore to distances about
1.5 the thickness of the aquifer. Within this radius, measured drawdowns have to be corrected. The
effect of vertical flow can sometimes be reduced by screening at intervals throughout the aquifer
rather than having the total length of the screen in the one section.
• if the bore is to be used for dewatering purposes then the drawdown and pumping rate from the
bore have to be optimized.
• bores in consolidated aquifers may not need a screen.
11.1.4 Observation bores and piezometers
One of the methods available to determine an aquifer’s ability to store water is to analyse drawdown
observations taken in nearby bores or water level measuring points during a pumping test. The storage
co-efficient cannot be determined from drawdown data from the pumping bore itself.
Be mindful that most of the information presented in this chapter is for flow in porous media. It does not
necessarily apply to flow in fractured rocks. In particular, measurements of drawdowns in observation
bores taken during a pumping test of a bore drilled in a fractured rock aquifer may do little more than
indicate what the drawdown effect is in that direction from the bore. It tells nothing about drawdown
effects in other directions. The flow in fractured rock aquifers is usually very directional rather than
radial in nature.
In the case of routine groundwater investigations, observation bores are invariably drilled to allow this
information to be obtained. Drawdown readings should be taken at approximately the same intervals as
for the production bore. Unless data loggers are used it will not be possible, without excessive use of
manpower, to measure drawdowns at exactly the same times in each bore. While attempts should be made
to measure them at approximately the same times as drawdowns are measured in the production bore,
it is more important that the actual times at which the measurements were taken should be recorded.
When testing a private facility the opportunity should be taken to measure drawdown in adjacent bores.
If this is to be done, the S.W.L. should be measured in the adjacent bore before pumping commences.
The location of the observation bore should be determined by GPS if possible. If this is not possible then
the distance from the pumping bore should be measured and recorded and the relative locations shown
on the bore setup sheet.
In some detailed investigations it may be necessary to use more precise water level measuring points.
While these are still water level observation points, they are commonly referred to as piezometers. A
piezometer is an open-ended pipe (normally of small diameter, say 50 mm) with a screen, 0.5 to 1 m long
fitted to the bottom. The water levels measured in piezometers represent the average head at the screen
of the piezometer. In a heterogeneous aquifer, multiple aquifers or even in a thick homogeneous aquifer, a
number (or cluster) of piezometers may be able to be placed at different depths in one bore if the diameter
of the bore hole is large enough and the water inlet section of each piezometer is hydraulically isolated
from the inlet of each of the others. The hole in which the cluster has been installed is normally left cased
above the uppermost piezometer. In such cases care has to be taken to ensure complete isolation of the
separate piezometers or vertical transfer of water can occur and invalidate the measurements. Such an
arrangement of piezometers in a homogeneous aquifer may be used for example, to determine the vertical
component of flow beneath a source of contamination on the surface.
The number of observation bores depends on the reason for test, the required degree of accuracy and
available funds. It is always preferable, but not always possible, to have many observation bores, (at least
three are recommended). The advantage is that the drawdowns measured can be analysed in two ways:
by time-drawdown relationship and by distance-drawdown relationship. However, if the objective of the
test is only to determine the long term pumping rate, then observation bores may not be required. An
observation bore should never be located closer than one aquifer thickness (b) from the pumping bore.

Many suggestions have been made concerning the spacing of observation bores, one of which is that they
should be located at distances b, 2b and 4b, from the discharging bore where b is the aquifer thickness.
If possible, observation bores should be located at such distances from the pumping bore as to provide a
reasonable spread of points when plotted on logarithmically in distance-drawdown plots. If a substantial
gradient exists in the potentiometric surface, then bores should be located up slope and down slope from
the discharging bore. In unconfined aquifers two bores are desirable at each distance, one located near
the top and the other near the bottom of the aquifer. However, the distances at which observation bores
should be placed depends on the type of aquifer, its transmissivity, the duration of pumping, discharge
rate, the length of the bore screen and aquifer stratification (for details see Kruseman and de Ridder
[1990] and AS 2368-1990).
The depth of observation bores is also important. Ideally, in an isotropic and homogeneous aquifer, if
possible, the depth of the observation bore should coincide with depth to the mid point of the bore screen.
However, in some cases existing bores are used as observation bores and as long as they are at a suitable
distance from the pumping bore they should be satisfactory. For heterogeneous aquifers the use of a
cluster of piezometers is recommended. Observation bores should also be placed in an aquitard to check
whether its water level is affected by pumping in the aquifer. This information is needed for leaky aquifer
tests [Kruseman and de Ridder, 1990].
11.2 Measurements
The adequate evaluation of a pumping test relies very much upon the recording of a number of sets of
measurements throughout the test. These include measurements of:
1. Time
2. discharge
3. water level or hydraulic head
4. temperature
5. water quality
6. atmospheric pressure
7. rainfall
To analyse a pumping test accurately each set of measurements must include the recording time, head
and discharge. The values obtained for the aquifer characteristics cannot be of greater accuracy than
that of the basic data. Care should be taken then in the measuring and recording of time discharge
and head. For hot flowing bores, measurements of temperature should be recorded as well. Ideally, the
natural fluctuation in hydraulic head of the aquifer should be known before the test commences (e.g.
hydrographs). This information can be used to correct the drawdown observed during the test.
Detailed notes on use of monitoring equipment and details of chemical sampling are included in Chap-
ter 14.
In coastal aquifers where the hydraulic head is affected by tidal movements, a complete hydrograph
should be obtained, including maximum and minimum levels. Measurements close to the coast may be
significantly complicated by wave run-up and storm tide conditions. It is suggested that a continuous
record of water level be obtained in an observation bore between the test site and the coast. The possible
variation in density is an added complication [Acworth, 2007].
For long-term tests (days), the levels of near-by surface waters and any precipitation should also be
recorded and, if the aquifer being tested is a confined, the barometric pressure should recorded as well.
Descriptions of equipment used are given in Chapter 14.

11.2.1 Time
The time measurements are normally started from the beginning of the test and may be recorded as
time of day or time since the test started It is desirable to record the time of day as this not only gives
the location of the set of measurements in any one test, but also indicates the relationship between that
test and any other test which may have been carried out on the same day. This allows correction for
any antecedent pumping conditions. Time is recorded as time of day and date. In addition the time in
minutes after a particular test starts should be recorded, but if an accurate record of time of day is kept,
this is not essential.
Discharge rate measurement
In all well tests, the control of and measurement of the flow or discharge rate is essential. A valve should
be installed in the discharge line so that the pump can be throttled back to achieve a constant discharge.
There are a number of devices used to measure the discharge rate:
• The time to fill a container of known volume can be used for small discharge rates.
• A commercial water meter can be installed in the discharge line
• An orifice plate installed at the end of a discharge line
• A velocity probe installed inside a discharge line
• A weir tank installed in the discharge line.
Each of the above methods can be used depending upon the discharge rate and the data accuracy required.
Fig. 11.2 shows an orifice pipe used to monitor discharge from a well.
An approximate method for estimating discharge is the trajectory method which is based upon a mea-
surement of the distance water travels beyond the end of an open pipe (X) as it falls a set distance (H).
Data for this method where H is 12 inches (0.3m) are given in Table 11.1.
Table 11.1: Discharge from a horizontal pipe flowing full
Drop (X) Pipe Diameter

50mm 80mm 100mm 125mm 150mm 200mm
(mm) (L/s) (L/s) (L/s) (L/s) (L/s) (L/s)
150 1.3 2.9 5.0 7.9 11.4 19.7
175 1.5 3.4 5.9 9.2 13.3 23.0
200 1.8 3.8 6.7 10.5 15.3 26.2
225 2.0 4.4 7.5 11.9 17.2 29.5
250 2.2 4.9 8.4 13.1 19.1 32.9
275 2.3 5.3 9.2 14.4 21.0 36.1
300 2.6 5.8 10.0 15.8 22.8 39.3
375 3.2 7.3 12.6 19.7 28.6 49.2
500 4.4 9.7 16.7 26.3 38.1 65.6
11.2.2 Water levels or hydraulic heads
The water levels must be measured many times during a test, and as accurately as possible. The head
measurement may be expressed in terms of water level, drawdown, or for a flowing bore, the back pressure.

Figure 11.3: Schematic of a pumping test data logger
Table 11.2: Suggested durations for discharge tests
Bore use or reason for test Pumping duration (hours) Recovery duration (hours)
Stock and domestic 4-6 2- 4
Irrigation 24 6
Town water supply bore or industrial use 100 24
Remeasurement 2 (dynamic test) 2
At the beginning of a test, water levels or pressures will drop rapidly and the readings should be made
at short time intervals. Suggested time intervals for water level measurements in the pumping bore and
observation bore, respectively are given later for each individual test. (see also Kruseman and de Ridder
[1990] and AS 2368-1990).
After some hours of pumping, the results can be plotted as time-drawdown curves on log-log and semi-log
paper. This can help to evaluate the progression of the test and to decide pump shutdown time. These
initial plots will also give an indication of the type of aquifer and the presence of boundaries. When the
pump is shut down the water level recovery can be measured in what is known as a recovery test.
Figure 11.3 shows a combination of data logging devices incorporated into a pumping test data logger.
Equipment like this can very dramatically reduce the labour associated with running a pumping test,
and ease the data interpretation by recording all the data digitally.
11.2.3 Temperature
This is important in flowing bores only. When a hot bore stops flowing the water cools down and as it
cools it becomes denser than the hot water so that a decrease in measured pressure results. This is often
the cause of the falling off in pressure during the later stages of a static test. This effect has not been
fully appreciated in the past but it is now obvious that a systematic programme of water temperature
reading must be incorporated in any test program for flowing bores.
The temperature of the water should be taken as near to the discharge point as possible and preferably

in the mouth of the orifice meter at the following times:
1. At the beginning of the flow recession test, just after opening;

2. At the end of the flow recession test, immediately before closing for the static test;
3. During the first minute of the first stage of the opening dynamic test;
4. At each set of measurements in the first stage of the opening dynamic test;
5. At the end of each other stage of the opening or closing dynamic test.
11.2.4 Water quality
It is not enough to know the ability of the aquifer to store and transmit water or even its ability to
provide water on a sustainable basis. All of this may be to no avail if the water quality is not suitable
for the required use. Water samples should be taken during the test to assess its quality.
Samples should be taken at the start and end of the discharge stage of the test. One or both of these
samples should be dispatched to the laboratory for the appropriate analysis. Details of sampling, storage,
preservation and analyses required are presented in Chapter 15.
It is also desirable to carry out field measurements of water quality during the test to see if changes in
water quality are occurring. Parameters which are easily determined in the field by hand held instruments
include electrical conductivity, pH, total dissolved salts and temperature.In the case of flowing bores it is
not feasible to measure water levels. The pressures measured are measurements of back pressure on the
inlet side of the control valve.
11.3 Interpretation and reporting
11.3.1 Processing the data - possible corrections to drawdown data
The field data may have to be converted into appropriate units before they are processed. The units of
the International System should be used.
Before being analysed the observed water levels may have to be corrected for external influences. It is
therefore important that the local trend in the hydraulic head or water table is known. See Chapter 4
and standard hydrogeological textbooks such as Fetter [2001] or Freeze and Cherry [1979]. Common
influences which may require correction are:
• unidirectional variations such as natural recharge and discharge

• tidal and barometric fluctuations of hydraulic head and momentary fluctuations caused by passing
trains
• drawdowns causing dewatering of an unconfined aquifer
• temperature variations in a hot flowing bore
• unique fluctuations such as a sudden rise or fall of nearby surface waters which are hydraulically
connected with the aquifer, heavy rains

11.3.2 Reporting
When a pumping test is completed, it is essential that all the data associated with the test be reported
fully. A pumping test is an expensive (time consuming) operation and when the test is reviewed in years
to come, a complete set of the meta data is essential, rather than a single number for transmissivity and
storage. Kruseman and de Ridder [1990] suggest the following steps:
• A map, showing the location of the test site, the well and all the piezometers. The map should
include significant geological information including location and types of boundary; A lithological
cross-section of the test site, based upon the data obtained from bore holes and howing the depth
of the well screen and the number, depth and dostance of the piezometers;
• Tables of all the field measurements made of the well discharge and the water level in the well and
in the piezometers;
• Hydrographs, illustrating the corrections made to the observed data, if applicable;
• Time-drawdown curves and distance-drawdown curves;
• The considerqations that led to the selection of the theoretical model used for the analysis;
• Records of the output from computer based interpretation packages - detailing the conceptual model
employed to interpret the data;
• The calculations in an abbreviated form, including the values obtained for the aquifer characteristics
and a discussion of their accuracy;
• Recommendations for further investigations;
• A summary of the main results.
11.4 Test pumping non-flowing bores
11.4.1 Antecedent conditions
It is most important for the analysis of the test of a bore to know what variations had taken place in the
discharge during the 24 hours or so previous to the test, as such variations may continue to have some
effect on the bore and these effects must be accounted for in the analysis. Before doing anything to the
bore, therefore it is necessary to record the condition of the bore as it is found; has it been pumped in
the last 24 hours? What is the standing water level? Are there any bores in the near vicinity that are
pumping or have been pumped in the last 24 hours? Are there any rivers or lakes in the near vicinity?
Has there been any substantial rainfall during this period? Any information obtained should be recorded
and reported.
11.4.2 Constant discharge test
As the name implies this test involves pumping the bore at a constant discharge rate and measuring the
varying drawdown throughout the test.
With the discharge held constant, drawdown measurements are taken during the test at the following
times after pumping commenced:- 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 20, 25, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 100, 120 minutes then
each half-hour to six hours and then hourly until the end of the test. If for any reason a reading at any
of the above times is missed, then a reading should be taken as soon as possible thereafter and the actual
time of this reading should be recorded.

Rate measurements are taken at least at the start of the test, after 15 minutes, 30 minutes and every
half-hour thereafter, but at more frequent intervals if possible. However, care should be taken to maintain
the discharge rate constant throughout the test by regular inspections of the tube on the orifice meter or
orifice bucket if these are being used.
11.4.3 Recovery test
At the end of the constant discharge test residual drawdown measurements are taken, if possible, at the
following times after pumping ceases - 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 100, 120 minutes,
then hourly until the water level has come back to within 15 cm of the standing water level to 80% of
recovery. If for any reason a reading at any of the above times is missed, then a reading should be taken
as soon as possible thereafter and the actual time of this reading should be recorded.
11.4.4 Constant drawdown test
In this type of variable discharge test the drawdown is held at a constant value and variations in discharge
are measured. This type of test may be required when it is not possible to measure drawdowns. The
drawdown could be maintained at a constant level with the pump.
The drawdown is held constant by making sure that the pump breaks suction soon after the test begins.
The water level is then maintained at the pump suction throughout the test.
Because of the air/water mixture for this type of test an orifice meter cannot be used with any reasonable
degree of accuracy for the measurement of discharge and it is preferable to use a container of known
volume or, if one is available, an orifice bucket.
If an orifice bucket is used, rate measurements should be taken at the same intervals as drawdowns were
taken during the constant discharge test, i.e. 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 100, 120
minutes, then each half-hour to six hours and then hourly until the end of the test.
Regular checks should be made to see if the pump is maintaining a constant drawdown, i.e. the pump is
breaking suction throughout the test.
On the completion of the pumping test, residual drawdown should also be taken, if possible, at 1, 2, 3,
4, 6, 8, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 100, 120 minutes, and then hourly until the water level comes
to within 15 cms of the standing water level or 80% of recovery.
However, in many cases, a constant drawdown test is only carried out because it is not possible to measure
drawdowns and in these cases, so it may not be possible to measure residual drawdowns either.
If a container of known volume is used to measure the discharge rate then measurements should be taken
as soon as the pump breaks suction then at 5, 15, 30, 45, 60 minutes and every half-hour during the
remainder of the test. The size of container should be suited to the likely discharge, since it is important
to complete the measurement in as short a time as accuracy permits, e.g. a 500 litre tank is unsuitable
for a discharge of 5 cubic metres per day - a 1 litre container would be a better choice.
As the duration of the measurements may have a bearing on the plotting and analysis of the test, the
actual time at which the measurements were commenced should be recorded in the remarks column.
11.4.5 Step drawdown test
In this type of variable discharge test the discharge is varied in controlled stages. The discharge rate is
maintained at a constant value within each stage. The discharge could be increased or decreased.

The advantage of this test is that the relationship between drawdown, laminar flow and so called, turbulent
flow can be determined accurately and the satisfactory pumping rate for any specified drawdown can be
ascertained. This knowledge is particularly desirable where the test rate is considerably less than the
rate at which the bore is to be equipped.
The test is normally carried out in steps, either increasing or decreasing the discharge from one step to
another. Drawdown measurements should be taken throughout each of the steps, with each step regarded
as a new stage. For example, if the first step ended at 60 minutes, then drawdown measurements in the
second step should be taken at 61, 62, 63 minutes etc. In other words, the time intervals between
drawdown readings in each step should be the same as for the Constant Discharge Test, but the actual
time since commencement of the test should be recorded. Actual clock time for the commencement of
the test should be recorded also.
On completion of the Step Drawdown Test, residual drawdown measurements should be taken as for the
Constant Discharge Test.
11.4.6 Step drawdown test (Extended first step)
One of the main reasons for testing a potential irrigation or town water supply bore is to determine its
long term pumping rate. If this rate is in excess of twice the test discharge rate then non-linear head loss
could become a very significant part of the drawdown and a straight comparison of test drawdown and
available drawdown for estimation of long term yield is not valid. A long period of pumping at constant
rate is desirable to determine the likely effect of delayed yield in unconfined aquifers, or the presence of
boundaries.
One possible way of determining these factors by using one only 24 hour test is to carry out the test
on the basis of a normal constant discharge pump test up until 23 hours and at that time reduce the
discharge rate in steps, each of 20 minutes duration, until the discharge rate is zero. At this stage a
normal recovery test is conducted.
While the above paragraph and the following test procedure suggest that the shorter steps need only be
of 20 minute duration it may be necessary on occasions to increase this time. This should be determined
after an examination of the drawdown performance in the early stages of the extended first step. The
hydrologic conditions which influence this first stage will have exactly the same influence on the early
stages of each step. The length of each step should be determined on the basis of how long it took the
first step to settle down. This particularly important when testing bores in fractured rock aquifers and
in aquifers exhibiting delayed yield
If this type of test is carried out then all particulars of the bore including non-linear head loss or possible
delayed yield can be determined and more accurate estimate of long term pumping rate assessed.
When testing an irrigation bore, industrial bore or other bore with high capital cost equipment the
following test procedure is advocated:-
1. Conduct a normal constant discharge test for 23 hours (i.e. 1,380 minutes), at discharge rate Q;
2. At 1,380 minutes reduce the rate to 3/4Q and hold constant;
3. Take residual drawdown readings at 1,381, 1,382, 1,383 etc. minutes to 1,400 minutes;
4. At 1,400 minutes reduce the discharge rate to Q/2 and hold constant;
5. Take residual drawdown readings at 1,401, 1,402 etc. minutes to 1,420 minutes;
6. At 1,420 minutes reduce the discharge rate to Q/4 and hold constant;
7. Take residual drawdown readings at 1,421, 1,422 etc. minutes as for a normal recovery test;

8. At l,440 minutes reduce the discharge rate to zero;

9. Take residual drawdown readings at l,44l, l,442 etc. minutes as for a normal recovery test;
10. Ensure that the residual drawdown readings are taken at l,380, l,400, l,420, l,440 minutes prior to
the change in discharge rate;
11. Ensure that the final stage i.e. step 9, is not omitted.
Recovery readings should be taken for a duration of some 6 hours in the same manner as was indicated
in the recovery section of the constant discharge test.
It is also acceptable to carry out the tests with increasing rather than decreasing steps. The radius
of influence of the pumping bore is dependent only on the transmissivity and storage co-efficient and
independent of discharge rate. The discharge rate only determines the magnitude of the drawdown
within the radius of influence.
When testing procedures require a 100 hour test the same procedure as above could be used except that
the first step would be 99 hours duration.
11.4.7 Variable discharge/variable drawdown test
A variable discharge test can be carried out in which both the drawdown and the discharge are allowed to
vary at random. This test has not been recommended in the past but now can be analysed by computer.
While it is generally advisable to adopt a constant drawdown or discharge or a standard step drawdown
test, the electronic computer now permits variable readings to be analysed. For this reason, even if
difficulty is encountered in maintaining, say, a constant discharge, provided accurate measurements of
drawdown and discharge can be made at given times, a test need not be abandoned.
11.4.8 Multiple aquifer testing
Occasions arise where more than one aquifer is encountered when drilling a bore and each aquifer has
access to the bore by slotted casing or screens adjacent to it.
The available drawdown is different for each aquifer and the contribution from each aquifer should be
considered in the analysis. More important still, a variation in S.W.L. will result in a proportionally
greater reduction in available drawdown for the shallow aquifer than for the deeper ones.
One way of testing a bore which has encountered multiple aquifers is to carry out a number of tests on
the bore. The number of tests should equal the number of aquifers contributing directly to the bore.
Each test should be of the constant drawdown type. The first test should bring the water level below the
bottom of the top aquifer. The second test should bring it below the bottom of the aquifer second from
the top.
This process is carried out for each aquifer except the deepest one. In that case the water is drawn down
to the top of the aquifer.
The test on the deepest aquifer should be of 24 hours duration plus 6 hours recovery. The tests on each
of the others need only be of 6 hours duration plus 2 hours recovery.
The series of tests can then be analysed to determine the contribution from each aquifer.

Table 11.3: Recommended pumping test applications
Type of Bore Type of Test)

Stock and Domestic Constant Discharge or Constant Drawdown (4-6 hours)
Irrigation Step Drawdown (Extended First Step) (24 hour)
Investigation As for irrigation bores
Town Water Supply and Industrial As for irrigation bores but 100 hour duration
11.4.9 Applicability of testing procedures
A suggested programme to be carried out on various types of bores is detailed below and summarised in
Table 11.3.
11.4.10 Pump stoppages
It may happen that the discharge rate is stopped at some point during a pumping test on a bore. Such a
stoppage could be planned, such as a normal maintenance stoppage, such as an oil change during a 100
hour test, or accidental, such as mechanical or power failure. If the test is temporarily suspended, the time
at which the stoppage occurred should be recorded as should the time when pumping is recommenced.
Accurate measurements of recovery should be made for the non-pumping period. Every attempt should
be made to record them as this could assist in the analysis of the test. It is important, however, that the
time when the breakdown occurred and when the pump was restarted are accurately recorded.
If the non-pumping period is less than 4 hours, the test should be recommenced and the test duration
extended by an amount equal to the non-pumping period. The actual time of pumping does not alter. The
non pumping period can be treated as a recovery time within the test and the test analysed accordingly.
If the non-pumping period exceeds 4 hours the test should be abandoned and a new 24 hour test, or 100
hour test, started after the breakdowns are rectified. Should this stoppage occur during the supervisor’s
absence from the site and time of breakdown is missed then the test should be abandoned and a new test
started the next day.
11.5 Testing flowing bores
It is most important for the analysis of the test of a bore to know what variations had taken place in
the discharge during the 24 hours or so previous to the test, as such variations may continue to have
some effect on the bore and these effects must be corrected for in the analysis. Before doing anything to
the bore, therefore it is necessary to record the condition of the bore as it is found - what is the flow if
any, and what is the back pressure if any? Any substantial alteration in the flow of the bore during the
previous 24 hours should be determined also possibly by enquiry. These alterations should be recorded
and reported. If it is not possible to measure either the discharge or the back pressure the reasons for this
must be stated and the best approximation made of the missing data. Most flowing artesian bores have
a reasonably high back pressure (which reduces as the flow increases) and the most accurate method of
measuring it is by use of a transducer or a pressure gauge. A pressure gauge may need to be calibrated
quite regularly between tests. If the back pressure is very small a water tube could be used i.e. the back
pressure is the height that water rises up the tube, however, the back pressures of bores being tested are
usually not low enough for the use of a water tube.

11.5.2 Risk in closing low pressure bores
It is generally prudent not to close completely a bore with a pressure of less than 70 kPa especially if
the temperature exceeds about 45 ◦C . Whenever a bore is closed down the pressure should be kept
under observation. If, in a low pressure bore, the pressure stops rising and begins to fall the bore valve
should immediately be opened fully as this would indicate the development of conditions dangerous to
the restoration of the flow. If the pressure in a high pressure bore begins to fall it is of no consequence
and can probably be attributed to the cooling of the hot water. In such cases continuation of the test
will give information about this cooling effect.
11.5.3 Flow recession test (Constant drawdown)
Purpose of test
The flow recession test is carried out on an artesian bore which has been closed down completely or
partially for a period. This test is identical with a constant drawdown test in a pumped bore and, as in
such a test, the head loss or drawdown remains constant while the discharge becomes less with time. In
this case however, the discharge is not mixed with air and can be measured by an orifice meter or other
type of flow meter. The purpose of the test is to record measurements of discharge and back pressure
at intervals of time after the bore is opened. In this case the back pressure will usually be zero but this
cannot be taken for granted and must be checked.
Procedure for test
The equipment necessary to measure flow and pressure is installed, and the flow and pressure of the bore
as it is found is measured and recorded. The bore is then opened to allow it to flow freely through the
orifice meter or bucket or over the weir board. The time of opening should be recorded. Measurement of
the flow should be made at standard intervals of time after the bore is opened. The usual intervals are
I, 2, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 60, 90 and 120 minutes. As each measurement of flow is made the back pressure
is also recorded, together with the time. If it is not possible to measure the back pressure this should be
stated. A period of 120 minutes is generally sufficient for a flow recession test but in some circumstances
it may be prolonged. If, for example, the bore is visited late in the afternoon it could be allowed to flow
freely all night, proceeding to the next stage in the test programme on the following morning. In this
case the last reading must be made immediately before the flow is altered for the next test.
Points to remember
1. the back pressure and flow immediately before opening up the bore must be recorded, whether or
not the actual flow is zero. If this information is not available the test cannot be analysed and
provides little information, although it Is still a useful and necessary preliminary to the static test;
2. changes in back pressure during the flow recession must be recorded;
3. any sign of mud, drill cuttings or gas in the flow must be reported.
11.5.4 Static test (Recovery)
Purpose of the test
The static test in an artesian bore is identical with a water level recovery test in a pumped bore and is
carried out by closing down the bore after it has been discharging at a reasonably constant rate for some

time. A static test is made as the first operation when the bore is flowing freely when visited or, in a
bore which is found partially or completely closed, following the flow recession test. The Static Test is
the best means available to obtain a value of Transmissivity for a flowing bore.
When the bore is closed down the pressure will increase with time. The purpose of the static test is to
record the back pressure at intervals of time. During a static test the flow is usually zero but this is not
always so and when the flow is not zero it must be measured at the same time as the pressure.
Flow prior to static test
It is desirable that the flow of the bore be in a reasonably steady state before the bore is closed down for
a static test. If the bore is found already closed down when visited, partly or completely, a flow recession
test must be carried out so that a condition of reasonably steady flow may be achieved. Even quite a long
period of flow recession may not result in a completely stable condition but the usual 2 hours is generally
sufficient and if the flow recession test has been properly carried out any necessary correction can be
made in the analysis. If the bore is flowing freely when found it may be closed down for the static test
immediately without the necessity of a prior period of flow recession. The measuring equipment should
be fitted to the bore prior to the static test being carried.
Before closing down an artesian bore for a static test it is essential to measure and record the back pressure
and flow immediately before closure. In the absence of this data the analysis becomes very much harder
and sometimes impossible. Every effort should therefore be made to obtain this information. When this
information is not recorded the reason should be clearly stated.
Rate of closure
When an artesian bore is closed down it must be done slowly and steadily to avoid excessive water
hammer which could damage the bore or the measuring equipment. A column of water in a bore one
thousand metres deep has a mass of the order of 10-20 tonnes and may be moving with a velocity of
some two metres per second. This momentum cannot safely be checked suddenly and the water must be
brought to a stop gently. Observation of the gauge is the best guide to the smoothness of the operation.
It is suggested that the closure time be approximately one to three minutes and that the time of the
beginning of the test be taken from the time of complete closure. A comment should be made in the
report indicating the time taken to close the bore.
Static test with some discharge
While a static test usually follows the complete closure of a bore, it can also be carried out with only
partial closure. This can be done if it is imprudent to close the bore completely due to a fear of damage
or where complete closure cannot be effected because of defective head works. There are two ways of
carrying out a static test with partial closure, either keeping the discharge constant by manipulation of
the valve or allowing it to decrease with time normally. The first is preferable if it can be managed but
this cannot always be done. In either case, it is essential that a measure of the flow be made and recorded
whenever the pressure is measured. This will show the analyst whether the flow was constant or, if not,
how it varied.
Frequency of measurements
Following the closure of the bore the pressure should be measured at standard time intervals, usually 1, 2,
3, 6, 10, 15, 20, 30, 45, 60, 90, and 120 minutes after closure. This period of 2 hours is sufficient for most
static tests although in some cases a longer period may be specifically requested. Where the static test

is to be followed by other tests and the static test would finish late in the afternoon it may be desirable
to leave the bore closed down all night and begin the next test in the morning. Periodic readings of the
pressure should be made during this extra period but certainly the final pressure immediately before the
next test must be recorded.
Gaseous bores
The presence of gas in a bore can be a source of error in a static test involving complete closure. An
accumulation of gas in the top of the bore will force the water back down the bore. The pressure
measurement made by the manometer is the pressure at the water surface and will be in error. If the
bore is only partially closed or if there is a leakage past the gate valve the gas will not accumulate. This
suggests that where the presence of gas is known or suspected a slight intentional leak should be allowed
to permit the gas to escape. Such an operation should, of course be reported and the amount of the leak
reported.
Points to remember
1. the flow and back pressure immediately before closure must be recorded;
2. any leakage during the test and any change in the leakage must be measured and recorded;
3. every measurement must include observations of flow, if any, back pressure and time of measurement;
4. the actual time of measurement must be recorded, not the time at which it should have been made.
11.5.5 Dynamic (Step drawdown) tests
General
The name Dynamic Test is retained for this type of test for historical reasons as the original purpose of
the test was to determine the horse power available from a large artesian bore. Its modern use is different
and it will be quite obvious that a dynamic test in an artesian bore is identical with that known as a
step drawdown test in a pumped bore and much of the procedure will be found to be similar. A dynamic
test is in fact, a measurement of the different head loss caused by different rate of discharge. The test
involves, therefore, a series of stages during each of which the discharge is held constant at a different rate
while the back pressure is read at suitable intervals. A dynamic test is done either by opening the bore
up in stages from a closed down condition or by closing it down in stages from a free flowing condition.
The former is known as an Opening Dynamic Test while the latter is known as a Closing Dynamic Test.
Either one or both may be included in a test programme.
Pressure control
The back pressure may change rapidly during the various stages of the dynamic test. In order to ensure
that pressure being read is the correct one a useful trick is to install a petcock between the bore and the
pressure measuring device. The petcock is closed at the time of the reading thus holding the pressure
steady. Once the measurement is taken the petcock is again opened to expose the measuring device to
the bore. It should be opened well in advance of the next reading.

11.5.6 Opening dynamic test
The opening dynamic test is the more usual. It can follow a static test or it can be the first test in a
programme in the case of a bore which is found closed when visited. In the former case, the pressure
measuring equipment will have been already connected to the bore for the purpose of the static test. In
the latter case it should have been connected in order to read the pressure as found. In either case the
flow is zero or a small amount which will also have been measured and recorded.
Testing procedure
The bore is opened up to allow a predetermined discharge. This discharge should be approximately one
fifth of the estimated free flow. The bore should be allowed to discharge at this rate for 20 minutes
although in very hot bores it may be desirable to extend this first stage for a longer period. During the
whole of the stage the discharge should be kept constant by the manipulation of the valves to compensate
for the progressive reduction in flow which would normally take place. The pressure should be read at
standard intervals of time after the commencement of the stage. Customary intervals are 1, 2, 5, 10, 15
and 20 minutes.
Following the last reading of the first stage the bore is opened up to increase the discharge to the amount
determined for the second stage which will be approximately 2/5 of the maximum expected free flow or
twice the amount of the first stage. This discharge is again held constant at this value for another 20
minutes with readings of pressure at the standard 2, 5, 10, 15 and 20 minute intervals of time. After the
completion of the second stage the discharge is again increased by the same amount for the third stage
and so on.
It may not be possible to make the amount of the last stage an even multiple like the others. As it is
desirable to keep the discharge constant and as it is therefore undesirable to run out of pressure during
the last stage, it is better to select a discharge for the last stage which is somewhat less than the usual
increment to ensure that it can be maintained constant throughout the stage.
11.5.7 Closing dynamic test
The closing dynamic test may be made as the first test in the programme if the bore is found flowing freely
but this is not usual. It is more usual for a closing dynamic test, when it is included in a programme, to
follow immediately after the opening dynamic test. It is particularly desirable that a closing dynamic test
be carried out on very hot bores (say 50 ◦ C plus) to help overcome the effect of cooling on back pressure.
In the former case the back pressure ”as found” should be noted, and the discharge read either by orifice
meter or bucket or by other method. If an orifice meter is used, however, it must be remembered that its
connection may cause a slight increase in back pressure and resultant slight decrease in flow. The flow
measurement by the orifice meter may then not be the correct ”as found” flow. It is important therefore
to record the back pressure immediately before and immediately after the diversion of the flow through
the orifice meter. This will allow any necessary correction to be made. The time of all these readings
must of course be recorded.
Testing procedure
In either case the pressure and flow are observed and the bore closed until the discharge is that selected
for the first stage, i.e. about 4/5 of the free flow. This discharge is kept constant for 20 minutes by the
manipulation of the valve. This will result in a progressive increase in the back pressure which must be
read at the appropriate intervals of time as in the opening dynamic test. Note that pressures fall during
an opening dynamic test but rise during a closing dynamic test.

At the end of the 20 minutes of the first stage the bore is closed further until the discharge is the amount
selected for the second stage, i.e. about 3/5 of the free flow. This discharge is maintained constant for
20 minutes while the pressure is read at the appropriate times. Stages 3 and 4 follow in the same way.
The last stage will be carried out by completely closing the bore. In the unusual case where the closing
dynamic test is carried out directly from the initial ”as found” condition, the last stage should be treated
as a static test and continued for 2 hours or preferably longer. In the more usual case in which the
closing dynamic test follows the opening dynamic test this last stage need not extend beyond the usual
20 minutes.
Discharge control
In either type of dynamic test it is important that the discharge remain constant during each stage but
if this cannot be done, perhaps because of insensitive control of the flow, the next best thing is to record
all measurable changes in the discharge together with the time at which they are observed and the back
pressure at that time. This will make an analysis possible still, although more difficult.
Points to remember
1. discharge and back pressure immediately before the beginning of the first alteration in flow must
be recorded;
2. the time, discharge and pressure must be recorded for each observation;
3. the discharge should be constant during each stage;
4. any mud, drill cuttings or gas in the flow should watched for and recorded;
5. the temperature of the water must be recorded.
11.5.8 Order of tests
Assuming that pressure tests are to be carried out, the order in which they are done depends on the
condition of the bore as found. The bore may be flowing freely or slightly controlled, it may be completely
or almost completely shut down or it may be in some intermediate stage of control.
Free flowing bore
When the bore is found to be flowing freely or almost so the test programme is normally a static test
followed by an opening dynamic test followed, if time permits or if specially instructed, by a closing
dynamic test. Each of these tests should be carried out in accordance with the detailed instructions given
for the operation of whatever measuring devices are used.
Closed bore
When the bore as found is closed or substantially closed the normal programme is a flow recession,
followed by a static test followed by an opening dynamic test, followed, if time permits, by a closing
dynamic test. Each of these tests should be carried out in accordance with the detailed instructions for
each and in accordance with the detailed instructions given for the operation of the particular measuring
devices used.

Partially closed bore
If the bore is found to be in an intermediate stage of control, between fully closed and fully open, a
decision has to be made whether to close down at once for a static test or open up first for a recession
test. It may be stated as a general rule however, that, when in doubt, the bore should be opened to free
flow. Only if the flow as found is a substantial fraction, at least two thirds of the estimated free flow,
is there any case for closing it down for the static test without an intervening period of free flow. The
programme of testing will in either case be identical with that outlined in the two preceding paragraphs
according to whether the static test comes first or whether it is preceded by a recession test.
11.6 Borehole pumps
A pump serves to transfer energy from a power source to a fluid thereby creating flow in the fluid
or building up greater pressure in the fluid. Typical applications include raising liquid from one level
to another and therefore increasing the potential energy of the fluid; moving fluid through a pipeline;
imparting a high velocity to a fluid; and moving a fluid against a resistance of some form.
Pumps can transfer three types of energy to a fluid:
• potential energy (increased head),

• increased pressure, and
• increased velocity.
In the water well industry, pumps are classified into two types:
• shallow well pumps installed at the surface which remove water by suction, and
• deep well pumps installed in the borehole.
The practical limit to the installation of a shallow well pump is the suction lift. This is between 6.0m
and 7.5m depending upon the capacity and efficiency of the pump.
Pump types can be subdivided on the basis of their engineering design into:
• positive displacement, and

• variable displacement pumps.
The individual head components of a pumping system are shown in Figure 11.4 [Driscoll, 1986].
11.6.1 Positive displacement pumps
Positive displacement pumps discharge the same volume of water regardless of the head against which
they operate. When used in a water system, the rate of discharge varies in direct proportion to the
pressure.
There are three common designs of positive displacement pump:
• Rotary pumps such as the MONO series,

Figure 11.4: Head components of a pumping system
• Piston Pumps.
Rotary pumps make use of a system of gears or a helical stator which is rotated from the surface. The
speed of rotation and the dimensions of the system determine the yield.
Piston pumps are most often used in hand pump installations and operate by the alternate opening and
closing of valves.
11.6.2 Variable displacement pumps
The major types of variable displacement pumps are:
• Centrifugal pumps,
• Suction lift,
• Deep-well turbine,and
• Submersible turbine pumps,
• Air lift pumps.
Centrifugal pumps
Centrifugal pumps are the most widely used group of pumps in the water well industry. They can be
driven by a shaft from the surface or powered by a motor installed inside the well (submersible pumps).
The basic principle of operation can be illustrated by consideration of a bucket of water swung around
on the end of a rope. If a hole is placed in the base of the bucket, then the centrifugal force will cause
water to flow out through the hole. If the top of the bucket is sealed, then a partial vacumn is created
by the water leaving which can be used to induce water to flow into the bucket.

Figure 11.5: Deep well vertical turbine pump (Photo RIA)
These basic principles are incorporated in the centrifugal pump. The source of rotation is provided by
the impellor of the pump. Each pump manufacturer produces a rating curve for their range of pumps.
The rating curve specifies the relationship between the yield and the head for that pump.
Selection of the appropriate pump is made based upon the analysis of the total head and the required yield.
For long term operation, the efficiency of the pump is a critical factor. As the discharge changes with
the head, and the head can change as the result of changing water levels (seasonally), or from progressive
wear in the system or from clogging of the system, the choice of pump becomes an optimisation problem.
The American Water Works Association have produced a manual devoted to this [Helweg et al., 1983].
A vertical turbine pump installation is shown in Figure 11.5.
A submersible pump is shown being installed into a borehole in Figure 11.6.
11.6.3 Air lift pumping
Water can be pumped from a well by releasing compressed air into a discharge pipe lowered into the well.
Air bubbles mix with the water and reduce the density of the mixture which causes it to rise upwards.
Air lifting requires a compressor capable of producing both high pressures and high volumes of air. The
process is not efficient for long term operations but is commonly used during development of water wells
and for initial capacity testing. A schematic showing the process is given in Figure 11.7 [Driscoll, 1986].
It is important to note that the air-lift technique requires a certain submergence of the outlet below the
water table. The technique cannot be used on bores that do not penetrate far below the water table
because there is insufficient column of mixed air and water to develop the required buoyancy to liftthe
water.

Figure 11.6: Submersible pump installation
Figure 11.7: Air Lift Pumping

Chapter 12
Pumping test interpretation
Contents
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
12.2 Confined aquifer analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
12.2.1 Straight line solutions - The Jacob Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
12.2.2 Recovery test data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
12.3 Semi-confined (leaky) aquifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
12.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
12.3.2 Radial flow equation for a leaky aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
12.3.3 No storage in the aquitard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
12.3.4 Storage in the leaky confining layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
12.3.5 Example data set from a leaky aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
12.4 Unconfined (water table) aquifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
12.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
12.4.2 Steady-state analysis of unconfined aquifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
12.4.3 Non-steady state flow equation for an unconfined aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
12.4.4 Type Curve Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
12.5 Large Diameter Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
12.6 Pumping-test analysis - corrections to data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
12.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
12.6.2 Anomalies in drawdown readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
12.6.3 Partial penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
12.6.5 Possible development during pumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
12.6.6 Water temperature variations in hot bores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
12.6.7 Variation in barometric pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
12.6.8 Tidal effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
12.6.9 Other factors to be considered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
12.7 Identifying aquifer type from test data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
12.1 Introduction
This chapter covers the interpretation of pumping test data for a range of aquifer conditions. The notes
follow Hazel [1975] and Kruseman and de Ridder [1990] in their order and presentation. Not all pumping
test interpretation methods can be covered in these notes and the reader is referred back to the basic
348
Chapter 12. Pumping test interpretation
references for the more complicated analyses. Solutions are included in this Chapter for confined, leaky
and unconfined conditions where observation borehole data is available.
Inverse solutions to the radial flow equation based upon numerical solution methods are now common
and have tended to replace graphical methods for pumping test analysis. Computer software is widely
available, but not cheap. The package by AQTSOLVE is approaching an industry standard and where
appropriate, examples from this software are include in this Chapter. Public domain software written
by the USGS is also available for pumping test interpretation. This software is written as a number of
EXCEL spreadsheets that work under the WINDOWS XP operating system.
The abstraction bore is always less than 100% efficient, and for that reason, it is necessary to make
pumping test observations in observation boreholes drilled around the abstraction bore if accurate analysis
of aquifer storage is required. The interpretation of pumping test data from a selection of observation
bores around an abstraction bore is considered to give the most reliable value of transmissivity and
storage.
However, it is often the case that no observation wells are available and that drawdown data are only
available for the abstraction well. The possibilities for interpretation of single well tests are presented
in Chapter 13. The testing of an abstraction well is also carried out as a part of the installation and
commissioning procedure and appropriate testing techniques to determine the hydraulic efficiency and
performance of the abstraction bore are also presented in Chapter 13.
12.2 Confined aquifer analysis
Data from a confined aquifer can be analysed by the Theis method for non-steady state conditions. If
a test is allowed to continue until a steady state is reached (where there is no longer any change in
drawdown) then the Theim method can be used.
The non-steady state 1D radial flow equation was derived in Chapter 10, Equation 10.12. It is repeated
here:
∂ 2 h 1 ∂h S ∂h
2
+ = (12.1)
∂r r ∂r T ∂t
Note that, if the system is in steady state, TS ∂h

∂t = 0 then the 1D radial flow equation for steady-state
∂ 2h 1 ∂h
conditions is: ∂r2 + r ∂r = 0. As noted above, Theis derived a forward solution to the 1D radial flow
equation that was described in Chapter 10. It is not repeated again here.
Theis [1935] devised a superposition solution to the equation using type curves whereby field data (values
of drawdown (s) for different values of time (t)) could be used to determine values of transmissivity (T)
and storage (S). This is the real value of the method as it allows an inverse solution to the flow equation.
The Theis Equation was

Q
s= W (u) (12.2)
4πT
where:
r2 S
u= (12.3)
4T t
Taking logs to the base 10 of Equation 12.2, we get:
Q
log s = log + log W (u) (12.4)
4πT
and taking logs to the base 10 for Equation 12.3, we get:

r2 4T
log = log + log u (12.5)
t S
r2
Hence, for a constant pumping rate Q, s is related to t in the same manner as W (u) is related to u.
Graphical procedure
The steps of the graphical procedure are as follows:
1
1. Plot the function W (u) against u on log-log paper. This curve is known as a type curve.
t
2. Plot s vs t or r2 on a second sheet of log-log paper of the same size and scale as the W(u) vs 1/u
plot.
3. Superimpose the field curve on the type curve, keeping the principal axes parallel. Adjust the curves
until most of the observed data points fall on the type curve.
t
4. Select an arbitrary match point and read off paired values W (u), 1/u, s and t or r2 at the match
point.
5. Calculate values of transmissivity and storativity from the equations above using the values of u,
W (u), t and s derived from the match point.
Example application of the Theis method
Table 12.1 presents data supplied by J.G. Ferris and presented at the A.W.R.C. 1967 groundwater School,
by S.W. Lohman. Table 12.1 gives drawdowns in three bores in an aquifer at varying distances from a
bore being pumped at a rate of 2720 m3 /day. Determine the transmissivity and storage coefficient for
the aquifer using Equations 12.2 and 12.3.
Individual plots of log-drawdown vs log-time are shown in Fig. 12.1. Drawdown data for all 3 bores is
shown in Fig. 12.2 where the drawdown data is plotted vs t/r 2 .
The data for either of the curves in Fig. 12.1 can be used to obtain a solution for transmissivity and
storage. However, where more than one observation point is available, it is sensible to combine the data
to one curve so that a better match point to the type curve can be obtained. The plot in Fig 12.2 will
produce a better solution for the transmissivity and storage.
12.2.1 Straight line solutions - The Jacob Approximation
Under certain circumstances the non-steady state flow equations can be modified to give straight line
solutions. If u is very small, then all terms beyond and including u in equation 10.17 can be neglected.
Jacob assumed that this would be valid if u = 0.01. However, Driscoll suggests [Driscoll, 1986], and the
others [Misstear et al., 2006] have found, that this is still valid for values of u = 0.05. The smaller the
value of u the smaller is the error involved. For these notes it is assumed that the Modified Non-Steady
State Flow equations apply if u = 0.05. It can also be shown that, for an observation bore, u ≤ 0.05
occurs when s/∆s = 1.05.
For values of u less than 0.05, all but the first two terms in the series expansion for the well function W (u)
can be neglected. The Theis equation can then be approximated without recourse to the well function
and tables as:
r2S

Q
s= −0.577216 − ln (12.6)
4πT 4T t

Figure 12.1: Log-log plots of the drawdown data
Figure 12.2: Log-log plots normalised by t/(r*r)

Table 12.1: Drawdown at observation bores N-1, N-2, N-3
Elapsed Bore N-1 Bore N-2 Bore N-3

Time r = 61 m r = 122 m r = 244 m
Drawdown Drawdown Drawdown
(minutes) (m) (m) (m)
1.0 0.20 0.05 0
1.5 0.27 0.08 0.01
2.0 0.30 0.12 0.01
2.5 0.34 0.14 0.02
3.0 0.37 0.16 0.03
4.0 0.41 0.20 0.05
5.0 0.45 0.23 0.07
6.0 0.48 0.27 0.08
8.0 0.53 0.30 0.11
10 0.57 0.34 0.14
12 0.60 0.37 0.16
14 0.63 0.40 0.18
18 0.67 0.44 0.22
24 0.72 0.48 0.27
30 0.76 0.52 0.29
40 0.81 0.57 0.34
50 0.85 0.61 0.37
60 0.88 0.64 0.40
80 0.93 0.68 0.45
100 0.96 0.73 0.49
120 1.00 0.76 0.52
150 1.04 0.80 0.56
180 1.07 0.83 0.59
210 1.10 0.86 0.62
240 1.12 0.88 0.64
Noting that ln u = 2.30 log u
and − ln u = ln u1
and that ln 1.78 = 0.5772
the equation can be rewritten as

2.30 Q 2.25 T t
s= log (12.7)
4πT S r2
Since Q, r, T and S are constants it is clear that s vs log t should plot as a straight line as long as u is
less than 0.05.
Two main methods of solution may be derived from this approximation, viz.:
• Constant radius (r), varying time (t) approach

• Constant time (t), varying radius (r) approach
Constant r, varying t
This method can be used to interpret aquifer test observations made at a single observation point for the
duration of the test. A plot of drawdown versus the logarithm of time will yield a straight line. At time

t1 , the drawdown s1 is expressed from Equation 12.7:

2.30 Q 2.25 T t1
s1 = log (12.8)
4πT S r2
At time t2 , the drawdown s2 will be:
2.30 Q 2.25 T t2
s2 = log (12.9)
4πT S r2
It follows that
2.30Q t2
s2 − s1 = log (12.10)
4πT t1
If t1 and t2 are selected one log cycle apart, then log(t2 /t1 ) = 1. Then Equation 12.10 becomes:
2.30Q
∆s = (12.11)
4πT
where ∆s is the drawdown for one log cycle of time. Equation 12.11 can be used to solve for T .
The storativity can be obtained by setting the drawdown to zero in Equation 12.7, such that:
2.30Q 2.25T t
s=0= log (12.12)
4πT Sr 2
2.25T t0
This can only occur if Sr2 = 1. Therefore:
2.25T t0
S= (12.13)
r2
where:
t0 is the intercept of the straight line at zero drawdown, i.e., the time immediately prior to drawdown in
the observation well.
The solution to this problem is shown in Fig. 12.3.
Note that the drawdown data for N3 only becomes a straight line after about 60 minutes. This behaviour
is similar to that shown by the log linear drawdown plots derived by radial flow modelling (Fig. 10.16
or Fig. 10.18. If you substitute values back into the expression for u - you end up with a value of 0.07.
As this is greater than 0.05 you can see that the straight line approximation breaks down for times less
than about 50 minutes for the aquifer parameters, distance and elapsed time used in this problem. You
could get a second estimate of the storage coeficient by extrapolating the data for N2 back to the zero
drawdown mark and obtaining another value of t0 . This gives approximately 2.18 × 10−4 for a t0 of 1.7
minutes. These two values of storage coefficient agree sufficiently accurately!
Constant t, varying r
The time drawdown analysis presented above requires one pumping well and one observation well, where
a plot of drawdown vs time on semi-logarithmic paper yields a straight line. It is also possible to obtain
the hydraulic properties by examining drawdown at two or preferably, more points.
At time t, the drawdown s1 at a distance r1 is

2.30 Q 2.25 T t
s1 = log (12.14)
4πT S r12

Figure 12.3: Semi-log plot of drawdown showing a straight-line solution
and the drawdown s2 at a distance r2 is

2.30 Q 2.25 T t
s2 = log (12.15)
4πT S r22
It follows that
2.30 Q r2
s1 − s2 = log 22 (12.16)
4πT r1
r22

1 1
Recognising that log r12
= log r12
− log r22
and that log r12 = 2 × log 1r , Equation 12.16 becomes:

2.30 Q r2
s1 − s2 = log (12.17)
2πT r1
The graphical procedure calls for plotting the drawdowns against log distance at two or more wells for
the same time t. By considering again the drawdown per log cycle:
2.30 Q
∆s = (12.18)
2πT
By extrapolating the distance-drawdown curve to its intersection with the zero drawdown axis, the
storativity can be determined in a similar manner to the time drawdown method.
2.25 T t
S= (12.19)
r02
where

Figure 12.4: Distance drawdown plot at 240 minutes
r0 is the intersection of the straight-line slope with the zero drawdown axis.
Fig 12.4 shows the distance drawdown data for 240 minutes from Table 12.1.
Example solution From Eqn. 12.18:-

Q
T = −2.3 2πδs
2.3×2740
As Q = 2740 m3 /day and from Fig. 12.4, δs = 0.80 m, then T = 2×π×0.80
≈ 1250.
Steady state conditions Table 12.2 presents data which was obtained by S.W. Lohman from a 3
day pumping test in 1937, near Wichita, Kansas U.S.A. The aquifer in this case is actually unconfined
but under steady state conditions provides a suitable example. The Theim method [Kruseman and
de Ridder, 1990] is recommended for use for steady-state data. In effect, the method is the same as the
use of constant time variable distance approach to the Theis method described above. If the pumping
has been proceeding for long enough for the rate of drawdown to have stopped, or almost stopped, then
any combination of observation bores can be used.
The discharge rate Q in Lohman’s example was 5450 m3 /day. The initial saturated thickness was 8.17 m,
and six observation bores were used, three on a line extending north from the pumped bore, and three
to the south. Steady state conditions can be assumed. Determine the transmissivity of the aquifer.
In Fig. 12.5 the values of drawdown, s, (col. 4), are plotted against corresponding distances from the
discharging bore, r, (col. 3) on semi-logarithmic graph paper. A straight line has been drawn through
the graphical averages of drawdowns for bores N-1 and S-1, N-2 and S-2, N-3 and S-3. Transmissivity
has been calculated, using Eqn. 12.18, to be 1600 m2 /day.

Table 12.2: Data for Steady State Analysis
1 2 3 4 5 6
Line Bore r s s2 /2b s − s2 /2b
(m) (m) (m) (m)
N 1 15.0 1.80 0.20 1.60
2 57.7 1.04 0.07 0.97
S 1 14.9 1.67 0.17 1.50
2 30.6 1.31 O.11 1.20
3 57.9 0.97 0.06 0.91
Figure 12.5: Solution to steady-state analysis in a confined aquifer problem

12.2.2 Recovery test data
From many perspectives, the analysis of recovery data is preferred to the analysis of drawdown data!
Variation in pumping rate that can be caused by slight power supply variation to the pump, or step
like changes in flow rate at the beginning of the test as a constant pumping rate is achieved by small
changes to gate valves etc, or, in the case of longer running tests, even short pump stoppages can all be
averaged out in the value of Q used in recovery data analysis. All the staff and equipment organised for
monitoring the drawdown at the start of a pumping test are required back before the pump is turned
off. Measurements of water levels at all monitoring points are then repeated at the same time intervals
as for drawdown and for as long as required to describe the recovery of levels. The difference in final
water level can be very revealing. For example, if water levels do not recover to the starting level, then
it is clear that some development of storage has occurred and that a recharge boundary is at too great a
distance to impact the local hydraulics around the test site.
It is important to determine whether steady state conditions have been reached before the pump is
switched off. If they have not, then the aquifer will be responding both to the initial development of the
cone of depression but also to the impact of the pump stopping. Some care is required in the analysis
here.
Residual drawdown
If a well is pumped for a given time t and then shut down before steady-state conditions have been achieved,
the residual drawdown can be approximated as the difference between the drawdown in the well which
would have occurred if pumping had continued and the response to an imaginary recharge well, of the
same flow rate, superimposed on the drawdown data at the time that the pump was shut down.
If h0 is the original head and h0 the head during recovery, we can write

2.30Q 2.25T t 2.25T t0
h0 − h0 = ∆s0 = log − log (12.20)
4πT Sr 2 Sr 2
This defines the residual drawdown and the equation reduces to:
2.30Q t
∆s0 = log 0 (12.21)
4πT t
A plot of residual drawdown versus log t/t0 should be a straight line. If we calculate the residual drawdown
over one log cycle of t/t0 we can solve for the transmissivity using
2.30Q
∆s0 = (12.22)
4πT
If no interference effects are present, then the line extrapolated should intersect the zero residual draw-
down line at t1 /t2 = 1. If a recharge boundary has been encountered then the line will intersect the zero
residual drawdown line at a value of t1 /t2 > 1.
If dewatering has occurred or an impermeable boundary has been encountered then the line will intersect
the zero residual drawdown line at a value of t1 /t2 < 1.
From Eqn. 12.22 it can be seen that the residual drawdown has no storage coefficient term in it and
therefore the storage coefficient cannot be determined by means of residual drawdown analysis.
Note that if the drawdown at the end of pumping has reached a steady state then we can treat the
recovery data in the same manner as the drawdown data as there is no longer a component of drawdown
from the pumping phase to complicate the calculation of the residual drawdown.

Procedure
1. Calculate t1 /t2 . (t1 = time since pumping began and t2 = time since pumping stopped)
2. Plot, on semi-logarithmic graph paper, residual drawdown, on the natural scale, versus t1 /t2 , on
the logarithmic scale.
3. Determine ∆s (residual drawdown)
4. Calculate the transmissivity from Eqn. 12.22
Recovery data
If the system was in steady state prior to the pump being turned off, then the recovery data can be
analysed in exactly the same way as the drawdown data described above. Steady state is established as
soon as there is no further change in water level at any of the observation points.
12.3 Semi-confined (leaky) aquifers
12.3.1 Introduction
The vast majority of aquifers are not confined between two aquicludes, such that there can be no flow
into or out of the aquifer. It is more normal for there to be an aquitard or semipervious layer confining
the aquifer which will allow leakage of water to the aquifer if a hydraulic gradient is developed across the
aquitard. Example schematics of leaky aquifers were presented in Fig. 10.3.
The water associated with a semi-confined aquifer is stored not only in the aquifer material itself but also
in the semi-pervious overlying or underlying material. It is quite probable that in this case, the whole
of the saturated material, including both the coarse transmitting material and the finer semi-pervious
material, should be grouped together as the aquifer. However, only the coarse material should be regarded
as having any significant transmitting characteristics.
When a semi-confined aquifer is pumped, water is contributed by both the aquifer proper and the semi-
pervious materials. Water is drawn from the aquifer in accordance with the principles and equations
given for confined aquifers, but because of the increasing contribution from the semi-pervious layer as
the drawdown increases and as the radius of influence increases, the contribution from the aquifer itself
becomes smaller. The situation can arise where the contribution from the semi-pervious material is equal
to the discharge from the bore and steady state flow will occur. If it is accepted that there are few truly
confined aquifers, then the long term yield of most systems will be determined by the leakage into the
aquifer from the surrounding lower permeability units.
As a result of pumping, the potentiometric head in the aquifer is lowered, creating a difference in ground-
water head between the aquifer and the semi-pervious material. This pressure differential causes a vertical
flow of water from the semi-pervious material to the aquifer. The amount of flow per unit area is directly
proportional to the head differential and inversely proportional to the hydraulic resistance of the saturated
part of the semi-pervious layer. The leakage factor was described in Chapter 10 under ”definitions”.
12.3.2 Radial flow equation for a leaky aquifer
The flow equation for a leaky aquifer can be written in radial coordinates as:
∂ 2 h 1 ∂h (h0 − h)K 0 S ∂h
+ − = (12.23)
∂r 2 r ∂r T b0 T ∂t

Figure 12.6: Fully penetrating well in a leaky confined aquifer
where:
K 0 is the vertical hydraulic conductivity of the leaky layer,

b0 is the thickness of the leaky layer
b is the hydraulic head
r is the radial distance from the pumping well
h0 − h is the drawdown at time t
t is the elapsed time
S is the storativity, and
T is the Transmissivity
It can be seen that this is the same as the confined aquifer flow equation with an additional term
representing the vertical movement of water down into the aquifer.
The general conditions for this analysis are shown in Figure 12.6 [Kruseman and de Ridder, 1990]. There
are a number of possible conditions depending upon the storage in the aquitard.
12.3.3 No storage in the aquitard
The solution to Equation 12.23 assumes conditions similar to the Theis solution with the addition that
leakage through the confining bed is vertical and proportional to the drawdown in the confined aquifer.
Q
h0 − h = s = W(u,r/B) (12.24)
4πT

and,
r2 S
u= (12.25)
4T t
and,
r
T b0
B= (12.26)
K0
where:
Q is the pumping rate in m3 /day,

h0 − h is the drawdown in the pumping aquifer,
T is the Transmissivity (K b),
W(u,r/B) is the leaky artesian well function,
r is the radial distance from the pumping well,
B is the leakage factor (with dimensions of length),
S is the storativity of the confined aquifer,
K 0 is the vertical hydraulic conductivity of the leaky layer,
b is the thickness of the aquifer,
b0 is the thickness of the aquitard (the leaky layer),
t is the elapsed time
The solution presented in Equation 12.24 is valid under the following conditions:
2
S 0 (b0 )
t< (12.27)
10bK 0
and
b00 > 100bK (12.28)
where:
S 0 is the storativity of the aquitard,

b00 is the saturated thickness of the water table aquifer overlying the aquitard.
The values of W(u,r/B) are given in Figure 12.7.
Worked examples are given in most texts [Fetter, 2001, Kruseman and de Ridder, 1990].

Figure 12.7: Values of the leakage function
12.3.4 Storage in the leaky confining layer
If significant storage occurs in the confining layer then the calculation of the drawdown is more complex.
Part of the flow in the early time will come from storage in the confining layer. The analysis of this
condition can be found in Fetter [2001]. Dimensionless drawdown plots of various combinations of leakage
have been calculated by Hantush and are shown in Fig. 12.8 [Hantush, 1960].
The items in Figure 12.8 are described as:
I indicated no leakage
II indicates leakage without storage in a finite semipervious layer,
III indicates leakage with storage in an infinite semipervious layer
IV indicated leakage with storage in a finite semipervious layer.
Fetter [2001] provides the following analysis of the data calculated by Hantush [1960].
In a leaky aquifer, the drawdown curve will initially follow the non leaky curve. However,
after a finite time interval, the lowered hydraulic head in the aquifer will induce leakage from
the confining layer. As part of the well discharge is now coming through the impervious layer,
the rate of decline of head will decrease. If there is storage in the confining layer, the rate
of drawdown will be lower than if there were no storage. Eventually, the drawdown cone
will be large enough so that the pumped water will be coming entirely from leakage through
the confining layer and there will be no further drawdown with time. As water is no longer
coming from storage in the leaky layer, the two curves coincide.

Figure 12.8: Plots of log of dimensionless drawdown as a function of time

Figure 12.9: Leaky aquifer response
12.3.5 Example data set from a leaky aquifer
The WRL have recently completed a pumping test for a borehole located close to the Namoi River at
Maules Creek. The data are from an aquifer that was initially considered to be confined but has a leaky
confined response. The pumping test data are shown in Table 12.3.
The data is shown as a log and semi-log plot in Fig. 12.9.
The AQTESOLV program was used to interpret this data and gives aquifer parameters as follows (Ta-
ble leaky-solution:tab):
An example of the AQTESOLV solution is shown in Fig. 12.10.
12.4 Unconfined (water table) aquifers
12.4.1 Introduction
There are some basic differences between unconfined and confined aquifers when they are pumped: A
confined aquifer is depressurized but not dewatered during pumping. This creates a cone of depression
in the potentiometric surface. Water pumped from a confined aquifer comes from the compaction of the
aquifer material due to increased effective stress and from the expansion of the water in the aquifer due
to a reduction in pressure.
Fig. 12.11 shows a pumped unconfined aquifer underlain by an aquiclude. Pumping from an unconfined
aquifer causes a dewatering of the aquifer and creates a cone of depression in the water table. As pumping
progresses, flow towards the well deviates to include a vertical flow component.
In unconfined aquifers, the water levels near the bore tend to decline at a slower rate than described
by the Theis equation. The time-drawdown curves on log-log paper show a typical S-shape, from which
three distinct segments can be recognised. The commonly used explanation is based on the concept of
delayed yield [Boulton, 1954]. This concept was further developed by Neuman [1972]. Further work was
carried out in this area by Boulton and Streltsova [1975, 1976, 1977].
They explain the three segments of the curve (shown in Fig. ??) as follows:

Table 12.3: Maules Creek Data- Leaky confined aquifer
Piezometer 3-2 Piezometer 5-2

Time Drawdown Drawdown Time Drawdown Drawdown
(mins) (m) (m) (mins) (m) (m)
0 0.000 0.000 720 1.093 0.255

15 0.343 0.034 735 1.093 0.257
30 0.532 0.080 750 1.089 0.255
45 0.653 0.118 765 1.091 0.255
60 0.740 0.140 780 1.089 0.252
75 0.804 0.158 795 1.092 0.258
90 0.853 0.173 810 1.091 0.257
105 0.893 0.187 825 1.092 0.258
120 0.922 0.197 840 1.097 0.259
135 0.948 0.205 855 1.094 0.262
150 0.968 0.208 870 1.096 0.256
165 0.984 0.218 885 1.099 0.259
180 1.001 0.222 900 1.097 0.256
195 1.005 0.223 915 1.095 0.258
210 1.021 0.230 930 1.099 0.261
225 1.031 0.231 945 1.097 0.259
240 1.038 0.237 960 1.096 0.258
255 1.041 0.235 975 1.099 0.258
270 1.049 0.240 990 1.099 0.261
285 1.053 0.241 1005 1.094 0.257
300 1.054 0.242 1020 1.097 0.260
315 1.058 0.243 1035 1.099 0.261
330 1.060 0.242 1050 1.094 0.259
345 1.062 0.244 1065 1.096 0.261
360 1.068 0.248 1080 1.097 0.260
375 1.066 0.248 1095 1.095 0.258
390 1.070 0.249 1110 1.102 0.262
405 1.068 0.244 1125 1.099 0.262
420 1.076 0.252 1140 1.093 0.256
450 1.076 0.249 1170 1.091 0.258
465 1.077 0.250 1185 1.100 0.263
480 1.077 0.252 1200 1.100 0.262
495 1.080 0.253 1215 1.098 0.260
510 1.080 0.255 1230 1.094 0.259
525 1.085 0.255 1245 1.101 0.262
540 1.084 0.254 1260 1.099 0.261
555 1.086 0.254 1275 1.099 0.262
570 1.083 0.251 1290 1.098 0.260
585 1.084 0.253 1305 1.101 0.265
600 1.081 0.252 1320 1.097 0.256
615 1.080 0.252 1335 1.101 0.265
630 1.086 0.252 1350 1.105 0.266
645 1.088 0.256 1365 1.103 0.262
660 1.088 0.254 1380 1.103 0.266
675 1.088 0.258 1395 1.104 0.263
690 1.089 0.258 1410 1.103 0.264
705 1.091 0.256 1425 1.103 0.267
1440 1.101 0.265

Table 12.4: Maules Creek data - leaky confined aquifer solution
Piezometer 3-2 Piezometer 5-2
Radial Distance from pump well 140 m 230 m

Depth of piezometer intake 24 m 24 m
Transmissivity 279.4 880.7
Storage Coefficient 0.0001899 0.0005608
r/B 0.3124 0.4586
Figure 12.10: AQTESOLV soultion to the Maules Creek leaky test data

• The steep first segment covers the first minutes of the test and the unconfined aquifer reacts in the
same way as a confined aquifer (Theis curve); water is instantaneously released from storage;
• the flat intermediate part reflects the effect of dewatering that accompanies the decline in water
table elevation;
• the steep late segment shows the situation where the flow in the aquifer is horizontal again and the
curve tends to conform to the Theis curve
The derivation of equations for radial flow in any unconfined aquifer is extremely difficult. Dupuit showed
that in order to derive them it is necessary to assume that the flow is horizontal and uniform everywhere
in a vertical section through the axis of the bore. This assumption is not too bad when the magnitude of
the gradients involved are considered. A concentric recharge boundary would have to surround the bore if
steady state flow is to be achieved. However, without such a boundary, steady state flow is approximated
when the drawdown differences become negligible with time if the pumping period is sufficiently long.
12.4.2 Steady-state analysis of unconfined aquifers
Pumping from an unconfined aquifer over a long period of time reaches a steady state where the delayed
yield is all received and vertical flow components in the system are eliminated. Under these conditions,
the Theim analysis technique employed for steady state conditions in a confined aquifer can be used. At
least two observation wells are required.
Jacob [1944] demonstrated that the analysis of thin unconfined aquifers requires particular attention. If
the drawdown is a significant proportion of the aquifer thickness, a correction has to be applied to the
observed drawdowns before the Theim methodology can be applied. There is no hard and fast rule stating
just how small this drawdown should be, however, it would not be wise to use these equations described
by Jacob [1944] if the drawdown were greater than 10% of the saturated thickness of the aquifer [Hazel,
1975].
12.4.3 Non-steady state flow equation for an unconfined aquifer
The flow of water towards a well in an unconfined aquifer is given in radial coordinates by Equation 12.29.
The flow field is shown by Figure 12.11.
∂ 2 h kr ∂h ∂2h ∂h
Kr 2
+ + Kv 2
= Ss (12.29)
∂r r ∂r ∂z ∂t
where:
h is the saturated thickness of the aquifer,

r is the radial distance from the pump well,
z is elevation above the base of the aquifer,
Ss is specific storage,
Kr is radial hydraulic conductivity,
Kv is vertical hydraulic conductivity,
t is elapsed time from the start of pumping.
A well pumping water from an unconfined aquifer can develop storage from two mechanisms, viz:

Figure 12.11: Cross-section of a pumped unconfined aquifer
• The change in elastic storage of the aquifer (Ss ), and

• The drainage of water from the aquifer (Sy ).
There are three distinct periods during the development of a drawdown curve in an unconfined aquifer.
1. Initially the aquifer responds as a confined unit and the drawdown is governed by the confined
storage coefficient. Flow is predominantly horizontal during this phase.
2. The onset of drainage occurs as water flows from the pore space in the aquifer. At this time
significant vertical flow occurs in the aquifer.
3. After a long time the drawdown reflects the unconfined storage only, and the flow returns to being
predominantly horizontal.
12.4.4 Type Curve Analysis
A number of type-curve solutions have been developed to analyse pumping test data derived from tests
in an unconfined aquifer. The most commonly used is based on the assumption of a fully penetrating
pump well [Boulton, 1954, Boulton and Streltsova, 1975]. The flow equation for this condition is:
Q
s = h0 − h = Wua ,ub,λ (12.30)
4πT
where Wua ,ub ,λ is the well function for a water-table aquifer.

r2 S
ua = (12.31)
4T t

Figure 12.12: Type curves for drawdown data from fully penetrating wells in an unconfined aquifer
for the early drawdown data, and

r 2 Sy
ub = (12.32)
4T t
for the late drawdown data.
r 2 Kv
λ= (12.33)
b2 Kr
where:
s is the drawdown (s)

Q is the pumping rate
T is the transmissivity
r is the radial distance from the pump well to the observation well
S is the storativity
Sy is the specific yield
t is the elapsed time since pumping started
Kr is the radial hydraulic conductivity
Kz is the vertical hydraulic conductivity
b is the initial saturated thickness of the aquifer
The analysis uses the same general principles established for the Theis method with the modification
that two sets of type curves are required, one for the early time data and one for the late time data. A
sketch of the type curves is given in Figure 12.12.
Values of the Type-A curves are given in Figure 12.13, and values of the Type-B curves are given in
Figure 12.14.
Fetter [2001] summarizes the interpretation procedure as follows:

Figure 12.13: Water-Table type A Curves
Figure 12.14: Water-Table type B Curves

1. Superpose the latest time-drawdown data on the Type-B curves. The axes of the graph papers
should be parallel and the data matched to the curve with the best fit. At any match point, the
values of Wub ,λ , ub , t, and s are determined. The value of λ comes from the type curve selected for
the match. The value of transmissivity is found using Equation 12.30. The specific yield is then
found by substitution in Equation 12.32.
2. The early drawdown data are then superposed on the Type-A curve for the λ-value of the previously
matched Type-B curve. A new set of match points is determined. The value of transmissivity
calculated from Equation 12.30 should be approximately equal to the previously calculated value.
Equation 12.31 is used to calculate a value of storativity.
3. The value of the horizontal hydraulic conductivity is determined from the transmissivity and thick-
ness of the saturated zone.
4. The value of the vertical hydraulic conductivity can also be calculated using the λ-value of the
matched type curve by substitution in Equation 12.33
The analysis described above is based upon the assumption that the drawdown is small compared to the
saturated thickness of the aquifer.
An examination of the type curves indicates that the pump test should be continued for a long period of
time (possibly weeks) before the drawdown starts to increase again to represent the third portion of the
flow mechanism described above. It is not uncommon for this later data to be missing.
12.5 Large Diameter Wells
The reference by [Kruseman and de Ridder, 1990] contains an excellent review of a large number of
interpretation techniques for many different aquifer configurations. One configuration which deserves
mention is that of the large diameter well. There are very many wells in existence around the world and
it is possible to gather an indication of aquifer transmissivity in tests carried out in these wells. One of
the main precepts of the Theis interpretation is violated in testing a large diameter well. Papadopulos
and Cooper have proposed an interpretation technique which is discussed by Kruseman and De Ridder
and is summarised below.
Consider the cross-section of an aquifer as shown in Figure 12.15.
Test data can be analysed by this method if:
• The aquifer is confined

• Flow to the well is in unsteady state
• The well losses are negligible
The flow equations can be expressed as :

Q
s= Fu ,β (12.34)
4πKb w
where:
Fuw ,β is a function for which numerical values can be obtained from Table 12.5.

Figure 12.15: Cross-section of a confined aquifer pumped by a large diameter well
In Equation 12.34,
2
rw S
uw = (12.35)
4πKbt
and
2
rw S
β= (12.36)
rc2
The index (w) stands for ”at the pumped well”. rc is the radius of the unscreened part of the well.
The interpretation procedure is similar to that of the other tests which make use of type curves:
1
1. Plot on double log paper the family of type curves Fuw ,β versus uw for different values of β, using
the data in Table 12.5.
2. Plot on another sheet the observed data (s vs t) at the same scale.
3. Superimpose the two sets of curves so that most of the data falls on a segment of one of the type
curves.
4. Choose an arbitrary match point and read the associated set of data values.
5. Substitute the values of Fuw,β and sw , together with the known value of Q into Equation 12.34,
and solve for Kb (transmissivity).
A set of data using this method is shown in Figure 12.16
The almost straight sections of the curves in Figure 12.16 represent the water being removed from storage
in the well. Points on this part of the curve do not represent the conditions within the aquifer. The test
can be used to provide a value for storage, however it is not reliable due to the difficulty in choosing

Table 12.5: Papadopulos-Cooper function values
1/uw β = 10−1 β = 10−2 β = 10−3 β = 10−4 β = 10−5
1(-1) 9.75(-3) 9.98(-4) 1.00(-4) 1.00(-5) 1.00(-6)

1(0) 9.19(-2) 9.91(-3) 9.99(-4) 1.00(-4) 1.00(-5)
2(0) 1.77(-1) 1.97(-2) 2.00(-3) 2.00(-4) 2.00(-5)
5(0) 4.06(-1) 4.89(-2) 4.99(-3) 5.00(-4) 5.00(-5)
1(1) 7.34(-1) 9.66(-2) 9.97(-3) 1.00(-3) 1.00(-4)

2(1) 1.26 1.90(-1) 1.99(-2) 2.00(-3) 2.00(-4)
5(1) 2.30 4.53(-1) 4.95(-2) 4.99(-3) 5.00(-4)
1(2) 3.28 8.52(-1) 9.83(-2) 9.89(-3) 1.00(-3)

2(2) 4.25 1.54 1.94(-1) 1.99(-2) 2.00(-3)
5(2) 5.42 3.04 4.72(-1) 4.97(-2) 5.00(-3)
1(3) 6.21 4.54 9.07(-1) 9.90(-2) 9.99(-3)

2(3) 6.96 6.03 1.69 1.96(-1) 2.00(-2)
5(3) 7.87 7.56 3.52 4.81(-1) 4.98(-2)
1(4) 8.57 8.44 5.53 9.34(-1) 9.93(-2)

2(4) 9.32 9.23 7.63 1.77 1.97(-1)
5(4) 1.02(1) 1.02(1) 9.68 3.83 4.86 (-1)
1(5) 1.09(1) 1.09(1) 1.07(1) 6.24 9.49(-1)

2(5) 1.16(1) 1.16(1) 1.15(1) 8.99 1.82
5(5) 1.25(1) 1.25(1) 1.25(1) 1.17(1) 4.03
1(6) 1.32(1) 1.32(1) 1.32(1) 1.29(1) 6.78

2(6) 1.39(1) 1.39(1) 1.39(1) 1.38(1) 1.01(1)
5(6) 1.48(1) 1.48(1) 1.48(1) 1.48(1) 1.37(1)
1(7) 1.55(1) 1.55(1) 1.55(1) 1.55(1) 1.51(1)

2(7) 1.62(1) 1.62(1) 1.62(1) 1.62(1) 1.60(1)
5(7) 1.70(1) 1.70(1) 1.70(1) 1.71(1) 1.71(1)
1(8) 1.78(1) 1.78(1) 1.78(1) 1.78(1) 1.78(1)

2(8) 1.85(1) 1.85(1) 1.85(1) 1.85(1) 1.85(1)
5(8) 1.94(1) 1.94(1) 1.94(1) 1.94(1) 1.94(1)
1(9) 2.01(1) 2.01(1) 2.01(1) 2.01(1) 2.01(1)
an accurate value for β. If possible, a piezometer should be drilled close to the bore to determine if
significant head losses occur close to the well due to turbulent flow conditions.
12.6 Pumping-test analysis - corrections to data
12.6.1 General
Many of the assumptions which have been made in developing the equations presented previously are not
met in nature and corrections have to be made to the data before they can be applied.
Some of the effects which have to be taken into account are:
1. Anomalies in drawdown readings

2. partial penetration

Figure 12.16: Papadupolos-Cooper curves
3. antecedent pumping conditions

4. possible development during pumping
5. proximity of recharging or discharging boundaries
6. water temperature variations in hot bores
7. anisotropy, non-homogeneity and finite bore diameter
8. variations in barometric pressure
9. tidal effects
12.6.2 Anomalies in drawdown readings
The data being analysed in any pumping test are subject to human error. Anomalies being encountered
in the data should be carefully weighed before attributing them to a boundary condition. If they are not
consistent with other readings it is possible that they should be discarded. However, they should not be
discarded too quickly or before an investigation is carried out as to why the anomaly has occurred.
12.6.3 Partial penetration
A bore whose length of water entry is less than the aquifer thickness which it penetrates is known as a
partially penetrating bore. For such a bore the flow pattern differs from that for a fully penetrating bore
with the same discharge because the average length of flow line is longer and so a greater resistance to
flow occurs.

For practical purposes, this results in the following relationships between two similar bores, one partially
and one fully penetrating the same aquifer.
If Qp = Q then, swp > sw
and, if swp = sw , then, Qp < Q
where:
Q is the bore discharge for the fully penetrating bore

sw is the drawdown in a fully penetrating bore
swp is the drawdown in a partially penetrating bore
Qp is the discharge from a partially penetrating bore
The alteration to the flow lines and so the magnitude of the drawdown applies not only to the bore but
to conditions in the aquifer at a considerable distance from the bore, which will give erroneous values
of storage coefficient in observation bores installed in this effected zone. The drawdowns in observation
bores inserted into the top and the bottom of the aquifer respectively and at the same distance from the
discharging bore will be different if they are affected by partial penetration.
It has been found, however, that the effect of partial penetration is negligible beyond a distance of
twice the saturated thickness from the bore. For this reason, observation bores which are to be used in
the calculation of storage coefficient should not be located closer to the partially penetrating pumping
bore than twice the saturated thickness of the aquifer. The equations for determining the hydraulic
characteristics of an aquifer are based upon the assumption that the discharging bore taps the full
thickness; observed water level drawdowns in bores tapping less than the full thickness should be corrected
before they are used in the equations. Equations and values are given by Jacob.
Such corrections generally are unnecessary if the observation bores are placed in pairs, one of each pair
tapping the top part of the aquifer just below the cone of depression, and the other tapping the bottom
part of the aquifer. The drawdowns in each bore of each pair (corrected by subtracting s2 /2b if necessary)
are plotted, then averaged graphically, not artihmetically (in a semi-logarithmic plot the arithmetic and
graphical average is the same but this is not so in a logarithmic plot). It has been found that for relatively
thin unconfined aquifers, it is convenient to place three pairs of observation bores at distances from the
discharging bore of b, 2b, 4b.
It is necessary to adjust for partial penetration effects if type curve solutions on log-log paper or ”distance-
drawdown” curves on semi-logarithmic paper are to be used. In the case of ”time-drawdown” curves on
semi-logarithmic paper the correction is necessary for the calculation of S, but, for a sufficiently long
pumping period it may not be necessary in computing T.
The standing water level in a bore may vary prior to the commencement of a test. Such variations may
be caused by tides, barometric pressure changes or other conditions. It is desirable to monitor the water
level in the bore for a period prior to the commencement of the test and extend the variation trend
through the test. If possible pre-test observations are compared with records of barometric pressure, and,
if applicable, tidal variations.
Correction of the data from a static or recovery test is generally necessary and occasions arise where
other pumping test data has to be corrected for antecedent pumping conditions. The only time that the
uncorrected data can be used is when the test follows a condition of a steady flow. The meaning of steady
flow in this context is a flow condition which could not be expected to change by a measurable amount

over a period equal to that covered by the test in question, if the test had not been carried out. This
period includes the no flow condition.
Depending on the particular bore this would generally require that the flow of the bore had not been
altered in any way for at least 24 hours prior to the new test. If there is any doubt as to whether any
residual effect remains from earlier alteration in discharge, this can be checked quickly by evaluating the
maximum correction, which will be required at the end of the test, to see if this is significant.
Corrections for variation in discharge are computed by use of the equation -

t1
δs = ∆Qb log (12.37)
t2
where:
δs is the change in head caused by an increase (or decrease) in discharge of ∆Q between t1 and t2 after
this increase (or decrease) commenced to operate.
b = constant (∆s/Q), a function of the transmissivity of the bore.
∆Q is the change in discharge rate.
An increase, or positive value of ∆Q produces an increase in head loss or a reduction in pressure while a
decrease or negative value of ∆Q produces a decrease in head loss or an increase in pressure. The effects
of all previous increases or decreases in discharge can be added or subtracted to give the net effect at any
given point of time.
To compute this net correction it is obviously necessary to know the value of b. However, an approximate
value only is necessary and this can be obtained from the early portion of the test being analysed, before
the effect of antecedent variations become apparent. If the value of b from the corrected data differs
significantly from that used as a first approximation in computing the correction, this new value of b may
be substituted in the correction equation as a second approximation. This is rarely necessary as quite a
large change in b does not make a very large change in the correction.
If the test results are analysed using the modified Eden-Hazel method as presented in Chapter 13, the
corrections for antecedent conditions are carried out automatically.
12.6.5 Possible development during pumping
Pumping is a form of mechanical development and it is possible that during a pumping test the bore is
still developing. Smaller drawdowns will be recorded in the pumping bore during the latter stages of such
a test than would be expected if the aquifer conditions immediately adjacent to the bore had remained
constant throughout the test.
It is possible also that a collapse in the aquifer may have occurred during the pumping test and this
would result in a much larger drawdown during the final stages of the test than that which would be
expected. If this is the case then this final condition would control the future performance of the bore,
unless the bore was brought back to the original condition. It would not be valid to discard this as
being a rogue value and determine the equation to drawdown for the bore from all previous drawdowns.
Negative values of C, the non-linear head constant, would indicate development during the test.
On occasions, development during testing, or collapses in the aquifer during testing, have been attributed
to other causes. If abstraction bore development is suspected during the pumping test then it is necessary
to repeat the initial step test (Chapter 13) that will have been carried out as part of the abstraction bore
establishment.

12.6.6 Water temperature variations in hot bores
By virtue of the aquifer depth the water in many flowing artesian bores is extremely hot. One bore
at Birdsville in southwest Queensland is some 1,220 m in depth and has a temperature of 99 ◦C at the
surface. The back pressure at the surface on this bore is some 1,210 kPa with zero flow.
It will be appreciated that the density of the water at this very high temperature is much lower than it
would be at a lower temperature. With this lower density, the head of water to maintain the pressure in
the aquifer will be much higher. If the flow from such a bore is stopped for any significant period, then
heat will be lost from the water to the surrounding ground, and the water cools. The most significant
drop in temperature of course is near the surface of the bore with a less significant drop as the aquifer
is approached. With the lowering in temperature the density of the water increases and the apparent
pressure at the surface decreases.
If a static test (recovery test) is carried out on such a bore then the pressure rises during the early stages
of the test but the rate of rise does not conform with the theoretical rate as the water begins to cool. In
fact in some cases the pressure may begin to drop. The analyst must be aware of such conditions and
how to overcome them.
Unfortunately there is no hard and fast rule for correcting for this condition as yet, but a rough approxi-
mation based solely on densities indicates that the difference in head for the Birdsville bore at 99 ◦ C and
37.8 ◦C is some 30 m. This analysis assumed a linear variation in temperature from the surface to the
aquifer, which is unlikely to be completely correct.
12.6.7 Variation in barometric pressure
A change in atmospheric pressure results in a change in the force applied to both the aquifer matrix and
the water within the aquifer.
The effect of this change in applied force is zero in an unconfined aquifer and there is no change in water
level. However, in a confined aquifer, while the competence of the overlying confining material is able to
absorb the increase in load, such changes can and do have a significant impact on groundwater levels. The
way in which the water level responds to changes in atmospheric pressure is directly related to the storage
coefficient of the aquifer. The relationship between water level change and change barometric pressure
is called the barometric efficiency and will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 4. The barometric
efficiency can be used to determine storage coefficient [Acworth and Brain, 2008].
Suffice to say at this stage that a drop in atmospheric pressure results in a rise in groundwater level in a
confined aquifer. In the Great Artesian Basin, some bores which have recently stopped flowing will start
to flow again if a low pressure event such as a cyclone passes over the area.
12.6.8 Tidal effects
Tidal effects can influence water levels in confined aquifers. The effect of tides is the opposite from that
of changes in atmospheric pressure. Rising pressure caused by higher tides result in rises in groundwater
levels.
There are two types of tidal effects which need to be taken into account; ocean tides and earth tides.
Both of these effects are sinusoidal in nature. The rising and falling sea levels impose varying loads on
the confining layer of the aquifer where it extends out under the sea. The change in groundwater level is
greatest near the coast and attenuates as the distance from the coast increases.
Earth tides are a result of the gravitational attraction, predominantly between the moon and the earth.
These gravitational forces act on the matrix of the aquifer alternately stretching it and compressing it.

These changes in structure cause minor changes in groundwater levels.
12.6.9 Other factors to be considered
Other factors such as anisotropy, non-homogeneity and finite diameter of the facility should also be taken
into account but will not be discussed here. Methods of allowing for anisotropy and finite diameter of
the bore can be found in Kruseman and de Ridder [1990].
12.7 Identifying aquifer type from test data
It is often difficult to identify an appropriate analytical method to use to interpret drawdown data. The
best way to identify an aquifer system and hence the appropriate method of analysis is to compare the
drawdown pattern of the aquifer with that of the various theoretical models. Fig. 12.17 shows typical
semi-logarithmic drawdown response patterns for different types of aquifers [Kruseman and de Ridder,
1990, Dawson and Istok, 1991]. Dawson and Istok [1991] also presents a table indicating the type of
analysis most appropriate to determine various aquifer parameters for different types of aquifers together
with the data requirements to obtain those parameters. The information presented in this chapter will
enable most analyses to be carried out but the reader is encouraged to read the references.
System identification includes the construction of logarithmic plots of the drawdown vs. time since
pumping started. In a number of cases, a semi-log plot of drawdown vs. time has more diagnostic value.
In practice, the effects of aquifer characteristics may appear much less clearly than as shown in Fig. 12.17.
Data scatter and overlap obscure the idealized trends shown.
A troublesome fact remains, that the theoretical solutions to a well-flow problem are not unique. Some
models, developed for different aquifer systems, yield similar responses to a given stress exerted on them.
In many cases, uncertainty as to which analysis to select will remain.
Fig. 12.17a shows the straight-line method when u < 0.05. For a given pumping rate the slope of the
line is inversely proportional to the value of T. A larger T will have a smaller slope. Fig. 12.17b and
Fig. 12.17c show the effects of a leaky aquitard after some pumping. The effect of partial penetration on
a semi-log plot is complex (Fig. 12.17d). Initially, flow is horizontal, and early drawdown will be similar
to a fully penetrating pumping well.
With time, groundwater from below the screen contributes to well discharge and additional head loss
increases the slope of the curve. Fig. 12.17e shows that as pumping continues, well storage is depleted
and the curve joins the curve predicted for no well storages. The effects of aquifer boundaries (see
Chapter 10) are seen as a change in slope (Fig. 12.17). Discharge boundaries increase the slope and
recharge boundaries reduce the slope. In an unconfined aquifer the curve shows a delayed yield component
as pumping continues and the groundwater is withdrawn from the pore space (Fig. 12.17g and Fig. 12.17h).

Figure 12.17: Characteristic drawdown plots

Chapter 13
Single well tests
Contents
13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
13.1.1 Well loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
13.2 Constant drawdown tests in flowing bores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
13.3 Step drawdown test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
13.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
13.3.2 Well efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
13.3.3 Skin effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
13.4 Solution methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
13.4.1 Hantush - Bierschenk analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
13.4.2 Eden-Hazel method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
13.1 Introduction
The flow equations presented in Chapter 12 were based on the assumption that flow in the aquifer is
laminar. This is only generally true for water in the aquifer located some distance (metres) from the
abstraction bore. Therefore data from observation wells rather than the abstraction well were used in
the analysis.
While the determination of aquifer parameters is essential if we are to have an adequate understanding
of the aquifer response to various stresses, it is not the only reason for carrying out pumping tests on
bores. The first test to be carried out in a newly constructed abstraction bore should always be a step
test where the hydraulic performance of the new installation can be assessed.
Frequently bores are tested to determine how they will perform under periods of sustained pumping.
The only effective way to determine this is to analyse data collected from the pumping bore itself. It is
common practice to undertake a step test in the abstraction bore as the first test designed to determine the
capacity of the bore. Additionally, in many cases, the only test data available are drawdown observations
from within the discharging bore itself and these are the only data available for determination of aquifer
parameters.
The problem with using the techniques developed so far for data collected in a pumping bore is that
flow through the bore screens, up the bore casing to the pump and in the aquifer adjacent to the screens
may not be laminar. New techniques are therefore required that can account for this non-laminar flow.
The cause of non-laminar flow is not fully understood. Some investigators refer to it as turbulent head
loss, but an examination of the associated Reynold’s Number does not always support the existence of
turbulent flow.
379
Chapter 13. Single well tests
Figure 13.1: Log-log plot showing impact of changing the abstraction well radius. Data derived by
numerical modelling
The impact of additional head losses associated with the pumping bore can be illustrated using the radial
flow modelling results presented in Chapter 10. Plots of drawdown vs time were shown for a range of
conditions departing from what could be called the Theis ideal set of ideal conditions. In Fig. 13.1, a
log-log plot is shown for for a borehole with a 1 mm diameter compared with a borehole with a 300 mm
diameter. Results from the modelling were previously shown in Fig 10.17 and Fig 10.19.
The impact of the change in construction is more clearly shown on a semi-log plot (Fig. 13.2). The
gradient of the lines for drawdown are clearly parallel so that a transmissivity value calculated from each
plot will represent the aquifer transmissivity correctly. However, the extrapolated value of t0 required for
the calculation of aquifer storage varies by 6 orders of magnitude and any storage value calculated will
clearly be wrong.
As a general rule, it is not possible to determine the storage coefficient using drawdown observations
from within the pumping bore because the effective radius of the bore is not known. For a bore finished
in rock the effective radius may approach the nominal radius. However, the existence of large crevices,
the over-reaming action of the drill bit, or local cementation of the bore face may result in an effective
radius greater or smaller than the nominal diameter. For a bore finished in unconsolidated materials, the
water level in the bore during pumping is lower than the water level in an equivalent uncased hole by an
amount of the entry loss through the screen. If development of the bore is incomplete, the packing of fine
material in the formation adjacent to the screen can greatly reduce the hydraulic conductivity and result
in an effective radius which is considerably less than the nominal drilled size. As shown in Fig. 13.2 the
impact of the well diameter on the calculation of storage is very significant. Clearly then, the type curve
analyses relying on the magnitude of the drawdown must not be used to analyse data obtained from the
pumping bore itself, unless the non-linear head loss can be accounted for.
Rushton and Redshaw [1979] give a detailed analysis of the use of numerical techniques to try and tease
out realistic values from pumping test data measured on a single abstraction bore.

Figure 13.2: Semi-log plots demonstrating the error in t0 values
13.1.1 Well loss
Clark [1977] notes that it was Eden and Hazel [1973] that first clearly showed that step tests could be
used to calculate aquifer properties as well as efficiencies. More recently, Moench [1997] has introduced
the concept of well-bore skin to represent the hydraulic changes associated with decrease in efficiency of
the water well.
The components of head loss around a pumping bore [Kruseman and de Ridder, 1990] are shown graph-
ically in Fig. 13.3.
The drawdown in a pumped well can be considered the sum of two components:
• The loss of head in the aquifer, and

• The loss of head in the well (well loss)
The aquifer head loss is due to resistance to laminar flow of water through the aquifer and can be modelled
using Theis theory. The well loss results from resistance to turbulent flow in the well column itself and
to head losses incurred by the water entering the well as shown in Figure 13.3. New analysis methods
are required to handle the inclusion of non-laminar flow effects.
13.2 Constant drawdown tests in flowing bores
Flowing artesian bores have to be tested using a different method to the standard approach. Not only
is a pump not required, but it is also not possible to measure the drawdown. A flowing artesian bore
actually operates at a constant drawdown. The water overflows to the ground surface. If the bore is
initially sealed and the pressure has built up, a test can be run by opening the bore and measuring the
discharge. The discharge will reduce over time as the head decays. Fig. 13.4 illustrates the problem for
an old bore drilled into the GAB.

Figure 13.3: Distribution of head losses around a pumping well
Figure 13.4: Flowing artesian bore in the GAB of Queensland

Jacob and Lohman [1952] developed an analysis method for flowing wells. The well is based upon the
flow equation:
Q = 2πT (h0 − h) G(α) = 2πT sw Gα (13.1)
Where:
G(α) is a complex integral that is approximated numerically. It is dimensionless.

h0 is the static head before uncapping the well or allowing it to flow (L)
h is the head after opening the well, or the elevation of the opening (L),
rw is the effective radius of the well,
sw is the constant drawdown (h0 − h), and
Tt
α is a dimensionless group that is similar to u, α = 2
Srw
G(α) is referred to as the G function of α:
4α ∞ −αx2 π

−1 Y0 (x)
Z
G(α) = xe + tan dx (13.2)
π 0 2 J0 (x)
Where J0 (x) and Y0 (x) are Bessel functions of the first and second kinds respectively.
A Type curve solution method was developed by Jacob and Lohman [1952] but the curve is very flat and
allows considerable ambiguity in the solution. However, Jacob and Lohman [1952] also showed that for
relatively large values of t, the function G(α) can be closely approximated by 2/W (u), the well function.
We know that for small values of u that W (u) can be approximated by:
2.24T t
W (u) = 2.3 log (13.3)
r2S
We can write then:
2.3 2.25T t
T = log 2 (13.4)
4πsw r S
In this case, Q now becomes a variable while sw is a constant. Rearranging this equation gives:
1 2.3 2.25T t 2.25T
= log 2 = E log 2 + E log t = E log F + E log t (13.5)
Q 4πT sw rw S rw S
where:
2.3 2.25T
E = 4πT sw = ∆1/Q and F = 2 S
rw
Equation 13.5 is in the form of a straight line with 1/Q as the ordinate and log t as the abscissa. A plot
of 1/Q against log t will yield a straight line with slope E. Equation 13.5 can be solved for transmissivity,
where:
2.3
T = (13.6)
4πsw ∆(1/Q)
where ∆(1/Q) is the change in 1/Q per log cycle of time.
The interpretation procedure is then:
1. On semi-logarithmic graph paper, plot the reciprocal of discharge (1/Q), on the natural scale,
against time since the start of pumping, on logarithmic scale,
2. Determine ∆(1/Q), the slope of the reciprocal of discharge per log cycle.
3. Calculate transmissivity from Equation 13.6.

Table 13.1: Richmond Town - Bore 3 (Hazel, 1975)
Time Discharge Time Discharge

(mins) m3 /day (mins) m3 /day
1 3884 47 3547
2 3819 60 3524
3 3786 75 3514
5 3731 90 3502
7 3709 120 3480
10 3705 152 3459
12 3633 180 3459
15 3623 210 3437
20 3600 240 3427
25 3590
Hazel [1975] reported data for the Richmond Town Bore in North West Queensland overlying the Great
Artesian Basin. The bore is 405 m deep, has a water temperature of 41.7 ◦C , a static head of 26.91 m
and is drilled into the Hooray Sandstone. The bore had been shut down for a long period prior to the
test. The data for the first part of the test is shown in Table 13.1.
The solution provided by Hazel [1975] is given in Fig. 13.5. A solution for constant head analysis is
included in the suite of pumping test interpretations as part of the AQTESOLV packgage. This package
gave a transmissivity value of 475 m2 /day for the data in Table 13.1. The method does not provide an
accurate storage value as the effective bore radius is not known. The solution is given in Fig. 13.6 for
comparison.
13.3 Step drawdown test
13.3.1 Introduction
The step drawdown test has been introduced to allow analysis of the well loss components.
Step tests are frequently carried out by pumping the aquifer at a series of constant rates, each larger than
the last. The objective of the test is to determine what the change in water level in the aquifer will be
for a particular abstraction rate. The rate of change in drawdown at the end of each step should be close
to zero for an accurate analysis. The bore should be in steady-state before the next step in commenced.
A preliminary test should be carried out to characterise the borehole. From this information, the pumping
rates for the step test can be determined.
Five steps are commonly chosen. A typical testing sequence would commence at 30% of the required
yield, and would include steps at 50%, 70%, at 90% and 110%. It is important to anticipate the yields
for each step before running the test and to work out how to adjust the valves to regulate the yield. The
number and duration of the steps will depend upon the available pumping equipment and the aquifer
yield. A minimum of four steps should be obtained with the length of each step increasing in duration.
A typical first step would be 30 minutes, increasing to a second step of 60 minutes, a third of 90 minutes,
etc.
It is not required that the second pumping rate be greater than the first. Hazel [1975] describes a
test format where the abstraction rate is decreased in steps at the end of a constant rate test. The
interpretation method for a test of that type is given later in this Chapter.

Figure 13.5: Constant head (flowing artesian) interpretation for the Richmond No 3 Bore (Hazel, 2008)
Figure 13.6: AQTESOLV solution for the Richmond Town data

Figure 13.7: Typical Step-Drawdown Data
The static water level is recorded in the pumped borehole before the start of the test and immediately
before any change in the rate of pumping. Water level changes vary logarithmically with time, therefore
measurements of water levels are made with gradually increasing periods between observations. The
Australian Standard recommends the following schedule of measurements:
• Immediately before the change in discharge occurs,

• At 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90 minutes.
Fig. 13.7 shows a tyicql set of step-test data. This example is from the Botany Sands aquifer in Sydney. A
piezometer was also placed at the top of the gravel pack to give information on abstraction bore efficiency.
The step-drawdown test can be used effectively to analyse hydraulic conditions around a pumping well.
Repeated step-drawdown tests over time can be used to assess the deteriorating efficiency of abstraction
bores.
A common analysis of step-drawdown tests is based upon Jacob’s suggestion that the relationship between
the two components of drawdown can be represented by an equation of the form [Jacob, 1947]:
sw = B(rew,t )Q + CQ2 (13.7)
and
B(rew,t ) = B1(rw ,t) + B2 (13.8)
where:
sw is the drawdown in the well (m),

Q is the pumping rate,

B1(rw ,t) is the linear aquifer loss (m),
B2 is the linear well loss,
C is the non-linear well loss (m),
rew is the effective radius of the well,
rw is the actual radius of the well and
t is the pumping time.
As observed above, it is intrinsically difficult to know the value for the effective radius of the well, so the
equation can not be used as it stands. Rorabaugh [1953] suggested that Jacob’s original equation could
be written as:
sw = BQ + CQP (13.9)
Where:
P has values of between 1.5 and 3.5 depending upon the value of Q. However, several authors ([Hazel,
1975, Kruseman and de Ridder, 1990] argue strongly that the value of P = 2. Software packages
such as AQTSOFT allow this parameter to vary.
If Equation 13.9 is divided through by Q, then a plot of s/Q vs Q will give a straight line with a slope of
C and intercept of B. This simple approach has been used in some texts but does not provide a complete
solution. For example, what do C and B actually represent? A more complete analysis is presented later
in this Chapter.
13.3.2 Well efficiency
The relationship between drawdown and pumping rate at a well is the specific capacity (Q/sw ), which
describes both the productivity of the aquifer and the well. Clearly, the specific capacity should decrease
as the pumping rate increases as a result of the non-linear increase in the well loss.
The well efficiency (Ew ) can be expressed as:

B1 Q
Ew = × 100% (13.10)
(B1 + B2 )Q + CQP
If a well has no well losses , it has an efficiency of 100%.
13.3.3 Skin effects
As used in well hydraulics, the concepts of linear and non-linear head loss components (B2 Q + CQ2 )
relate to the concepts of skin effect and non-Darcy flow. The total drawdown inside a well due to well
losses (also indicated as the apparent skin effects) can be expressed as:
1
s = B2 Q + CQ2 = (skin + C 0 Q)Q (13.11)
2πT
Where:
C 0 = C × 2πT is the non-linear well loss coefficient or high velocity coefficient

skin = B2 × 2πT is the skin factor
The skin factor appears in recent computer packages such as AQTESOLV. The effective well radius (rew )
is related to the well radius (rw ) as:
rew = rw exp−skin (13.12)
If the effective radius of the well rew is larger than the real radius of the well rw it is called a positive
skin effect. If it is smaller, the well is usually poorly developed or the screen is clogged and the effect is
referred to as a negative skin effect.
13.4 Solution methods
Various methods are available to analyse step-drawdown tests. The Hantush-Bierschenk method and the
Eden-Hazel method are based upon developments of Jacob’s approach. The Hantush-Bierschenk method
can determine values of B and C and can be applied to confined, leaky or unconfined aquifers. The
Eden-Hazel method can be applied in confined aquifers and gives values of the well-loss parameters as
well as estimates of transmissivity. It is also a more generally applicable method available for use where
pumping has been intermittent. More graphical techniques have been developed based upon Rorabaugh’s
approach but will not be examined further in these notes.
Clark [1977] presented a detailed data set based upon work on deep confined sandstone aquifers in Saudi
Arabia. The data set has also been reported by Kruseman and de Ridder [1990]. The data set is presented
in Table 13.2 and will be used to illustrate both approaches.
13.4.1 Hantush - Bierschenk analysis
Hantush [1964] applied the principle of superposition to Jacob’s equations to express the drawdown sw(n)
in a well during the nth step of a step-drawdouwn test as:
n
X
sw(n) = ∆Qi B(rew , t − ti ) + CQ2n (13.13)
i=1
Where:
sw(n) is the total drawdown in the well during the nth step at time t,
rew is the effective radius of the well
ti time at which the ith step begins (t1 = 0)
Qn is the constant discharge during the nth step,
Qi is the constant discharge at the preceding step
∆Qi = Qi − Qi−1 is the discharge increment beginning at time ti
The sum of increments of drawdown taken at a fixed interval of time from the beginning of each step can
be obtained from Equation 13.13:
n
X
∆sw(i) = sw(n) = B(rew , ∆t)Qn + CQ2n (13.14)
i=1
Where:

Table 13.2: Step drawdown test data (Clark, 1977)
Step 1 2 3 4 5 6
Discharge 1306 1693 2423 3261 4094 5019
Time Level Level Level Level Level Level
1 0 5.458 8.17 10.881 15.318 20.036

2 0 5.529 8.24 11.797 15.494 20.248
3 0 5.564 8.346 11.902 15.598 20.389
4 0 5.599 8.451 12.008 15.74 20.529
5 1.303 5.634 8.486 12.078 15.846 20.6
6 2.289 5.669 8.557 12.149 15.881 20.66
7 3.117 5.669 8.557 12.149 15.952 20.741
8 3.345 5.705 8.592 12.184 16.022 20.811
9 3.486 5.74 8.672 12.219 16.022 20.882
10 3.521 5.74 8.672 12.325 16.093 20.917
12 3.592 5.81 8.663 12.36 16.198 20.952
14 3.627 5.81 8.698 12.395 16.268 21.022
16 3.733 5.824 8.733 12.43 16.304 21.128
18 3.768 5.845 8.839 12.43 16.374 21.163
20 3.836 5.81 8.874 12.501 16.409 21.198
25 3.873 5.824 8.874 12.508 16.586 21.304
30 4.014 5.824 8.979 12.606 16.621 21.375
35 3.803 5.881 8.979 12.712 16.691 21.48
40 4.043 5.591 8.994 12.747 16.726 21.551
45 4.261 5.591 9.05 12.783 16.776 21.619
50 4.261 6.092 9.05 12.818 16.797 21.656
55 4.19 6.092 9.12 12.853 16.902 0
60 4.12 6.176 9.12 12.853 16.938 21.663
70 4.12 6.162 9.155 12.888 16.973 21.691
80 4.226 6.176 9.191 12.923 17.079 21.762
90 4.226 6.169 9.191 12.994 17.079 21.832
100 4.226 6.169 9.226 12.994 17.114 21.903
120 4.402 6.176 9.261 13.099 17.219 22.008
150 4.402 6.374 9.367 13.205 17.325 22.184
180 4.683 6.514 9.578 13.24 17.395 22.325

∆sw(i) is the drawdown increment between the i-th step and that preceding it, taken at time ti + ∆t
from the beginning of the i-th step.
Equation 13.14 can also be written as:

sw(n)
= B(rew , ∆t) + CQn (13.15)
Qn
This representation allows a graphical solution to B and C. The increments of drawdown have to be
extrapolated and measured at a fixed time after the beginning of each step.
A plot of Sw(n) /Qn versus Qn on an arithmetic scale paper will yield a straight line whose slope is equal
to C and the intercept at Q = 0 will give B
Note, that if the test has reached equilibrium (constant drawdown) at the end of each step, then no
extrapolation is required.
The steps for this analysis have been reproduced here from Kruseman and de Ridder [1990].
1. On semi-log paper, plot the observed drawdown in the well (sw ) against the corresponding time t.
Use the log axis for time as shown in Fig. 13.8;
2. Extrapolate the curve through the plotted data of each step to the end of the next step;
3. Determine the increments of drawdown ∆sw(i) for each step by taking the difference between the
observed drawdown at a fixed time interval (∆t), taken from the beginning of each step, and the
corresponding drawdown on the extrapolated curve from the preceding step;
4. Determine the values of sw(n) corresponding to the discharge Qn from step sw(n) = ∆sw (1) +
∆sw(2) + . . . + ∆sw(n).
5. Calculate the ratios of sw(n)/Qn for each step;
6. On arithmetic paper, plot the values of sw(n) /Qn versus the corresponding values of Qn and fit a
straight line through the points as shown in Fig. 13.9. If the data does not fit a straight line then it
is possibly due to the exponent in Equation 13.9 not equal to 2. Eden and Hazel [1973] and Clark
[1977] caution against this approach however;
7. Determine the slope C and intercept B of the straight line.
The data for the deep confined sandstone test conducted by Clark [1977] in Saudi is shown in Fig. 13.8.
The drawdown data has been calculated for t = 100 minutes into each step. The first data point is poor
as it plots way off the line for the remaining 5 points. Clark argued that this point was impacted by the
water initially being cooled as it stood in the bore. The location of this point is shown in Fig. 13.9.
The equation of best fit shown in Fig. 13.9 defines the drawdown equation for this bore for t = 100
minutes.
sw = 0.003268Q + 1.429 × 10−7 Q2 (13.16)
The AQTESOLV package can be used to derive a solution as well (somewhat more quickly) and can
also be used to test the sensitivity of the results. A solution based upon a Theis step test is shown in
Fig. 13.10. Note that the meaning of some of the symbols changes. In the AQTESOLV program, Sw
refers to the skin thickness.

Figure 13.8: Analysis for Saudi step-test data using the Hantush-Bierschenk approach
Figure 13.9: Plot of specific drawdown vs discharge rate for Saudi data

Figure 13.10: AQTESOLV solution for the Saudi confined sandstone step test
13.4.2 Eden-Hazel method
The basic assumption in all step test analysis recognises that the drawdown is a scalar quantity and that
drawdown components arising from different well functions can be added or subtracted. The discharge
rate at the beginning of each step is equivalent to a new pump in the well with a discharge rate equal to
the increase in discharge rate. The total drawdown in a step drawdown test is equal to the sum of the
drawdowns caused by the theoretical pumps responsible for each discharge step in the test.
The multiple stages of a step-drawdown test are equivalent to :
• Pump 1 discharging at rate Q1 from time t1 to t5 ;

• Pump 2 switching in from time t2 to t5 with a discharge rate of Q2 − Q1 ;
• Pump 3 switching on from time t3 to t5 with a discharge rate of Q3 − Q2 ; and
• Pump 4 switching on from time t4 to t5 with a discharge rate of Q4 − Q3 .
Figure 13.11 gives a diagrammatic plot of a step drawdown test [Clark, 1977].
Hazel [1975] devised a rigorous graphical analysis of step drawdown tests in which the true drawdown-
discharge rate curve for each step is reconstructed [Clark, 1977]. The analysis is similar to much of the
above but the complete analysis is repeated here for clarity and is based upon Kruseman and de Ridder
[1990]. The method is based upon Jacob’s approximation to the Theis equation and can be used to
determine well losses and also the transmissivity of the aquifer.
The drawdown is given (again) as:

2.3Q 2.25T t
sw = log 2 (13.17)
4πT rew S

Figure 13.11: Diagrammatic representation of a step-drawdown test
This can be written as

sw = (a + b log t)Q (13.18)
Where:
2.30 2.25T
a= log 2 (13.19)
4πT rew S
and
2.30
b= (13.20)
4πT
The drawdown in a well at the end of the step test is:
swt5 = (a + b log(t5 − t1 )) Q1
+ (a + b log(t5 − t2 )) (Q2 − Q1 )
+ (a + b log(t5 − t3 )) (Q3 − Q2 ) (13.21)
+ (a + b log(t5 − t4 )) (Q4 − Q3 )
+ CQ24
Using the principle of superposition, the drawdown at the time t during the n-th step is:
n
X n
X
sw(n) = (∆Qi )(a + b log(t − ti )) = aQn + b ∆Qi log(t − ti ) (13.22)
i=1 i=1
Where:
Qn is the constant discharge during the n-th step;

Qi is the discharge in the preceding step;
∆Qi = Qi − Qi−1 is the discharge increment beginning at time ti
ti time at which the i-th step begins
t time since the step-drawdown test started

The drawdown at any time t is thus a summation of the individual drawdowns of each of the hypothetical
pumps.
Equation 13.22 does not account for non-linear well losses (the CQ2 term), however, these can be simply
introduced. A simplification can also be included by defining:
n
X
Hn = ∆Qi log(t − ti ) (13.23)
i=1
The final result is:

sw(n) = aQn + bHn + CQ2n (13.24)
Step test analysis can now be directed to the evaluation of a, b and C in Equation 13.24. These factors
can then be used to evaluate the well loss component of the drawdown (C) and the aquifer transmissivity
(T) and to estimate the aquifer storage coefficient.
Since a, b and C are constants, a plot of sw (n) versus Hn on natural scale graph paper will give a series
of parallel straight lines (one for each value of Qi ) with slope ”b” and intercepts of aQn + CQ2n on the
sw (n) axis.
If these intercepts are divided by Qi , then a and C can be determined.
This method of analysis gives a very ready means of allowing for antecedent pumping conditions, and for
pump stoppages. It also is in a form which is readily amenable to spreadsheet analysis. This analysis
is not dependent on the antecedent drawdowns, as is the previous method, but rather on antecedent
discharges.
If the pump stops during a step for which the discharge rate had been Qn , then a recharge bore delivering
Qn to the bore is superimposed in the analysis. A similar operation is carried out for any change in rate,
so all rate changes are able to be accounted for in the analysis.
By means of a regression analysis, the constants a, b, C are able to be calculated and the drawdown
equation can be determined for any required time of discharge. This technique is used extensively in
Queensland to analyse pumping tests but has not received general acceptance due to a lack of published
examples.
Equation 13.24 is laborious to calculate. It basically means the evaluation of a new transformed time for
each measurement point. A different value of Hn will be calculated for each value of head as they each
occur at different times. This is laborious by hand but fairly straightforward in EXCEL.
The derivation is first described with reference the published set of data from Saudi Arabia [Clark, 1977].
This analysis can be compared with the Hantush - Bierschenk analysis of the same data set already
presented.
A second example is given from a confined shallow aquifer system in the Andes of Chile to further
demonstrate the steps in the mathematical analysis. The third example is from western Queensland and
has been used in the Groundwater School Notes as described by Hazel [1975] previously. In this example
from a flowing artesian aquifer, the full power of the analysis is demonstrated.
Example 1 - The Saudi deep sandstone aquifer test
The data set for the Saudi example is presented in Table 13.2. The pumping rates and derived values for
time are summarised in Table 13.3. Note that the H factor will be calculated in minutes in this analysis.
For the first step, Equation 13.23 becomes:

1306
H1 = log(t) (13.25)
1440

Table 13.3: Pumping rate quantities for the Eden-Hazel method - applied to the Saudi Example
Step Pumping Pumping Start Time Step

Rates Increments Time Steps Duration
m3 /day
1 Q1 = 1306 ∆Q1 = 1306 − 0 = 1306 t1 = 0 1 - 180 t − t1
2 Q2 = 1693 ∆Q2 = 1693 − 1306 = 387 t2 = 180 181 - 360 t − t2
3 Q3 = 2423 ∆Q3 = 2423 − 1693 = 730 t3 = 360 361 - 540 t − t3
4 Q4 = 3261 ∆Q4 = 3261 − 2423 = 838 t4 = 540 541 - 720 t − t4
5 Q5 = 4094 ∆Q5 = 4094 − 3261 = 833 t5 = 720 721 - 900 t − t5
6 Q6 = 5019 ∆Q6 = 5019 − 4094 = 925 t6 = 900 901 - 1080 t − t6
and is calculated for each time for 1 to 180 minutes as shown by way of an example in Table 13.4. For
t = 1, 2, 3, 4, . . ., H = 0, 0.273, 0.433, 0.546, . . .
The second step is calculated using:

1306 387
H2 = log(t) + log(t − 180) (13.26)
1440 1440
and is again calculated for all values of t in the second step. In this step, the time (t) varies between 181
and 360 minutes. The first few values of H for the second step of this test are: 2.048, 2.131, 2.180, etc.
The third step is calculated using:

1306 387 730
H3 = log(t) + log(t − 180) + log(t − 360) (13.27)
1440 1440 1440
Here, t varies between 361 and 540 minutes.
Similarly the forth and fifth steps.
The last step (6th ) in this test is calculated by:
H6 = 1306/1440 log(t)+ 387/1440 log(t − 180)

+730/1440 log(t − 360)+ 838/1440 log(t − 540) (13.28)
+833/1440 log(t − 720)+ 925/1440 log(t − 900)
Values of H generated by this application for each of the 6 steps in the test are given for this example in
Table 13.4
The analysis procedure can be listed as:
1. Calculate the values of Hn using Equation 13.23 and the measured discharges and times.
2. on arithmetic paper, plot the observed drawdowns (sw (n)) versus the corresponding values of Hn
as shown in Figure 13.12;
3. draw parallel straight lines of best fit through the plotted points, one straight line through each set
of points (Fig. 13.12);
2.30
4. determine the slopes of the lines ∆sw(n)/∆Hn , which gives values of b (b = 4πT from Equa-
tion 13.20);
5. extend the lines so that they intercept the Hn = 0 axis. The interception point (An ) of each line is
given by An = aQn + CQ2n ;
6. read the values of An ;

Table 13.4: Values of Hi for the confined sandstone example of the Eden-Hazel analysis
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Step 6

Time H1 i time H2 i time H3 i time H4 i time H5 i time H6 i
1 0.000 181 2.048 361 2.926 541 4.311 721 5.937 901 7.628
2 0.273 182 2.131 362 3.081 542 4.488 722 6.114 902 7.824
3 0.433 183 2.180 363 3.172 543 4.593 723 6.218 903 7.940
4 0.546 184 2.216 364 3.237 544 4.668 724 6.293 904 8.024
5 0.634 185 2.244 365 3.287 545 4.726 725 6.352 905 8.089
6 0.706 186 2.267 366 3.329 546 4.775 726 6.442 907 8.189
8 0.819 188 2.305 368 3.396 548 4.852 728 6.478 908 8.229
9 0.865 189 2.321 369 3.424 549 4.884 729 6.511 909 8.298
12 0.979 192 2.361 372 3.492 552 4.963 734 6.635 914 8.403
16 1.092 196 2.403 376 3.562 556 5.044 736 6.674 916 8.446
18 1.138 198 2.420 378 3.591 558 5.079 738 6.709 918 8.485
20 1.180 200 2.437 380 3.618 560 5.109 740 6.740 920 8.597
30 1.340 210 2.503 390 3.723 570 5.233 750 6.868 930 8.662
35 1.400 215 2.530 395 3.765 575 5.282 755 6.919 935 8.719
40 1.453 220 2.555 400 3.802 585 5.365 765 7.006 945 8.816
50 1.541 230 2.599 410 3.866 590 5.401 770 7.044 950 8.859
55 1.578 235 2.618 415 3.894 595 5.435 775 7.080 955 8.936
70 1.673 250 2.671 430 3.968 610 5.523 790 7.174 970 9.004
80 1.726 260 2.702 440 4.011 620 5.575 800 7.230 980 9.066
90 1.772 270 2.730 450 4.050 630 5.665 820 7.328 1000 9.176
120 1.886 300 2.805 480 4.151 660 5.743 840 7.413 1020 9.273
150 1.974 330 2.869 510 4.236 690 5.845 870 7.526 1050 9.400
180 2.045 360 2.924 540 4.308 720 5.934 900 7.625 1080 9.511
7. calculate the ratio An /Qn for each step (i.e. for each value of Qn );
8. on arithmetic paper, plot the values of An /Qn versus the corresponding values of Qn . Fit a straight
line through the plotted points (Fig 13.13)
9. determine the slope of the straight line - which is the value of C;
10. extend the straight line until it intersects the axis at Qn = 0 to give values of a
11. knowing b, calculate T
The slope of the parallel straight lines in Fig 13.12 is 6.9 × 10−4 . Using this slope in Equation 13.20 gives
a value of transmissivity of 257 m2 /day. Substituting values from the slope and intercept of Figure 13.13
into the drawdown equation (qn. 13.24) gives:
sw = (1.78 × 10−3 ) + (6.9 × 10−4 ) log t Q + (1.4 × 10−7 )Q2

(13.29)
Example from a mountain alluvial aquifer
The step drawdown data for an abstraction bore in a confined alluvial aquifer in Chile (pers comm John
Lloyd) is shown in Fig 13.14. The data for this test is tabulated in Table 13.5.
The H values are calculated as in the first example and are listed in Table 13.6. The method used to
calculate values of Hn is exactly the same as the previous example and is not given in detail.
A plot of H vs Sw is shown in Fig. 13.15 and a plot of An /Qn vs Qn is shown in Fig. 13.16. The
transmissivity calculation is derived from the slope of the straight lines in Fig 13.15 (b) and is 265 m2 /day.

Figure 13.12: The Eden-Hazel method: Arithmetic plot of sw(n) versus Hn
Figure 13.13: Eden-Hazel method: Plot of An /Qn versus Qn

Figure 13.14: Drawdown data for the Chile step test
Table 13.5: Step drawdown test data - Chile example

530 m3 /day 930 m3 /day 1300 m3 /day 1540 m3 /day 1945 m3 /day 2420 m3 /day
Time Level Time Level Time Level Time Level Time Level Time Level
(mins) (m) (mins) (m) (mins) (m) (mins) (m) (mins) (m) (mins) (m)
5 3.92 125 6.79 245 10.92 365 16.54 485 20.35 605 31.59
10 4.50 130 8.03 250 12.78 370 17.48 490 22.96 610 33.94
15 4.54 135 8.82 255 14.43 375 18.09 495 24.51 615 36.00
20 4.57 140 8.84 260 14.82 380 18.41 500 25.59 620 38.05
25 4.59 145 8.84 265 14.90 385 18.40 505 26.41 625 39.46
30 4.60 150 8.84 270 14.94 390 18.44 510 26.80 630 42.38
35 4.62 155 8.86 275 14.97 395 18.49 515 26.91 635 44.29
40 4.63 160 8.90 280 15.00 400 18.50 520 26.89 640 45.03
45 4.61 165 9.00 285 15.10 405 18.50 525 26.94 645 45.84
50 4.61 170 8.97 290 15.06 410 18.48 530 26.95 650 45.93
55 4.61 175 8.98 295 15.01 415 18.53 535 26.99 655 46.08
60 4.61 180 9.01 300 15.03 420 18.51 540 27.01 660 46.10
70 4.62 190 9.02 310 15.01 430 18.51 550 27.14 670 46.12
80 4.63 200 9.00 320 15.01 440 18.52 560 27.18 680 46.07
90 4.62 210 9.01 330 15.04 450 18.50 570 27.20 690 46.11
100 4.62 220 9.01 340 15.02 460 18.49 580 27.21 700 46.09
110 4.63 230 9.02 350 14.99 470 18.50 590 27.19 710 46.12
120 4.62 240 9.01 360 15.01 480 18.50 600 27.18 720 46.10

Table 13.6: Values of Hi for the Chile example of the Eden-Hazel analysis

Time H1 i time H2 i time H3 i time H4 i time H5 i time H6 i
5 0.257 125 0.965 245 1.641 365 2.262 485 2.860 605 3.646
10 0.368 130 1.055 250 1.726 370 2.321 490 2.953 610 3.756
15 0.433 135 1.110 255 1.779 375 2.359 495 3.010 615 3.824
20 0.479 140 1.151 260 1.819 380 2.388 500 3.054 620 3.875
25 0.514 145 1.183 265 1.851 385 2.413 505 3.089 625 3.917
30 0.544 150 1.211 270 1.878 390 2.434 510 3.119 630 3.952
35 0.568 155 1.235 275 1.902 395 2.453 515 3.145 635 3.983
40 0.589 160 1.256 280 1.924 400 2.470 520 3.169 640 4.012
45 0.608 165 1.275 285 1.944 405 2.486 525 3.190 645 4.037
50 0.625 170 1.292 290 1.962 410 2.501 530 3.210 650 4.061
55 0.640 175 1.308 295 1.979 415 2.516 535 3.229 655 4.083
60 0.654 180 1.323 300 1.995 420 2.529 540 3.246 660 4.104
70 0.679 190 1.351 310 2.024 430 2.554 550 3.278 670 4.142
80 0.700 200 1.375 320 2.050 440 2.577 560 3.308 680 4.177
90 0.719 210 1.397 330 2.074 450 2.598 570 3.335 690 4.209
100 0.736 220 1.417 340 2.096 460 2.618 580 3.360 700 4.239
110 0.751 230 1.436 350 2.116 470 2.637 590 3.383 710 4.267
120 0.765 240 1.453 360 2.136 480 2.655 600 3.405 720 4.293
Figure 13.15: Plot of Hn vs sw for the Chile step test example

Figure 13.16: Plot of An /Qn vs Qn for the Chile example
The drawdown equation for this test is sw = (−1.4710−3 + (6.910−4) log t)Q + (6.98110−6)Q2 . Solutions
to this equation will give the estimated drawdown in the pump well at a time (t) and for a pumping rate
Q.
The Richmond Town bore data set
This analysis has been carried out by Hazel [1975] and forms the basis for the Australian Groundwater
School notes example previously made available by the CGS. Hazel [1975] reported data for the Richmond
Town Bore No 3 in North West Queensland overlying the Great Artesian Basin. The bore is 405 m deep,
has a water temperature of 41.7 ◦C , a static head of 26.91 m and is drilled into the Hooray Sandstone.
Richmond lies at at elevation of 210 m on the banks of the Richmond River (-20.732 Latitude, 143.144
Longitude). A location map is shown on Fig 13.18. The test was carried out by Colin Hazel on 3 July
1969. The bore had been shut down for a long time prior to the test. The head at the bore prior to the
test was 26.57 m or 261 kPa. The radius of the bore casing (rw ) was 0.15 m.
The data is given in Table 13.7 and plotted in Fig 13.17 and provides a useful example of the Eden-Hazel
method as applied to a flowing artesian bore.
Table 13.7: Richmond Town Bore No. 3 - Test Data
Time Start of End of Qi ∆Qi Back Drawdown Hn

Period test (t) Static test Pressure swt
(i) (mins) (mins) (m3 /day) (m3 /day) (m) (m)
Start of Flow Recession (Constant Drawdown) section of test at 0 minutes

t1 0 0 26.57
t2 1 3884 3884.0 2.28 24.29 0.00
t3 2 3819 -64.8 2.24 24.33 1169.20


t4 3 3786 -33.1 2.20 24.37 1833.63

t5 5 3731 -54.7 2.06 24.51 2643.53
t6 7 3709 -21.6 2.16 24.41 3169.37
t7 10 3705 -4.3 2.16 24.41 3728.90
t8 12 3633 -72.0 2.16 24.41 3995.83
t9 15 3623 -10.1 2.07 24.50 4317.14
t10 20 3600 -23.0 2.07 24.50 4734.09
t11 25 3590 -10.1 2.03 24.54 5062.17
t12 47 3547 -43.2 2.03 24.54 5964.54
t13 60 3524 -23.0 2.03 24.54 6306.33
t14 75 3514 -10.1 1.99 24.58 6624.87
t15 90 3502 -11.5 1.95 24.62 6881.35
t16 120 3480 -21.6 1.95 24.62 7274.62
t17 152 3459 -21.6 1.95 24.62 7588.74
180 3459 0.0 1.91 24.66 7833.3
t18 210 3437 -21.6 1.91 24.66 8027.00
t19 240 3427 -10.1 1.91 24.66 8202.19
Start of Static (recovery) section of test at 240 minutes
242 0 -3427.2 23.00 3.57 7182.22
243 0 23.34 3.23 6584.56
246 0 24.04 2.53 5570.22
250 0 24.46 2.11 4832.76
255 0 24.79 1.78 4257.39
260 0 24.95 1.62 3856.86
270 0 25.24 1.33 3307.32
285 0 25.57 1.00 2781.49
300 0 25.74 0.83 2427.31
330 0 25.91 0.66 1961.95
352 0 26.03 0.54 1730.35
385 0 26.11 0.46 1476.76
473 0 26.24 0.33 1072.43
543 0 26.32 0.25 884.38
1170 0 26.57 0.00 349.78
t20 1320 0 0 26.69 -0.12 306.05
Start of Dynamic (Step Drawdown) section of test at 1320 minutes
1322 2 1135 1135.0 21.93 4.76 647.21
1323 3 1135 21.84 4.85 846.82
1324 4 1135 21.80 4.89 988.37
1325 5 1135 21.76 4.93 1098.11
1327 7 1135 21.68 5.01 1263.46
1330 10 1135 21.60 5.09 1438.52
1332 12 1135 21.55 5.14 1527.89
1335 15 1135 21.46 5.22 1637.14
t21 1340 20 1135 21.43 5.26 1777.71
1341 21 1640 505.0 18.69 8.00 1801.51
1342 22 1640 18.61 8.08 1976.21
1343 23 1640 18.57 8.12 2086.81
1344 24 1640 18.53 8.16 2170.63
1345 25 1640 18.49 8.20 2239.45
1347 27 1640 18.40 8.29 2350.69
1350 30 1640 18.32 8.37 2480.13
1352 32 1640 18.32 8.37 2551.44
1355 35 1640 18.28 8.41 2643.83
t22 1360 40 1640 18.24 8.45 2771.55
1361 41 2180 540.0 14.80 11.89 2794.18


1362 42 2180 14.71 11.98 2978.58

1363 43 2180 14.55 11.98 3094.78
1364 44 2180 14.55 12.14 3182.68
1365 45 2180 14.47 12.22 3254.80
1367 47 2180 14.38 12.31 3371.55
1370 50 2180 14.30 12.39 3508.10
1372 52 2180 14.30 12.39 3583.88
1375 55 2180 14.22 12.47 3682.81
t23 1380 60 2180 14.13 12.56 3821.29
1381 61 2725 545.0 10.24 16.45 3846.07
1382 62 2725 10.07 16.62 4034.11
1383 63 2725 10.03 16.66 4153.32
1384 64 2725 9.99 16.70 4243.97
1385 65 2725 9.95 16.74 4318.70
1387 67 2725 9.95 16.74 4440.41
1390 70 2725 9.82 16.87 4584.02
1392 72 2725 9.78 16.91 4664.34
1395 75 2725 9.74 16.95 4769.92
t24 1400 80 2725 9.66 17.03 4919.10
1401 81 3270 545.0 5.47 21.22 4945.96
1402 82 3270 5.31 21.38 5136.08
1403 83 3270 5.22 21.47 5257.35
1404 84 3270 5.18 21.51 5350.04
1405 85 3270 5.06 21.63 5426.80
1407 87 3270 5.02 21.67 5552.52
1410 90 3270 5.02 21.67 5702.05
1412 92 3270 4.97 21.72 5786.25
1415 95 3270 4.85 21.84 5897.54
1420 100 3270 4.77 21.92 6056.00
There are 24 different steps in this test: 18 in the flow recession (constant drawdown) section; 1 static
(recovery) section and 5 steps in the dynamic (step drawdown) section.Clearly, the calculation of the
various values for Hn is non trivial. However, this approach does provide a way of integrating various
time length steps from testing at a site and it is expected that greater use of the method will occur as it
becomes more widely appreciated.
The field data for this test is shown in Fig. 13.17. The recorded parameters are flow and the back pressure
at the base plate of the bore. Equivalent drawdown can be calculated from the pressure data and this is
shown in Fig. 13.18. The value of the ’H’ function (Equation 13.23) is also shown in this figure.
A plot of drawdown vs H is shown in Fig. 13.19 where the steps and values of An are also shown.
The plot of An /Qn vs Qn is shown in Fig. 13.20. The straight line fit to these points provides values for
a and C. The drawdown equation is swt = (a + b log t)Q + CQ2 . Using the derived values, this becomes:
swt = (2.98 × 10−3 + 6.0 × 10−4 log t) + 8.232 × 10−7 Q2 Slightly different solutions are posible depending
upon the accuracy of the picks for each value of An .

Figure 13.17: Richmond Town Bore No 3 Shut in test conducted by C Hazel

Figure 13.18: Drawdown, flow and the H function for the Richmond Town No 3 Bore test
Figure 13.19: Plot of Hn vs sw for the Richmond data set

Figure 13.20: Plot of An /Qn vs Qn for the Richmond Town No3 data set

Chapter 14
Sample collection and monitoring
Contents
14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
14.2 Groundwater level monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
14.2.1 Water-level measuring devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
14.2.2 Manometer boards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
14.2.3 Accuracy requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
14.3 Water quality sample collection and field measurements . . . . . . . . . . . 412
14.3.1 Well purging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
14.3.2 Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
14.3.3 Field chemistry measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
14.3.4 Sample control, storage and transport for laboratory analysis . . . . . . . . . . 418
14.3.5 Quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC) samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
14.3.6 Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
14.4 Flow measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
14.5 Monitoring network design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
14.5.1 Point source monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
14.5.2 Regional-scale monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
14.5.3 Bore design for monitoring and sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
14.1 Introduction
Management of groundwater resources requires an accurate assessment of groundwater availability and

reliable monitoring of the groundwater resource. There are typiocally 3 aspects considered:
• Groundwater levels,
• groundwater quality and
• abstraction volumes.
Monitoring implies regular measurement in the field either by field visits or by the installation of appropri-
ate recording equipment. A monitoring network of bores which are dedicated and specifically designed for
monitoring is often established. The monitoring of water levels is relatively easy and is carried out widely.
The government is currently (2009) extending monitoring of abstraction rates as this is a fundamental
aspect of water resource management that has frequently been omitted in the past. The monitoring of
406
Chapter 14. Sample collection and monitoring
groundwater quality is far more time consuming, involving both time in the field at the bore site and also
significant time in the laboratory.
Monitoring and sampling of groundwater needs to be carefully planned and targeted towards the objec-
tives of a monitoring program, whether for regional assessment of the groundwater resource, groundwater
quality, for determining potable water quality changes or for monitoring groundwater pollution. The ob-
jectives of a monitoring program will often therefore dictate appropriate bore construction, water level
measuring equipment, metering of pumped groundwater, pump or sampler type, sampling protocols and
analytical chemical techniques to be used. Integration of these aspects is not always straightforward but
integrated planning is needed to avoid wasted efforts in the field or the need for repeat sampling.
14.2 Groundwater level monitoring
The basic measurement made in groundwater level monitoring is the distance from the top of the bore
to the water level. This measurement can be made by a number of techniques (see below) and forms the
fundamental monitoring data set for a bore location. Change in water level is an indication of change in
flux in the aquifer and can provide valuable information for management.
It is important to appreciate that the measurement of depth to water level does not represent a mea-
surement of hydraulic head in the aquifer. It is necessary that the elevation of the top of the bore is also
known. However, it is quite possible to add this data to an extensive monitoring record at some later
date. The lack of an elevation should not therefore be used as a reason not to collect monitoring data! In
a piezometer network specifically constructed for groundwater monitoring, there will frequently be 2 or
more piezometers installed at each bore site. Each piezometer is sealed from the other so that water levels
recorded in the piezometer set can be used to indicate vertical variation in hydraulic head and whether
water is moving upward or downward in the aquifer. The elevation of the base of each piezometer is then
used to provide the elevation head and the depth of water in the piezometer (not the depth to water)
indicates the pressure head. It will be recalled from Chapter ?? that the hydraulic head is the sum of
the pressure head and the elevation head.
It is still possible to get useful information from boreholes that are not specifically designed for ground-
water monitoring. The most obvious is a network of abstraction bores. However, as an abstraction bore
is designed to maximise the amount of water that can be drawn from an aquifer system or systems, it is
frequently the case that several aquifers are screened in the same bore. The head measurement is then a
composite measurement and can not be used to indicate vertical flow. An indication of the hydraulic head
in the x-y plane can still be derived by determining the elevation of the water surface in the bore. This
s simply achieved by measuring the depth from the top of the bore to the water surface and subtracting
that from the bore surface elevation.
In areas where the water density is known to vary, it is necessary to retrieve a representative water sample
from the piezometer for a density determination. This is required because the pressure head is a function
of the density [Acworth, 2007] .
14.2.1 Water-level measuring devices
There are five main methods available, viz.:
• Dip meter,
• float-type,
• pressure transducer,
• acoustic probes and

Figure 14.1: Electrical dip meters
Figure 14.3: Measuring the depth to water
Figure 14.2: Data loggers
• air lines.
Dip meter
A dip (water level) meter is a simple contact gauge that closes a DC electrical current when the tip of the
meter is lowered into the water. A hand held meter is shown in Fig. 14.3 and lowered into a piezometer
in Fig. 14.1.
Float devices
The float rests on the water surface and is suspended on a steel wire over a pulley device connecting to
a pen, and then back down to a counter weight. Movement of the float moves the pen, and if the pen is
arranged to write on a chart attached to a drum, a continuous record of the water level can be made. A
clockwork timing mechanism is used to move the drum. Gears are selected to give one revolution of the
drum per day, per week or per month.
Chart records have the advantage that they are simple and reliable, although they require regular main-
tenance, even if only to change the chart record. The chart produces a measurement of the distance to
the water surface, irrespective of fluid density. A major disadvantage is that they provide a record which

Figure 14.4: Schematic illustrating a typical Figure 14.5: Combination of fluid conductivity
transducer installation and water level
requires considerable further processing. The chart record must be digitised before in can be handled by
a computer program. It is possible to use the same chart mechanism but to incorporate a shaft encoder
in the pulley connected to a data logger. The data logger then records the exact time that the shaft
encoder moves.
The presence of float devices in a bore hole make any other operations, such as sampling or logging,
difficult if not impossible. However, given the disadvantages noted, it is still appropriate to use chart
recorders for some monitoring. For example, the Boxing Day earthquake in Indonesia shown in Fig. 4.15
would never have been recorded using a data logger.
Pressure transducers
A pressure transducer is a device which is installed beneath the water surface in the piezometer and
measures the pressure of the water column above the transducer location. In clean water of a known
density, this is a direct measure of the pressure head ψ. As the water surface rises or falls, the pressure
(weight of water) changes and the output from the transducer changes. A schematic showing a data logger
and transducer installation is shown in Fig. 14.4 and a possible transducer combination in Fig. 14.5.
The pressure sensitive device is a thin film of silicon with strain gauges attached. As the weight of the
water changes, the change is detected by the strain gauges and presented to the data logger as a linear
change in voltage output. DRUCK transducers are available specifically packaged for installation beneath
the water surface. These devices are 17.5 mm in diameter and will fit down a 25 mm ID tube. The silicon
diaphragm can either be sealed on one side to provide an absolute measurement of pressure, as used in
atmospheric pressure measurement transducers, or referenced to the atmosphere. This is achieved by
fixing a thin tube to the back of the transducer and venting this to atmosphere. Transducer cable then
typically incorporates a vent tube, a strain member, a shield for the voltage measurement pair and a
power (excitation) pair. The cable is not of a standard construction and for a deep application, the cost
of the cable will far outweigh the cost of the transducer.

It is clear that the pressure transducer must be fixed in place, otherwise the change in the depth of the
transducer will be mistakenly interpreted as a change in water level. It is also clear that the density
of the water must be known, or assumed constant. Variation in density will change the pressure of the
water column and would be interpreted as a change in the water-level measurement.
Transducers may be readily connected to data loggers and it therefore becomes relatively easy to set up a
system designed to record the water level at regular intervals. The memory, clock and power requirements
are all available in standard data loggers. It is possible for approximately $2,000 to §3,000 to purchase
self contained systems for water-level measurement.
A wide range of pressure transducers are available. The range of pressures is achieved by varying the
thickness of the silicon diaphragm. Accuracy is then related to the pressure range. A typical transducer
accuracy of 0.01% of range is available. This provides a 1 mm accuracy in a 10 m range which is a useful
variation for many groundwater monitoring applications.
Transducers can either be sealed so that they measure absolute pressure (DIVER systems) or vented to
the surface so that they measure gauge pressure. The major advantage of tghe sealed systems is that
the complete unit can be fixed in place below the water surface in a piezometer. A disadvantage is that
the atmospheric pressure must be recorded separately and the impact of atmospheric pressure changes
removed from the water level record. By contrast, a vented system requires that an expensive cable must
be used to vent the back face of the silicon diaphragm to atmospheric pressure. Price [2009] has given a
detailed review of the corrections required.
Acoustic probes
An acoustic probe can be used to transmit an acoustic signal from the surface to the water surface.
The water surface then reflects the signal back to the surface. Acoustic probes can then give a direct
and accurate depth-to-water measurement. The acoustic signal loses definition by scattering down the
hole so that there is a maximum depth at which the devices will work satisfactorily. Perhaps a more
practical restriction is that the bores must have been installed vertically otherwise the reflected signal
is not reflected back to the surface but is scattered against the side of the bore. Acoustic probes are
designed for bores as small as 100 mm and for depths limited to 10 m.
Air lines
Air lines are installed at a known depth beneath the water; and by measuring the pressure of air necessary
to discharge water from the tube as a stream of bubbles to the water surface, the height of the water
column above the discharge point can be calculated. This type of application is popular in geotechnical
studies where a permanent installation is required.
14.2.2 Manometer boards
It is possible to obtain a detailed measure of vertcal hydraulic head if a bundled piezometer has been
installed in a bore [Acworth, 2007]. Fig. 14.6 shows a board set up at the edge of a creek to investigate
groundwater flow processes. The different levels can be seen on the board where food dye has been used
to colour the water inside the tubes on the board. Fig 14.7 shows the results from a manometer board
set up at David Phillips Field (UNSW Campus) to show the effects of pumping from a bore 12 m from a
bundled piezometer installation.

Figure 14.6: Manometer board installed above a bundled piezometer (Photo RIA)
Figure 14.7: Manometer board results for David Phillips Field

14.2.3 Accuracy requirements
The accuracy of the hydraulic head measurement will directly determine the accuracy of the analysis
possible. In general terms, a measurement to within 10 mm is sufficiently accurate.
It is necessary that the various measurement devices be checked for accuracy on a regular basis. Tapes
can stretch, transducers can drift and chart recorders can run out of ink!
14.3 Water quality sample collection and field measurements
The type of precautions to be carried out when taking a groundwater sample will depend upon what the
investigator is looking for. If the sample is to be taken simply to characterise major ion chemistry, then
more lax sampling protocols are appropriate as compared to those considered appropriate for sampling
DNAPL contamination. In any case, it is necessary to remove the water sitting in the casing before a
sample is taken for analysis. Some form of pump is required to first purge the borehole and then deliver
the sample to the surface.
14.3.1 Well purging
Well purging involves the removal of a specific amount of water from the well or bore to remove stagnant
water or casing storage and enable the collection of representative formation water. This is required since
aqueous biochemical conditions in casing storage may differ significantly from those in groundwater and
contaminants may have been lost due to volatilisation or sorption to the well casing materials.
Well purging methods
There are numerous methods that can be used for purging and sampling a monitoring well and not all
methods are acceptable under all conditions. Methods that can cause significant changes to the redox
conditions of the aquifer or result in the volatilisation of contaminants should be avoided.
Purging methods for monitoring wells can include:
• Bailers;
• submersible pumps;
• air lifting;
• suction pumps:
• centrifugal pumps
• diaphragm pumps
• peristaltic pumps
• inertial pumps
• bladder pump
Bailers : These can be constructed of PVC, teflon or stainless steel is simple to use and require no
mechanical power for operation. These are mainly used of the collection of samples, but are useful
for purging monitoring wells which have a small well volume (generally less than 20 L). Bailers are
impractical where a large volume of groundwater is required to be purged prior to sampling.

Submersible pumps : These pumps are very efficient for the purging of large well volumes and minimise
the amount of aeration in the aquifer. Some submersible pumps are equipped with variable flow
rates (e.g., Grundfos-MP1) which are suitable for the collection of the sample after purging.
Air Lifting : This method is generally used for development of production and monitoring wells and is
not recommended for the purging of wells due to the high amount of aeration which can results in
volatilisation of organic compounds and significant changes to the redox conditions of the aquifer.
Where air lifting is undertaken as part of well development, monitoring wells should be allowed
to stabilise for a period of 7 to 14 days prior to sampling to ensure a representative groundwater
sample.
Suction Pumps : Suction lift pumps can be used where the water level is < 6 m deep. Several pump
types fit under this category and include:
centrifugal and diaphragm : Centrifugal and diaphragm pumps can be operated over a wide range of
pumping rates which facilitate rapid purging of the monitoring well. However, these pumps should
not be used for sampling, since they can results in excessive aeration of the sample and subsequent
stripping or degradation of the volatile compounds, as well as redox changes.
Peristaltic pumps: Peristaltic pumps are low flow suction pumps that are generally not suitable for
purging standard monitoring wells (50 mm). These pumps are generally used for small diameter
multilevel bundle piezometers or for use in low-flow/minimal drawdown sampling to avoid distur-
bance of sediment which has accumulated at the base of a well, and because there is minimal
disturbance of casing storage water, pumped water is regarded as being representative of formation
water.
Inertial Pumps : This type of pump consists of a single tube or pipe with a foot valve (e.g. WaTerra)
which allows groundwater to enter the pipe but prevents water from draining out. The pump is
operated by raising and lowering the tube or pipe over a short distance with rapid strokes. This
type of pump is generally suitable for purging and the collection of groundwater samples. The
stroke rate should be slowed during the sample collection to minimise the potential for aeration.
Bladder Pumps : This type of pump consists of a concentric flexible membrane or bladder inside a solid
tube housing. When the tube is submerged, water enters the pump housing and bladder through
a bottom check valve. After the pump has filled, gas pressure is applied to the annular space
between the membrane and the housing forcing the groundwater upward through a sampling tube.
When the bladder is deflated, water again enters the pump, and repeating this inflation/deflation
sequence every few seconds provides a reasonably steady flow rate of around 100 ml/min depending
on conditions. These types of pumps are generally used for the collection of samples. These pumps
are sometimes selected for permanent installation in monitoring wells and, therefore, they will be
used for purging prior to sampling.
Well purging procedure
It is of paramount importance that well purging and sampling equipment be cleaned and flushed to avoid
cross contamination between monitoring wells. Where practicable all tubing used in a monitoring well
should be dedicated or disposed of after use. The following steps are to be implemented for this phase of
work:
• A site health and safety plan should be established prior to initiation of a monitoring program. At
a minimum, latex gloves should be worn during sampling, and more stringent precautions will be
required in more hazardous environment (eg contaminated sites).
• All equipment to be used in the well will be washed and rinsed prior to use in each well. It is
also recommended that rinsate blank samples, ie final rinse water, are collected as part of quality
assurance/quality control (QA/QC) procedures. Equipment that has been cleaned should not be
placed directly on the ground or in an area which may be contaminated (eg. near generator or gas
exhaust fumes, petrol cans etc.).

• Field instrumentation should be calibrated against known standards and details recorded. Field
instrumentation is normally used to monitor the following parameters: pH, temperature, electrical
conductance (EC), redox (Eh), dissolved oxygen (DO) and alkalinity (where applicable), as these
can change on exposure to air.
• Casing head space may need to be checked with the portable gas analyser for explosive atmosphere
or other types of health and safety related items (sulfide, cyanide, organic volatiles) as determined
in H&S plan.
• Well condition, depth to water, and total well depth should be recorded in the field book or sampling
data sheet. All measurements should be made from a permanent measuring point marked at the
top of the inner casing. These are used to calculate the volume of water in the casing and sand
pack as follows:
πd2c (T D − SW L) SP π φd2b − d2c

V = + (14.1)
4 4
Where:
V is the casing volume (including sandpack);
dc is the casing diameter;
db is the borehole diameter;
φ is the sand pack porosity (assume 0.3)
T D is the total depth of casing;
SW L is the static water level in casing;
SP is the length of saturated sand pack.
• The minimum volume of water to be purged is usually recommended to be at least three times the
volume of water in the casing and sand pack. If the well is purged dry before this volume is removed,
water entering the well after fully purging is often taken as being representative of formation water,
although the well may take several hours to partially refill for sampling to take place.
• It is normally recommended that wells be purged from the top of the well screen. Pump intakes
should not be lowered to the bottom of the well as clogging or damage to the pump may occur from
silt which has accumulated in the base of the well. Where well screens have become heavily silted,
redevelopment of the well may need to be considered.
• The pump discharge can be monitored (eg in a flow cell) or successive bailings can be analysed for
pH, EC and DO to assess the progress of purging, and to establish when these have stabilised to a
reasonably constant reading
• All purge water should be disposed of according to project specific requirements.
There has been a great deal of research and debate over the last 20 years on the appropriate volume
of groundwater and the degree of stabilisation of field parameters required during purging prior to the
collection of groundwater samples for analyses. There is some consensus [Keely and Boateng, 1987,
Barcelona et al., 1985, Barber and Davis, 1995] that the purge volume that is required ranges between 2
to 10 well volumes, with 3 well volumes commonly accepted as a minimum. In terms of the stabilisation
of field parameters, field parameters should be considered as stable when three consecutive readings are
within a 10% margin.
14.3.2 Sampling
Groundwater samples should be collected, where practicable, with sampling devices made of materials
such as teflon or stainless steel which are relatively inert and have low sorptive capacity. As noted
above, many types of pumps are unsuitable for the collection of groundwater samples due to significant
aeration which can lead to the loss of dissolved gases and volatiles and the potential for changes in redox

conditions which can significantly affect metals and inorganic constituents. Suction lift pumps and air
lifting methods should not be used to collect groundwater samples. Bladder pumps should only be used
where the membrane is constructed of material such as teflon. Care should be taken with sampling
equipment that is difficult to decontaminate as this may lead to cross contamination between monitoring
wells.
• Samples should be collected after three casing volumes have been removed from the well except in
the case of wells that have been purged dry before removal of three casing volumes. For these wells,
samples should be collected after the water level has recovered sufficiently to enable the collection of
enough water that all of the analytical parameters may be analysed. Dewatered wells will be allowed
to recover for a maximum of 24 hours before sampling and the same precautions as described above
to minimise cross-contamination should be taken.
• The sampling equipment (bailer or pump intake level) should be lowered into the water column and
a sample collected from the mid-point elevation of the well screen. Samples should not be collected
from the top of the water column as these may not be representative of the groundwater flowing
through the well screen.
• When pumps are being used, the samples should be collected directly from pump discharge lines
at lower flow rates than the purging cycle. Samples will be collected at flow rates of approximately
1 L/min. This lower flow rate avoids the agitation and possible degassing of the samples during
collection.
• In the case of sample collection using bailers, samples will be collected from bottom decanting
bailers (free passage bailers).
14.3.3 Field chemistry measurement
In the case where chemical related parameters are measured in the field this must be done after rather
than before the water level is measured. The following notes provide some background information on
the field parameters: electrical conductivity (EC); pH; redox potential (Eh); dissolved oxygen (DO) and
temperature.
These measurements, when taken correctly, provide information on gross water quality. For many site
investigations, such as around landfill sites, sewage treatment works etc., the field parameter measure-
ments can be critical indicators of water contamination. An understanding of the chemical principles
behind these measurements often allows some assessment to be made of the nature and contamination
status of waters at the time of sampling and detection of potential errors. This quick assessment may
allow, for example, on-the-spot alterations to sampling programs such as:
• extra care in decontamination after sampling of bores with suspect contamination;

• selection of locations for collection of duplicate samples;
• storage of suspect contaminated samples in separate eskies;
• altering the intensity of sampling at different locations within a site; or
• determining during the purging process when steady-state or representative groundwater conditions
are present (i.e when to sample).
Some knowledge of normal values for these measurements is also important in deciding whether field
equipment is working correctly. Also measure field parameters immediately or as soon as possible after
sample collection, except dissolved oxygen, which should be measured in situ or in a flow cell at the
surface.

Table 14.1: Reference salinity criteria
Criterion Salinity (as mg/L TDS)

Rainwater 20 to 30
Potable Water <1,500
Taste the salt 1,500 to 2,500
Water the garden with it <2,000
Sheep can drink it <4,000 to 6,000
Sea water ≈ 35,000
Electrical Conductivity
An electrical conductivity (EC) measurement is an indicator of the total concentration of charged ionic
species in solution and as such provides an appropriate measure for monitoring salinity. Salinities of
samples of natural waters are unlikely to change substantially after sampling, and the field measurement
of EC is generally taken to provide immediate information on the hydrogeochemical nature of the water
and stability during purging of groundwater bores. Despite measurement of EC in the field, laboratory
measurements of EC and total dissolved solids (TDS, by gravimetric analysis) should, ideally, be un-
dertaken as a matter of course and these results compared with the field measurements. The units of
measurement of EC must always be specified.
The easiest way to interpret EC measurements is to make an approximate conversion to salinity (as total
dissolved solids). Conversion factors for conductivity to salinity vary according to the ionic composition
of the water and the total ionic concentration. In general, for a sodium-chloride type water of salinity
(as TDS) less than about 10,000 mg/L, an approximation of TDS is made by multiplication of EC in
µS/cm by 0.6. Actual conversion factors for natural waters generally range between 0.55 and 0.75, and
laboratory determination of TDS is necessary for accurate measurement of salinity, if this is required.
The following (Table 14.1) approximate salinity criteria may be useful when assessing salinity values.
pH
pH should be measured in the field due to the potential for relatively large changes after collection
of samples and prior to laboratory analysis. Common causes of pH changes are photosynthesis and
respiration by aquatic organisms, oxidation of dissolved F e+
2 and, degassing of dissolved gases in particular
CO2 . Changes in pH of >1 unit within days to weeks after sample collection are not uncommon, with
more rapid changes possible in groundwater affected by degassing.
Ideally laboratory measurements of pH should be undertaken as a matter of course and these results
compared with the field measurements. Significant differences (>0.5 pH units) are important in assessing
the hydrogeochemical nature of the water or determining in hindsight whether accurate field measure-
ments were made. The field pH measurements made using a pH meter should be accurate to 0.1 pH
units and should accordingly be reported to only 1 decimal place. While pH measurement using litmus
paper strips is less accurate, litmus paper can be obtained that provide accuracy to within 0.5 units and
provide an appropriate alternative in the event of instrument malfunction. In general, natural waters
have pH values in the range 5.5 to 8.5, although values outside this range do occur. Values of pH greater
than 9 in groundwater are rare, although high pH values in groundwater (pH >10) can be indicative of
a problem with bore construction with the water being affected by cement.
An increase in pH value in a sample of groundwater with time is indicative of degassing of carbon dioxide
and disturbance of carbonate equilibria. Conversely, a decrease in pH value with time (generally with
anoxic/anaerobic samples) is indicative of dissolved iron oxidation.

Table 14.2: Approximate DO concentrations of water exposed to atmosphere
Water Temperature Equilibrium DO

( ◦C ) (mg/L)
0 14
5 12
10 11
15 10
20 9
25 8
30 7.5
Redox
The redox potential of a water sample reflects the ratio of the chemical activities of oxidised to re-
duced chemical species. Whereas pH provides a measure of the activity (concentration) of hydrogen ions
(protons), redox potential provides a measure of the activity of electrons.
It is essential that the redox potential is measured in the field before a water sample is exposed to
atmospheric oxygen, eg in a sealed flow cell. Exposure to air enables oxidation of the chemical constituents
of the water which control the redox equilibrium, most notably dissolved iron, manganese and sulphur
species. Wherever results of redox potential measurements are presented, the basis of measurement should
be specified, i.e. the type of electrodes in the measurement device. For a near-neutral water (pH 6.5 to
7.5) an Eh of 400 mV or greater is indicative of a well aerated water, such as a free-flowing surface water.
For these waters, a high DO level (6 to 8 mg/L) would be expected, i.e. near saturation (8 - 9 mg/L) with
respect to oxygen. These waters would be described as oxidising. For the same near-neutral water, an
Eh of between 0 and 400 mV indicates the water is sufficiently reducing for concentrations of dissolved
ferrous iron in the milligram per litre range to be found. It is at these Eh values that you start to ask
the question Is my water naturally reducing or have I got contamination from carbonaceous or chemically
reduced species eg from a landfill? DO levels of 2 to 3 mg/L may still be measured for these waters.
These waters would be described as mildly to moderately reducing. As the waters become still further
reducing, i.e. Eh less than 0 mV, the water may be sulphate reducing, or possibly methanogenic. DO
levels for these waters would be expected to be very low. These waters would be described as strongly
to very strongly reducing.
Dissolved oxygen
DO is measured in the field often using downhole probes, or at the surface using a flow cell which is
not open to air. Water in contact with air will develop an equilibrium DO concentration that is directly
proportional to the air pressure on the water surface and inversely proportional to the water temperature.
The DO concentration is also slightly inversely proportional to the total concentration of solutes in the
water. Approximate equilibrium DO concentrations for fresh to moderately saline waters (<10,000 mg/L
TDS) in contact with air at 1 atmosphere pressure for various temperatures are listed in Table 14.2 below.
Uncontaminated water in contact with air, such as rainwater will generally have a DO concentration near
the equilibrium value. For water entering a groundwater aquifer, the DO concentration will decrease at
a rate dependent on the concentration of readily oxidisable material in the water or aquifer. This may be
extremely rapid (days to weeks) or extremely slow (millennia) even under natural conditions. Groundwa-
ter DO concentrations are generally less than 5 mg/L, with 5 mg/L considered as well oxygenated, and
<1 mg/L as poorly oxygenated. It should be noted that the absolute DO concentration is not in itself a
reliable indicator of contamination, but comparative values between bores within a local sampling area
may be. For surface water, DO values of substantially greater than 100% may occur in waters with a

Figure 14.8: Sampling from a bundled piezometer Figure 14.9: Sampling from a fractured rock bore
using a flow cell (Photo RIA) using a pump and flow cell (Photo RIA)
high level of photosynthetic activity.
Surface flow cell
Several of the parameters described above will change rapidly as the water sample equilibriates with
atmospheric pressure. This is easy to see as the DO will rapidly aproach saturation Table 14.2) or
bubbles of CO2 will form in the discharge line as this gas de-saturates from the water where it has been
held in solution by the pressure of the water. When this occurs, the pH will change.
For these reasons it is usual to make measurements of EC, pH, Eh and temperature in a flow cell. Fig 14.9
and Fig 14.8.
14.3.4 Sample control, storage and transport for laboratory analysis
Where samples are recovered using a bailer, these should be collected in a prioritised order to collect
firstly the more volatile components and those subject to physical change (i.e., oxidation, degassing)
before those components that are relatively stable. Sample containers should be filled in the following
order:
• Volatile organics
• Semi volatile organics
• Pesticides/PCBs
• Dioxins
• Radiochemical parameters
• Metals
• Miscellaneous anions
• Physical properties analyses
When filling a vial for volatile organic compound (VOC) analysis, it is necessary to know which analytical
method will be used or requested i.e.:
• if a purge and trap method is used, carefully fill the vial until a meniscus appears at the top (ie
zero head space);

Table 14.3: Sample preservation and handling requirements
Parameter Volume Bottle ]bf Preservation Maximum

Type Required Material Additive Holding
(ml)
Major ions 1,000 P or G Filter 6 months
Dissolved metals 100 P or G Nitric 6 months
Hardness 100 P or G Filter 6 months
Alkalinity 100 P or G 4 ◦C 2 weeks
Nitrate 1,000 P or G 4 ◦C 2 weeks
Chloride 50 P or G None 4 weeks
Phosphate 50 P or G Filter, 4 ◦ C 48 hours
Sulphate 50 P or G 4 ◦C 4 weeks
Cyanide 500 P or G N aOH 2 weeks
Colour/Turbibity 100 P or G 4/C 48 hours
Pesticides 800 G 4/C 2 weeks
Volatile Organics 2 of 40 G 4 ◦C 1 week
(Petroleum etc)
Semi-volatile 500 G 4/C 2 weeks
Organics (heavy)
oils, tars, etc
Oil and Grease 1000 G Sul,4 ◦C 4 weeks
Bacteria 40 Sterile 4 ◦C 24 hours
• if a static head space method is used, then fill to approximately 10mm from the vial’s rim.
• Sample bottles without preservatives will be rinsed with sample before filling, where practicable.
This may not be feasible in formations that recover very slowly and the sample volume is large.
• Table 14.3 lists the usual sample collection requirements such as containers, preservative and vol-
umes. Acidification of samples should be to pH values less than 2, commonly using nitric acid.
It is essential that the specific requirements be decided following consultation with an analytical
laboratory.
Notes:
Bottle material: P = polythene with a polypropylene cap; G = borosilicate glass.
Preservative or additive
Filter = Field filtration through a 0.45µ filter
Nitric = nitric acid to pH<2 (ie 5 ml per litre of sample)
Sul = sulphuric acid to pH<2
N aOH = sodium hydroxide to pH>12
4 ◦ C = on ice in a cooler and out of light
For general ambient monitoring, some minor modifications may be made. Filtering of good clean ground-
water samples does not have to be carried out if high accuracy is not required (e.g. suitable for use,
general trends etc.). Storage times of such samples can be extended with minimal effect.
For specific groups of analytes sampling should be as follows:
Major ions
• Purge well and carry out field measurements

• Rinse sampling bottle several times

• Filter samples (thought not necessary for most ions)

• Take sample, fill bottle to overflowing, preferably by placing small delivery tube at bottom of bottle
• Seal and store
Metals

• Filter sample (prefer inline filters, but suction filters are OK)
• Discard first litre of filtrate
• Use pre-prepared 1 litre bottles with 5 ml of nitric acid added (internally acid-leached)
• Pour in sample, seal bottle and store
• If sampling for iron or manganese, use hydrochloric acid instead of nitric acid
Bacteria
• Use only pre-prepared sterile containers, preferably glass

• Use clean, sterile equipment
• Take sample, taking care not to touch bottle tip or stopper with delivery pipe or fingers
• Seal and store
• Samples can also be taken by lowering bottle down the bore, but care must be taken not to touch
the side of the bore with the sample bottle
• It is advisable to take two samples, as it is often found that bacteria are not detected in every
sample from a bore
• Sample must be stored on ice, and delivered to the laboratory the same day Volatile Organics
(petrol, kerosene, solvents, degreasers, trihalomethans)
Volatile organics
This is a specialised field, and sampling should be left to a specialist. Volatile organics are often floating
on top of the water and can be missed by sampling bores screened well below the water table. The
following is a guide only.
• Purge well
• Use equipment which does not agitate sample or allow contact of the sample with air
• Let well stand for minimum of 2 hours
• Take sample with bailer, from the top of the water column
• Take 2 x 40 ml samples, ensuring no air (bubbles) is in bottles (glass containers)
• Store samples upside down on ice

Semi-volatile organics (heavy oils, tars, etc.)
• Purge wells
• Take 1 litre sample of unfiltered water. (Don’t rinse sample bottle first)
• Store sample on ice Radioactivity
• Use pre-prepared 1 litre containers, acidified with nitric acid (or add 5 ml nitric acid on site)
• Fill bottles and store
Pesticides
• Purge well
• Take 1 litre sample in glass bottle. The top must have a teflon liner to prevent contact of lid with
the water (prepared and supplied by the Government Chemical Laboratory)
Fertilizers
• Purge well
• Take 250 ml sample in polyethylene bottle (prepared and supplied by the Government Chemical
Laboratory)
• Store sample on ice or freeze
Isotopes
• Purge well
• For O and H isotopes take 125 ml samples in polyethylene bottle (other isotopes eg C, Cl, N , S
and Sr see analysing laboratory for specific requirements).
Labelling - all samples
Each sample container is clearly labelled and marked with ink in the field. Unique sample numbers will
be added to samples collected from each sampling location. It is normally recommended that chain-of-
custody forms accompany samples from the point of sampling through to final analysis, to assist with
tracking of dates and times of sampling, transport, storage and analysis. In some cases, eg where sampling
is part of a legal case, this is absolutely essential.
Sample label and chain of custody documents should be filled out after sample collection. The following
protocols should be adopted for sample handling, storage and shipment to the laboratory:
• Sampling method, fractions collected, QA/QC samples and the number of bottles is recorded on
the sample collection data sheet, chain-of-custody forms, and the field logbook, and these should
be signed and dated.
• Sample bottles should be placed on ice immediately after collection.
• Where possible the laboratory should be advised of highly contaminated samples that could cause
problems to their analytical instruments. This information should be noted on the chain-of-custody
form.

The esky containing the samples will be sealed with tape and secured with a signed custody seal. The
custody seal will provide an indication of whether the cooler was opened by unauthorised personnel.
During sampling events partially filled and unfilled coolers should be kept within sight of the sample
custodian or locked in a vehicle. The sample custodian will be a designated member of the sampling
team.
14.3.5 Quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC) samples
QA/QC samples are intended to provide control over the collection and subsequent validation and in-
terpretation of analytical data. The type and number of QA/QC samples that need to be collected
is dependent on the Data Quality Objectives (DQOs) for a specific project. The DQO process should
establish the necessary accuracy and precision, comparability, completeness, representativeness and the
detection limits for the data to be collected.
Field QA samples
Field QA samples should be collected at the ratio of 1:20. QA samples should include the following:-
• Field Blanks;
• Trip Blanks; and
• Field Duplicates.
Field Blanks - samples of analyte free media prepared in the same manner as regular samples. Field blank
water samples consist of purified water supplied or recommended for use by the respective laboratories
used to rinse the sample collection device after decontamination. The rinsate is collected directly into
the same types of containers used for regular samples.
The collection of field blanks enables the measurement of incidental or accidental contamination during the
whole process (sampling, transport, sample preparation and analysis). Trip Blanks - are used to monitor
the cross-contamination of volatile organic compounds of sample containers during transport, handling
and storage. Analyte-free media are taken from the laboratory to the sampling site in appropriate sealed
containers and returned to the laboratory unopened for analysis.
Field Duplicates - Samples prepared in the field by splitting a field sample, then submitting to the
laboratory as two independent samples. Field duplicates are used to measure the precision of the whole
process (sampling, sample preparation and analysis).
Laboratory QA samples
In addition to field QA/QC samples, additional QA analyses should be preformed by the analytical
laboratory. These include:
• Laboratory method blanks;

• Laboratory duplicates; and
• Matrix Spike/Matrix Spike Duplicates (MS/MSDs)
An evaluation of these laboratory QA/QC samples should be undertaken during the analytical data
validation process, which should assess the accuracy and precision of the data as well as other parameters
established through the DQO process.

Figure 14.10: Flow monitoring with a weir tank

equipped with baffle plates to stabilise the flow. Figure 14.11: In line flow meters (2) are shown
The head over the weir is measured with a trans- at a pumping test monitoring site in Queensland
ducer. (Photo RIA) (Photo: CH)
14.3.6 Documentation
Documentation of field sampling activities is very important and notes should be detailed and includes
all aspects of the field work including all relevant sampling details and procedures. All field data and
observations are recorded on field data sheets or in field logbooks. Errant entries in field logbooks and on
field data sheets will be marked with a single slash and initialled. It should be noted that field records
may form legal evidence.
The aim of the documentation within the field logbooks is to allow future reconstruction of field activities
without relying on the memory of field personnel. Items that will be recorded into the field logbook
include:-
• all aspects of sample collection including date, time and weather conditions;
• field measurements;
• equipment calibration documentation; and
• aspects of the field management.
Other field information and data may be collected and recorded on specific field data sheets. These data
sheets may include bore logs, bore construction logs and groundwater sampling data sheets.
14.4 Flow measurement
For efficient management of the groundwater resource, metered extraction of large yielding bores, such
as those for town or irrigation, bores, should be installed. Generally these meters are of the impeller type
and are installed in the discharge pipe according to the local standards. They are being progressively
installed across Australia. A section of the rising main discharge line is usually chosen to install the meter.
It will normally require a power source and to be installed in a straight line section of the discharge line.
The sensor element can be an in-line impeller or an eletromagnetic sensor.
In-line meters (Fig. 14.11) can be available during pumping tests and will be replaced by permanent
installations when the water well is commissioned. The size of the meter is determined by the discharge
rate. Measurement of discharge can be by a weir tank (Fig. 14.10) or by a simple bucket and stop watch
or by an orifice meter (Fig. 14.12).

Figure 14.12: Orifice meter used to monitor dis-

charge during a pumping test. The height that Figure 14.13: Orifice pipe set up on a small dis-
water rises in The manometer tube behind the charge line. (Photo CH)
orifice is proportional to the discharge. (Photo CH)
14.5 Monitoring network design
A groundwater monitoring network consists of a collection of bores, wells or monitoring installations in

a defined area where one or more water quality and/or hydrologic parameters are periodically measured.
The design of a monitoring network is inevitably site- or area- specific, depending on local topography
and access, hydrogeological features (geology, stratigraphy, and hydraulic conductivity variations) and on
the nature of the problem (point or regional source monitoring). The number and positioning of bore and
frequency of monitoring is often limited by monetary or administrative constraints. The design of the
bores themselves for monitoring and sampling reflects the over all purpose and the parameters measured
and is also discussed in the Chapter 7, Water Well Technology. Noting that for sampling of groundwater
for chemical analysis or measuring of water levels a narrow screened zone is usually preferred rather than
an open hole or long screen as is often the case for production bores.
All observation bores being monitored should have their bore number or the casing so that there is no
confusing about which bore it is when personnel change similarly for locating the bore coordinates should
be available so a GPS can be used. Also it is important that the observation bores is protected against
any interference. This may require the installation of a locked cap.
14.5.1 Point source monitoring
To enable estimation of the local hydraulic gradient it is often quoted that the minimum number of bores
required to monitor a (potential or actual) point source is three. Although in most cases this would be
insufficient even to determine the presence or absence of contamination and local variability in hydrostatic
conditions with time. When establishing a monitoring network for a point source of groundwater pollution
often a staged investigation is recommended, starting with a desk study of all relevant information,
followed by preliminary shallow drilling to determine local hydraulic and hydrogeological conditions, and
determine the approximate variability of groundwater pollution. A main investigative stage is then often
carried out, involving drilling deeper bores to obtain more precise hydrogeological and chemical data.
Specialized sampling and groundwater monitoring equipment is often installed in this stage to allow
monitoring of hydraulic and groundwater quality variations over time.
A recent alternative is the use of cone penetrometers or drive-point profilers for investigation of point-
source contamination, where the 3-dimensional distribution of contamination is determined, often prior
to installation of a network of monitoring wells or other installations for long-term monitoring.

14.5.2 Regional-scale monitoring
Often for regional or sub-regional monitoring networks, variations or trends in water levels, relative to
a standard datum, usually mAHD, water quality parameters relative to some mean water quality are
of principal interest. Identification of trends is ideally dependent upon installation and monitoring of a
bore network prior to the emergence of an issue such as deterioration of water quality. Monitoring may
need to occur over a considerable period of time. Therefore, trade-offs often need to be made between
the spatial density of a network of bores and the temporal frequency of sampling, because of manpower
restrictions or budget limitations. Geostatistical and other techniques have been developed or applied
to aid the optimization, rationalization or initial design of monitoring networks. Also, optimum siting of
boreholes may be possible based on a measure of the vulnerability of an aquifer system to groundwater
contamination, which accounts for land use, soil/aquifer type, depth to water table, rainfall/recharge, etc
[Barber et al., 1993, Barber and Davis, 1995]. A denser network of bores may be appropriate close to
highly vulnerable areas.
14.5.3 Bore design for monitoring and sampling
High production bores for irrigation and urban supply are being progressively metered throughout Aus-
tralia to monitor the amount of groundwater extracted; while bores used for monitoring water levels and
sampling for chemical analysis are usually dedicated for that purpose.
Fully screened wells and open (uncased) bores have the disadvantage that reflects information over a
broad depth range. Samples obtained by pumping are depth-averaged. Samples recovered from standing
water in the borehole using surface activated grab samplers may not be representative of groundwater in
the aquifer, especially if the groundwater quality is stratified. Such samples would be of lesser value in
detailed studies of aquifer behaviour, but would be representative of water abstracted for supply or for
some other beneficial use, or for providing initial broad indications of contamination. It is possible to
use inflatable packers to isolate intervals within open or fully screened bores to provide more detail on
vertical groundwater quality variations. The aim of the packers is to restrict vertical water movement
within the borehole casing, and to recover groundwater from that part of the aquifer adjacent to the
packered interval.
It is of course preferable to monitor water level or same from a narrow zone, especially for detailed
investigations.
Multiport installations and piezometer bundles
Multiport installations or small diameter piezometer bundles provide numerous point measurements
(Fig. 14.14 and Fig. 14.15). The access tube to the inlet is also often of reduced size, minimising the
need for purging. These installations can provide groundwater quality profile data at a very fine-scale,
and are especially useful where stratification or large concentration gradients are expected. Often these
devices use gas-lift or suction (peristaltic pump) to remove water present in access lines and to recover a
sample.

Figure 14.14: Preparation of a bundle of mini- Figure 14.15: Installation of the bundle (Photo RIA)
samplers prior to installation inside a hole cased

using a cable-tool rig (Photo RIA)

Chapter 15
Groundwater chemistry
Contents
15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
15.2 Basic aquatic chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
15.2.1 Groundwater solution and concentration units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
15.2.2 Chemical reactions and equilibrium constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
15.2.3 Field parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
15.3 Origin of solutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
15.3.1 Rainfall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
15.3.2 Rock weathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
15.4 Conservative ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
15.4.1 Chloride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
15.4.2 Br− /Cl− Ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
15.4.3 Nitrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
15.4.4 Non-conservative ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
15.5 Techniques for study and interpretation of chemical tracers . . . . . . . . . 443
15.5.1 Data requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
15.5.2 Conceptual models and graphical methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
15.5.3 Geochemical modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
15.6 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
15.6.1 Recharge measurement using chloride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
15.6.2 Tracing the origin of salts and inter-aquifer mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
15.6.3 An integrated hydrogeologcal and hydrochemical investigation: The East Mid-
lands Triassic aquifer, UK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
15.6.4 Chloride and Carbonate chemistry to assess recharge and discharge in a karstic
aquifer: The Otway Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
15.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
15.1 Introduction
As water moves into the ground it begins to record information on the history of its recharge source and
properties, mainly from rainfall solutes as well as isotopic ratios of the water molecule. The subsurface
accepts water at variable rates of movement through the soil, via the unsaturated zone to the water
table. During this stage the groundwater composition undergoes significant modification due two major
processes: increase in the concentration of atmospheric solutes due to removal of water via plant uptake
and evaporation, and secondly, reactions between water and rock, leading to the build up of dissolved
427
Chapter 15. Groundwater chemistry
Figure 15.1: Conceptual diagram of the hydrological cycle incorporating processes affecting the transport
and reactions involving major ions
substances with different relative ion concentrations than atmospheric input. The principal and distinctive
characteristics of groundwater are mainly established in the unsaturated zone. In the saturated zone the
geochemical evolution, though less intense than in the soil and unsaturated zones, follows progressive
changes in water quality towards areas of discharge. These processes are time-dependent and the chemical
changes as well as isotopic variations may be used to identify this evolution and provide input into the
overall hydrogeological investigations.
The chemical signature can be divided conveniently into inert and reactive species. Several ions, notably
Cl− and Br − are examples of inert tracers, remaining conservative during passage through the unsatu-
rated zone and recording the rainfall signature modified by evapotranspiration, or the records of human
impacts through pollution. Nitrate may also serve as an inert tracer under aerobic conditions, recording
information on land use and vegetation cover as well as human impacts.
The reaction products of processes occurring in the unsaturated and saturated zones also serve as reactive
tracers, each aquifer having a diagnostic chemistry, closely related to the bedrock lithology host rock min-
eralogy and chemistry. The potential applications of inorganic chemical tracers are shown conceptually
in Fig. 15.1 [Back et al., 1993]. The main subject area of this chapter involves the use of such natural,
and to some extent man-made, chemicals to trace groundwater. Fluxes of solutes from rainfall and runoff
are shown (natural and anthropogenic) as well as reactions within the soil and saturated zone. Note the
distinction of open system and closed system with respect to gas phases (principally CO2 and O2 ) in the
unsaturated and saturated zones respectively. Ultimately these constituents discharge to surface waters
or the sea.
The field of hydrochemistry (hydrogeochemistry) is evolving rapidly and it is now possible to model
the chemical reactions that may take place. Public domain software (PHREEQC) is available and is
used extensively in some texts [Appelo and Postma, 1994]. Additional information is available in other
texts [Eriksson, 1985, Stumm and Morgan, 1996, Drever, 1996, Langmuir, 1997, Mazor, 1997].

15.2 Basic aquatic chemistry
The groundwater geochemical system is a dynamic system comprising
1. solid phase (minerals and organic matter)

2. a soil gas phase, and
3. an aqueous solution phase.
Under natural conditions, rainfall recharge is not in chemical equilibrium with the solid and soil gas
phases that it initially encounters. The result is that some solution occurs. Further chemical reactions
depend upon the rock types that the groundwater passes through and the conditions under which the
groundwater finally discharges. The chemistry of the solution will be further altered by a number of
processes that may include: further solution; precipitation of minerals; concentration by evaporation or
transpiration; cation exchange reactions; mixing between two or more different water types; the addition
of further gas phases; microbiological processes and anthropogenic contamination.
15.2.1 Groundwater solution and concentration units
Groundwater is an aqueous solution comprising a solvent (water) and dissolved inorganic or organic
constituents (solutes). For most groundwater, 95% of the ions are represented by 8 major ionic species:
the positively charged cations: sodium (N a+ ), potassium (K + ), calcium (Ca2+ ) and magnesium (M g2+ ),
and the four negatively charged anions: chloride (Cl− ), sulphate (SO42− ), bicarbonate plus carbonate
(HCO3− + CO32−) and nitrate (N O3− ). Si is generally occurring as the uncharged dissolved species
H4 SiO4o . These species, when added together, make up most of the salinity that is commonly referred to
as the total mineralization or total dissolved solids (TDS).
The concentration of ions is now commonly reported from the laboratory in the units of milligrams per
liter (mg/L), virtually equivalent to parts per million (ppm). However for the purpose of understanding
geochemical reactions it is necessary to convert the units of mg/L to the molarity mmol/L (or simply mM
when the density of the solution is 1 kg/m3 or ∼ 1g/cm3 ) to relate concentrations back to the chemical
stoichiometry of minerals. A mole refers to 6.022 × 1023 (Avogadro’s number) of atoms or molecules of
a constituent and has a mass equal to the atomic or molecular weight (g/mol). The molarity is then
obtained by dividing by the molecular weight:
(mg/L)
mmol/L = (g/mol)
The other unit frequently used is milli-equivalents per liter (meq/L), where for this conversion the valency
Z, (positive or negative) charge, is also taken into account. The conversion is then simply:
meq/L = (mmol/L) · Z
See Table 15.1 for conversion factors.
Given that the groundwater solution is electrically neutral, the dissolved anions and cations must balance
on an equivalent charge basis. The electrical balance of the solution can be calculated from the chemical
analysis to check the accuracy of analysis of the major ions. The sum of the equivalents of all the cations
must equal the sum of the equivalents of all the anions for the condition of electrical neutrality to be
preserved. This can be formalized in the charge imbalance (CI) error on the chemical analysis:
Σ cations − Σ anions
CI = × 100 (15.1)
Σ cations + Σ anions
Where:

Table 15.1: Conversion factors for chemical units

Major Ion Valency mg/l to meq/l mg/l to mmoles/l
Cations
K+ 1 0.02557 0.02557
N a+ 1 0.04350 0.04350
Ca2+ 2 0.04990 0.02495
M g2+ 2 0.08226 0.04113
F e2+ 2 0.03581 0.01791
Anions
Cl− 1 0.02821 0.02821
SO42− 2 0.02082 0.01041
HCO3− 1 0.01639 0.01639
CO32− 2 0.03333 0.01666
N O3− 1 0.01613 0.01613
Σ cations is the sum of the equivalents (meq/L) of sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium ions.
This may be extended to include ammonia, iron and other cations in cases where they are present
in appreciable amounts.
Σ anions is the sum of the equivalents (meq/L) of chloride, sulphate, bicarbonate and carbonate ions.
CI’s of less than 2% are desirable, whereas CI’s greater than 5% are unacceptable.
Table 15.2 summarises some useful atomic weights and valencies [Mazor, 1997]. Note that fractional
values for atomic weights in Table 15.2 indicate varying proportions of the different isotopes for each
element (Chapter 16 covers this in more detail).
Table 15.2: Atomic weights and valencies
Element Symbol Atomic weight Valency
Hydrogen H 1.0 +1
Helium He 4.0 0
Carbon C 12.0 +4
Nitrogen N 14.0 -3 to +5
Oxygen O 16.0 -2
Sodium Na 23.0 +1
Magnesium Mg 24.3 +2
Silicon Si 28.0 +4
Sulfur S 32.0 -2 to +6
Chlorine Cl 35.5 -1
Potassium K 39.1 +1
Calcium Ca 40.1 +2
Bromine Br 80.0 -1
15.2.2 Chemical reactions and equilibrium constants
Geochemical reactions between groundwater and rock involve the transfer of mass to/from a mineral to
the aqueous phase. These chemical reactions can be congruent dissolution, e.g. halite, contributing all its
constituent elements to solution stoichiometrically, or incongruent dissolution, e.g. rock forming silicates,
in which some mineral constituents go into solution and others recombine to form a new solid phase.

Other reactions involve the solution of gases from the vapour phase into the aqueous phase, and the
adsorption/desorption of species between the aqueous phase and the surface of the solid phase. There
are also reactions which involve solution species such as complexation e.g. CaHCO3+ or H2 CO3 and
oxidation/reduction reactions which involve the transfer of electrons and a change of valance state of an
element (e.g. oxidation: F e2+ *
) F e3+ + e− ).
15.2.3 Field parameters
While the laboratory analyses generally include the common ions, it is usual practice in groundwater
studies to measure those parameters which can alter between sampling and laboratory analysis, or in
the case of electrical conductivity a further check that there are no sampling identification errors. The
sampling methods for these parameters are covered in Chapter 14 and include:
• Temperature
• Hydrogen ion activity (pH): pH = − log{H + }, where {H + } is the activity of the hydrogen ion
(protons)
• Alkalinity is a measure of the total acid neutralizing capacity of the water.
• Redox potential (Eh): The Eh or redox potential is needed to calculate the distribution between
redox sensitive species between their possible redox states.
• Fluid electrical conductivity (EC): The fluid electrical conductivity is usually measured in µS/cm
and relates to the concentration of total dissolved solids. For fresh groundwater: EC/100 ∼
Σ cations or ∼ Σ anions on an equivalence basis.
15.3 Origin of solutes
Solutes that are present in groundwater are derived from three main sources:
1. Inputs from atmospheric precipitation. The condensation of water vapour into rain drops frequently
requires an initial solid particle which is usually surface derived dust or marine salts mixed with air
from wind blowing over the sea. Surface derived dust may contain as much as 50% salts (N aCl) if
the wind has blown over salt lakes.
2. Acquisition during weathering and water-rock interaction.
3. Addition of solutes may also occur via mixing with formation waters, usually saline, seawater, or
via diffusion of ions from adjacent aquitards.
15.3.1 Rainfall
The primary source of solutes in dilute groundwater is from atmospheric deposition; solutes carried
through aerosols, as well as dry deposition may subsequently be dissolved into rainfall. The evaporation
of rainfall from the ocean is equivalent to distillation. Only pure water is evaporated. However, because
the process occurs over the ocean, winds blowing over the ocean pick up sea spray which mixes with the
evaporated water. The relative composition of rainfall is therefore similar to that of sea water.
A selection of rainfall chemistry from around the world (Table 15.3) illustrates the very strong influence
of marine solutes (N a+ and Cl− ) in near coastal rainfall sites (e.g. Hawaii). As rainfall moves inland and
towards the interior of continents (two Australian examples are given), Ca2+ and SO42− may increase
relative to the N a+ and Cl− ions due to rapid fallout of the marine derived solutes near the coast as

Table 15.3: Major ion chemistry of rainfall (mg/L)
Site N a+ K+ Ca2+ M g2+ Cl− SO42− HCO3− N O3−

Loxton (S.E Aust. Inland) 2.4 0.3 3.7 0.8 3.3 1.7 14
Mt. Gambier (S.E. Aust. 6.5 0.4 0.5 0.7 10 2.1 2.8
Coastal)
Amazon River (mean) 0.29 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.5 0.5 0.13
Hubbard Brook (New Hamp- 0.08 0.04 0.07 0.02 0.22 2.1 1.5
shire)
U.S. inland (avge) 0.4 0.2 1.4 0.1 0.4 3.0 1.2
N. Europe (avge) 2.05 0.35 1.42 0.39 3.5 2.19 0.27
Hawaii (Pacific) 5.46 0.37 0.47 0.92 9.63 1.92 0.2
India (Tavapur) (Near Bombay) 2.4 0.16 1.4 0.32 0.92 0.63
Africa (Ivory Coast) 0.3 0.26 0.26 0.05 1.03 0.84 1.3
World Avge (coastal) 3.45 0.17 0.29 0.45 6.0 1.45
Note: Australian data from Blackburn and McLeod [1983]; other data from Berner and Berner [1996].
well as acquisition and partial dissolution of continental dust. Addition of nitric and sulfuric acids from
industrial and urban areas results in high concentrations of these anions (and consequent low pH). Non-
marine ions which may derive from terrestrial or industrial sources may be separated by using the marine
N a+ as a conservative tracer.
Once rainfall enters the terrestrial hydrological cycle, it undergoes evaporation from the soil or surface
water, or is transpired through vegetation. Because only pure water can be returned to the atmosphere
by evaporation or transpiration, the residual solutions are concentrated according to the amount of
water lost by evapotranspiration. All ions are concentrated equally until saturation for certain minerals
(e.g. CaCO3) is reached. In areas where potential evaporation exceeds precipitation, concentrations of
dissolved ions in surface water and soil water can be orders of magnitude higher than that in rainfall,
due to the effects of evapo-concentration. Modification of the rainfall composition also occurs due to
addition of carbon dioxide (CO2 ) via the respiration of plants and microbiological degradation of soil
organic matter. CO2 dissolves to form a weak acid: carbonic acid (H2 CO3 ) causing the dissolution of
minerals within the soil zone and deeper in the aquifer.
Considerable care is required in the collection of rainfall data for analysis. Contamination of the sample
by dust that may carry salts can significantly alter the composition over and above the concentration
that occurs from direct evaporation. It is necessary to collect water only during a storm event if the
contribution from dust is to be avoided.
15.3.2 Rock weathering
Release of cations (N a+ , Ca2+ , M g2+ , K + and F e2+/3+ ) and bicarbonate (HCO3− ) ions via dissolution
of carbonate and silicate minerals are largely driven by the action of CO2 and to a lesser extent organic
acids produced within the soil zone. It is important to recognize that typically only a few different
carbonate and silicate rocks are necessary to explain the release and uptake of solutes. These include:
Congruent dissolution of calcite:
) 2HCO3− + Ca2+
CO2 + CaCO3 + H2 O * (15.2)
Incongruent dissolution of impure calcite (where Y could be M g2+ , M n2+ , F e2+ or Sr 2+ ):
xCa2+ + Ca(1−x)Yx CO3 *

) CaCO3 + xY 2+

Weathering of primary silicate minerals to form clays, e.g. the transformation of albite to kaolinite:
) Al2 Si2 O5 (OH)4 + 2N a+ + 2HCO3− + 4H4 SiO4

2CO2 + 2N aAlSi3 O8 + 11H2 O * (15.3)
Weathering of cation rich clays to form cation poor clays, e.g transformation of Na-montmorillonite to
kaolinite:
) 3.5Al2 Si2 O5 (OH)4 +N a+ +HCO3− +4H4 SiO4 (15.4)

CO2 +3N a0.33Al2.33 Si3.67 O10 (OH)2 +12.5H2O *
Most of these reactions involve the consumption of CO2 (or carbonic acid H2 CO3 ) and an increase in pH.
During the early evolution of the chemical composition (in the soil zone or upper aquifer), open system
or closed system behaviour with respect to CO2 is important. In the unsaturated zone the infiltrating
water remains in contact with gaseous CO2 (open system) but below the water table contact to the gas
phase is lost and the subsequent evolution takes place with a depleting pool of dissolved CO2 (closed
system). However, further in-situ production of CO2 from breakdown of organic matter may still occur
from geologically young aquifers containing reactive organic matter [Appello and Postma, 2005]. In some
cases additional CO2 may come from volcanic sources.
The reactions of carbonate rocks are usually quite rapid, whereas those involving silicate minerals tend
to be rather slow and irreversible. In other words, carbonate minerals can dissolve and re-precipitate (in
slightly modified form) according to the prevailing temperature, CO2 partial pressure and ionic strength,
on a relatively short time scale. Silicate minerals are involved in slower, incongruent reactions that
involve precipitation of clay minerals. An unstable mineral such as albite (formed under high temperature
conditions) reacts with carbonic acid (represented above only by H + ) and forms a more stable mineral
(here kaolinite). In the process, cations are released into solution (both major and trace elements, since
natural minerals are generally impure) along with bicarbonate and silica. It is important to note that
this is the primary source of silica in most groundwater systems and not quartz, which is an almost inert
mineral.
An example of the variability of groundwater chemistry that can be encountered is shown in Table 15.4
where major element analysis of groundwater from sedimentary and fractured rock aquifers from a range
of climatic regimes are given. The range of total dissolved solids (TDS), over 2 orders of magnitude, is
accompanied by substantial variability in the relative proportion of major ions. Certain generalizations
can be made, even from a very small group of examples.
Firstly, siliceous hard rock aquifers such as quartzite and granite tend to have a low TDS due to lack of
easily weatherable minerals. Secondly, there tends to be an increase in the relative proportion of chloride
to other anions, and sodium to other cations, with increasing TDS. This probably reflects either marine
or atmospheric sources and the effects of evapo-concentration. Thirdly, the ratios of some ions such
as M g2+ /Ca2+ and Ca2+ /SO42− are close to 1 hence indicative of weathering (mol/mol ratios = 1) of
carbonate and sulphate minerals respectively. Fourthly, bicarbonate concentrations are not particularly
a function of rock type (i.e., high concentrations are not exclusively associated with carbonate bearing
aquifers), since also weathering of silicate minerals as well as redox reactions may release HCO3−.
As a consequence of the repeated evaporation and dissolution processes in the soil zone, some new mineral
phases may form as pore water concentrations reach saturation with respect to various minerals. For
example, small changes in the concentrations of Ca2+, HCO3− or changes in pH may precipitate calcite
and modify the ionic balance of the recharge water. These concepts were summarised by Gibbs [1970]
who proposed that water chemistry at a global scale is controlled by three principal factors; the chemistry
of precipitation, rock weathering, and evaporation-induced crystallisation. He plotted the total dissolved
Na
salts concentrations (TDS) measured in rivers as a function of the Na+Ca ratio and showed that the
data fall along two axes that form a boomerang shape. A similar approach may be adopted for depicting
groundwater chemistry (Fig. 15.2). Very dilute river waters are dominated by the chemistry of rainfall
which tends to have much higher amounts of N a+ relative to Ca2+ and plot on the lower right of this
diagram. Groundwater samples are not common in this part of the diagram because their interaction
with rock minerals is more extensive than samples from rivers, and they rapidly acquire solutes other
than N a+ in the soil zone. Waters with TDS values between 50 and 1,000 mg/L ppm may be indicative of

Figure 15.2: TDS vs Na/(Na+Ca) for selected groundwaters around the world. The solid lines envelope
global river water compositions

Table 15.4: Groundwater chemistry from various climatic regimes and geological formations.
Site Aquifer TDS pH Na+ K Ca Mg Cl SO HCO3 SiO2
Type mg/L mg/L
GAB (Aust) Sandstone 568 6.6 127 4.8 8.2 0.2 31.2 2.9 360 33.6
Otway Basin (Aust) Carbonate 2466 7.3 545 13.6 119 93.2 1008 171 495 21.2
Sand
Otway Basin (Aust) Quartz 1643 7.5 414 7.2 77.1 66.2 650 137.3 282 9.0
Sand
E.Midland (UK) Sandstone 354 8.2 27 2.1 44 22.0 87 56 83
Continental Inter- Sandstone 454 7.5 82 2.3 29 6.0 7.1 14.4 205 42.0
calaire (Niger)
Lincolnshire (UK) Limestone 709 7.3 17.0 189 3.3 54.9 148 224
Stripa (Shallow) Granite 81 6.1 2.5 1.7 13 2.5 14 12 20 10.5
(Sweden)
Stripa (Deep) (Swe- Granite 1205 9.3 277 1.2 172 0.2 630 102 9.3 135
den)
Atherton (Nth Qld., Basalt 500 8.3 67 1.3 33 29 70 2.0 295 63
Aust.)
Alley (Missouri) Dolomite 225 7.5 4.6 30 18 5.0 1.4 160 5.4
Kamas,(Utah) Quartzite 23 6.5 1.0 1.8 2.6 0.4 0.8 3.4 8.0 3.6
Lower Kirkwood Marine 1448 7.8 96 257 44 100 894 7.8 49
Fm. (New Jersey Shale
USA)
weathering dominance as indicated by high amounts of HCO3− (derived from dissolution of carbonate and
silicate rocks due to high CO2 concentrations in soil water) and high Ca2+ relative to N a+ . Groundwater
attains TDS values greater than 1,000 mg/L through extensive evapotranspiration resulting in removal
of Ca2+ and HCO3− relative to N a+ and Cl− due to precipitation of carbonate minerals or alternatively
due to sources of seawater as in the case of the deep Stipa water sample (Table 4).
15.4 Conservative ions
15.4.1 Chloride
Chloride (Cl− ) is ubiquitous in ground and soil water, and often is the most dominant dissolved anion.
One of the most useful properties of the Cl− ion is that it is highly soluble only forming pure mineral
phases at very high dissolved concentrations. Chloride seldom substitutes as a trace element in other
minerals, although it may be present in some high temperature minerals such as biotite. Thus chloride is
highly mobile and is not involved in the common geochemical reactions that occur in aquifers. Chloride is
therefore a conservative element with a mobility which is very similar to the water molecules (Hill 1984),
with a diffusion coefficient of 2×10−5 cm2 s−1 . The cycling of Cl−in the environment is very similar to the
hydrologic cycle (that of water) with one important exception: when water evaporates, or is transpired
through plants, chloride stays behind in the residual solution and is therefore concentrated in proportion
to the amount of water removed. If water containing the ’enriched’ chloride signature leaves the zone of
evapotranspiration (i.e., travels below the root zone of plants) it carries the signature to the groundwater.
The Cl− signature can therefore be used to estimate the net water loss compared with rainfall and hence
the amount of recharge.
The most basic approach for using Cl− is through the water balance equation. That is, at steady state,
precipitation to a given catchment is balanced by the loss terms of evaporation, groundwater recharge
and surface runoff:
P = E +R+Q (15.5)
Where:
P = precipitation amount
E = evaporation

R = recharge to groundwater
Q = discharge to streams plus runoff
If we assume Cl− is neither gained or lost via weathering, and that anthropogenic inputs are zero we can
include chloride concentrations in Equation 15.5.
P [Cl]pptn = E[Cl] + R[Cl]sw + Q[Cl]riv (15.6)
Where:
Clpptn is Cl− concentration in precipitation (wet and dry fallout)

Clsw is Cl− concentration in soil water,
Clriv is Cl− concentration in river water.
Assuming no significant Cl− is removed via evapo-transpiration and that there is no other source of Cl−
in the soil (such as wind blown dust), the term E[Cl] is zero, and rearranging to give R, Equation 15.6
reduces to:
P [Cl]pptn − Q[Cl]riv
R= (15.7)
[Cl]sw
In many arid and semi-arid areas surface runoff is not significant, and if chloride is not added from a
geological source or from dust, then the recharge rate can be estimated simply from:
P [Cl]pptn
R= (15.8)
[Cl]sw
Note that if there is another source of Cl− (perhaps as dust derived sodium chloride), then this will
dissolve in the water, increasing the ([Cl]sw term and causing an underestimation of the recharge (R).
The often unique chemical characteristics of different aquifers within a given groundwater basin may be
used as a tracers to provide semi-quantitative estimates of the degree of mixing between them. For exam-
ple, consider a situation of a confined sand aquifer separated from an unconfined dolomite aquifer where
the respective aquifers have different chemical characteristics due to different water rock interactions. If
there is up- or downward leakage between the two aquifers, then there is clearly a potential for mixing
between the aquifers. Mixing between the two aquifers may be estimated from a simple mass balance
using end-member tracer concentrations. Chloride is a very good tracer for mass balance estimates, as
it does not participate in reactions induced by mixing between two water masses. Given the chloride
concentration of two end-member waters A and B, the proportion of the two waters can be calculated
using the simple mass balance expression:
ClM = x · ClA + (1 − x) · ClB (15.9)
Where:
ClM is the Cl− concentration of the mixture, and x is the fraction of water A and 1 − x is the fraction
of water mass B that contribute to the mixture.
The assumptions inherent in such an approach are that the mixing process is conservative with respect
to the solute(s) being used. Secondly, the precision of estimates of mixing proportions (x and (1-x)) is a
function of how well the end-member chemical compositions can be constrained. If Cl− or Br − is not

Figure 15.3: Mixing lines based on conservative and non-conservative ions from the Lincolnshire limestone,
UK
suitable as a mixing tracer (e.g. due to lack of differentiation between the two aquifers) other solutes
may be used, such as the major cations, sulphate or nitrate. However, these need to be more carefully
evaluated due to possible chemical reactions that might take place.
An example of such an approach is shown in Fig. 15.3 for the Lincolnshire Limestone, UK [Lawrence
et al., 1976] where Cl− and HCO3− are shown to behave conservatively and can be used to derive mixing
fractions, whereas N a+ and Ca2+ show considerable non-linearity, particularly at the dilute end of the
spectrum where cation exchange may be important in modifying these concentrations. Note that SO42−
is not very useful in this case because there is virtually no difference in concentration between the two
end-members.
15.4.2 Br− /Cl− Ratios
Although Cl− has been used extensively as a tracer in water studies, the use of Br − together with Cl−
offers additional information. While Cl− alone provides information on overall salinity increase, Br −
may indicate the source of salinity. The bromide to chloride ratio (Br − /Cl−) in sea water is about
3.47 × 10−3 (wt/wt units) or 1.5 × 10−3 as a molar ratio and the starting point in rainfall can usually be
assumed to be very similar to that value.
During evaporation, hypersaline brines precipitate halite (N aCl) which results in the rejection of Br −
from the solid phase. This results in a significant fractionation with high Br − /Cl− ratios in the (small
volumes of) residual brine solutions and a low bromide halite. Thus groundwater flowing through forma-
tions with evaporites, may be characterised by waters with significantly low Br − /Cl− ratios. Formation
waters associated with organic-rich sediments such as oil-field waters or carbonaceous sediments may, in
contrast, develop relatively high Br − /Cl− values.

Figure 15.4: Br − /Cl− versus Cl− for south-central Kansas, Tucson basin, with additional data for the
GAB
Two recent summaries by Edmunds [1996] and Davis et al. [1998] provide an up to date background and
bibliography on the value of Br − along with the Br − /Cl− ratio as a natural tracer in both fresh waters
and formation waters. Although both Cl− and Br − are halogens, and behave nearly conservatively,
Br − /Cl− ratios vary by more than two orders of magnitude in both rainwater and groundwater.
One example of using Br − and Cl− data is the Great Artesian Basin, Australia which is a multi-aquifer
system where the confined Jurassic aquifer is under artesian pressure. The aquifer is thought to recharge
at the basin margins and to discharge by diffuse discharge in the central portion of the Basin in northern
South Australia. Br − and Cl− data from groundwater collected along two regional flow paths which
emanate from the eastern margin (Fig. 15.4) show Br − /Cl− ratios roughly twice that of seawater [Herczeg
et al., 1991]. In contrast, one flow path emanating from the western part of the basin shows very low
Br − /Cl− ratios, indicating dissolution of evaporite minerals probably within the recharge area, or upward
leakage of saline waters from the deeper Permian evaporite deposits located there. Waters within the
discharge area show mixing between the two flow paths as indicated by intermediate Br − /Cl− values in
that zone.
15.4.3 Nitrate
Nitrate concentrations in rainfall (derived from nitrous and nitric oxides as well as ammonia) are usually
low, but can vary depending on the source area and other factors (Table 15.3). Concentrations of nitrate
usually increase in soils due to microbiologically mediated reactions such as nitrification of ammonium
after mineralisation of organic matter. In the unsaturated zone aerobic conditions usually prevail and
N O3− outputs from the soil zone remain inert, allowing nitrate to enter groundwater systems [Edmunds
et al., 1984]. In aerobic environments nitrate may serve as an additional conservative tracer which records
environmental conditions at the place and time of infiltration. In arid/semi-arid soils nitrate accumulates
naturally by microbially assisted mineralisation of soil litter and nitrification of N H4+ . Nitrogen fixation
by nodules on the root systems of leguminous plants is also an important process in many semi-arid areas.
Denitrification is likely to be insignificant under the oxidising conditions of most semi-arid environments,
especially where both water content and organic carbon content is low. In the wet season very rapid

mineralisation of soil organic nitrogen occurs, with most being oxidised to nitrate, which is likely to be
flushed downward with the onset of the subsequent wet season. In contrast, nitrogen fixation, especially
by leguminous plants, is likely to be lower in dry periods when nodulation is limited by water availability.
Natural baseline concentrations of nitrate in groundwater beneath grassland in temperate regions are
typically below 2 mg/L N O3 − N and concentrations significantly above this are generally regarded as
indicating anthropogenic pollution. In semi-arid and arid regions, however, a number of occurrences
of high nitrate groundwater have been recorded which cannot be explained by pollution. Beneath the
Kalahari Desert, for example, groundwater dated to be several thousand years old, containing between
4.8 and 37 mg/L N O3 − N of widely distributed nitrate can only be explained by natural soil processes.
High nitrate groundwater is also common in arid regions of Australia [Lawrence, 1983, Barnes et al.,
1992] where nitrate fixation by cyanobacteria in soil crusts and bacteria in termite mounds provides
the most likely explanations. Naturally high nitrate therefore seems to be common in groundwaters in
many arid and semi-arid tropical areas low in organic carbon where aerobic conditions have persisted
and where flushing rates are low. In these environments groundwater nitrate may serve as an inert tracer
of past environmental conditions. Under rare hyper-arid conditions nitrate minerals, such as potassium
and sodium nitrate, can precipitate as in the relic groundwater discharge playas of the Atacama Desert,
Chile.
15.4.4 Non-conservative ions
Non-conservative tracers are derived predominantly as a result of water-rock interactions in the soil or
unsaturated zone, or from reactions taking place along flow lines in the saturated zone. As such, their
absolute concentration, and ratios provide a means for establishing what sequences of inorganic and redox
reactions have occurred within the unsaturated and saturated zones as groundwaters move down-gradient.
Initial concentrations of major and trace elements and their ratios can relate to the parent rock lithol-
ogy [Back and Hanshaw, 1970]. This initial composition will act as a signature for the water which may
then undergo transformation by dissolution-precipitation, ion exchange or redox reactions or by mixing.
A sequential process of geochemical reactions may be observed in most aquifers as water moves down-
gradient which can be used as an indicator of maturity and hence of the relative residence time. Major
ion ratios N a+ /Cl− , SO42− /Cl− , M g2+ /Ca2+ , K + /N a+ are commonly used to follow this sequence.
Carbonate mineral dissolution is a fast process and groundwater will reach saturation for calcite rapidly
when carbonate minerals are present and results in the complete (congruent) dissolution of the mineral.
Change in the concentration of Ca2+ or HCO3− due to other processes can lead to further dissolution or
precipitation of calcite down gradient. During congruent dissolution, ions will be added in stoichiometric
quantities so that the groundwater assumes ion ratios similar to those in the parent carbonate material. As
the groundwater proceeds along the flow path, incongruent dissolution can occur whereby the impurities
in the solid phase are progressively released and a purer mineral (in this case lower Mg-calcite) is produced.
The incongruent dissolution is often observed as increasing M g2+ /Ca2+ ratios as groundwater flows down-
gradient. Thus the M g2+ /Ca2+ ratio may be used as a tracer of increasing maturity of groundwater and
residence time - young groundwater will generally only have a low M g2+ content.
In limestone or karst aquifers with high transmissivities and overall short mean residence times, changes
in the carbonate equilibria have been used as a potentially useful tool for distinguishing flow regimes and
flow paths. In karstic aquifers, flow may be considered as having two components: diffuse flow, (water
moving slowly through the matrix porosity) and conduit flow, (water moving rapidly via the fissures).
These two components will differ significantly in their relative saturation with respect to calcite and other
carbonate minerals. By monitoring the saturation index of carbonate minerals, and by measuring the
pH, alkalinity and cation concentration, it is possible to measure the seasonal contribution of the flow
components.
Other types of geochemical processes involving the release of ions to solution are dependent on the relative
solubilities and reaction kinetics of minerals and the content and reactivity of organic matter. Therefore,
groundwater catchments that have different geology, mineral suites and soil types, would be expected to

yield different water chemistry. Inferences on the relative importance of different recharge areas within
a catchment can be made from the water chemistry. Thus for example, in carbonate terrains with
groundwaters at saturation with respect to calcite, the concentrations of the total dissolved inorganic
carbon species are likely to reflect recharge areas with different pCO2 and hence different land use and
soil types.
Modifications to the chemistry of groundwater by cation exchange as it moves along flow paths in aquifers
are well documented [Appello and Postma, 2005]. The ion exchange reaction:
N a+ + 0.5Ca − X = N a − X + 0.5Ca2+ (15.10)
where:
-X is the exchange substrate.
may be treated in the same way as any thermodynamic mass action expression, with the relative propor-
tion of exchangeable N a+ and Ca2+ determined by a relative selectivity coefficient (K) for the two ions
and their dissolved ionic concentrations.
[Na−X][Ca2+ ]0.5
K= [Na+ ][Ca−X]0.5
The amount of exchange can also be used as an indicator of past changes in the hydrological regime,
since exchange signatures only get flushed very slowly from the aquifer.
An example of non-conservative transport and interactions of cations along a transect during freshening
of a formerly brackish aquifer is given by Winter et al. [1998] (Fig 15.5). Addition of CO2 from respira-
tion causes CaCO3 dissolution, increasing both Ca2+ and HCO3− concentrations. Subsequently N a+ is
displaced by the exchange sites by Ca2+ resulting in elevated levels of dissolved N a+ and a N a − HCO3
type water. These distributions of major ions along such transects are often used to infer geochemical
processes, within the context of say Cl− as a conservative mixing tracer. In the special case of seawater
intrusion, saline N a − Cl water mixes with fresh Ca − HCO3 groundwater to ultimately create a Ca − Cl
type water.
Appello and Postma [2005] give an example of how Cl− can be used very effectively to determine mixing
fractions between the saline seawater (Cl− = 19000 mg/L) and fresh groundwater. By applying the same
mixing fraction deduced from Cl− to all the other ions, it is then possible to calculate the amount of
addition or removal of the other non-conservative ions to or from solution as a result of reactions induced
by the mixing process. Several studies [Wood and Bassett, 1975, Rattray et al., 1998] have used Cl− mass
balances as a basis for evaluating mass transfer of reactive solutes during artificial recharge of freshwater
into aquifers and consequential mixing. It must be stressed that this approach only works if the two
different sources of water have contrasting Cl− concentrations.
Oxidation-reduction reactions may also lead to characteristic reaction sequences, or a redox zonation,
in most groundwater flow systems [Appello and Postma, 2005]. The two main controls on the redox
conditions, are the oxidation of organic carbon and sulfide minerals such as pyrite (F eS2 ) contained
in the aquifer. At outcrop most groundwaters are oxic but with progressive down gradient flow the
dissolved oxygen is consumed by inorganic or microbially mediated reactions with organic matter or
reduced minerals leading to anoxic conditions. A redox-sequence or zoning as illustrated in Fig. 15.6 will
develop along the gradient in most aquifers. The zonation will typically show oxygen (O2 ) disappearing
followed by the disappearance of nitrate (N O3−). Then solid oxides of M n(IV ) and F e(III) are reduced
releasing dissolved M n2+ and F e2+ . Subsequently sulfate (SO42− ) is reduced producing hydrogen sulfide
(H2 S), finally followed by methanogenesis releasing methane (CH4 ) from the organic matter. Sequential
redox changes may be used to characterize groundwater at different positions along flow paths and to
provide additional information on residence times or flow paths. The sequence was obtained by modelling
the reduction of oxic groundwater by organic matter in the presence of iron-oxyhydroxide (F e(OH)3 )
and manganese-oxide (M nO2 ) minerals in the geochemical modelling code PHREEQC.

Figure 15.5: Example of hydrochemical evolution in a freshening aquifer along the Atlantic coast of the
US.

Figure 15.6: Distribution of redox-sensitive species along a groundwater flow path showing the sequential
loss of oxidised species (O2 , N O3− and SO42− ) and sequential release of reduced species (M n2+ , F e2+ ,
H2 S and CH4 )

15.5 Techniques for study and interpretation of chemical tracers
15.5.1 Data requirements
The basis for hydrogeochemical interpretation must be data of high quality collected in the field. Most
of the chemical parameters required for tracer investigations may be analysed relatively easily in most
chemical laboratories. Use is made of those ions commonly determined in water quality investigations
although certain criteria must be met.
The analytical accuracy must be demonstrated both by the use of appropriate standards and also by use
of the ionic milli-equivalent balance to check electrical neutrality; a value within ±5 % is required for use
in geochemical interpretation.
15.5.2 Conceptual models and graphical methods
For the interpretation of hydrochemical data as tracers of groundwater a conceptual approach is first
needed in which the hydrogeological factors are well described. Therefore geological and hydrogeological
maps with accompanying cross-sections to provide a three-dimensional understanding form the essen-
tial foundation for any study. Such a representation may only be approximate and based on limited
data. However, hydrogeochemical data can be used as tracers to help solve questions such as the degree
of homogeneity of the aquifer, cross-formational flow or residence time based on the initial geological
concepts.
Major ion data may be presented in graphical format of which there are many types [Hem, 1989]. Possi-
bly the most useful and most popular summary plots are trilinear diagrams which show the total major
anion and cation composition on separate or as combination (Piper) diagrams. These have the advantage
for tracer work of showing a large number of analyses in one plot and variations of this diagram may
use different symbols to indicate differences in salinity, as well as arrows to indicate flow path directions.
The evolution of the groundwater as illustrated by the relationship between major ions dominant com-
positions (e.g. Ca2+ , HCO3− to N a+ , Cl− ), indicating trends along flow paths or mixing between water
bodies. Similarities at the regional scale may suggest a degree of homogeneity in groundwater evolution
or hydraulic connection. Other types of diagram include the mixing plot as well as the Schoeller type
diagram and the expanded Durov diagram.
If the hydrogeology is well constrained, and appropriate sampling points are available, presentation of
data along flow paths is strongly recommended for interpreting or verifying flow systems, and locating
points of inter-aquifer mixing. Plotting of chemical data for one or more aquifers is possible (using
different symbols) as well as trends of ion ratios such as ion/Cl− , (where Cl− is used as a conservative
reference ion). The shape of such plots, of which several are used in this chapter, may be used to infer
mixing processes via faults or fractures (e.g. by sudden changes in concentrations along a flow system)
or gradual addition of local recharge as well as investigating residence times.
An example of the commonly used Piper plot is shown in Fig. 15.7. In this example, the data from 3
nested piezometers installed into sands in the coastal zone is shown.
15.5.3 Geochemical modelling
Geochemical modelling codes now available allow once laborious calculations of chemical activities, speci-
ation and saturation indices with respect to specified minerals to be rapidly determined. They also allow
testing and facilitate the quantification of processes involved in water-rock interaction. Details of mod-
els available and their limitations are given for example by Parkhurst and Plummer [1993], Appelo and
Postma [1994]. Geochemical modelling first needs a clear hydrogeological and geochemical conceptual
model, together with a sound database.

Figure 15.7: Piper diagram of groundwater over the entire range of salinity (500 to 25 000 mg/L TDS)
for the Murray Basin with the arrows showing the evolution of water chemistry along the flow lines

A widely available model NETPATH [Parkhurst and Plummer, 1993], uses groundwater chemical data
along a hydraulic transect, and user specified mineral phases from the aquifer material, to infer mass
transfer between the solid and aqueous phases. For example, two sets of water analyses along a flow
path can be compared. The difference in chemical composition can be quantitatively modelled as ad-
dition or removal of solutes according to a variety of possible combinations (depending on the types of
minerals present). It is referred to as an inverse model because it back-calculates the reactions that must
have occurred to the water during transit through the aquifer to produce the final observed chemical
composition.
PHREEQC is the most advanced and up to date code for geochemical modelling. It calculates the
distribution of different aqueous species and complexes, mineral saturation indices, and incorporates
some of the inverse mass balance capabilities, as well as a transport component that is a powerful
tool for many groundwater problems. This type of model is useful to test the end result of a set of
imposed conditions such as mixing of different water types, or exposure to oxygen, or certain min-
erals or contaminants. The choice of PHREEQC or NETPATH depends on the nature of the prob-
lem and the availability of data. They are freely available for download from the USGS web site,
(http://water.usgs.gov/software/geochemical.html) along with test problems that often serve as useful
templates for most studies. Similarly, isotope data can be incorporated into NETPATH and PHREEQC
to assess the relative importance of possible water sources sampled at a given location.
Direct incorporation of chemical data into coupled flow-solute transport models has been viewed as
the holy grail for groundwater geochemistry, though some skeptics have suggested that they may be
too complex, both numerically and conceptually, to be useful. That is, the large degree of chemical
heterogeneity, and the large number of constraints required for solute transport modelling may preclude
their general use through large uncertainties in the resultant output. In that case, use of separate or
sequential flow, particle path-tracking and chemical modelling routines may provide the balance between
utility and reliability.
15.6 Applications
15.6.1 Recharge measurement using chloride
Application of the chloride mass balance technique in the saturated zone has surprisingly been used
much less as a tracer of recharge than in the unsaturated zone. In areas where there is little or no
surface runoff, and where recharge fluxes are low and conventional water balance techniques are fraught
with large uncertainties, the method is appropriate. There are caveats of course, such as there being
no external source of Cl− from halite dissolution or admixture with saline formation waters, but these
can often be assessed using evidence from Br − /Cl− ratios (see above) and stable isotopes (Chapter 16
refers), as well as direct hydrogeological observations. Of the four unknowns in Equation 15.5, it is the
value of Cl− in rainfall that has the largest uncertainty, which directly propagates into the recharge rate
uncertainty. Furthermore, changes in rainfall and chloride concentrations over time will also result in
higher uncertainties due to climatic induced changes in the Cl− flux rate from the atmosphere.
Stute et al. [1993] and Wood and Sanford [1995] also applied the straightforward Cl− mass balance
technique for groundwater in the Carizzo aquifer Texas, and the Southern High Plains of Texas and New
Mexico respectively. The Cl− mass balance recharge rates for the Carizzo aquifer range from 5.3 to
22.8 mm/yr, while the High Plains estimates are 11 ± 2 mm/yr. These values are about 2% of rainfall.
In the case of the Carizzo study, evidence from associated 36 Cl data suggest higher recharge rates during
glacial periods in the late Pleistocene about 18,000 years ago, by about a factor of two. Within the
Murray Basin there have been studies using this approach to estimate recharge both in the western semi-
arid part, which indicated extremely low recharge in those areas covered by native vegetation and in the
eastern Riverine Plain part [Cartwright et al., 2008] indicated modern recharge in cleared and irrigated
land.

15.6.2 Tracing the origin of salts and inter-aquifer mixing
Aquifers contained in large sedimentary basins in many of the drier parts of the world are the only reliable
water resource for town water supplies and agriculture. Such aquifer systems are often characterised by
long flow paths, where flow velocities have changed through time, and water quality can vary from quite
fresh to very saline. Furthermore, the hydrological and solute balances may have been fundamentally
altered due to land and water development over the past few centuries. Conventional physical hydro-
geological techniques provide information on the current groundwater status, whereas chemistry (and
isotopic) tracers integrate processes that occur over much longer time scales. The example below summa-
rizes data from a number of the studies of a large, semi-arid multi-aquifer system in the Murray Basin,
south-eastern Australia.
The Murray Basin occupies nearly one-fifth of the Australian continent (≈ 300, 000 km2) and comprises 5
major regional aquifers containing marine and continental Tertiary or Quaternary sediments [Lawrence,
1975, Evans and Kellet, 1989]. Groundwater flow is from the basin margins towards the interior of the
basin where it discharges into salt lakes and gypsum playas and to the River Murray which ultimately
flows out to the sea. All of the aquifer systems, unconfined and confined, display similar general chemical
characteristics in that there is an overall increase in salinity from the basin margins towards the discharge
areas near the River Murray (from 500 mg/L up to 40,000 mg/L TDS). The evolution in chemical compo-
sition of the unconfined semi confined to confined Murray Group limestone aquifer (a marine carbonate
sand), from N a+ − Ca2+ − HCO3− to N a+ − Cl− type is shown on a Piper diagram (Fig. 15.7), with the
arrows showing the trend towards N a+ − Cl− dominance with increasing salinity, a common observation
in semi-arid and arid groundwater systems.
One of the earliest hypotheses was that recharge of new, fresh water mixed along the hydraulic gradient
with saline connate (formation) water which was left over from the time of deposition of the marine
unconfined aquifer in the western part of the basin. However, groundwater flow velocities between 0.8
- 2.0 m/yr calculated from hydraulic gradients and estimates of hydraulic conductivity from pumping
tests [Lawrence, 1975] suggested that connate salts should now be flushed out, since the last marine
incursion was 2 ×106 years ago. Furthermore, measured stable isotope compositions of water molecules in
the aquifers (including the saline waters) and aquitard are depleted in 2 H and 18 O (similar to evaporated
rainfall), unequivocally demonstrating that the waters are derived from atmospheric precipitation and no
original seawater remains in the system [Herczeg et al., 1991, 1993]. These findings provided verification
of the earlier hydraulic calculations by Lawrence [1975]. Even the deep aquitard in the middle of the
basin has stable isotopic signatures similar to those measured in the aquifers [Jones et al., 1994].
An alternative hypothesis is that the groundwater solutes are derived by dissolution of evaporite de-
posits which would be expected to cause characteristic N a+ /Cl− ratios of unity. However, the observed
N a+ /Cl− ratios [Herczeg et al., 1991, 1993] range from 8.2 to 1.2, and generally decrease with increasing
salinity towards the seawater value of 0.86 (Fig. 15.8). Dissolution of evaporites generally yield Br − /Cl−
ratios in waters < 4 × 10−4 but the observed Br − versus Cl− trend (Fig. 15.8) is similar to seawater
except for a slight Cl− enrichment at the highest salinities. Br − /Cl− ratios (Fig. 15.8) range from
1.2 → 2 × 10−3 (cf. seawater value = 1.5 × 10−3 ) with a wide scatter at the dilute end (possible analytical
variability of Br − analysis). There is some indication of evaporite dissolution at the highest salinities,
but it is a relatively small component of the total salt that must be from marine atmospheric fallout.
Noting that no evaporites have been detected in the sedimentary sequence apart from surface evaporite
crusts.
The deposition of aerosols via rainfall throughout the interior of the Murray Basin results in an estimated
flux of salt of about 20 kg/ha/yr [Simpson and Herczeg, 1994]. The dilute salts in rainfall are concentrated
in the upper few metres of the soil zone through evapotranspiration by the water efficient native vegetation
which results in very low recharge rates of saline soil water across much of the basin. This explains the
seawater-like solute composition and meteoric water isotopic composition. Slow moving (≈ 1 m/yr)
groundwater systems such as this essentially provide an archive of recharge in the past, where areas of
relatively low salinity water may be a remnant of water from times of higher recharge rates, while the
higher salinity waters represent much drier periods.

Figure 15.8: Molar ratio chemical plots for groundwaters from the SW Murray Basin, Australia N a+
versus Cl− (a) shows a trend along the seawater dilution line, though N a+ /Cl− vs. Cl+ (b) provides a
more sensitive analysis of N a+ behaviour at the dilute end of the spectrum. Note the discontinuity of
data at Cl− < 120 mM and Cl− > 200 mM. Br − vs. Cl− also shows evaporative signature with some
enrichment of Cl− relative to Br − at the upper end of the salinity spectrum (c). Distribution of Ca2+ ,
M g2+ and HCO3− (d) & (e) indicate control of Ca2+ & HCO3− by carbonate precipitation.

The relationships between species such as N a+ and Cl− (Fig. 15.8) apart from indicating variation in
evapo-concentration of the atmospheric salts, show a discontinuity in the chloride concentration range
between 100 and 200 mmol /L suggesting hydraulic discontinuity. This corresponds to a change in vertical
hydraulic gradient resulting in leakage of more saline waters from the confined to the unconfined aquifer.
The deviation of data points in the dilute end of the spectrum show more clearly on the plot of N a+ /Cl−
versus Cl− (Fig. 15.8). This type of plot can be a sensitive indicator of mineral-water interaction where
N a+ /Cl− ratios higher than the marine value at the dilute concentration range indicate both acquisition
of N a+ in rainfall by partial dissolution of dust and wind-blown evaporites or release by weathering
of silicate minerals equation. The nearly constant N a+ /Cl− ratio at high salinity is mainly due to
evapo-concentration.
Other scatter plots also reveal much about the mineral-water reactions within the different parts of
the groundwater systems. Variation in HCO3−/Cl− versus Cl− (Fig. 15.8) shows that HCO3− must
be generated in the early evolution of the groundwater and is capped at the higher salinity end of the
spectrum by equilibrium with carbonate minerals. An increase in the ratio of (Ca2+ + M g2+ )/HCO3−
(Fig. 15.8) at higher salinity is typical of continued precipitation of carbonate minerals.
Arad and Evans [1987] evaluated hydrographs and chemical trends of two major aquifers in the east-
ern half of the Murray Basin on the Riverine Plain, to establish possible inter-connections. The deep
confined aquifer, which comprises two Tertiary sand aquifers, underlies a complex Quaternary aquifer-
aquitard system known as the Shepparton Formation. The hydrograph variations and long term trends
of the aquifers are in-phase, indicating good hydraulic connection between the two systems. The salinity
distribution of the two aquifers is somewhat different even though their chemistry is similar. There is
an increasing salinity trend for the confined system along a hydraulic gradient, however no such trend is
observed for the unconfined Shepparton Formation aquifer. Furthermore, the upper aquifer tends to have
much higher salinities than the confined aquifer. A chemistry versus depth profile for one borehole at
Millewa (Fig. 15.9) shows a decrease in the concentration of all ions with depth, and that all waters are
dominated by N a+ − Cl− [Arad and Evans, 1987]. The relative concentration of ions changes slightly,
in that the more dilute waters tend to have much more HCO3− than SO42− , while the more saline waters
in the upper aquifer have a greater proportion of sulphate relative to bicarbonate. The trends indicate
conservative mixing between two end-members, and mixing proportions were interpreted for each depth,
using data for the shallowest and deepest sample respectively. A conceptual model of the flow system was
built from the hydrochemical trends; downward mixing through the upper aquifer, followed by horizontal
movement of the mixed waters via the confined system. Variability of salinity in the upper part of the
Shepparton aquifer is thought to be caused by local effects such as dilution of saline water during recharge
events.
15.6.3 An integrated hydrogeologcal and hydrochemical investigation: The

East Midlands Triassic aquifer, UK
The Sherwood Sandstone in central England is a typical red-bed aquifer which may be considered as a
single hydrostratigraphic unit with groundwater flow from NNW to SSE. The aquifer is confined by a
thick sequence of mudstones (Mercia Mudstone) which locally contain evaporite minerals. The aquifer
is underlain by a sequence of Permian mudstones, marls and dolomitic limestones. The groundwater in
the aquitards above and especially below the Sherwood Sandstone are considerably more mineralised,
controlled on the one hand by the non-marine evaporites above and by marine lithologies below. The
contrast in aquitard chemistry means that any leakage into the Sherwood Sandstone would be readily
recognised.
The halogen concentrations in groundwater in this aquifer have been used as indicators of rainfall source,
recharge rate and demonstrate slight differences between Cl− , which is inert, and the other halogen
elements. Chloride (Fig. 15.10) mainly reflects input conditions from the atmosphere and other sources
and the ratio Br − /Cl− has been used to help to constrain the origins of Cl−. The high Cl− at the
beginning of the flow path mainly defines the extent of groundwater pollution, including modern rainfall
from the industrial period. After correction for evapotranspiration, a modern rainfall input concentration

Figure 15.9: Modified Shoeller plot for depth variations through the eastern Murray Basin based on
major ion data
to groundwater of ≈ 27 mg/L is obtained. The palaeowaters, including those of pre-industrial age, have
Cl− concentrations well below modern values. Concentrations as low as 6 mg/L Cl− are thought to have
originated from precipitation when a more continental climate existed, especially during periods of lower
sea levels when the coastline lay to the west of Ireland. The molar Br − /Cl− ratio provides a further
indication of this. The steady increase of Br − /Cl− above its modern maritime value of 1.57 × 10−3 ,
compared with waters from the Late Pleistocene is also an indication of precipitation of a more continental
origin. An important conclusion from the halogen tracers is that cross-formational flow from deeper
aquifers does not occur and therefore that most of the hydrogeochemical changes are the result of initial
inputs and internal water-rock interaction. Evaporite contributors may be categorically ruled out since
an increase in Br − /Cl− ratios is observed.
Sequential processes involving reactive tracers reflect water-rock interaction with carbonate and silicate
minerals as well as redox reactions in the East Midlands aquifer. For example, the ratio of Ca : M g :
HCO3 varies significantly across the aquifer. The proportions of each reflect the stages in the reaction
of the early diagenetic dolomite or secondary calcite. At the present day, the groundwater preferentially
reacts with the secondary calcite but then reacts incongruently with dolomite giving molar M g2+ /Ca2+
ratios in the groundwater of between 1 and 2. In the deeper sections of the aquifer the dissolution of
gypsum forces some precipitation of calcite.
Although dissolved silica concentrations are quite constant, other evidence from major and trace cations
show that silicate minerals have undergone reactions during down gradient flow. The down gradient
increase in Li+ shown in the figure is believed to be released from the gradual weathering of primary
silicate minerals. The molar N a+ /Cl− ratio increases along the flow line indicating reaction with silicate
minerals either by mineral dissolution or by cation exchange. Across the aquifer there is a rather irregular
increase of mN a+ /Cl− to around 2, amounting to a gain of N a+ either by the dissolution of plagioclase
feldspar or by cation exchange. The K + /N a+ ratio which is below 0.1 at outcrop increases to above
0.8 in the middle section of aquifer. These high values are mainly the result of selective reaction of the
predominant K-feldspar to illite/chlorite. This increase, like the increase in M g2+ /Ca2+ ratio, may be
used as a specific additional indicator of groundwater ageing.

Figure 15.10: Cross-section of the East Midlands aquifer system (a) showing the location of boreholes in
the main redbed confined aquifer. Other parameters are plotted against temperature, which is a proxy
for depth and distance along the flow path: (b) Cl, (c) Br/Cl, (d) Mg/Ca, (e) Na/Cl, (f) K/Na and (g)
Li

15.6.4 Chloride and Carbonate chemistry to assess recharge and discharge

in a karstic aquifer: The Otway Basin
The importance of recharge to a karstic aquifer via infiltration through the soil matrix relative to other
mechanisms such as direct recharge via sinkholes, creeks or lakes has been studied in an area of south-
east South Australia where topography is low and surface drainage is ephemeral. Providing at least
semi-quantitative estimates of different recharge mechanisms is essential to develop appropriate land
management practices that minimize the impact on the groundwater resource. The Tertiary limestone
aquifer of south eastern South Australia (the Gambier Limestone) is characterized in the up-gradient
part (the Naracoorte Ranges) by hundreds of sinkholes, swamps and artificial drainage bores. The study
involved monitoring of a number of environmental tracers sampled from shallow piezometers located near
sinkholes, swamps and in the regional aquifer. The tracers include chloride and carbonate chemistry
(Ca2+ and M g2+ concentrations plus pH and alkalinity) as well as stable isotopes of water and carbon.
Chloride is used here as a conservative tracer to assess the dilution of the regional groundwater due to
localized recharge. Additional information can be obtained about the dynamics and time scale of the
recharge and mixing process through the carbonate system. The interactions between CO2 produced by
biological activity of plants and microbes within the soil and the carbonate minerals such as calcite and
dolomite result in rapid changes in carbonate chemistry of the waters that can be related to recharge
sources and water transit times. Although the dissolution of carbonate minerals is relatively rapid
compared with silicate minerals, there may be situations where rapid transit times through the soil or
aquifer do not allow the aqueous phase to reach equilibrium with the solid phase. In effect, we can utilise
the trade-off between equilibrium processes and kinetics in the carbonate system to infer flow rates, and
recharge processes in carbonate aquifers.
Groundwater sampled near sinkholes and swamps within the unconfined Gambier Limestone aquifer of
South Australia tend to have more than ten-fold lower chloride concentrations than those sampled from
regional groundwaters that are located away from these surface recharge features. Time series data show
no variability in Cl− for the regional groundwater, whereas bores located near sinkhole sites show dilution
immediately following winter and spring rains. Samples collected near the sinkholes tend to have low
CO2 partial pressures and are undersaturated with respect to carbonate minerals. Fig. 15.11 shows
the log pCO2, SIcalcite and Ca2+/M g2+ ratio trends for groundwater sampled from shallow piezometers
located at progressively increasing distance from a sinkhole. Variability of the carbonate chemistry within
the near vicinity of the sinkhole (i.e. 10 m and 100 m down-gradient) is greater than that for chloride
and demonstrates the heterogeneous nature of localised recharge. The regional groundwater (indicated
by samples from PG600) are distinctly higher in pCO2 , are always near saturation with respect to
calcite, and have lower Ca2+ /M g2+ ratios than any of the groundwater sampled from near the sinkhole.
The steady, long term process of diffuse recharge by infiltration through the unsaturated zone leads to
buffering of variations in the carbonate system. Ca2+ /M g2+ ratios for the other piezometer samples
show considerable variability in response to rain events, and is perhaps the best indicator of the relative
water transit time. Water that passes rapidly through the soil zone partially dissolves the carbonate
matrix, resulting in enrichment of Ca2+ relative to M g2+ .
Groundwater located in areas where there are no near surface drainage features show different chemical
characteristics from those located near surface point-sources. These waters have relatively higher chloride
concentrations, higher pCO2, higher M g2+ /Ca2+ ratios, and are saturated with respect to carbonate
minerals. This chemical type, which dominates the total groundwater inventory of the region, is thought
to be derived from diffuse recharge via infiltration through the soils. The relatively long transit time
through the upper soil zone results in significant water loss due to evapotranspiration processes, and
subsequent precipitation of carbonate minerals. These waters are therefore enriched in M g2+ relative to
Ca2+, and have higher pCO2 due to plant respiration, and can be distinguished from waters recharged
by conduit flow.

Figure 15.11: An 18 month long time series of (a) SIcalcite and pCO2 , and (b) and Ca/M g ratio in
groundwaters sampled from piezometers at distances of 10 m, 100 m, and 600 m from a sinkhole in a
karstic aquifer.

15.7 Summary
Major and trace elements act as inert or reactive tracers and can serve as independent tracers or as to
complement isotopic tracers in evaluating recharge, flow and mixing processes in groundwaters. Samples
for chemical analysis are easy to collect, often routinely as part of groundwater quality surveys, and their
analysis is relatively inexpensive. It makes sense that one should make the most use of such data to add
value to any hydrogeological field investigation, especially considering that the cost of analysis is very
small compared with the cost of installing a borehole.
Some conclusions may be made:
• Estimation of long term recharge rates can be achieved through the use of chloride profiles, and to
some extent nitrate, in soil water as well as Cl− concentrations in groundwaters. Particularly in low
rainfall regions, where estimates based on water balance techniques present very large uncertainties,
the chemical tracer approaches are probably the most reliable way to derive long term fluxes where
recharge is a small fraction of rainfall. To this end, high quality rainfall Cl− data is a very important
adjunct to many hydrological studies.
• Relative fractions of admixtures of water from two aquifers can be assessed through use of conser-
vative major ions such as Cl− and other ions where secondary reactions can be demonstrated to be
negligible. An application of this may be to assess water mixing using Cl−, and inferring secondary
chemical reactions from the lack of conservative behaviour of other ions.
• Both the application of major ion and tracer element data to evaluate recharge provenance, and
the use of carbonate chemistry to study recharge and discharge processes in carbonate aquifers, is
well established and has been demonstrated to be an invaluable fundamental tool in regional scale
groundwater evaluation.
• Hydrochemical data are best interpreted within a sound and reliable hydrogeological context (e.g.,
knowledge of sampling intervals and flow paths). Interpretation of hydrochemical data for tracing
water fluxes is best done by collecting data along hydraulic transects, or where hydraulic connection
can be assured.

Chapter 16
Groundwater isotopes
Contents
16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
16.1.1 Atomic sub-structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
16.2 Stable isotopes of the water molecule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
16.2.1 Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
16.2.2 Fractionation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
16.2.3 Rayleigh distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
16.3 General applications of stable isotopes of the water molecule . . . . . . . . 458
16.3.1 Mechanism and sources of recharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
16.3.2 Mixing of groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
16.3.3 Discharge rate estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
16.3.4 Hydrograph separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
16.3.5 Palaeoclimate and palaeorecharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
16.3.6 Example: The use of stable isotopes of water from the Maules Creek Catchment
in northern NSW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
16.3.7 Example: The use of chloride and strontium Sr2+ stable isotopes to investigate
sources of water during a seawater intrusion experiment at Skansehage, Denmark465
16.4 Carbon isotopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
16.4.1 Principles of 14 C dating of groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
16.4.2 Correction procedures for estimating carbon-14 ages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
16.4.3 Example: Adelaide Plains Tertiary Aquifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
16.4.4 Summary of 14 C methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
16.5 Chlorine-36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
16.6 Chlorofluorocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
16.1 Introduction
16.1.1 Atomic sub-structure
The atom is composed of a small central nucleus containing protons and neutrons surrounded by energy
levels (or shells) in which electrons move. The number of protons in the nucleus is referred to as the
atomic number (Z). The combined number of protons and neutrons in the atom is the atomic weight
(A). While the number of protons defines the chemical and physical characteristics of the element, the
same element can have different numbers of neutrons. These are referred to as isotopes of the element.
Elements, their mass and their isotopes can be shown symbolically as AZ E where E is the symbol of the
454
Chapter 16. Groundwater isotopes
Table 16.1: Isotopes
Isotopes Symbol Atomic composition Average Half-Life

Protons Neutrons Electrons abundance (years)
1
Hydrogen-1 1H 1 0 1 99.985 Stable
2
Hydrogen-2 1H 1 1 1 0.0115 Stable
3
Hydrogen-3 1H 1 2 1 10−15 12.43
12
Carbon-12 6C 6 6 6 98.93 Stable
13
Carbon-13 6C 6 7 6 1.078 Stable
14
Carbon-14 6C 6 8 6 1.2 × 10−10 5730
16
Oxygen-16 8O 8 8 8 99.759 Stable
17
Oxygen-17 8O 8 9 8 0.037
18
Oxygen-18 8O 8 10 8 0.204 Stable
element. Common isotopes of hydrogen, carbon and oxygen are shown in Table 16.1. In most cases the
atomic number (Z) is not shown as the symbol also defines this quantity.
The isotopes of hydrogen have been given special names. The most common isotope is hydrogen - which
as can be seen from Table 16.1, is just a proton. The second isotope is called deuterium and the third is
tritium. The isotopes of hydrogen, carbon and oxygen are all used extensively in hydrogeology.
Many isotopes are stable. This means that the number of neutrons remains fixed. However, as the
atomic number increases, there is a tendency for the nucleus to be unstable and a neutron is lost from the
nucleus combined with the production of some form of energy. These isotopes are referred to as unstable
or radioactive isotopes. The instability can be predicted statistically and the isotope has what is referred
to as a half-life, the time taken for half the atoms to release their excess neutron.
Many hydrological studies use the ratios of stable isotopes of hydrogen (2 H/1 H) and oxygen (18 O/16 O)
to determine the origin, recharge mechanisms and hydraulic inter-connection of the hydrological cycle.
These isotopes provide us with information on the actual flow of water, rather than inferences derived
from water level data. Similarly, isotopes of carbon, nitrogen and sulphur (13 C/12 C,15N/14 N and 34 S/32 S)
can give valuable information about reactions involving these elements in biogeochemical reactions, or
can be used as tracers for pollutants if they display a distinctive signature deviating from the natural
background.
Radioactive isotopes of some elements can also be used as tracers, but more importantly due to their
constant decay rate they can add the dimension of time. Most commonly, radiocarbon (14 C) is used to
estimate groundwater residence time, often referred to as carbon dating. Isotopes of the uranium series
(e.g., 234 U, 238 U, 226Ra and 222 Rn) also show promise as tracers, but are not precise enough to establish
water ages due to mineral-water interactions. Development of accelerator mass spectrometry allowed for
measurement of the radioactive chlorine-36 isotope which because of its long half-life (>300,000 years),
is applicable to dating groundwater in large confined systems such as the Great Artesian Basin.
Atmospheric nuclear weapons testing during the 1950’s and 1960’s released a wide array of nuclides into
the atmosphere that overwhelmed the abundance levels of some natural isotopes, adding anthropogenic
tracers to the hydrosphere. In the early 1960s a large network of monitoring stations were set up to
measure tritium (3 H) in precipitation which gave hydrologists a benchmark for dating recent groundwater.
Other bomb-test nuclides which have applications for groundwater hydrology include the radioactive
isotopes 14 C and 36 Cl.

16.2 Stable isotopes of the water molecule
Different numbers of neutrons within the nucleus of a given element result in there being a whole range
of isotopes having different mass numbers. The advantage of stable isotopes is that the two isotopes of
the same element should take part in the same chemical reactions in the environment, but at slightly
different rates. Slight variations in isotopic abundance are caused by small differences in reactivity of
the different isotopes because of their mass differences. For example, 2 H2 16 O is about 10 % lighter than
2
H2 18 O therefore it is more volatile. In an evaporation event, more of the lighter isotope will evaporate.
16.2.1 Notation
Absolute stable isotope concentrations are very difficult to measure sufficiently accurately for general
applications in nature. However, their isotopic abundance can be measured very precisely relative to a
given standard. The measurements are conveniently expressed as a ratio relative to an internationally
accepted standard so that all laboratories can compare their isotopic values. The general formulation,
where R refers to the ratio of heavy (or less abundant) to the more abundant light isotope (e.g., 2 H/1 H,
13
C/12 C etc.) is: Rsample /Rstandard. Because the differences in ratios from one sample to another are
quite small, using the above ratios would be awkward because we would be comparing values in the 3rd
or 4th decimal place. Instead, the delta (δ) formulation is now universally adopted so that comparison
can be made more easily. δ is expressed in per mill (parts per thousand) notation according to the general
formula:

Rsample
(δ, h) = − 1 × 1000 (16.1)
Rstandard
For hydrogen and oxygen isotopes of waters, the standard adopted is the Vienna Standard Mean Ocean
Water (VSMOW). For carbon the standard is a marine carbonate fossil, the Vienna Pee Dee Belemnite
(VPDB).
16.2.2 Fractionation
The theory and detailed explanation of stable isotope fractionation i.e. separation of isotopes due to
processes or reactions is covered in many texts and previously published articles [Clarke and Fritz, 1997]
For convenience, we present a general overview below of concepts that are common to stable isotopes of
H, B, C, O, N, S and Cl for when they are used as tracers.
Fractionation, or discrimination, occurs due to the mass differences between isotopes of the same element.
Two fundamental processes control the fractionation. The first of these, known as equilibrium fractiona-
tion, results from chemical bonds of molecules containing the lighter isotope being slightly weaker than
those containing the heavier isotope. Molecules containing the lighter isotope therefore react quicker
more quickly during phase changes or reversible chemical reactions. For example, the exchange between
isotopes of hydrogen and oxygen between liquid water and vapour.
H2 Oliq ⇔ H2 Ovap (16.2)
With the associated fractionation defined by:

(2 H/1 H)liq (18 O/16 O)liq
αliq−vap = 2 1
or 18 16 (16.3)
( H/ H)vap ( O/ O)vap
with values of 1.084 and 1.0098 (at 20 ◦C ) respectively and with the liquid phase heavier than the
vapour phase. In per mill terms, these values translate to vapour being 84% and 9.8% isotopically lighter

than liquid for the respective isotopes. A fractionation factor (α) can be used to describe the naturally
occurring abundance of different isotopes at equilibrium with certain reactions. The general convention
in formulation of fractionation factors is to have values of δ > 1, where the isotope ratio of the lighter
phase is multiplied by the value of α to give the equilibrium isotopic ratio of the heavier phase and one
defines the specific equilibrium reaction as above.
The second type of fractionation, known as kinetic fractionation, also relates to the mass differences
between the nuclei of respective isotopes. It is generally applicable to certain irreversible reactions in
nature, such as evaporation into air that has relative humidity < 100%. Such a process is related to
differences in the rate of diffusion (the molecule containing the lighter isotope moving faster than that
containing the heavier isotope) through a boundary layer. Although there is bi-directional movement of
water molecules via the exchange reaction described above, there is also a net transfer of water from liquid
to vapour. In the case of evaporation, the lower the relative humidity (or vapour pressure deficit) the
faster the rate of evaporation and the greater the kinetic fractionation. The kinetic fractionation is defined
in the same way as the equilibrium fractionation, except sometimes it is denoted with the subscript k
(i.e. αk ). Diffusion rates are approximately proportional to the square root of respective masses and the
kinetic fractionation effect therefore acts unequally on water molecules bearing the oxygen and hydrogen
isotopes because of the different relative mass difference. Since the H2 18 O is about 10% heavier than
H2 16 O, and 2 H16 O is only 5% heavier than H2 16 O it becomes clear why the effect of kinetic fractionation
during evaporation is greater for oxygen isotopes than for hydrogen isotopes. This explains the slope of
the trend of δ 2 H versus δ 18 O for evaporated waters below and to the right of the equilibrium fractionation
controlled World Meteoric Water Line (see definition below).
16.2.3 Rayleigh distillation
The process known as Rayleigh Distillation is common to many natural phenomena observed in stable
isotope studies. In general terms, it refers to the changing isotopic composition of the products or different
phases during reaction progress, as the respective reservoirs change in size without re-equilibrating. The
classic example is the progressive depletion in the heavy isotopes of water in a cloud mass as water vapour
progressively rains out. The isotopically heavier water molecules in the vapour will tend to condensate
and form droplets first. During evaporation of water from the sea surface to form clouds, there will be a
fractionation of oxygen isotopes (about −9h at 20 ◦ C ). This cloud mass will have an isotopic composition
of −9h given that the ocean has a δ 18 O = 0h. As the vapour condenses, the very first rainfall will
have a composition of about 0h because the fractionation of +9hduring condensation. However, the
loss of water from the cloud results in the residual water vapour becoming lighter because of preferential
rain-out of the heavier isotope, and subsequent rain will have an isotopic composition more negative than
0h [Clarke and Fritz, 1997]. This occurs because the cloud mass is not being replenished and continues
to preferentially lose the heavy isotope of water as the condensation process continues. This process can
be approximated by the expression:
R
= f α−1 (16.4)
Ro
where:
18
R is the O16 O ratio of residual vapour,
18
Ro is the O16 O ratio of vapour before condensation,
f the fraction of vapour remaining and
α is the fractionation factor (1.009).
In this way, the first 25% or so of rain from a single rain cloud may be more than 25 h heavier than rain
from the last 25%. The further a rain event occurs from its oceanic water source, the lighter its isotopic
composition.

Note that Rayleigh Distillation can be applied to any type of fractionation mechanism, provided that the
fractionation factor remains constant during the reaction progress. Most fresh water in the world has
deuterium and oxygen-18 compositions that plot on a straight line relationship characterised by:
δ 2 H = 8δ 18 O + 10 (16.5)
and is known as the World Meteoric Water Line (WMWL). The slope and intercept of this line might vary
from place to place because of re-evaporation of regional waters, but it serves as a very close approximation
in most instances and is the best fit of the global data set. For detailed stable isotopic studies within a
given geographic region, the Local Meteoric Water Line (LMWL) should be established from analysis of
rainfall samples collected locally to properly interpret isotopic data from surface and groundwater.
All of these processes described above give rise to the following generalisations that can be used for
isotopic investigations of groundwater:
• Higher altitude rainfall is increasingly depleted in heavy isotopes

• Greater rainfall amount tends to be more depleted in heavier isotope than light showers
• Rainfall inland is more depleted in heavy isotope than that at the coast
• Rainfall at cooler temperatures is more depleted in heavy isotopes (e.g. winter rain is lighter than
summer rain; groundwater recharged during a colder climate is more depleted)
• Waters that have undergone evaporation are more enriched in the heavier isotope and tend to lie
to the right of the meteoric water line
The conventional way to interpret stable isotope data is on a plot of δ 2 H versus δ 18 O as shown in
Fig. 16.6. Groundwater samples often plots on, or around the so-called local meteoric water line and
their composition depend on a number of factors. These include the location of the recharge area, the
storm track and rainfall history of the cloud mass that contributes to the recharge, processes affecting the
isotopic composition of recharge water during its passage through the soil zone and water rock interactions
along the groundwater flow path. In general, the most negative values that lie on the meteoric water
line can indicate localised recharge by large rainfall events, or passage of a cloud mass across continents.
Isotopic compositions of groundwater that lie to the right of the LMWL are indicative of evaporation
during recharge or lateral flow, either at the surface or within the soil zone. For a given rainfall regime,
the further away a sample lies to the right of the LMWL, the lower the recharge rate.
16.3 General applications of stable isotopes of the water molecule
16.3.1 Mechanism and sources of recharge
In a given groundwater basin, the source(s) of groundwater may be fingerprinted using isotopes that
recharge at varying altitudes. Higher altitudes will have lighter isotopic composition because they tend
to be colder (greater equilibrium fractionation). In large groundwater basins, water sources may have
different isotopic compositions resulting from different climatic conditions or recharge mechanisms and
may also be used to fingerprint water sources.
Similarly, for large groundwater basins where rainfall gradients may be significant, there may be differ-
ences in isotopic composition of respective recharge areas due to the continental effect. This is because
as rainfall traverses across the continent and rains out, the cloud mass gets progressively depleted in
18
O and 2 H which in turn causes groundwater recharge isotopic compositions to become more and more
negative.

Table 16.2: Isotopic signatures of water end members and a mixture of the two
Isotope End member 1 End member 2 mixture

δ2H -23 -10 -15
δ 18 O -4 -1.2 -2.1
Water that recharges in arid or semi-arid regions may have a long residence time within the top few
meters of soils and therefore be subject to partial evaporation. The soil moisture will be more enriched
in heavy isotopes [Allison et al., 1984] and lie off the meteoric water line relative to water that recharges
rapidly during flood events. In the latter case, water may or may not be subjected to much evaporative
enrichment and would tend to be more depleted in 18 O and 2 H than the water that enters the soil by
direct infiltration, or lie on a steeper slope than the slope caused by evaporation in the soil zone.
Higher rainfall amounts also tend to have isotopic compositions that are quite different to the more fre-
quent lighter event because of the Rayleigh effect. Because the stable isotopic composition of groundwater
is an integrator of all recharge events, it will reflect a mixed isotopic signature roughly in proportion to
the amount of water derived from flood recharge and normal recharge respectively.
16.3.2 Mixing of groundwater
We could use the same principle to determine the extent of mixing between a coastal aquifer and intruding
seawater or any two groundwater with different isotopic composition. By knowing the end member
isotopic compositions we can calculate the amount of water derived from each component in some mixture.
Consider two water end members (1 and 2) with isotopic composition given in Table 16.2.
Then if xi is the fraction of component 1 in the mixture where the subscript i refers to the isotope used
(18 O or 2 H),
(−23)x2 + (−10)(1 − x2 ) = −15 (16.6)
and
(−4.0)x18 + (−1.2)(1 − x18 ) = −2.1 (16.7)
Then solving for the value gives x2 = 0.385 and x18 = 0.321
These two estimates for mixing proportions agree to within about 20% of each other. Other factors such
as temporal variability in source isotope composition, rock-water interactions or non-identified source
waters may cause the difference in estimates.
16.3.3 Discharge rate estimation
The rate of evaporation (or discharge) can be estimated from bare soil surfaces by the shape of the isotope
profile. As we discussed above, evaporation tends to force the isotopic composition of water away from
the meteoric water line. The upward flux of water (the evaporation rate) is balanced by a downward
diffusive flux. Knowing the water content and depth distribution of isotopic composition of the water,
one can calculate the evaporation rate.
For example, Allison and Barnes [1985] used such a technique to estimate evaporation from a dry salt
lake, Lake Frome, in South Australia. 18 O and 2 H concentrations in interstitial water in the lake bed
were found to rise approximately exponentially from about 0.5 m below the surface, to a peak value at
or near the surface. The isotope profiles were explained as being due to a balance between the upwards
advective flux of isotopes caused by evaporation, and the downwards diffusive flux of isotopes as a result
of the evaporative enrichment at the surface, and consequent concentration gradients.

16.3.4 Hydrograph separation
The source of water to streams and lakes is sometimes important when investigating such things as the
yield of catchments; potential for nutrient input to surface waters and other applications. Distinguishing
the sources of surface water in a flood spate can be problematic. Is it the recent rainfall or displaced
groundwater that enters the stream? The stable isotopic composition of discrete rain events is usually
quite different from that of groundwater or soil water because the latter have integrated the isotopic
composition of several previous storm events. When using this data, account needs to be taken of the
intra-storm variations of rain isotopic concentrations, which can be as large as inter-storm variations, and
reflect cloud dynamics.
Differences between the proportions of stream flow along particular pathways estimated from event hy-
drographic and isotopic responses can be explained in terms of differences between the two response
functions. The hydrograph is essentially an hydraulic response to precipitation, where precipitation
input to the groundwater at one point rapidly results in exfiltration at another; whereas the isotopic
response is determined by the residence time of the actual water molecules in the system, and measures
true water velocities.
16.3.5 Palaeoclimate and palaeorecharge
In confined aquifers, where we can assume piston or tube flow, the isotopic composition of discrete water
samples along a flow line may reflect changes in recharge conditions over time. There is strong evidence
from around the world that recharge temperatures during the last glacial maximum (18,000 years BP)
were several degrees colder than the present, as evidenced by the lower oxygen-18 concentrations of
palaeowaters. The interpretation of the existence of palaeowaters that have recharged in, say, a cooler
climate is not necessarily straight-forward. One might intuitively think that cooler recharge temperatures
inferred from lower 2 H and 18 O concentrations indicate lower evaporation rates and therefore higher
recharge rates. Climatic conditions in many parts of the world were actually drier during glacial periods,
indicating lower rainfall, but changes in vegetation type and amount during climate changes may be
the main controlling factor that determines recharge, rather than precipitation amount and potential
evaporation alone.
Stable isotopes are a key part of palaeoclimate reconstruction based upon the composition of water
recovered from ice cores.
16.3.6 Example: The use of stable isotopes of water from the Maules Creek
Catchment in northern NSW
Andersen et al. [2008] have given results of a detailed study of 18 O and 2 H that shows how the isotopes
can be used to detect exchange between surface water (Namoi River) and groundwater. They present
results for rainfall; surface water and groundwater.
Rainfall
The Local Meteoric Water Line (LMWL; δ 2 H = 8.17 δ 18O + 11.3) for the area was based on 17 rain
samples collected between March 1998 and January 2001 in the central part of the Namoi River catchment.
The LMWL was calculated using individual rainfall events ranging from 3.6 to 57.6 mm rather than
monthly averages. The rainfall data (Fig. 16.1) shows that there is a large amount of variability in results
with δ 18 O ranging from -11.4 to 1.5h and δ 2 H ranging from -76.1 to 27.8h. The LMWL is close to,
but slightly above the World Meteoric Water Line (WMWL) in Fig. 16.1. The volume weighted isotopic
average of the rain samples over the whole sampling period was δ 18 O = −4.86h and δ 2 H = −24.67h.

Figure 16.1: Comparison of deuterium and oxygen 18 (VSMOW) for rainfall and surface water. WMWL
(World Meteoric Water Line)

Figure 16.2: Comparison of deuterium and oxygen 18 (VSMOW) for surface water and groundwater.
WMWL (World Meteoric Water Line)

Figure 16.3: Map plot of the δ 18 O (h) signature in surface water and upper groundwater (< 30 m). The
blue numbers signify surface water samples.
Surface water
Surface water samples were collected from the main Namoi River Channel as well as from the unregulated
tributary Maules Creek draining the great dividing range. The majority of the surface water samples
from various sections of the Namoi River plot below the LMWL, on a line which will be referred to as
the Local Evaporation Line (LEL: δ 2 H = 5.7δ 18O − 3.91) for the area. The LEL for this area was
constructed by regression analysis of samples plotted in the δ 2 H : δ 18 O space. Samples that plot on
this line are indicative of waters that have undergone isotopic enrichment due to evaporation. A similar
evaporative pattern is also seen for surface water samples in other parts of Australia. In contrast to the
Namoi River samples, the surface water samples from the tributary of Maules Creek plot in a narrow
cluster (δ 18 O: -5.3h to -4.5h and δ 2 H: -28.3h to -24.8h) above the LEL, but close to the LMWL
(Fig. 16.1).
Groundwater
Groundwater samples from the Maules Creek catchment generally range from -7.1h to -5.2h for δ 18 O
and -41.5h to -26.6h for δ 2 H with average values of δ 18 O = -6.22h and δ 2 H = -35.31h (Fig. 16.2).
Most samples plot on or close to the LMWL (Fig. 16.2). However, a few groundwater samples show
considerable enrichment compared to the bulk of the groundwater samples with δ 18 O ranging between
-3.8h and -0.9h and δ 2 H ranging between -23.9h and 5.1h. They plot in between the LMWL and
the LEL (encircled in Fig. 16.2). These enriched groundwater samples were from shallow wells (11.5 to
22.8 mbgs.) close to the Namoi River (< 1 km) as illustrated by the spatial distribution of groundwater
isotope ratios (Fig. 16.3). In addition, Fig. 16.3 shows that the most depleted groundwater samples
were collected from wells located near the Nandewar Range in the north.
In the southern part and below Maules Creek, shallow groundwater samples have isotopic signatures that
are higher and range from -5.7h to -5.2h for δ 18 O and -31.4h to -26.9h for δ 2 H. These groundwater
samples are slightly lower, but comparable to the surface water samples from Maules Creek (δ 18 O: -
5.3h to -4.5h and δ 2 H: -28.3h to -24.8h). Figure 16.4 show how δ 18 O signatures vary along two
cross-sections through the catchment. The cross-sections are parallel to the hydraulic gradient in the
aquifer as identified by Andersen and Acworth [2007]. In the cross-section along Maules Creek (Cross-
section B) isotopic signatures of groundwater samples are slightly more depleted in the deeper parts of
the aquifer with values ranging from -6.6h to -5.7h and -38.4h to -31.4h for δ 18 O and δ 2 H, respectively
(Fig. 16.4).

Figure 16.4: Cross-sections for δ 18 O(h) data. (A) Northern and (B) along Maules Creek (see Fig. 16.3
for location of cross-sections). The blue numbers signify surface water samples

To the north of Maules Creek in the northern cross-section (Cross-section A) groundwater isotopic signa-
tures are more depleted than observed in the previous cross-section with δ 18 O: -6.0h to -7.1h and δ 2 H:
-33.7h to -41.3h (Fig. 16.4). In this part of the aquifer there also appears to be a decreasing isotopic
signature with depth in the eastern and central part of Cross-section A. However, this is not the case for
the deepest samples to the west near the Namoi River, where the more enriched samples are found at
depth.
16.3.7 Example: The use of chloride and strontium Sr2+ stable isotopes to
investigate sources of water during a seawater intrusion experiment
at Skansehage, Denmark
In some cases the use of Cl− or stable isotopes of water (2 H and 18 O) as tracers fail when more than
two water types are mixing and/or in cases where there are no distinct contrasts in the tracer signature
between end-members. In such cases other tracers will need to be applied.
This was the case for the seawater intrusion experiment at Skansehage, Denmark [Jø rgensen et al.,
2008]. In this experiment, seawater intrusion was monitored in a shallow sandy coastal aquifer subject
to groundwater abstraction. Figure 16.5 [Jø rgensen et al., 2008], shows a vertical cross-section of the
Cl− distribution in the aquifer during the intrusion with the groundwater abstraction to the right and
the sea to the left. During seawater intrusion there are obviously two distinct end-members in terms
of salinity (and Cl− ): the surface seawater (Cl− ≈ 10670 mg/L) and the fresh groundwater in the
aquifer (Cl− ≈ 54 mg/L). However, the aquifer bottom was allegedly leaky and as a consequence deeper
brackish water from a limestone aquifer was suspected to enter the upper aquifer during the experiment.
This leakage complicates the mass balance of how much surface seawater enters the aquifer during the
experiment, since some unknown portion of the Cl− stems from this source. Stable isotopes of water
(2 H and 18 O) were analysed in samples from all three end-members, but proved unsuccessful since all
three samples plotted along the local meteoric water line (LMWL) and failed to set the deeper limestone
groundwater apart. Because a ternary mixing system was expected, a tracer or combinations of tracers
with distinct signatures for each end-member were needed. Samples of dissolved stable strontium (Sr 2+ )
isotopes (87 Sr and 86 Sr) provided the answer: while Cl− provided the means of distinguishing the surface
seawater from the two groundwater end-members, the ratio of 87 Sr/86 Sr could be used to distinguish
between the two groundwater end-members (Fig. 16.5B). This is because Sr 2+ in the upper sandy aquifer
originates from the weathering of Proterozoic crystalline minerals (87 Sr/86 Sr ˜ 0.7100) whereas Sr 2+ from
the deeper limestone aquifer stems from the originally marine carbonate rocks with a 87 Sr/86 Sr ratio of
0.7082 [Jø rgensen et al., 2008]. Based on the combination of Cl− and the 87 Sr/86 Sr ratio for the ternary
mixing system the proportions of the three water types in the shallow aquifer could be calculated. For
example up to 50% of the water in the deeper part of the shallow aquifer was found to stem from
upwards leakage from the deeper limestone aquifer during the intrusion experiment (Fig. 16.5). Thus by
introducing additional tracers, in this case stable Sr-isotopes it was possible to constrain the system an
get a better understanding of the flow processes during the experiment (Fig. 16.5D).
16.4 Carbon isotopes
Carbon has two stable, non-radioactive isotopes: carbon-12 (12 C) and carbon-13 (13 C). In addition there
are trace quantities of the unstable isotope carbon-14 (14 C) on the earths surface. Carbon-14 has a half
life of only 5730 years if it did not get constantly replenished in the upper atmosphere. The means of
renewal is the impact of cosmic rays from the sun reacting on nitrogen in the upper atmosphere of the
earth via the reaction:
n + 147 N → 146 C + p (16.8)
In effect, a proton in the atomic nucleus is exchanged for a high energy neutron. This reaction takes place

Figure 16.5: A) Cl− distribution in the aquifer during the intrusion. The groundwater abstraction is
to the right and the sea to the left; (B) 87 Sr/86 Sr ratio vs. 1/Sr showing the three end-member water
types; (C) fractions of water in the shallow aquifer originating from the deep limestone aquifer; (D) flow
processes during seawater intrusion elucidated using Cl− and stable Sr-isotopes

between 9 and 14 km towards the poles of the earth. The carbon forms carbon dioxide and disperses
evenly throughout the atmosphere. It also permeates to the oceans, dissolving in water. Plants take up
carbon dioxide by photosynthesis which then propagate into higher tropic levels of the food chain. This
process keep plants and animals in equilibrium with atmospheric 14 C. However, when the plant or animal
die, the uptake of 14 C stops and the 14 C content decays by beta decay.
14
6C → 147 N + e− + νe (16.9)
The radioactive decay of carbon-14 follows an exponential decay:

dN
= −λN (16.10)
dt
where:
N0 is the number of radiocarbon atoms at t = 0,

N is the number of radiocarbon atoms remaining after radioactive decay during time t
λ is the radiocarbon decay or disintegration constant.
The solution to this equation is

N = N0 e−λt (16.11)
1
It can be shown that taverage = λ = 8033 years or that t 12 = taverage × ln 2 = 5568 years
1
The radiocarbon age can thus be described as: t(BP ) = λ
ln NNo
14
16.4.1 Principles of C dating of groundwater
Measurements of 14 C are made by counting beta decay in either a gas or liquid phase, or more recently
by accelerator mass spectrometry of a graphite target. Sampling for radiocarbon determination is carried
out in one of two ways. The first involves precipitation of about 60 mmoles of total dissolved carbon
as barium or strontium carbonate at pH>9. Another method involves acidification of the water, gas
stripping the CO2 with pure nitrogen, and trapping the evolved CO2 in a solution of sodium hydroxide.
The latter technique is used when samples have low concentration of dissolved inorganic carbon.
Radiocarbon activities are expressed as percent modern carbon (pmc) which represents the activity of
carbon prior to the dilution by post-industrial dead fossil-fuel CO2 and enrichment from thermonuclear
weapons testing. A carbon sample having 0% modern carbon is labeled 14 C-dead or has an age beyond
that resolvable by the radiocarbon technique (>40,000 years). A sample which contains > 100% modern
carbon must have some component of bomb-radiocarbon and thus probably is less than 50 years old. The
age of a water sample can be calculated from the rearrangement of the decay equation to give:
1 C
t= ln( ) (16.12)
λ Co
where:
t is the age in years

14
λ is the decay constant of C
14
C is measured C activity
Co is the initial 14 C activity.

14
Figure 16.6: Summary of processes affecting C in the hydrological cycle
By measuring the carbon-14 content of a water sample alone, we cannot assign an absolute age to the
water. This is because dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) interacts with several other carbon reservoirs
such as soil CO2 , calcium carbonate in the soil zone and CaCO3 within the aquifer.
Consider a situation where water percolates through the soil zone. The assimilation of CO2 by land
plants is accompanied by production of CO2 in the soil zone as plant litter decays and roots respire. The
bicarbonate in groundwater arises from the action of dissolved CO2 (the partial pressure of which can be
orders of magnitude higher than that in surface waters) or organic matter on calcium carbonate;
CO2 + CaCO3 + H2 O = 2HCO3− + Ca2+ (16.13)
where for every two atoms of bicarbonate produced, one atom will have been derived from the solid
carbonate and the other from soil CO2 .
The soil CO2 or dissolved organic carbon represents carbon essentially of modern 14 C activity (at the
time of reaction). If CaCO3 was deposited within a soil matrix more than 40,000 years ago, then all
of its 14 C will have decayed away and it will have no radiocarbon activity. Following from the above
stoichiometry, a modern water sample will, in this case, have a radiocarbon content of about (100+0)/2
= 50% modern carbon and thus if taken at face value would have an apparent age of:
50
t = −8270 ln( ) = 5730 (16.14)
100
This would be a gross overestimation of its age. The way in which we can correct these apparent ages
for true radiocarbon ages is by measuring the isotopic composition of stable carbon isotopes dissolved in
the water and in the soil matrix.
A useful way of correcting 14 C apparent ages is by measuring the 13 C content. The δ 13 C composition of the
various carbon reservoirs in the figure above are usually quite different hence we can apply isotope mass-
balance calculations to determine the relative amount of carbon derived from biological and inorganic
sources. Table 16.3 gives some δ 13 C values for different carbon reservoirs involved in the geochemistry of
carbon in soil water and groundwater.
An example of such a calculation would be if we had a sample of soil CO2 = −18h (say in an arid region)

Table 16.3: Range of δ 13 C of some sources of dissolved inorganic carbon
Source zones δ 13 C
(h, PDB)
Atmospheric CO2 -8h
Soil-CO2 or organic matter -15 to -26h
CaCO3 -6 to +1h
Groundwater δ 13 C -25 to +2h
and a CaCO3 = 0h, the resulting HCO3− would be about −9h. Alternatively, weathering of silicate
minerals such as feldspars, also gives rise to HCO3−:
) N a+ + Al(OH)3 + 3H4 SiO4 + HCO3−

N aAlSi3 O8 + 7H2 O + H2 CO3 * (16.15)
where the above process contributes carbon solely from biological sources therefore no [13]C correction
would be needed. The contribution of this reaction to the dissolved HCO3− in groundwater is subordinate
to the one involving dissolution of CaCO3 .
16.4.2 Correction procedures for estimating carbon-14 ages
14
We have listed below a summary of various correction schemes that need to be applied to measured C
activities according to the prevailing soil conditions and the presence or absence of a gas phase.
Open system models (systems open to a gas phase)
An open system for the purposes of radiocarbon dating of groundwater refers to a situation where the
dissolved CO2 and HCO3− isotopic composition is driven by the high CO2 concentrations within the soil
gas. If it can be demonstrated that such conditions occurred during recharge, this represents the ideal
conditions for 14 C dating. The following three situations represent some of the physical conditions that
would be amenable to application of an open system model, and requires no formal correction to estimate
a 14 C age.
Non-carbonate aquifer - high air filled porosity, high pCO2 . The dissolved bicarbonate within
the groundwater equilibrates completely with the gaseous CO2 . Measured δ 13 C = −17 h. This
represents the usual +8 h fractionation between gaseous CO2 and dissolved bicarbonate. Ai =
100 pmc (percent modern carbon). No correction is required.
Same as above but low air filled porosity. Total DIC in the form of uncharged CO2 . The δ 13 C =
−25 h. Ai = 100 pmc and no correction is required.
Carbonate aquifer, high air filled porosity with high pCO2. The δ 13 C = −17 h. Ai = 100 pmc
and no correction is required.
There may however be some situations that display 13 C and DIC characteristics that give the appearance
of open system behaviour, but have Ao values less than 100 pmc. Such circumstances may occur through
the dissolution of secondary calcite that had precipitated under open system conditions within the soil
zone. The resultant δ 13 C and chemical parameters would indicate apparent open system situation, but
the 14 C activity would reflect that of the time of carbonate precipitation. This secondary calcite need
not be dead, and could even enrich 14 C activity of dissolved HCO3− if precipitated over the past 50 years
(i.e. during the post-bomb era).

Closed-system models (system closed to gas phase)
These usually apply to low porosity media, in deep unsaturated zones with low organic matter or in deep
confined aquifers. Correction scenarios include:
Dissolution of modern CaCO3 in the soil matrix No carbonate within the aquifer matrix, therefore no
correction is required.
Reaction between biogenic CO2 and ancient CaCO3 Same as for case described above. System is closed
to CO2 in the unsaturated zone. The initial 14 C activity is written in the form:
δd − δc
A0 = (Ag − Ac ) + Ac (16.16)
δg − δc
where δ and A represent the 13 C and 14 C contents respectively, and d, c and g refer to ΣDIC, solid
carbonate and soil CO2 respectively. The value for δg is between −25 h in temperate regions to
−12 h for vegetated arid zone vegetation. δc is usually around 0 h but can be as light as −6 h
for freshwater carbonates.
In an open system with CO2 in the unsaturated zone, HCO3− resulting from reaction between CO2
and CaCO3 is allowed to equilibrate with the soil gas. The equation to calculate Ao is then:
δd − δc
A0 = (Ag − Ac ) + Ac (16.17)
δg − g − δc
where g = fractionation between gaseous CO2 and dissolved HCO3− ≈= −8 h.
The most successful application of 14 C to estimate water residence time (as opposed to explicit ages)
is where samples can be collected along flow paths. Calculations of 14 C ages along the flow path may
then be made, and the mean groundwater velocity calculated by dividing the ages difference between
two sampling points by the distance between them. This approach minimises errors induced by the
assumptions and approximations that propagate through the various correction schemes.
Particular care is needed when there is potential for mixing between two aquifers. Consider two ground-
waters. Water from aquifer A is 40,000 years old (A = 0 pmc); water from aquifer B is 100 years old
(A = 100 pmc). If the two were mixed in equal molar proportions the average age would be: 40,000+100
2 =
20, 000. However by taking the radiocarbon data at face value, we would obtain: 100+0
2
= 50 pmc, which
gives a 14 C age of 5,568 years! Much younger than the average age.
16.4.3 Example: Adelaide Plains Tertiary Aquifers
The Adelaide area is underlain by a thick sequence of Quaternary and Tertiary sedimentary aquifers
that drain from the hills, westward towards the sea. It is extensively used for industry, irrigation (parks
and gardens) and some domestic use. To evaluate the resource potential, or sustainable yield, requires
calculating recharge and flow rates.
The uncorrected 14 C ages of the groundwater measured along transects at right angles to the potentio-
metric contours range from 1,200 to >30,000 years and generally increase with distance from the foothills
to the sea (Fig. 16.7). However, there is some inconsistency from well to well, and there is reason to
believe that the ages are overestimated. This is partly because the soils and the aquifer matrix contains
ancient carbonate minerals. Evidence of this is seen in Fig. 16.8 where the inverse correlation between
the stable (δ 13 C) and radio-isotope (14 C) of carbon suggests an addition of old carbon, necessitating an
age correction.
The correction yield much younger ages than those that are not corrected for any carbonate dissolution or
exchange. Although the correction scheme has some assumptions and approximations, it appears to be a

Figure 16.7: Map of the Adelaide Plains showing sampled bores, measured % modern carbon and flow
direction for the confined aquifer

Figure 16.8: The relationship between δ 13 CDIC and 14

CDIC for the Adelaide Plains groundwaters
better estimation of the true groundwater residence time. This can be demonstrated when the corrected
ages are plotted as a function of distance along a transect down an inferred flow path (Fig. 16.9). The
slope of the line joining the points provides an estimate of flow velocity (i.e., age divided by distance)
and in some ways the uncertainties in estimating absolute ages are minimized, yielding a parameter that
is more useful in hydraulic models than an ill-defined age. Calculated flow velocities are between 0.5 and
1.1 m/yr, and apparent ages are up to 11,000 years at the end of the 3.3 km transect.
14
16.4.4 Summary of C methods
The use of radiocarbon to estimate water residence time should be done with great care and requires
high quality hydrochemical data, stable isotope data and a good knowledge of the regional hydrogeology.
The following procedure should be adopted to make maximum use of radiocarbon data.
1. Establish flow paths and hydraulic connectivity and take several samples along that flow path. The
groundwater residence time between two sampling points is far more useful than a single radiocarbon
age.
14
2. Evaluate the importance of mixing of different groundwater sources and their effect on the C
activity of the end mixture.
3. Samples should be collected from the recharge area to calibrate the initial radiocarbon activity (i.e.,
soil CO2 , δ 13 C of carbonates, alkalinity and total DIC).
4. Use the hydrochemical data to accurately determine the carbonate speciation, the partial pressure
of CO2 , and the saturation state (sub- or supersaturation) with respect to carbonate minerals.

14
Figure 16.9: Corrected C ages for two transects along a hydraulic gradient in the Adelaide Plains
aquifers.
16.5 Chlorine-36
Chlorine-36 application to hydrology has attracted considerable interest over the past decade. This is
due to the ability of tandem accelerator mass spectrometry to measure very low levels of 36 Cl with
reasonable accuracy. Some of the advantages of chlorine-36 are (1) it behaves conservatively in most
hydrological environments and (2) has a half-life of 300,000 years making it suitable for a wide range
of applications. These include groundwater dating and determination of recharge rates (see below).
Collection and sample preparation is fairly straight forward, but the cost of analysis remains quite high
(about $1000 per sample).
36
Cl is produced naturally by cosmic ray spallation of 40 Ar. During the bomb-testing of the 1960’s,
significant amount of 36 Cl was released to overwhelm the natural abundance. The bomb 36 Cl can thus
be used to delineate recharge rates and compare with tritium data. It has an advantage over tritium in
that it is not affected by vapour transport processes in the unsaturated zone.
One of the classic early studies involving 36 Cl was carried out in the Great Artesian Basin (GAB) in
Australia where it was used to date very old groundwater. By making an estimate of the initial 36 Cl/35Cl
ratio in the recharge area of the GAB, and correcting for in-situ processes affecting 36 Cl abundance, the
age at any sampling point can be obtained from the expression:

1 Ct (Rt − Rse )
t = − ln (16.18)
λ C0 (Ro − Rse )
Clwhere:
36
λ is the decay constant of Cl, (yr −1 ),
Ct is the measured chloride concentration, (atoms/L),
Co is the initial chloride concentration, (atoms/L),
36
Rt is the measured Cl/35Cl activity ratio,

Figure 16.10: Schematic diagram diagram showing processes affecting Chlorine-36 and Cl in groundwater
Rse is the ratio at secular equilibrium with the aquifer U and Th minerals and
Ro is the initial 36 Cl/35Cl ratio.
The ages calculated for the GAB indicate that water which recharges just east of Charleville in Queensland
reaches Innaminka on the Queensland - SA border after about 1.5 million years.
The distribution of 36 Cl/35Cl ratios as a function of 36 Cl concentration can yield considerable information
on the processes that affect chloride in groundwater. Processes such as dissolution of old halite, evapo-
ration, membrane filtration and mixing with new, dilute meteoric waters can be recognised (Fig. 16.10).
An example of the use of Cl-corrected and uncorrected ages from the GAB is shown in Fig. 16.11 and
Fig. 16.12 from Love et al. [2000]. Although the two age estimates at any given well may be up to a factor
of two apart, the slopes of the lines are very similar, yielding flow velocities of about 0.24 ± 0.2 m/yr.
Bomb produced 36 Cl may be particularly useful for estimating recharge rates in the unsaturated zone.
The fallout pattern is reasonably well known at some locations, therefore representative cumulative water
content and 36 Cl/35Cl ratios in soil profiles can be obtained. These profiles are best obtained at the driest
time of year to ensure a steady-state soil moisture profile.
16.6 Chlorofluorocarbons
Production of chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s) or Freons for refrigerants, propellants and solvents has released
large quantities of CCl3 F (CFC-11) and CCl2 F2 (CFC-12) into the atmosphere since the 1940’s). These
compounds are entirely artificial (anthropogenic origin), with atmospheric residence times of 60 and 120
years, respectively. Although very stable and inert at the earths surface, they are gradually removed
by reactions with O3 in the stratosphere. These compounds are not isotopes, but they can be used as
groundwater tracers in a similar way as the bomb produced tritium, except that the input function is
quite different.

36
Figure 16.11: Location of Cl sampling sites in the south western Great Artesian Basin
Figure 16.12: Plots of Chlorine-36 ages as a function of distance along two hydraulic transects in the
south-western Great Artesian Basin

Figure 16.13: The buildup of CFC-11 and CFC-12 concentrations in the atmosphere shows a steady
increase since commencement of production in the mid 1940’s. Because the solubility of CFC’s as a
function of temperature is known very well, it is a relatively simple matter to convert CFC’s measured
in groundwater to a recharge age if the recharge temperature is known.
CFC gases in the atmosphere equilibrate with water at the earth’s surface and can then be used to
date groundwater that have recharged since the mid-1940’s (Fig. 16.13). Studies made in the late 1970’s
concluded that the CFC results were in good agreement with known hydrological estimates and tritium
measurements, notwithstanding some problems with adsorption/desorption on soils. The rekindling of
interest over the past few years stems in part from the exhaustion of the bomb derived tritium. Due to
the short half life of tritium (3 H), the large concentration of 3 H released by weapons testing has now
mostly decayed and therefore 3 H is increasingly difficult to use as a reliable dating tracer. Recent work
from the USGS have shown that CFC’s can be used as tracers of shallow groundwater systems, and in
some ideal situation can be used to date young (< 50 years old) groundwater.
CFC’s can be used for three main applications;
1. dating using the change in CFC-11 to CFC-12 ratio,

2. as tracers of groundwater source, and
3. tracers of sewage contamination to groundwater or surface water.
The lower limit of detection is 1 part in 1015 and modern recharge water has concentrations of 1000 and
300 pg/kg for CFC-11 and CFC-12 respectively assuming an equilibration temperature of 10 ◦C . The
most critical part of the analysis is avoiding atmospheric or laboratory contamination. CFC concentration
in air is 3 orders of magnitude greater than in groundwater. Entrainment of just 1% of air will cause a 10
fold increase in apparent CFC concentration. Plummer and Busenberg [1999] give a very comprehensive
review of sampling and analysis techniques.

Chapter 17
Groundwater microbiology
Contents
17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
17.2 Pathogens in groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
17.2.1 Public health surveillance methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
17.2.2 Pathogens - Microbial contamination of aquifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
17.2.3 Pathogen death and decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
17.2.4 Pathogen transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
17.2.5 Regulations for microbial quality of drinking water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
17.3 Geochemical effects of microbial processes within aquifers . . . . . . . . . . 485
17.3.1 Electron transfer reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
17.4 Bioremediation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
17.4.1 Hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
17.4.2 Chorinated hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
17.4.3 Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
17.4.4 Bioremediation exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
17.5 Undesirable microbial effects on extraction systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
17.5.1 Metal deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
17.5.2 Biofouling and aquifer clogging and corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
17.5.3 Production of undesirable odours in distributed groundwater . . . . . . . . . . 489
17.6 Techniques for the Analysis of Microbial Communities in Aquifers and
Groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
17.1 Introduction
The biology of groundwater environments is dominated by microorganisms. It is estimated that we

currently have knowledge of less than 5 % of the bacterial diversity on earth. In the subsurface the paucity
of knowledge is extreme. Information on the current level of knowledge is given in reviews by Krumholz
[2000], Parkes et al. [2000], Madsen [2000] and Green and Scow [2000]. However, understanding of the
general principles of microbial processes, which has been gained from research conducted for microbially
oriented industries such as the fermentation/pharmaceutical industry and waste water industry, or by
academic research laboratories, can be applied to understanding the characteristics of biologically driven
processes occurring within aquifers. Research was rarely targeted towards the microbial ecology of aquifers
until the 1980’s, when it was widely recognised that biological processes may be useful for remediating
polluted aquifers.
Microbiological parameters that are relevant to groundwater use, quality and characteristics include:
477
Chapter 17. Groundwater microbiology
1. Contamination of aquifers by pathogens, pathogen transport and survival.

2. Geochemical effects of microbial processes within aquifers - oxygen removal, denitrification, nitrifi-
cation, metal and metalloid reduction, carbon and pollutant degradation (intrinsic remediation).
3. Manipulation of the microbial community to effect the bioremediation of pollutants.
4. Undesirable microbial effects on extraction and distribution systems - biofouling, metal oxida-
tion/deposition, corrosion, aquifer clogging, off odour and taste production.
In addition to these resource issues, it should be remembered that bacteria form the basis of food chains
in aquifer ecosystems. They repackage energy and carbon to form bacterial cells either through secondary
heterotrophic production (consumption of dissolved organic carbon), or chemolithotrophy (oxidation of
reduced chemical species to produce energy). These bacterial cells form the food source for aquifer
invertebrates.
17.2 Pathogens in groundwater
17.2.1 Public health surveillance methods
Most microbiological testing of waters is conducted for public health surveillance. The methods used
are appropriate for the microbiological examination of waters for domestic and industrial use. These
methods are appropriate for Australian and New Zealand conditions and have been agreed upon by the
Joint Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand Committee on Water Microbiology. Revised methods
were published by Standards Australia in 1995 and are listed in Table 17.1. Providers of public water
supplies monitor their distribution system to see that water complies with National Health and Medical
Research Council guidelines. The standard methods should be performed by trained laboratory staff.
Most countries have their own standard guidelines and methods, or use those of the USEPA.
All of the methods listed in Table 17.1 detect the presence (and estimate the number) of indicator
organisms in water by growing the organism on a selective medium (a medium that supports the growth
of the target organisms, be it E. coli or faecal streptococci and a few other bacterial types). The target
organism produces a characteristic reaction on or in the selective medium. For example, in testing for
thermotolerant E. coli (Standard Method AS 4276.7), cells are grown on MLS agar. This agar medium
contains lactose, which E. coli ferments, and a high concentration of sodium lauryl sulfate (1 g/L), a
detergent to which E. coli is relatively resistant. With incubation at 44.0 to 44.5 ◦ C , E. coli forms lemon
to yellow coloured colonies on the agar within 14 to 16 hrs.
The methods for testing waters for indicator microorganisms generally follow either of two general proce-
dures, either the membrane filtration method or the most probable number method (MPN). The former
is used where numbers of organisms are expected to be low (eg. in tap water). It involves filtering the
water sample through a 0.45 µm sterile filter, which traps bacterial cells. The filter is placed on a selective
nutrient medium that is then incubated. Each target cell (or target cell cluster) grows to form a colony
on the surface of the filter. The number of characteristic colonies formed on the filter is counted and
cell number in the original filtered sample is usually expressed as cells or colony forming units (cfu) per
100 mL sample.
Most probable number methods are used for samples that may be expected to contain large numbers
of target cells (eg. in waste streams) and uses a serial dilution of the sample in an appropriate liquid
medium. The sample is diluted to such an extent that the organism is no longer present in the lowest
dilutions. After incubation of the dilutions, the tubes showing growth are recorded and statistical tables
(MPN tables) are consulted that enable estimation of the most probable number of organisms in the
original samples. Tables are available in the Standards publication AS 4276.1, or in Standard Methods
for the Examination of Water and Wastewater published by the American Public Health Association.

Table 17.1: List of Australian and New Zealand standard methods for microbiological testing of water
for domestic and industrial use
Code Water Microbiology Method
AS 4276.1 Method 1: General information and procedures
AS 4276.2 Method 2: Culture media, diluents and reagents
AS 4276.3.1 Method 3.1: Heterotrophic colony count methods - Pour plate
method using plate count agar
AS 4276.4 Method 4: Coliforms - Estimation of most probable number
(MPN)
AS 4276.5 Method 5: Coliforms - Membrane filtration method
AS 4276.6 Method 6: Thermotolerant coliforms and Escherichia coli - Esti-
mation of most probable number (MPN)
AS 4276.7 Method 7: Thermotolerant coliforms and Escherichia coli - mem-
brane filtration method
AS 4276.8 Method 8: Faecal streptococci - Estimation of most probable num-
ber (MPN)
AS 4276.9 Method 9: Faecal streptococci - Membrane filtration method
AS 4276.10 Method 10: Pseudomonas - estimation of most probable number
(MPN)
AS 4276.11 Method 11: Pseudomonas - Membrane filtration method
AS 4276.12 Method 12: Pseudomonas aeruginosa - Estimation of most prob-
able number (MPN)
AS 4276.13 Method 13: Pseudomonas aeruginosa - Membrane filtration
method
AS 4276.14 Method 14: Salmonella
The methods listed above are for public health surveillance of water and allow testing of water for
compliance to National Health and Medical Research Council guidelines for microbiological quality of
waters. They are used for determining the numbers of specific indicator organisms such as E. coli.
Apart from monitoring the microbial quality of groundwater for public health reasons, estimation of
changes in microbial populations in contaminated sites that are undergoing bioremediation is one method
of validating the progress or success of a bioremediation exercise. The types of methods used in public
health surveillance are generally not useful for estimating microbial populations in aquifers. The majority
(probably >95%) of microorganisms in any aquifer sample will not grow on any single medium. To
estimate the biomass of microorganisms in an aquifer, one should generally use a method of estimation
that does not require growth of the aquifer microorganisms. There are a number of these methods; most
are still difficult to perform and require careful interpretation. Should one wish to estimate the microbial
biomass in an aquifer (for example at a contaminated site), the services of a specialist microbial ecologist
from a reputable university or research institute should be sought.
A method increasingly in favour for estimating bacterial biomass in aquifers involves the indirect estimate
of biomass from determination of the concentration of phospholipids in core samples. The method is based
on the premise that phospholipids only occur in cell membranes, and that each bacterial cell generally
contains only one membrane, the size of which will be proportional to the size of the cell. Thus, the
amount of phospholipid that can be extracted from core material will be proportional to the biomass.
One great advantage of this technique is that phospholipids can be quantitatively extracted using organic
solvents from core material. Analysis of water samples from aquifers give a poor indication of in situ
microbial biomass as usually between 95 - 99% of the microbial population in aquifers is bound to the
soil matrix and hence analysis of groundwater samples overlooks the vast bulk of the biomass.
As coring and phospholipid determinations are both time consuming and expensive, most monitoring of
microbial populations in aquifers is performed by MPN determinations in water samples.

Table 17.2: Potential waterbourne pathogens
Organism Disease Original source

Viruses
Enteroviruses Gastroenteritis, Meningitis Faecal
Rotavirus Gastroenteritis (especially infants)diarrhoea Faecal
Norwalk Virus Gastroenteritis Faecal
Bacteria
Salmonella Gastroenteritis, diarrhoea enteric fever Faecal
Helicobacter Gastroenteritis, diarrhoea Faecal
Shigella Dysentery Faecal
E. coli (toxigenic) diarrhoea, renal failure Faecal
Vibrio cholerae Diarrhoea, Dysentery Faecal
Protozoa
Giardia Diarrhoea, nausea, vomiting fever Faecal
Cryptosporidium Diarrhoea, nausea, vomiting, fever Faecal
17.2.2 Pathogens - Microbial contamination of aquifers
Uncontaminated groundwaters usually contain between one thousand to one million bacterial cells per
mL of water. The microbial population is usually composed of species that are not pathogenic and
pose no threat to non-immunocompromised humans. However, a large number of illnesses have been
recorded to occur from contaminated aquifers [Macler and Merkle, 2000]. The most common sources of
contamination of groundwaters with pathogens include sewer leakage, effluent leakage or discharge, the
application of sewage sludge to land, animal wastes, and septic tanks and cesspools. Of all waterborne
disease outbreaks in the USA between 1971-1977, 56 % were attributed to use of untreated or inadequately
treated groundwater. The greatest source of outbreaks (43 %) was associated with septic tank effluent.
Contamination of domestic and community water supply bores by effluent from septic tanks often result
from inappropriate siting of disposal tanks and production wells, without due consideration of geological
features, or lack of diligence concerning abandoned septic tanks. An example of inappropriate siting
which resulted in a community outbreak of bacillary dysentery, caused by Shigella flexneri, is shown in
Fig. 17.1. During the outbreak 18 residents and 15 non-residents had consumed water drawn from the
domestic well. All residents and 12 of the non-residents became ill; in the aquifer fluorescein dye was
used to show a hydraulic connection between the pit and the contaminated domestic wells. Between 1980
and 1992 in Finland, there were 7,700 people reported as been infected through waterborne outbreaks,
and contaminated groundwater was a more common source of infection than surface water.
Throughout the world, waterborne disease constitutes a serious health hazard. Between 5 and 10 % of
all deaths in tropical developing countries may be attributed to waterborne disease. There are over 100
different virus types encountered in sewage. Although they require a host in order to replicate, they have
the potential to survive long periods in the environment. A non-exhaustive list of potential waterborne
pathogens is given in Table 17.2 . A listing of groundwater associated disease outbreaks for the USA
between 1971 - 1981 are given in Table 17.3 [Yates and Yates, 1988].
17.2.3 Pathogen death and decay
Bacteria and viruses generally survive longer in groundwater than in surface waters. Coliform bacteria
have been shown to survive up to 400 days in some aquifers and may even grow in aquifers if sufficient
nutrients are available. Survival of pathogens within aquifers is aquifer specific and dependent upon
many variables. Survival times of pathogens can be tested in microcosm chambers that are sealed with
membrane filters that allow the passage of groundwater but not the escape of the pathogen [McFetters
et al., 1974].

Figure 17.1: Subsurface schematic (not to scale) of seepage pit, domestic well and geological features
associated with an outbreak of gastroenteritus
Table 17.3: Etiology of waterborne disease outbreaks in untreated or inadequately treated groundwater
systems, 1971 - 1981
Disease Outbreaks Illnesses

No. % Total No. % Total
Gastroenteritis (unknown agent1 ) 132 64.7 25,700 74.85
Shigellosis 20 9.8 4,938 14.38
Hepatitis A 16 7.8 493 1.44
Chemical poisoning 12 5.9 157 0.46
Viral gastroenterits 7 3.4 1,363 3.97
Giardiasis 7 3.4 96 0.28
Typhoid fever 4 2 222 0.65
Samonellosis 4 2 352 1.03
Yersiniosis 1 0.5 16 0.05
Escherichia coli 1 0.5 1,000 2.91

For non-reproducing organisms exposed to a constant risk of death, survival can be expressed in the form:
Nt
= e−kt (17.1)
No
or
ln Nt = ln No − kt (17.2)
or, noting that k 0 = −k ln e, then
log(Nt /No ) = −kt log e = k 0 t (17.3)
Where:
Nt = Number of organisms at time = t.

No = number of cells at time = 0.
k is a constant dependent on the aquifer (and organism) characteristics and can be calculated from
experimental data.
Values for k 0 determined for E. coli in three studies range from -0.2 to -0.3, and for poliovirus k 0 ranged
from -0.04 to -7.7 The number of cells or particles required for an infectious dose of a pathogen varies with
the pathogen. Whereas Vibrio cholerae may require ingestion of 106 cells to cause disease, enteroviruses
may require only 1 - 10 particles. The effects of only two parameters on the survival of Polio virus in
wetted soils is given in Fig. 17.2. The figure highlights the observation that survival of pathogens in
groundwater is aquifer specific.
17.2.4 Pathogen transport
Transport of microorganisms, like the survival of microorganisms in aquifers, is specific for the aquifer
and the type of organism. Larger intestinal parasites, such as the protozoa Giardia and Cryptosporidium
are not generally considered problem pathogens in aquifers as their large size results in their being filtered
out by soil over a short distance from a contamination source. Large outbreaks of disease can occur in
areas where community groundwater supplies are obtained from limestone or rock aquifers due to direct
hydraulic connection through khast fissures or rock fractures.
There are models for bacterial transport in aquifers and most are modifications on the fundamental theme
of advection-dispersion in transport modelling (eg. see Tan et al. [1994], or Lawrence and Hendy [1996]).
A typical transport equation given by Tan et al. [1994] is as follows:
∂S 0 ∂C ∂2C ∂C
+ =D 2 −v (17.4)
∂t ∂t ∂x ∂x
Where:
S 0 is an imaginary concentration of cells that would result if the attached bacterial cells were resuspended
in the surrounding solution,
C is the concentration of bacterial cells (defined as mass per unit volume),
D is the dispersion coefficient of bacteria,
v is the pore water flow velocity, and
x is the distance in the flow direction.

Figure 17.2: Survival of polio virus in wetted soils under two different incubation regimes, aerobic incu-
bation at 23 ◦C and anaerobic incubation at 1 ◦C

Table 17.4: Migration of microorganisms in the subsurface
Medium Distance (m)

Bacteria Viruses
Vertical Horizontal Vertical Horizontal
Sand 3.1 45.7 400
Fine + course sand 4 24.4
Fine + medium sand 0.15 3.1
Sand + sandy clay 1.2 10.7 3
Silt loam 3.0 46
Silty clay loam 1.5
Medium sandy gravel 125
Pebbles 850
Weathered limestone 1000 1600
In this model the change in S 0 with respect to time describes the rate of the attachment and detachment
of bacteria.
In discussing bacterial transport models, it was observed that: The assumptions in the mathematical
model are valid to varying degrees but not universally valid [Lawrence and Hendy, 1996]. Transport has
been shown to depend on water-filled porosity, groundwater flow rate, groundwater ionic strength, bacte-
rial motility, attachment/detachment coefficients, bacterial size, initial bacterial concentration, bacterial
growth rate, bacterial death rate. The utility of laboratory-derived bacterial transport models to field
situations is largely unknown. Viruses and bacteria have been shown to be transportable up to 1 to 2 km
in some aquifers. In other cases, for example in the vicinity of septic tanks, transport may be limited to
a zone of aquifer clogging associated with intense biofilm formation. A listing of some measurements of
transport distances in different aquifer media is given in Table 17.4.
Due to the recognition of microbial transport in the subsurface, off-set distances between sites of waste
disposal and water production are regulated. For example in Western Australia, a distance of at least
30 m is required between domestic bores used for drinking water and wastewater disposal systems. If
domestic bores are used for garden irrigation, the offset distance may be as low as 5 m. Information on
local off-set distances can usually be obtained from local Health Departments or EPAs.
17.2.5 Regulations for microbial quality of drinking water
The NH&MRC recommendations for microbiological quality of water for drinking is as follows:
• No sample should contain E. coli in 100 mL.

• no sample should contain more than 10 coliform organisms per 100 mL.
• coliform organisms should not be detectable in 100 mL of any two consecutive samples.
• standard Plate Counts for heterotrophs should not exceed 10,000 cells per 100 mL.
Although the recommendations for microbiological quality have generally served the community well,
there is a growing feeling that enteric viruses and protozoan cysts would be more appropriate indicators
of microbiological quality of waters, as they are the usual causative agents of water acquired infections.
For example, the largest waterborne outbreak of pathogens in the USA occurred in 1993 in Milwau-
kee. An estimated 403,000 people (each with a median duration of diarrhoea of 3 days) were infected
with Cryptosporidium from a public water supply that had tested negative for coliforms. Eighty five
deaths were associated with the outbreak. A range of new methods using molecular and immunological

techniques and flow cytometry are being developed for detection of a range of waterborne pathogens.
The decision of which organisms should be monitored for public health surveillance of water supplies is
not trivial, and may depend on local risks to catchments. Clearly the effort required for monitoring all
possible pathogenic organisms is beyond the capabilities of most water suppliers. For reclaimed waters,
it may be more appropriate to monitor for chlorine resistant pathogens such as Cryptosporidium. The
USEPA demanded that each water facility serving populations of greater than 100,000 must monitor for
Cryptosporidium once a month.
17.3 Geochemical effects of microbial processes within aquifers
17.3.1 Electron transfer reactions
The importance of microorganisms on hydrology and geochemistry is reviewed by Chapelle [2000]. In

the presence of mineralisable organic matter, microbial communities develop which will utilise reducible
substrates or electron acceptors. In groundwaters the replenishment of an electron acceptor, such as
oxygen, is limited by its slow rate of diffusion from the unsaturated zone, so in situations where the
rate of reduction is faster than its rate of replenishment, the environment becomes anoxic or anaerobic
and oxygen is no longer available for microbial respiration. When this occurs, alternate compounds are
used as terminal electron acceptors for the oxidation of organic matter. Electron acceptors are usually
utilised in a specific sequence; oxygen, nitrate, M n4+, F e3+, SO42− , CO2 . To a large extent the sequence
is determined by the ability of the microbial community to derive maximal energy from the reductive
reaction (see Table 17.5). Organisms that obtain greater energy from the oxidation of a carbon source
by using a more energy-yielding electron acceptor, will have greater ability to grow and divide and
out-compete organisms that are only capable of utilising a less energy yielding electron acceptor. If
a suitable carbon source is in excess, it is possible to have more than one terminal electron accepting
reaction occurring in the same environment. As many microbial communities in the environment occur
in biofilms, gradients of concentrations of electron acceptors can develop within films allowing a range of
electron accepting reactions to occur within a single environment.
The use of electron acceptors will affect the redox potential (Eh) of an environment, as the contribution
of any redox couple to Eh is dependent on the ratio of reduced to oxidised forms.
There is a clear correspondence in both laboratory cultures and in field samples between the concentra-
tion of hydrogen and the dominating terminal electron accepting reaction. Methanogenic environments
typically contain between 7 to 10 nM H2 ; sulfate reducing, 1 to 1.5 nM; F e(III) reducing, 0.2 nM; nitrate
or M n(IV ) reducing, <0.05 nM.
In addition to the reduction of oxides of iron and manganese, microbial communities may reduce other
metals under anaerobic conditions. For example reduction of uranium (U (V I) → U (IV )), selenium
(Se(V I) → Se(0), and chromium (Cr(V I) → Cr(III)) may all be detoxifying reactions, converting the
mobile soluble phase to an immobile precipitate.
17.4 Bioremediation
Bioremediation involves the use of microorganisms to effect the transformation or degradation of an

environmental contaminant. Microorganisms mineralise organic matter and can effect geochemical change
in aquifers. These capabilities may be targeted to problems associated with environmental contaminants
in aquifers.
Many environmental pollutants (eg.. phenol, toluene, benzene) are able to be degraded by microbial
communities if present in low concentrations. If degradation or transformation occurs in the aquifer at a
reasonable rate, and the contaminant poses no immediate health or environmental risk, it is possible that

Table 17.5: Free energy change in the reduction of electron accepting/electron donating species
Electron accepting reaction ∆Go (W) kcal/eeq

1/4O2 + H + + e− → 1/2H2 O -18.675
1/5N O3− + 6/5H + + e− → 1/10N2 + 3/5H2O -17.128
1/2M nO2 + 1/2HCO3− + 3/2H + + e− → 1/2M nCO3 + H 2 O -12.130
F eOOH + HCO3− + 2H + + e− → F eCO3 + 2H2 O 1.091
1/8SO4−2 + 19/16H + + e− → 1/16H2S + 1/16HS − + 1/2H2O 5.085
1/8CO2 + H + + e− → 1/8CH4 + 1/4H2O 5.763
Electron donating reaction
1/4 4CH2O + 1/4H2 O → 1/4CO2 + H + + e− -8.20
Coupled reaction (eg. sulfate reduction)
1/44CH2O + 1/8SO4−2 + 3/16H + → 1/16 H2 S + 1/16HS − + 1/4 H2 O + 1/4CO2 -3.115
the natural microbial community can be left to degrade the pollutant without any intervention. The use
of the natural bacterial population to degrade pollutants, without amendments or intervention, is termed
intrinsic bioremediation. If intrinsic bioremediation is chosen for the remediation of a contaminant, the
process must be monitored to ensure it continues to function for the duration of the exercise.
The presence of a contaminant that acts as an electron donor in an aquifer, and the sequential use of
electron acceptors by microbial populations (Table 17.5) usually results in a gradation of the terminal
electron accepting reactions down gradient from the contamination source (Fig. 17.3). This pattern of
accumulation of the end-products or depletion of precursors of the terminal electron accepting reactions
(O2 depletion, nitrate depletion, F e2+ accumulation, H2 S accumulation or SO4 depletion, CH4 accumu-
lation) is good evidence for intrinsic remediation of the contaminant. In cases where intrinsic remediation
is deemed to be too slow, active bioremediation may be undertaken to stimulate microbial activity in
order to degrade or transform target pollutants more quickly. Which process(es) is (are) undertaken is
dependent upon knowledge of the physiological capabilities of microbial populations and knowledge of the
geochemistry of the site. Laboratory biotreatability trials for the pollutant may need to be undertaken
to ensure that the microbial population is capable of degrading the targeted pollutants.
17.4.1 Hydrocarbons
Most microbial communities contain microorganisms capable of degrading hydrocarbons. However, the
rate of degradation is usually limited by a few variables. The limited availability of the most favourable
electron acceptor, oxygen, is probably the most limiting factor for degradation of hydrocarbons in aquifers.
As microbial populations obtain the greatest energy from the oxidation of organic matter using oxygen
as an electron acceptor (-∆G is greatest), the population will grow more quickly, produce more biomass,
and degrade the contaminant more quickly if oxygen is in plentiful supply. Biomass production also needs
phosphorous and nitrogen, so if the amount of carbon that is to be degraded is great, it may be necessary
to deliver phosphate or nitrogen or both to the remediation site. The general proportions of C:N:P in
biological material is 106:16:1. N and P may be recycled many times within biomass so the requirement
for N and P addition should be tested in laboratory studies (microcosm studies) prior to field application.
In cold environments, heat may be an important rate limiting factor.
17.4.2 Chorinated hydrocarbons
TCE (trichloroethene), a chlorinated hydrocarbon, is a common contaminant of aquifers. Usually, it

can not be broken down aerobically. Some quite fastidious organisms are capable of using non-specific
enzymes (monooxygenases) to oxidise TCE under aerobic conditions, although use of these organisms in

Figure 17.3: The sequence of terminal electron-accepting microbial reactions, down gradient from a source
of organic contaminant in a normally aerobic aquifer
the environment is difficult due to their fastidious growth requirements and complex enzymology, and
to date they have not been used for site bioremediation. TCE degradation has been shown to occur
in cultures and aquifers under methanogenic and sulfate-reducing conditions, but not under denitrifying
conditions. The calculated redox potentials of chlorinated compounds are similar or slightly lower than
the redox potential for the redox couple NO3/NO2 (Eh = 433 mV), but higher than the redox potential
for the reduction of sulfate to sulfide (-220 mV). Most studies have suggested that TCE is reduced by
successive dechlorination reactions to vinyl chloride which is itself a carcinogen, however recent work has
shown that dechlorination can proceed to ethene, under methanogenic conditions.
Cl2 C = CHCl → HClC = CHCl → H2 C = CHCl → H2 C = CH2 → CH4 ?

T CE → DCE → V inylchloride → Ethene → M ethane?
Degradation of TCE in enrichment cultures is dependent on the availability of a source of reducible

carbon.
17.4.3 Metals
For successful application of bioremediation to environmental problems, knowledge of microbial physiol-

ogy and of the nature of the pollutant is required. For example, remediation of many metals (eg. uranium,
or chromium) is sometimes achieved by preventing their mobility. Anaerobic conditions may be induced
to ensure reduction of these metals to their solid forms. To achieve this, addition of a non-toxic carbon
compound (such as molasses) may be used to allow the population of aerobic organisms to consume all
oxygen from the system. After oxygen consumption, the molasses then serves as an oxidisable carbon
source for the reduction of the metal.
Knowledge of physiological capabilities of microbial communities will assist the initial design of possible

strategies for the bioremediation of individual pollutants. Whichever process is considered most appro-
priate for bioremediation, laboratory studies should be undertaken to test the effectiveness of the process
and to determine which variables (eg. pH or ammonium concentration) could be adjusted to increase
the degradation/remediation rate. Throughout the remediation process, monitoring of the site should
continue so adjustments can be made to the process if necessary.
17.4.4 Bioremediation exercises
Bioremediation for some types of organic contaminants is now commonplace, and companies that of-
fer remediation expertise have in house protocols for treatment of many types of contaminants. All
bioremediation exercises require identification of the pollutant, mapping of the extent of pollution, and
understanding of the hydrology and geochemistry of the site. In addition, some experimentation with
material from the site is often needed to determine if nutrient/electron accepting additives are required,
and to obtain some estimate of contaminant degradation rate. The latter is important for estimating the
probable length of time bioremediation will need to be continued to achieve agreed contaminant values
for cessation of the exercise.
Bioremediation of more exotic chemical contaminants invariably involves a more extensive research com-
ponent in a staged remediation exercise. It begins with a literature review of microbial capabilities of
degrading the target contaminant, determination of the most likely geochemical condition under which to
effect degradation, extensive site characterisation, microcosm testing of probable amendments, pilot scale
testing with validation, followed by full scale testing and validation. Bioremediation of exotic chemicals
is invariably a long and expensive exercise
17.5 Undesirable microbial effects on extraction systems
17.5.1 Metal deposition
As already discussed, microbial reduction of iron and manganese can lead to elevated concentration of
both metals in solution in anaerobic groundwaters. Upon extraction of groundwaters from aquifers, these
reduced metals may come into contact with oxygen within bores and pipe work. A wide range of microbes
attach to surfaces and deposit oxides of iron and manganese on their surfaces. These organisms may grow
within pumps and pipe work and clog the pipe with precipitated metal oxides and cell material. Species
of the genus Gallionella are common causative agents.
In saline waters, fouling can be controlled by chlorine disinfection through the use of a chlorinator electrode
within the system and periodic back flushing. Chlorination must be used regularly from the time the
pump is installed, as once the biofilm is established, chlorine will not penetrate the biofilm to disinfect
the bacteria that reside within it. If chlorination cannot be used, solution of the problem is difficult and
usually requires extended periods of shutdown, with physical cleaning and the use of biocides such as
chlorine, hydrogen peroxide or quaternary ammonium compounds.
An alternate system, the Vyredox system (Fig. 17.4), involves the pumping of oxygen-rich water back
into the aquifer to create oxidation zones, zones of metal oxide precipitation, external to the extraction
bore. Although the system has been described for some years, it has not been used in Australia, however
150 plants in 15 countries have used this technology.
17.5.2 Biofouling and aquifer clogging and corrosion
Biofouling results from microbial growth on surfaces. All surfaces will develop biofilms that will retard
flow rates to some degree. Occasional sloughing of biofilms may cause an increase in microbial load in

Figure 17.4: Diagram of the Vyredox system showing zones of metal oxidation external to an extraction
bore
outlet waters or may give dirty water problems. Aquifer clogging may occur due to excessive microbial
growth within pore spaces. Clogging can be caused by polymer production, metal oxidation and de-
position, or gas production within anaerobic biofilms that causes swelling of the films into pore spaces.
Microbially induced corrosion poses a threat to structures and extraction systems, especially in anaero-
bic environments, or in aerobic environments that contain anaerobic microenvironments due to biofilm
formation. Corrosion may occur due to organic acid production which results in solubilization of metals,
or electrolytic corrosion due to cathodic depolarization (Fig. 17.5).
Examples of biofouling are also presented in Chapter 8.
17.5.3 Production of undesirable odours in distributed groundwater
Taste and odour sometimes occur in systems that distribute treated groundwater. Groundwater from
shallow aquifers often contains high concentrations of dissolved organic carbon which, if not adequately
removed, is introduced into the distribution system. High concentrations of dissolved organic carbon
promote extensive bacterial biofilm growth on the pipe walls within the distribution system, and the
biofilm may generate compounds responsible for off odours in the water. These off odours may include
sulfide, organic sulfurous compounds such as dimethyl trisulfide and dimethyl disulfide, geosmin from
actinomycetes, or a range of fungal metabolites. Biofilm growth is difficult to control, however the trend
in Europe is to treat the water to such an extent that dissolved organic carbon becomes limiting to biofilm
growth. To reduce the concentration of dissolved organic carbon, biofilters or biologically activated carbon
columns are often used as the terminal step in water treatment prior to its distribution.
17.6 Techniques for the Analysis of Microbial Communities in

Aquifers and Groundwater
As is the case for chemical analyses, care must be taken in methods for sample collection and storage. If
bacterial counts are being performed, samples should be protected from contamination and analysed as
quickly as possible after collection. A population of 102 cells per mL, with a generation time equivalent
to that of Escherichia coli, can increase to 108 cells per mL in 40 minutes.
Two techniques commonly used for the analysis of microbial communities in aquifers and groundwater
are the viable count and most probable number determination. Methods for both techniques are detailed
in ”Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater” published by the American Public
Health Association and in publications AS 4276.1- .14 of Standards Australia. It should be noted that
both methods underestimate the number of bacteria in any sample, as both methods rely on the ability of

Figure 17.5: Cathodic depolarisation-mediated oxidation of iron

a single nutrient medium used to support the growth of the microorganisms in the sample. Both methods
are easy to perform and can be carried out by most personnel after suitable training.
Many other techniques may be employed for the examination of waters for specific microorganisms (eg.
PCR detection, immunofluorescence detection) or for estimating microbial biomass (eg. phospholipid
content, ATP content), but these techniques are not easily performed or interpreted, and specialist
personnel should be consulted in order to chose and perform the most appropriate technique for any
investigation.

Chapter 18
Storage and retrieval of groundwater

data
Contents
18.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
18.2 Components of a GIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
18.2.1 Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
18.2.2 Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
18.2.3 Organisational issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
18.3 GIS database development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
18.3.1 Meta data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
18.3.2 Data exchange standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
18.3.3 Existing official Australian borehole databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
18.3.4 Georeferencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
18.4 Spatial data models used in GIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
18.4.1 Cell-based model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
18.4.2 Vector-based model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
18.4.3 Choice of data models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
18.5 GIS applications in hydrogeology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
18.5.1 Data integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
18.5.2 Linking GIS and models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
18.5.3 Example applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
18.1 Introduction
There are several different types of data that are associated with a borehole. It is important to record
this data and to make it available in a data base so that the information contained can be used for aquifer
analysis and for the preparation of a groundwater model. The design of the data base is a specialist task
and will not be covered in these notes.
Data types that should be included in the data base include the following:
Bore data: - This should include all the meta data associated with the borehole location. The actual
location in -x-y-z- space should be recorded with the elevation of the reference point at the top of
the bore. The available geological data and a detailed log of the borehole should be recorded. The
method of drilling; the type of construction; and the final depth to water level should be recorded.
492
Chapter 18. Storage and retrieval of groundwater data
Water level data: - The records from the observations of depth to water level should be recorded.
If this has been achieved my manual rounds of water level measurement (dip rounds) then the
quantity of data will not be that large. However, if automated loggers are used then large amounts
of data can be accumulated quickly. For example, in a recent investigation in NSW, 60 parameters
were measured hourly for 5 years. This led to more than 2.6 million pieces of data. Even if all
60 observations were recorded at the same time, this leads to a spreadsheet of 43800 lines. This
exceeds the capacity of XCEL to show the graphics.
Chemical data: - Chemical data can be very varied with different scale values common. For example,
there may be measurements of major ions that run into values of several thousand milligrams per
litre or measurements of trace metals at the level of micrograms per litre. All the data must be
stored in an efficient manner in the data base.
Pumping test data: - The data from a pumping test can not be stored in the same part of the data
base as water level monitoring data as the pumping test method will use an approximate log
time scale rather than the more normal linear timescale for monitoring. It is important to store
the pumping test data so that a different interpretation technique can be applied in the future if
necessary. For example, it may be necessary to return to the pumping test analysis to check for
evidence of leakage or delayed yield that had been ignorred in the first pass of the analysis.
Abstration rate: - It is necessary to record the pumping rate and duration of pumping.
Water quality: - It is becoming more normal that the water quality, or perhaps just the fluid EC, be
recorded at a site using a data logger.
The establishment of a data base to contain all available data for an aquifer or area of aquifer is often
prompted by the decision to try and construct a groundwater model. The effort required should not be
underestimated. However, of more importance is the political decision to provide funding to maintain
the data base.
Modern geographic information systems (GIS) are linked to data bases. A GIS is an assemblage of
computer equipment and a set of computer programs for the storage, query, retrieval, transformation,
analysis and display of spatial data. All data is geo-referenced, ie located by a geographic coordinate
system.
GIS is used in many areas of land evaluation, including hydrogeology, where the main benefits are the
opportunities for integration of diverse data sets, use of visualization tools and scope for linking GIS and
groundwater models. Applications of GIS in groundwater studies include: hydrogeologic characterisa-
tion, resource evaluation, modelling of non-point source pollution, groundwater vulnerability assessment,
salinity assessment, hydrogeomorphic analysis to determine recharge and discharge zones. Fundamental
to GIS use in groundwater evaluation throughout Australia has been the progressive development from
data in earlier paper or electronic files which lacked common geographic referencing. For many hydro-
geological studies a range of GIS data sets, of which one set is bore hole data and other data sets, for
example climate and remote sensing;
18.2 Components of a GIS
The three major components of GIS are computer hardware, sets of application programs (software) and
an organisational framework.
18.2.1 Hardware
GIS operate on different hardware platforms including workstations, personal computers and macintosh-
based systems with different operating systems depending on the vendor. Peripherals are important

for: storing data and programs (hard disks, network drives, cd-rom drives), data input (digitizers and
scanners); output (plotters, printers).
18.2.2 Software
An integrated set of software modules provide the tools necessary to perform the basic functions of
GIS [Burrough and McDonnell, 1998], including modules for:
• data input and verification

• data storage and database management
• data output, including maps and presentation
• data transformation
• interaction with the user
18.2.3 Organisational issues
GIS represent a substantial investment for any organisation. For successful implementation a number of
issues need to be addressed including the impact of GIS on: business processes, existing IT environment,
information management infrastructure and delivery of products and/or services.
18.3 GIS database development
Geographic data is available in many different analogue and digital forms. To build a consistent and
useable spatial database the data must be processed or reformatted and finally transformed into a common
coordinate system (See Fig 18.1). The most common source of geographic data is the paper or digital
topographic or thematic map. Data on paper maps must be converted to digital form either by digitizing
or scanning. Images obtained from remote sensing systems mounted on aircraft and satellites are further
sources that cover a wide range of temporal and spatial scales.
Aerial photographs are used to map geology, soil, land cover and vegetation and are also useful as
backdrops for vector data layers providing contextual information. Data on terrain elevation and land
cover can be derived from digital photogrammetry and digital orthophoto mapping.
Global Positioning Systems (GPS) are particularly useful to determine accurate positions on the earth
surface especially in remote locations. Differential GPS are able to provide higher accuracy by using two
receivers, one of which is positioned at a known location.
The Universal Transverse Mercator Projection - Is a cylindrical projection that cuts through the earths
surface at two points (it is rotated every 6 degrees to lesson the scale error). A diagrammatic represen-
tation of this projection is shown in Fig. 18.2.
The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) Coordinate System is a reference coordinate set representing
unique points on the earth’s surface. The most common sets used in Australia are all based on the UTM
projection and are listed: Australian Map Grid 1966 (AMG66), Australian Map Grid 1984 (AMG84),
and Map Grid of Australia 1994 (MGA94). The geographic projection coordinate sets are: AGD66,
AGD84 and GDA94. In some GIS all data has to be in the same projection prior to input, while other
systems can access data that is in a number of different projections and either translate it to the required
projection or transform it as necessary.

Figure 18.1: Geo-information data sources and data types
Figure 18.2: The Universal Transverse Mercator Projection

18.3.1 Meta data
Meta data information (descriptive data about the data itself) to include in GIS or to obtain when data
is sourced from a supplier. Meta data should include the following information:
• lineage - who owns it, where it was originally sourced, how it was compiled (eg. scanned, digitised,
or extracted from remotely sensed imagery).
• date - when it was compiled.
• attribute description - data often comes from a Relational Database and may contain a number of
’lookup’ tables where fields only show codes, the description of these codes must be sourced with
the data.
• database schema - giving the length, a description and type of fields in each table.
• positional accuracy - GIS data requires a positional field this can be gained from a number of sources
(eg from roughly positioning a feature off a 1:5M printed map sheet to positioning by sub-metre
Global Position Systems).
• the geo-referencing system used
• statement on the quality of the data collected
• data classification and interpolation methods used
• a description (size, shape) of individual mapping units
Some of the meta data may be relevant to only a sub-set of the attributes sourced, so it is important to
get a full meta data listing when sourcing data from an outside agency.
18.3.2 Data exchange standards
The data exchange standards for Australia and New Zealand are found at
http://www.auslig.gov.au/asdi/fstds.htm. The Australian National Groundwater Data Transfer Stan-
dard is available from http://www.brs.gov.au/land&water/groundwater/
Data can be exchanged in a number of formats, some of the most common being:
• proprietary GIS export (eg ARC export, ArcView shape files, GENASYS projects, ARC GRID),
• proprietary CAD formats (eg Microstation DGN files, Autocad DXF files),
• image files (eg TIFF, GIF, LANDSAT BIL)
• exchange standards (eg AS2482, SDTS, DIGEST),
• proprietary Database files (eg INGRES, ACCESS, ORACLE), or delimited data files.
Most GIS can import a range of formats but the ease with which data can be imported will vary greatly
and it is important to be aware of the limitations of each format type. Some exchange formats have more
than one level of data exchange.

Table 18.1: Summary of significant bore databases
Name Area Custodian RDBMS Platform Interfaces Sites

ACT ACT Environment ACT Excel Windows 900
GDS NSW NSW Dept Land Oracle Unix Gupta SQL 80,000
Water Conserva-
tion
NT NT NT Dept Lands, DBase Win NT HydSys 30,000
Planning & Envi-
ronment
GWDB Qld Qld Dept Natural DBQ Unix DBQ, Map Ob- 80,000
Resources jects, Visual Ba-
sic, Map Info
SA GEODATA SA Primary Industries Oracle Unix Oracle Forms 140,000
& Resources SA
BORIS Tas Mineral Resources Access Windows Access 6,000
Tasmania
GDB Vic Department of Sus- Ingres Unix Windows/4GL, 135,000
tainability and En- Ingres, Arcview
vironment
CLPR Vic Department of Pri- Access Windows Access 3,250
mary Industry
WIN WA WA Water & Rivers Access Win NT Access 82,500
Commission
SWRIS WA WA Water & Rivers Fortran IBM Access 3,500
Commission
SiteLegaci WA WA Water & Rivers Access Win NT Access 300
Commission
Agbores/
Combores WA Agriculture WA Oracle Unix Access, Mi- 4,000
crostation
MGE/ERMA
GWATER Aus Bureau of Rural Access Windows Arc/View 5,500
Sciences
18.3.3 Existing official Australian borehole databases
Within each sate or territory there are official bore hole databases which store primary data collected
from boreholes as part of licensing requirements or from groundwater monitoring programs. Table 18.1
summarizes the status of these largely State-based databases, indicating a national coverage exceeding
500,000 bores. These borehole databases can store a broad range of data relating to the bore itself, the
geology and the groundwater but have many common elements.
These databases use a range of software products, but Oracle is popular on Unix platforms, and likewise
Access for Microsoft Windows.
The vast majority of data stored in these State and Territory databases is related to registration and
licensing of production bores, test bores and monitoring of observation bore and piezometers. Numbering
systems are unique to each system. The data commonly collected and stored are:
• the geographical position, using a coordinate system, of the site

• the elevation of the site,

• drilling details of bores (method, depth, diameter, time)

• construction details, particularly bore casing and screens
• the condition of the bore and the purpose(s) of the groundwater extracted
• lithologic profile and interpreted stratigraphy;
• information on the aquifer intervals or water interceptions
• water use
• water level measurements
• pumping test summaries (actual field measurements not commonly stored
• rates of groundwater extraction (pumping or artesian flow)
• groundwater chemistry.
Other themes were less common elements of the databases. These include data like:
• subsequent bore rehabilitation or maintenance work;

• down hole geophysical logging, with metadata defining the archive location for logs typically
recorded;
• licensing arrangements (this data tends to be stored in separate administrative databases); and
• bibliographic references to where the data originated, such as the relevant staff and organisation or
the source document.
The majority of these themes are basic groundwater data that are the direct observations and mea-
surements in both the field and the laboratory. The databases also contain data with an inherent level
of interpretation, namely primary and secondary data. The estimates of transmissivity and storativity
derived from pump tests fall into this category.
18.3.4 Georeferencing
All data within a GIS must be registered to a common coordinate system to enable spatial analysis.
Geocentric Datum of Australia is available at: http://www.auslig.gov.au/ausgda/gdastrat.htm
18.4 Spatial data models used in GIS
Data stored in a GIS are an abstraction of the real world. The transformation of real world features into
a digital geographic database is described by the following concepts. Data modelling is the process of
organising data about the real world into a useable and consistent digital dataset. A data model is the
scheme or method used for logical organisation of data. A data structure to represent the data requires
a compatible file format.
Current GIS use two distinct data models cell-based sometimes called raster or vector-based (Fig. 18.3)
requiring different methods of analysis. The first of these is based on the perception of the world as
smooth, continuous fields. An alternative view is that the world consists of sets of discrete objects, their
attributes and their relations. A detailed discussion can be found in Burrough [1986], Burrough and
McDonnell [1998], Nyerges [1993], Star and Estes [1990].

Figure 18.3: Representation of geographic data in the vector and raster data models
18.4.1 Cell-based model
In the cell based data model each cell is supposedly homogeneous. This data model has the advantages
of easy management and integration is simple, but the disadvantage is information loss at any resolution.
18.4.2 Vector-based model
In vector-based systems the real world is divided up into layers or feature planes. Geographical features
are represented by the points and lines that define their boundaries. Position is defined by the placement
of each object in a map space organised by a coordinate reference system. Thus an object is defined by
a series of cartesian coordinates. The most common vector models are the whole polygon structure and
the topologic model.
Whole polygon structure
In this model, also referred to as the spaghetti model, each polygon is encoded in the database as one
logical record and is defined by a string of X - Y coordinates representing a closed area. Some significant
limitations of this model include:
• lines between adjacent polygons must be digitised and stored twice

• no spatial relationships are retained
• as no topological attributes are used, navigating around a map requires searching lists of spatial
coordinates. A large amount of storage space is required to store spatial coordinates. Analytical
operations under this model are time consuming and expensive.

Figure 18.4: Geo-relational data model used in the ARC/INFO GIS
The main advantage of spaghetti structures is their sequential organisation for digital plotting operations.
Topological data structures
In the topological model the spatial relationships between entities are explicitly recorded. Cartographic
operations and automated spatial analysis require that all lines be explicitly and unambiguously linked
into a completely digital line graph that can be interpreted in a computer environment. The most
common model used in hydrogeology is the geo-relational model. Each data entry is stored separately
in a hierarchical data structure. Point features are related on a one-to-one basis with vectors, a single
point being represented by an XY pair. A line is represented by a series of vectors and therefore a line
will have a one-to-many relationship with a set of vectors. A polygon is represented by a set of lines and
has a one-to-many relationship with lines.
The attribute values are stored in relational tables using relational database management systems. Each
column of the table describes a single attribute and each row corresponds to a feature. Spatial entities
are linked with the associated attribute table by a common spatial key or identifier unique to each spatial
feature. Fig. 18.4 depicts the geo-relational data model adopted by ESRI in the ARC/INFO GIS for
polygon, arc and point data types.
Advantages of the vector representation is that it is only limited by the quality of the original data and
it is storage efficient, but has the disadvantage that it is not suitable for a continuous surface eg remote
sensed images

Table 18.2: Comparison between raster and vector data models
Raster Vector
Coordinate Preci- Limited by raster size. Not Practical Encoded to any degree
sion for point data. Precision 1/2 cell size.
Computing Speed Fast data manipulation. No calcula- Slow data manipulation due to inten-
tions for relative position. sive calculations. Relative position
calculations required
Mass Storage Each cell stored and each cell needs Compact data structure. Less over-
its’ own attributes. head for storing attributes.
Display Requires good resolution to achieve Accurate clean display.
vector clarity.
Data Structure Simple Complex but compact.
Cost Cheap Expensive
Figure 18.5: Overlay operation in the grid and vector based data models
18.4.3 Choice of data models
Early GIS could be described as either purely raster or vector in their approach. However, today most
commercial GIS choose one structure as the primary method of storing and viewing data, but provide
flexibility through data conversion utilities. Users will generally utilise both models depending on the
nature of the data they are working with and the type of analysis required. The relative merits of each
model are summarised in Table 18.2.
An important advantage of the regular grid, raster based data model is the simplicity of overlay operations
often utilised in modelling operations (see Fig. 18.5).

18.5 GIS applications in hydrogeology
GIS applications in hydrogeology continue to expand as the technology advances and hydrogeologists
become aware of its potential. Basic to virtually all applications it is necessary to characterise the
hydrogeology. This assessment will be based on the geology of an area and the recent advances in
geological modelling make possible the direct link between a geological model, based upon a GIS and
available data base material, and a groundwater flow model.
18.5.1 Data integration
Attempts to characterise a hydrogeologic system rely on data from a wide range of sources that are invari-
ably in different formats and in varying scales. To develop a conceptual model of regional hydrogeology
requires reviewing and interpreting all relevant data. Typically, there will be data available from widely
divers sources; borehole logs from coal investigation holes to be combined with drillers logs from water
bores. An important source maybe an official database. In most cases the quantity of data involved is
significant. In most cases also, the methods used to describe strata will be varied and not easily combined.
Bore locations may have been recorded with inaccurate coordinates, or the base system has been changed
with time. All these problems (essentialy data cleaning) can take a very significant part of the available
time for a project.
Integration of all data into a GIS facilitates the characterisation process by:
• making the data more accessible

• providing a common interface
• allowing new data to be easily inserted
• providing interpolation and contouring tools
• providing insights into data through overlay and display functions that allow combination of different
data layers
• alternative models or interpretation that can be quickly developed and analysed.
It is essential that the data in the data base and associated GIS be backed up and that subsequent
upgrades of the GIS software be backwards compatible with former releases. The choice of software
package is therefore important.
Subsurface characterisation, relying on a geologic framework, is difficult due to the variability of geologic
environments and the sparseness of geologic data. In addition, a variety of data types must be combined
or synthesised. This requires a centralised database capable of manipulating a great variety of data, and
a GIS that allows interaction with the database in ways that retain the spatial relationships, in order to
visualise the subsurface in two or three dimensions.
Hence, the first step in applying GIS is to ensure that the source data is appropriately managed. The
following steps should be taken to organise data:
1. design data structure/workspaces

2. create data dictionaries
3. use database management systems
4. decide where information goes and maintain consistency
5. set standards for symbology, maps, logos etc.

Figure 18.6: Data sets required for the establishment of a model
The complete characterisation of the sub-surface requires definition of the geologic framework and also
an understanding of the surface characteristics of a region. To understand the geologic framework an
analysis of stratigraphy, lithology and structural and geomorphic discontinuities must be made. This can
efectively be achieved by building a 3D geological model. To develop a model of the flow of water through
the system requires consideration of both surface and sub-surface features, such as aquifer permeability,
aquifer type, homogeneity or heterogeneity, and the isotropy/anisotropy must also be determined. As
the characterisation develops, interpretations of the primary and secondary data allow definition of the
hydrostratigraphic framework and determination of the thickness and properties of hydrostratgraphic
units.
A growing number of varying applications of GIS to groundwater are in the literature. Fig 18.6 shows
linkages between a GIS and examples of various process-based models for the determination of surface
water and groundwater interconnectivity.
Another comprehensive groundwater resource evaluation carried out by BRS to select areas suitable for
groundwater irrigation in San Luis, Argentina, has been made by the combination of two decision support
systems (ASSESS and ALES) and a GIS databases for climate, groundwater, soils, remote sensing and
economic data [Ivkovic et al., 2002].
To support the needs of groundwater modelling a GIS must have the following essential features [Good-
child, 1993]:
• support for efficient data input, including transfer from other digital systems
• support for alternative data models, particularly continuous spatial variation, with efficient conver-
sion utilities
• ability to compute relationships between objects based on geometry and to handle attributes of
pairs of objects

• ability to carry out a range of standard geometric operations (eg. calculate area, perimeter length)
• ability to generate new objects on request, including objects created by operations on existing
objects (eg. polygons from points, buffer zones from lines)
• ability to assign new attributes to objects based on existing attributes and complex arithmetic and
logical rules
• support for transfer of data to and from analytical and modelling packages (eg. statistical packages,
simulation packages)
18.5.2 Linking GIS and models
There is a clear link between a GIS and the development of a groundwater flow model. The spatial data
required for the groundwater flow model will include:
• Hydrogeological layers, translating GIS surfaces to model layers,

• groundwater slainity distribution,
• hydraulic head data,
• surface water data sets,
• digital elevation models,
• rainfall/soil/vegetation - recharge domains
• bore data base, screen depths linked to model layers etc.
• bore hydrographs required for model calibratio, and
• bore abstraction data.
Nyerges [1993] identified four steps required to couple a model with a GIS:
• description of the data transformations required between the data representation constructs
• specification of software to export and import between the constructs
• determining whether the software can run without intervention
• setting up the transfer as bi-directional manipulation and management of attribute data.
A Data Base Management System (DBMS) is a software package for the storage, manipulation and
retrieval of data from a database [Healey, 1991]. A database needs to cater for different users particularly
in a corporate setting where a variety of programs might access the database. Advantages of DBMS
include a reduction in data redundancy, which helps maintain data integrity and quality. Access to data
can also be controlled through DBMS providing increased security and protection from accidental or
intentional corruption of data. Access to data is achieved by searching through all records for a value in
a single field called the key field. The three main database structures available for use in GIS are:
1. hierarchical systems
2. network systems
3. relational systems

Figure 18.7: Assembly of data sources and process for modelling at Maules Creek in northern NSW
Of these three, the relational database is particularly relevant. It allows records from different files to
be associated with each other through logical linkages of the data values in common fields among files.
The database consists of a number of files (relations) in which each row or record is known as a tuple
corresponding to one element of the relation. Each column (field) holds data on one of the attributes
of the tuple. Records are uniquely identified by the value in a single column or a combination of values
in multiple columns known as the primary key. Data in different tables is linked through corresponding
values in common fields. This structure is easier to use and implement than the hierarchical or network
approaches. It also provides greater flexibility in data retrieval and allows the database to be modified
by the addition of new tables or records within tables. The relational database structure has been widely
utilised by GIS and many provide linkages to proprietary software systems like Oracle and Ingres.
18.5.3 Example applications
The CWI group at UNSW have posted several examples of applications of combined GIS and modelling
on the web at;
http://www.connectedwaters.unsw.edu.au/technical/research/projects/projects 3dmapping.html
Some examples from these projects are given in Fig. 18.8 and Fig. 18.9. The geological modelling has
been carried out using Earthvision software with the finite element discretisation of the geology feeding
into a FEFLOW groundwater model.
A basic geological model is shown in Fig. 18.8 illustrating bedrock with the unconsolidated Tertiary
deposits removed to better reveal the aquifer boundaries. This is also shown in Fig. 18.9. Other results
are available at the web site.
The available bore data can be used to provide information of the continuity of clay layers or the location
of a major palaeo channel that can be an important aquifer. Simple contouring of data from existing bore
networks is unlikely to provide a sensible model of the location of a buried valley. It is highly unlikely

Figure 18.8: 3D geological model of basement beneath a Tertiary aquifer
that the location of an old drainage channel can be accurately reconstructed from existing bore data and
therefor e manual or computer assisted interpolation of the existing data will be required.
White [2009] has shown the use of 3D geological models and a GIS in the study of groundwater in alluvial
aquifers beneath Canterbury in New Zealand.

Figure 18.9: A 3D geological model of the base of the Tertiary aquifers on the Namoi River beneath
Mount Kaputar (close to Narrabri, northern NSW). The regional surface elevation model forms the basis
for the model with all the unconsolidated sediments identified from drilling records removed

Chapter 19
Groundwater flow modelling
Contents
19.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
19.1.1 Purpose of modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
19.1.2 Scale of modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
19.1.3 Types of model available . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
19.2 Modelling protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
19.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
19.2.2 Conceptual model development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
19.3 Mathematical models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
19.3.1 Flow system representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
19.3.2 Aquifer representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
19.3.3 One-dimensional cartesian flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
19.3.4 Boussinesq equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
19.4 Numerical solution methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
19.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
19.4.2 Discretisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
19.5 Finite difference method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
∂2 h
19.5.1 FD Discretisation of ∂h 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
19.5.2 FD Representation of Laplace’s Equation in 2D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
19.6 Iterative solution methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
19.6.1 Successive over relaxation (SOR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
19.7 Boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
19.8 FD representation of the time derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
19.9 Model codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
19.1 Introduction
Whether we are assessing an entire groundwater basin as a resource or a small project area for environ-
mental impact we must understand how the system works. We must develop an adequate conceptual
model of the system. It is easy to lose sight of this in all the subsequent work that will be carried out.
The fact remains that, if the conceptual model is not correct, or is inadequate in its representation of
reality, all subsequent modelling efforts based upon this conceptual model will be WRONG. It does not
matter how good the analysis is; how good the graphics look; how many months of work have gone into
the modelling; or how much money has been spent. If the conceptual model is wrong, then the wrong
problem has been solved. It could have been solved brilliantly - but it is still the wrong model!
508
Chapter 19. Groundwater flow modelling
Poeter [2006] is the Chair of the International Groundwater Modelling Centre at Golden in Colorado
(part of the Colorado School of Mines). Her opinion is worth listening to! In 2006 she toured the world
with a lecture presented as part of the Darcy Memorial Lecture Series sponsored by the National Ground
Water Association in the USA. The title of the talk was:
All models are wrong; how do we know which are useful?
The modelling approach will depend very much upon the scale of the problem but in any event, to obtain
a useful conceptual model, we must simplify the real world complexity to a level appropriate to the scale
of the exercise.
The degree of simplification will depend on the end product required, the amount of data available and
current level of understanding. The time and physical scales of the processes involved will determine the
relative importance of real world boundary effects and the nature of the problem under investigation may
warrant concentration on only a small part of the hydrogeological cycle (eg recharge).
Our conceptual model may be the end product of the assessment or merely a stage in the evolution
of a more complex, fully calibrated numerical model. It is useful to attempt to construct a conceptual
model at the start of a project in order to identify deficiencies in available data and to try to improve
the conceptual model with each stage of data gathering.
The simplest approach when short of data is to use either analytical models (pocket calculator or ”back
of the envelope” approach) or extremely simplified numerical models to obtain an approximate solution.
This exercise will help to determine the scale at which the problem should be tackled. Basically, in a
conceptual model in which flow is the primary consideration, boundaries such as basin margins need not
be considered unless they come ”into play” within the time scale of the exercise or our problem area is
located at the edge of a basin, i.e. near a boundary.
Solute transport problems may be initially investigated by using the appropriate flow model and esti-
mating travel distance from the Darcy velocity and elapsed time, assuming zero dispersion. It is possible
to model the movement of a contaminant through an aquifer using solute transport modelling. It is also
possible to model the complete surface water groundwater system using available groundwater modelling
packages.
It is only the intention of these notes to give an introduction to groundwater modelling. Specialist courses
are available to take the interested reader further.
19.1.1 Purpose of modeling
Modeling is an attempt to replicate the behavior of a natural groundwater system in some controlled
manner. It is usually carried out with the purpose of analysing a groundwater flow problem in an attempt
to gain an improved understanding of the groundwater flow processes occurring. The model may then
be used to carry out simulations of a number of possible management or development options.
In areas where very little hydrogeological information is available, modeling is used to identify the sensi-
tivity of various field parameters and to locate areas where additional field data is required.
The following quotation Anderson and Woessner [1992] is worth repeating in full.
Modelling is an excellent way to help organize and synthesize field data but it is important
to recognize that modeling is only one component in a hydrogeological assessment and not
an end in itself. It may be clear either before or after a modeling effort that the available
data are inadequate to support modeling results. In that case, professional ethics require that
modeling results should not be used at all or at least should be presented with the appropriate
qualifiers (My italics). Many of today’s computer codes and graphics packages are easy to

use so that impressive-looking results can be readily produced using few data or data of poor
quality. If it is known a priori that modeling will not produce useful results, it is ethically
sound to advise against a costly modeling study. Should circumstances, such as regulatory
obligations, dictate that a modeling study is mandatory even when data is inadequate, then
professional ethics require that the necessary field data be collected concurrently with model
design.
19.1.2 Scale of modeling
Models may be restricted to studying a small area around a borehole to predict the probable drawdown
in response to pumping (Chapter 10 covers this aspect), or to studying the behavior of a complete
groundwater basin, such as the Murray Basin. Naturally, the spatial accuracy and data requirements of
these two models will vary substantially and an appropriate model must be chosen for the problem in
question. An important aspect in the choice of scale is the concept of the representative elementary volume
(REV). The scale of the model must be chosen such that average groundwater flows are represented. It
may be possible to model the flow of groundwater in sand at a scale of a few 100 mm. It would be
pointless trying to model the flow through a fractured rock aquifer at the same scale as the groundwater
flow can not be represented at this scale by the mathematical model developed by Darcy.
Before beginning construction of a model it is essential to formulate a sufficiently detailed conceptual

model of the problem. A conceptual model must include all essential features to an appropriate level
of detail and is important for demonstrating an appreciation of the various groundwater components
involved. Formulation of the conceptual model will often highlight gaps in understanding or available
data. A conceptual model is therefore an essential precursor to the development of any more sophisticated
model.
An experienced modeler will continuously refine the conceptual model in the light of experience gained
with model development.
19.1.3 Types of model available
Three basic groundwater model types are available:
Electrical Analogue - groundwater flow models can be constructed from networks of resistors and
capacitors and use made of the direct analogy between the governing equations for the flow of
electric current and the flow of ground water. Examples of this approach are shown in Figure 19.1
[Rushton and Redshaw, 1979] and Figure 19.2.
The electrical analogy is also employed in the use of teledeltos paper. This is paper which is coated
with a conductor (graphite). Known electrical potentials can be applied to edges or points on the
paper and the disposition of the resulting equipotentials discovered by use of a potentiometer.
Physical analogue - The hele-shaw model is the best example of a physical analogue. Oil of a carefully
controlled viscosity is allowed to run between two glass plates. Use of different coloured oils with
different viscosities can give a valuable insight to the propensity for mixing during flow between
recharge and discharge points. An example of a Hele-shaw model is shown in Figure 19.3 and a
sand-tank model in Figure 19.4.
A sand tank is a second example of this type of model. Sand tanks can be used either under
atmospheric conditions or sealed and used to represent confined conditions. Fig. 19.5 shows a tank
with different layers of sand and clay equipped with piezometers and a ’river’.
Mathematical - The mathematical model is the most widely used type. The physical process is
represented by a mathematical equation. Solutions to the equation are then produced by employing
analytical or numerical methods. In reality, all but the simplest conditions require a numerical
solution using either finite difference or finite element numerical solution methods.

Figure 19.1: Flow modeling using resis- Figure 19.2: Regional modeling using electrical
tor/capacitance network techniques
Figure 19.3: Hele-shaw model of a groundwater Figure 19.4: Sand-tank model

system

Figure 19.5: Portable sand-tank model
A conceptual model and the related mathematical models are shown in Figure 19.6 and Fig-
ure 19.7 [Wang and Anderson, 1982]. Rushton [2003] provides an excellent introduction to the
conceptual and computational modelling concepts. This reference will be used extensively in this
course.
Mathematical models are normally constructed to solve one of four types of problem:
• Groundwater flow - Problems of water supply can often be described by one equation, usually in
terms of hydraulic head. The resulting model provides a solution for this equation and is referred
to as a groundwater flow model.
• Solute transport - If the problem involves water quality, then an additional equation(s) must be
solved for the concentration of the chemical species specified. Models of this type are referred to as
solute transport models.
• Heat transport - Problems involving heat also require an equation in addition to the groundwater
flow equation, similar to the solute transport equation, but now specified in terms of heat. Models
of this type are referred to as heat transport models. The similarity between the equation sets
makes use of a unified model for solving solute transport or heat transport possible Voss [1984].
• Deformation - A model combines groundwater flow with a set of equations specifying aquifer defor-
mation.
Although we have introduced alternative types of modeling techniques, attention has become more and
more focused in recent years upon mathematical models which are solved numerically. In some ways
this is unfortunate, but the relative cost of modeling by the alternative methods has increased sharply
along with the decrease in computing costs. In some instances the use of a physical model may still be
warranted however.

Figure 19.6: Conceptual Model Figure 19.7: Mathematical Model
19.2 Modelling protocol
19.2.1 Introduction
The sequence of operations in the modeling process is largely iterative. Once the conceptual model
formulation is complete a numerical model is constructed taking account of the known, or assumed
variations in hydraulic conductivity (or transmissivity) and storage and the assumed boundary conditions
(conditions at the edge of the model area). The objective is to simulate known field conditions, usually
measurements of hydraulic head and flow, by the mathematical model. The field variables, transmissivity
and storativity, are varied in successive model runs in an attempt to produce hydraulic head distributions
which match the field data. The quantity and quality of field data will therefore largely determine the
accuracy of the simulation. This form of modeling is often referred to as forward modeling.
As experience with modeling has grown it has become appreciated that an accurate representation of
the boundary conditions is at least as important as matching the hydraulic heads [Frank and Reilly,
1987]. Figure 19.7 shows variations of a no-flow type boundary condition around a problem domain
2 2
where groundwater flow is described by the LaPlace Equation ( ∂∂xh2 + ∂∂yh2 = 0).
If continued model simulations only produce a poor match it is probable that the conceptual model
requires revision. For example, it may be that vertical flow components should not be ignored, or that an
aquitard exists which was previously unsuspected. Or there may not be enough data on which to calibrate
the model satisfactorily. In a regional numerical model, it is normal practice to match the model data
against a steady state situation, if one can be satisfactorily identified. The model is then run to simulate
transient conditions for which field data is already available. If this produces acceptable results when the
model output is compared to the known field data, then the model is said to be well calibrated and is
then used in a predictive mode for simulations of long term pumping or aquifer development. In reality,
and as stated at the beginning of this section, the model requires continual refinement in the light of
newly acquired data, particularly data which represents significant stress on the aquifer system such as
excessive pumping, drought or flood. Every effort should be made to gather field data during these events

as calibration of the model for these events will greatly improve the model reliability. The steps in the
development of a model are shown in Figure 19.8 [Anderson and Woessner, 1992]. These authors describe
the steps as follows:
1. Establish the purpose of the model. This will determine what governing equation will be solved
and what modeling code will be selected.
2. Develop a conceptual model of the system. Make decisions about the significance of the various
lithological units involved and their likely properties. Determine what the boundary conditions are
around the problem domain. A field visit is an important part of this stage and will prevent the
modeling activity from becoming separated from reality!
3. Select the governing equation and a computer code to solve the equation. For example, is the
groundwater confined or unconfined. Verify that the code works. This stage is not necessary with
well developed model codes.
4. Interpret the conceptual model in terms of a model design. Select the grid, the time steps, the
initial and boundary conditions.
5. Establish that the model can reproduce field-measured heads and flows. This stage is referred to
as model calibration and is extremely important. Due to the cost of collecting data for calibration,
it is tempting to leave it out. This is a serious error!
6. The sensitivity of the calibration is established by testing the model against the range of parameters
representing the possible range of unknown field conditions.
7. The model is verified by allowing it to predict a second set of field data without further calibration.
8. The model can then be used in a predictive capacity.
9. A post audit should be conducted several years after the model is completed to check that predictions
were in fact correct. This implies that field data should still be collected. Typically, the post audit
will lead to a model redesign. This often results from a realisation that the initial conceptual model
was incorrect.
There is a distinct danger of the modeling process becoming isolated from the real world. The search
for a close match to a particular set of field conditions has led many a modeler to impose unrealistic
distributions of transmissivity and storage when in fact it was the conceptual model which was incorrect.
19.2.2 Conceptual model development
There are two possible approaches to the development of the conceptual model:
• The aquifer viewpoint , and

• the flow-system viewpoint.
In the first case (aquifer viewpoint), the aquifer is considered in isolation and fluxes to or from the
aquifer specified, along with a complete description of the boundary conditions to the aquifer. Figure 19.7
also illustrates this approach. Heads are only calculated within the aquifer. In the second case (flow-
system viewpoint), an attempt is made to construct a model which includes both aquifers and aquitards.
Anderson and Woessner [1992] demonstrate this approach (Figure 19.9).
Model design and grid construction [Anderson and Woessner, 1992] are of fundamental importance to
the construction of a valid and useful groundwater model. Anderson and Woessner have an excellent
discussion on Conceptual model and grid design in Chapter 3 of their book. These notes borrow from
that work.
The data requirements for a groundwater flow model may be summarised as:

Figure 19.8: A protocol for a groundwater model development

Figure 19.9: Aquifer and flow-system conceptual models

1. Physical framework
(a) Geological map and cross sections showing the areal and vertical extent and boundaries of the
system.
(b) Topographic map showing the location and elevation of surface water bodies and groundwater
divides.
(c) Contour maps showing the elevation of the aquifer base and of confining beds.
(d) Isopach map showing the thickness of aquifers and confining beds.
(e) Maps showing the extent and thickness of stream and lake sediments.
2. Hydrogeological framework
(a) Water table and potentiometric maps for all aquifers
(b) Hydrographs of groundwater heads and surface water levels for all aquifer units.
(c) Maps and cross sections showing the hydraulic conductivity and/or transmissivity distribution.
(d) Maps and cross sections showing the storage properties of the aquifers and the confining beds.
(e) Hydraulic conductivity values and their distribution for stream and lake sediments.
(f) Spatial and temporal distribution of rates of evapotranspiration, groundwater recharge, sur-
face water and ground water interactions, groundwater pumping, and natural groundwater
discharge (spring discharge).
The first step in arriving at a conceptual model is to define the hydrostratigraphic units which are present
within the study area. These will not always be the same as the geological units, but will be based upon
them. Fundamentally, we are trying to discretise the area of interest into zones of similar hydrogeo-
logical properties. An example of the translation between a geological section and a hydrostratigraphic
conceptual model is shown in Figure 19.10.
19.3 Mathematical models
19.3.1 Flow system representation
The mathematical model for steady state flow in an aquifer with no source or sink terms has been
developed for a volume flux in Chapter 4. If source or sink terms such as recharge or pumping wells are
to be included, the equation can simply be extended to represent these by including a volumetric flux
per unit volume term as shown in Equation 19.1, viz:

∂ ∂h ∂ ∂h ∂ ∂h
Kx + Ky + Kz = +R∗ (19.1)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z
where:
R∗ is a source/sink term which defines the volume of inflow to the system per unit volume of aquifer per
unit time. The dimensions of R∗ are therefore T1 .
When the value of the source and sink term R∗ is zero, the governing equation is the Laplace Equation.
For non-zero values of R∗ the equation is known as the Poisson Equation. In most real problems it is
the Poisson’s equation which requires solving. However consideration of the Laplace equation is useful
initially.
For a non-steady state problem, an additional term is added to the right hand side of Equation 19.1 to
represent the release of water from the aquifer. The equation then becomes:

∂ ∂h ∂ ∂h ∂ ∂h ∂h
Kx + Ky + Kz = Ss + R∗ (19.2)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂t
where:

Figure 19.10: Hydrostratigraphic model

Ss is the specific storage.
To simulate pumping from an aquifer R∗ = −W ∗ .
19.3.2 Aquifer representation
In the aquifer conceptual model, it is assumed that flow through the aquifer is only horizontal, with
vertical flow through aquitards represented as leakage. A general form of the governing equation from
this approach is given in Equation 19.3, where the terms are integrated about the vertical (R = R∗ × b).

∂ ∂h ∂ ∂h ∂h
Tx + Ty =S −R+L (19.3)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂t
where:
Tx is the x component of the aquifer transmissivity where Tx = Kx b

Ty is the y component of the aquifer transmissivity where Ty = Kx b
b is the aquifer thickness which is assumed to be constant
S is the aquifer storage coefficient.
R is the sink/source term with units of volume per time per square metre [ TL ]. Note that this is different
from the 3-dimensional representation in Equation 19.1.
L is a leakage term calculated from Equation 19.4.
hsource − h
L = −Kz0 (19.4)
b0
where:
L is the leakage
Kz0 is the vertical hydraulic conductivity of the aquitard through which the leakage occurs,
b0 is the thickness of the aquitard,
hsource is the head in the source zone on the other side of the aquitard.
This is the representation we will use for the development of code for pumping test analysis.
19.3.3 One-dimensional cartesian flow
Using Darcy’s Law and the principle of continuity of flow, a differential equation can be derived to
many 1-D groundwater flow problems. Consider Equation 19.3; if there is no variation in flow with time
( ∂h
∂t
= 0) and no leakage (L = 0); and if the transmissivity is constant, we can write in one dimension
(flow in the x-direction):
d2 h R
2
= (19.5)
d x T
Integrating this once gives:
dh Rx
= +A (19.6)
dx T

where A is a constant of integration. Integrating again gives:

Rx2
h= + Ax + B (19.7)
2T
where B is a second constant of integration. This approach can be used to solve simple 1-Dimensional
flow problems. Consider an aquifer with an impermeable base and a constant transmissivity T (where
T = Kx × b) is in contact with an impermeable edge to the aquifer at the left-hand side (x = 0). On
the right-hand side, x = L, the aquifer is in contact with a large lake at an elevation of H above datum.
The aquifer is recharged uniformly at a rate R (dimensions of L/T). Recharge is independent of position
along x.
The 2 constants of integration can be determined from the 2 boundary conditions.
dh
1. At x = 0 there is no lateral inflow thus dx = 0. Hence from Eqn 19.6,
0
0=R× +A (19.8)
T
and A must be zero.
2. At x = L, h = H and also substituting A = 0 in Eqn 19.7 gives:
L2
H =R× +0+B (19.9)
2T
RL2
Therefore B = H + 2T
. Substituting back into Eqn 19.7 gives:
R(L2 − x2 )
h=H+ (19.10)
2T
dh
The total flow through the aquifer is Q = T dx = R × x.
Tutorial Exercise
Calculate the maximum groundwater heads and maximum flows into the lake for the following parameters:
• transmissivity T = 250 m2 /day

• constant recharge R = 0.5 mm/day
• length L = 1 km, 3 km and 10 km
• head in lake H = 50 m
Comment on the justification behind the approximations made and the probable degree of accuracy.
19.3.4 Boussinesq equation
It is standard practice (Dupuit-Forchheimer approach Rushton [2003]) for unconfined aquifers to assume
that Tx = Kx h and Ty = Ky h, where h is the saturated thickness of the aquifer. Clearly h will vary as
the water table elevation in the aquifer changes. If Kx h is substituted into Equation 19.3 we get:

∂ ∂h ∂ ∂h ∂h
Kx h + Ky h =S (19.11)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂t
where the leakage and recharge terms (L & R) are equal to zero and the storage coefficient (S) is equal
to the Specific Yield (Sy ).

Using the differential calculus result that:

∂h2 ∂h
= 2h (19.12)
∂x ∂x
Equation 19.11 can be written as:
∂h2 ∂h2

∂ ∂ ∂h
Kx + Ky = 2Sy (19.13)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂t
Equation 19.13 is non-linear and requires particular numerical solution techniques.
Consider a 1-D steady-state problem with recharge. The asumption of steady state means that the term
∂h
∂t = 0. Provided that the hydraulic conductivity is constant, Equation 19.13 can be then be written as:
d dh2

2R
=− (19.14)
dx dx K
Equation 19.14 is called the Dupuit-Forchheimer equation and can be used to analyse unconfined ground-
water flow problems. Rushton [2003] provides examples of its use to predict flow through dams or to
drainage ditches in an irrigated field.
19.4 Numerical solution methods
19.4.1 Introduction
Two numerical solution methods are in common use:
• Finite difference methods, and

• Finite element methods
The use of one or other method [Faust and Mercer, 1980] will depend as much upon the familiarity of
the modeler with a method and the availability of appropriate code as upon any theoretical basis. Finite
elements are conceptually more elegant, but the data preparation is tiresome and error prone. Finite
differences are conceptually simple and data preparation preserves the essential geometry of the model
area.
19.4.2 Discretisation
Both numerical analysis methods discretise the model domain. The finite difference method employs an
orthogonal variably spaced mesh aligned along the directions of principal anisotropy of the aquifer.
The finite element method subdivides the area into triangular or rectangular elements. Examples of mesh
discretisation are given for the two methods in Figure 19.11 [Wang and Anderson, 1982].
The purpose behind this discretisation is to solve the equation for the unknown parameter at a reduced
number of nodes. Where high accuracy is required, the concentration of nodes is increased, where a small
inaccuracy is of little consequence the node density is decreased. Changing the node density is a simpler
process in the finite element method than in the finite difference method.
As an example of a numerical solution method, the finite difference approach is described below. Finite
elements requires considerably more mathematical understanding and is not included in this brief overview
of moelling.

Figure 19.11: Finite difference and finite element mesh discretisations

Figure 19.12: One dimensional finite difference approximation to a function
19.5 Finite difference method
The finite difference methods are fundamentally very simple. The approximation of the continuous vari-
able leads directly to a set of simultaneous equations without the need to introduce further mathematical
complications.
The geometry of a two-dimensional solution is maintained in the computer code. This means that the
approach is ideally suited to the aquifer representation. Two-dimensional arrays are used to store aquifer
properties and heads which closely resemble the field situation. The extension to three dimensions comes
naturally as additional layers of information are added.
2
Finite difference representations of the first order ∂h
∂x
∂ h
and second order ∂x 2 partial derivatives need to
be developed. The finite difference approximation to the smooth and continuous function can best be
appreciated in terms of gradients. There are many basic maths and physics texts if a primer is required.
The clasic physics text by Feynman et al. [1969] is very helpful.
∂ 2h
19.5.1 FD Discretisation of ∂h2
The use of the finite difference method allows the discretisation of the continuous partial differential
equation. Instead of values of head specified at all points in the −x − y − z− space, the space is covered
by a two-dimensional grid and the head only calculated for nodes of the grid. If it is necessary to examine
a particular area in detail, then the mesh is increased in density in the region of interest. Conversely, if
large areas of the problem domain are of little interest, then a coarse mesh can be chosen in this area.
As the mesh is orthogonal there are some limitations in choosing the most appropriate mesh and this is
one of the weaknesses of this method. Note also that the axes of the grid must be chosen to be parallel
to the directions of principal anisotropy of the hydraulic conductivity tensor.
For a given portion of an aquifer, the smooth hydraulic head variation can be described by a number of
straight line segments as shown in Figure 19.12. The accuracy with which the smooth function can be
represented is determined by the number of straight line segments into which it is divided. Approximate
values of the gradients (first derivative) at intermediate points in Figure 19.12 can be calculated using
the point centered grid system as
dh hi+1 − hi
≈ (19.15)
dx a ∆xa

and

dh hi − hi−1
≈ (19.16)
dx b ∆xb
Where the suffixes xa and xb signify intermediate positions on either side of node 0. Values of the second
differential can be written as
dh
− dh
2
d h d dh dx a dx b 2 hi+1 − hi hi − hi−1
= = = − (19.17)
dx2 0 dx dx 0.5(∆xa + ∆xb ) ∆xa + ∆xb ∆xa ∆xb
If the mesh spacing is regular and ∆xa = ∆xb then the expressions simplify to:
d2 h hi+1 − 2hi + hi+1

≈ (19.18)
dx2 ∆x2
The approximation introduced by the finite difference approach can best be examined by considering the
Taylor series expansion of the terms.
∆x2 d2 h ∆x3 d3 h ∆x4 d4 h

∆x dh
hi+1 = hi + + + + +··· (19.19)
1! dx 0 2! dx2 0 3! dx3 0 4! dx4 0
∆x2 d2 h ∆x3 d3 h ∆x4 d4 h

∆x dh
hi−1 = hi − + − + −··· (19.20)
1! dx 0 2! dx2 0 3! dx3 0 4! dx4 0
Summing:
∆x2 d2 h ∆x4 d4 h

hi−1 − 2hi + hi+1 = 2 × +2× +··· (19.21)
2! dx2 0 4! dx4 0
Therefore, dividing by ∆x2 gives:

2
∆x4 d4 h

d h 1
= (h i−1 − 2h i + h i+1 ) − +··· (19.22)
dx2 0 ∆x2 12 dx4 0
4
4
The terms − ∆x
12
d h
dx4 are called the truncation error. If two solutions are obtained, the second having
0
a mesh interval equal to half that for the first solution, the truncation error for the second solution is
only one quarter of that of the first. As a result the second solution will be more accurate. For certain
problems the truncation error is zero; then the finite difference solution is identical with the theoretical
solution.
19.5.2 FD Representation of Laplace’s Equation in 2D
The equation representing horizontal flow in an aquifer which is in steady-state is given by Equation 19.3
with no right hand side terms, viz:

∂ ∂h ∂ ∂h
Tx + Ty =0 (19.23)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y

Figure 19.13: Finite difference grid
If the transmissivity is homogeneous and isotropic it can be removed from the partial derivatives to
produce the Laplace equation in 2D, viz:
∂2h ∂2h
+ 2 =0 (19.24)
∂x2 ∂y
Consider a finite set of points arranged orthogonally on a regular mesh as shown in Figure 19.13.
The space between the points in the -x- and -y- directions is constant. The smaller this distance becomes,
the better the accuracy of the approximation. However, as the number of mesh points and equations
increases, the solution time also rapidly increases. To locate any point in the grid we specify an integer
ordered pair (i, j), relative to the pair (1, 1) located in the upper left-hand corner of the grid. The finite
difference expressions can be written in terms of the nodes hi−1,j , hi,j , hi+1,j by taking a central difference
∂ 2h
approximation to ∂x 2 at the point x0 , y0 . These are obtained by approximating the first derivative at
x0 + ∆x
2
, y0 and at x 0 − ∆x
2
, y0 , and by then obtaining the second derivative by taking a difference between
the first two differences at those points. That is,
hi+1,j −hi,j hi,j −hi−1,j
∂2h ∆x − ∆x
= (19.25)
∂x2 ∆x
which may be written as
∂2h hi−1,j − 2hi,j + hi+1,j
2
= (19.26)
∂x ∆x2
Similarly, the relationships for the approximation in the -y- cartesian coordinate direction can be written
as:
∂2h hi,j−1 − 2hi,j + hi,j+1
= (19.27)
∂y2 ∆y2
The two components are added together to represent Laplace’s equation in two dimensions. For a regular
grid such that ∆x = ∆y, the finite difference expression for the point i, j simplifies to
hi−1,j + hi,j+1 + hi+1,j + hi,j−1 − 4hi,j = 0 (19.28)
or
hi,j = 0.25 × (hi−1,j + hi,j+1 + hi+1,j + hi,j−1 ) (19.29)

This is equivalent to saying that the head at a central node may be approximated by taking the average
of the four surrounding nodes. Note that for the node i, j the diagonal nodes hi−1,j−1, hi+1,j−1 , hi−1,j+1
and hi+1,j+1 do not contribute to the approximation.
The head in a three-dimensional model could be calculated in the same manner by taking the average of
the six surrounding heads.
19.6 Iterative solution methods
The simplest iteration method is to assume some starting point for each of the four unknown heads in the
above problem and to apply the finite difference approximation to each unknown head in turn, repeatedly
sweeping through the mesh until the change in head at each unknown is less than some predetermined
acceptability criteria. This method was developed by Southwell and is often referred to as the relaxation
method because for each step one of the errors is relaxed.
If the iteration index is referred to as m, then the formula to be used for a regular mesh in which ∆x = ∆y
can be written as:
hm m m m
i−1,j + hi,j−1 + hi+1,j + hi,j+1
hm+1
i,j = (19.30)
4
Use of this formula at each node in succession is known as the Jacobi Iteration Method.
A more efficient method is to sweep through the mesh in an ordered manner from left to right and top
to bottom, using the most recently computed heads at the left and top in the computation of the new
head at the next iteration for node (i, j). This method of solution is known as the Gauss Seidel Method.
This method allows the use of two newly computed values in the iteration formula, viz:
hm+1 m+1 m m
i−1,j + hi,j−1 + hi+1,j + hi,j+1
hm+1
i,j = (19.31)
4
The use of newly computed head values when ever possible makes the Gauss-Seidel method more efficient
than Jacobi iteration.
19.6.1 Successive over relaxation (SOR)
The change between two successive Gauss-Seidel iterations can be thought of as a residual c. The residual
is defined by
c = hm+1
i,j − hmi,j (19.32)
In the SOR method, the Gauss-Seidel residual is multiplied by a relaxation factor ω where ω ≤ 1, and
the new value of hm+1
i,j is given by the formula:
hm+1
i,j = ωc + hm
i,j (19.33)
Substituting and rearranging these terms gives:
hm+1 m+1 m m
i−1,j + hi,j−1 + hi+1,j + hi,j+1
hm+1
i,j = (1 − ω) hm
i,j + ω (19.34)
4
If ω = 1 the equation reduces to that for Gauss-Seidel iteration. For values of ω > 1, we are, in effect,
overestimating the correction for each iteration. The most efficient value of ω for a given problem depends
on the geometry of the mesh and the field parameters of the equation.

19.7 Boundary conditions
Figure 19.6 gives a mathematical model of flow in an aquifer. The mathematical problem is specified
by Equation 19.23 inside the flow domain represented by the model. To complete the mathematical
specification, the conditions around the boundary and at the start of the simulation must be specified.
Two basic conditions can exist around the boundary, viz:
• A known flow (flux) across the boundary, or

• a fixed head on the boundary.
A specified flow across the boundary is referred to as a Neumann boundary condition. The most common
boundary condition of this type is a no-flow boundary condition. Consideration of the basic Darcy
equation indicates that no flow will occur when the gradient of the head across the boundary is zero.
∂h
=0 (19.35)
∂x
A specified head along a boundary is known as a Dirichlet boundary condition. Specification of the
Dirichlet condition is achieved by setting the head to a known value on the boundary and not allowing
it to be changed during the solution procedure. Implementation of a fixed head condition is significant
in groundwater modeling as it creates an unlimited source of water into the aquifer, no matter what
hydraulic gradient occurs.
19.8 FD representation of the time derivative
The study of time varying groundwater flow, as shown by Equation 19.3, requires that we formulate a
finite difference representation of the time dimension by a suitable discretization.
The object is to calculate the groundwater potentials throughout a problem domain at time t + ∆t for
the (n + 1) time increment, from the known potentials at time t for the n time increment.
All the commonly used finite difference approximations of the time derivative may be summarized by the
following equation

∂ ∂hn+1 ∂ ∂hn+1 ∂ ∂hn ∂ ∂hn hn+1 − hn
L Tx + Ty +M Tx + Ty =S + Rx,y,t
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∆t
(19.36)
where L + M = 1.
There are three commonly used values of L and M:
1. L = 0, M = 1: This is a forward difference approximation of the time derivative which leads to an

explicit formulation of the equations where the head at time t + ∆t is expressed in terms of the
surrounding nodes and heads at time t.
2. L = 1, M = 0: This is the backward-difference approximation which leads to an implicit formulation
with the head at time t + ∆t expressed in terms of the surrounding nodes and heads at time t + ∆t.
The successive over-relaxation (SOR) and the modified alternating-direction implicit procedure
(MADIP) use this approximation.
3. L = 0.5, M = 0.5: This is a central difference approximation; both the alternating-direction implicit
(ADI) and the alternating-direction explicit (ADE) use this central difference approximation to the
time derivative.

Figure 19.14: Convention for numbering of nodes using the grid-centered approach
Abstraction from a well (referred to as W in the above equations) is expressed as a negative inflow and
equals the actual abstraction rate divided by the appropriate mesh area. The units of W are then TL and
are the same as a volumetric flux.
The convention for numbering of the nodes is shown in Figure 19.14. The transmissivities in the -x- and
-y- directions TX(,) and TY(,) are defined at the mid-points between the nodes. This is the grid-centered
approach. The storage S, and flux W terms are defined for the nodes specified.
The various approximations to the time derivative are described by several workers [Rushton and Red-
shaw, 1979] and show that the backward-difference or implicit formulation is the most stable and com-
putationally robust method. The other techniques will not be explored further here.
The backward-difference formulation can be derived from Equation 19.36 by setting L = 1, and M = 0;

∂ ∂hn+1 ∂ ∂hn+1 hn+1 − hn
Tx + Ty =S − Wx,y,t (19.37)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∆
19.9 Model codes
There are very many model codes which have been developed in the last 20 years. Some of the most
widely used codes have been produced by the US Geological Survey. As US Government publications are
free of copyright, they have been made available over the web.

One of the most popular groundwater modeling codes is the USGS MODFLOW code. This is a finite
difference program which now has available excellent pre-processors and post-processors which allow
complex problems to be set up relatively easily. Versions are available for WINDOWS or for UNIX based
work stations. The code is also available over the internet. Examples of the use of MODFLOW are also
available in books [Anderson and Woessner, 1992].
Finite element methods are used in the FEFLOW code that can more satisfactorily incorporate the
unsaturated zone than is possible in MODFLOW.
Free software is also becoming more available. The Interactive Groundwater Modeling (IGW) code is
available from www.egs.msu.edu/igw/ written by Dr Shuguang Li and associates.

Chapter 20
Dryland salinity
Contents
20.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
20.1.1 Predictions of future salinity impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
20.1.2 New evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
20.1.3 Existing salinity classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
20.2 What is dryland salinity? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
20.2.1 Site features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
20.2.2 Salinity classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
20.2.3 Salinity development over time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
20.3 Source of salts for dryland salinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
20.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
20.3.2 Original source of salt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
20.3.3 Natural occurrences of salts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
20.3.4 Salt from rain water (cyclic salt) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
20.3.5 Salt from irrigation water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
20.3.6 Salt from rock weathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
20.3.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
20.4 Which salts? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
20.5 Salinity and climate variability or climate change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
20.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
20.5.2 NSW Salinity Audit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
20.6 Appropriate salinity investigation methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
20.7 Possible process for salty clay formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
20.7.1 Aeolian entrainment and landscape accession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
20.7.2 Soil formation processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
20.7.3 Mobilisation of dust deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
20.7.4 Links of aeolian material with salinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
20.8 Salinity models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
20.1 Introduction
Salinity has received very considerable attention in Australia during the past 30 years. There was extreme
concern in the late 20th Century with the assumption that very large areas would become flooded with
saline water by the end of the Century. It was believed, for example, that groundwater levels would
rise rapidly to cause widespread water logging of the Liverpool Plains (NSW) with a concomitant loss of
530
Chapter 20. Dryland salinity
Table 20.1: Possible increase in dryland salinity in each State
State Current (2000) Estimated in 2050

estimate based on predicted
(ha) groundwater levels (ha)
Western Australia 4,363,000 8,800,000
New South Wales 181,000 1,300,000
Victoria 670,000 3,110,000
South Australia 390,000 600,000
Queensland Not assessed 3,100,000
Tasmania 54,000 90,000
TOTAL 5,658,000 28,700,000
agricultural productivity. Simple conceptual models were proposed and applied widely with little inves-
tigation. Many times it was stated that the causes of dryland salinity were well known and the Country
had to move rapidly to manage the problem. Dryland salinity was seen as practically unstoppable. An
apparently clear paradigm developed that has been endlessly quoted and used widely in materials as far
apart as School texts and Prime Minister’s Advisory Council Meetings.
The occurrence of dryland salinity was often written about in quite an emotional manner. Even the
National Academy of Science currently (2009) has a lead article entitled:
Monitoring the white death - soil salinity

http://www.science.org.au/nova/032/032box01.htm
A Position Paper prepared by the National Committee on Water Engineering refers to dryland salinity
as:
Dryland salinity is fundamentally a groundwater problem, although it produces effects at or

above the land surface and in the underlying shallow root zone. Along with erosion (by water
and wind) and water logging, it is a form of land and water degradation that has serious
implications for Australia’s future. Dryland salinity can take decades to emerge as a problem.
In many instances, it will not be feasible to control or reverse dryland salinity problems,
and options need to be developed for living with salinity and managing saline landscapes
productively.
20.1.1 Predictions of future salinity impact
The National Land and Water Resource Audit in 2000 identified that in Australia, approximately 5.7 M
ha are within regions to be at risk or affected by dryland salinity (Fig. 20.1) that would occur as a result
of rising groundwater levels.
The 2000 Land and Water Audit Report suggested that there would be very large increases in salinity
(Table 20.1).
It had been estimated that by 2050, given climatic conditions such as those experienced in the 1980s
and 1990s, and without some form of effective intervention [Prime Minister’s Science, Engineering and
Innovation Council, 1999], that:
• The area of regions with a high risk may increase to 17 million ha.

Figure 20.1: Arears at risk of developing salinity - Land and Water Audit Report
• About 20,000 km of major road and 1600 km of railways will be at high risk.
• Up to 20,000 km of streams could be significantly salt affected.
• Over 200 towns could suffer damage to infrastructure and other community assets.
• In Western Australia, at least 1500 plant species will suffer from dryland salinity, with 450 of these
possibly subject to extinction. Fauna species are likely to be reduced by 30%.
• Approximately 80 important wetlands including those of national and international significance
have been affected or at risk of damage from dryland salinity.
It is not surprising that there has been a significant political response to this situation. The Murray-
Darling Basin Commission and the various states released their salinity strategies. This preceded the
Federal Government’s National Action Plan for Salinity and Water Quality that existed between 2000
and 2008. These strategies generally involve the regional planning, attaining of regional targets and
protection of assets. Groundwater analysis forms an important framework for the salinity management
plans that develop as part of these strategies.
The goal of the National Action Plan is to motivate and enable regional communities to use coordinated
and targeted action to:
• Prevent, stabilize and reverse trends in dryland salinity affecting the sustainability of production,
the conservation of biological diversity and the viability of our infrastructure, and
• Improve water quality and secure reliable allocations for human uses, industry and the environment.

20.1.2 New evidence
A review by [Mertz, 2006] noted however that further studies since the release of the NLWR Audit using
different and improved methods of analysis, and at the same time building into the studies an allowance
for changing climatic conditions, indicate that perhaps a smaller area of land is at risk from salinity.
Studies presented by McFarlane et al. [2004], on existing salinity in Western Australia, indicated about
1 Mha of land affected in comparison to the 4.3 Mha predicted in the audit. Similar studies by Sinclair
Knight Merz also indicated a considerable reduction in the area of land with a high risk of developing
salinity in Victoria.
The NSW Salinity Audit [Rančić et al., 2009] reported that groundwater levels were falling across much
of the fractured rock terrain of the State and that salinity appeared to be receding.
The existing dryland salinity paradigm Prime Minister’s Science, Engineering and Innovation Council
[1999] could be summarized simply by the observation that rising groundwater levels mobilised salt
from the sub-surface bringing it to the surface where it concentrated by evaporation to produce salinity.
Because groundwater levels are known to rise when deep rooted vegetation is replaced by shallow rooted
vegetation, it was assumed that the massive clearing of vegetation in the late 19th Century was responsible
for this increase in water levels. Implicit in this analysis was that rainfall was a constant factor.
The association of dryland salinity with human intervention in the landscape led to terms such as sec-
ondary salinity or human-induced salinity. As there was frequently a major lag between clearing and the
onset of salinity, it was concluded that the process had taken many decades to develop after clearing of
vegetation and that it would take many further decades to reverse.
With the advantage of hindsight and a major drought that has now (2009) caused water levels to fall
widely in many areas, particularly in eastern Australia, it is appropriate to make a more careful analysis
of the problem.
In these notes we will attempt the following:
1. Define what dryland salinity actually is;

2. get some idea of the development of salinity over time;
3. investigate the source of salts;
4. develop a conceptual model for the occurrence of dryland salinity based upon the available data
and
5. briefly summarise appropriate investigation methodologies.
20.1.3 Existing salinity classifications
Salinisation is often described as being either primary or secondary [Williams and Bullock, 1989, Ghassemi
et al., 1995]. It has been suggested that the term Primary salinisation be restricted to naturally occurring
salinity and used to refer to saline lakes, playas, and the effects of dryland salinity. The term secondary
salinity has been proposed to refer to salinity caused by human interference in the hydrological cycle.
Williams and Bullock [1989] gave a proposed classification for salt affected lands (Fig. 20.2).
The classification of Williams and Bullock [1989], while still widely applied, can be criticised in that many
of the processes which are naturally occurring, albeit slowly, can not be separated from the impacts of
human interference on the hydrological cycle. In many cases, human activity has only accelerated or
re-activated naturally occurring processes. This seems to be implicit in Figure 20.2 where the effects of
dryland salinity (salt pan, salt seepage, seepage scald and dry scald) occur both under secondary and

Figure 20.2: Unsatisfactory salinity classifications in common use. Features of primary salinity and
dryland salinity are exactly the same - making classification impossible if based on the presence of those
features
primary salinity classifications. It can also be clearly seen in Fig 20.6 where ancient salinity associated
with the drying up of old drainage channels is clearly seen.
A more useful classification could be simply between Natural Salinity and Irrigation Salinity, or perhaps,
just salinity.
The problem of saline intrusion of aquifers due to over pumping adjacent to the coast is well understood
(Chapters 4 and 25) and although it could give rise to what might be called salinity, it is not the focus
of these notes.
Much has also been written about irrigation salinity and it is considered to have been instrumental in
the collapse of past civilisations. History shows that some ancient civilisations e.g. 4th Century BC
Mesopotamia, China, the Indus River basin, and South America declined due to poor salt management,
with the collapse of their agriculture followed soon by a collapse of their power.
It should be pointed out that irrigation occurs in semi-arid lands rather than temperate lands that are
not short of water. This obvious point masks the observation that if the land is naturally dry, then past
climates may have caused build up of salts in the soil quite naturally. Lakes drying up or salinas formed
by groundwater discharge are common in the semi-arid parts of the world. If irrigation water is brought
to these areas by canal and spread over the land, then it is hardly surprising that salinity will become a
problem! This is in addition to the slow build up of salts as irrigation water is dried up by transpiration
of the crops or by direct evaporation from open water.
The build up of salt by the evaporative concentration of low-salinity irrigation water must necessarily
be a much slower process and of far less significance than the salinity caused by allowing the irrigation
water to contact with pre-existing saline materials. Consider the quantum of salt derived by evaporating
a cubic metre of irrigation water with total dissolved salts of 100 mg/l. The concentration will produce
0.1 kg of salt. By contrast, if a cubic metre of soil contains 1 kg of salt spread through it (approximately

Figure 20.3: Classic occurrence of dryland slainity at Dicks Creek in the Yass River valley of NSW (Photo
RIA)
0.04% by weight) and the irrigation water dissolves that salt, then the solution concentration will be
1.1 kg/m3 or 1,100 mg/l. If this water then evaporates at the surface, there will be a much greater chance
that a salt crust will be formed.
Note that the solubility of sodium chloride in water is very high (359 kg can be dissolved in a cubic metre -
or 359,000 mg/l!). A very large concentration of sodium chloride is therefore required before precipitation
by concentration can be achieved. From this discussion, it can be seen that there is further difficulty in
separating natural processes from human induced processes.
20.2 What is dryland salinity?
20.2.1 Site features
Part of the problem with classification of dryland salinity is a lack of absolute indicators. Few people
would question that the ground shown in Fig. 20.3 or the flatter ground shown in Fig. 20.4 exhibit
dryland salinity. More rarely, actual salts can be observed associated with groundwater discharge as
shown in Fig. 20.5. This would have to be closer to the general public’s perception of dryland salinity.
But perceptions can be confusing! It is only necessary to fly into Perth from the east of Australia to get
a glimpse of the salinity problem in that State (Fig. 20.6).
The salts shown in Fig. 20.5 are in fact probably sodium bicarbonate (also known as baking soda) as the
water is overwhelmingly composed of sodium bicarbonate in solution.
The observable effects of dryland salinity on plants can he confused with water logging, acidity and over
grazing. Bare soil patches are not a real indication by themselves. Salt crystals are not always present
on the surface.
The taste threshold for salt varies both between individuals and for different salt types. It is of the order
of 1.5 dS/m to 2.0 ds/m, thereby limiting its usefulness as an indicator. As an example of this difficulty,

Figure 20.4: Water logged soils leading to death of trees and incipient salinity on the Tragowal Plains in
Victoria (Photo RIA)
Figure 20.5: Salt deposits around a leaking bore (Photo RIA)

Figure 20.6: Salinity in Western Australia - adjacent to cropping land
householders in SE UK are quite happy with mains water delivered with a salinity of 0.7 dS/m because
the salt is calcium bicarbonate rather than sodium chloride.
The presence of plant species with known salt tolerance, and physical or chemical soil indicators (such as
soil puffiness, salt crystals, black staining where appropriate, or a field 1:5 soil:water extract) are often
required to determine that a site is, in fact, saline.
Plant species which grow on saline sites have been described in many areas. Some of the more easily
recognised species common to both Victoria and the western plains of NSW include wimmera ryegrass
(Lolium rigidium), sea barley grass (Hordeum marinum), couch (Cynodon dactylon), annual beard grass
(Polypogon monspeliensis), curly ryegrass (Parapholis incurva), and spiny rush (Juncus acutus).
Many water courses in this region also contain the larger form of cumbungi or bullrush, Typha orientalis,
and the smaller form Typha domingensis. Phragmites australis often occurs in similar situations and
salinities. These are native species and have been found growing very well in quite saline water. Zedler
et al. [1990] have shown that Typha orientalis will survive salinities of approximately 30 dS/m (sea water
salinity is 55dS/m). It is believed that these plants have filled niches where plants less tolerant of periodic
or occasional salt flushes or a high background level of salinity have been killed. Hence, they may be a
good indicator of water courses that are subject to elevated salt loads. They are also very easily recognised
from some distance and can be detected in aerial photos. As cumbungi grows well in both saline and
non-saline situations, indeed it requires relatively low salinity levels in order to establish, it is important
to understand the concept of an indicator.
Signs such as trees showing stress with thin canopies and dieback-like effects, the thinning or stunting of
vegetation, brown or yellow discolouration of pasture species, and the reddening or blue appearance of
some plants can all indicate salinity. It has been reported that defoliation of eucalypts displays a slightly
different form when caused by the effects of salinity as opposed to insect attack. When salinity is at fault,
the upper branches appear to become completely devoid of foliage and develop a skeletal appearance,
while when insects are to blame these upper branches often show small patches of regrowth (A. Nicholson

Table 20.2: A salinity classification based upon total dissolved salts in solution
Water quality TDS (mgL−1 ) Comment

Fresh <500 Regarded as good quality drinking water based on
taste. Acceptable for most irrigation.
Slightly brackish 500 to 1000 Acceptable as drinking water based on taste. Ac-
ceptable for most irrigation, depending on type of
crop, type of soils, and level of drainage.
Brackish 1000 to 2000 Acceptable for most stock and some irrigation, de-
pending on type of crop, type of soils, and level of
drainage.
Moderately saline 2000 to 5000 Primary drainage
Saline 5000 to 10 000 Limited farm use, unacceptable for most stock unless
as an emergency supply.
Highly saline 10 000 to 35 000 Very saline groundwater
Hypersaline >35 000 Seawater, may have use in industry or mining
pers. comm. in Taylor [1973]).
Saline creeks and dams have a characteristic appearance with clear water to depth and often have a loose
sediment on the bottom. Clay particles in salty water will tend to flocculate quickly so clear water in
streams and dams soon after a runoff event can also be a sign of salinity. The nature of the clay, the
type of cation, and the concentration of cations in the solution are the greatest determiners of whether
the clay will flocculate or deflocculate. The levels of organic matter and the pH also complicate the
interpretation.
20.2.2 Salinity classification
There have been many different classifications of salinity. In most instances, the classification is based
upon the quantity of salt held in solution in water. This does not of course bear any relationship to
the soil or to the way salinity evolved. The classifications are variable but the listing in Table 20.2 is
frequently used.
20.2.3 Salinity development over time
The development of dryland salinity in the post World War 2 years masked the fact that many areas in
Australia had been noted for their salinity in previous periods - even by the first explorers.
Dryland salinity is widespread through the Yass River catchment and the adjacent southern parts of
the Upper Lachlan River catchments of NSW. The first recorded occurrence was at Blakeney Creek in
the Lachlan River catchment where a 40 acre block of land cleared by James Dunley in the 1860’s had
developed the characteristics of dryland salinity by 1880 (Rex Wagner, pers. comm. 1995). The areal
extent of the outbreak has not changed significantly since that time, although downward erosion and
gullying have proceeded until the shallow bedrock is now exposed. It is important to note that only
minor land clearing had occurred at that time.
Dryland salinity was reported in 1902 (Rex Wagner, pers. comm., 1995) on a block in the upper part
of Murrumbateman Creek in the Yass River catchment. A heavy clay forming the valley floor supported
grasses before wheat farming commenced in the 1870’s. Trees grew only on the valley sides. Dryland
salinity broke out on the valley floor and was a problem from 1902 onwards. The trees on the valley sides
were ring-barked between 1910 and 1912 to allow more (replacement) land to be bought into production.

The early outbreaks of dryland salinity occurred before widespread clearing in the catchment commenced
in the early part of the 1900’s.
Charles Sturt travelled along the Macquarie River in NSW in 1829 and discovered large brine springs
discharging into the bed of the river. The following exerts from Sturt’s diaries have been noted by Noel
Merrick (2009, pers. comm.)
The circumstance of there having been natives in the neighbourhood, of whom we had seen
so few traces of late, assured me that water was at hand . . . . . . we suddenly found ourselves
on the banks of a noble river.. . . . . . The party drew up upon a bank that was from forty to
forty-five feet above the level of the stream. The channel of the river was from seventy to
eighty yards broad, and enclosed an unbroken sheet of water, evidently very deep, and literally
covered with pelicans and other wild fowl. . . . . . Our difficulties seemed to be at an end . . . .
. . . Coming from the N. E., and flowing to the S. W., it had a capacity of channel that proved
that we were as far from its source as from its termination.. . . . . . the men eagerly descended
to quench their thirst . . . ; nor shall I ever forget the cry of amazement that followed their
doing so, or the looks of terror and disappointment with which they called out to inform me
that the water was so salt as to be unfit to drink !. . . . . . on tasting it, I found it extremely
nauseous, and strongly impregnated with salt, being apparently a mixture of sea and fresh
water. [Pages 85-86]
In Western Australia, early water supplies put down for steam engines encountered salt water. The
concentration appeared to increase as pumping was continued. Clearly, salt is a part of the Australian
landscape and has been so from before European settlement. It is worth noting here that Australia did
not experience the severe glaciation that effected wiped out all soils over a large part of the northern
hemisphere. Salts have been able to accumulate in Australia throughout the Pleistocene, although may
have been partially removed during pluvial phases.
20.3 Source of salts for dryland salinity
20.3.1 Introduction
Much has been written about the sources of salt that cause a problem in dryland salinity. A brief review
of what is known is given here. Note that the sources of salt are also covered in Chapter 15 but as the
source of salt is frequently contentious, aspects are repeated here.
20.3.2 Original source of salt
The Chloride in sodium chloride comes originally from gas vented from volcanoes around the world. This
is usually as hydrogen chloride. McGee et al. [1997] give the following account of the gas emanating from
the eruption of Mount Pinatubo.
Large, explosive volcanic eruptions inject water vapor (H2 O), carbon dioxide (CO2 ), sulfur
dioxide (SO2 ), hydrogen chloride (HCl), hydrogen fluoride (HF ) and ash (pulverized rock and
pumice) into the stratosphere to heights of 10-20 miles above the Earth’s surface. The most
significant impacts from these injections come from the conversion of sulfur dioxide to sulfuric
acid (H2 SO4 ), which condenses rapidly in the stratosphere to form fine sulfate aerosols. The
aerosols increase the reflection of radiation from the Sun back into space and thus cool the
Earth’s lower atmosphere or troposphere; however, they also absorb heat radiated up from
the Earth, thereby warming the stratosphere. Several eruptions during the past century
have caused a decline in the average temperature at the Earth’s surface of up to half a

Figure 20.7: Fate of gas erupted from a volcano
degree (Fahrenheit scale) for periods of one to three years. The sulfate aerosols also promote
complex chemical reactions on their surfaces that alter chlorine and nitrogen chemical species
in the stratosphere. This effect, together with increased stratospheric chlorine levels from
chlorofluorocarbon pollution, generates chlorine monoxide (ClO), which destroys ozone (O3 ).
As the aerosols grow and coagulate, they settle down into the upper troposphere where they
serve as nuclei for cirrus clouds and further modify the Earth’s radiation balance. Most of
the hydrogen chloride (HCl) and hydrogen fluoride (HF ) are dissolved in water droplets in
the eruption cloud and quickly fall to the ground as acid rain (Fig. 20.7). The injected ash
also falls rapidly from the stratosphere; most of it is removed within several days to a few
weeks. Finally, explosive volcanic eruptions release the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide and
thus provide a deep source of carbon for biogeochemical cycles.
As chloride is a conservative parameter, it does not partake in many (if any) chemical reactions so that
the final repository of all chloride is in the ocean or as a precipitate in a sabka.
As chloride is conservative, chemical changes are often measured relative to the ratio of chloride and
another non-conservative parameter (Chapter 15 covers this area).
20.3.3 Natural occurrences of salts
Salts occur associated with saline lakes and playas. Saline lakes and playas occur wherever the long term
input of salt to a basin exceeds the long term output of salt. This condition occurs wherever a closed
drainage basin exists. The Dead Sea, Lake Eyre, The Great Salt Lake are all good examples. Salt lakes
also occur in Antarctica where the same conditions are satisfied.
The development of salinity in a closed basin may be interrupted or partially reversed by changes in the

Figure 20.8: Lake George water depth and salinity (after Tim Ransley, 2009)
hydrological budgets of the basin. Lake George currently contains fresh water overlying saline deposits at
depth and has dried out a number of times causing the development of lunettes, as described by Bowler
[1973]. A 40-year record of salinity and water depths from Lake George is shown in Fig. 20.8 from data
supplied by Geoscience Australia (Courtesy of Tim Ransley, Geoscience Australia, pers.comm., January,
2009). The increase in lake salinity is clearly seen as the lake level drops and the salt is concentrated by
evaporation.
Similar conditions currently occur at a number of lakes in New South Wales (Lake Goran, Lake Bathurst)
and Macumber [1991] describes occurrences in Victoria in detail.
Where groundwater flow continues into a basin when there is no outlet, then a playa forms. Playas are
shallow saline lakes where salt is precipitated. Playa conditions exist widely throughout western NSW
and northern Victoria where groundwater discharges to the surface and is concentrated by evaporation.
The process of play formation is complex and occurs over thousands of years. Direct evaporation of the
water causes a build up of salinity which may then move under a density gradient down into the aquifer.
The groundwater that feeds this process is generally not saline. Continuous slow discharge of water in
an arid environment eventually builds up enough salt that direct precipitation of salt occurs. Jankowski
and Jacobson [1989] describe these conditions around Lake Amadeus. The sequence of salt precipitation
can be modelled and shows that sodium chloride is often the final salt to precipitate.
Death Valley in the US is a typical example of discharge into a closed basin. In Death Valley, the ground
surface is 30 m below sea level so there is no possibility of flushing the salt away.
20.3.4 Salt from rain water (cyclic salt)
Rain water is a primary but relatively minor source of salt. Evaporation from the ocean leaves all salt in
sea water behind. Salt that is contained in rainfall must therefore be either from nucleation of the rain
drops in the clouds around dust (salt) particles or from sea spray carried aloft by the wind as it blows
across a breaking sea surface. Annual salt input in southwest Western Australia ranges from between
5 mg/L to 30 mg/L of salts with the greater mass of salt occurring close to the coast [Hingston and
Galbraith, 1990]. This translates into between 45 and 315 kg Cl ha−1 yr −1 depending upon the quantity
of rainfall.

Figure 20.9: Playa lake deposits in Colorado, US (Photo RIA)
The average of dry salt fall in the study by Hingston and Galbraith [1990] was 25 kg Cl ha−1 yr −1 ,
although as much as 400 mg Cl m−2 day−1 were recorded (1460 kg Cl ha−1 yr −1 if integrated over a year).
High winds and low rainfall deliver the highest loads of salt from the coast.
During the last glacial maximum the sea level was 120 m lower than present. This will have exposed large
areas of sea bed to erosion by the wind. The land area of WA will have received considerable quantities
of dust containing salt from this process.
There is no problem if there is a sufficient excess of rainfall over evaporation that this salt is carried to
the ocean by run-off or percolation to groundwater and discharged as base flow. Most rivers and fresh
groundwater systems carry salts at these concentrations. For this reason, the quantity of salt deposited
in Cornwall in the south west of the UK does not give rise to a dryland salinity problem, even though
the input of salt was probably similar.
Salt accumulation
It has been demonstrated [Williamson et al., 1987, Turner et al., 1987, Silburn et al., 2009] that salt
may accumulate at the base of the soil profile by plants if insufficient rainfall occurs for downward
leaching. Many plants in arid and semi-arid zones are opportunistic, using water when water is available
and returning to low activity when water is lacking. Studies of chloride profiles on the Malee country, in
Western Australia and in the Brigalow Catchment in Queensland [Silburn et al., 2009] have demonstrated
a chloride bulge beneath the root zone of permanent vegetation. The permanent vegetation uses most of
the available moisture with roots able to extract moisture at suctions approaching 150 m head of water.
This suction removes water which is reasonably tightly held in the soil matrix. High intensity rainfall
will not remove this moisture deficit because ponding occurs with recharge along high capacity preferred
pathways. With partial wetting up of the soil profile, water containing salts moves into the soil, away from
the rapid recharge paths and is again available for use by the vegetation. There is seldom an opportunity
for the salts in this rainfall to be removed, so they steadily accumulate.
In prolonged rainfall under natural vegetation, the soil profile may wet up and the salts are leached
downward. The same process will occur if the natural vegetation is removed and replaced with shallow

rooting crops such as wheat. The salt is then quickly leached down to the water table. Silburn et al.
[2009] report chloride concentrations of 7000 mg/L as leachate below cleared ground in Queensland.
The accumulation of salt will be much enhanced if the soil profile contains significant clay rather than
sand. The salts in the rain may then be absorbed onto the clay surface and be difficult to dislodge.
A low rainfall environment on a coast that has prevailing on shore winds and that has low relief with
clay dominated soil would therefore seem to be at very high risk of building up dangerous salt loads.
20.3.5 Salt from irrigation water
Irrigation water adds to the salt load in the soil in proportion to the soluble salt content of the irrigation
water and the quantity of water applied. Even in the case of good quality irrigation water containing
250 mg/l of soluble salt, the amount of salt added per hectare and per year can be substantial [Ghassemi
et al., 1995]. For example, irrigation water used on the Liverpool Plains can have 600 mg/L. This is 40
times more salt than occurs in the local rain water (15 mg/L). The salt input from adding 1 m of water
is therefore 5 400 kg Cl/ha/yr. This is far in excess of any cyclic salt input from rainfall.
20.3.6 Salt from rock weathering
The weathering of rock will release the cations associated with the silicate structure of the minerals. This
can provide a steady source of mineral salts to the groundwater system, but can not be the source of
large quantities of salt. The geochemical processes involved in the weathering reactions are based upon
the efficient removal of the weathering products away from the reaction site [Acworth, 1987].
If significant weathering is occurring, then this must be associated with a continual flux of clean water
from recharge to remove the reaction products from the reaction site. If a flux of water is maintained
through the system then salt can not be concentrated.
It is commonly suggested that because an inland sea existed at some time in the past, or that sediments
were deposited under sea water, that the sediments should still contain salts. This is not so. In the
process of diagenesis that turns unconsolidated sediments (muds) to rock (shale), all the initial water
content is squeezed out and the material is compressed to form a rock.
Weathering rates of rocks are thought to be approximately 0.1 mm/year. For example, the Tertiary vol-
cano behind Narrabri has probably lost 1,500 m elevation in 17.5 million years. If we assume a typical
density of 2.65 kg/m3 , then approximately 0.000265 kg of rock are weathered from a square metre each
year. This already very low number is further reduced by at least another 3 orders of magnitude be-
cause the amount of chloride in rock is very low. We are then left with 0.000000265 kg/m2 year −1 or
2.65×10−7 kg/, m−2 year −1 . This pales into insignificance when compared with the amount of chloride
in rain or dust. Dryland salinity occurs on granites, so the calculation is not unreasonable. Even if we
look at marine shales, the figures do not change significantly.
20.3.7 Summary
Dryland salinity is clearly associated with a source of salt. However rainfall alone does not seem to be
able to supply the salts observed without very great concentration. This concentration is possible in
playa environments and once concentrated to the level at which precipitation occurs, it is possible that
this material could provide the observed sources required. It is difficult to see how evapotranspiration
alone can produce the desired concentrations of salts. It will certainly increase the concentration, but
plants will die long before the concentration required to precipitate sodium chloride.

Figure 20.10: Piper diagram for groundwaters at Yarramanbah, NSW
20.4 Which salts?
Dryland salinity is often mistakenly associated with sodium chloride (N aCl). We observed earlier in this
chapter that the solubility of sodium chloride is in fact very high. A large quantity of water has to be
removed by evaporation before N aCl will precipitate and most other salts will precipitate from solution
first. It is possible to predict which salts will precipitate using chemical modelling packages (Chapter 15).
If a sample of groundwater is taken from one of the sites impacted by dryland salinity - it is possible to
calculate which salts are actually in solution. Timms and Acworth [2005] describe a site at Yarramanbah
on the Liverpool Plains where highly saline groundwater is found in silts overlying fresh groundwater. As
noted above, there was a significant fear that this site would become covered with saline water. A Piper
diagram showing the chemical water types is shown in Fig. 20.10. Sample 40822/1 is a shallow piezometer
(15 m to 17 m depth in heavy silt) that contains water with a fluid EC of 11,000 µS/cm. Sample 40822/4
is from fractured bedrock at the same site at a depth of between 102 m and 108 m. The fluid EC is
1523 µS/cm
The PHREEQC package can be used to determine which salts will precipitate. The results of this analysis
are shown in Fig. 20.11 and demonstrate that even for a ’saline’ water, halite does not precipitate first.
The major salts involved are anhydrite, aragonite, calcite, dolomite, gypsum and halite.

Figure 20.11: Composition of saline water from Yarramanbah as water is lost to evaporation. Top panel
shows no loss of dolomite, lower panel allows precipitation to occur. Halite is always the last mineral to
precipitate.

20.5 Salinity and climate variability or climate change
20.5.1 Introduction
The principle concern that drove the debate about dryland salinity in the 1980’s and 1990’s was that it
had been observed that groundwater levels appeared to be rising relentlessly. Groundwater levels close
to or above ground surface were frequently associated with outbreaks of water logging (not surprisingly)
and also salinity. A not unreasonable link was made between rising groundwater levels and the onset of
dryland salinity. It was also generally appreciated that when natural vegetation is replaced with shallow
rooted crops, groundwater recharge increased. The link then between cutting down forests; rising water
levels and the onset of salinity was quickly made. All that was needed was a source of salt. Much debate
followed concerning rock weathering, salt in rainfall or irrigation water. The exact source of the salt did
not seem to matter. It could be argued that the salt is present, so we must deal with it. However, an
understanding of process is usually a sound preparation for developing management strategies.
It was generally agreed that the sequence of cutting down forest and planting crops had increased recharge
to groundwater and that had led to rising groundwater levels that had mobilised stored salt, bringing it
to the surface to manifest as salinity. The answer to the problem was simple: plant more trees or plant
vegetation that used more water. Projections of dryland salinity increase were made based upon the
inexorable rise in water level that seemed to be occurring throughout the latter part of the 20th Century.
It was very unfortunate that this debate was not informed by a historic record of groundwater levels. If
it had been; if groundwater levels had been monitored, then much time would have been saved in sorting
out the dryland salinity problem. In approximately 2000, the climate seemed to shift from a wetter
than average phase to a drier than average phase again; at least in NSW. Groundwater levels began to
fall again and dryland salinity areas frequently began to diminish, although there remain some small
outbreaks that are still occurring.
It has become apparent that rainfall or climate variability must also be included in the dryland salinity
paradigm.
A note about climate change is needed. The prevailing opinion among scientists is that we are experiencing
warming due to anthropogenic interference with the climate. This warming is termed climate change.
Climate change needs to be added to climate variability as a future threat.
20.5.2 NSW Salinity Audit
The NSW Salinity Audit review [Rančić et al., 2009] has examined the relationship between groundwater
levels, land clearing and rainfall and has found that the groundwater level is more closely linked to average
rainfall than to land clearing. They have found strong evidence of a 100-year cycle in rainfall that can
be first detected in the water levels for Lake George in NSW. Lake George has a record extending back
to 1818 and is shown in Fig. 20.12.
Plots of cummulative departure from mean rainfall have been prepared by Rančić et al. [2009] for rainfall
stations throughout the fractured bedrock of NSW. They clearly show that a drying phase commenced
about 1890 and lasted until 1947. During this time the Federation, Great Depression and World War 2
droughts occurred. Lake George dried up! In 1947, the climate shifted to a wetter phase and the next 50
years were characterised by above average rainfalls when groundwater levels rose. The rainfall pattern is
clearly seen in the data for Barraba in northern NSW and shown in Fig. 20.13.
It seems that the climate shifted again in 1997 (or thereabouts) and we are now in a drier than average
period that could well last another 50 years. It is worth noting that the Lake George record shows 2
occasions in the 19th Century when lake depths reached 7 m. This is way in excess of any level reached
last century and presumably indicates much wetter times in the 1800’s.

Figure 20.12: Water level record for Lake George, showing a 100-year cycle
Figure 20.13: Cummulative departure from mean rainfall for Barraba Post Office, NSW

Figure 20.14: SWL records for bores drilled in the Peel catchment of NSW
The link with groundwater levels was not as easy to make but Rančić et al. [2009] have shown that the
groundwater level history can be reconstructed by an examination of standing water level records that
have been made at the time new bores are constructed. Luckily, these data have been recorded on State
data bases and kept! Fig. 20.14 shows the results of this analysis for the Peel River catchment in NSW.
A running mean is used to smooth the early data when only a few bores were drilled per year and the
data is necessarily noisy, however the clear pattern of a major rise occurring around 1947 is seen.
In most of the catchments studied on the fractured rock areas of NSW (that are most subject to dryland
salinity) the SWL response lags the changes in climate by only a few years. This observation is in contrast
to the much longer lags in groundwater response levels suggested by Coram et al. [2000]. It is important to
understand the difference. Most fractured rock aquifers respond rapidly to changing recharge. Fractured
granite aquifers are often conceptualised as a large number of almost unconnected weathering zones.
They can be emptied by pumping and fill again in response to rainfall.
Coram et al. [2000] made the assumption (implicitly) that the rainfall over the catchments had been
approximately constant. There had been no prior climate change. With this assumption, it was necessary
to explain all water level change as due to clearing. If we now include climate variability and land clearing
in the model then a more reasonable explanation unfolds. The following sequence appears to explain
observed dryland salinity occurrences in the fractured bedrock areas of NSW. Note that a 100 year cycle
in rainfall is assumed here. This is an analysis based on the limited rainfall data available and the
projected dry period in 2000 to 2050 may not (of course) come to pass. However, the analysis certainly
underlines the necessity of constructing a more extensive record of past rainfall and to understanding the
causes of the rainfall variability:
1. The period 1850 to 1890 had above average rainfall. This period also saw the beginning of land
clearing with settlement. Some of the earliest instances of dryland salinity occurred during this
time. We do not have records of groundwater levels but it seems safe to assume that conditions
were wetter than the equivalent period (1950 to 1990) 100 years later. Groundwater levels will
have reacted to the higher rainfall and to the increasing instances of clearing - leading to enhanced
recharge. Lake George peaked at 7 m depth in 1874. There will have been increased flooding and
erosion of unstable soils with gullying and saline patches appearing on cleared land.
2. The period 1890 to 1947 was one of below average rainfall. Recharge will have been significantly

reduced and groundwater levels will have fallen. This period saw several major droughts and Lake
George dried out completely. Dryland salinity would have been much less of a problem as a result of
the greater depth to water. Water logging and salinity were not an issue. Land clearing continued in
the early part of the period, but as rainfall was much lower, recharge was also much reduced leading
to lower groundwater levels. The rabbit plagues of the 1930’s caused significant land instability and
erosion.
3. The period 1947 to 2000 saw another step change in average rainfall with rainfall rates increasing
- although not to levels as great as 100 years previously. The fact that much land had been
cleared earlier in the century, combined with above average rainfall meant that groundwater levels
responded by rapidly rising. It was this combination of factors that led to the major development
of dryland salinity by the middle of the 1980’s.
4. The period 2000 to 2050(?) should see dryland salinity become less of a problem as average rainfall
has again taken a step lower to match conditions at the beginning of the 20th Century. There have
already been major droughts and there remains concern at the low flow rate in rivers etc. Policy
developed in the 1990’s to use water by additional tree planting may not now be well founded as
this will increase the stress on catchments.
5. 2050 to 2100 could very well see dryland salinity return in the Eastern States with all the problems
identified during the 1980s and 1990s.
These are clearly important conclusions and should be used to inform policy debate.
The analysis has been based upon parts of New South Wales and is clearly not extendible to the rest
of the country without examination of the rainfall records in other areas. However, it is clear that land
clearing alone can no longer be held as the primary cause of dryland salinity across the country as a
whole. Certainly, land clearing increases the risk of salinity during the next wetter period and should b
e discouraged.
20.6 Appropriate salinity investigation methods
Geophysical techniques used in groundwater investigation have been described in Chapter 7 and will not
be repeated here. Suffice to say that the major change in physical properties that occurs as the result of a
change in salinity, is the increase in fluid electrical conductivity. In clean sand systems, this change can be
used with electrical conductivity investigation methods to map the saline interface. Acworth and Dasey
[2003] give a detailed account of the these methods as applied to a field site at Hat Head in northern
NSW.
A complication arises in the use of the electrical methods to map dryland salinity in that the increased
salinity is also accompanied by an increase in clay content. Typically, the clay is an expanding lattice
type clay with a very high cation exchange capacity. As this acts to significantly increase bulk electrical
conductivity, it is not possible to separate the impact of the salt dissolved in the fluid from the clay
that often surrounds the fluid. This means that the bulk electrical conductivity anomaly frequently
(always) maps salt and clay at dryland salinity sites ??. For this reason, it should not be claimed that
the electrical conductivity methods (whether electrical galvanic or induction) can map groundwater. It
should certainly not be claimed that they can map moving groundwater.
A further unpleasant complication to the interpretation of data is the fact that the bulk electrical con-
ductivity of a salty clay is frequency dependent [Acworth and Jankowski, 1997]. This means that you
will get a different value of bulk electrical conductivity if you use an EM31 at a site to the value that an
EM38 will give. Even if the ground is absolutely homogeneous. Data from different instruments should
not therefore be combined.
Despite the above caveats, geophysics can (and should) be used as an important tool for the investi-
gation of dryland salinity. The location of clays containing significant salt is a major assistance to the

development of farm management plans. It is recognised that these deposits are in danger of dispersion
if they are left wet and erosion will cause loss of land and gullying. The physical dispersion of the clay
deposit and the removal of the products down stream as a muddy water gives the salt load in streams.
The EM31 is a particularly useful tool for this work. Care should be taken to calibrate this tool against
a known conductivity ground before initiating a survey.
It is important to appreciate that the bulk electrical conductivity measured by an EM31 only represents
the true or actual bulk electrical conductivity if the ground is homogeneous [Acworth, 1999]. We are
not interested in homogeneity, so for any survey of interest, the EM31 measures apparent electrical
conductivity. This apparent semantics is important because it means that the true clay content or fluid
electrical conductivity can not be determined from a measure of apparent bulk electrical conductivity.
This unfortunately has not stopped vast numbers of authors reporting statistical relationships between
apparent conductivity and fluid EC, which can only have very local (in field at best) significance.
Airborne systems can be used to map apparent bulk electrical conductivity. The use of different electrical
frequencies means that the response is always going to be difficult to interpret over clays. Airborne surveys
do represent a cost efficient approach for large areas however, if the data quality is sufficient to resolve
features at the farm field scale. Care is required with the interpretation of the data and it certainly does
not represent a map of salt, as implied by the SALTMAP product sold by one major agency in the early
1990’s!
The Federal Government funded extensive trials of airborne geophysics beginning almost as soon as the
Howard Government was elected. These initial trials had varied levels of success: appearing to work in
some catchments while clearly not working in other catchments. Interpretation of the data was frequently
carried out on the assumption that the apparent EC data represented only dissolved salt in water
It has become increasingly accepted that the airborne data requires extensive ground truthing by drilling
and surface sampling. If the investment in ground truthing is carried out, then airborne geophysics is an
excellent tool to assist the investigation of dryland salinity. This last comment is hardly surprising. There
is no minerals investigation company that would invest in a site simply on the basis of a favorable airborne
geophysics investigation. The minerals industry know very well both the worth and the limitations of
airborne geophysics.
20.7 Possible process for salty clay formation
A growing body of evidence from deep-sea cores, lake deposits and ice cores shows that times of lowest
world temperature during the Quaternary (’glacial maxima’) were times of greatest aridity on land
(Chapter ??). These periods generated massive export of desert dust offshore, and even to New Zealand
and central Antarctica [Williams et al., 1993].
Earlier aeolian episodes in glacial periods are indicated about 120,000 and 300,000 years ago; however,
the Last Glacial Maximum was the major period of aridity and dust generation experienced in Australia
throughout the past 100,000 years [Bowler, 1976]. Australia has experienced later trends in aridity and
associated dust transport between 6,000 to 3,000 BP, and within the last 2,000 years, but these have been
much closer to the range of present climatic regime [Bowler, 1976].
Based on dune orientations, Bowler [1976] proposed that two major Australian dust transport pathways
were formed during the period 25,000 to 13,000 BP (Figure 20.15 after McTainsh [1989]).
McTainsh and Lynch [1996] suggest dust entrainment and transport rates were up to 52 % higher in the
Pleistocene in south-eastern Australia, and Wasson [1986] estimated wind speeds at the Last Glacial
Maximum between 120% to 150% higher than present mean wind speed.
McTainsh [1989] highlighted the importance of finer grain sized aeolian suspension processes, in addition
to saltation type dune building processes. He suggested that sediments were supplied to these dust paths
via the internally draining river systems and lakes of Lake Eyre and Murray-Darling Basins. Supplies

Figure 20.15: Quaternary Dust Paths
Figure 20.16: Dust storm over eastern Australia - 23 October 2002

Figure 20.17: Modern dust activity near Narromine - 12 November 2002 (Photo John Leys)
of alluvial sediment to the south-eastern dust path would have been enhanced by a sediment feedback
relationship between aeolian and alluvial systems, in which dust deposition over the eastern headwaters
of the Murray-Darling Basin supplied fine sediment to the rivers, which in turn discharge westwards to
resupply dust source areas.
Recent studies of these dust pathways and associated processes [Knight et al., 1995, Kiefert, 1995] indicate
that they persist today, although their position and intensity may be different from the past [Sprigg, 1982].
Figure 20.17 shows a dust storm that occurred near Narromine in central NSW (Figure 20.17 courtesy
of W. Radburn).
20.7.1 Aeolian entrainment and landscape accession
Large tracts of the continent have been traversed by dust-laden winds, and the soils in these areas have
received a large input of dust [McTainsh, 1989]. Hesse [1994] concluded that sedimentation in the Tasman
Sea, and Pacific and Indian Oceans, correlated well with the two dust paths.
A study by Hesse [1994] used marine sediment oxygen isotopes in deep sea cores taken from the Tasman
Sea to determine chronologic sequence and mass accumulation rate of aeolian dust. This work confirmed
that, in glacial periods, the flux of dust to the Tasman Sea, increased by between one-and-a-half and
three times in response to increased deflation in the interior of south-eastern Australia.
Further, Hesse [1994] reported low fluxes of dust coming from Australia prior to 350 000 which were
followed by an increase around 350 000. High fluxes of dust occurred in peak glacial periods thereafter.
Hesse [1994] concluded that the initiation of higher dust fluxes around 350 ka was consistent with previous
estimates of the age for onset of aridity in the source area.
Walker and Costin [1971] showed that modern dust from inland Australia is often carried to the hu-
mid continental margin during droughts. They sampled reddish dust deposited in snow in the Mount
Kosciusko region following a severe drought and extensive dust storms in 1968. They found that the dust

Figure 20.18: Recent dust activity in Western Figure 20.19: Recent dust activity in Western
NSW - March 2003 - accumulations behind vege- NSW - March 2003 - accumulations behind stock
tation (Photo John Leys) fences (Photo John Leys)
had a median diameter of 4 microns, and had annual accession rates of up to 1,515 kg/ha. They noted
that dust storms of sufficient magnitude to affect the eastern highlands of Australia in this way have
occurred with a frequency of at least once in twenty years during the twentieth century.
Further, Walker and Costin [1971] suggested that if dust was deposited once in twenty years at this rate,
then 19 to 113 tonnes/ha of dust would have accumulated during the 15,000 years of post glacial time.
They concluded that an increment of this order of magnitude would certainly modify the nature of a soil
profile.
Butler [1956] was the first to suggest that extensive regions of south-eastern Australia had been affected by
deposition of clayey aeolian material generated in arid phases of the Pleistocene due to climate fluctuation.
He termed the material ’parna’, noting that it consisted of clay aggregates, not primary mineral particles,
which was distributed in a direction from west to east as numerous uniform sheets.
Parna-type deposits have subsequently been reported in many areas of south-eastern New South Wales.
A summary of references to studies reporting significant aeolian contribution to this part of the landscape
is given in Table 20.3.
Recent studies indicate that soils in central and northern New South Wales have also been affected by
addition of aeolian materials. Images showing recent accumulations of dust during the March 2003 dust
storms in western NSW are shown in Figure 20.18 and Figure 20.19. These images were taken by John
Lees of DNSR.
Townsend [1997] sampled soils on hilltops overlying a variety of topographical and lithological types in
the Eastern Highlands and Macquarie River plain in central NSW. A number of his study sites were
in the Wellington area. He identified discrete mineral grains consisting dominantly of quartz with a
characteristic grain size mode of 30 to 40 microns. Based on particle size distribution, composition and
rounding, Townsend concluded that this material was loess, of distal aeolian origin. He suggested that
up to 25% of the soils in the Eastern Highlands and Macquarie Plain have an aeolian content.
Young et al. [2002] published results of geomorphological studies on the Namoi Alluvial Plain in north-
western NSW. They found that almost 60% of sediment samples analysed had over 10% of their grainsize
distribution in the 20 to 50 micron range, indicating an aeolian origin. From thermoluminescence dating,
Young et al. [2002] concluded that there had been significant aeolian input to that area throughout the
late Quaternary.

Table 20.3: Studies reporting significant aeolian contribution to landscape in south-eastern New South
Wales
Author Location of Studied Deposit
Butler and Hutton 1956 Riverine plain south-eastern Australia

Butler 1958 Riverine plain south-eastern Australia
van Dijk 1958 Griffith-Yenda, NSW
Beattie 1970 Eastern Riverina, NSW
Beattie 1982 Wagga Wagga, NSW
Butler 1982 SE Australia
Chartres and Walker 1988 SE Australia
Broughton 1992 Dicks Creek and Begalia, Yass, NSW
Summerell et.al. 2000 Young, NSW
Chen 2001 Wagga Wagga, NSW
Williams et.al. 1991 Central western NSW
Melis 1998 Dicks Creek, Yass, NSW
Melis and Acworth 2001 Dicks Creek, Yass, NSW
Table 20.4: Generalised Late Quaternary Piedmont Stratigraphy in the Belarbon-Nulchara Lake Region,
Showing Major Phases of Aeolian Dust Influx to the Area
Deposit Age Estimation Major Environmental Influences

(years BP)
Alluvial sands and gullying <150 European occupation, climatic events
Alluvial and aeolian sands 400 - 3,800 Aboriginal fires
7,100 - 7,500 High lake levels
Pedogenic carbonate 13,500 - 15,500 Calcareous dust
Alluvial and aeolian sands 16,000 - 18,000 Deflation, and gypsiferous lunette con-
struction
Pedogenic carbonate 24,000 - 32,000 Calcareous dust
Alluvial and aeolian sands >32,000
20.7.2 Soil formation processes
Over large areas of Australia, successive stable soil forming phases have alternated with fluvial or aeolian
depositional and erosional episodes [Butler, 1974]. It is clear that aeolian dust processes have played a
major role in the evolution of the Australian landscape [Butler, 1974, McTainsh, 1989, Williams et al.,
1991, 1993, Knight et al., 1995].
Numerous workers have suggested an association of calcrete (a carbonate-cemented crust) with aeolian
deposits in eastern Australia. The evidence is summarised in Milnes and Hutton [1983] and includes
contributions from many workers in the field.
Based on lithostratigraphic mapping, Williams et al. [1991, p. 276] present a summary of late Quaternary
stratigraphy and major erosional, depositional and pedogenic events in central western NSW. These events
are partially dated by radiocarbon and thermoluminescence techniques. A summary of the units defined
by Williams et al. [1991] and Williams et al. [1991] is presented in Table 20.4.
Williams et al. [1991] determined that deposition of aeolian materials around 45 ka, was followed by an
influx of calcareous dust and development of calcareous soils. The source of the dust was further west
or southwest from the Nullabor Plain, playa floors, calcareous desert soils and possibly the continental

shelf. Solution and reprecipitation of this dust was responsible for the development of massive calcretes
and calcareous B soil horizons containing rhizocretions and nodules in a variety of prior sediments.
Active deflation during the last Glacial Maximum resulted in lunette construction towards 18 - 16 ka.
Erosion was widely prevalent thereafter until about 5.5 ka, when strong unidirectional winds, sparse
riparian vegetation, and a steady supply of channel sand resulted in source-bordering dunes. Mid to late
Holocene, dune development continued relatively constantly until about 0.6 ka, after which the supply
of quartz sand was curtailed, and erosion of pre-existing dunes and sand sheets began [Williams et al.,
1993].
Williams et al. [1991] found that present stream beds were adjacent but not immediately coinciding with
position of prior streams. They also observed that during the last hundred or so years, many previously
shallow channels have become deeply incised by narrow, steep-walled gullies. They believe that this
episode of vertical erosion coincided with the advent of European settlement in the region, and might be
genetically linked to early pastoralism and associated clearing of native trees and a change in fire regime.
Equally, they concluded that it might reflect a change in drought frequency, or in the seasonal influence
of rainfall.
Downes [1954] claimed that salinisation and subsequent desalinisation during the wetter conditions be-
tween arid periods have produced solods, solodic, and solonized soils over large areas of south-eastern
Australia.
20.7.3 Mobilisation of dust deposits
As research into palaeoclimatic records improves, it is clear that their is evidence from around the world
of the mobilisation of these deposits by debris flow movement. The dry LGM period was one of rock
weathering by physical processes of freeze-thaw, frost shattering etc., with little transport of material
away from the weathering location. Major fans of material were deposited at this time to be available
for subsequent erosion by fluvial processes. Thomas and Thorp [1995] recount evidence from around the
humid and semi-humid tropics of these processes.
The period 11,000 to 12,500 BP at the end of the Pleistocene was one of rapid warming with unstable
climate and prolonged heavy rain in Africa and other parts of the tropics. The presence of debris-flow
deposits has been documented for many sites [Thomas and Thorp, 1995]. More recently, Thomas et al.
[2007] describe the fluvial response to the end of the LGM for northern Queensland. Major further
research is required in this area, however, it seems likely that the Australian landscape is in a meta-stable
state still holding the effects of 10,000 years of dry conditions with major dust movement and a period of
only 1500 years when there was sufficient water around to start to move the accumulated material from
the catchments. All this is complicated by the predominantly low relief in Australia and the fact the
the MDB is a virtually closed basin. Dryland salinity can be seen in the light of remobilisation of this
material caused by the hydrological change associated with different farming practices.
20.7.4 Links of aeolian material with salinity
Many studies have been conducted which infer or demonstrate a connection between aeolian materials
and salinity processes [Downes, 1954, Butler, 1956, van Dijk, 1969, Broughton, 1992, Nicoll and Scowan,
1993, Acworth et al., 1997, Jankowski and Acworth, 1997, Evans, 1998, Melis, 1998, Melis and Acworth,
2001, Ladanay-Bell and Acworth, 2002].
Downes [1954] proposed that during arid periods of the Quaternary, interludes of low rainfall enabled salt
to be accumulated in areas in south-eastern Australia. He regarded the majority of these salts to be cyclic
and oceanic sourced, but acknowledged that salts were also brought in by southerly and south-westerly
winds. In his classic work defining parna, Butler [1956] noted that this clayey aeolian material could be
high in salts.

During soil studies in the Yass Valley, van Dijk [1969] noted a high percentage of salting had developed
in elevated positions on hillslopes well beyond the influence of the groundwater bodies in the valleys.
He believed this to indicate a major upland source of salt. He observed that most of the recent salting
seemed to be caused by redistribution of relict salts that originally accumulated on ancient strath floors.
He concluded that subsequent landscape dissection had left the salts stranded in the present elevated
sites, from which they were released in large quantities during periods of sudden heavy rainfall following
prolonged severe drought.
Evans [1998] supported, and further explored, the hypothesis that salts in the Murray-Darling Basin
Uplands have been derived from accession of wind borne salts derived by groundwater deflationary pro-
cesses over 300,000 years in the geological Murray Basin. He highlighted that the abundance of chloride
in present day landscapes was orders of magnitude greater than what could be supplied from the chloride
concentrations of Palaeozoic rocks. In addition, extensive 36 Cl analyses (which has a half life of 300,000
years) showed that the chloride found in the groundwater systems of the Lachlan Fold Belt were greater
than zero. He indicated that this was at odds if the chloride were in fact Palaeozoic in origin and many
millions of years old. Consequently, [Evans, 1998] proposed that rock weathering supplied little salt to a
catchment’s total salt mass.
Broughton [1992] found high levels of chloride in shallow groundwaters within unconsolidated sediments
formed by debris flows at Dicks Creek and Spring Creek ”Begalia”, Yass. Broughton proposed that
chloride salts were introduced from the aeolian component of these sediments.
Nicoll and Scowan [1993] mapped the distribution of the debris flow deposits identified by Broughton
[1992] throughout the Yass catchment, and concluded that these were the main source of salts in many
areas, consequently those areas containing aeolian derived debris flows were predisposed to dryland salin-
ity.
20.8 Salinity models
While dryland salinity is abating somewhat in central and northern NSW where groundwater levels are
falling, it is reportedly still occurring where groundwater levels are close to the ground surface as in
parts of Victoria, Southern Australia and Western Australia. A model of dryland salinity occurrence is
required that can explain all the observed features around Australia and overseas.
The key element seems to be the presence of salts associated with clay - typically in the colluvium or in
the weathered profile. The presence of clay is required to retain the salt. If salts are simply in solution
in water contained in sands, they will rapidly drain away as the pore space empties - just as occurs on
the beach.
Irrespective of how this salty material occurred, it now seems clear that, where present, this material
represents a major risk to agriculture and ecosystems in general. Where present beneath buildings, special
precautions are required to stop the diffusion of salts contained in the ground up into buildings. This is
particularly a problem if the salty material is kept permanently saturated by either a high water table or
leakage from pipes or overwatering of gardens.
The salty material (clay) is frequently strongly dispersive and if exposed to rainfall, the material will
erode rapidly leaving surface gullying. When this occurs, all the salts contained in the material that is
lost to erosion will enter the surface drainage system. An idea of the quantity of salt released can be
derived from the many 1:5 soil extract analyses performed as a part of the salinity investigations of recent
years. Soils on the Liverpool Plains have been shown to contain as much as 10 meq/100 g of chloride.
This is approximately 350 mg/100 g of chloride or 3500 mg/kg of soil. Recall that the irrigation water had
600 mg/L. If we take a litre as approximately weighing 1 kilogram, then it is seen that erosion of 1 kg of
soil will release more than 5 times as much chloride to the system as irrigating with poor quality water.
Where the salty material is kept reasonably dry, it appears to be fairly inert and does not become a
problem. If a farmer deep plows into it, he has an immediate problem with soil erosion and gullying. If

the vegetation that has managed to adapt to this material is removed and replaced with a short rooting
crop, then the increased recharge that occurs when it does rain will cause the groundwater table to rise.
Where the salty material becomes permanently wet, salt is exported to creeks as a result of solution.
Trees will die as a result of water logging.
Geophysical methods can be used to detect the presence of this material as it will have an elevated
bulk electrical conductivity. Ground based surveys are appropriate at the farm scale and will assist the
farmer in farm management planning. The vegetation should be preserved over these high salt content
materials. Where the vegetation has been removed, the current drop in water levels provides a valuable
opportunity to re-establish vegetation cover. Airborne geophysics can be used to cover larger areas. The
electrical or electromagnetic methods are the only available techniques capable of discriminating bulk
electrical conductivity variation. Obviously, other methods, if available, such as airborne radiometrics,
may provide further useful information about lithology.
Climatic variation has been shown to be a major factor in controlling water levels in NSW, with dryland
salinity occurring more extensively during wetter than average periods. There is considerable difference
between the winter rainfall dominated southern part of the State where rainfall is particularly efficient at
bringing about recharge, simply because it preferentially falls at a time when transpiration is at its lowest.
By contrast, in the north of the State, summer dominated rainfall is less likely to cause recharge with
major recharge associated more with cyclonic disturbances leading to flooding. Victoria is dominated
by winter rainfall with the result that recharge occurs more readily. When combined with removal of
vegetation - the development of dryland salinity appears to be difficult to avoid without measures to
restore vegetation. A similar situation exists in Western Australia.

Chapter 21
Groundwater contamination
Contents
21.1 Introduction and definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
21.2 Sources of groundwater contamination and pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
21.3 What happens to contaminants in aquifers? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
21.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
21.3.2 Physical transport with groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
21.3.3 The concept of ecosystem partitioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
21.3.4 How do partition and reaction affect the distribution of contamination in aquifers?579
21.4 Examples and case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
21.4.1 Point sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
21.4.2 Dispersed source contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
21.1 Introduction and definitions
The report of the Senate State Committee on Water Pollution in 1970 concluded that water pollution
was potentially one of the gravest problems facing Australia with wide biological, social and industrial
implications. It was construed that with population growth, there would also be growth of cities, increased
industrial development and greater demand for water. In parallel with these changes, water pollution
was also likely to increase; the quality of surface and groundwaters would thus be increasingly impaired.
The quality of water determines its suitability for a whole spectrum of beneficial uses. Groundwater in
fresh water aquifers has historically been regarded as a source of high quality potable supply, remaining
unaffected by man’s activities at the surface. Although this may still be true in some areas, particularly
where aquifers are confined, there is increasing evidence that aquifers are being stressed from anthro-
pogenic sources of contamination, to such an extent that in some cases alternative supplies have to be
sought. The term pollution has been defined as a situation where concentrations of contaminants attain
levels that are considered to be objectionable [Freeze and Cherry, 1979]. Put in different terms, this
amounts to a specific impairment of water quality by human activity (domestic, agricultural, industrial)
or land-use change to a degree that has an adverse effect on the beneficial use of the water.
These definitions assume some recognised water quality standard against which we can judge the suitabil-
ity of a given water for a particular purpose (drinking water, agriculture [stock, irrigation] or industrial
use) and both national and international authorities have drawn up such standards. Examples of Aus-
tralian drinking water quality criteria are shown in Table 21.1 and Table 21.2. Standards vary from
country to country and from state to state. These are updated and changed from time to time as more
information particularly on health effects becomes available. This applies particularly to environmental
558
Chapter 21. Groundwater contamination
Figure 21.1: Hydrological cycle: Urban components
standards for freshwater ecosystems, where there is a lack of data for relatively unique Australian systems,
and considerable debate as to adoption of standards.
21.2 Sources of groundwater contamination and pollution
Groundwater is merely one part of the hydrologic cycle (Fig. 21.1) within this cycle, groundwater can
receive contaminated infiltration from a variety of sources (Fig. 21.2).
Two main types of contamination are recognised, based on aerial extent - point and dispersed sources.
Vrba [1981] considered the most important dispersed sources of groundwater contamination, (probably
from a European and North American standpoint) were of continental extent, arising from polluted
atmosphere and rainfall, from regional sources particularly the use of nitrogenous fertilisers and to some
extent herbicides in agriculture, and non-point sources associated with urbanisation, particularly from
sewerage and sewage effluent discharges.
A recent review of point sources suggested that industrial wastes, sewage disposal, domestic landfills and
petroleum leakages constituted the major persistent point-sources of groundwater contamination. The
range of waste sources and types are summarised in Fig. 21.2 and Table 21.3 and sources of contamination
in relation to scale (diffuse or dispersed sources as opposed to point sources) are given below.
It is only recently that leakages of petroleum fuels and solvents - non-aqueous phase liquids (NAPL’s),
have been highlighted as a major problem because of the widespread use of these, and storage of these
in underground storage tanks. Surveys in Perth have shown at least 20% of fuel service stations had
installations which were leaking Evidence presented by Knight [1993] suggests over 4000 sites in Australia
could have soils and possibly groundwater contaminated by organic compounds. In general, estimates of
up to 100,000 contaminated sites have been suggested.
A further distinction between point and non-point sources relates to the perceived effect of contamina-
tion [Vrba, 1981]. With point sources, contamination levels are often high (in terms of concentration)
and can be locally catastrophic. The effects may not be so long lived if the source can be controlled
or removed (eg physically by some form of remediation). This type of contamination is often regarded
as a major source by the general public, largely because of the perceived major local effects. Dispersed
sources in general produce contamination of lower magnitude, which is more widespread and is more
difficult to control. Because of this, non-point sources are often of more concern to professional water
engineers/scientists (see Vrba [1981].

Table 21.1: Summary of drinking water quality from National Water Quality Management Strategy
(NWQMS), 1996
Parameter Guideline values (mg/L - unless otherwise specified
Biological Parameters Coliform organisms should not be detectable

Micro-organisms: in 100 mL of any two consecutive samples.
Total coliforms These should not be detectable in 100 mL
Thermotolerant coliforms or E. of any two consecutive samples
coli
Parameter Guideline values Parameter Guideline values
Health parameters Health Parameters
Inorganic: Organic cont
Arsenic 0.007 Trichlorobenzenes
Asbestos NR 1,1,1-trichloromethane o.03
Barium 0.7 Vinyl Chloride *
Boron 0.3 Xylenes 0.6
Cadmium 0.002 Asthetic parameters
Copper 2.0 Physical
Chromium 0.05 Colour 15 Hazen units
Cyanide 0.08 Taste and Odour 5 NTU
Lead 0.01 Turbidity 0.2
Manganese 0.5 Inorganic
Mercury 0.001 Aluminium 0.5
Molybdenum 0.05 Ammonia (as N) 1
Nickel 0.02 Chloride 250
Nitrate-N 1.0 Copper 1
Nitrite-N 0.01 Oxygen >85%
Selenium 0.01 Hardness 0.3
Silver 0.1 Iron 0.1
Sulphate 500 Manganese 0.1
Organic: pH 6-5 to 8.5
Benzene 0.001 Sodium 180
Benzo(a)pyrene 0.00001 Sulphate 250
Carbon tetrachloride 0.003 TDS 500
Chlorobenzene 0.3 Zinc 3
1,2-dichlorobenzen1.5 e Organic
1,3-dichlorobenzene * Chlorobenzene 0.01
1,4-dichlorobenzene 0.04 1,2-dichlorobenzene 0.001
1,1-dichloroethane * 1,3-dichlorobenzene 0.02
1,2-Dichloroethane 0.003 1,4-dichlorobenzene 0.0003
1,1-Dichloroethene 0.03 Ethylbenzene 0.003
1,2-dichloroethene 0.06 Toluene 0.025
Methylene chloride 0.004 Trichlorobenzenes 0.005
Epichlorohydrin 0.0005 Xylenes 0.02
Ethylbenzene 0.3
EDTA 0.25 Radiological
Hexachlorobutadiene 0.0007 Gross a Activity 0.1 Bq/L
Nitrilotriacetic acid 0.2 Gross b Activity, (excluding activity of 0.5 Bq/L
40 K
Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate 0.01
Styrene 0.03
Tetrachloroethene (PCE) 0.05
Trichloroethene (TCE) *
Toluene 0.8
Note: * No guideline recommended at this time

Table 21.2: Guidelines for pesticides in drinking water from NWQMS (1996)
Compound Guideline Health Compound Guideline Health

Value Value
(mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)
Aldicarb 0.001 0.001 Fosamine 0.00005 0.03

Aldrin 0.00001 0.0003 Glyphosate 1
Ametryn 0.005 0.05 Heptachlor 0.0003
Amitrole 0.001 0.01 Hexaflurate 0.03
Asulam 0.05 Hexazinone 0.002 0.3
Atrazine 0.0005 0.02 Lindane 0.00005 0.02
Azinphos-methyl 0.002 0.003 Maldison 0.05
Benomyl 0.1 Methidathion 0.03
Bentazone 0.03 Methiocarb 0.005 0.005
Bioresmethrin 0.1 Methomyl 0.005 0.03
Bromacil 0.01 0.3 Methoxychlor 0.0002 0.3
Bromophos-ethyl 0.01 Metolachlor 0.002 0.3
Bromoxynil 0.03 Metribuzin 0.001 0.05
Carbaryl 0.005 0.03 Metsulfuron-methyul 0.03
Carbendazim 0.1 Mevinphos 0.005 0.005
Carbofuran 0.005 0.01 Molinate 0.0005 0.005
Carbophenothion 0.0005 Monocrotophos 0.001
Carboxin 0.002 0.3 Napropomide 0.001 1
Chlordane 0.00001 0.001 Nitralin 0.5
Chlorfenvinphos 0.005 Norflurazon 0.002 0.05
Chlorothalonil 0.0001 0.03 Oryzalin 0.3
Chloroxuron 0.01 Oxamyl 0.005 0.1
Chlorfenvinphos 0.01 Paraquat 0.001 0.03
Chlorsulfuron 0.1 Parathion 0.01
Clopyralid 1 1 Parathion-methyl 0.0003 0.1
”2,4-D” 0.0001 0.03 Pebulate 0.0005 0.03
DDT 0.00006 0.02 Pendimethalin 0.3
Diazinon 0.001 0.003 Pentachlorophenol 0.00001 0.01
Dicamba 0.1 Permethrin 0.001 0.1
Dichlobenil 0.01 Picloram 0.3
Dichlorvos 0.001 0.001 Piperonyl butoxide 0.1
Diclofop-methyl 0.005 Pirimicarb 0.005
Dicofol 0.003 Pirimiphos-ethyl 0.0005
Dieldrin 0.00001 0.0003 Pirimiphos-methyl 0.05
Difenzoquat 0.1 Profenofos 0.0003
Dimethoate 0.05 Promecarb 0.03
Diphenamid 0.002 0.3 Propachlor 0.001 0.05
Diquat 0.0005 0.005 Propanil 0.0001 0.5
Disulfoton 0.001 0.003 Propargite 0.05
Diuron 0.03 Propazine 0.0005 0.05
DPA 0.5 Propiconazole 0.0001 0.1
EDB 0.001 0.001 Propyzamide 0.002 0.3
Endosulfan 0.00005 0.03 Pyrzophos 0.03
Endothal 0.01 0.1 Quintozene 0.03
EPTC 0.001 0.03 Simazine 0.0005 0.02
Ethion 0.003 Sulprofos 0.01
Ethoprophos 0.001 0.001 ”2,4,5-T” 0.00005 0.1
Etridiazole 0.0001 0.1 Temephos 0.3 0.3
Fenamiphos 0.0003 Terbacil 0.01 0.03
Fenarimol 0.001 0.03 Terbufos 0.0005 0.0005
Fenchlorphos 0.03 Terbutryn 0.001 0.3
Fenitrothion 0.01 Tetrachlorvinphos 0.002 0.1
Fenoprop 0.01 Thiobencarb 0.03
Fensulfothion 0.01 0.01 Thiometon 0.003
Fenvalerate 0.05 Thiophanate 0.005
Flamprop-methyl 0.003 Thiram 0.003
Fluometuron 0.05 Triadimefon 0.1 0.002
Formothion 0.05 Trichlorofon 0.005
Triclopyr 0.01
Trifluralin 0.0001 0.05
Vernolate 0.0005 0.03

Table 21.3: Contaminants and sources

Industry Activity Contaminants
Water and Wastewa- Treatment plant floc; Sewage Heavy metals, high organics, nutrients
ter sludge landfill; Wastewater land (P,K,N), faecal bacteria, viruses, protozoa.
spreading; Septic tank effluent;
Treatment lagoons
Solid Waste Disposal Municipal landfill;Industrial landfill Sulphate, chloride, ammonia, TOC,
high TDS Biological contaminants,
fatty acids, leachates typically con-
tain 1.5 kg TOC/tonne of waste, 1.2 kg
C1/tonne, 0.80 kg SO4/tonne & 30 kg
N H3− (N/tonne)
Waste Treatment & Storage of hazardous waste; Waste A range of mainly organic contaminants.
Disposal Industry handling
Transport Industry Storage of hazardous materials; Hazardous materials as on the priority con-
Fuel storage; Oil and grease dis- taminant list. Petroleum hydrocarbons,
charge; Accidental spills benzene, ethylbenzene
Fire Fighting Disposal/seepage of contaminated Hazardous contaminants derived from in-
fire fighting water dustrial fires.
Agriculture and Cropping practices; Dairies and Pesticides, herbicides, nitrates, TDS,
Agribusiness feedlots; Sheepdip sites heavy metals. High nitrogen and phos-
phorus loads, biological contaminants; Ar-
senic, chromium
Electricity Genera- Fly ash ponds and landfill; Waste Sulphate, heavy metals, TDS, Se, Ge;
tion briquettes, tars Petroleum hydrocarbons, PAHs,PCBs
Town Gas Produc- Coal tar disposal; Gas-scrubber Petroleum hydrocarbons, PAHs, BTX,
tion waste disposal phenols, sulphur compounds, cyanide, am-
monia, heavy metals
Chemical and Hydrocarbon storage; Hazardous Petroleum hydrocarbons, PAHs, BTX;
Petroleum Indus- material process; Wastewater; la- See ”priority contaminant” list & storage;
try goons; Solid waste landfills; Acci- Vanadium pentoxide; TNT,DNT, RDX
dental spills; Explosives manufac-
ture
Mining and Mineral Mine water disposal; Storage of High TDS, iron, sulphate, acidic heavy
Industries fuel & hazardous chemicals; Tail- metals, organic flocculants, mercury
ings dams; Heap leaching cyanide, vanadium pentoxide, acidic water
Petroleum hydrocarbons & hazardous
materials
Manufacturing In- Food processing; Pulp & paper Nutrients, nitrogen, K, P, TDS Organ-
dustry manufacturer; Automotive indus- ics such as lignins, organochlorines, sul-
try; Paint & printing; Metal phites, organosulphur; Organic solvents,
foundries, machinery plant & fabri- petroleum hydrocarbons; Organic solvents,
cation; Timber mills & preserving; resin making compounds, heavy metals;
Tanneries; Coke & steel manufac- Petroleum hydrocarbons, phenols, BTX,
ture heavy metals, cyanide, furans, organic sol-
vents; Tannins, arsenic, chromium, cresols,
phenols, pesticides compounds, nutri-
ents; Sulphides, TDS, chromium; Metals,
petroleum hydrocarbons

Figure 21.2: Potential sources of groundwater pollution
21.3 What happens to contaminants in aquifers?
21.3.1 Introduction
There is a range of processes that affect the behaviour of contaminants in aquifers. The individual
processes are dealt with in more detail below under the context of three main overarching concepts:
1. physical transport of groundwater and contaminants

2. ecosystem partitioning between environmental compartments or phases, and
3. biogeochemical interaction based on the ecological succession of reactions.
The first provides a conceptual basis for how aquifer properties affect contaminant transport, whilst the
latter two concepts relate to contaminant behaviour in a multiphase environment.
The probable effect of various processes on the mobility of constituents in subsurface waters contaminated
by waste disposal are as follows:
Physical Processes
Modes of flow : - Slow intergranular flow potentially gives rise to chemical and biological filtrating of
pollution. Rapid fissure flow does not.
Dispersion : - Causes dilution of dissolved contaminants. The dispersive capacity of a porous or frac-
tured medium is directly dependent on the groundwater velocity and the heterogeneity of the aquifer
materials.
Filtration : - Favours reduction in amounts of substances associated with colloidal or larger-sized par-
ticles. Most effective on clay-rich materials. Least effective in gravels or fractured or cavernous
rock.
Gas movement : - Where it can occur, favours aerobic breakdown of organic substances, and increased
rates of decomposition. Constituents mobile under oxidised conditions will then predominate. Re-
striction of gas movement by impermeable, unsaturated materials or by saturated materials, can
produce an anaerobic state, and reduced rates of organic decay. This will mobilise substances

soluble under anaerobic conditions. Attenuation of substances by volatilisation from groundwater

could also occur, although this is much less important than in surface water [Lyman, 1990, Wilson
et al., 1983]. Volatilisation from groundwater is considered to be negligible in most cases [Barber
et al., 1990]. However, loss of compounds such as some pesticides from soils by volatilisation, can
be important [Kookana et al., 1998].
Geochemical processes
Complexation and ionic strength : - Complexes and ion pairs most often form by combination of
ions including one or more multivalent ion and increase in amount with increased amounts of ions
involved. Ionic strength is a measure of the total ionic species dissolved in groundwater. Both ionic
strength and complexation increase the total amounts of species otherwise limited by processes such
as oxidation, precipitation, or adsorption (for example of landfill leachate.
Acid-base reactions : - Most constituents increase in solubility and thus in mobility with decreasing
pH. In organic-rich waters, the lower pH (4-6) is associated with high values of carbonic acid and
often also of organic acids.
Oxidation-reduction : - Many elements can exist in more than one oxidation state. Conditions will
often be oxidised or only partially reduced in unsaturated soils and groundwater recharge areas, but
will become reduced under saturated conditions when excess organic matter is present. Mobility
depends on the element and pH involved: chromium is most mobile under oxidising conditions,
whereas iron and manganese are most mobile under those reduced conditions in which dissolved
oxygen and H2 S are absent.
Precipitation-dissolution : - The abundance of anions such as carbonate, phosphate, silicate, hydrox-
ide, or sulfide may lead to precipitation especially of multivalent cations as insoluble compounds.
Dilution, of a change in oxygen content where precipitation has involved oxidation or reduction,
may return such constituents to solution.
Adsorption-desorption : - Ion exchange can withhold, usually temporarily, cation and to a lesser
extent anions, on the surfacer of clays or other colloidal-sized materials. Amounts of adsorbed metal
cations will increase with increasing pH. Molecular species may be weakly retained on colloidal-size
materials by physical adsorption. The much stronger binding forces due to chemisorption result in
the formation of surface compounds involving metal ions and mineral grains. Adsorbed species may
return to solution when more dilute solution comes in contact with the colloidal material depending
on the nature of the adsorption bond. Contaminants can also become sorbed to colloids which are
transported in the same way as dissolved solutes in groundwater.
Biochemical processes
Decay and respiration : - Microorganisms can break down insoluble fats, carbohydrates, and proteins,
and in so doing release their constituents as solutes or particulates to subsurface waters.
Cell synthesis : - N, C, S, and P, and some minor elements are required for growth of organisms, and
can thus be retarded in their movement away from a waste disposal site.
21.3.2 Physical transport with groundwater
Flow in porous/fractured media Modes of flow in aquifers can vary significantly from place to place. In
unconsolidated formations (sands, gravels etc), intergranular flow is likely to predominate. In more com-
petent rocks, which may be fissured, fractured or jointed, fracture or fissure flow or secondary permeability
would be likely to be more important than intergranular flow.
The typical hydrogeological cross-section in Fig. 21.3 illustrates possible patterns of water and contam-
inant transport in aquifers. Near the surface and on topographic highs fractured basement outcrops

Figure 21.3: Schematic of aquifer types and groundwater flow in a typical catchment
and groundwater and contaminants would move through any connected fractures quite readily and pos-
sibly discharge at lower points in the profile, Fig. 21.3. This type of aquifer would be vulnerable to
contamination and flow paths and residence times in the aquifer could be quite short.
Flow of groundwater in the unconfined sedimentary (surficial) aquifer which is extensively exposed at the
surface, would largely be through intergranular pore spaces, and this too would be considered vulnerable
to contamination, although transport of contaminants through pores would be slower than through
connected fracture systems. Travel times for contaminants in surficial aquifers could vary from a few
years when the contaminant source is close to a point of discharge of groundwater to centuries when flow
paths are regional and long.
The sedimentary basin aquifer is confined over most of its area, and is only exposed on higher ground
where it receives direct recharge. The flow paths and residence times within this aquifer are likely long -
centuries and millennia - and thus the aquifer is least vulnerable to contamination. However, movement
of contaminated groundwater from the surficial aquifer through the leaky aquitard could put groundwater
in the confined system at risk.
In the description of flow of water and dissolved solutes through porous media, the concept of porosity,
effective porosity and hydraulic conductivity need to be introduced. Porosity - the ratio of pore volume
to total volume is dependent on the packing arrangement of particles making up the rock or sediment.
Effective porosity is that part of the total porosity which is interconnected [Wiedemeier et al., 1999].
Hydraulic conductivity is the measure of the ease with which fluid pass through a porous material. Total
porosity and hydraulic conductivity may not be correlated, as seen in Table 21.4 where typical values
of porosities, hydraulic conductivity and bulk densities are given for a variety of sediments and rocks.
Fracture flow and solute transport will exert a significant effect on permeability. For example, although
highly porous materials like clay are poorly permeable, cracking and fissuring due to drying can greatly
increase permeability. More than one mode of flow may be important in a number of soils and rocks
where fissures or other preferred pathways occur; transport of contamination here involves rapid fissure
flow and diffusion into intergranular pore space.

Table 21.4: Hydraulic conductivities, bulk densities, porosities and effective porosities for common sedi-
ments and rock types (after Wiedemeier et al, 1999)
Hydraulic conductivity Density Total Porosity Effective Porosity

(m/d) (gm−3 )
Unconsolidated sediment
Glacial till 9 × 10−8 to 2 × 10−1 1.15 to 2.1 - 0.05 to 0.2
Clay 9 × 10−7 to 4 × 10−4 1 to 2.4 0.34 to 0.6 0.01 to 0.2
Silt 9 × 10−3 to 2 - 0.34 to 0.6 0.01 to 0.3
Fine sand 2 × 10−2 to 20 1.37 to 1.81 0.26 to 0.53 0.01 to 0.3
Medium 8 × 10−2 to 50 1.37 to 1.81 - -
sand
Coarse sand 8 × 10−2 to 50 1.37 to 1.81 0.31 to 0.46 0.2 to 0.35
Gravel 30 to 3000 1.36 to 2.19 0.24 to 0.36 0.1 to 0.25
Sedimentary rock
Karst lime- 9 × 10−2 to 2000 - - -
stone
Limestone 9 × 10−5 to 0.5 1.74 to 2.79 0 to 0.5 0.01 to 0.24
and dolomite
Sandstone 3 × 10−5 to 0.5 1.6 to 2.68 0.05 to 0.3 0.1 to 0.3
Siltstone 9 × 10−7 to 10−3 - 0.21 to 0.41 0.01 to 0.35
Shale 9 × 10−9 to 2 × 10−4 1.54 to 3.17 0 to 0.1 -
Crystalline rock
Vesicular 3 × 10−2 to 2000 - - -
basalt
Basalt 2 × 10−6 to 4 × 10−2 2 to 2.7 0.03 to 0.35 -
Fractured 7 × 10−4 to 30 2.24 to 2.46 - -
igneous &
metamor-
phics
Unfractured 3 × 10−9 to 2 × 10−5 - - -
igneous &
metamor-
phics
Hydrodynamic dispersion
Once contaminants move with infiltrating water or with groundwater, these spread out by a process called
dispersion, caused by different flowpaths of water through the rock matrix having different velocities and
directions. This gives rise to a spreading of the contaminant front or plume [Freeze and Cherry, 1979,
Domenico and Schwartz, 1990]. Contaminants introduced into an aquifer become diluted by dispersion
into uncontaminated groundwater during natural flow in groundwater. We will see the effect of dispersion
later.
Filtration
Porous materials, and voids within them are capable of physical filtration of suspended solids, bacteria,
viruses, macrobiota and colloidal material. The range of pore sizes of common porous aquifer materials
are shown in Fig. 21.4 [Stumm and Morgan, 1996] along with approximate sizes of filterable materials
and dissolved ions and complexes. It is clear from Fig. 21.4 that filtration is likely to be most effective
in clay, and least effective in coarse gravels and fissured strata.

Probably the most important effect of filtration as far as water quality is concerned is removal of bacteria
and viruses from waste waters. The data in Fig. 21.4 suggest that particularly for viruses, filtration would
have negligible effect and other processes for the removal of these would be more important. Surveys in
the USA indicated that microbial contamination of untreated groundwater supplies between 1971-1977
accounted for 56% of waterborne illnesses. A range of processes affecting mobility of bacteria in aquifers
have been described:
Attachment : attaching of any particle, molcule or entity to a solid surface;

adhesion : physiologically-driven (microorganism-initiated) attachment of a microorganism to a surface;
partitioning : phase separation between solid (microorganism attached) and aqueous (microoorganism
detached) phases;
straining : trapping of microorganisms in pore throats; a result of pore geometry and size;
exclusion : larger biosolids are restricted to larger pores and pore channells, and thus can display
enhanced average velocity compared with non-reactive tracers.
Attached bacteria were reported to consume substrate more slowly than detached bacteria, and typically
bacteria were attached in pristine (unpolluted) aquifers where low energy conditions prevailed and where
transport of bacteria was dominated by physical processes. In contrast, higher energy environments in
polluted aquifers had a much higher proportion of detached bacteria (aqueous partitioned) and consump-
tion of substrate was often greatly increased under these conditions. Chemotaxis, the ability for bacteria
to move in response to chemical (eg nutrient) gradients, is more likely under these conditions. Chemotaxis
requires energy and is linked to bacterial growth.
21.3.3 The concept of ecosystem partitioning
Since the 1980s, it has become increasingly clear that both inorganic and organic contaminants move
between environmental compartments, whether atmosphere, water, biota or soil. The concentration in
any one compartment is dependent on the concentration in adjacent, connected compartments. The
process controlling this behaviour is called partitioning, and there are established relationships that allow
us to quantitatively describe the way a contaminant will behave within an ecosystem.
It is perhaps easy to visualize this behaviour in surface ecosystems such as lakes, where we can see the
various compartments and interfaces between atmosphere and water, water and organisms within the
lake, between water and sediment and between biota and sediment Fig. 21.5. We can even imagine what
might happen if oil were spilled into the lake and the way this would form a separate immiscible liquid
layer on the lake surface forming an interface across which partition of hydrocarbons might take place.
It is less clear what might happen in subsurface systems and groundwater, largely because things we
can’t see are difficult to visualize. However, the interfaces are similar to those for the lake system in
Fig. 21.5. Thus contaminants or solutes infiltrating from the surface move through the unsaturated zone
(with aqueous fluid, non-aqueous fluid, gas, solid matrix, biota environmental compartments) into the
saturated zone below the water table (with similar compartments apart from gas atmosphere).
Progressive partitioning of contaminants as they move through an aquifer and its unsaturated zone
impacts on the rate of transport of the contaminants. Partitioning can act to reduce the concentra-
tion of (attenuate) contaminants and thus exert a control over the development of groundwater pollu-
tion/contamination. The range of processes is summarised in Table 21.5 and multiphase behaviour in
aquifers is illustrated in Fig. 21.6

Figure 21.4: Comparison of size distributions of waterborne particles, dissolved substances, colloids and
micro-organisms, compared with aquifer pore/fissure sizes, and filter sizes

Figure 21.5: Ecosystem interfaces for a surface water body, eg a lake.
Table 21.5: Matrix showing environmental compartments (water, atmosphere, soil,biota), contaminant
phases ( aqueous, non-aqueous [NAPL], gas, biota) and process(es) and quantitative relationships which
define partition across interfaces between environmental compartments.
Gas (atmosphere Mineral Immiscible non- Biota

phase) (soil/rock) ma- aqueous phase
trix liquid (NAPL)
Aqueous Volatilisation / adsorption/partition Dissolution / Bio-concentration/
(water volatile partition (Freundlich adsorp- partition.(Octanol- degradation (Bio-c
phase) (Henry’s Law tion isotherm water partition factor and decay
Coefficient) and distribution coefficient) constants)
coefficients)
Gas (at- Gas adsorption / Volatilisation -
mosphere partition (adsorp- (Vapour pressure)
phase) tion isotherms and
coefficients)
Mineral Matrix absorp- Adsorption (bac-
(soil/rock) tion (complex teria) / filtration
matrix capillary pressure ( adsorption coef-
relationships) ficients / filtration
indices)

Figure 21.6: Multiphase processes in aquifers

Gas/water exchange in the unsaturated zone
The exchange of gases and volatile compounds between the gaseous and aqueous phases in the unsaturated
zone is an important mechanism affecting groundwater quality, because gas and aqueous phases are in
contact for prolonged periods. The gas-phase (soil-gas) composition can change markedly over time and
with depth in porous soils above the water table. This is due to atmospheric (air) exchanges which can
vary greatly with time, through molecular diffusion and advection brought about by pressure gradients
(these are much more rapid processes than those in the aqueous phase), and due to biophysicochemical
exchanges. The latter occur particularly during microbiological respiration and plant/water exchanges.
Under aerobic conditions, both the latter work to consume oxygen and discharge carbon dioxide [Glinski
and Stepniewski, 1985]. Given limited exchange with the atmosphere (eg in low permeability soils, or
those which have high moisture content) carbon dioxide concentration in soil gas can increase markedly,
and oxygen becomes depleted. Given an excess of dissolved organic carbon, this can lead to anoxia and
the microbiological production of other gases such as hydrogen sulphide from sulphate reduction (see
later) and methane.
The dynamic gas/liquid exchanges in well drained soils are often considered to be very effective in pro-
tecting groundwater from contamination, particularly from organic wastes which degrade readily under
aerobic conditions. We shall see later that this is only partially true and although organic contaminants
decay to harmless products (H2 O and CO2 ), other substances persist, for example, nitrification of am-
monium and organic nitrogen under oxygenated conditions produces nitrate which is persistent so long
as oxygen persists in soil or groundwater [Stumm and Morgan, 1996].
Volatilisation from groundwater into soil
Compared with gas exchange between the atmosphere and the unsaturated zone, gas exchange between
groundwater and soil-gas (volatilisation) is negligible [Barber et al., 1990]. The latter also contrasts with
volatilisation from surface water bodies to the atmosphere, where physical mixing of water (eg by wind
action) promotes volatilisation [Mackay, 1981].
In groundwater, volatile loss is limited by diffusion or mass transfer across the water/gas interface within
the capillary fringe just above the water table [Barber et al., 1990]. Volatilisation from groundwater into
the unsaturated zone is negligible as diffusion in the aqueous solution is four orders of magnitude lower
than that in the gaseous phase. The latter often leads to very steep concentration gradients for dissolved
organics close to the water table.
Solid-liquid partition - Sorption
Essentially non-reactive solutes (eg chloride ions) are attenuated by dispersion only. Reactive solutes,
although these are dispersed in the same way as non-reactive substances, also take part in physical,
chemical and biological reactions which can result in a retardation of their mobility, their transformation,
or removal from within an aquifer.
In the simplest case, adsorption is due solely to the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged
adsorbent (solid media) and adsorbate (dissolved) phases. Sorption here is rapid and reversible and
adsorbed ions readily undergo equilibrium exchange.
The surface charge may be due to imperfections or substitutions within the sorbent lattice, or to chemical
reactions at the surface, for example with H + or OH − . In the latter case, the pH at which the charge is
zero is called the zero point of charge denoted by pHzpc. The surface charge at pH values below (more
acidic than) the pHzpc will become positive in the presence of high concentrations of positive potential
determining ions such as H + ; the surface will thus become an anion exchanger. An excess of negative
potential determining ions (OH − ) will reverse the surface charge and give cation exchange properties.

Table 21.6: Cation exchange capacities at pH 7, and points of zero charge (pHzpc) for natural minerals,
from Jackson (1980) and Strumm and Morgan (1996)
Mineral CEC pHzpc

Al(OH)3 (gibbsite) - 9.1
F eOOH (goethite) - 7.8
M nO2 (pyrolosite) - 7.2
M nOOH2 0.73 -
SiO2 (quartz) <0.001 2
(mg, F e, Al)6 (AlSi)4 010 (OH)8 (chlorite) 0.05 to 0.03 -
Al4 Si4 O10 (OH)8 (kaolinite) 0.01 to 0.1 4.6
Al2 Si4 O10 (OH)2 m × H2 O (montmorillionite) [smectite] 0.8 to 1.4 2.5
KAl2 (AlSi3 O10 )(OH)2 (illite) 0.1 to 0.4 -
M g3 Si4 O10(OH)2 × H2 O (vermiculite) 1 to 1.8 -
Humic acid from podzol soil 4+ (pH 6.4) -
Chemisorption is the result of much stronger binding forces, leading to the formation of a sort of surface
compound. This process may be slow and less readily reversible.
Cation or anion exchange capacities (CEC, AEC), reported in meq/unit mass of porous medium, is a
measure of the ability of an aquifer media to adsorb positive or negative ions. Examples of CEC’s and
zero points of charge for a range of common minerals are given in Table 21.6.
Adsorption of an ion, or other substances from solution is often described by adsorption isotherms, which
relate concentration in aqueous phase to that adsorbed on the solid phase. The commonest isotherms
are the Freundlich and Langmuir adsorption isotherms.
Langmuir isotherms can be used to describe systems where there is a single adsorbent and one or more
adsorbates. In natural soils there are a number of adsorbents or different minerals; here the Freundlich
isotherm can provide a useful approximation to the equilibrium relationships between dissolved and
adsorbed phases [Stumm and Morgan, 1996].
The Freundlich relationship is given by:
y = KC n (21.1)
where:
y is the concentration adsorbed at equilibrium;

C is the equilibrium concentration in solution at equilibrium;
n is a constant, and
K is the adsorption coefficient.
In the case where n = 1, K is called the distribution coefficient or Kd which is often used in mathematical
models to approximate the effects of sorption.
In the case of organic compounds, dissociated and non dissociated molecules dissolved in groundwater
can be sorbed, particularly by organic matter within solid media in an aquifer. In general, the more
hydrophobic a non-polar organic compound is (eg a chlorinated hydrocarbon), the greater the degree of
sorption from aqueous solution.
Lyman [1990] reviewed current understanding of processes of sorption of non-ionic organic contaminants
in porous media. It is generally thought that organic matter within the rock matrix is the predominant

Table 21.7: Aqueous solubilities, Henry’s coefficients, octanol-water partition coefficients (Kow ) and
partition coefficients (Koc ) for several carbon normalised volatile organic compounds
Compound Aqueous Henry’s log Koc log Kow

Solubility Coefficients
(mg/l) atmm3 /mol
Benzene 1650 5.59 × 10−3 1.92 2.12
Toluene 535 6.37 × 10−3 2.48 2.73
Carbon tetrachloride 757 2.412 × 10−2 2.64 2.64
1,1 dichloroethene 2250 3.4 × 10−2 1.81 1.84
1,2 dichloroethene 8520 9.78 × 10−4 1.15 1.48
Trichloroethene 1100 9.1 × 10−3 2.10 2.38
Tetrachloroethene 150 2.59 × 10−2 2.56 2.60
sorbent, and that sorption is a partitioning process whereby the soluble organic contaminant permeates
into the 3-dimensional framework of soil organic matter. Thus a carbon-normalised sorption coefficient
(Koc ) has been defined, which is related to the porous media partition coefficient Kp , as follows:
K − P = Koc foc (21.2)
where:
foc is the fractional organic carbon content of the porous media, where foc > 0.001.
Estimating Kp from the above equation requires knowledge of Koc (foc being relatively easily determined).
Correlation equations have been developed to determine Koc knowing either aqueous solubility of the
contaminant or its octanol-water partition coefficient (Kow ), both of which are readily available in tables
of physical constants. In general, the lower the aqueous solubility the more hydrophobic the compound,
and the greater the degree of sorption (or partition into the matrix organic matter). Koc generally is
given by:
log Koc = a log(Kow ) + b (21.3)
Lyman [1990] discusses a range of regression equations developed for estimating Koc for different com-
pounds, and also indicates other factors affecting Koc (temperature, pH, ionic strength, dissolved organic
matter concentration, solid:solution ratio and non-equilibrium sorption). Values for Kow and Kp for
several common non-polar groundwater contaminants are given in Table 21.7.
Ionised species of organic acids or bases behave differently to the same neutral-charged compound. In
general, ionised species are adsorbed less than corresponding neutral molecules. Clearly, sorption of these
compounds will depend on the dissociation constant (KA ) and pH. Thus for an organic compound HA ,
the proportion of dissociated molecular A− is given by:
MA
log = pH − pKa (21.4)
M HA
Thus equal amounts of A− and HA will exist in solution when pH = pKa.
Values of pKa for several common organic contaminants and their conjugate bases are given in Table 21.8.
There are no comprehensive summaries of literature on sorption of ionised organic compounds.
It is possible to use adsorption coefficients, distribution or partition coefficients to assess the impact of
sorption on contaminant transport in groundwater. The velocity of a reactive ion or molecule relative to
that of groundwater is given by the retardation equation [Freeze and Cherry, 1979]:

VW ρb A
= 1+ K =R (21.5)
VA φ d

Table 21.8: Dissociation constants (pKa values) for organic acids and bases, from Harris and Hayes
(1990)
Conjugate acid pKa ]Conjugate base

Toluene C6 H5 CH3 35 C6 H5 CH 2−
Aniline C6 H5 N H2 27 C6 H 5 N H −
Phenol C6 H5 OH 10 C6 H 5 O −
R − N H3+ ≈10 RN H2
Carboxylic Acids 4.5± 0.5 Carboxylate Anions
CH3 OH2+ -2 Methanol CH3 OH
C6 H5 OH2+ -6.7 Phenol
where:
VA = velocity of ion A in groundwater;

Vw = average velocity of groundwater;
R = retardation factor;
ρb = bulk density of solid;
φ = porosity; and
KdA is the distribution coefficient (or Kp the partition coefficient for non-polar organics).
The effect of sorption is to retard the movement of tracer, solute or contaminant relative to that of a
non-reactive substance. Because different solutes are retarded by different amounts (ie have different
retardation coefficients), the nature of contamination at different points away from a source may change
considerably, with highly retarded (or attenuated) substances remaining close to the source.
Also as with dispersion, sorption should be considered in three dimensional space within an aquifer.
Models of varying complexity using retardation factors and distribution coefficients (Kd ) have been used
to simulate three dimensional flow of groundwater containing reacting solutes in an aquifer. The success
of such models depends on adequate knowledge of Kd values within the naturally heterogeneous aquifer.
Also, models often rely on the simple assumption that sorption reactions are rapid, reversible and first
order. It is clear that this may not be the case, which makes such models oversimplified and detracts
from their usefulness.
Non-aqueous phase liquids: gas and aqueous phase partition
Light NAPL’s (LNAPL’s) or ’floaters’ such as oil and petroleum fuels are less dense than water, and
infiltrate through the unsaturated zone and form a pancake of NAPL approximately at the water table.
Thus vertical infiltration is replaced by horizontal spreading across the top of the saturated zone (Fig. 21.7.
Seasonal and more frequent oscillation of the water table also produces vertical movement of LNAPL,
which smears the LNAPL across the zone of the oscillation [Steffy et al., 1998]. Thus LNAPL at residual
concentrations can occur both above and below the water table.
Residual concentrations vary depending on the nature of the porous media. In sands, this is usually
around 5% wet weight [Johnston and Patterson, 1994]. Common LNAPL constituents which have been
found to contaminate groundwater are shown in Table 21.9.
The multiphase behaviour of organic compounds in unsaturated and saturated zones has been addressed
by Corapcioglu and Baehr [1987] and Sleep and Sykes [1989]. The behaviour produced by partitioning

Figure 21.7: Typical contaminant plume in groundwater from a LNAPL spill, and associated ”halo”
of gaseous vapour-phase contaminants in soil gas, produced by partitioning of NAPL with solid matrix
(sorption of residual NAPL), with soil gas (volatilization) and with infiltrating water and groundwater
(dissolution).

Table 21.9: Typical contaminants found in LNALS and DNAPLs
Source Type Common groundwater

pollutant
Fuels LNAPLs Benzene
Light solvents Toluene
Tars Ethylbenzene,
Xylenes,Polyaromatic hydro-
carbons (PAHs)
Degreasing DNAPLs Perchloroethylene (PCE)
Dry cleaning, Electronics cleaning Trichloroethylene (TCE)
of organics between gas, liquid (aqueous and non-aqueous) and solid phases are difficult to generalise.
Non-equilibrium is a further complicating factor (eg in the dissolution process) and was thought to be
the reason for finding concentrations of VOC’s much lower than theoretical solubilities in water flowing
through residual NAPL containing VOC’s [Cohen and Mercer, 1993]. This is not commonly the view:
now, proximity to the NAPL zone and volumetric averaging during sampling are thought more likely to
be the causes.
The dissolution of organic compounds from residual LNAPL and DNAPL is difficult to predict, although
there is a general conceptual understanding of the underlying processes. For LNAPL’s; dissolution of
BTEX’s is likely to be limited by diffusion within the NAPL towards an LNAPL/aqueous interface.
Persistence of a BTEX source is likely to depend on the size of residual LNAPL droplets within the
porous matrix.
DNAPL droplet dissolution is often different as each DNAPL compound (usually) comprises a major
percentage of the NAPL. The equilibrium concentration of any organic compound in the aqueous phase
(C) can be approximated using aqueous solubility (S) and the mole fraction (X) in the NAPL Banerjee
[1984],
C = XS (21.6)
Thus the more soluble organic fractions are likely to be depleted (leached) first from NAPL phases. The
least soluble species are likely to be most persistent.
Ecological succession of reactions.
Groundwater is generally regarded as being in a dynamic state, tending towards equilibria between
dissolved substances, aquifer solids, and natural bacteria within the subsurface environment. Alteration
of part of the system by input of contaminants would affect the equilibria or near equilibria; the system
would respond and adjust to the new conditions by physical, chemical or microbiological reactions.
The pH value and redox conditions (oxidation-reduction equilibria) are particularly important in ground-
water, as these control or affect a number of reactions (eg sorption, precipitation of solids, inhibition of
microbial growth). These conditions consequently would have a considerable influence on the retardation
of contaminants during groundwater flow.
The pH value of groundwater in its natural state is largely determined by carbonate equilibria involving
generation and dissolution of carbon dioxide in the unsaturated zone. With no further reaction, this
would tend to lower pH value. Reaction with carbonate and alumino-silicate minerals in the soil or
aquifer consumes H+ ions and acts as a pH buffer. Stumm and Morgan [1996] state that incongruent
dissolution of clay minerals provides the most important pH buffering system between pH values of 4 and
8. However, where rapid changes in pH value occur (eg due to acid waste entry into groundwater) the
dissolved carbonate system would respond rapidly to buffer pH value.

Table 21.10: Ecological succession of redox reactions which occur with a progressive lowering of redox
potential (Eh) under closed conditions, in the presence of excess organic matter (modified after Stumm
and Morgan, 1996) (g) = gas phase (s) = solid phase
Aerobic respiration CH2 O + O2 (g) = CO2 (g) + H2 O

Denitrification CH2 O + 4/5N O3− + 4/5H + = CO2 (g) + 2/5N2 (g) + 7/5H2O
Mn (IV) reduction CH2 O + 2M nO2(s) + 4H + = 2M n2 + 3H2 O + CO2(g)
FE(III) reduction CH2 O + 8H + + 4F e(OH)3 = 4F e2+ + 11H2 O + CO2(g)
Sulphate reduction CH2 O + œSI42− + œH + = œHS − + H2 O + CO2 (g)
Methane reduction CH2 O + œCO2 (g) = œCH4 + CO2 (g)
Nitrogen fixation CH2 O + H2 O + 2/3N2 (g) + 4/3H + = 4/3N H4 + CO2 (g)
Redox or oxidation/reduction reactions are of importance for those elements that under natural conditions
change oxidation state by gaining or losing electrons. The chemical species being reduced (eg ferric iron
in equation 6 below) is called an electron acceptor, whilst a chemical species such as organic carbon which
would facilitate the reducing reaction is an electron donor for the redox reaction, eg:
F e3+ = e− = F e2+ (21.7)
Positive values of the redox potential (Eh) indicate oxidising conditions, ie the groundwater contains
oxidised species or is relatively rich in these. Introduction of a reduced chemical species into this envi-
ronment could result in its eventual oxidation with equivalent reduction of one or more oxidised species.
Negative values of Eh indicate reducing conditions, where the concentration of reduced chemical species
is high relative to the concentration of oxidised species. Freeze and Cherry [1979] state, that nearly all
important redox reactions are catalysed by bacteria. Bacteria and enzymes use redox processes to acquire
energy for synthesis of new cells; the source of energy in groundwater is organic matter.
Until relatively recently, groundwaters were regarded as essentially poor in organic substrates and nu-
trients (N, P, trace elements) and consequently not capable of sustaining microbiological life. With
increasing investigation of groundwater, it has become apparent that microbiological activity is far from
absent in groundwater, and even in non-polluted fresh water aquifers, bacteria have adjusted and are
capable of surviving under extreme conditions of temperature and nutrient/carbon supply [Wilson et al.,
1988]. There is abundant evidence that heterotrophic bacteria (those that cause the decomposition of
organic wastes) and other bacteria are present in polluted aquifers, using C, H, O, P, N and S and trace
elements to produce protoplasm.
Stumm and Morgan [1996] described an ecological succession of redox reactions which occur in ground-
water and which are microbiologically mediated. Under progressive reducing conditions where there is
an excess of organic carbon, microbiological reactions follow the sequence shown in Table 21.10: where
the preference is for reactions to take place which have the greatest energy yield. In these cases, bacterial
aerobic respiration occurs in preference to other reactions such as denitrification, sulphate reduction and
methane fermentation. Similarly, oxidation reactions (where there is an excess of oxygen or other electron
acceptors), reactions follow the sequence shown for oxidations in Fig. 21.8.
Wilson et al. [1988] present evidence of several of these processes in groundwater, which result in decay of
contaminants. Rate constants for biodegradation can be determined from the pattern of loss over time.
Two rate laws have been defined - the power rate law and the hyperbolic rate law. In general, one rate
law is assumed to describe the decay curve over its entire length. In reality, this is rarely the case because
of changes in concentration-dependency and substrate availability over time.
The power rate law assumes that the rate is proportional to same power of the substrate concentration
dC
− = k[C]n (21.8)
dt
where k is the rate constant.

Figure 21.8: Schematic of the ecological succession of redox reactions, after Stumm and Morgan, 1996

It is common to assume first order kinetics in contaminant modelling because the relationship between
decay and concentration is rarely understood well enough to use more complex relationships. Thus in this
case n=1 (ie for first order decay), the concentration relative to the initial concentration (C0 ) becomes
C
= ekt (21.9)
C0
The half life (t0.5 ) for this substrate decay (C/C0 = 0.5) occurs when:
0.693
t0.5 = (21.10)
k
The hyperbolic rate law is used to quantify the growth of microbial populations and substrate decay,
using Monod kinetics. Thus the growth rate of a single species microorganism population on a single
carbon substrate is given as:
Umax [C]
U = (21.11)
Kc + [C]
where:
U, Umax are specific and maximum growth rates respectively;

C is substrate concentration, and
Kc is concentration supporting a growth rate Umax /2
A yield coefficient Yd is defined as:

d[B]
Yd = (21.12)
d[C]
where B is microbial population concentration.
Substrate disappearance is described by

dC Umax [B][C]
− = (21.13)
dt Yd (Kc + [C])
where K is the coefficient for maximum rate of substrate utilisation.
Study of the microbiology of aquifers is still relatively new, and recent research, particularly in relation to
bioremediation of polluted soils and groundwater is providing a better understanding of these processes,
particularly degradation of organic compounds [Chapelle, 2000].
21.3.4 How do partition and reaction affect the distribution of contamination

in aquifers?
It is possible to describe quantitatively (mathematically) the behaviour of ”reactive” and ”non-reactive”

contaminants using some of the relationships described above. Reactive here refers to the contaminant’s
ability to partition between phases; thus a compound like a pesticide which readily adsorbs on soil is
reactive and chloride which is not adsorbed significantly at near-neutral pH values and is only affected
by dispersion is non-reactive or ”conservative”.
A simple way of visualizing the effect of the various processes on contaminant transport is by using a
one-dimensional column of aquifer media (if you like, a flow-tube) where initially contaminant-free water
enters the column, followed at time t = zero by water containing a cocktail of reactive and non-reactive
contaminants. Both concentration and time are normalized, concentration being divided by Co initial
input concentration. Time is normalized to the average time taken for groundwater to flow the full length
of column. Thus C/Co varies between 0 and 1, and time shows as linear multiples of groundwater velocity.

Figure 21.9: Breakthrough curves for one dimensional flow of non-reactive, and reactive (sorption and
decay) solutes continuously input to a column of porous material
Here, normalised time is essentially R, the retardation coefficient. The resulting time courses are shown
in Fig. 21.9.
The effect of dispersion can be seen by comparing the time-course concentration pattern for ”plug-flow”
(no dispersion) with that for the case where dispersion is included. Essentially, plug flow produces a
square wave, whilst dispersion produces a characteristic S-shaped curve. The latter shows that some
contaminant moves more quickly through the column than the average, and arrives ”early”, while some
moves more slowly and arrives late. The average time for groundwater and conservative contaminants
only affected by dispersion to flow from inlet to outlet of the column is determined where C/Co is 0.5.
The characteristic series of curves in Fig. 21.9 are called breakthrough curves.
Where contaminants are reactive and adsorbed or partitioned, they become both dispersed and retarded
within the flow system. Here, the relative concentrations become smeared out over a much longer time
period than for the case where there is just dispersion. Again, where C/Co is 0.5 defines the average time
taken for the contaminant to flow the length of the tube. In the case in Fig 21.9, the average relative
time is 4, thus the retardation coefficient for this contaminant is also 4.
In Fig. 21.9, the effect of (first order) decay of contaminant (eg bacterial degradation or transformation
of a contaminant or radioactive decay) is also shown. Here, relative concentrations never reach 1 if the
decay is maintained. It is not possible to assess average rates of flow through the column in these cases.
The effect of the above processes in 2 and 3 dimensions are quite dramatic. If we take a simple case of a
point source which produces a leachate which is a mixture of different contaminants, this produces a con-
taminant plume which is elongated in the direction of groundwater flow. Conservative contaminants such
as chloride show the greatest extent of contamination (ie they travel farther than reactive contaminants)
but concentrations are smeared out by dispersion at the edges of the plume. Usually this is more marked
in the direction of groundwater flow, indicating that longitudinal dispersion is greater than lateral or
vertical dispersion.
More reactive contaminants individually show sub-plumes of more restricted extent within the main
plume, and the most reactive cluster close to the source. Thus as we move from the source to the

dispersed front of the plume, the nature of the contamination changes, starting out as leachate at the
source, but progressively becoming depleted in more reactive contaminants farther from the source. In the
latter case, more conservative contaminants become dominant. Some examples of this type of behaviour
are shown in the case studies below.
Non-aqueous phase liquids also produce characteristic plumes as a result of partitioning of NAPL con-
stituents between aqueous, gaseous and solid phases (Fig 21.6, Fig. 21.7 and Fig. 21.10). Contact of
LNAPL and groundwater around the oil pancake gives rise to leaching of soluble constituents and stim-
ulates microbial activity, giving ’weathering’ of oil or oil product.
Branched or straight chain alkanes are very sparingly soluble, and solubilities decrease with increasing
carbon number and molecular weight. Monoaromatic and polyaromatic hydrocarbons are more soluble,
and are considered to produce major adverse effects on groundwater quality [Davis et al., 1993, 1999]. Of
the monoaromatics (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylenes or BTEX’s) benzene is a known carcinogen
and is mostly persistent under anoxic condition which prevail around oil spillages (eg see the investi-
gation of Thierrin et al. [1993, 1995]. Benzene has been reported to be degraded under some anoxic
conditions [Wilson et al., 1983, Edwards and Grbic-Galic, 1992], although this does not seem to be com-
mon, unlike degradation of toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene isomers [Thierrin et al., 1993, 1995]. All
the BTEX compounds are readily degraded under aerobic conditions [Thierrin et al., 1993]. The absence
of the widespread occurrence of benzene and other BTEX compounds in drinking water supplies in the
US, while there has been widespread leakage of gasoline and other fuels, has led to considerable debate
as to the persistence of this compound.
Dense NAPL’s are heavier than water and are referred to as DNAPL’s or ’sinkers’. Like LNAPL’s, these
move vertically in the unsaturated zone, but unlike LNAPL’s, they continue vertical movement through
the saturated zone as a result of density contrasts and only move horizontally in response to permeability
constraints (Fig. 21.10. Thus DNAPL ’pancakes’ tend to accumulate at the base of unconfined aquifers
above a confining layer or may pond on lenses of lower permeability material.
DNAPL’s at residual concentrations extend throughout the unsaturated zone and along flow paths within
the saturated zone. Thus contact between NAPL and water is significantly greater for DNAPL’s than
for LNAPL’s. Examples of DNAPL compounds include chlorinated ethenes (perchloroethene or PCE,
trichloroethene - TCE) and ethanes (1,1,1 trichloroethane, 1,2 dichloroethane) which are widely used as
solvents in industry and commerce (degreasing agents, dry cleaning agents, etc). PCE and TCE have been
identified as being the most prevalent organic contaminants in groundwater in the US. These compounds
have been shown to be generally persistent under aerobic conditions in aquifers [Vogel et al., 1987] and
in some cases are unattenuated [Benker et al., 1997, 1998]. They do undergo progressive dechlorination
reactions by anaerobic bacteria; PCE is transformed into TCE and thence to dichloroethene and vinyl
chloride. Vinyl chloride, which is more persistent than other chlorinated ethenes, is a known carcinogen
and therefore considered more problematic than other ethenes [Vogel et al., 1987].
Physical properties of typical BTEX compounds and chlorinated solvents are summarised in Table 8.
It is clear that these compounds are only sparingly soluble. Despite this, benzene, PCE, TCE particu-
larly, are considered very problematic because solubilities are orders of magnitude higher than maximum
permissible concentration in drinking water (Table 1). Most of these compounds are considered to be
volatile and consequently in surface water these would be lost to atmosphere in a matter of hours.
Redox reactions in the environment, the ecological succession of reactions shown in Fig. 21.8 and Ta-
ble 21.10 also have a characteristic impact on plumes which contain organic substances which naturally
degrade. Here, reactions that provide the most energy for bacteria occur on the outer fringes of the
plume. Thus aerobic respiration (utilization of oxygen) and denitrification readily occur here and the
plume becomes progressively anoxic and depleted in dissolved oxygen and nitrate closer to the source.
Under the latter conditions, oxidized forms of iron and manganese become reduced, and closer still to
the source, conditions may become sufficiently reducing for sulphate reduction to occur, and ultimately
methanogenic conditions might occur, transforming organic matter into dissolved or possibly gaseous
methane. Thus again, the nature of the contamination changes from source, along the plume to the
dispersed front. This is shown in Fig. 21.11 for an LNAPL spill.

Figure 21.10: Partition of DNAPL between solid, aqueous and gaseous phases, giving a halo of vapour
phase contaminat in soil gas (volatilization), residual DNAPL associated with aquifer matrix above and
below the water table (sorption of NAPL ganglia), partition of soluble components into aqueous phases
infiltrating water and groundwater (dissolution) and further partition of aqueous phase with solid matrix
(adsorption/partition)

Figure 21.11: Redox (oxidation-reduction) zones brought about through contamination of oxygenated
groundwater by organic leachate (in this case petroleum hydrocarbons)
Similar plumes with redox zonation are produced by waste landfills, and leaks from effluent ponds. The
number of zones is entirely dependent on the amount of degradeable dissolved organic carbon (DOC)
emanating from the source. If there is sufficient excess of DOC to remove transform sulphate to sulphide
then methanogenic conditions will likely develop. On the other hand, if DOC supply is limited, then we
might only see a decrease in dissolved oxygen and removal of nitrate through denitrification. The latter
conditions might be more prevalent where there are dispersed sources of contamination, and low-level
input of DOC, for example from natural leaching of soils or from urban developments.
21.4 Examples and case studies
21.4.1 Point sources
The disposal of waste materials (solids and liquids) and spillages in an around industrial sites are the
principal ’point’ sources of pollution. These are often considered by the lay population to be of major
concern, because of their local significance and occasional gross magnitude that is instantly visible once
encountered when groundwater is pumped to the surface.
A significant source of groundwater pollution is landfilled domestic solid wastes and leakages from un-
derground storage tanks (UST’s) partly because of their widespread occurrence, and tendencies to form
highly polluting leachates.

Domestic solid waste disposal
Domestic (municipal) solid wastes, comprised of a variety of materials commonly called garbage, has
changed in composition in parallel with changes in human lifestyle (Ministry of Housing and Local
Government, 1961). The method of disposal of waste has also changed with increasing environmental
awareness. In the UK, disposal of wastes in the 1960’s was carried out locally in a burning dump, where
wastes were deliberately burnt to reduce volume and produce (eventually) a more stable fill, and to limit
leaching and water pollution. With the imposition of stringent air pollution controls, the open burning
dumps evolved into compact fills and sanitary landfills. These still form the predominant disposal method
for these wastes, although now recycling is more common, and landfills are often lined and have provision
for collection, treatment and proper disposal of leachate to reduce impacts on groundwater.
Modern sanitary landfills are normally built up (infills) in a series of 2 m thick layers of wastes or cells,
each layer being compacted using tracked or steel wheeled vehicles to a density of 0.7 to 1 t/m3 . On
compaction of a layer or on completion of daily infill, wastes are covered with 1̃5 cm depth of clay, soil
or sand cover material, to discourage vermin (rats, flies etc), to avoid odours and to promote run-off
of rainfall. In some circumstances, to facilitate waste handling or emplacement, wastes are baled or
pulverised.
Landfills on completion are normally graded and capped with l̃ m of low permeability soil and vegetated
to reduce infiltration of rainfall, promote run-off and reduce leachate generation. A general text on
landfills is Christensen et al. [1989] and one focused on production and management of landfill leachate
is Lu et al. [1985].
The major environmental effects of landfill disposal are gas generation (principally carbon dioxide CO2
and methane CH4) and leachate generation. Leachate is formed when liquids from wastes and rainfall
infiltrate through decaying waste materials, dissolving soluble salts and products of organic decay to form
a highly polluting liquid.
Farquhar and Rovers [1973] showed that wastes often go through a series of stages during their stabilisa-
tion, which can be monitored by the composition of gas within the wastes (Fig. 21.12). Leaching of wastes
takes place largely under anaerobic conditions, initially in an acid production stage, where facultative
anaerobic microorganisms and associated enzymes break down solid organic materials (protein, cellulose,
carbohydrate, fats) producing short chain, volatile carboxylic acids (acetic propionic, butyric acids prin-
cipally) and large amounts of CO2 . With increasing time, methanogenic bacteria develop, which utilise
volatile acids as organic substrates, producing eventually CO2 and methane, typical landfill gas. In gen-
eral, leachates produced during the acid production stage, early in the decay process are of high strength,
containing high concentrations of volatile acids and ammonia, and having a low pH value (Table 21.11).
In contrast, during the methanogenic stage, leachates are of lower strength, containing little or no volatile
acid and have a pH value of 6 to 8 (Table 21.11). Other constituents of leachate, which are present in
significant concentrations, include iron, manganese, chloride, sulphate, sodium, calcium, potassium and
occasionally zinc. Toxic metals (Pb, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni) are usually present in low concentration. A wide
range of organic compounds other than volatile acids (solvents, oils, alcohols, humic/fulvic acids) are also
found in leachates, although these often are present in trace concentrations [Barber et al., 1992].
Cameron [1978] considered the potential problems of leachate in groundwater were discolouration, taste
and odour (BOD), its oxygen demand (BOD), toxicity to irrigated crops and stock (Cl, N H4 , metals,
BOD), and aquifer clogging.
Development of a plume of contamination in groundwater often follows a sequence of chemical changes,

dependent to some extent on the nature of leachate, and waste materials, and broadly following the
ecological succession of reactions shown in Table21.10.
It is well recognised that the unsaturated zone and often groundwater beneath a landfill becomes anoxic,
giving rise to anaerobic microbial reactions and reducing conditions. Often, preceding the leachate
front, landfill gas, or CO2 advances in the unsaturated zone, giving rise to high levels of dissolved CO2
in groundwater, dissolution of carbonate minerals and occasionally low pH values. The first signs of

Table 21.11: Examples of leachates from domestic solid wastes in landfills
Recently Typical range

deposited wastes Aged wastes sites in UK
PH 5.5 7.3 6.2 - 7.5
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) 62,000 1,300 7 - 11,600
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) 38,000 210 <2 - 8,000
Total organic carbon (TOC) 19,800 410 2 - 4,400
Total volatile acids (TVA) 14,609 38 -
Ammoniacal-N 990 375 5 - 730
Organic-N 770 20 nd - 155
Oxidised-N 3.5 <1 <0.5 - 6
Chloride 2,700 1,300 70 - 2,777
Sulphate - - 55 - 456
Sodium 2,400 840 43 - 2,500
Potassium 2,050 620 20 - 650
Iron 2,050 29 0.09 - 380
Manganese 250 0.8 0.3 - 27
Zinc 130 0.75 <0.05 - 0.95
Chromium - - <0.05 - 0.14
Nickel - - <0.05 - 0.16
Copper - - <0.01 - 0.15
Cadmium - - <0.005 - 0.01
Lead - - <0.05 - 0.22
groundwater pollution are thus often an increased TDS, alkalinity and hardness - sometimes called the
’hardness halo’. Closer to the landfill groundwater generally becomes progressively more anoxic, and
reactions involving denitrification, solubilisation of iron and manganese, sulphate reduction and finally
methane fermentation are observed moving towards the pollution source eg [Baedecker and Back, 1979,
Jorstad et al., 2004].
Although the behaviour and leaching of wastes in landfills can be predicted qualitatively, and semi-
quantitative estimates made of likely impact on groundwater, quantitative estimates of behaviour are
difficult if not impossible to obtain, because of changing chemical and physical conditions in and around
the waste sites. These have been highlighted in studies in Canada Cherry [1983] and Perth [Barber et al.,
1992]. The difficulties of data collection for model parameters and calibration may often preclude the
use of these models for landfill prediction. More recently, contaminant migration from a variety of waste
disposal sites has been (apparently) satisfactorily modelled, although reservations on the use of these
techniques have been presented [Anderson, 1983]. A review of modelling techniques applied to point
sources of pollution, especially pollution of groundwater by landfill leachate, has been given by Davis and
Salama [1994].
Point source pollution by LNAPL’s
In 1989, the presence of high concentrations of hydrocarbons in soil gas and groundwater were detected
close to a service station on the Quaternary sand aquifer on the Swan Coastal Plain in Perth [Thierrin
et al., 1993, Davis et al., 1993, 1999]. Subsequent drilling identified a plume of BTEX compounds in
groundwater, forming a plume of limited lateral extent, but extending some 450 m downgradient of the
site beneath an urban area (Fig. 21.13). Benzene and toluene were present in highest concentration near
the source. The concentration of benzene effectively defined the extent of the plume [Thierrin et al.,
1993].
The geochemistry of the plume was investigated in some detail. Generally, concentrations of oxygen

Figure 21.12: Variation with time in the composition of gas generated from decaying domestic solid
wastes (after Farquhar and Rovers, 1973), showing the main stages of bacterial decay and characteristics
of leachates

Figure 21.13: Cross section through a plume of contamination from a fuel service station, showing
distribution of benzene and toluene associated with a reduction in sulphate concentration in groundwater
and nitrate were not detectable within the contaminant plume, and sulphate was depleted (<10 mg/L
compared with background concentrations of 30-40 mg/L )(see Fig. 21.13). This indicated that sulphate
reducing conditions were present within the plume. No dissolved methane was detected which indicates
that conditions were not favourable for methanogenesis. The Eh and pH in groundwater at the site are
consistent with sulphate-reducing conditions, as defined in the ecological succession of reactions given
by Stumm and Morgan [1996].
The concentrations of BTEX compounds and naphthalene varied considerably with time and relative to
each other along the length of the plume. Investigation in the vicinity of the site has not revealed any
LNAPL in boreholes, although it is clear that there is significant residual LNAPL within the sands close
to the water table. Leaching of BTEX compounds, and PAH naphthalene from LNAPL varies with time,
but appears to be more significant following winter recharge when groundwater levels are highest. These
compounds form a distinctively thin plume in plan and section (Fig. 21.13), which displays little apparent
transverse dispersion [Davis et al., 1999].
Clearly, to determine the long-term impact of leakages like this we need to know whether compounds
like benzene are persistent or degrading in groundwater. Unlike landfill leachate, there is no conservative
substance (such as chloride) against which to judge behaviour in the aquifer system.
To overcome this, a natural gradient tracer test was carried out to ascertain degradation rates and
adsorption coefficients which could be used to assess long-term impact, particularly of benzene which
was the most persistent compound present. This test indicated little sorption of organics, and half-lives
varying from 40 days for toluene, to >500 days for benzene [Thierrin et al., 1993, 1995]. Details of the
initial extent of the plume in plan, and vertical distribution, and analysis of tracer test data confirmed
that dispersion was very low. There was considerable variability in contamination around the source with
time, in response to water table fluctuations. Although very little free NAPL was found in boreholes
adjacent to the leaking UST tank, it is clear that residual NAPL from the leakage is still a very potent

source of BTEX’s. The leakage was estimated to have been approximately 15 L/day, and groundwater
modelling suggests that the plume has been developing for around 4 years. As the leakage was discovered
and the tank decommissioned some 2 years prior to the investigation of the plume, it has been estimated
that around 11 m3 of gasoline, could have leaked, containing 150 kg of benzene. Approximately 12 kg
of benzene have been estimated to be present in the plume, giving an initial leaching rate to date of
6 kg/year.
Leakages from UST’s at petrol stations have become a major issue in most States in Australia. In Perth,
an estimated 20% of 40 stations tested showed evidence of subsurface leakage. This was generally thought
to be a low figure nationwide.
In the US, there has been extensive activity to clean-up or remediate spill sites, although the number
of sites needing remediation is enormous. To reduce the need for uniform, stringent, site remediation
standards in areas where there is considered to be low impact on humans or the environment, it is
now common to apply risk assessment procedures on a site by site basis. There seems to be a wide
range of risk assessment models available, although no one benchmark standard model has emerged.
This is partly because fuels like petrol or gasoline show multiphase behaviour and thus could in theory
impact most environmental compartments (atmosphere, surface and groundwater, freshwater/marine
ecosystems). Risk assessment is thus difficult under these circumstances, particularly because processes
of intercompartment transfer currently are poorly understood. Where groundwater pollution is thought
to be the main impact, protocols have been developed to asses whether plumes are naturally attenuating
and complex models have been developed to couple together advection, sorption, chemical reactions and
biodegradation processes. Research is ongoing in this area to adequately define the behaviour of BTEX
compounds and LNAPLs in general in subsurface systems.
Contamination by DNAPLs
DNAPLs are similar to LNAPLs in that these are non-aqueous phase liquids, they dissolve small quantities
of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) which are problematic because VOCs have known or suspected
toxic effects on humans and consequently drinking water standards for these are extremely low (ie at
ppb or µg/L levels - see Table 21.1). DNAPLs differ from LNAPLs in being denser than water, they
move vertically in an aquifer and in groundwater. They do not spread across the phreatic surface as
do LNAPLs, and only accumulate, form saturated layers and move horizontally above layers of low
permeability [Schwille, 1988]. DNAPLs include common chlorinated solvents, the most prevalent of
which are trichloroethene, perchloroethene which are used extensively as degreasing agents in transport
and automotive industries, in electronics industries, dry cleaning, in tanneries and also in the plastics
and associated industries.
Because DNAPLs have the potential to move vertically within both unsaturated and saturated zones
of an aquifer, these can contaminate large volumes of aquifer with residual DNAPL in small dispersed
droplets of ganglia. Consequently, these have a more significant impact on groundwater than would
LNAPLs and associated BTEX compounds. DNAPL contamination is also very difficult to investigate,
and often is only identified when groundwater supplies are polluted to the point where aesthetic properties
of groundwater are impaired (ie taste and odour are affected).
Such a situation was found in metropolitan Perth, when a private well used for garden irrigation be-
came contaminated and developed a strong odour of hydrogen sulphide. Investigation later showed that
groundwater had been polluted and an extensive plume of TCE, ammonium and sulphate had developed
downgradient of stormwater basins in a light industrial area [Appleyard, 1995, Benker et al., 1996]. The
horizontal extent of the plume is shown in Fig. 21.14. This extends 900 m downgradient from the indus-
trial area and supposed source(s) and is 300-400 m wide within the sand aquifer. Up to 2000 µg/L of
TCE has been found, along with up to 12 mg/L of ammonium-N. The vertical distribution of the plume
of dissolved TCE and ammonium is extremely variable in space and time [Benker et al., 1996, 1997]; see
also Fig. 21.15. This was attributed in part to multiple sources of TCE within the aquifer. Additionally,
there were time-varying local hydraulic conditions which produced some variability in hydraulic gradient
and groundwater flow conditions due to differential rates of recharge in the small source area and in the

Figure 21.14: TCE plume in groundwater beneath Jolimont, Western Australia
vicinity of the plume. The latter complicated an already complicated situation, and made investigation
and interpretation of borehole data difficult if not almost impossible. It is likely that such heterogeneity
in plume distribution and hydraulic conditions will preclude any satisfactory remedial efforts.
Laboratory and field studies Benker et al. [1997, 1998] have shown no attenuation of TCE by sorption,
probably due to the very low concentration of soil organic matter within the calcareous sands at the site.
There is also no evidence of microbiological transformation of TCE, which with its lack of attenuation by
sorption indicates conservative behaviour. Bacterial reductive dehalogenation of TCE to dichloroethene
and thence to vinyl chloride could be anticipated in such circumstances, and small amounts of 1,2-DCE
are found associated with TCE in the plume. However, it is thought that this results from codisposal at
source rather than DCE being a daughter transformation product of TCE. This was shown by the lack
of any transformation of labelled TCE injected into the plume Benker et al. [1997]. The conservative
behaviour of TCE accounts for the extensive distribution of contamination. The prognosis is for further
extension of the plume downgradient of the site.
Another example of TCE pollution of groundwater has been dramatized in the film A Civil Action
(Fig. 21.16). This film was based on an infamous court case on incidents in the town of Woburn in
North America where groundwater is extensively used for drinking water supplies and pollution is often
a problem. In the early 1980’s a leukemia cluster was identified in the town of Woburn, Massachusetts,
USA. Woburn is a working class Boston suburb with a population of 35,000 people. The town obtains its
drinking water supply from six groundwater wells (known as well A through to F). Due to urban growth
in the late 1960’s two extra water wells, wells G and H, were drilled in East Woburn (Fig. 21.17.

Figure 21.15: TCE depth cross-section across the flow direction, noting the centreline of the plume
estimated from contoured data obtained from sampling long-screened boreholes.
Figure 21.16: Advertisement of the film ”A Civil Action”

Figure 21.17: Map of the Woburn area, with positions of supply wells (circles and points H and G) and
possible sources of TCE in groundwater (R, U, C)
Wells G and H were drilled in a different aquifer from the towns existing water supply wells. Initially these
two wells were used during times of water shortage or emergency. Soon up to 28% of the communities
water supply was being provided by wells H and G (Fig.21.17). Almost as soon as the residents in East
Woburn began using the new groundwater supply there were complaints about the taste and the smell
of the groundwater. The groundwater from two wells, was repeatedly tested by local and state health
officials that declared the water to be unpleasant but safe.
During the 1970’s one resident, Anne Anderson went as far as to question whether her sons childhood
leukemia, diagnosed in 1972 when her son was aged 4, was the result of the groundwater. Initially people
dismissed Anne Anderson’s claims as those of a distraught mother, but at the time of her sons death in
1981 many people believed she may have been right.
In 1979 it was discovered that illegal dumping of chemicals had occurred only kilometres from wells H and
G. While it was found that these chemicals had not contaminated the wells, it was discovered that the
groundwater had already been contaminated with several chlorinated organic compounds, one of which
was trichloroethylene (TCE). Drinking small amounts of TCE for long periods may cause liver and kidney
damage, nervous system effects, impaired immune system function, and impaired foetal development in
pregnant women, (although the extent of some of these effects is not yet clear). The wells have not been
used as a water supply since this discovery.
The discovery led to the investigation of Woburns leukemia rate, which was four times higher than would
be expected for a community of its size. Also most of the illnesses were among families that had received
their water supply from wells G and H.
Eight families, including Anne Anderson, hired lawyer Jan Richard Schilichtmann to file a lawsuit. Three
companies were suspected of contaminating the groundwater:
1. W.R. Grace and company, that owned a manufacturing plant located 732 metres northeast of the
wells. The company manufactured equipment for the food packing industry and used solvents to

Figure 21.18: The nitrogen cycle, modified after Freeze and Cherry (1979)
clean and cool tools, cut grease, and dilute paint.

2. Beatrice Foods Company which had owned a tannery 213 m from the wells. It was alleged that the
company had dumped chemicals on adjacent land that it had owned.
3. UniFirst Corporation, that operated an industrial dry-cleaning business 610 metres north of the
wells. The company used solvents as part of its business and these solvents were found on the
property in large quantities in the soil and the groundwater.
W.R. Grace and company settled out of court in the late 1980’s for $US 8 million dollars without admitting
responsibility. Beatrice Foods Company won their court battle. UniFirst settled prior to trial in 1985 for
$US 1.05 million without admitting responsibility. The US Environmental Protection Agency clean up
is still continuing.
21.4.2 Dispersed source contamination
Nitrates in groundwater
A plethora of research projects have been carried out following increasing indications of rising concen-
trations of nitrate in groundwater (potable) supplies, in some cases exceeding the WHO or State limit of
10 mg N/L. Health effects of high levels of nitrates, particularly from methaemoglobinaemia in newborn
infants, and from possible carcinogenic effect have provided impetus for research in this area.
Nitrogenous compounds are ubiquitous in groundwater but usually are present in low concentrations.
However these occur in high concentrations in waste waters from domestic and agricultural sources
which if these are allowed to infiltrate into the ground, could cause local, regional or non-point pollution
depending on the scale and distribution of source(s). The following examples highlight the diverse sources
of nitrate, and illustrate some important considerations of the nitrogen cycle (Fig 21.18).
Harvey [1983] described occurrences of groundwater polluted by nitrate in SE South Australia. Occur-
rences were highly variable, within a locally industrial but mainly agricultural area. A survey of potential
N-pollution sources yielded the following:

• Municipal (landfill, sewage, street run-off) 80 t/y 0.3%

• Animal husbandry (manure - beef, sheep, dairy) 22400 t/y 90%
• Fertilisers (superphosphate) 160 t/y 0.7%
• Additional sources, unquantifiable 7.9%
An additional source of N from leguminous plants (by fixation) was thought to be of the same order as
that from animal husbandry within this area.
Harvey [1983] states that temperature, soil moisture, soil chemistry, and available organic material affect
the N-cycle. At the end of the summer a pool of nitrogen is present in the soil, in various forms which
under aerobic conditions would nitrify to nitrate. Where the winter water table was shallow or following
excessive waste applications, anoxic conditions would be expected at shallow depths giving denitrification
of leached nitrate if a carbon source were present. Where aerobic conditions were present, leaching
of nitrate occurred. Areas of greatest risk were stated to be those with high, irregular N-loadings,
with thin or denuded soil, with low assimilation capacity for N, or on fissured aquifers. The varying
geology and chemical conditions within the soil/groundwater obviously contributed to the variation in
the concentration of nitrate in groundwater from place to place.
Detailed follow-up studies generally confirmed the results of the above study in identifying dispersed
sources of nitrate (grazing etc) as predominant (contributing 89% of the nitrogen loading to the aquifer).
The difficulties in identifying a suitable management plan for the aquifer were compounded by a lack of
depth-specific monitoring data on groundwater quality from the area. This precluded proper calibration
of groundwater models that would be an essential basis for evaluating land-use planning scenarios. Ad-
ditionally, analysis noted a heavy historical bias towards monitoring of point sources in the area. He was
also critical of an ineffective increase in the regional sampling network because of its random distribution
rather than one with a sound statistical basis. He also indicated that the frequency of monitoring could
be decreased with negligible loss of information, for both regional and point-source boreholes.
In the UK, a similar situation exists, where groundwater in the main aquifers - the Chalk and the Triassic
Sandstone, are characterised by increasing levels of nitrate with time, particularly in unconfined outcrop
areas. Sources of nitrate in groundwater in these areas were direct discharges of agricultural wastes,
sewerage, or leaching through agricultural soils. The latter was considered to be the major regional
source of increasing nitrate in groundwater Young et al. [1981]. Conversion from pasture land to arable
farming since the 1940’s (particularly on upland Chalk areas where thin soils were present), coupled with
the increasing use of inorganic nitrogenous fertilisers was causing increased leaching of soil nutrients.
Applications of from 90-200 kg/ha/y as nitrogen was 5-10 times that applied 30-35 years ago.
In the UK, arable soils were invariably aerobic, characterised by mineralisation of soil organic matter,
nitrification of ammonia, and little or no loss by denitrification. In contrast, well compacted soil under
permanent grassland often contained anaerobic zones, where denitrification of nitrate took place. Up to
50% loss of N by denitrification was thought to be possible with a proportion of the remainder being
utilised by plants and soil microorganisms. In experimental 60 cm deep plots, 200 kg N/ha was leached
from fallow soil, where mineralisation of soil organic matter took place, compared with 5 kg/ha from grass
plots [Young et al., 1981].
In the unsaturated zone of the Chalk, >20 mg/L N O3 − N was found in pore water beneath arable
crops; concentrations varied depending on cropping, rotation and fertiliser application. Under permanent
grassland, receiving 250 kg N/ha/y, <10 mg N/L was found while under grassland receiving no fertiliser
<1 mg N/L occurred in pore water. In the saturated zone, high levels of nitrate were found in the upper
part, whilst much lower concentrations occurred at depth.
In other aquifers in the UK, increasing levels of nitrate-N were found in the Jurassic Limestone where
fissure flow predominated in a relatively thin aquifer, where little attenuation was expected. In the
Triassic Sandstone aquifer, which is extensively used for water supply, high-nitrate concentrations were
found beneath outcrop areas. In adjacent areas covered by drift, <0.1 mg N/L were found.

In a survey of occurrence of nitrate in groundwater in Australia, Lawrence [1983] considered a number

of sources. Leaching of soil nitrogen under cultivation was reported to occur in temperate areas (SW
Western Australia, Eastern Highlands of Victoria, NSW and Queensland, SE South Australia). Leaching
following decomposition of organic matter and release of N on cultivation and ploughing and from fertiliser
applications was implicated. In more arid drier parts of Australia, native soil nitrogen was lost on land
clearing, following light stocking with beef cattle. Association of ’natural’ high concentrations of N with
acacia, and leguminous plants were also noted. Other sources include sewage (septic tank) disposal
(Perth, WA), dairy waste disposal (Mt Gambier), industrial discharges (Melbourne, Sydney) and coal
mining operations (Cessnock). Lawrence [1983] concluded that all high levels of nitrate occurred in shallow
aquifers (<100 m depth) which were unconfined, suggesting a recent ’surface’ source, and/or removal of
nitrate at depth. Also total dissolved solids were low where nitrate was present in high concentrations,
indicating that recharge areas were at greatest risk.
Pesticides
Pesticide contamination of groundwater was identified in the late 1970s, when aldicarb was found in New
York water supply [Rao and Alley, 1993]. Other compounds (dibromochloropropane DBCP, ethylene
dibromide (EDB) were found in California, Florida, Georgia and Hawaii in the 1980s, which started a
considerable effort to identify the extent of the problem and to establish better pesticide management in
the US.
In Australia, pesticide use in the 1970s increased dramatically and this trend continued throughout the
1980s, mainly related to the use of minimum tillage in agriculture [Kookana et al., 1998]. Insecticide and
fungicide use increased also, but to a much lesser extent over this period. Cotton cropping and horticulture
were identified as the heaviest users of pesticides, these requiring multiple applications and extensive use
due to multiple cropping each year [Kookana et al., 1998]. Pesticides are also used extensively in non-
agricultural areas, for example in parks, sports fields, golf courses, rail tracks, road verges, domestic
residences and industrial areas for weed and pest control [Appleyard et al., 1997].
Organochlorine pesticides, which were used extensively in the 1950s and 1960s, are now known to be
persistent in soils, and these were largely banned from use in the 1970s. However, OC residues were still
detected in soils throughout Australia where these had been used. In Western Australia, out of over 11000
soils sampled, the percentage of soil containing residues were 18% for chlordane, 40% for DDT, 39% for
dieldrin, and 19% for heptachlor. Non-OC pesticides were also thought to be capable of accumulating in
soils (particularly paraquat, diquat, fearimol, prometon, tebuthiuron, thiabendazole).
Groundwater is thought to be protected from OC pesticides, because generally these are strongly adsorbed
and accumulate in soils. There is little data on pesticides in groundwater in Australia, but where these
have been identified, in all cases they are well below the health guidelines shown in Table:21.2, although
these could be of concern where groundwater discharges into the environment. Incidences of reported
pesticide contamination of groundwater are shown in Table 21.12.
Pesticides are affected by sorption/desorption processes, by volatilisation, and chemical and microbio-
logical degradation. In the latter case, decay can transform pesticides into more problematic daughter
products, which are either more persistent or more toxic than the parent compound.
Sorption and decay are probably the most important processes determining whether groundwater con-
tamination will occur where pesticides are used above shallow groundwater.
Natural (induced) contamination
Invariably when contamination is found in groundwater, anthropogenic sources are suspected and research
or investigation centres around obvious or suspected source areas. In a few cases, particularly where
contaminants are apparently from a dispersed source and present at significant (from water quality
viewpoint) but low concentrations, natural leaching of aquifer solids or diffusion of contaminated pore

Table 21.12: Summary of reported pesticide detections in Australian groundwaters, after Kookana et al
(1998)
Region Pesticide(s) Use Reference

Shepparton, East Atrazine, desisopropyla- Irrigated agriculture,
Victoria trazine, simazine dominated by fruit
Shepparton, East Atrazine, deisopropy- Irrigated agriculture,
Victoria latrazine, simazine, dominated by apple, pear,
chlorpyriphos, endosul- stone fruit orchards
phan, DDE, heptachlor
epoxide
Burdekin River Atrazine Domestic/town use, sug-
Delta, Queensland arcane
Bundaberg, 2,4-D, atrazine, chlor- In Keeting et al, 1996
Queensland phenvinphos
Caboolture/Beerwah, EDB Simpson et al, 1993
Queensland
Lower Namoi Val- Atrazine Weed control, drainage/ Jiwan and Riley,
ley, NSW irrigation channels 1993
Southeast of South Atrazine, deethylatrazine, Irrigation channels, forest Stadter et al, 1992
Australia simazine reserve, urban
Padthaway, South Atrazine Irrigation Fennell and
Australia Stadter, 1991
Southeast of South Dieldrin, lindane, chlorpy- Dairying, potato crop- Schmidt et al, 1996
Australia riphos, alachlor ping,horticulture, viticul-
ture,grazing, pines
Perth, Esperance, Atrazine Urban, irrigation Sheridan, 1991
Ord River, Western
Australia
Perth, Western Atrazine, fenamiphos Urban Appleyard 1995b
Australia
Perth, Western DDT, aldrin, dieldrin, Urban Gerritse et al, 1988
Australia chlordane, heptachlor,
lindane, chlorpyriphos

water from underlying strata, is implicated. Two cases are presented below. Both involve metal species
(chromium and arsenic) which are subject to redox reactions where a slightly soluble cationic form of the
metals becomes reduced to more soluble and mobile anionic forms. The incidence of ’natural’ chromium
contamination is quite rare. Arsenic contamination is much more common, and is responsible for perhaps
the most significant case of poisoning ever, with over a million people affected from use of shallow
groundwater for drinking and irrigation in Bangladesh and parts of India.
Chromium An exotic case of contamination of groundwater by hexavalent chromium was described

in the USA [Robertson, 1975]. The highest concentration occurred in groundwater from the centre of
an elongate 75 mile area in Arizona within an alluvial aquifer, and dispersed vertically in groundwater.
There was little human activity associated with the contamination. Consideration of the geochemistry of
chromium and the Eh/pH of the groundwater indicated that groundwater was in the stability field of the
soluble Cr(V I), rather than the less soluble Cr(III). The concentration of Cr(III) is controlled by the
solubility of Cr(OH)3 , or by adsorption on iron oxyhydroxide or clays. It was concluded that the source
of Cr was weathering of aluminosilicate minerals in low permeability silt/clays, where the pH value of
pore water was high (>9 in places). Lack of F e+2 or other reducing agents in groundwater (which would
have oxidised Cr(V I) to the less soluble Cr(III)) accounted for the persistence of chromium.
Arsenic Surface water contamination in Bangladesh and parts of India has been common, mainly from
faecal contamination, which has given rise to endemic diarrhoea. In order to provide more secure domestic
water supplies, considerable effort has been expended in installing tube wells for pumping of shallow
groundwater in rural areas on the alluvial plains, subsidised through international aid. Unfortunately,
it is only relatively recently that groundwater in these rural areas has been shown to contain high
concentrations of arsenic.
Currently 97% of the rural population in Bangladesh is supplied from tubewells. Of 8065 wells sampled
from 60 districts, 41 districts had arsenic exceeding 0.05 mg/L the WHO standard for drinking water, and
the remaining wells show concentrations exceeding 0.01 mg/L, that recommended for safe water. The 41
districts cover an area of 89000 km2 . Evidence of arsenicosis has been recorded in 40% of the 140 million
people in Bangladesh, and many deaths have been attributed to arsenic poisoning.
Arsenic exists in two natural oxidation states As(III) and As(IV), the latter being the common state
in oxidising environments. Arsenic commonly occurs in sulphidic minerals in rocks and sediments, as
arsenopyrite (AsFeS) or with other sulphides such as pyrite. It has been suggested that exposure of arsenic
rich sediments to oxygen by excessive drawdown of groundwater for multiple cropping in the rural areas,
has mobilised the arsenic, although concentrations of arsenic in the aquifer sediments and in groundwater
appear to vary somewhat with depth. A more precise explanation for the incidence of contamination and
its causes is not yet forthcoming. However, the widespread extent of the contamination, and extensive
use of groundwater has indicated that water treatment is the only possible solution to what is a problem
of megalithic proportions.

Chapter 22
Groundwater quality protection
Contents
22.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
22.1.1 Why should we protect groundwater? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
22.1.2 Characteristics of groundwater pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
22.1.3 Sources and extent of contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
22.1.4 The need for groundwater protection in Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
22.1.5 The conduit effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
22.2 What do we mean by groundwater protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
22.2.1 The link with allocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
22.2.2 Controlling and managing land uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
22.2.3 Protecting groundwater for its beneficial use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602
22.2.4 Regulators perspective vs landowners or developers perspective . . . . . . . . . 605
22.3 Approaches to groundwater protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
22.3.1 Forms of Intervention in Controlling and Managing Land Use . . . . . . . . . . 606
22.3.2 Responsible agencies and legislative powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608
22.4 Policy objectives for groundwater protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
22.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
22.4.2 New South Wales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
22.4.3 Victoria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612
22.4.4 Queensland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612
22.4.5 South Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
22.4.6 Western Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
22.4.7 Tasmania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
22.4.8 Northern Territory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
22.4.9 Setting the objectives for groundwater protection policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615
22.4.10 Determining the principles for groundwater protection policy . . . . . . . . . . 615
22.5 Developing groundwater protection strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
22.5.1 Catchment based strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
22.5.2 Land use/activity based strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627
22.6 Public and industry involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627
597
Chapter 22. Groundwater quality protection
22.1 Introduction
22.1.1 Why should we protect groundwater?
The importance of groundwater to Australia, the driest inhabited continent in the world, has become
increasingly obvious to all in recent years, particularly with the role of climate change becoming more
evident. There are many examples from around the world of groundwater becoming contaminated, with
valuable resources being put at risk, and becoming unacceptable for their perceived beneficial use, or
only usable with sometimes lengthy, but generally always expensive, remediation.
We recognise that, except in a few naturally occurring instances, the deterioration of water quality,
including both groundwater and surface water, results from human activities. Given the recognised
connectivity between groundwater and surface water, the protection of groundwater quality should be
also closely tied to the protection of the quality of surface water, particularly where conjunctive use of
surface and groundwater occurs in the same region. Inappropriate land use activities that can contaminate
groundwater can affect surface water where they are interconnected, and vice versa.
In Australia groundwater has many beneficial uses. In many parts of the country it is the sole source of
drinking water supply, and from the point of view of protecting human health, ensuring drinking water
sources are properly protected has become paramount, to the extent that many water resource managers
believe that the primacy of drinking water resources and their protection exceeds all other beneficial
uses. However, groundwater also has a major role in agriculture, industry and recreation, and is vitally
important in maintaining a wide range of ecosystems.
If we therefore allow groundwater resources to become contaminated we are in danger of limiting the
availability of water for a wide range of uses, and this will have a flow on effect on the economy and
development of Australia, its cities and towns, its industry, and its population. This chapter therefore
looks at the issues of protecting groundwater quality and the ways it can be undertaken to ensure these
problems do not eventuate.
22.1.2 Characteristics of groundwater pollution
Groundwater pollution has been dealt with in greater detail in earlier chapters, but it is important to
remind ourselves that pollution of groundwater has three characteristics, which result in it being more
complex to deal with than other forms of pollution, such as air and noise pollution, or even surface water
pollution.
Groundwater pollution is not readily detectable, and may not be identified for many years after it has
occurred. By then the polluter may no longer exist and the cost of fixing the problem, if possible
becomes the responsibility of government, and indirectly the general community. Being below the ground,
groundwater pollution is often complicated and expensive to investigate and monitor. Once pollution of
an aquifer has occurred, it is expensive to clean up and there are limitations on this being done effectively.
Consequently it is important to recognise the fundamental principle for groundwater protection that says
that as far as practical pollution should be prevented rather than relying on clean up.
22.1.3 Sources and extent of contamination
Contamination of groundwater has been observed world wide, and it is accepted that concentrated human
activity has the potential to lead to groundwater contamination if the appropriate protection measures
are not adopted.
For contamination to occur three main components should exist;

• a potential source of contamination,

• an underlying aquifer and
• a pathway for transfer between the two, either indirectly through the soil, or via surface water, or
directly through man-made structures intersecting the water table.
In Chapter 21 sources of contamination were referred to as either point sources or diffuse (non-point)
sources. Point sources refer to cases where contamination is localised and more readily attributed to a
single source., whereas diffuse sources are broader in scale and are generally caused by either a widespread
land-use practice (such as the use of agricultural pesticides eg atrazine on canola) or perhaps a widespread
collection of point sources (such as septic tanks in an unsewered area).
Protecting groundwater quality against the risk of contamination from both types of sources is therefore
important but it must also be recognised that the act of imposing protection requirements can have an
economic impost on industry, the community and the individual, and these have to be considered in
relation to the perceived use of the groundwater source.
By comparison with other countries, particularly the US and Europe, Australia’s groundwater aquifers are
relatively unpolluted, perhaps more attributable to our low population density throughout much of the
country and younger and less intensive industrial and agriculture bases, rather than good management.
This is not to say that substantial pollution has not occurred in Australia. For example, over 1,100 known
or inferred point and diffuse sources of contamination have been recorded in the Perth Basin, which is the
major source of groundwater in Western Australia [Hirschberg, 1993, Hirschberg and Appleyard, 1996].
In Adelaide there are many known sites in the older metropolitan area, where soils contain contaminants
including chlorinated solvents, monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (particularly from service stations),
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, phenols and chromium. In NSW there are estimated to be up to 3000
leaking underground petroleum tanks contaminating groundwater. Similarly, significant pollution has
occurred in other parts of Australia; no State or Territory is immune from this problem.
The Australian Water Resource Council (AWRAC 1990) reviewed the status of groundwater contamina-
tion in Australia and summarised the sources of incidents and their contaminants as:
• industrial effluent and manufacturing wastes

• leaking underground storage tanks and pipelines
• landfill stockpiles or contaminate soil producing leachate
• intensive agricultural fertiliser and pesticide use or waste generation
• contamination from septic tanks and from sewage and wastewater lagoons
• mining industry process and wastes
• contamination from wells
• urban stormwater
• atmospheric fallout
• interaquifer contamination by alteration of throughflow
• firefighting accidents
• emergency response wastes during and after chemical fires, an
• energy generation and town gas sites
While the incidence of contamination from spillages such as from vehicle rollovers were also regarded
with concern the possibilities of contamination from the connectivity of groundwater and surface water
was not considered.

22.1.4 The need for groundwater protection in Australia
Groundwater plays a significant role as a resource, which is necessary to sustain life, either as a source
of water for human use or as water that helps sustain life in surface waters such as streams and wetlands
in dry periods. In the broader context, it also forms a major component of many water supply systems
where aquifers are used as sole water supply sources or to balance surface water surpluses and deficiencies.
Underlying each of these uses is the economic value of groundwater, particularly where it forms a resource
which would need to be replaced, at some cost, should that groundwater become polluted.
There is a considerable history of groundwater protection in Europe, supported by European Union Direc-
tives [European Union, 2000], and a wide range of strategies are in place in the United States of America
supported by guidelines from the Environmental Protection Agency [USA EPA, 1990, 1991, 1992]. How-
ever, this has not prevented some catastrophic incidents of contamination of groundwater, resulting from
the lack of adoption of appropriate protection measures, in many first world countries [Hrudey and
Hrudey, 2004].
In its preparation of the National Water Quality Management Strategy (NWQMS) and the development
of NWQMS 8 Guidelines for Groundwater Protection ARMCANZ/ANZECC [1995] it was noted that
there had been little development of groundwater protection strategies in Australia. Even with the
release of these guidelines, the National Resource Management Standing Committee (NRMSC) in its
Discussion Paper on Groundwater Quality Protection in 2002 noted the lack of consistency and approach
between, and within, States with respect to protecting groundwater quality. This lack of consistency in
effect makes adoption of protection strategies difficult when proponents against protection strategies in
some States cite the lack of their implementation in others.
A concerted effort is therefore required in Australia to ensure groundwater quality protection is uniformly
and consistently undertaken in all States and Territories to avoid undue pollution of our resources in the
future.
22.1.5 The conduit effect
Reference has been made to the connectivity between groundwater and surface water and the implications
for contamination and water quality protection. Understanding what is known as the conduit effect helps
us to understand better this process.
Aquifers not only store water, they transmit it down a hydraulic gradient. An individual particle of water
will move slowly along its flow path from the point of recharge to the point of discharge. The aquifer is
in effect a conduit for carrying water. If the aquifer becomes polluted at some point then the polluted
water will be transported to the discharge site (Fig. 22.1). This is called the conduit effect. It becomes
especially important if the groundwater discharges to a sensitive surface water body that requires perhaps
a higher level of protection than the groundwater itself.
Where a groundwater system has a low value because of its naturally poor water quality, it may still
require a high level of protection because it discharges to a surface water body nearby. For example,
leakage of small amounts of petroleum products from a petrol station located over a moderately saline
and unused groundwater system may have little impact on the system directly. It may, however, be a
major problem if the groundwater discharges into a surface water body nearby that is used for stock
watering, or if it supports a sensitive wetland.
Similarly a losing stream may need high levels of protection if it is a source of recharge to a groundwater
body that provides high quality water for a particular use, such as drinking water. For example, Lake
Kununurra provides direct recharge through the river bank and beds to the gravel aquifer that supplies
drinking water to Kununurra. In theory, a high level of protection needs to be provided to the surface
water to ensure the aquifer in not contaminated. In practice, in this example, the economic and political
cost of protection of Lake Kununurra water and the effect that this would have on the town of Kununurra
and tourism in the northeast of Western Australia mitigates against suitable protection measures.

Figure 22.1: Polluted groundwater impacting on a surface water stream
22.2 What do we mean by groundwater protection
22.2.1 The link with allocation
In developing principles and approaches for groundwater protection we should understand that sometimes
it is difficult to accurately assess groundwater resources in a particular region to the extent that we may
wish, and this may be to lack of widespread data through the area of concern. Consequently there is
always the potential under these circumstances for groundwater quality to be compromised through the
over-allocation of resources, and the potential for inferior quality water to be drawn into the area.
Resource assessment and allocation should not be separate from resource protection; they are all part of
the resource management package and have an interdependency that should not be ignored.
22.2.2 Controlling and managing land uses
We have also seen in earlier discussions on groundwater pollution and contamination that groundwater
pollution can occur where there is a source of contamination and potential for contaminants to find
their way into an aquifer. Put simply, therefore, groundwater protection is about avoiding, controlling,
and managing land uses and activities to avoid undue or unacceptable pollution of groundwater. It is
not the intention here to present prescriptive groundwater protection rules for various land uses and
activities. In fact, there are few, (if any), prescriptive rules which fit all situations. Rather, some of the
principles, philosophies and general approaches to groundwater protection are presented. It is important
to understand these in developing and implementing specific protection measures.
ARMCANZ/ANZECC [1995] formulated a specific goal for groundwater protection that stated:-
The goal of groundwater protection is to protect the groundwater resources of the nation so
that these resources can support their identified beneficial uses and values in an economically,
socially, and environmentally sustainable and acceptable manner.

This statement clearly recognised that the same value cannot be applied to all groundwater resources,
and that a focus needed to be placed of developing protection strategies across Australia.
22.2.3 Protecting groundwater for its beneficial use
A common starting point for deciding the level of protection for a groundwater resource is to consider its
existing and potential future beneficial uses (sometimes termed environmental values). Resources should
not be permitted to be degraded to a point where the ability of the water to support or maintain the
existing and the potential beneficial uses is affected. Beneficial uses can be considered as those values
which resources provide to the community, both economic and social, through both their use and support
of the environment.
There are numerous ways of categorising beneficial uses. The Australian Water Quality Guidelines for
Fresh and Marine Waters ANZECC [1992] identified five broad environmental values for water:
• ecosystem protection;
• recreation and aesthetics;
• raw water for drinking water supply;
• agricultural water; and
• industrial water.
The beneficial use assigned to a groundwater resource depends on the resource’s existing quality, the
current and potential beneficial uses from consumptive use, and its relationship to the environment. For
example a fresh groundwater resource near a town requiring public water supplies may be assigned a
beneficial use of raw water for drinking water supply to identify the need to protect the resource for this
purpose. Similarly, a groundwater resource supporting an environmentally important wetland may be
assigned a beneficial use of ecosystem protection.
Once a beneficial use determination has been made, the protection objective is generally to prevent degra-
dation of groundwater quality so that the normal requirements for its beneficial use can be maintained.
That is, the assimilative capacity of the resource, or ability for it to be degraded without significantly
affecting the uses of the resource, is taken into account in protection issues. To achieve this, water quality
guidelines generally need to be set for specific water quality parameters, which will support preservation
of the beneficial use.
The ANZECC report provides water quality guidelines for preservation of the five broad beneficial uses
described above.
Resources may be assigned multiple beneficial uses, in which case the protection objectives must be to
maintain water quality to the highest level necessary to maintain all assigned uses. For example if the
beneficial uses assigned to a particular groundwater resource include ecosystem protection, recreation,
and raw water for drinking water supply, then clearly the highest level of protection is for the drinking
water supply.
It is important to recognise that the beneficial use framework does not imply that resources should
necessarily be permitted to be degraded up to the levels suggested by water quality guidelines for their
designated beneficial uses. The ARMCANZ/ANZECC report presents a number of qualifiers to use the
water quality guidelines. In particular, the report acknowledges that the water quality parameter values
specified for beneficial uses are only guidelines, based on current state of knowledge.
For example, a resource used for public water drinking water supplies should not necessarily be permitted
to be degraded to levels just below or at drinking water guidelines. The Australian Drinking Water
Guidelines (NHMRC/ANZECC 1996, 2004) are constantly being reviewed and made more stringent.

Resources allowed to degrade to the 1996 levels may not meet the 2004 levels, or may not meet subsequent
guideline levels, and then the resources may no longer be considered suitable for use. Also, if the resource
is degraded to levels just below, or at the guidelines, there is an increased risk that new or unknown
sources of contamination will cause additional degradation resulting in the guidelines being exceeded.
Indeed, while the 1996 and 2004 drinking water guidelines provide permissible levels of individual pa-
rameters, they do not consider whether the combination of some parameters will produce a compound
undesirable in drinking water. Consideration of this may result in permissible levels being reduced further.
The beneficial use framework adopts a fairly technical and scientific approach. In general, most ground-
water protection matters will also require consideration of far broader social, economic and political issues
in determining the degree of implementation of protection measures and the acceptable levels of pollu-
tion and risks of pollution. This leads to the concept of differential protection, for example the approach
the drinking water quality protection adopted in Western Australia. The beneficial use framework also
implies that resources with the same assigned beneficial use should have similar levels of protection. For
example, if two groundwater resources are assigned a beneficial use of drinking water supplies, there is an
implication that both will be protected to the same level, i.e. groundwater quality will be kept to within
the guidelines by applying similar land use restrictions.
For a host of social, economic and political reasons, groundwater resources with similar beneficial uses
may be afforded different levels of protection, and set water quality goals different from, and possibly
more stringent than, those specified in the guidelines for the assigned beneficial use. A major factor
behind this is that the community, in general, is averse to any significant contamination. This applies
particularly to environmental water resources, and resources used for drinking water supplies.
For example, a community which is used to having water supplies from an undeveloped catchment may
desire to keep its water supplies at a pristine quality, rather than permit any degradation, or risk of
degradation from development in the catchment. Similarly, for a groundwater resource supporting an
environmentally important wetland, the community and government may seek to prevent any further
degradation of water quality to maintain the highest possible environmental value of the wetland.
Conversely, for some resources, the community may demand, and government may be prepared, to
accept a higher level of degradation or risk of degradation, on the basis that the overlying land uses
are of economic benefit to the community. Government may also wish to recognise landowners existing
businesses, and expectation to maintain viability. This is becoming increasingly difficult to accept by
some water resource management agencies, water service providers, and public health officers when, in the
face of climate change and decreasing resources, additional risks are applied to drinking water sources to
accommodate community expectations and political expediency. The protection of public health, through
the appropriate protection of water quality is sometimes disregarded
When we start looking at how and to what extent we should protect groundwater quality, we must
consider broader social, economic and political factors relating to the resource and to the location of
critical groundwater recharge areas. These include:
• the strategic value of the resource; is it the only suitable resource for a public drinking water supply
in the region?;
• its economic importance: what is the value of the beneficial use?
• land ownership; who owns the land under which the groundwater flows, or where it is recharged or
discharges; what are their rights and expectations?;
• existing and planned land uses; is the land use one that places the quality of the resource at risk;
has approval already been given through rezoning etc for the development of an inappropriate land
use activity?; and
• community expectations; what does the community want, what does it expect, what will it accept?.

A range of objectives may be set to protect groundwater resources on the basis of these considerations.
Three general policy approaches have been identified:
• non-degradation;
• limited degradation; or
• differential protection.
While these approaches are different, it is possible to combine more than one policy within a region or
State.
Non-degradation These policies imply that the quality of the groundwater resource should be main-
tained at its current level, and applied to resources considered to be most important for a community.
This could be a resource providing the major or sole source of drinking water for a community, or a
resource supporting an environmental feature of very high importance. While for practical reasons
it is generally applied to resources in areas which are undeveloped, or where the land affected is
crown land (eg State Forest, National Parks etc), it may equally be applied to land in private own-
ership and/or where there is development of variable intensity. This particularly applies where the
water resource is considered to be extremely strategic (perhaps the only potable water source in the
area), or perhaps where the geological conditions may indicate contamination could readily occur.
Non-degradation policies do not usually take any account of the assimilative capacity of aquifers.
Limited, or controlled, degradation Limited degradation policies aim to preserve groundwater qual-
ity above certain specified standards that may be set at specified guidelines for beneficial uses, or
at a lower level than the guidelines to maintain a factor of safety. In this way, limited degradation
policies allow for part or all of the assimilative capacity of the aquifer to be taken into considera-
tion in the level of protection applied, and will therefore allow some land use developments in that
particular area.
Differential protection Differential protection policies allow for combinations of non-degradation and
limited degradation policies depending on social and economic considerations, and political expedi-
ency for the locality, the circumstances, or the demands of the community. Differential protection
policies allow development of protection objectives for different areas in a region that account for
factors such as present and potential uses of water resources, the tenure, zoning and uses of land
on the catchment, and community expectation. This policy may be applied where there are exist-
ing land uses, where existing land owners have reasonable rights, and where the economic benefits
available to the community from the land uses in the area are significant. In some cases particular
land use may result in contamination at levels that exceed standards required for assigned beneficial
uses. The question has to be asked of the water resource and environmental managers is whether
this is justifiable and acceptable.
In the case of drinking water supplies, it is often argued by proponents of development (and those that
oppose protection policies) that any increase in contamination can be countered by increased levels of
treatment, if the resource is still to be used for this purpose. Under current national (NHRMC and
ARMCANZ 2004), and international standards [World Health Organisation, 2003] to allow a resource to
degrade to an extent that the only way it can be used is by relying solely on end-of-line extensive treatment
is no longer acceptable. Hrudey and Hrudey [2004] provides many examples where such situations have
had serious and sometimes catastrophic results.
Risk assessment
The impact of various land uses on groundwater quality, the movement and fate of contaminants in the
sub-surface, and the efficiency of alternative protection measures are complex matters. Sometimes they
are generally not fully understood; sometimes there are inadequate data to support protection policies.

Groundwater protection questions, therefore, frequently involve uncertainties, and must consider the
element of risk.
This adds to the complexity of dealing with groundwater protection questions. A detailed and thorough
risk assessment needs to be undertaken of any catchment, area, or region where protection measures are
to be applied to understand all of the existing and potential risks to the water source before guidelines
are applied. A risk avoidance or minimisation approach is often adopted with groundwater protection,
whereby land uses or activities which are deemed to pose an unacceptable risk of contamination are
prohibited from areas where they may threaten assigned beneficial uses.
Attenuation zones
Groundwater protection questions also often involve consideration of allowable attenuation zones. For
example, a farmer applying fertilisers or pesticides to a crop may cause groundwater pollution below the
crop that exceeds set standards for the resource. Dilution and attenuation measures within the aquifer
may ameliorate the contamination to acceptable levels, however, before the groundwater is used by other
users or affects the environment. Similarly, an industry discharging waste may cause local pollution on
site, but this may be ameliorated in the aquifer, before moving off site.
Policy decisions are often required, therefore, on the zone of attenuation to be adopted for water quality
standards. Three options are usually available for this zone:
• at a set distance (say 500 metres) from where the discharge is occurring;
• at the boundary of the property upon which the effluent is discharged; and
• at the point of discharge of effluent or other contaminant source.
The latter two provide for a more equitable allocation of pollution rights between landowners, in that
no-one is allowed to pollute off their property. This can be impractical, however, in some circumstances,
particularly for diffuse sources of contamination, and lead to under utilisation of the assimilative capacity
of the aquifer. For example, a farmer with a small property may not be able to carry out certain farming
practices without causing some pollution off site. The set distance approach allows more flexibility, but
requires good management by the land owner and monitoring by the resource manager to ensure that
the cumulative impacts of all users in an area do not lead to unacceptable pollution for particular users
or the environment.
The policy of allowing for the use of attenuation zones in public drinking water source areas should
consider the distance, both vertically and horizontally, between the contamination and the abstraction
bores or wells, and the viability of treating/removing the contaminant if the beneficial use is affected.
22.2.4 Regulators perspective vs landowners or developers perspective
Groundwater quality questions must always involve a tri-partisan consideration between groundwater
resource managers and regulators, landowners or developers, and the community as a whole (Fig. 22.2).
While it could be argued that government may sometimes need to take strong measures, current views
require all stakeholders to be involved in consultation.
Landowners/developers have an expectation to use their land for their own reward, and this may also
provide a return and benefit to the community. This may also include government and local government
agencies providing land for a particular purpose.
The community mostly has expectations that groundwater resources should not be unduly polluted or
placed at undue risk of pollution, for their benefit and future generation’s benefits. Of course, this

Figure 22.2: Tripartite approach to groundwater protection
expectation will vary considerably between community members depending on the degree to which each
member is affected by the particular protection policy.
Various government and local government agencies are assigned responsibilities for groundwater protec-
tion, and need to address this within this tripartite consideration. One of the greatest challenges of
groundwater quality protection is achieving optimum protection of resources while permitting optimum
sustainable development of land. This is often made extremely difficult when the protection of the re-
source is to allow inter-regional transfer of water and those affected by the protection measures do not
see the benefits of the impost placed on them.
Government regulatory agencies must therefore consider the potential cumulative impact from all po-
tential development in a groundwater catchment area, and generally cannot consider one proposal in
isolation.
22.3 Approaches to groundwater protection
22.3.1 Forms of Intervention in Controlling and Managing Land Use
Earlier we described groundwater protection as being, in its simplest form, the act of avoiding, controlling,
and managing land uses and activities to avoid undue or unacceptable pollution of groundwater. There
are three main ways in which this can be achieved. Not all methods are used uniformly across Australia;
not all methods are greeted with the same enthusiasm within the community. The effectiveness of each,
either singly or in combination, depends on the level of protection and the type of beneficial use for which
groundwater is to be protected.
The three main methods of control are:
• statutory control;
• market approaches; and
• community/industry participation and education

Statutory control
Many land uses and activities are subject to some form of government statutory control, and require
approvals to proceed. While these controls are not solely for groundwater protection, the land uses may
be restricted through the land planning process, they nevertheless can be used to assess whether proposed
land uses are likely to cause or pose a threat of unacceptable pollution at a particular location. They
also give government the opportunity to set conditions such as design and construction requirements to
minimise risks of pollution, the best management practices to be adopted, and to also set monitoring and
reporting requirements where there are risks of contamination.
Statutory control mechanisms are well suited to managing and controlling potential point source of pollu-
tion activities such as industrial waste discharges. They can also assist in controlling diffuse contamination
sources such as fertiliser and pesticide use in agriculture through the land planning process.
Governments, however, are generally reluctant to impose new statutory controls and regulations on
existing activities, or to apply retrospective legislation. These controls tend to have an inflexibility
that may restrict perfectly acceptable land use activities. By their nature they can be unwelcome by
the community and be seen as another form of bureaucratic control. But there are times where the
groundwater resource is of such strategic importance that difficult decisions have to be made and land
use activities have to be restricted and possibly curtailed.
Market mechanisms
Market mechanisms, while still being seen as being governmental regulatory control, they nevertheless
provide opportunities to influence land owners/developers to minimise or avoid pollution by setting in-
centives or penalties. For example, tax incentives may be provided to use a type of fertiliser or pesticide
which is less susceptible to leaching or degrades more rapidly. A strict penalty may be imposed for
detection of any pollution on a property above a certain standard. These mechanisms provide a financial
incentive for landowners to minimise pollution, but more importantly encourages increased efficiency and
the better use of best management practices. For example in Western Australia an issue of nitrate con-
tamination of groundwater from an intensive horticultural venture has been managed by the requirement
for better irrigation efficiency and the reuse of nitrate-rich groundwater to reduce fertiliser application.
A major objective of these market approaches is to have the polluter pay an increasing price for discharging
more contaminants which in turn can ration or restrict the total amount of contamination to a desirable
level. This would normally be at, or preferably below, the rate at which contaminants can be assimilated
by the aquifer. True application of the polluter-pays principle would also lead to dischargers paying for
the monitoring and remediation reporting of in aquifer contamination. Other market incentives, such as
insurance bonds, provide added incentive for dischargers not to pollute.
Community or industry participation and education
It would be difficult and perhaps inefficient for government to attempt to impose statutory control over all
land uses and activities that have the potential to cause affect groundwater quality. While undoubtedly
both controls and market incentives play a significant role in groundwater protection it is essential that
there is ownership by both community and industry in the process.
Public participation processes can greatly improve the general understanding of the need for groundwater
protection within the community. Done properly it can lead to the acceptance (sometimes reluctantly),
adoption, and implementation of strategies. But more importantly it enables community and industry
to better understand the need for groundwater protection for whatever beneficial use, and enables them
to be part of the decision-making process that determines the form that groundwater protection takes.
The government’s role is generally to identify potential measures to reduce or avoid pollution, to in-
form and assist landowners/industry to understand the risks to groundwater quality, and to work with

them to develop and implement protection strategies. In Western Australia, for instance, the develop-
ment of groundwater quality protection measures to ensure safe drinking water supplies always involves
considerable community and industry consultation.
The three types of intervention discussed all have a part to play in groundwater protection. Most
protection strategies will involve actions derived from utilising a combination of these.
22.3.2 Responsible agencies and legislative powers
Across Australia various State and Federal Government and local government agencies have within their
respective responsibilities the protection of groundwater quality. The functions of these agencies are
varied and include:
• identifying and assigning beneficial uses to resources;

• setting protection objectives and water quality standards;
• developing protection strategies;

• coordinating and implementing strategies;
• controlling and managing land uses and activities; and
• monitoring impacts.
The respective agencies with direct or indirect responsibilities for protection of groundwater quality,
including management and regulation, in Australia include those with the responsibility for:
• water resource management;

• water service provision;
• environmental protection;
• conservation and land management;
• land planning agencies; and,

• public health.
Water resource management agencies
Most States in Australia have an agency with the statutory responsibility for the management of the
State’s water resources. These agencies are usually responsible for the investigation, assessment and
management of the resources; they are responsible for its allocation and licensing, the assignment of
beneficial uses, the definition and implementation of protection objectives and goals, and the carrying
out or facilitating actions required to manage and protect these resources.
Some of these agencies may have some specific legislative powers to control certain land uses and activities
to prevent the deterioration of groundwater quality, however, in many instances these powers will be with
other agencies. The water management agencies role therefore is to advise these agencies on appropriate
management and control measures to protect groundwater quality.
In some States there has been the delegation of a certain level of water resource management responsibility
to community based groups. In South Australia and Victoria this has been undertaken through the
establishment of Boards responsible for the management of water resources in specified catchment areas.

In Western Australia there has been the formation of Groundwater Advisory Committees to determine
allocation of resources in some declared groundwater areas, however they have no responsibility for water
quality protection.
The catchment water management boards in South Australia, established under the Water Resources Act
1997, have responsibility for catchment management planning which includes planning for protection of
water quality for both surface and groundwater. This responsibility can include recommending changes to
development planning under the Development Act 1993. In Western Australia however, the committees
are not responsible for groundwater quality protection.
Water service providers
Water service providers are those which provide water and sewerage services. Previously in some jurisdic-
tions the water utility and water resource management agencies were the same body. However adoption
of COAG principles in the early 1990’s led to the separation of resource managers and service providers.
Whereas the resource managers have remained state government agencies, water service providers are now
mostly private companies, or quasi government agencies. While they continue to have the responsibility
for ensuring the proper protection of groundwater resources used for public drinking water supplies, and
they continue to set protection standards to meet the requirements of the Australian Drinking Water
Guidelines, many no longer have the legislative powers to control and manage land uses in declared public
water source areas. Instead they rely heavily on powers of other agencies to achieve desired protection
levels within the catchments.
Environmental protection agencies
Environmental protection agencies have broad statutory responsibilities for pollution control They have
a key role in assigning beneficial uses and setting protection standards, particularly for groundwater
dependent ecosystems.
They generally have strong statutory powers to control and manage many land uses and activities with
potential to pollute, by assessing projects through environmental impact assessment processes, and li-
censing of premises which handle, utilise or dispose of hazardous materials and wastes.
Environmental protection agencies may also instigate market mechanisms to prevent and limit pollution.
Conservation and land management agencies
Conservation and land management agencies have the responsibilities for the management of land, par-
ticularly State Forests and National Parks within each State. Invariably they have a responsibility for
ensuring the quality of groundwater in these areas is protected for the beneficial use of ecosystem depen-
dency and, in the case of National Parks, recreation and tourism.
They do not have responsibility for groundwater protection for the beneficial use of drinking water
and there are examples where this lack of responsibility places the agency in conflict with the resource
management agency over the degree of protection required for a public drinking water source in, for
instance, a National Park. While the water resource manager may require the exclusion of people adjacent
to the resource, the land management agency may actively encourage people into the area.
This conflict is particularly of concern in Western Australia, and more detailed consultation and discussion
is required to achieve a mutually satisfactory outcome.

Land planning agencies
Land planning agencies have a major role in the protection of groundwater quality, and while not previ-
ously a traditional consideration in land planning and approval processes in the past, these agencies are
now recognising the increased need for groundwater protection when discharging their powers. They have
broad statutory powers to consider and approve a wide range of land uses and activities. Importantly,
they have the ability to control the zoning of land which in turn dictates the likely land use activities.
The role of land planning agencies in groundwater protection is to consider the advice of water resource
management and environmental protection agencies, and to weigh this against development needs, to
provide adequate protection of groundwater resources while facilitating land needs for economic develop-
ment.
In Western Australia for instance the relevant planning agency, the Western Australian Planning Commis-
sion, has worked with the water resource management agency and others to develop a series of Statement
of Planning Policies that actively seek to protect the quality of groundwater through the promotion and
assisting of the management and sustainable use of water resources. This is particularly where it is being
used for public drinking water supplies, but also where it has been identified as having significant eco-
nomic, social, cultural and/or environmental values (WAPC 2003, 2006). In South Australia the Planning
Act (1982) prohibits or restricts certain land use activities that can degrade groundwater.
Public health agencies
Public Health Agencies have the responsibility of ensuring the protection of the health of the public. As
a consequence they have a clear responsibility for ensuring the water resource managers and providers
are adequately protecting groundwater and delivering high quality drinking water to the consumer. They
also have a responsibility for ensuring the conservation and land management agencies are appropriately
protecting the quality of water that may come into contact with visitors to National Parks and other
recreation areas. They have a responsibility of ensuring that there is no inappropriate use of unsuit-
able chemicals in agricultural practices that may contribute to the deterioration of water quality for its
designated beneficial use.
In Western Australia the State’s Department of Health chairs an interagency committee, the Advisory
Committee for the Purity of Water, consisting of members of all of the aforementioned agencies and
others. The committee’s role is primarily to review water quality of drinking water supplies, to assess
monitoring data, to ensure appropriate source protection measures are undertaken, and to report jointly to
the respective Ministers for Health and Water on any water quality issues arising from their deliberations.
The Department also chairs the Pesticides Advisory Committee (PeAC) which advises on the appropriate
pesticides and herbicides that can be safely used. Their Public Service Circular 88 (Government of
Western Australia 2008) provides advice on the only acceptable pesticides that can be used in public
drinking water source areas.
Other agencies
There are usually a number of other agencies in most States that also have a direct or indirect role in
groundwater protection. These may include geological survey agencies, waste management agencies, and
agricultural agencies. Geological survey agencies are often involved in assessing groundwater resources,
mapping hydrogeology and providing technical advice on groundwater contamination. Waste manage-
ment agencies generally facilitate proper disposal of domestic and some industrial wastes. Agriculture
is a major source of groundwater contamination and agricultural agencies have a key role to advise on
best management practices for agriculture and in particularly on appropriate fertilizers and pesticides to
avoid deterioration of water quality.

22.4 Policy objectives for groundwater protection
22.4.1 Introduction
Groundwater quality protection is an evolving process, which must respond to improvements in our
technical understanding of groundwater resource dynamics, changes in land use, and to the value society
places on the resource. It is imperative, therefore, that all groundwater protection strategies, whether
at a State, regional, or local level, adopt an adaptive management approach. This will require regular
review of policies and plans, of their priorities, effectiveness, direction and focus, and the evolution of
adapted or different strategies to continually meet protection objectives.
In order to help us to understand and develop consistent policy objectives and principles for groundwater
protection that might be considered and implemented uniformly across Australia, it is worth considering
the current position within each State and Territory in Australia. In this way we can determine the
existing consistencies and perhaps understand the variations that currently exist. While each State is
considered below in summary, readers are directed to the more detailed documents for further in depth
discussion.
22.4.2 New South Wales
In New South Wales (NSW,) the State groundwater protection policy is one of three policies that comprise
the State Groundwater Policy (Dept of Land and Water Conservation 1998). In NSW it is the goal to
manage the State’s groundwater resources to sustain environmental, social, and economic uses for the
State’s inhabitants.
The policy objectives for groundwater protection in NSW are:
• to slow and halt, or reverse any degradation of groundwater resources;

• to direct potentially polluting activities to the most appropriate local geological setting so as to
minimise the risk to groundwater
• to establish a methodology for reviewing new developments (industrial/mining/urban and rural)
with respect to their potential impact on water resources that will provide protection to the resource
commensurate with both the threat that the development poses and the value of the resource; and
• to develop groundwater protection tools such as groundwater vulnerability maps and groundwater
protection zones.
In order to achieve these objectives NSW have determined nine management principles. In summary
these are:
1. All groundwater systems should be managed such that their most sensitive identified beneficial use
(or environmental value) is maintained.
2. Town water supplies should be afforded special protection against contamination.
3. Groundwater pollution should be prevented so that future remediation is not required.
4. For new developments the scale and scope of work required to demonstrate adequate groundwater
protection shall be commensurate with the risk the development poses to a groundwater system
and the value of the resource.
5. A groundwater pumper shall bear the responsibility for environmental damage or degradation
caused by using groundwaters that are incompatible with soil, vegetation or receiving waters.

6. Groundwater dependent ecosystems will be afforded protection.

7. Groundwater quality protection should be integrated with the management of groundwater quantity.
8. The cumulative impacts of developments on groundwater quality should be recognized by all those
who manage, use, or impact on the resource.
9. Where possible and practical, environmentally degraded areas should be rehabilitated and their
ecosystem support functions restored.
22.4.3 Victoria
The Victorian Water Act 1989 was designed to enable the integrated management of surface and ground-
water and to eliminate inconsistencies in the treatment of both, through the development of water man-
agement plans. These plans can determine restrictions on allocations to prevent groundwater level declines
and to ensure the maintenance of stream flows and the protection of the environment.
Under the Act a Water Supply Protection Area can be declared to protect either or both surface and
groundwater in an area, and the declaration of such an area requires the preparation of a water manage-
ment plan with the clear objective of managing the resources in an equitable manner to protect the long
term sustainability of the resource.
The passing of the Safe Drinking Water Act 2003 provides a regulatory framework to protect drinking
water quality that includes:
• a risk management framework from catchment to tap;

• a set of standards for key water quality criteria;
• information disclosure requirements for water businesses; and,
• a systematic community consultation process.
This Act, the first of its kind in Australia, closely follows the requirements of the Australian Drinking
Water Quality Guidelines 1996 and its Framework for Management of Drinking Water Quality (NHMRC
2004).
22.4.4 Queensland
Queensland undertakes water quality protection through the Environmental Protection (Water) Policy
1997 with amendments, but this is essentially directed towards the protection of surface water. The
policy is designed to provide a framework for
• identifying environmental values (ie beneficial uses) for Queensland waters;

• deciding and stating water quality guidelines and objectives to enhance or protect the environmental
values;
• making consistent and equitable decisions about Queensland waters that promote efficient use of
resources and best practice environmental management; and
• involving community through consultation and education, and promoting community responsibility
The policy refers to water quality guidelines that must be met for a wide range of surface water bod-
ies, but interestingly applies no water quality objectives to drinking water supplies, be they private or

public. Currently in Queensland there is no specific statutory requirement for water service providers
(WSPs) to provide drinking water quality of a prescribed quality, however a guide has been developed to
provide guidance to WSPs on developing effective management strategies and procedures (Government
of Queensland 2001)
Though essentially targeting surface water the policy does refer to the issue of acid sulphate soils and
its impact on the environment, and the issue of on-site domestic waste water treatment systems and the
cumulative effects of the systems on water quality objectives for waters in the locality.
The Policy does however call upon the Chief Executive (Water Resources) to develop and implement
environmental plans to protect groundwater, including the consideration of provisions about groundwa-
ter management, vulnerability mapping, aquifer classification systems and provisions about well head
protection.
22.4.5 South Australia
Prior to the development of the Environmental Protection (Water Quality) Policy 2003 (Government of
South Australia 2003) there was no consistent State-wide approach to the protection of water quality
across the State. There was a risk therefore that over time there could be further degradation of the state’s
water resources and implications for the economy, society (including public health) and the environment.
The policy applies to all inland surface, groundwaters, and marine waters and covers a range of issues
including:
• The setting of environmental values for water quality and the establishment of water quality objec-
tives for all water bodies in South Australia;
• The use of codes of practice that will describe best practice environmental management for partic-
ular activities;
• Mandatory provisions to ensure that essential practices are met; and,
• Provisions for setting discharge limits and controls on the discharge of listed pollutants.
Catchment Water Management Boards were set up in South Australia under the Water Resources Act
1997 (Government of South Australia 1997) to be more involved in the management of water resources,
and one of their functions is to prepare catchment water management plans that outline actions and
strategies to improve the quality of both surface and groundwater resources.
22.4.6 Western Australia
In Western Australia, the water resources are currently managed under the Rights in Water and Irrigation
Act 1914 (Government of Western Australia), although this is now being amended under the development
of a new water act following the formation of the Department of Water in 2007. Under this Act the
department is required to manage the State’s water resources through allocation and licensing to achieve
sustainable development of the resources. Water quality can be protected through the issuing of guidelines
on the quality of groundwater downstream of the licensed user. In theory this means that the quality
of groundwater leaving the licensed users property should be no worse than that reaching the property
further up gradient.
Under the Act statutory water management plans are prepared for declared groundwater areas that
determine the available resources, set aside water for public drinking water supplies and environmental
water provisions, and determine the available yields for allocation to other users.

Water quality for drinking water quality protection is currently managed under two Acts, the Metropolitan
Water Supply Sewerage and Drainage Act 1909 (Government of Western Australia) for Perth’s water
supplies and the Country Areas Water Supply Act 1947 (Government of Western Australia) for the rest
of Western Australia. These are likely to merge in the new legislation. Under these Acts the department
prepares Drinking Water Source Protection Plans to set out how each public drinking water source
should be protected. While these plans follow the same general objectives and guidelines, depending on
the circumstance of each catchment the protection policies could be aimed at non-degradation, limited
degradation, or differential protection.
Protection of groundwater quality in Western Australia is also supported by the Environmental Protection
Act 1986, which can set limitations on land activities as discussed earlier, various land planning policies
and the Health Act 1911.
22.4.7 Tasmania
In Tasmania groundwater and surface water are managed under the Water Management Act 1999, which
includes all licensing, allocation, water use restriction, trading and other water management provisions.
While the Act was mainly aimed at surface water the requirements of the Act equally apply to groundwa-
ter. The Act requires inter alia water to be allocated to the environment and also for water management
plans to be developed. There are provisions in the Act to restrict the use of water if water quality
values are threatened. Water management plans determine management of resources and they recognise
environmental values and also the connectivity between surface and groundwater resources where the
degradation of quality of one make impact on the other and its beneficial use.
Water quality policy is managed through the State Policy on Water Quality Management 1997, which
has been designed to achieve sustainable management of the State’s water resources by protecting or
enhancing their quality while allowing for sustainable development. The objectives of this policy are to:
• focus water quality management on the achievement of objectives that will maintain or enhance
water quality;
• ensure that pollution does not prejudice the achievement of water quality objectives and that
pollutants discharged to waterways are reduced as far as is practicable by
• the use of best management practices;

• ensure the carrying out of efficient and effective water quality programs by all responsible (including
a focus on polluter-pays principles);
• facilitate and promote integrated catchment management; and,
• apply the precautionary principle where necessary.
The water quality objectives include the setting of protected environmental values for appropriate water
resources, using guidelines based on the best scientific information available.
The guidelines for water quality issued under the Public Health Act 1997 establish the best ractice
frameworks for controlling authorities to manage drinking and recreational water quality, and require
annual reporting by WSPs and Councils with responsibility for recreational waters.
22.4.8 Northern Territory
In the Northern Territory the Water Act 2004 provides for the protection of water resources. Under this
Act beneficial uses may be declared for water quality protection in a water control district. Such uses
have been declared for groundwater in several river and groundwater basins. Water quality management

goals are developed to protect these beneficial uses, with the objectives being the numbers reflecting the
various physical and chemical indicators of water quality.
The NT applies the NWQMS Guidelines for Groundwater Protection where it considers their use is
warranted such as the management of wellhead protection zones for bores providing groundwater to
Darwin’s public drinking water supply. The Power and Water Corporation, the provider responsible
for the provision of drinking water, is progressively adopting the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines:
Framework for Management of Drinking Water Quality (NHMRC/ARMCANZZ 2004).
22.4.9 Setting the objectives for groundwater protection policy
The comparison of approaches to groundwater quality protection in each state supports the comments of
the NRMSC in 2002 about lack of consistency. While this should be expected where there are different
geological and hydrogeological conditions, where there are different historical approaches and where there
are differing pressures from land use activities, there are sufficient similarities to enable a set of objectives
to be developed that could be applied consistently across Australia .
The objectives in the NSW policy should be used and adopted with the addition of some further objectives.
A suggested list of objectives within a groundwater protection policy should therefore include:
• to understand and know the available resource;

• to identify the beneficial uses to which the resource is to be applied;
• to determine the connectivity between surface and groundwater resources so that complementary
protection measures can be applied to both;
• to prevent as far as possible any degradation of the groundwater resource, and where it already
occurs to slow, halt or reverse the degradation process;
• to ensure land use activities with the potential to pollute are located within the most appropriate
geological setting to minimize the risk to groundwater;
• to establish a methodology for reviewing new developments (industrial/mining/urban and rural)
with respect to their potential impact on water resources that will provide protection to the resource
commensurate with both the threat that the development poses and the value of the resource;
• to develop an array of groundwater protection tools such as source protection plans, groundwater
protection zones, best management practices and codes of practice for potentially polluting land
use activities, groundwater vulnerability maps, etc; and,
• to develop educational tools and packages and community liaison procedures to ensure a better
understanding of the need to protect groundwater quality by the public.
22.4.10 Determining the principles for groundwater protection policy
Using the clearly stated NSW management principles as a base, and adding others, the following set of
principles is suggested for any groundwater protection policy. These are
1. All groundwater systems should be assessed to determine the available sustainable resource.
2. Groundwater quality protection should be integrated with the management of groundwater quantity.
3. All groundwater systems should be managed such that their most sensitive identified beneficial use
(or environmental value) is maintained.

4. All resources identified for present and future public drinking water sources should be afforded
primacy over all other beneficial uses.
5. Town water supplies should be afforded special protection against contamination.
6. Groundwater dependent ecosystems will be afforded protection.
7. Groundwater pollution should be prevented so that future remediation is not required.
8. For new developments the scale and scope of work required to demonstrate adequate groundwater
protection shall be commensurate with the risk the development poses to a groundwater system
and the value of the resource.
9. Where possible and practical, environmentally degraded areas should be rehabilitated and their
ecosystem support functions restored.
10. The polluter pays approach should apply to remediation of environmental damage or degradation
of groundwaters that are incompatible with the assigned beneficial use.
11. The cumulative impacts of developments on groundwater quality should be recognized by all those
who manage, use, or impact on the resource.
22.5 Developing groundwater protection strategies
Having developed an understanding of how groundwater can be protected, and a set of clear objectives
and principles, the water resource manager is now in a position to develop strategies to protect the
groundwater resources for which he is responsible. While groundwater protection strategies generally
take two forms, either those addressing a specific catchment or region, and those addressing a specific
land use or activity, the best strategies will almost certainly involve a combination of both.
22.5.1 Catchment based strategies
Groundwater protection plans can vary from policy statements (outlining broad management objectives)
to prescriptive regulatory programs (with statutory controls and specific regulations on contaminating
activities). The plans may be limited to influencing decisions to approve potentially contaminating
activities, or to closely controlling these activities. They can apply to a region, a particular catchment,
part of a catchment, or just the capture zone around a bore.
The scope of protection plans and range of measures they include is potentially endless. However a
number of basic steps should be considered (Fig. 22.3).
Setting protection objectives
The initial starting point in the development of any groundwater protection plan will be to set the
protection objectives for the resources, and as discussed earlier, they will generally adopt one of the three
approaches of non-degradation, limited degradation, or differential protection.
The setting of the objectives will generally involve an intergovernmental approach, often with community
involvement, to recognise not only the beneficial uses of the resources, but also social, economic and
political factors affecting the catchment. In most instances there will be a task force set up to develop
the objectives and to oversee the development of the protection plan. Further information to be collected
in the strategic assessment phase described below will assist this process.
Setting the protection objective is possibly the most difficult element of forming a protection plan.

Figure 22.3: Developing a groundwater protection plan

Assessing the resources
It is difficult to develop a protection plan without an adequate knowledge of the resource to be protected
and its catchment, and this involves an understanding of the quantity and quality of the resource, its
recharge and discharge zones, its interaction with surface water and other groundwater resources, envi-
ronmental links and demands, and present and potential future consumptive demands on the resource by
all consumer groups. Understanding the resource enables catchment boundaries and flow directions to
be determined, which in turn help to define critical protection areas. Knowing the existing water quality
will help to define the beneficial uses for the resource, as discussed below.
An important element in assessing groundwater resources is determining their vulnerability to contamina-

tion, which can vary significantly both within and between groundwater resources, and can be defined as
a relative evaluation of the potential exposure of the resource to contamination. Ranking of vulnerability
needs to incorporate a number of hydrogeological variables, which are discussed in more detail in other
chapters, and there are a number of different schemes for mapping vulnerability. While the maps provide
a good guide to groundwater resource vulnerability on a regional to catchment basis, care must be taken
when applying them at specific sites as subtle variations in natural hydrogeological systems can occur
within limited distance. Aquifer vulnerability is a key consideration in determining the level and types
of protection to be applied.
It is also important to know the current land uses in the catchment and their pollution potential. An
understanding is also required of potential future land uses, and their economic significance. These
provide an important input to setting protection objectives and standards.
Defining beneficial uses
Defining beneficial uses for the resources provides the starting point for deciding the protection objectives
and standards. Assignment of beneficial use could be based on current consumptive, environmental and
recreational uses of the resources, or identified potential future uses, such as protecting water quality for
future public drinking water supplies.
The existing quality of a resource will have a significant bearing on the assignment of beneficial use. If a
resource is brackish to saline it may only be assigned a beneficial use of industrial purposes, or no defined
beneficial use. Accordingly, lower protection objectives and standards may be set for such resources.
Setting water quality standards
Water quality standards are required to translate objectives into protection targets, and generally relate
directly to the protection objective and associated beneficial uses. In the past water quality standards
have been narrative or prescriptive.
Narrative standards are more general and involve qualitative goals such as the following:
• protect the public health;

• preserve, enhance and protect the quality of the waters of the region;
• provide for the minimisation, prevention, mitigation and remedy of past,
• new, existing and potential discharges to aquifers; and
• prohibit the discharge of toxic, noxious or polluting substances to aquifers.
They enable flexibility in determining the acceptability land use activities with the potential to create
pollution, but there is a risk of inconsistency of approach, and difficulties can be created by establishing

undesirable precedents in such decision making, and can often be challenged because of their lack of
definition. Consequently, narrative standards are less informative than prescriptive standards, and can
be harder to enforce.
Prescriptive standards, however, provide a basis for consistent decision making, in that they can provide
clear goals for proponents of potentially polluting activities to meet. Standards may be set at ambient
water quality levels, such as in the case of non-degradation objectives, or at a particular water quality
guidelines set for the assigned beneficial use. Prescriptive standards suffer from inflexibility, and can
be difficult to develop in terms of covering all the potentially polluting substances in an area. Defining
the zone of attenuation for determining the exceedance of the standards is also a potential problem. A
combination of prescriptive and narrative standards provides a partial solution. The narrative will allow
some flexibility. It also ensures interpretation of the prescriptive standards towards achievement of well
defined protection objective or goal.
Setting protection options
Two approaches can be adopted in setting protection options. These can be simply:
• Setting specific levels of action, i.e. objectives and standards requiring landowners and developers
to submit proposals to be assessed for compliance; or
• Defining protection strategies that specify specific source control and groundwater protection pro-
grams that must be complied with in a catchment.
A combination of both approaches may be adopted. Setting levels of action is generally reactive rather
than proactive, and is designed for particular protection areas where there is a perceived threat from
contamination. However, there may be areas in Australia where contamination is already present and
this type of strategy needs to be considered.
Action levels need to be chosen to match groundwater protection objectives and water quality standards
and relate to the source of contamination present. In the following example six levels of action are
adopted. The guiding principles underpinning these action levels are:
• protection must relate to risk;

• containment of hazardous waste cannot be assured;
• prevention of pollution is far less costly than clean-up;
• wellhead protection may be needed;
• some specification of hydrogeological assessments is required; and
• the rigidity of water quality criteria may not be helpful.
The levels of action can be defined as:
Level 1 : No action required: Area has low groundwater protection objectives and standards, ground-
water discharge to surface waters is not significant; and no obvious source of contaminant is present.
Level 2 : Groundwater contamination assessment report is required: A standard format hydrogeological
report to identify the concerns and the need for further action where there is a potential risk to
groundwater.
Level 3 : Site investigation and monitoring: A limited amount of site investigation, soil and water
sampling and testing, definition of flow systems and reporting etc where the Level 2 assessment
indicates a potential risk or where one is known to exist.

Level 4 : A demonstrated groundwater protection system is required: Where the risk to groundwater
is demonstrated by Level 2 and 3 assessment or is otherwise known and where these effects cannot
be tolerated, a demonstrated groundwater protection system should be implemented and should
include, in addition to the work undertaken in Levels 1, 2 and 3, implementation of an on-going mon-
itoring program. The protection design (natural attenuation, hydraulic barriers, physical barriers
etc) needs to be shown (by modelling for example) to be effective.
Level 5 : A remedial action plan is defined: Can be required where the impact of contamination in a
high-ranking aquifer is evident but not sufficient to warrant clean up. In addition to the previous
levels of action the plan should include a feasibility plan for clean-up which analyses the effectiveness
of the remediation approach in achieving designated water quality criteria (by bench tests, models,
protocols, etc). The financial capacity of the responsible party to enact the plan should also be
evaluated.
Level 6 : Prohibition and clean-up: This level of action may be required where the risk to groundwater is
unacceptable. The polluting activity may be banned or a clean-up order may be issued. A Remedial
Action Plan should be required prior to the clean up to ensure its effectiveness. Appendix III of
AWRC (1992) provides considerable detail of the reports, monitoring, protection schemes and action
plans that are necessary for this type of approach.
Specifying source control and groundwater protection programs is particularly relevant where Groundwa-
ter Protection Areas and/or Wellhead Protection Zones have been declared, such as in the case of public
drinking water source areas, but equally applicable to the protection of other beneficial uses.
Under this approach, catchment areas for public water supply wellfields may be declared as Groundwater
Protection Areas (GPAs) or Public Drinking Water Source Areas (PDWSA) as in Western Australia, and
may include further protection zones known as Wellhead Protection Zones (WHPZ). These can be defined
under legislation, and by-laws or regulations can be established to control specific land uses and activities.
The terms GPA/PDWSA are used to refer to all or part of a catchment contributing groundwater to the
wellfield, while a WHPZ is normally used to refer to a zone immediately around a well (Fig. 22.4).
Fig. 22.4 shows an approach using hydrogeological mapping and the use of groundwater divides to de-
termine both the catchment area to a bore and while this is somewhat objective and is limited by the
understanding of the hydrogeology of the area, it serves to provide a catchment area where there is limited
hydraulic data available.
However catchment areas can be better determined, provided the hydraulic data is available, from ground-
water flow modelling to identify the groundwater flow paths to the bore or a collection of bores forming
the wellfield. Fig. 22.5 illustrates how groundwater flow modelling has determined the catchment area
to the proposed Jurien wellfield in the mid-west of Western Australia, and enabled the definition of the
water reserve that needs to be proclaimed and protected.
With respect to wellhead protection zones, their shape and size should be based on the calculated ground-
water travel times with the greater the travel time allowed the more time there is to detect, remove, or
ameliorate any contamination. Definition of this requires a detailed understanding of the hydrogeology
of the system. In the Western Australian example a standard radius of 500 m for a bore in a P1 area
and 300 m for bores in a P2 and P3 is used on the basis of limited hydrogeological information and what
has proven acceptable to communities who may be affected by drinking water source protection plans.
However, where there is appropriate hydrogeological and hydraulic data available, modelling can define
the WHPZs to reflect more the geology and thus we may observe elongate WHPZs. This is illustrated in
the example from South Australia in Fig 22.6.
The approach to establishing PDWSAs and the specifying of protection controls within the areas as un-
dertaken in Western Australia is given in a Water Quality Protection Note (Department of Environment
2004, Department of Water 2007). An understanding of the nature of the groundwater source (uncon-
fined to confined), land tenure, existing land uses and approved land planning, existing and potential
contamination risks, and most importantly, the strategic value of the water source, governs the defining
of Priority Classification Areas. In Western Australia there is a four tier classification relating to the

Figure 22.4: WHPZ Delineation using hydrogeologic mapping (use of groundwater divides)

Figure 22.5: Definition of Jurien water reserve from groundwater flow modelling
Figure 22.6: Delineation of protection zones in South Australia

Table 22.1: Example of groundwater protection areas/well field protection zones for public water supplies
in Western Australia
Priority Guiding principle Definition and restrictions
1 Risk avoidance No degradation of the drinking water source by prevention of po-
tentially harmful activities in this area. Normally land owned or
managed by State Agencies. May include private land that is
strategic to the protection of the water source. Most land activi-
ties are incompatible with Priority 1
2 Risk Minimisation No increased risk of water source contamination from existing land
use activities. Includes low risk land development on private land
(e.g. low intensity rural activity) Land activities incompatible,
compatible with conditions, or acceptable.
3 Risk Management Designed to manage the risk of pollution to the water source from
catchment activities through guided or regulated environmental
management of land use activities. Declared over areas where
water supply sources coexist with other land uses. Most land
activities compatible with conditions or acceptable, but ones with
significant pollution potential are opposed or constrained.
WHPZ Risk avoidance Designed to add additional protection to the source in the im-
mediate vicinity of the wellhead. Do not extend outside of the
delineated PDWSA. Most land activities incompatible.
catchment and the wellhead protection zone. Table 22.1 below defines this approach to groundwater
protection.
The above classifications are applicable to unconfined, semi-confined and leaky confined aquifers; they are
not applicable to confined aquifers unless there is some concern over the integrity of bore construction.
Generally the protection zone for confined aquifers is limited to the bore enclosure.
In order to define what is acceptable, conditional, or incompatible land use activities the Western Australia
Department of Water have developed a Land Use Compatibility Table (Department of Water 2007)
which sets out various land use activities using model scheme text and determines their appropriateness
in a PDWSA. This document forms an integral part of the Western Australian Planning Commission
Statement of Planning Policy 2.7 Public Drinking Water Source Protection (DPI 2003) and enables all
Local Government Authorities to review future planning scheme amendments for land use compatibility.
Implementation of protection plans
Once a groundwater protection plan has been developed, accepted by all relevant stakeholders and ap-
proved by Government, it is important that it is properly implemented. It is common therefore that an
implementation plan is prepared in conjunction with the protection plan, or immediately following the
latter’s approval.
The implementation plan should set out all of the actions that are required to ensure the resource is
protected, and who is responsible for each action. Generally it will be a combination of Government
(State, Local, and perhaps Federal), the water supply utility (if the protected source is for drinking
water), and local land holders and proponents of approved (or existing) activities that could potentially
cause contamination of the water source.
The actions could include responsibility for monitoring and surveillance of the catchment, monitoring
and evaluation of groundwater quantity and quality, the establishment of appropriate signage within

the catchment, and regular assessment and review of the efficiency and effectiveness of the groundwater
protection program. It is important that all who are likely to be involved in the monitoring process are
also involved in developing the implementation program.
Monitoring and review requirements
A program of monitoring and review should be an integral component of any protection plan, and should
review the effectiveness of a developed groundwater strategy in the broader sense, as well as the technical
groundwater resource monitoring. This needs to be considered from:
• the extent to which the plan has been implemented; and

• the extent to which the plan has succeeded in meeting the desired goals for protection.
Attention should be given to the difficulties experienced in implementation, including an assessment of the
extent of implementation. This can be particularly difficult when those involved in the implementation
process may not be fully supportive of the protection plan, such as Local Government Authorities who
may be reluctant to amend planning schemes to comply with the plans.
A further issue to be considered in measuring the success of a plan is the extent to which compliance with
requirements is enforced. It is important to recognise that groundwater protection is an iterative process.
It is unlikely that a groundwater protection strategy will get it right the first time, and in time additional
information or changes in conditions will necessitate continual refinement. Fig. 22.7 demonstrates this
adaptive management approach.
Ongoing groundwater resource monitoring and review are important elements of protection programs
and will determine whether, when and how groundwater contamination has been controlled or prevented.
Monitoring is neither cheap nor simple, and the parties responsible for any potential contamination should
be responsible for monitoring and review of the data. This does not preclude a water service provider from
properly monitoring the quality of groundwater within the catchment area to a wellfield to determine
contamination risks to the public drinking water source.
Agreement on the implementation of a monitoring and review program should be reached before any
potential contaminating activity is approved. This is an efficient approach since it internalises the full
costs of potential contamination with the potential beneficiary.
Contingency measures and clean up
In any protection plan contingency actions should be specified on when and how contamination, occur-
ring emanating from approved activities, should be dealt with. Appendix III of AWRC (1992) outlines
technical details that will assist documenting actions that should be undertaken.
Contingency measures may range from doing nothing; requiring the contaminating activity to cease;
through containing the area of contamination, to setting clean-up action.
Assessing the costs of proposed action against the benefits likely to be achieved will determine the level
of action to be taken, and this may require several assessments including:
• the extent to which any existing or future beneficial uses may be compromised by the contamination
incident;
• the alternative water sources available to those affected by the contamination incident;
• the range of potential remedial actions that may be implemented; and

Figure 22.7: Adaptive management approach to groundwater protection

• the likely outcome of any proposed remedial action in terms of meeting water quality standards,
and the time expected to achieve the outcome.
Clean-up actions can be in situ or ex situ and usually involve a combination of techniques, including
containment techniques. These have been discussed in more detal in earlier chapters. In situ techniques
are difficult to apply, often expensive and often not totally successful unless conditions are extremely
favourable, while remediation techniques, such as bio-remediation for organics and nitrates, show promise
although they are still being proven. Alternatively, clean-up may require abstraction of the contaminated
groundwater followed by several combinations of options including treatment and re-injection, discharge
to other receiving waters with or without treatment, or point of use treatment. These techniques are also
expensive and often not totally successful.
Catchment ownership
Land ownership of catchment or recharge areas plays an important role in the successful protection of
groundwater. It can vary between private and State or Commonwealth. Much of the drinking water
supplies for most major cities in Australia are drawn from surface storages where the protection of
catchment areas is enhanced through the land being under State ownership. Adelaide is one exception
where the majority of catchment areas are in private ownership and the water utility and water resource
manager must rely on land use controls to protect water quality. Perth is another where more than 50%
of its drinking supplies come from groundwater, and where a strong drinking water source protection
program is undertaken with community consultation and input.
In Western Australia, a Parliamentary Select Committee (1994) investigated the relationship between
land use and groundwater protection and recommended that the most important groundwater recharge
areas for the groundwater resources used for public supply should be in State ownership. Government
subsequently endorsed this strategy. Flowing on from this recommendation has been the development
of Drinking Water Source Protection Plans, with specified priority classifications for land (both private
and State-owned) within catchments as well as the designation of wellhead protection zones around each
bore.
In addition to the source protection plans, guidance documents for various land use activities that may
be acceptable in parts of the catchments have been developed to assist land managers and proponents to
adopt best management practices to reduce the risk of groundwater contamination.
Overseas experience has shown us that in some cases the purchase of land for groundwater protection is
economically viable and is justified to afford a high level of protection to important areas of groundwater
recharge. This recognises that private ownership will ultimately lead to slow degradation of the ground-
water resource. This view is based on the experience that in the long term, land ownership will change
and the new owner will generally aspire to a more intensive land use or development. This intensification
of land use inevitably leads to groundwater contamination.
In Western Australia private land within the highest priority land classification can be purchased by
the State Government under either a willing purchaser-willing vendor situation or now by compulsory
purchase. The preference is however for the water resource manager to work with the landholder to reach
a mutually-agreed position that affords the groundwater resource the maximum amount of protection.
This is often a conflict of opinion between the Government valuation and that of the landowner, and it
has long been recognised that in undertaking the valuations, little consideration has been given to the
strategic value of the land for the protection of the water source, or the value of the loss of water to the
land owner. During 2008 this began to change with the Department of Water working with the Valuer
Generals Department to improve the valuation process.
Perhaps the most important development coming from the 1994 Parliamentary Select Committee report
was the recommendation that groundwater resource planning be closely linked with land use planning. As
a result Statement of Planning Policies with respect to drinking water source protection and groundwater
resources have been developed between Western Australia’s land planning agency and its water resource

manager that place more responsibility on Local Government to develop Regional and Town Planning
Schemes that recognise groundwater protection.
22.5.2 Land use/activity based strategies
States and Territories may decide that it is appropriate to have a specific strategy dealing with a particular
source and related activity across the State or in sensitive groundwater areas. These strategies may
address several elements, including:
• permitted areas of establishment;

• design and construction standards;
• operation and management practices;
• monitoring and reporting requirements; and
• contingency planning and clean-up provisions.
The design and construction standards may adopt the approach of requiring the best available tech-
nology, if high security against pollution is required. This requires continual review of latest practices
and standards to identify best technology, for example, design of impermeable liner systems for waste
containment over a groundwater source of relevant significance.
Similarly, an approach of Best Management Practices may be adopted for operation and maintenance
requirements. This also requires awareness of the most up to date practices and their effectiveness.
Market mechanisms as discussed above may be adopted to implement the strategy. This could include
incentives for current polluters to upgrade to improve technologies and practices, and/or penalties for
pollution occurrences which would discourage poor design, construction and management practices.
22.6 Public and industry involvement
The protection of groundwater to maintain water quality for whatever beneficial use has been assigned
cannot be achieved without the involvement, participation and, most importantly, the support of the
public and industry. In the last 20 years there has been an increasing expectation within the community
that the environment should be protected, and the quality of drinking water sources should be maintained
at the highest level possible. The public has to be involved in the development of a groundwater protection
plan as it will be affected by the plan, and will have a desire to support, amend or oppose components
of the plan. An informed public is a valuable asset in achieving the implementation of a plan. This is
particularly the case in Western Australia for instance where the delineation of groundwater protection
areas, such as drinking water source areas, often affect private landowners, and may place restrictions on
what land use activities they perceive they may wish to carry out. The example given in Fig. 22.5 (Jurien
Water Reserve) is a reserve that has affected several rural landowners, who now see their opportunity of
having their land rezoned for rural subdivision, and thus achieving their superannuation, thwarted and
their land down-valued.
Statutes and policies are limited in their ability to provide effective protection of groundwater resources.
Development and implementation of these require community support and co-operation. This is best
achieved through an aware and informed public who can debate the issues and give support to initiatives
that, in a less informed community, may be politically unacceptable. In America, the USA EPA (1990)
developed a Citizens Guide to Groundwater Protection which not only introduces the community to
groundwater in simple terms, but also explains how it can be contaminated and how it can be protected
from contamination. It sets out guidelines for the roles the community can play in protecting valuable
groundwater resources. Similarly, industry agreement and support is extremely important in establishing

groundwater protection regulations and provisions which affect their businesses, to ensure acceptance
and co-operation in their implementation. A conciliatory approach has far more chance of success than a
mandatory approach. The development of Industry Codes of Practice provides valuable protection tools.
The value of public involvement is not restricted to adequately addressing public concerns. There is a
potential for greater public identification and ownership of strategies that are developed through consul-
tation. This can assist in mobilising resources and support by fostering mutual trust and understanding,
particularly where trade-offs may need to be made. Public involvement has two related components: pub-
lic education and public participation. Public education is the comprehensive provision of information to
the public to improve awareness of the nature, value and sensitivity of groundwater resources. Public par-
ticipation is the involvement of various sectors of the community in the development and implementation
of programs to protect, conserve, use and monitor groundwater resources.

Chapter 23
Dewatering for mines and temporary

works
Contents
23.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
23.2 Reasons for dewatering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
23.3 Dewatering measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632
23.3.1 Barrier methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633
23.3.2 Protective layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636
23.3.3 Boundary pillars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
23.3.4 Compressed air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638
23.3.5 Grouting from underground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641
23.4 Passive protection - gravity drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642
23.4.1 Seepage faces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642
23.4.2 Sump pumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
23.4.3 Horizontal drain holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644
23.4.4 Drainage galleries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644
23.5 Active protection - water removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
23.5.1 Deep bores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
23.5.2 Vacuum spear point systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
23.5.3 Eductor bore systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
23.5.4 Electro osmosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
23.5.5 Dewatering shafts and drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
23.6 Safety margins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
23.6.1 Open cut or surface mines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
23.6.2 Underground mines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
23.7 Implications of dewatering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
23.7.1 Water Supply And Water Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
23.7.2 Environmental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654
23.8 Some simple analytical models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654
23.8.1 Single bore dewatering system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
23.8.2 Equivalent bores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656
23.8.3 Multiple bores - bore fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656
23.8.4 Strip pits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656
23.8.5 Galleries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
23.8.6 Final void . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
629
Chapter 23. Dewatering for mines and temporary works
23.1 Introduction
The term dewatering implies a complete removal of water from a groundwater system. This is far from
the truth. It is impossible to remove all of the water from an aquifer. If water is removed by means
of a point sink, such as a bore, or a line sink, such as a drain, then a gradient must exist to move the
water to that sink. There must always be some water in the aquifer to enable such a gradient to exist.
Dewatering is commonly used to describe an activity whereby the hydrostatic head or the groundwater
flow or both are reduced to such an extent as to allow a certain operation to be carried out. The most
common operations which require dewatering are geotechnical and mining operations.
In all cases it is essential that the person in charge of the dewatering project has a good understanding
of the hydrogeology of the site and of the aquifer parameters associated with the site.
Numerical modelling methods are most likely to be used to predict drawdowns and volumes of water to
be abstracted. Chapter ?? covers the basic approaches used for groundwater modelling.
It should be kept in mind that removal of water from an aquifer is not the only consequence of a
dewatering operation. It was shown in Chapter 4 that, in a confined aquifer, the weight of the material
above the aquifer was borne by a combination of the pore pressure of the water in the aquifer and
by the inter-granular pressure of the aquifer matrix. When water is removed from an aquifer there is
an accompanying reduction in hydrostatic head (pore pressure) and hence a corresponding increase in
inter-granular pressure. Particularly in unconsolidated aquifers, this increase can be accompanied by a
deformation of the aquifer material and surface subsidence can occur. If the reduction in groundwater
levels is large then this subsidence can be quite significant. Land subsidence as a result of excessive
groundwater extraction is huge problem in many parts of the world including Bangkok, Mexico City and
many parts of the U.S.A. When dewatering at some construction sites, particularly in built up areas it
may be necessary to maintain groundwater levels quite close to the excavation site while reducing them
significantly at the site itself.
This Chapter will provide an introduction to:
• Reasons for dewatering

• methods of dewatering
• aspects of the design and operation of dewatering/groundwater control systems
• the effects of dewatering on the surrounding groundwater regime / users and
• comments on the post dewatering void if any.
A mine dewatering conference has been held internationally every 3 years since . The proceedings of these
conferences hold much useful information. The web site for the International Mine Water Association is
http://www.imwa.info/.
Somerville [1986] produced a manual for civil engineering applications that is available through the
Construction Industry Research and Information (CIRIA) in the UK. The web page for CIRIA is
http://www.ciria.org/
23.2 Reasons for dewatering
If a hole is dug in the ground there are two very significant repercussions:
1. material is removed and the load on the base of the excavation is reduced dramatically and

Figure 23.1: Heaving of excavation floor as overburden is removed
2. if the hole is dug below the water table then water will flow into it; sometimes at very high rates.
In the first case, removal of material results in a reduction of intergranular pressure and unless the pore
pressure is reduced the base of the excavation will become quick and the floor will heave as illustrated in
Fig. 23.1. In both cases, the water pressure has to be reduced.
Reduction of this hydrostatic pressure and the associated removal of this water can be critical to the via-
bility of many projects such as mining ventures, tunnels and provision of foundations for large structures.
Dewatering is carried out for a multitude of reasons including:
• to control groundwater pressures and flows during below ground construction

• to control groundwater pressures and flows during mining operations.
• to remove a large volume of contaminated water
• to manage the spread of plumes of contaminated water
• to manage the ingress of the sea water wedge
This Chapter will deal exclusively with dewatering carried out for geotechnical reasons and for other
mining operations. Both of these include safety considerations. In these areas the main reasons for
dewatering are:
1. Geotechnical (Especially In Open Pits) - to reduce the influence of water which:

(a) Reduces shear strength
(b) develops seepage faces
(c) creates hydrostatic pressures which reduce stability
(d) increases unit weight of porous rocks

Figure 23.2: Barrier protection (cut-offs)
(e) may induce liquefaction of fault fill.

2. Mining - To reduce the influence of water in a mine which results in;
(a) A poor/unsafe working environment
(b) costly drilling and blasting
(c) increased wear on moving equipment
(d) increased haulage costs for saturated ore/coal
(e) corrosion of equipment
(f) poor trafficability
23.3 Dewatering measures
Dewatering methods may be grouped into three main categories

1. Barrier (Exclusion) methods

2. passive protection and
3. active protection
These will each be treated in turn.
23.3.1 Barrier methods
Barrier or Exclusion methods are those that provide a barrier to ground-water flow and prevent the
ground water from reaching the excavation area without lowering the water level outside the barrier.
They exclude ground-water flow from the working area by altering the nature of the water, by altering
the nature of the aquifer through which the water is flowing or by constructing a physical barrier across
the aquifer.
Many methods are available for excluding ground water (Fig. 23.2)
Slurry trenches and/or diaphragm walls
These are relatively expensive installations which are only used to protect below ground facilities at the
shaft collar except in exceptional circumstances. They involve replacement of the aquifer material with
impermeable slurry. They can effectively cut off flow from shallow aquifers. Maintaining water levels
outside the barrier may be necessary to prevent settlement of the ground surface in urban locations.
Sheet piles
These are less costly but a less certain method of achieving the same aims as slurry trenches. The
reduced certainty being due to difficulty of driving piles and the possibility of bending of piles if boulders
are present at their final depth. Sheet piles are frequently used to protect temporary excavations and are
withdrawn after completion of the construction.
Ground freezing
This is the most expensive of the cut off methods but perhaps the only method which may be successful
in extremely difficult groundwater conditions. Ground freezing is used mostly during the initial stages
of construction of shafts and addits, not as a permanent means of protection. Water in the pore space
of the aquifer is frozen by circulating a refrigerant (calcium chloride, brine or liquid nitrogen) through a
series of pipes inserted into pre drilled holes.
Freezing is considered to occur in two stages, (stage 1) freezing of a cylindrical volume around each
pipe until the cylinders coalesce; (stage 2) thickening of the wall to the design thickness required to
withstand the stresses developed during excavation. Design procedures are outlined in Sanger [1968]
and an interesting case history with costing for some shaft sinking in the UK is presented by Collins
and Deacon [1972]. Failure of a ground freezing operation may be due to incorrect values of thermal
properties, the presence of saline groundwater, higher than anticipated groundwater flow rates or the
influence of high surface temperatures.

Figure 23.3: Grouts and their range of application
Grouting from surface
In shaft sinking operations, grouting from the surface is the standard method for excluding undesirable
incursions of water both during the construction and often the operation of a shaft. Several types of
grouting materials and their general ranges of applicability are shown in Fig. refmine-water3:fig.
There are four broad categories of grouting;
1. Permeation grouting in porous media the objective here is to establish a wall of interconnected
cylinders of grouted ground via a linear or circular array of grout holes. The selection of the
grouting material depends on the size of voids and hence the permeability of the formation to be
grouted. Two factors mitigate against success, high groundwater flow rate which can carry the
grout downflow and thus distort the expected cylindrical shape and the density contrast between
the grout and the groundwater may result in the sinking of the grout below the bottom of the
grout holes. If either of these situations occurs then the ungrouted ”windows” may be subjected
to excessive hydraulic gradients across the grout curtain. This may result in erosion of formation
material and consequent failure of the grouting operation. The viscosity of the grout governs the
rate of penetration and with some chemical grouts the setting time can be controlled by additives
or concentration of the grout solution.
2. Fissure grouting in fractured rock media clay or cement grout is injected under pressure in an
attempt to seal all fractures. Great care must be taken to ensure that the existing overburden

Table 23.1: Rule of thumb guide for cement grouts
Lugeons Water : Cement Density Water per bag of cement

(L/m/min) (ratio) (kg/L) (L)
< 10 3: 1 1.266 90
10 - 30 2: 1 1.375 60
30 - 60 1: 1 1.693 30
> 60 0.8 : 1 1.744 24
pressure is not exceeded otherwise additional fracturing will occur. It is customary to carry out
water injection tests prior to grouting. The most common of these tests is the LUGEON TEST
which is carried out in a diamond drill hole with the aid of a packer to isolate the test interval.
1 Lugeon = water take of 1 litre/metre/min at 10 bars pressure. (In terms of permeability, one
lugeon is roughly 0.01m/day.) The higher the lugeon value, the thicker the grout required. For
cement grouts a rule of thumb guide is shown in Table 23.1.
The grouting operation usually commences with a relatively thin mix for maximum penetration
followed by progressively thicker mixes until refusal. Several phases are common with relatively
wide hole spacing for the first phase followed by closer spaced holes in successive phases. Fissure
grouting may be undertaken in stages from the surface down (downstage) in which the first stage is
drilled and grouted then drilled out and the hole is progressed to the second stage, or in stages from
the bottom (upstage) where the hole is drilled to full depth and the bottom stage is isolated with a
packer during grouting and the top of the first stage grout becomes the bottom of the second stage
interval. Simple grouting jobs may be completed as single stage exercises using a single packer or
injection nipple at the collar of the hole.
3. Fracture grouting employs high grouting pressures to induce hydrofracturing to aid in the penetra-
tion of the grout. Pressure must be maintained until the grout has set.
4. Cavity grouting involves filling major voids with cheap material both to provide ground support
(eg. the use of fly ash to fill abandoned coal workings from surface drill holes) and to prevent mine
water inflows (eg. the use of clay grouts in the USSR to fill cavities in karst terrain). The grout
must remain plastic until it has filled the entire cavity. In the case of fly ash/cement grouts this
is achieved by use of inhibitors and clay grouts are specifically designed to be slightly plastic even
after setting.
5. An interesting application of chemical grouting from the surface comes from the Nagyegyhaza coal
mine in Hungary [Kassai and Benke, 1982]. During a surface grouting program, a break through
of water occurred in a drive where it passed through a fault zone. A field test was carried out in
which water containing sugar and fluorescene was injected via the surface grouting hole into the
fault zone below the drive (Fig.23.5). Sugar and fluorescene were detected in water entering the
drive 13 minutes after injection began and the original 16% sugar solution was diluted to between
4% and 5% in passing from the drill hole to the drive. This information enabled the engineers
to design a chemical grouting operation in which 6 cubic metres of METAKRIL, an acrylic amide
similar to AM 9, was injected via the surface hole at 100 bars pressure. The grout was designed to
gel just before reaching the drive and the initial concentration was such that a 3 to 4 times dilution
would not damage the operation. Flow was reduced from an initial 400 l/min to between 30 and
40 l/min and a program of short hole grouting from the drive further reduced the flow rate.

Figure 23.4: Protective layers in the floor
23.3.2 Protective layers
Protective layers in the roof
Underground workings create stress fields which disrupt roof rocks. In soft rocks, 3 general zones are
recognised as seen in Fig. 23.6. Zone A which is entirely disrupted with very large increase in permeability;
Zone B which is fractured, resulting in moderate increases in permeability which are governed to some
extent by stress; Zone C which is the zone of plastic and elastic deformation. In the case of hard rocks, the
fractured zone may be much more extensive and permeability is less subject to alteration by stress. The
hard rock situation is also likely to be associated with a fractured rock aquifer system and the fractured
Zone B may act as a sink for the regional fracture flow. Kesser [1982]discusses roof and boundary pillars
in detail.
Protective layers in the floor
Schmieder [1982b] presents a discussion of the use of grouting and depressurisation of confined aquifers
beneath the floor of underground workings as a means of reducing seepage through clay protective layers.
Minor seepage is permissible but under certain circumstances it is possible for piping to occur leading to
major in rushes.
Referring to Fig. 23.4, the confined head above the workings is s and the thickness of the protective layer
is m. E is the resistance of the protective layer to piping failure.

For cohesionless materials,

ρg − ρw g
E =1−φ (23.1)
ρw g
where:
ρg = saturated unit weight of the material

ρw g = unit weight of water
φ = porosity.
For cohesive materials,

ρg − ρw g
E = c × cot θ + 1 − φ (23.2)
ρw g
where:
c = cohesion
θ = effective friction angle.
For fractured material,

x=y (23.3)
where:
1 m = threshold gradient for seepage

σα = Normal stress closing fractures oriented at α0
σ1 +σ2 σ1 −σ2
σα = 2
+ 2
cos 2α
Fig. ??a shows that partial depressurisation of the footwall aquifer by pumping can reduce the head across
the protective layer to the value of E which will result in some seepage but no piping failure therefore no
catastrophic in rushes.
Seepage per unit area will be a function of the head geometry and vertical permeability of the protective
layer as well as its thickness.
In Fig. ??b, grouting of the aquifer has increased the resistance of the protective layer such that E +∆E =
so . No seepage will occur and depressurisation of the aquifer is not necessary.
23.3.3 Boundary pillars
Pillars between operating mines and abandoned flooded mines or stored water must be designed such
that the seepage rate is acceptable both to the mine and the water authority and hydraulic gradients are
less than critical. In the case of a pillar separating an abandoned flooded mine from a working mine, the
zones of stress relieved broken ground between the two openings must not be allowed to overlap unless
the rock is resistant to erosion. Mining regulations in many parts of the world state a minimum size
of pillar separating a working mine from old workings but this may not be sufficiently large to prevent
significant flows occurring in broken ground.
Kesser [1982]outlines the design method employed in the Hungarian coal fields which makes use of em-
pirically determined critical hydraulic gradients for the various rock types in the mine using clay as the
standard (see Table 23.2). Fig. 23.7 shows the various flow paths evaluated using:

Figure 23.5: Chemical grouting at Nagyegyhaza Mine
Table 23.2: Critical Hydraulic Gradients for the Various Rock Types (using clay as the standard)
Critical Gradient Ratio : Clay

CLAY 5 m/m 1
MARL 5.5 m/m 1.1
COAL 3.5 m/m 0.65
Length of path times ratio to clay = effective thickness.
The disturbed zone above the workings (35 m) is regarded as a mine opening and because of geological
uncertainties the total effective thickness of each flow path is reduced by 5 m.
For the 61 m wide pillar all seepage gradients exceed the standard clay gradient of 5 m/m and such a
pillar is not acceptable if mine B is flooded while mine A is still working (Fig. 23.7).
The width of pillar which satisfies the requirement that all seepage paths have a gradient of less than
5 m/m is 95 m owing to the flat lying coal seam on the 5-8-3-4-4a path, although the 1-7a path yields a
gradient of less than 5 m/m for a pillar width of 85 m.
23.3.4 Compressed air
Compressed has the potential to be used in two ways:

Figure 23.6: Protective layers (pillars) in the roof

Figure 23.7: Boundary pillar

Figure 23.8: Air Injection Experiment in Hungary
1. Increasing air pressure in the underground workings reduces the hydraulic gradient towards the
workings thus reducing seepage. Used largely in tunnel construction where high capital costs allow
construction of air locks and reduced length of working shift because of the risk of the bends.
2. Injecting compressed air into the aquifer to locally increase hydraulic gradients towards the under-
ground workings to accelerate drainage and reduce the area of influence of the cone of drawdown.
Fig. 23.8 shows the results of an experiment in Hungary[Pera, 1982] in which compressed air was injected
at DH.B415 resulting in increases in discharge from an initial 12 l/min. to >150 l/min. before air broke
through from the drill hole to the workings.
23.3.5 Grouting from underground
”Cover” drilling, i.e. drilling horizontal holes in advance of major underground headings is a common
practice and in some parts of the world a statutory requirement where water hazards are expected
Troublesome water bearing zones may be grouted in advance of the face but there have been cases where
cover drilling failed to reveal major water bearing zones.

Figure 23.9: Seepage face
23.4 Passive protection - gravity drainage
Passive protection is essentially the process of allowing all drainage water to collect at a low point in
the working area (a sump) and pumping from the sump on a constant or as required basis. No other
pumping is involved.
23.4.1 Seepage faces
In any excavation such as surface mining the overburden can contain aquifers which are unconsolidated
and which may be subject to erosion. Water flows from the aquifer into the excavation via a seepage
face.
Fig. 23.9 shows an approximate method for estimating the height of the seepage face. The exit gradient of
water from the seepage face must not exceed the critical gradient for the face material otherwise erosion
and piping may lead to collapse of the face.
During and immediately after excavation the seepage gradients are at their steepest and pre dewatering
may be the only way of establishing a stable slope in poorly consolidated or uncemented material. Geo-
textiles (drainage fabrics) placed over the toe of a newly excavated slope, to a height greater than the
extent of the seepage face and held in place by sandbags or gravel, can protect the slope against the effect
of high seepage velocities (Fig. 23.10).

Figure 23.10: Use of geotextiles
23.4.2 Sump pumping
Where seepage gradients are small enough to allow excavation without prior dewatering or in hard rocks
with well developed fractures, it is possible to allow gravity drainage to proceed with all water collecting
in a sump.
Deepening of the pit will require the construction of a new sump for each level unless a very deep initial
sump is created. Occasions arise where more than one aquifer exists and inflow from each aquifer occurs.
Each aquifer must be treated as a separate unit. It is important to remember that regardless of the total
depth of the excavation the maximum drawdown that can occur in any aquifer is to the bottom of that
aquifer. Once this maximum drawdown has been achieved the water will flow into the pit from that
aquifer under constant drawdown conditions.
It is useful to maintain records of pumping from the sump in order to evaluate the relationship between
depth of pit and water inflow.
Fig. 23.11 shows a record of cumulative discharge versus time for a period t = 0 to t1 at which time the
pit was deepened, and the discharge rate increased between t1 and t2. This is equivalent to the increase in
Q that happens when drawdown in a well is increased. The analysis of the discharge/depth relationship
is analogous to the specific capacity of a well.
Fluctuations in the cumulative discharge are likely to be due to seasonal rainfall events. Cumulative
discharge may show a trend of increasing discharge with depth reflecting steeper gradients a larger pit
and possibly higher permeability or merely greater penetration of a uniform aquifer.
In the case of fractured rock, where fracture opening is controlled by depth (stress), the cumulative
discharge may show a falling trend with increasing pit depth.

Figure 23.11: Sump pumping
In some fractured rock or karstic situations, where open fractures allow very high flow velocities to
develop around an excavation, non-laminar flow can occur. In non-laminar (non-Darcy) flow, the flow
field around an excavation may be significantly different from the Darcy flow field up to a distance of
two aquifer thicknesses from the face of the excavation. Similar non-Darcy flow conditions can develop
in highly permeable gravels and boulder beds.
Dudgeon [1985] presents the results of numerical models describing non-Darcy flow during dewatering.
The major consequences of non-Darcy flow are steeper hydraulic gradients behind the faces and reduced
inflows to the excavation compared to flows predicted using the Darcy approach.
An analytical method allowing for the effects of non-Darcy flow on drainage to underground workings
was developed by Schmieder [1982a] who demonstrated that the phenomenon can occur in fractured rock
with an average K of 1 m/day. In the example given by Schmieder [1982a] the assumption of purely
Darcian flow results in an overestimation of discharge.
23.4.3 Horizontal drain holes
Where water pressure far behind the face of an open pit has a crucial effect on slope stability and the
face material is not easily eroded it is possible to drill horizontal holes to reduce pressures.
Care must be taken in the use of casing to prevent the transfer of water from far behind the face into
stress induced fractures close to the face. Horizontal drainage holes are employed at Savage River (Kidd,
Wallwork & Kalf 1982) and Morewell in the Latrobe Valley (Fraser, Washusen & Longbottom 1982).
23.4.4 Drainage galleries
Drainage galleries are extensions of underground workings specifically designed to intercept groundwater
flow, usually with the assistance of drain holes. Water produced mixes with other mine drainage water
and gravitates to a sump. Discharge from the sump pumps is generally not fit for human consumption
without treatment. However, some drainage gallery systems while adjacent to a mine may be separate
from it. In these case the water, if of suitable quality, may be able to be used for water supply purposes
as it has not been contaminated by the mine.
Drainage galleries and associated drain holes are employed to reduce pressures in major aquifers in the
hanging wall on the Zambian Copperbelt (Whyte & Lyall 1970).

23.5 Active protection - water removal
Active protection intercepts the groundwater flow prior to its seeping into the working area. It involves
the reduction of water levels or pressures by pumping from installations located outside the working area.
In a mining situation water from such operations has not been in contact with the mine workings and
thus has not been contaminated by exposure to ore or explosives and may (subject to water quality)
be reused or discharged into surface drainage systems without treatment. An overview of the various
methods available is presented in Fig. 23.12.
23.5.1 Deep bores
In contrast to water supply systems, maximum drawdown in the aquifer is required therefore bores should
be very efficient with minimal well losses. By the same token the screened area has to be such as to allow
maximum drawdown within the aquifer. Therefore the option of screening the full depth of the aquifer
is seldom considered.
On occasions a single bore may provide adequate dewatering but generally arrays of deep bores are used
with bore spacings chosen to optimise interference between bores and pumping rates. If site conditions
make it necessary to maintain a certain water level to prevent settlement outside of the working area it
may be possible to recharge the pumped water back into the aquifer.
There are many traps for the unwary in the design and operation of deep bore dewatering systems. eg. if
multiple aquifers are individually screened in a dewatering bore, an excessively high discharge rate may
draw the pumping water level down to below the upper screen resulting in virtual cessation of flow from
the upper screen if the upper aquifer is unconfined, or jetting of water into the bore from a confined aquifer
resulting in entrainment of air which can cause severe wear on the pump. In addition it is physically
impossible to totally dewater an aquifer with deep bores since for water to enter the bore there must be a
finite saturated zone outside the bore screen. Sealing the annulus between the bore casing and the pump
column can create a vacuum in the bore during pumping thus raising the water level inside the casing
above the atmospheric pressure level. This vacuum assistance serves to increase the available drawdown
inside the bore and enables a bore to create a lower water level in the aquifer.
In a major deep bore dewatering program a single type and size of pump may not be able to cope with
the progressively increasing lift as regional drawdown develops. Fig 23.13 shows a typical set of pump
performance curves used in selecting a pump.
A multi-layered aquifer system may be tackled layer by layer with separate bores in each major layer or
as a single unit with multiple screens in all pumping bores.
A commonly used method employs pumping bores screened only in the lowest aquifer with drainage bores
screened in several aquifers, located between the pumping bores. As the lowest aquifer is depressurised
water flows through the drainage bores and ”recharges” the lowest aquifer. The problems of aeration
due to pumping from multiply screened wells are thus avoided. Large vertical drainage through the relief
bore occurs provided the upper sand water level is higher than the lower sand potentiometric level.
23.5.2 Vacuum spear point systems
This system is suitable for shallow dewatering of sands and gravels. Spearpoints, (also called wellpoints)
are jetted into the ground at predetermined spacing (Fig. 23.15) and connected via a manifold to a
combined vacuum/centrifugal pump. Since the water is being lifted by atmospheric pressure, it is not
possible to draw down the water level by more than 7 to 8 metres with spearpoints. Multiple stages of
spearpoints can produce greater depression of the groundwater surface provided that successive stages of
the system are installed within the excavation at progressively lower levels.

Figure 23.12: Active dewatering methods

Figure 23.13: Pump selection

Figure 23.14: Drainage or relief bore. Note that in pumping bores there is a small vertical drainage down
the gravel pack
23.5.3 Eductor bore systems
These work on the principle of the jet pump (venturi effect) and therefore require twin manifolds at
surface, one to deliver water at high pressure to the eductors and the second to carry the low pressure
high volume discharge. There are no moving parts down the hole therefore suspended matter can be
handled. Eductors can lift water from considerably greater depths than spearpoints Figure 23-16 and a
multibore system can operate with some of it’s eductors above the water level.
23.5.4 Electro osmosis
Electro Osmosis may be used where other methods fail and where it is necessary to dewater clays in
order to establish safe slope conditions eg. beside a major permanent haul road in an open cut mine.
Anodes (+ve) which are often steel pickets, are driven into the ground and metal cased spearpoints
serve as cathodes (-ve). Direct current is passed between anode and cathode with the water in the
clay completing the circuit and responding by flowing towards the spearpoint where it is pumped out.
Since energy input is considerable the method is expensive and is only used in special cases. Fig. 23.17
illustrates the electro osmotic process.
23.5.5 Dewatering shafts and drives
Where the aquifer to be dewatered contains good quality water which can be used for town supply it is
common in Europe to develop a separate dewatering system consisting of a shaft and drives generally
beneath the level of mining, and using inclined drain holes to increase the efficiency. The water so
collected has not been in contact with other mine drainage water and can be sold for town water supply

Figure 23.15: Spear point systems

Figure 23.16: Eductors

Figure 23.17: Electro-Osmosis
thus offsetting some of the costs of dewatering, minimising dirty mine water drainage discharge and also
sensibly utilising available resources of both water and energy. (Figure 23-18) Several mines may be
served by a central dewatering shaft.
23.6 Safety margins
23.6.1 Open cut or surface mines
Dewatered aquifer material in the vicinity of the mine must become re saturated before large flows of
water can enter the excavation. It is wise to design the dewatering system to allow sufficient such storage
to cope with power outages which will stop the pumps (Fig. 23.19).
23.6.2 Underground mines
Pump capacity must be adequate to cope with normal flows plus reasonable excess flows if inrushes occur.
A buffer can be provided by the excavation of a large sump cavern and water tight doors provided to
isolate sections of the mine in the event of a very large inrush. Most catastrophic inrushes occur at the
periphery of the workings where new ground in being broken and the drawdown effects of the existing
workings is least.
They can also occur in underground mining operations when the roof of a mined section is collapsed at
the end of phase of mining. The collapse causes goafing to occur. Goaf induced fracturing of the overlying
confining material can provide access to water in a previously isolated higher aquifer.
Because life is under threat if a major inrush occurs in an underground mine it is important to have in

Figure 23.18: Dewatering Shaft and Drives
Figure 23.19: Safety margins-open pit

Figure 23.20: Safety margins-underground mine
place contingency plans and procedures for evacuation and security of pump facilities.
23.7 Implications of dewatering
23.7.1 Water Supply And Water Resources
The impact of dewatering on water supply is positive where water of good quality can be reticulated and
used rather than pumped to waste.
Drawdown effects may reduce supplies to other users of groundwater necessitating compensation or the
provision of alternative supplies. It is often necessary for the groundwater professional to determine
the impact on local users. This can be achieved by calculating the radius of influence at different time
periods. Remember that the radius of influence is independent of pumping rate and depends only on the
values of transmissivity and storage coefficient (specific yield for unconfined aquifer) and the time since
pumping began. The magnitude of drawdown within the radius of influence depends on the pumping
rate. An important aspect of this is that the radius of influence continues to spread even after dewatering
operations cease. With cessation of pumping however, there is a recharge effect superimposed on the
drawdown and water levels begin to recover. This is sometimes referred to as the rebound effect.
Modification of the potentiometric surface may change the local groundwater flow regime which can cause
undesirable effluents to enter the groundwater system beneath tailings dams.
As long as the mine dewatering system is in full operation it should act as a sink and draw any pollutants
towards the mine but on cessation of mining the plume of pollution would follow the general groundwater
flow pattern and could reach a town water supply borefield in the future.
On cessation of dewatering groundwater levels should start to recover. However, in some cases, such as
large open cut mining operations in a hot dry environment the levels may never recover to the original

level. Evaporation from the water surface of the final void may exceed the recharge from rainfall and the
void will continue to act as a sink.
23.7.2 Environmental
Subsidence
Subsidence may result from prolonged drawdown leading to consolidation of fine grained materials. Water
level recovery at the termination of mining may restore some, but not all of the subsidence.
Two major problems might arise;
1. Groundwater levels, which initially were only slightly below ground level, may recover to the initial
head. Since subsidence has resulted in a lower ground level than previously the water level may
now be above the ground level. This could result in inundation of the surface creating marshes or
at best, saturated ground. This is a major problem in the lignite mining districts of the Germany.
2. In flat terrain, subsidence may disturb existing surface drainage and result in shallow lakes and
swamps even if the groundwater level is well below the surface. Excessive groundwater extraction
from coastal aquifers could result in subsidence to such an extent that sea water ingress could occur
at the surface in coastal areas.
In some instances multiple aquifers may occur above an underground mine. Responsible monitoring of
water levels in all aquifers may result in water level monitoring pipes in aquifers which subsequently
subside when goafing occurs after mining. Such subsidence could then change the level of the top of the
monitoring pipe and require repeat leveling of bore datums.
Drying out of wetlands and spring
Where important wetlands and springs exist before mining it is the role of the environmental control
authorities to highlight the important areas and ensure that dewatering is planned in such a way that
detrimental effects are minimised.
Re injection of pumped water can artificially prop up hydraulic gradients for the life of the mining activity
or treated mine water may be pumped to maintain wetlands.
Acid minewaters
This is a major problem costing billions of dollars in the U.S.A. Acid minewaters are formed from the
oxidation of sulphide minerals in abandoned mines and waste dumps.
Both surface waters and groundwaters are suffering serious water quality problems as a direct consequence
of acid mine drainage.
23.8 Some simple analytical models
In isotropic aquifers it is possible to calculate discharge and drawdown for individual bores, multiple
bores (borefields), open pits and strip mines using simple analytical methods. Some of these methods are
presented below.

The influence of non-Darcy flow on discharge from an underground gallery and a circular pit can be seen
as a significant reduction in mine discharge compared with the discharge estimated using the Darcian
model.
23.8.1 Single bore dewatering system
On some occasions it is possible to dewater a working area by pumping from a single bore. If the bore is
deep enough, the pumping rate is high enough and the transmissivity and storage coefficient are suitable
then the cone of depression may be such that the water level will be drawn down below the bottom of the
working area. A pumping test should be carried out on the bore to determine the aquifer parameters and
assess its long term pumping capacity. Since dewatering is normally a long term process it is reasonable
to assume that steady state conditions can be approximated. However, it would be prudent to find out
at what time after pumping began that steady state conditions would be approached. This can be done
either by plotting the time- drawdown on natural scale and selecting a time when the rate of drawdown
increase appears to be very small or by plotting time-drawdown on a semi-logarithmic scale and choosing
a time from that. Under equilibrium conditions the rate at which a bore will have to pump to produce
a certain drawdown is given by equations 23.4 to 23.7 for unconfined and confined aquifers respectively.
Note that some of this material is also presented in Chapter 12 but is repeated here for completeness.
Unconfined Aquifer
πK H 2 − h2w

Q= (23.4)
2.3 log(R/rw )
r
2.3Q log R/r
h = H2 − (23.5)
πK
Confined Aquifer
2πKb(H − h)
Q= (23.6)
2.3 log(r0 /rw )
r0 /rw
s = 2.3Q log (23.7)
2πKb
where:
Q = discharge rate (m3 /day)

K = hydraulic Conductivity (m/day)
H = potentiometric head in bore before pumping (m)
hw = potentiometric head in bore during pumping (m)
h = potentiometric head at distance r from the bore (m)
r0 = radius of cone of depression (radius of influence) (m)
rw = effective radius of bore (m)
r = radial distance from bore (m)
s = drawdown at distance r from the bore (m)

23.8.2 Equivalent bores
Equations 23.4 to 23.7 for individual bores can on occasions be applied to circular and some rectangular
arrays of bores around a similar shaped area to be dewatered. On such occasions, the arrays of bores can
be replaced by one bore (or equivalent circular pit) with a radius equivalent to the effective radius of the
array and having an equivalent drawdown effect similar to the array of bores. This equivalent radius is
then used in the equations 23.4 to 23.7. The effective radius re is the radius of a circle having the same
area as the base of the rectangle.
If the rectangular array is such that the base length of the pit (y) is = 1.5 times q
the base width (x) the
pit can be regarded as an equivalent bore with an equivalent bore radius of re = x×y π .
For cases where (y) > 1.5(x) the flow can be treated as parallel flow through 2 sides and 2 ends plus
radial flow at each corner. This case is considered in Strip Pits below.
23.8.3 Multiple bores - bore fields
In most cases a single bore will not be sufficient to provide adequate dewatering and a number of bores
will be required around the working area. The cones of depression from each of the bores will intersect
and the drawdown at any point within the area of influence will be the sum of the individual drawdowns
from each bore.
The first step in this process is to identify a number of control points within the working area and the
drawdown necessary at each of those points to dewater the working area.
Next the number, location and pumping rates for each of the dewatering bores have to be determined.
The locations of the bores may be influenced by physical features such as roads or buildings. It is prudent
to construct one bore and carry out a pumping test to calculate the transmissivity and storage coefficient
for the area as well as a range of possible pumping rates for the bore before attempting to determine the
number and locations of the remaining bores.
Once these parameters have been obtained the locations of the bores can be set and drawdowns calcu-
lated at each of the control points. Once again equations 23.4 to 23.7 can be used to calculate rates
and drawdowns. A spreadsheet can be used to prepare a table with the individual predicted components
summed to give a total predicted drawdown at any point. The spreadsheet enables various combina-
tions of the number of bores, bore locations and individual pumping rates to be trialed before the final
bore installation begins. Using different combinations, the drawdowns at each of the control points are
determined and checked against the design requirements.
Occasionally it is necessary to dewater a working area while still maintaining the groundwater levels on
one or more zones outside of the working area. One way of achieving this is to pump water from the
dewatering bores and then recharge the water back into the aquifer where required. This technique is
illustrated in Fig 23.21.
23.8.4 Strip pits
In strip pits (such as open cut mines) which intersect aquifers, water flows into the pit as parallel flow
through each of the four sides and as radial flow through the corners as shown in Fig. 23.22. This model
is equivalent to the discharge from one bore, with a quarter of the bore at each corner of the pit, and
parallel flow through two sides and two ends. Equations 23.8 and 23.9 give the relevant equations for
this model for the unconfined and confined aquifer situations.
Fig. 23.23 illustrates flow into a strip pit which intersects more than one aquifer. It highlights the fact
that, regardless of depth of the pit, the maximum drawdown that can occur in any aquifer is to the

Figure 23.21: Recharging Pumped Water to Maintain Water Levels in Sensitive Areas
Figure 23.22: Groundwater Flow into a Strip Pit

Figure 23.23: Multiple aquifer flow into a strip pit
bottom of that aquifer. In the multi aquifer case each aquifer must be treated separately.
At any specified time t the lateral extent of the parallel flow can be considered to be equal to the radius
of influence of the bore quadrant located at each corner. Using the Modified Non Steady State flow
equations, the radius of influence is defined as that distance where the drawdown s is zero.
Since the drawdown at time t is given by s = 2.3Q 2.25T t

4πT log r2 S , for the drawdown s to be zero requires
2.25T t 2 2.25T t
p
either r2 S = 1 or r = S or r = 1.5 T t/S
Knowing the radius of influence at time t and knowing the drawdown in the pit at the same time it is
possible to determine the drawdown at any distance r from the pit at that time. This can be done using
the equations or simply by using semi logarithmic paper and plotting drawdown against logarithm of
distance. A straight line joining drawdown in the pit say at 1 metre and zero drawdown at the radius of
influence.
Equations 23.8 and 23.9can be used to calculate the flow into the pit.
Unconfined aquifer
πK H 2 − h2 (x + y) K H 2 − h2

Q= +2 (23.8)
2.3 log r0 /rw 2Lo
Confined aquifer
2πK (H − h) (x + y) Kb (H − h)
Q= +2 (23.9)
2.3 log r0 /rw Lo
where:
Q = discharge rate (m3 /day)

K = hydraulic Conductivity (m/day)

H = potentiometric head in pit before pumping (m)
hw = potentiometric head in pit during pumping (m)
h = potentiometric head at distance r from the pit (m)
r0 = radius of cone of depression (radius of influence) (m)
rw = effective radius of bore (say 1m) at corner quadrant (m)
r = radial distance from pit (m)
L0 = maximum length of drawdown influence from side of pit (use r0 ) (m)
s = drawdown at distance r from the pit (m)
x = width of base of pit (m)
y = length of base of pit (m)
If the pit is of constant depth during its life then the drawdown in the pit will remain constant and the
inflow rate will decline in the same manner as for a constant drawdown pumping test. However, in mining
practice, while the pit depth does remain relatively constant for long periods, the pit area continues to
expand. This expansion continues to intercept more and more aquifer and new drawdown conditions
have to be taken into account. This can be done in discrete time steps and does not have to be a precise
and continuous operation.
23.8.5 Galleries
Drainage galleries are extensions of underground workings specifically designed to intercept groundwater
flow, usually with the assistance of drain holes. Water produced mixes with other mine drainage water
and gravitates to a sump. Discharge from the sump pumps is generally not fit for human consumption
without treatment.
Fig 23.24 illustrates how galleries are used [Schmieder, 1982b] .
Darcy flow to gallery:

QD = Qp + Qr (23.10)
where:
Qp = parallel flow and
Qr = radial flow
23.8.6 Final void
The radius of influence is independent of pumping rate and depends only on the values of transmissivity
and storage coefficient (specific yield for unconfined aquifer) and the time since pumping began. The
magnitude of drawdown within the radius of influence depends on the pumping rate. Because the radius
of influence is time dependent it continues to spread even after dewatering operations cease.
With cessation of pumping there is a recharge effect superimposed on the drawdown and water levels
begin to recover. This is sometimes referred to as the rebound effect. However, in some cases, such as

Figure 23.24: Flow to underground gallery
large open cut mining operations in a hot dry environment the levels may never recover to the original
level. Evaporation from the water surface of the final void may exceed the recharge from rainfall and the
void will continue to act as a sink.
In addition, modification of the potentiometric surface may change the local groundwater flow regime
which can cause undesirable effluents to enter the groundwater system.
As long as the mine dewatering system is in full operation it should act as a sink and draw any pollutants
towards the mine but on cessation of mining the plume of pollution would follow the general groundwater
flow pattern and could reach a town water supply bore field in the future or poorer quality water in the
final void could begin to seep out into the surrounding aquifer.
Figs. 23.25 and 23.26 illustrate some of scenarios that can develop on completion of an open cut mining
venture.

Figure 23.25: Hydrogeological environments for mine voids
Figure 23.26: Hydrogeological processes contributing to the salinisation of pit lakes

Chapter 24
Managed aquifer recharge
Contents
24.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662
24.2 Water sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
24.2.1 Surface water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
24.2.2 Storm-water runoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
24.2.3 Reclaimed water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664
24.2.4 Potable water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664
24.3 MAR Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664
24.3.1 Surface spreading or retention structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664
24.3.2 Pit or borehole devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667
24.4 Case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668
24.4.1 The Burdekin Delta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
24.4.2 Bundaberg area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671
24.1 Introduction
Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) is becoming more popular as water supplies in developed countries
begin to be stressed. In reality, MAR has been used in some of the drier parts of the world almost as
long as human settlement has been around. As the climate began to dry 5,000 years ago, people began
to settle around spring sites and started to raise crops, the beginning of agriculture. As the climate
continued to warm and dry, water pressures continued to fall, and then it would have been natural to try
and deepen springs to form wells. It would also have been natural to try and catch spare rainfall for later
use. In some parts of the world, natural rainwater tanks were established. Some of the earliest would
have to be those on the Yucatan Peninsular in Mexico, where the streets of the Mayan City of Uxmal,
in the dry region of Puuc, were paved and all the run off collected into cisterns to be held below ground
for later use. Pyramids were built and decorated with masks of Chac, the Mayan god of rain. A slightly
more modern example is Aden in the Yemen, where the British cemented the internal sides of the old
volcanic crater to form a huge rainwater catchment cistern shown in Fig. 24.1.
In times past, MAR has also been referred to as artificial recharge.
The major objectives and benefits of MAR can be summarised as follows:
• To store water in aquifers for future use

• a part of an integrated water management strategy
662
Chapter 24. Managed aquifer recharge
Figure 24.1: Rainwater capture in Aden, Yemen (Photo RIA)
• reduce losses caused by evaporation and evapotranspiration

• impede storm water runoff and soil erosion
• improve water quality
• manage saline intrusion
• reuse of waste/storm water
Some schemes in places like Holland or South Africa, have been underway for 10s of years, or more, but
there are also many new systems under consideration/construction. Each scheme is different - dependent
upon local conditions and requirements. There is no simple MAR scheme that can be pulled from the
shelf and installed anywhere.
24.2 Water sources
The source of water for MAR can be quite variable. It will again depend upon local conditions and
climate.
24.2.1 Surface water
Under humid conditions, streams are likely to be perennial and surface water will be the source for MAR
if required. In many of these cases, the natural filtration capacity of the aquifer is often utilised to treat
the surface water. Abstraction bores are therefore taking surface water that has been ’cleaned’ by passage
through the aquifer. The abstraction along the banks of the River Elbe in Germany is of this type.
24.2.2 Storm-water runoff
Storm-water runoff is a valuable source of water for MAR. Clearly, heavy rainfall does not recharge in
many circumstances. If the water can be caught and slowed down for later recharge to the aquifer then a
number of benefits accrue, including diminished flooding. Urban areas generate significant storm-water

Figure 24.2: Stormwater flowing to the Lachlan Figure 24.3: Stormwater entry to Model Yacht
Ponds via the old Birdsfoot Gully drain at Astro- Pond in Centennial Park, Sydney. Note the trash
labe Park, Sydney. (Photo RIA) rack. (Photo RIA)
runoff as a result of the preponderance of impermeable surfaces in the catchment. The run off is very
peaky and highly variable. In order to obtain a more consistent supply for recharge, storm-water retention
ponds, grassed areas, porous pavements and wetlands are recommended. In rural areas, intense rainfall
also produces runoff that will have a high silt load. The silt needs to be removed before the water is
recharged back under ground.
24.2.3 Reclaimed water
The natural capacity of the ground to clean water by slow filtration can be of use. Reclaimed water is
of a predicable volume with a fairly uniform rate of flow over time and of constant, but inferior water
quality [Murray and Tredoux, 1998].
24.2.4 Potable water
In some instances there is a surfeit of potable water available; perhaps the product of a reverse osmosis
plant or a filtration works. In this case, the potable water is introduced into the aquifer for storage before
later abstraction.
24.3 MAR Structures
Numerous schemes can be used to enhance recharge to the aquifer. Some of these are shown in Fig. 24.4.
There are two basic groups of structures in common use:
• Surface spreading or retention structures,

• Pit or borehole devices.
24.3.1 Surface spreading or retention structures
Spreading methods often take the discharge from ephemeral streams and try to increase ponding, reduce
the flow and therfore increase recharge. These schemes are particularly evident in semi-arid areas of

Figure 24.4: Various MAR devices
the Middle East. The major source of recharge in wadi systems is flood flow. The flow dissipates down
stream (Fig. 24.5) before finally stopping - sometimes in a desert (Fig. 24.6) or an inland pan. There are
many examples in Australia - The Todd River in Alice Springs rises in the hills to the north and spills
out southwards into the Simpson Desert. Sometimes, permeable dams are built in the bed of the wadi
to reduce the flow and cause the flood water to back up (Fig. 24.7). A schematic is shown in Fig. 24.8.
Where an unconfined aquifer has been identified it is possible to recharge it by the use of ponds or basins
(Fig. 24.9). Water is redirected to the pond from a source and allowed to soak through the base of the
pond into the the unsaturated zone and eventually to the water table. A recharge mound is formed in the
water table surface as a result of this recharge. Groundwater will then move away from the base of the
pond and into the aquifer. The quantity of water that is recharged is clearly a function of the hydraulic
conductivity of the sands and this sort of device will not work in low hydraulic conductivity media such
as a clay.
Figure 24.5: Floods in a wadi bottom can occur Figure 24.6: Flow at Soussosfley in Namibia -
almost without warning (Photo RIA) draining beneath the sand dunes to reappear as
spring flow on the Atlantic coast (Photo RIA)

Figure 24.7: A dry dam built across a wadi bed in eastern Yemen (Photo RIA)
Figure 24.8: Schematic of a sand dam
Figure 24.9: Infiltration ponds used to recharge the aquifer

Figure 24.10: Schematic showing the elements of soil aquifer treatment (SAT)
Figure 24.11: Residual flow of secondary treated Figure 24.12: The floor of the infiltration basin
wastewater at the Hawks Nest STP - SAT exam- scraped and placed with clean sand - SAT exam-
ple (Photo RIA) ple (Photo RIA)
If the aquifer material is fine, then rapid clogging may occur from the suspended solids frequently found
in the recharge water. In this case, covering the bottom and the sides with a layer of medium sand
approximately 0.5 m in depth can delay the clogging process. The sand will need to be removed after a
few years and relaced with clean sand. In many of these situations, the floor of the basin can become
clogged quite quickly and the main recharge occurs through the sides. Studies have also shown that a
ridged pond floor will enhance recharge. The silts and clays settle out on the floor of the basin and
recharge occurs laterally through the ridge sides.
Soil Aquifer Treatment (SAT) is a term coined to refer to the use of the aquifer to clean waste water
(Fig. 24.10). This is particularly the case with sewage effluent that is usually treated to secondary level
and chlorinated before being passed to an infiltration basin. Effluent from the Hawks Nest STP is treated
in this way (Figs. 24.11 and 24.12). The Atlantis system in South Africa is similar, where stormwater
and wastewater have been used to recharge the aquifer for more than 20 years.
24.3.2 Pit or borehole devices
Surface spreading is usually sufficient in unconfined aquifers with a shallow water table. It has the added
advantage that the area of the infiltration pit can be easily cleaned and the effects of clogging removed.
Recharge to a confined aquifer is considerable more difficult. Clearly, it must take place through a

Figure 24.13: Aquifer storage and recovery bore
borehole or groups of bores and the concerns with clogging are much greater. It is far more difficult (and
may be impossible) to clean a borehole after it has become clogged. Settlement of suspended solids is
required in a separate structure (lined pit) prior to taking the final water and pumping it into the ground.
Aquifers Storager recovery (ASR)
The term ASR refers to the use of a single large diameter bore for both recharge of the aquifer (storage)
and abstraction from the same aquifer (recovery) as shown in Fig. {refmar-asr:fig.
The technology needed to construct these bores is quite advanced and fairly expensive to implement.
ASR is being carried out in Adelaide where treated storm water is first collected in a detention basin,
then pumped to a wetland for filtration and then pumped into a confined aquifer that initially contained
poor quality water. A bubble of high quality water is established in the aquifer that can then be recovered
by pumping from the same bore.
Aquifer storage transfer and recovery ASTR
ASTR is a similar concept to ASR with the exception that in ASTR two bores are used, one to recharge
the aquifer and the other to abstract from the aquifer. The water is forced to pass through the aquifer
(Fig. 24.14) where improvement in water quality can occur due to further filtration and possible micro-
biological activity. The ASTR concept is also being used in Adelaide.
24.4 Case studies
Recharge of treated stormwater and wastewater to shallow sandy aquifers has been practiced at many
sites around the world, and is currently being trialled near Perth in Western Australia. Treated river
water is used to recharge shallow sandy aquifers that supply Amsterdam in the Netherlands, while river
bank filtration is common in Germany. The South African town of Atlantis (population 100,000) has
relied on 15 ML/day of potable supply from aquifers that have been recharged with stormwater and
treated wastewater for over 30 years. Fig. 24.15 shows the recharge ponds in the coastal sand dunes west
of Cape Town. There are now over 400 exploration, production and monitoring bores in the unconfined
sand aquifer that is up to 40 m thick [Murray and Tredoux, 1998].

Figure 24.14: Aquifer storage transfer and recovery installation
Figure 24.15: Recharge ponds in the Atlantis well field in South Africa (Photo RIA)

Figure 24.16: Litter strand line at the edge of Model Yacht Pond after a rainfall event (Photo RIA)
MAR has been practised, albeit unintentionally, in the Botany Aquifer in Sydney for the past 130 years.
Stormwater is collected from beneath Bondi Junction and discharged into Model Yacht Pond, a conically
shaped pond in Centennial Park. The base of the pond is lined with clay so that it does not completely
drain. However, when it rains, the pond rapidly fills and overflows through the higher parts of the banks
which are not clay lined. The evidence of standing water can be seen in Fig. 24.16.
Over 50% of Perth’s total water use is sourced from aquifers, including 30% of the potable supply.
To ensure groundwater sustainability and maintain important wetlands, treated wastewater from the
Subiaco STP has been identified for managed recharge. The Western Australian EPA issued strategic
advice on MAR using treated wastewater for sandy coastal aquifers. In principle support for the concept
and further investigation of MAR using treated wastewater was expressed, while advocating a staged
approach starting with trials and projects of low risk. Trails for indirect potable re-use are now in
progress using the Gnangara groundwater system. Wastewater from the Beenyup STP is to be injected
at 74 ML/day (27 GL/year) following micro-filtration and reverse osmosis treatment.
In Namibia, a similar system is in place using highly treated waste water to recharge a fractured sandstone
aquifer to the south of Windhoek, the capital of Namibia.
24.4.1 The Burdekin Delta
The Burdekin Delta in northern Queensland is one of the largest users of groundwater in the State. The
prime source of natural recharge is from rainfall although contribution from streamflow can be significant.
The main use is for irrigation of sugar cane. Investigation found that the quantity of water which could
be removed safely on an annual basis from the Burdekin Delta was of the order of 197,000 megalitres.
The actual use, in 1963/64 when the detailed analysis was carried out, was in excess of the safe yield
by some 77,500 megalitres. This resulted in a serious decline in water levels and water quality. If the
irrigation were to be continued at that rate then it was obviously necessary to replenish the underground
water system be some artificial means. In fact, indications were that the area irrigated was expected to
rise to 28,400 hectares in the mid sixties and the water requirement would then be 320,000 megalitres
and the overdraft some 123,000 megalitres would need to be provided by artificial recharge.
As a result of the investigation, artificial recharge of the underground water resources in the Burdekin
Delta is now being practised. The recharge scheme was implemented in the 1965/66 financial year and
the total capital cost for the area to the end of 1970/71 was of the order of $1,200,000.
The average volume recharged during the period July 1966 to July 1971 was of the order of 61,500

megalitres per annum. Infiltration rates of the order of 6m/day are obtained in the offstream recharge
areas. In the natural depressions recharge rates of 2500 m3/day are common.
In this case, water is pumped from the unregulated flow in the Burdekin River into recharge channels
which wind their way throughout the Burdekin Delta both on the north and south sides of the Burdekin
River. On the north side, water is pumped into two natural creeks, namely Sheep-station Creek and
Plantation Creek, and finds its way into the aquifer system through the beds of these creeks. On the
south side water is pumped into artificial channels. In some areas these artificial channels intersected the
aquifers and water migrated down into them. In others, the channels did not intersect the aquifer and
trenches were dug in the beds of the channels and backfilled with gravel to provide access to the aquifer.
24.4.2 Bundaberg area
The draft in the Bundaberg area was also found to be more than the annual yield. This area also
relies heavily on underground water to irrigate sugar cane. An investigation was carried out into ways
of replenishing this underground water by artificial means. However, unlike the Burdekin Delta, trials
indicated the artificial recharge of the underground reservoir was not feasible and the excess has to be
provided from a surface storage. One of the main reasons that artificial recharge was not feasible was
that quite a thick blanket of clay existed between the aquifer system and the surface.
In the Bundaberg area also, the main source of recharge is from rainfall.

Chapter 25
Groundwater resource management
Contents
25.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672
25.1.1 What is groundwater management? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673
25.1.2 Why do we manage groundwater? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674
25.1.3 When do we manage groundwater? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675
25.1.4 How do we manage groundwater? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675
25.2 Basis of groundwater management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677
25.3 Sustainable yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
25.3.1 The concept of sustainable yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
25.3.2 Quantifying sustainable yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681
25.4 The management cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682
25.5 Management approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684
25.5.1 Management plans in Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686
25.5.2 Allocation and licensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692
25.5.3 Issuing of licences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694
25.6 What have we learned so far? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694
25.7 Management issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695
25.7.1 Groundwater use in excess of sustainable yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696
25.7.2 Groundwater accretion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698
25.7.3 Saltwater intrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698
25.7.4 Community involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698
25.8 Water trading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699
25.8.1 History of water trading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699
25.8.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699
25.8.3 Types of trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699
25.8.4 Benefits of trading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
25.8.5 Impediments to trading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701
25.8.6 Methods of trading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703
25.8.7 Current trading situations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707
25.9 Future directions in groundwater management and planning . . . . . . . . 709
25.1 Introduction
For most of the first two hundred years of settlement in Australia the main focus where water was
concerned was on exploiting the resource in order that Australia could develop both economically and
672
Chapter 25. Groundwater resource management
demographically [Mulligan and Pigram, 1989, Watson, 1990]. During this period water authorities de-
veloped dams and well fields and supply systems to harvest the resource and to promote growth. They
did little in the way of strategic planning or implementation of social or economic policies. State leg-
islative arrangements, which included the definition of ownership of water and the rights to water use,
subsequently followed the model established by the Victorian Irrigation Act 1886 by Alfred Deakin. It
established the principle that all streams were public property, and vested in the State or Crown the right
to the use and flow, and to the control of water in any watercourse. Following on from this the system
of administrative allocation of rights to water developed together with the infrastructure that was to be
managed by each State’s water authority.
Groundwater concerns arose subsequently to those of surface water [Bartlett, 1997]. In 1897, New South
Wales placed controls on the construction of bores, both to gather data and to limit groundwater use
by licensing the bores. However, it was Queensland in 1910 that first vested groundwater in the Crown,
and this was subsequently adopted by New South Wales (1912) Western Australia (1914), and Victoria
(1969). The Northern Territory vests the property in and the rights to the use, flow and control of all
water in the Crown (Water Act 1992).
Randall [1980] describes the 1980’s as a period when water management entered a mature phase. Water
authorities moved from solving their problems by building more dams or constructing more well fields, and
started to look at ways of allocating water more efficiently both environmentally and socially. They began
to promote efficient and equitable water allocation while at the same time protecting the environment.
Conflict between potential uses and between old developmental objectives and new environmental and
economic objectives had been played out in institutions responsible for resource expansion rather that
the efficient allocation of what was turning out to be scarce resources. In addition the severity and
consequences of environmental degradation of the resource and the environment was becoming more
obvious. Two closely related sets of issues were identified by Watson [1990] that related to these changes.
They were:
• The increasing scarcity of water and their efficient and equitable allocation; and,
• The increasing environmental problems and the sustainability of the resource.
In other words quantity and quality issues were identified.
A joint NLP/ARMCANZ project was undertaken in 1995 [Sinclair, 1995] to review groundwater allocation
practices in Australia, and to identify changes and reforms in operation, best practices, impediments to
adoption of new policies and practices, and suitable policies to promote at a National level to address
management needs for water reform. Water authorities are now managing these conflicting demands on
both the use and distribution of the resource during this period of reform accentuated by the COAG
water reforms of the late 1990’s [Tisdell, 2001], and the subsequent development of the National Water
Initiative (NWI) in 2004 (Commonwealth of Australia 2004). A fundamental concept in the NWI is the
need to deal with stressed water systems and the equitable sharing of water between all competing uses,
through the development of open, transparent, science-based water planning.
25.1.1 What is groundwater management?
When we talk about groundwater management we are basically talking about two main components:
quantity and quality. In managing groundwater resources we are responsible for:
• managing the volume of water that is stored in, and flows through, the particular groundwater
source, and
• protecting the quality of the water in the source for whatever beneficial use is required.

These two aspects of groundwater management are closely related and need to be considered together
when responsible management of groundwater is required. For instance, if we do not manage the quantity
side of the resource carefully we may be responsible for inducing deterioration in the quality of the
resource, such as in a coastal groundwater system that is threatened by saline intrusion.
The converse is also true. If we allow a groundwater resource to become contaminated we are then making
the management of the quantity, and its allocation for its perceived beneficial uses, more difficult. So it
is very important that in considering the management of a particular groundwater source we consider
both quantity and quality. However, for convenience, and provided this relationship is recognised, the two
aspects are considered separately in these notes. Within the groundwater industry, the term groundwater
management usually refers to the quantity management aspects. Groundwater protection usually refers
to groundwater quality protection. The discussion in this Chapter is confined to quantity management.
Under natural conditions, groundwater systems are in a state of long-term equilibrium within the hydro-
logic cycle. Human demands for the resource, and its subsequent allocation and abstraction, interfere
with this and as a consequence result in changes to the water balance. But management of groundwater
is not just the process of managing the various water balance components by controlling people’s use
of that resource and managing the impacts of that use. It is also about managing how people view the
resource and how well they respect its sometimes limited availability, as well as understanding what are
the communities’ expectations and the environment’s need for that resource. Today therefore, many
groundwater resources are managed collectively by government and the local community so that all who
are to be affected by groundwater management have ownership of the decisions that need to be taken,
however difficult they may be.
25.1.2 Why do we manage groundwater?
So why do we need to manage groundwater systems and resources? Sinclair [1995] identified urgent need
to improve groundwater management, for while nationally only 15% of available groundwater was being
used, there were many parts of Australia where groundwater was already developed. In simple terms, the
primary reasons for managing groundwater are to enable its effective utilisation and to avoid or mitigate
problems. In most cases we are dealing with problems that are associated with human utilisation of
groundwater resources, either directly by over-abstraction or indirectly through other activities such as
land clearing. However, the common reason for managing groundwater quantity is to deal with changes
that have been made to the water balance, whatever the cause be they human or natural.
Under natural conditions, groundwater systems are generally in long-term equilibrium, and there is a close
balance between input and outputs, in spite of the complex interactions between geology, ecology and
climate. The systems, though not constant, fluctuate within a static range and the environment adapts
and is an integral part of the equilibrium. Understanding the components of the hydrologic cycle gives
us the understanding of the groundwater system under natural conditions. Rainfall is the major input
for replenishing soil moisture and for recharging groundwater. However a large proportion is returned
directly to the atmosphere (through evaporation) before it can penetrate the ground surface. Some also
makes its way over the land surface, into waterways and flows away as streamflow, and may in fact
recharge groundwater elsewhere. Rainfall that does penetrate the land surface is partly intercepted by
the roots of vegetation and ultimately returned to the atmosphere as transpiration. The remaining water
then reaches the groundwater body. If that body is close to the surface, phreatophytic vegetation can
result in further loss through transpiration. The residual water may then discharge from the system as
sub-surface groundwater flow, or emerge as surface water through the banks of streams. These processes
are described in more detail in Chapter 5.
Groundwater recharge usually refers to the amount of water that reaches the groundwater body, and
while the cycle may vary from year to year, particularly when considering climate change and rainfall
variability, a state of equilibrium generally exists, dominated by the quantity of rainfall received.
However, human intervention can affect many of these components in many ways, such as:

• through clearing vegetation and reducing transpiration;

• by increasing the amount of water making its way below the land surface through stormwater sumps
and soak wells;
• through water applied to the ground for irrigation; and
• through pumping from the groundwater body.
These changes affect the natural equilibrium, and change the long-term balance and as some of these
changes are ongoing there is little chance for a new equilibrium to establish itself. The hydrological
cycle is now in an unnatural state, and some of the results of this change affect the natural environment.
Vegetation can change from natural to introduced for increased food provision, but now larger quantities
of water need to be applied in addition to the natural rainfall to make these plants grow. Water in excess
to plant requirements recharges the water table, often resulting in water table rises. Elsewhere, we may
use groundwater for irrigation or other uses at rates greater than its natural recharge.
Changes to the hydrological cycle and the original natural water balance can cause many problems.
Rising water tables can result in water logging and salinity, while falling water tables can result in
decreasing supplies and deteriorating water quality. Because of the connectivity of groundwater and
surface water there can be changes in the quality of water in rivers resulting from the changes in the
quality of groundwater base flow. Inevitably there will be changes in the natural ecosystems.
The natural hydrological balance has been upset and we now have to manage to achieve a new balance,
by managing the water balance components and their effects within acceptable limits. Understanding
the dynamic nature of the relationships between the water balance components is an important aspect
of groundwater management.
25.1.3 When do we manage groundwater?
Long term sustainability of both land and water resources is the essential goal for our long-term survival.
Both are necessary to provide food to meet the increasing population demands and these cannot be
provided without change to the natural environment. Areas have had to be cleared of native vegetation
and crops planted. Towns and industry require water, as do the crops. Water supplies have been sourced
from both surface and groundwater to ensure demands can be met. Management of our natural resources
has become essential to assure long term sustainability of both land and water resources, as failure to
do this properly will effect both the environment and the community. These are challenges that will
inevitably be the responsibility of resource managers to overcome.
We cannot wait until falling water levels, diminishing supplies, deteriorating water quality and increasing
land degradation before commencing management. It is important that we understand the resource, its
quantity and quality, and its competing demands at an early stage so that artificial changes to the natural
equilibrium can be controlled and managed as soon as possible. Management of groundwater cannot be
considered in isolation. Its interactions with other aspects of the environment must be considered along
with the necessity to achieve maximum benefits from the available resources, while ensuring its long-
term sustainability. Sinclair [1995] report identified that in 1995 there were about 500,000 wells and
bores in use for groundwater abstraction, but only about 20% were licensed, mostly the major users for
irrigation and public water supply, and providing information for management purposes. The 1995 value
of groundwater infrastructure and assets was estimated to be about $6.5 billion. Groundwater is very
important and valuable and its proper management is essential.
25.1.4 How do we manage groundwater?
How then do we set about managing our groundwater resources? Quite clearly the first step is to
understand the resource itself, and this involves a wide range of actions. We need to investigate, measure

and assess the resource. We must be able to store this information, particularly if ongoing data are being
collected, and be able to retrieve it again so that we can analyse time-series information to assess the
performance of the resource. We must be able to use the information to develop models that enable
us to predict the long term development and use of the resource and the effects that may occur. Most
importantly we need to be able to report, monitor and review the performance of the resource.
With the above information we can then employ a wide range of tools to help us manage the resource
equitably and in a sustainable manner. The most important tool we can have is a set of comprehensive
groundwater management plans. These can be at State level, regional level, sub-regional level, and at
local scale level, depending on our knowledge of the resource, its current state of utilization, existing
pressures, and the current and perceived future demands for the resource. A State plan may simply
set out the principles, objectives, directions and guidelines for how the State intends to manage its
groundwater resources. In doing so it should provide a strategic policy and planning framework for
meeting the State’s water demands for the present and into the future. It should aim to incorporate
the best modern approaches to water resource management. It needs to respond to the challenges being
faced from climate variability and climate change, resource sustainability, and increasing demands for the
resource.
A regional plan will concentrate on a particular region where there may be several aquifers with variable
current usage and demands. It is unlikely that any two regional plans in one State will be identical: each
region will have its own issues, challenges and opportunities. Regional plans should identify the issues
that are being faced, should deliver strategies to handle these issues, and a clear set of actions that need
to be undertaken. They may identify sources and large scale allocations. The role of the community in
contributing to the development of these plans and the setting of objectives is again paramount.
A sub-regional management plan could deal with a smaller sub-area within the main region and may focus
on the identification of significant environmental, social and cultural values. It could describe potential
source development sites and propose sustainable yields for individual sources, and it may recognize
significant proposed developments and define cumulative impacts.
A local scale plan may concentrate on a smaller area, and/or a limited aquifer where usage is already
at high levels and demands are great. These plans may deal with strategic water issues that cannot be
dealt with in State or regional plans. They are invariably more detailed management plans designed to
protect and allocate water resources in a sustainable manner. To what depth each plan can go depends
of course on the amount of information available. Groundwater management plans may set:
• sharing rules and limits

• threshold or trigger values which on being attained requires additional work to be undertaken
• rules for licensing water access and use
• local trading rules if the resource is reaching full usage
• requirements for monitoring and data collection
• timing for review of plans or moving to the next level (for example from regional to local).
Groundwater management plans may also set out the requirements for Water Management Committees or
Advisory Committees, which will have a high level of community participation. In some areas Catchment
Management Boards may set up to help manage the resource. In addition to developing and maintaining
these plans we can also employ legislative tools such as a requirement to license drillers, to license
all groundwater works and to require proponents of high water use ventures to undertake intensive
investigations and assessments to ensure the there is not only water available in the area in question, but
also that it can be used equitably and sustainably.

Figure 25.1: The components of the hydrologic cycle
25.2 Basis of groundwater management
The basis of all groundwater management is having a clear understanding of:
• hydrologic cycle
• the water balance
• groundwater sustainability, and
• sustainable yields.
To understand sustainable development and to allow us to manage water resources, we must understand
the relationships between surface water, groundwater, climate, landscape, and the biosphere - in other
words, the hydrologic cycle. We have discussed in earlier chapters the composition of the hydrologic cycle
and recognise that the cycle can be represented graphically in Fig. 25.1 which enables us to break down
the components of the cycle into measurable units.
Understanding and quantifying these components allows us to determine the water balance for the system
in question. This can be considered in a simple mathematical context, and in its most simple form is:
N et Recharge = N et Discharge + ∆S (25.1)
where:
∆S is change in storage (usually reflected by a change in water level or water pressure in the aquifer).
I = O + ∆S (25.2)
Where:

I is Net Recharge,
O is Net Discharge.
However, in many groundwater systems, particularly those with shallow depths to water table, the rela-
tionships between recharge and discharge are highly dynamic. To consider this in more detail, the input
and output terms can be expanded to:
I = P + Qon − Eta − Ro (25.3)
Where:
P is rainfall,
Qon is imported water (irrigation),
Ro is run off,
Eta is Evapotranspiration.
and:
O = Qout + Gout (25.4)
Where:
Qout is pumping abstraction,

Gout is groundwater flow leaving
Imported water includes such components as imported irrigation water applied to the land that can
infiltrate into the groundwater, or water brought into a residential area via a reticulated water supply
and allowed to discharge to the underlying groundwater system through septic tanks. Therefore, the
expanded water balance becomes:
R + Qon = Qout + Eta + Ron + Gout + ∆S (25.5)
In a natural situation for a system in equilibrium, the imported water, pumping and ∆S terms are zero and
the natural recharge equals the natural surface and groundwater outflows. In order for the groundwater
professional to manage a system to allow its full potential for use, the maximum pumping regime that will
ensure the change in storage is maintained within acceptable limits needs to be determined. Determining
the acceptable limits for this change becomes the real problem and is the essential issue in determining
sustainable yield.
In managing an irrigation area where groundwater accretion is occurring and rising water tables threaten
water logging, the problem is to manage the water balance components to offset the effects of imported
water on the storage. In this situation, the acceptable limits for the storage change are usually easy to
determine (being the height above which water logging degrades the land capability). Management is
usually effected by minimising the imported water or adding a pumping component to offset the increase
in net recharge caused by the infiltration of imported water, together with increasing irrigation efficiency.
25.3 Sustainable yield
25.3.1 The concept of sustainable yield
The concept of sustainable yield has been the subject of considerable debate for several decades. The
term has only been in vogue since the early 1990s when concepts of ecologically sustainable development

(ESD) emerged and sustainable yield has tended to replace the older terminology of safe yield. However,
the fundamentals of the sustainable yield concept were included in much of the debate over definitions of
the term safe yield. The use of the safe yield concept persists today in some areas however it is generally
being replaced by the sustainable yield concept.
The safe yield concept of pumping being equal to recharge is clearly unsustainable. Under long term
equilibrium conditions, the amount of recharge is equivalent to the amount of water being discharged to
a stream, spring, wetland or ocean, with storage remaining constant. If pumping is introduced at the rate
of recharge then the volume of water previously available to discharge will be used and streams, springs
and wetlands will begin to dry up.
It is interesting to examine some of the definitions for safe or sustainable yield that have been put forward
over the decades. Early definitions were loosely tied to quantity, quality and economic aspects. Lee [1915]
defined safe yield as
the limit to the quantity of water which can be withdrawn regularly and permanently without
dangerous depletion of the resource
Meinzer [1923] expanded on this with:
the rate at which water can be withdrawn from an aquifer for human use without depleting
the supply to the extent that withdrawal at this rate is no longer economically feasible,
while, Conkling [1946] produced the definition of
Safe yield is an extraction of water which does not: exceed the average annual recharge; lower
the water table so that the permissible cost of pumping is exceeded; lower the water table so
as to permit intrusion of water of undesirable quality
Todd [1959] simplified the definition to
the amount of water that can be withdrawn from (a groundwater basin) annually without
producing an undesired result,
and Lohman [1972] perhaps oversimplified it to:
the amount of water one can withdraw without getting into trouble
However, in 1999 some new concepts were suggested! Evans et al. [1998] produced a definition which
introduced the concept of a specified planning timeframe and described sustainability as
the level of extraction, measured over a specified planning timeframe, that should not be
exceeded to protect the higher value social, environmental and economic uses associated with
the aquifer
One could criticise this definition in as much as it pays no attention to intergenerational equity.
In examining these definitions, there is a succession of recurring themes:
• limit on extraction amount (limit to quantity, rate, amount of water, level of extraction);
• identified resource (the resource, the aquifer, groundwater basin);

• time element (annually, regularly and permanently, specified planning timeframe); and
• constraints or limiting condition (dangerous depletion, recharge rates, lowering of the water table,
economic costs of pumping, saline intrusion, undesired result, getting into trouble, protection of
higher value uses).
Pre Evans et al. [1998], there was a general expectation that sustainable yield definitions should imply
fixed rates of extraction that can be sustained continuously and perpetually. However, this argument
does not reflect the dynamic nature of many groundwater systems, such as those that have a small storage
compared to recharge rates, and where extraction regimes must be applied to optimise extraction rates
within the given constraints. Therefore level of extraction would read better as levels of extraction or
extraction regime.
Most of the definitions tend to presuppose continued extraction, rather than extraction over specified
time frames, which might be the case in temporary mining situations where the impacts of storage
depletion might be tolerable within a short timeframe, but not in the longer term. The Evans et al.
[1998] definition challenges the time element and provides for flexibility in this aspect. This expectation
of fixed perpetual rates also does not recognise the potential for mining of groundwater storage where there
might be a substantial strategic benefit that far outweighs any impacts of such extraction levels. It may
appropriate to only use a resource for a fixed term and not necessarily in perpetuity. Mineral extraction
projects where the ore body has a limited extent and therefore a finite mine-life provide an example of
this. The definitions also tended to consider single aquifers, and not the overall system, including the
interconnectivity with surface waters in many cases. Todd’s definition considered the groundwater basin,
but did not extend to consideration of related surface water resources. The other definitions are either
silent on this issue or are overly specific.
The matter of constraints or limiting condition is probably the most contentious aspect, and it can also
be the most difficult to define in a quantitative sense. Most of the above definitions try to define the
limiting condition in some way, some quite specifically (for example, economically feasible), others very
generally or subjectively (for example: dangerous depletion or undesired result). However, with even the
more specific constraints, they are still somewhat subjective. It is important to recognise that limiting
conditions can vary widely from resource to resource depending on the local circumstances, and may
be socially, economically, or environmentally based, or a combination of all three. While Lohman and
Todd’s definitions recognised that there was a range of limiting conditions to be considered, and covered
them with general terms, they did not specifically consider that environmental impacts of groundwater
extraction could be limiting conditions, nor that unacceptable environmental impacts could easily be
accommodated within those definitions.
The Evans et al. [1998] definition covers these issues, but perhaps suffers from the inability to deal with a
limiting condition that might fit into a category other than social, economic or environmental. While this
value set adequately categorises the values that are considered important by the community at the present
time, they may not reflect the value sets of the future and do not recognise issues of intergenerational
equity.
In 2002, a National definition was proposed by the National Groundwater Committee which defined
sustainability as
The groundwater extraction regime, measured over a specified planning time frame, that
allows acceptable levels of stress and protects the higher value uses that have dependency on
the water.
In this definition:
Extraction regime : is a set of extraction limits that are defined within time and space, such as critical
water levels, or quality trigger rules. They may be set as an annual maximum volume or may be
a monthly volume. For short periods an extraction in excess of recharge may be acceptable for a
specified period provided it is followed by an extraction rate less than recharge.

Specified planning timeframe : sets a period of time which can be of a short or long duration, and
can be from months to decades. While it has been suggested by some that the time frame could
stretch to 100s of years, we must remember that this is not only un-measurable, it also does not
include intergenerational equity in the decision.
Acceptable levels of stress : recognizes that any extraction will result in some stress on the total
system , including groundwater dependent ecosystems. Defining acceptable levels will require trade-
offs and will almost certainly require community input into decision making. The trade-offs will
require the balancing of environmental, social and economic needs.
Higher value uses : includes environmental and ecological values as well as social and economic ones.
At the end of the day, the argument comes down to maintaining extraction levels within the limits of
acceptable impacts and then deciding about what is acceptable or not, based on the community’s values
of the day.
Sustainability is something that we should continuously strive to achieve, and we should recognize that
it is a dynamic concept that will continue to be refined. It may never be fully achievable in a dynamic
world of population changes, climate variability and global warming, and economic and social pressures.
The challenge for the water resource manager is to turn the principles of sustainability and groundwater
sustainable yield, however they are defined, into achievable policies. The move from principle to practice
is not easy. Science alone cannot chose the correct interpretations for society but any interpretation must
be based on sound science and understanding, and above all community involvement. Communities have
a vested interest in ensuring sustainability of water resources, and this should be clearly recognized by
government.
In summary: The concept of sustainable yield is more a social construct that a scientific principle.
25.3.2 Quantifying sustainable yield
Quantifying sustainable yield is fundamental to groundwater management as it sets the basis for the
management plans, and licensing and allocation rules discussed above, and eventually the development
of water trading markets. But it is difficult to do without the right data, and in the past many safe yields
have been determined on the basis of limited information. This invariably has lead to over development of
aquifers and all of the accompanying issues. Retrieval of over-allocated resources is a difficult, expensive
and politically sensitive issue. Quantifying the sustainable yield of a resource or system is, in most cases,
based on defining a maximum value (or set of values) for the pumping term in the expanded water balance
equation discussed in a previous section.
R + Qon = Qout + Eta + Ron + Gout + ∆S (25.6)
There are a number of difficulties in obtaining the information to achieving this. Defining the ∆S term as
the limiting condition is one of the most difficult to achieve. Extensive public consultation processes may
be necessary to ensure all the competing values and interests are taken into account and properly dealt
with in defining an acceptable change in storage regime. Assuming that the term can be defined as the
acceptable limiting condition, estimates have to then be made of the other terms to allow the pumping
term to be considered as the remaining unknown.
Defining rainfall, and therefore the volume available for recharge, is relatively easy. Weather agency
records provide a basis for defining a volume provided the recharge area for the system being considered
is known. This can be problematic for confined and semi-confined aquifer systems. The rainfall term is
the rainfall multiplied by the recharge area.
The imported water component can usually be estimated with a reasonable degree of reliability based on
metered flows, or from information available in the literature. Estimates of surface runoff can often be

made, particularly if flows in streams overlying the aquifer are regularly measured. Groundwater outflow
can be a problem as it requires knowledge of the aquifer parameters (transmissivity, hydraulic gradients
and discharge areas). However, estimates can often be made with a reasonable level of confidence and an
investigation program can be designed to ensure a high level of confidence.
Evapotranspiration (Et) is often very difficult to estimate with any reasonable degree of confidence and
is a major problem because it is the dominant term in most situations. It is the core of the problem in
the accuracy of quantifying groundwater systems.
In most classical groundwater systems, net recharge rates to the groundwater body range from less than
1% up to about 30% of rainfall (typically 10 to 15%). Consequently Et ranges from about 70% of rainfall
to more than 99%. If we were to take an example where recharge is 10% of rainfall (Et is 90%), if the Et
estimation has only a 1% error (say it is 91% rather than 90%), then the net recharge has a 10% error
(is 9% rather than 10%). If the Et estimate is 10% out, then the net recharge value can be out by 100%.
Where Et is greater than 90% of rainfall, the error potential for the net recharge rate is higher again.
Therefore, because of the inherent difficulties in estimating Et with any reasonable degree of accuracy,
we must be very cautious about our estimates of sustainable yield based on the water balance approach.
There are, however, compensating factors.
The water balance terms are not independent of each other. For example, the Et, surface and groundwater
outflow components of an unconfined groundwater system relate directly to the storage level of the system.
Reducing the storage will reduce these outflows and allow more water to be pumped, and rainfall that
was previously rejected by the aquifer because of a high storage level (becoming runoff or Et) can now
recharge the groundwater system.
Initial estimates of sustainable yield are usually made through use of models. Obtaining the information
required to achieve a water balance and to define sustainable yield has many operational difficulties. The
ability to actually measure the components and arrive at a sustainable yield is not always simple. As
discussed above there may be (usually is) a lack of adequate and reliable data, measurements of inflow
and outflow parameters may be difficult, and an understanding of the groundwater flow dynamics and
inter-aquifer connections may be difficult to obtain. In some areas there may be unknown ecological
constraints, social and economic issues, and groundwater-surface water interactions.
A further complicating factor is the changing nature of the land uses over a region, and their impact
on the various water balance components. For example, clearing of vegetation and urbanisation has a
substantial effect on recharge rates. These relationships all need to be understood before they can be
adequately modelled. And above all we have to allow for climate change and variability and the possibility
of drier conditions (less rainfall, less recharge, reduced storage, reduced discharge) or in some areas the
opposite.
However, the primary means of determining the sustainable yield of a groundwater system is to place it
under some stress, to observe its responses when water is being extracted and to use the observed data
to continually refine our understanding of the water balance components. This is particularly the case
when there are limited data available for the system. Given that utilisation of most groundwater systems
increases progressively, the continual re-evaluation of the resource as it is being developed can ensure
extraction levels are maintained within limits that do not compromise the limiting conditions. The key
to this is monitoring and re-evaluation in a properly planned management cycle and the application of
precaution in initial estimates of extractable volumes. One of the few positive comments that can be
made in the face of all the uncertainty is that groundwater development can proceed incrementally. If
the correct monitoring is carried out, then disasters can be readily avoided.
25.4 The management cycle
The management cycle is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 25.2. The important features are:

Figure 25.2: The Management Cycle
• the initial estimate of sustainable yield which has been based on available information and incor-
porates those estimates in a management plan. Depending on the availability of data in developing
this there may be a need to be cautious in setting the extractable volumes.
• managing the extraction of water according to the management plan. This means careful application
of the allocation and licensing guidelines developed in the plan, as well as monitoring and in some
areas surveillance of groundwater use. This may be assisted where metering is a requirement of
licensing and where all bores are licensed irrespective of use and extractable volumes.
• monitoring and reviewing both the performance of the resource and effectiveness of the management
plan. This also includes monitoring and reviewing the social, environmental and economic outcomes
of the plan and re-evaluating the management objectives of the plan.
Monitoring and review are extremely important. The re-evaluation of the management plan brings
together all the issues that need to be considered and ensures that the management plan is actually
meeting the objectives that have been set for the resource. It also allows for new issues to be introduced
particularly if there have been new demands for resources in the monitored area. Under the pressure of
limited resources to undertake the development of management plans, the importance of monitoring and
review can often be overlooked.
A simple example could be an unconfined groundwater system that supports wetlands with clearly iden-
tified environmental values such as providing a habitat for specific fauna. The management plan usually
converts those environmental values into a water level regime that needs to be maintained to ensure these
values are protected, and the system is then managed by controlling extractions to ensure the water levels
remain within the specified regime. The monitoring and review process needs to check if the resulting
water level regime achieves the objective of maintaining the prescribed habitat.

Re-evaluating the management plan may also include a re-evaluation of the prescribed management
regime, and may require the re-calibration of any models used to predict future performance of the
system.
25.5 Management approaches
In most of Australia, management of groundwater resources is undertaken by various State Governments.

Some States have a specified water management agency (for example Western Australia has a Depart-
ment of Water) whereas others management is undertaken within an environmental agency or a natural
resource management agency. In some States, where the resource may have been privately developed for
a mining venture, management control may be vested in the developer under supervision of the State
water management agency. All States have their own legislation that specifically sets out the conditions,
regulations and responsibilities in groundwater management. Most management policies now tend to
lessen the distinction between groundwater and surface water and tend towards integrated catchment
management where all natural resources (land, water and vegetation) are considered in the formulation
of any management policy. The formulation of Natural Resource Management legislation has brought
the integrated management of natural resources under the one management portfolio in some States.
Management of groundwater resources throughout Australia varies from State to State. Some States such
as New South Wales and Victoria have control on groundwater over the whole of their State, while others
such as Queensland and Northern Territory have control over specifically proclaimed areas. Western
Australia did fall into this latter category but are now moving to have the whole State proclaimed as a
groundwater area, which also reflects the importance of groundwater in this State.
Since the 1990’s the directions for groundwater management have been driven by national policy agree-
ments associated with managing our natural resources, including groundwater. An Inter-Governmental
Agreement on the Environment and the National Strategy for Ecologically Sustainable Development set
out philosophies and principles for managing water resources. In 1992, COAG (the Council of Australian
Governments) agreed that future development of all relevant policies and programs should take place
within the framework of these documents, and specifically indicated that groundwater was not to be
managed in isolation.
In 1996, the Task Force on COAG Water Reform published a paper, titled Allocation and Use of Ground-
water: A National Framework for Improved Groundwater Management in Australia, which set out specific
advice to the water management authorities on appropriate arrangements to ensure that groundwater
management practices are consistent with the intent of the COAG Water Reform Framework Agreement
and identifies a range of key reforms directly related to the COAG reform agenda. The recommendations
are listed here:
Recommendation 1 Groundwater management policies should employ the principles of ecologically

sustainable development and should be directed at achieving the sustainable use of the resource.
ARMCANZ should develop an agreed nationally consistent definition and approach to sustainable
groundwater yield.
Recommendation 2 All States should adopt the National Drillers Licensing system for water produc-
tion wells by 1997 and should seek to expand the system to all drilling.
Recommendation 3 Groundwater and surface water management should be better integrated includ-
ing approaches to pricing (especially adjacent to public surface water regulated schemes), water
allocations, and trading to ensure consistency.
Recommendation 4 In preparing groundwater management plans, policies, and strategies. States
should ensure that the efficient utilisation of groundwater resources is not compromised by the
protection of existing users with inefficiently designed or constructed wells. This particularly applies
to domestic and stock wells.

Recommendation 5 States should develop groundwater management plans based on a sound under-
standing of the resource. These plans should be the primary support for the development of ground-
water allocation and property rights systems to support intra-aquifer trading both within States
and across State borders.
Recommendation 6 In developing groundwater management plans, State agencies responsible for
groundwater management ensure that those plans include identification of the sustainable yield
and the levels of allocation and use of aquifers. Those plans should also include an identification of
environmental water provisions in accordance with the principles set out in the joint ARMCANZ
and ANZECC National Principles for the Provision of Water for Ecosystems. Where allocations
exceed the sustainable yields, the agencies should develop strategies to reduce abstractions to sus-
tainable levels within time frames which minimise permanent damage to the resource.
Recommendation 7 The provision by the driller, to the relevant State Authority, of well construction
data should be a mandatory requirement, with provision made for exemption in area, or circum-
stances, where the information is not required.
Recommendation 8 In all areas where there are high yielding wells, monitoring and data collection
of water levels and water quality should be undertaken to a sufficiently high standard to ensure
adequate information is available to manage the resource sustainably. Where licensing is used as
the primary mechanism for data collection, the provision of necessary management information
will generally require the licensing of high yielding wells. Definitions of high yielding wells will
vary between resources, as the criteria used to define such wells would include their significance of
impact on the resource, other users and dependent ecosystems. The States will need to define these
separately.
Recommendation 9 The full cost of groundwater management should be identified by the States. The
cost of direct management activities should be recovered from users and within the context of the
overall water cycle, appropriate apportionment of indirect costs be given consideration. Outside
urban water supplies, the remaining subsidies should be transparent where full cost recovery is not
achievable. The necessary charges should be implemented progressively by 2001, and particular
attention should be given to timely resolution where, and as trading in groundwater is likely to be
demanded by the market. Public communication on these matters will be important. With reference
to Recommendation 3 above. States should give consideration to the consequences of differential
pricing between surface and groundwater. States should examine the means for meeting the indirect
costs of groundwater management including investigations which are not appropriately apportioned
to users; options may include a direct but transparent subsidy. Recovery of management costs from
domestic and stock well owners is to be considered by the States as part of their overall cost recovery
strategy.
Recommendation 10 The Federal Government should publicly identify its full costs of involvement
in groundwater activities to assist in the negotiation of priorities for Commonwealth funding of
groundwater management activities.
Recommendation 11 State and Federal agencies should develop and implement organisational ar-
rangements and processes which specifically eliminate conflict of interest situations in groundwater
assessment and management.
Recommendation 12 SCARM should assess the opportunities for increasing public awareness of the
value of groundwater, its vulnerability to over use and damage through other activities and the
need for groundwater management as key issues, and encourage the States to develop appropriate
awareness programs.
The National Water Initiative (Commonwealth of Australia 2004) gave clear guidelines as to what should
be required in the development of water plans by: Recognising that settling the trade-offs between
competing outcomes for water systems will involve judgements informed by best available science, socio-
economic analysis and community input, statutory water plans will be prepared for surface water and
groundwater management units in which entitlements are issued (paragraph 36).

25.5.1 Management plans in Australia
Groundwater in Australia is managed at statewide level through the application of statewide policy, and
at a more detailed level through local area scale plans. A considerable part of Australia is still managed
at statewide level because of either the low level of development or because of the general poor quality
of the groundwater resources. Groundwater management plans for particular areas vary across States,
and can be in the form of regional, sub-regional, and local scale as discussed earlier. Fig. 25.3, adapted
from Hamstead et al. [2008] illustrates a conceptual model for water planning, while Fig. 25.4, also
adapted from Hamstead et al. [2008], depicts the generic water planning process and the components of
a water plan. While this process is depicted in linear steps, Hamstead et al. [2008] note that the process
is iterative and may require revisiting and reworking many of the early steps as the plan is developed.
The development of the more detailed groundwater management plans generally requires a more detailed
understanding of the geology and hydrogeology, groundwater occurrence and availability, local water use
and demand, water use practices and environmental water requirements. The more highly groundwater
resources are developed in a particular area, the more detailed will be the management plans for that area.
Fig. 25.5 illustrates the typical management effort and data requirements that are needed for management
plans for differing management units. Typically in a Type 1 situation, where licensed entitlements and
water usage are low for the known resource that amount of detail required for managing the unit the
amount of planning required could be low. At the same time there is more latitude in the understanding
of environmental water provisions and entitlements.
However, as licensed entitlements and water usage increases the degree of uncertainty allowable for
environmental water provisions decreases and the demand for a better understanding of the resource is
greater. The essence of water management and planning is to avoid the situations of Type 3 if possible
and never to reach the situation of Type 4. As these positions are reached the trade-offs between licensed
entitlements and environmental water provisions become more important and debatable, particularly in a
period of climate change and diminishing water resources. Fig. 25.6 shows in more detail the management
responses linked to the increasing demands placed on groundwater management units as the demand for
allocation entitlements and water use increases.
New South Wales
In New South Wales (Commonwealth of Australia 2008a) the Water Management Act 2000 deals with
managing water sources through water sharing plans, which can be surface water, groundwater, or a
combination of both, although only a few are in the latter category. In NSW in 2004, 31 water sharing
plans were commenced and there are currently five water sharing plans for the State’s main groundwater
resources. These plans establish rules for sharing water between the environmental needs of the river
or aquifer and water users, and also between different types of water users such as town supply, rural
domestic supply, stock watering, industry and irrigation for the next ten years.
This provides a decade of security for the environment and water users, which ensures that water is
specifically provided for the environment through a legally binding plan, and allows licence holders,
who require fairly large quantities of water such as irrigators, to better plan their business activities.
Irrigation accounts for about 80% of all water used in NSW. In addition, water sharing plans set rules
for water trading, that is, the buying and selling of water licences and also annual water allocations. For
most new commercial purposes, water trading remains the only way that water can now be obtained as
in most areas of the state as the available water is fully allocated. To assist with the development of
sharing plans where there is a high degree of connectivity between groundwater and surface water NSW
has developed a policy on the management of highly connected unregulated river-aquifer systems which
allows for different approaches depending on whether the system under review is a groundwater dominant,
surface water dominant or an equally dominant system (Department of Land and Water Conservation
2004).
The remaining areas of the State are to be covered by macro water plans. These are broader-scale water
sharing plans and will be prepared as river catchment or groundwater system plans. They include up

Figure 25.3: Water planning: conceptual model

Figure 25.4: Water planning process and plan content

Figure 25.5: Effort and requirements for groundwater management units
Figure 25.6: Typical management responses in groundwater management units in response to increasing
allocation

to 12 groundwater plans and generally apply to aquifers where there is less intensive water use. They
will be developed through a process involving technical assessments, classification, and development of
water sharing rules by seven regional panels and one Groundwater Panel. They will set long-term annual
extraction limits, and in some cases daily extraction limits, on the amount of water that can be taken.
Northern Territory
In the Northern Territory (Commonwealth of Australia 2008b) the Water Act provides for, inter alia, the
management of water resources and a beneficial uses and a water allocation plan may be declared within a
water district to enable water management to be undertaken. In developing these environmental, cultural,
public water supply, industry aquaculture, irrigation, and stack and domestic uses are recognized. Water
resource management must be in accordance with the water allocation plan. These plans allocate water to
declared beneficial uses, ensure that water use does not exceed allocations, control the trading of licences,
and allow for recovery of water management costs. Statutory declaration of theses allocation plans and
the application of licensing controls is only possible in water control districts of which there are currently
six. In the Northern territory the management of groundwater used for mining and petroleum activities
is subject to an inter-agency memorandum of understanding that ensures the resources are used within
sustainable limits, as per the 2000 definition which has been adopted by the Territory.
Queensland
In Queensland (Commonwealth of Australia 2008c), highly developed groundwater areas are managed
under a water resource plan, which is implemented through a resource operations plan. The water
resource plans include both surface water and groundwater; the operational details are set out in the
operations plan. Water users have one licence with an allocation which applies only to the taking of
a particular volume of water. The water resource and resource operations plans allow for conjunctive
water management to take place, the only limitations being the data availability, the understanding
of the interaction processes, the technical tools available, and the expertise to run those tools. Those
groundwater management units in Queensland that do not have a groundwater management plan are
managed through a formal management arrangement between government agencies, local councils and
mining interests.
South Australia
In South Australia (Commonwealth of Australia 2008d) groundwater is managed under the Water Re-
sources Act 1997. A State Water Plan, (Government of South Australia 2000), provides the policy
framework for water resource management and use in South Australia, with catchment management
plans, water allocation plans and local water management plans providing the regional and local focus.
The Act requires that all of these plans are consistent with the State Water Plan and allows for regular
reviews to ensure consistency through a comprehensive process of community involvement. Management
of water resources in South Australia, including allocation, is based on the principles of sustainable de-
velopment and integrated natural resource management, and the State has adopted the 2000 definition of
sustainability. The State has some 59 water management areas, within which it had in 2005 15 approved
management plans, and some 12 in progress. A further 12 areas were being managed by statewide policy,
20 by regional area plans and 27 by area management plans. A strong involvement from the community
is provided through the formation of catchment water management boards.
Tasmania
In Tasmania (Commonwealth of Australia 2008e) groundwater is managed under the Water Management
Act 1999 which provides for all licensing, allocation, water use restriction, trading and other water

management issues. It requires water to be allocated to the environment, sets priorities for access to water
when demand exceeds supply and provides for the development of water management plans as the primary
mechanism for managing groundwater (Department of Primary Industries, Water, and the Environment
2005). Each of Tasmania’s groundwater management units are currently managed under statewide policy
and do not have individual groundwater management plans. Currently water management plans are being
developed for surface water resources, but there is some groundwater use within those areas, and ideally
surface water and groundwater should be considered together in all plans. There is provision in the Act to
allow for the allocation of water resources affecting a second, hydraulically- linked resource. All plans also
need to consider environmental needs of the second source. Thus surface water dependent ecosystems must
be considered in a groundwater management plan and groundwater dependent ecosystems in a surface
water management plan. The majority of groundwater management will initially through licensing,
and all surface water management plans have included a provision to have groundwater licensing for
commercial users in place (Department of Primary Industries, Water, and the Environment 2004).
Victoria
In Victoria (Commonwealth of Australia 2008f) groundwater and surface water are managed in an in-
tegrated approach under the Victorian Water Act (1989) to ensure that there are no inconsistencies in
the way both resources and waterways are treated. This is achieved through the development of water
management plans. Under the Act it is possible to declare a Water Supply Protection Area to ensure
protection of either groundwater resources or surface water resources, or both. Upon declaration a wa-
ter management plan is a requirement to manage the resources in an equitable and sustainable manner.
Groundwater in Victoria is currently managed according to the geographical area, and the principal man-
agement unit is a groundwater management unit, which can be a groundwater management area (the
geographical area from which groundwater is abstracted), a water supply protection area (see above) or
an unincorporated area(where there is currently no significant development of groundwater). In 2005-06,
of the 70 groundwater management areas in Victoria only six were considered to be under stress, and
all have been declared water supply protection areas so that no more licences can be issued. Manage-
ment plans are being developed to ensure allocations are managed to a sustainable level (Department of
Sustainability and Environment 2005, 2007).
Western Australia
In Western Australia (Commonwealth of Australia 2008g) groundwater is currently managed under the
Rights in Water and Irrigation Act (1914). The Water Resources Legislation Amendment Act (2007) came
into operation in February 2008, repealing the Water and Rivers Commission Act (1995), abolishing the
Water and Rivers Commission and assigning its functions and powers to the Minister for Water Resources
and the Department of Water. While water resource management was undertaken by the Water and
Rivers Commission from 1996 (Water and Rivers Commission 2004), from 2007 these duties will now
devolve to the Department of Water. The Commission developed a wide range of applicable policies to
deal with the processes for water sharing, environmental water provisions, transferable (tradeable) water
entitlements and licensing (Water and Rivers Commission 2000a, b, 2001, 2003).
The next step will be wide ranging legislative reform which will include the modernisation and consol-
idation of existing water legislation into three Bills - a Water Services Bill, a Water Corporations Bill,
and a Water Resource Management Bill. The latter will merge parts of the Rights in Water and Irri-
gation Act (1914), the Metropolitan Water Supply Sewerage and Drainage Act (1909) and the Country
Areas Water Supply Act (1947) and will update the powers and responsibilities of the government in the
management of the State’s water resources, as outlined in the National Water Initiative. In 2007 a State
Water Plan (Government of Western Australia 2007) was released which commits the State Government
to sustainably manage Western Australia’s water resources and sets out a water policy framework to
guide management in the State, and a water planning framework to achieve the multiple objectives in
full water cycle management. Under the planning framework Regional Water Plans and Strategic Water
Issue Plans will be developed and these will be strategic, informative, and will optimise all aspects of

Figure 25.7: Determining allocation and licensing requirements
the water cycle (Department of Water 2008, Government of Western Australia 2008). Beneath these
plans will be developed a series of Statutory Water Management Plans, together with detailed plans
to protect drinking water sources and to manage drainage and floodplains. Where possible these plans
will be integrated to address the total sustainability of the resource. Water management plans will be
used to secure allocations by moving from licences to water access entitlements. Nine statutory water
management plans are planned for completion by 2011.
25.5.2 Allocation and licensing
All States manage groundwater resources by allocating water under a system of issuing licences or water
access entitlements. Allocation planning is a major part of managing groundwater use. It involves decid-
ing how much water is available from a particular source, or in a particular area, and then determining
how much can be taken and, importantly, how it should be accessed. It can be a complex task depending
upon the size of the resource, its current usage, and its perceived future demands. An area that is already
over-allocated, and/or having many competing demands will require greater expenditure of resources to
manage that an area with minimal use or demand. The development of allocation plans typically involve
three stages and include:
• collection of information
• determination of available resources
• management actions
Fig 25.7 illustrates the general processes required to achieve the management requirements. Information
collection may involve the carrying out of detailed water resource investigations, an assessment of existing
and future water use, and a consideration of the social, cultural and economic importance of the resource.

The whole purpose of this stage is to get a better understanding of the total water resource. Determination
of available resources is based on the data and information gathered above, and enables the manager to
make assumptions and decisions on how much water is available and how it can be allocated to meet the
demands of the environment and the consumer.
Management actions can then be determined and will include the setting of allocation limits, licensing
requirements and other management actions to ensure sustainable management. These actions should
include appropriate monitoring requirements of the resource, of its use, of the meeting of environmental
targets and other issues, and must allow for an evaluation of the allocation and management plan.
This is all part of the management cycle referred to earlier. The number of users and the amount of
water that can be used may be regulated through the issuing of a limited number of licences. However,
the determination of annual water volumes which can be safely extracted provides the opportunity to
manage the resource to achieve the maximum benefit while maintaining environmental values. Allocation
of groundwater should be carried out considering two major factors:
• The volume allocated,

• the aerial distribution of allocations.
The yield of a groundwater system ideally should be spread over the aerial extent of that system - too much
or too little use from particular parts of the aquifer might cause supply or environmental problems. The
allowed allocation could be based on a yield per square kilometre of accessible aquifer by the proponent,
or on a volume of flow through the aquifer beneath the land owned by the proponent. This may be
difficult to manage however as often the demand for water for a particular use may not be able to be met
from the available resource beneath or flowing through the licence seeker’s property. Some States do not
allow the accessing of water from other owner’s land without express approval. There are some general
management techniques to achieve the maximum sustainable use from groundwater basins.
Groundwater models are perhaps the most useful tools available to managers. Well calibrated models
allow various use distribution scenarios to be simulated and their effects studied. Generally, if the models
are good enough, they can be used to show the result of any groundwater management strategy before it is
implemented. Hence, policies can be implemented which should achieve the results required. Techniques
that can be used include:
1. Fixed water allocations, where licences can use up to a fixed amount. Penalties can be applied if
use exceeds allocations.
2. Announced allocations, where allocations are varied, usually from 75% to 125% of the fixed alloca-
tion, depending on the volume in storage at the start of the main demand period.
3. A system of advanced draws, where licensees can ”borrow” against next year’s allocation, with that
year’s allocation being reduced (a gamble on next year’s wet season).
4. A system of moving averages, whereby use is averaged with the two (or some other agreed number)
preceding years, in order to average water use with the varying seasons.
5. Temporary trading, where unused allocations can be transferred to other users, usually subject to
some conditions. These transfers are usually private transactions, often financial, which must be
sanctioned by the managing authorities.
6. Permanent trading, where allocations can be sold permanently to others.
7. Conjunctive allocations where groundwater and surface water allocations are tied.
The introduction of such variable use techniques to management allows maximum benefit to be gained
from the groundwater system.

25.5.3 Issuing of licences
With allocation of resources assessed and the issuing of a licence to extract a volume of water determined,
another management instrument is the requirement for the drilling of wells or bores and the extracting
of water to be subject to a licence. In areas subject to control, the following is usually required:
1. Licences for landholders to construct and use wells.

2. Licences for drillers to construct wells. A uniform system of licensing of drillers between all States
has now been agreed upon and is being implemented. A further aim by most States is to have
industry regulation of drillers’ licences.
3. A minimum construction standard for water wells in Australia has been agreed to by all States.
This standard has recently been published and distributed to all water drillers.
4. The licences for wells in most States can contain various conditions for use, usually specifying type
of use, the allocated annual volume and in some cases, charges for water. Often, such conditions
include metering of water used.
5. Most States now have a system of appeal against decisions made by the water management authority,
in a court or through a Ministerial inquiry.
25.6 What have we learned so far?
In 2007 and 2008 the National Water Commission, in reviewing progress within the States in water reform,
noted that while progress in implementing the agreed planning process had been good, the completion
of the actual plans for various management units had been slow. Delays had been attributed to the time
needed to undertake consultation, the time needed to acquire the appropriate science, and the ubiquitous
resource constraints, both human and financial.
In 2008 the National Water Commission undertook a review of progress within the States through an
in-depth study of 11 case studies across Australia [Hamstead et al., 2008]. The review noted the various
State and Territory agencies responsible for water planning, while having committed significant financial
investment into the process, had had a varied approach to the development of plans, sometimes even
within a State. It was clear that the process had developed with experience, sometimes experimentally,
but not always effectively. The purpose of the review of the case studies therefore was to review the
lessons learned and to determine a way to move forward through sharing these experiences. The report
identified a number of key learnings. These were:
• There are a variety of approaches to water planning between the States and Territories, but there
was a trend seen of more detailed plans set within broad strategic plans or statewide policies
• The integration of water allocation planning with catchment/natural resource management and
water planning was not often clear, and it was evident that some states were still developing
suitable approaches.
• Achieving ecological sustainability. The review showed that plans generally aimed at maintain-
ing the current environmental values through stopping further decline, though some aimed for a
restoration of values at least partially.
• Forecasting future inflow patterns, i.e. groundwater recharge rates, were often assumed to be a
continuation of past patterns, although the recent drought has demonstrated the limitations of this
approach. Climate change is only just beginning to be given credence in water planning.
• Achieving distributional equity, i.e. the perception of equity and fairness. While this is contained
in objectives of the plans, its implementation has not proved to be straight forward.

• Building community confidence in the planning process to ensure the viability of the plans as they
are developed. While several approaches have been undertaken within the various authorities there
is a need to improve and to better increase the transparency and objectivity of the various trade-offs
and the final decision making progress. What was evident was the need to have clear and strong
policy frameworks in place before water planning commenced.
• Improving community engagement. Most of the studies used stakeholder advisory committees and
invitations for public submissions on papers and plans. However there is room for improvement.
There is a need for developing a consultation plan with the stakeholders that sets out policy ground
rules, clear objectives of what is to be achieved, and the approaches to be used, and is signed off at
Ministerial level will give stakeholders confidence in the process and reduce cynicism.
• Dealing with uncertainty and change. Nature, society and sustainability is constantly changing
and plans need to account for this. This means regular reviews of plans, supported by appropriate
monitoring and assessments to determine the success or otherwise of the plan, and the ability to
respond to shorter timeframe changes. However this can lead to conflict between the need to adapt
and the demand by some for certainty (e.g. for investment confidence).
• Improving risk and impact assessments. While the review noted a variety of approaches it also noted
a need to develop methods to assess ecological flow requirements and risks, to better undertake socio-
economic assessments (some plans omitted these), the need to develop multiple criteria assessment
tools, and to better integrate Indigenous values and interpretations into water planning.
• Handling of the connectivity between surface water and groundwater varied between agencies and
while some took this interconnectivity on board in their plans, others concluded that it was in-
significant. A need to develop better approaches for identifying and quantifying this connectivity
is evident.
• Providing the needed human resources. The need for appropriately skilled and trained human
resources was strongly evident. The need to retain skilled staff as well as obtaining staff with
experience in relevant fields such as hydrology, hydrogeology and ecology is viewed by many with
concern. The lack of specific training in water planning and community engagement was also
evident. The lack of such trained staff, coupled with demanding timelines has led to increases
in staff stress and staff turnover, which in turn increases inconsistency in water planning and
implementation, and stakeholder concerns.
25.7 Management issues
Many of the current problems for management of groundwater in Australia have been caused by historical
development of the resources by individuals or companies before the natural conditions under which the
systems operated were understood, and long before sustainability was acknowledged. Much, if not most,
of this development was unfortunately encouraged by Governments. Many of these management problems
have resulted from:
• Development of groundwater resources to the extent that use is far greater than natural recharge
or at least greater than a level that can continue to be sustained without unacceptable effects in
terms of water level or water pressure declines.
• Over pumping of groundwater resources near the coast, resulting in salt-water intrusion into the
aquifer.
• Introduction of large-scale surface water based irrigation into areas without considering the resultant
effect on raising groundwater levels and causing water logging.
• The use of water of marginal quality for irrigation and recycling causing salinity build-up in the
underlying groundwater.
• The use of water for irrigation that is incompatible with the soil type.

Managers are now faced with major sustainability and environmental problems because of historical
development in many parts of Australia. Some of these issues are discussed separately below.
25.7.1 Groundwater use in excess of sustainable yield
In many parts of Australia, development of groundwater resources has occurred without significant man-
agement control. It was not until competition for available supplies, together with falling water levels,
decreasing supplies and water quality issues, started to cause problems that the managers were forced to
take some control over the situation. By this stage, use often exceeded the sustainable yield, the resource
was being mined, and in some cases saline intrusion was occurring. Mining occurred because, although
the groundwater reserves were large, the amount of water being abstracted exceeded the recharge. With
more water being removed compared to the annual replenishment, the net result was significant falls in
water levels, sometimes with a drop in yield from individual bores and sometimes with an increase in
the deterioration of water quality (for example by saltwater intrusion). In many areas bores needed to
be deepened, pumps set lower, and the cost of groundwater abstraction increased, affecting economic
profitability.
Because of the investment by individuals in irrigation equipment, it is often difficult to restrain use to
prescribed limits such as a sustainable yield. Attempts to do so can have a devastating affect on the
local economy. The approach to be taken to manage these situations will obviously vary according to the
individual situation. An Occasional Paper was released in 2002 by the Natural Resource Management
Standing Committee (Commonwealth of Australia 2002) which provided case examples of managing over-
allocated groundwater systems drawn from New South Wales, Western Australia, Queensland and South
Australia. Examples of approaches are given below:
Do Nothing While none of the examples provided in the Occasional Paper follow this approach it is
argued by some that in some cases, this may be the best alternative. Doing nothing has the potential
to result in two extremes:
• The economics of pumping from a greater depth and irrigating with less water may result in a
self-controlled situation, which will automatically reduce use ultimately to a new equilibrium.
If alternative sources of water for irrigation are not available, a severe economic downturn may
result locally.
• In some cases use may be far higher than the long-term sustainable yield, but recharge occurs
readily with good wet seasons. It may be more attractive economically to allow failure to occur
every five years or so than to limit use to an amount that can be maintained through extended
years of drought. Such a policy can only be adopted if the resource can be depleted without
causing any adverse environmental effects. In effect, this is a redefinition of the sustainable
yield value, recognising that the failures can be considered acceptable, albeit undesirable.
In some extreme situations, land subsidence may occur as a result of lowering of water pressures,
particularly in highly pressurised confined aquifers. This is not possible to reverse. In some areas
such as Bangkok, land subsidence has been so great that the flood risk has greatly increased as well
as substantial damage to buildings from foundation movement.
Provide alternative supplies Where the economy of an area depends heavily on irrigated production
or other industry that obtains its water from groundwater, a water supply shortage can be devastat-
ing. If the loss of production resulting from having to limit the water supply is sufficiently serious,
the provision of an alternative supply may be viable. Although the necessary surface storages and
associated distribution systems can be very expensive, Governments at times consider that this is
the best available option. Areas can then be supplied with surface water to reduce the demand
on groundwater, and the resources then managed conjunctively. In such cases, the areas supplied
with surface water must be designed to fit in with the aerial distribution of groundwater yield,
rather than allowing the economics of supplying surface water to a particular area to dictate the
water mix to the detriment of the environment. This approach has been successfully adopted in
Queensland and Western Australia where additional surface water supplies have been introduced

to supplement or even replace existing groundwater entitlements. However it is also important

to recognize the interconnectivity of surface water and groundwater to ensure that the problem
is not being exacerbated through the creation of an extra draw on the resource we are trying to
supplement.
Provide artificial recharge Where conditions are right and a supply of water for artificial recharge is
available, this can be an extremely effective and cost efficient option. The main benefit comes from
storing water underground that would have otherwise been lost to the system. The occurrence of
areas which are sufficiently permeable to allow fast recharge are a usual precursor for such a scheme
- alternatively the water has to be stored and then diverted to recharge areas at a rate at which
it can be transmitted to the aquifer for storage. Artificial recharge or aquifer storage and recovery
(ASR) systems are prevalent in several Australian States, utilising a range of techniques, including
deep well injection and surface infiltration basins.
Restrict use While restricting use or reducing allocations is the least popular management option, it is
one which often has to be used if the situation has to be changed to ensure longevity of the supply
and other options such as doing nothing, artificial recharge or providing alternative supplies, are
not viable. States have adopted various approaches to restricting water use, such as:
• across-the-board cutbacks in entitlements to the sustainable yield of the aquifer,
• across-the-board cutbacks in entitlements to 25% above sustainable yield but then using an-
nounced allocations to control usage,
• cut entitlements back to sustainable yields but give a larger weighting to used water over
unused entitlements,
• the removal of all ghost entitlements before commencing across-the-board cuts,
• leave entitlements intact but limit access to water through annual allocation announcements,
• application of pumping restrictions areally (for example near to the coast where saline intrusion
is being experienced), and,
• restrictions with respect to pumping times.
None of these approaches are likely to be met with enthusiasm by the individual whose supply is to
be reduced, and it is important therefore that the available resource is thoroughly understood and
the reductions are done on the basis of good science. Because of this there has been an increase in
the requirements for metering, to understand better the true amount of water being used, and the
need for much better monitoring and reporting. In addition there has been an increased approach
to encouraging water use efficiency through a wide range of tools and equipment, and through the
introduction of incentives to water users. Never-the-less there still remains the effect that water
restrictions will have on the individual, and it is extremely important that the community is brought
on board, made part of the decision-making process, and encouraged to have ownership of the final
decisions.
Water trading with retirement provisions The over allocation and overuse of water resources has
lead to the development of water trading. Put simply water trading is a market-based mechanism
for allocating water without the need for Governments to make decisions on which uses are the
more appropriate, and has the potential to reduce the amount of water required for a given output
through providing an incentive for water conservation. In most trading situations, the water user
can then sell the saved water. This provides an opportunity to retire part of the saving to reduce
the overall extraction levels. Even when an entire entitlement is traded, without a saving having
been generated, trading rules can require retirement of a specified proportion of any trade to reduce
overdraft situations.
It is also obvious that a detailed understanding of the resource is required by the managers before
the development of a trading market in any particular area can go ahead. Water trading is discussed
in more detail below.

25.7.2 Groundwater accretion
In some areas, increased recharge that has resulted from clearing of native vegetation or from irrigation
has caused a rise in the water table. Unless groundwater use can be increased, water logging and salinity
problems can occur. In cases where the water table is rising, but the groundwater quality precludes its
use, long term problems are almost guaranteed. In such cases, decisions need to be made on a catchment
basis and may need to involve quite large-scale land use changes. The approach to this problem is
discussed in Chapter 20.
25.7.3 Saltwater intrusion
The movement of seawater into coastal aquifers can quickly ruin the quality of groundwater. In most cases
the effect cannot be reversed in the short term and the aquifer may be damaged permanently. Coastal
aquifers exist in a delicate balance with the sea and need extremely careful management. Monitoring of
both groundwater levels and quality are extremely important. A lowering of the fresh water head can
result in reversing the gradient and movement inland of the salt water. There is a range of techniques
available for managing groundwater use in these situations. These include:
• Limiting extraction to maintain sufficient groundwater outflow to maintain the salt/freshwater

interface at an acceptable location.
• Placing extraction wells in strategic locations and screening at depths that minimise the impacts
of saline intrusion on the supply.
• Injection wells placed between the well fields and the interface to maintain a pressure head on the
interface and thereby limiting its landward migration. This technique is extensively used in southern
California to protect the groundwater component of the Los Angeles water supply. Injection of
recycled treated wastewater to maintain this barrier to inland movement of the interface may be a
more palatable use of this resource to the community rather than its injection into drinking water
sources.
25.7.4 Community involvement
An extremely important factor in any groundwater management decision making is involvement of the
affected community and other stakeholders in that decision making. Most States have adopted the ap-
proach of widespread use of community-based advisory groups to assist the water management agencies
in making decisions and developing management plans, and determining allocation limits, licensing ap-
proaches, metering needs, and monitoring and reporting requirements. These groups provide valuable
input to the government agencies responsible for managing the resource and this input provides a strong
defence for what can often be difficult decisions.
In general, the more difficult the decisions are that have to be made, the greater the need for the
community to be involved in the decision, particularly in understanding the situation and in providing an
important viewpoint on the decision options. However, the general public will not accept poorly thought
out approaches, and the need for the best possible science to understand the resource is paramount.

25.8 Water trading
25.8.1 History of water trading
Earlier reference was made to the development of water trading as a method of managing the overdraw in
a water resource beyond its long-term sustainable yield and redistributing resources to other users. Water
trading has a long established history overseas. In the United States, water trading has been occurring
since the early days of the gold rush in California in the mid 19th century. In Australia, however, it has
been a far more recent occurrence, given impetus by the COAG water reforms of the late 20th century
which placed greater emphasis on encouraging more efficient use and management of existing supplies
rather than a continued search and development of new supplies. Trading in the licensed entitlement did
not begin officially until 1988 in South Australia, followed by Victoria in 1989, New South Wales in 1990,
Queensland in 2000, and Western Australia in 2001.
In Australia, groundwater trading appears to be developing independently of surface water trading,

although the same requirements and principles apply. This implies an assumption that groundwater and
surface water resources are not hydraulically linked. We now know that in many cases groundwater
and surface water are parts of a connected resource and should be managed (and therefore traded) as a
single entity, otherwise independent management and trading may result in discontinuity of water access
entitlements and inequitable constraints across the resource, and may result in inappropriate management
of aquifers with river connectivity or vice versa.
Water access entitlements, allocations and trading formed a cornerstone of the National Water Reform
agenda and recent water reforms agreed to and supported by the Commonwealth, and all States and
Territories (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2008). Under the National Water Initiative, State Govern-
ments are required to achieve water access entitlements that are compatible, and to return over-allocated
systems to environmentally sustainable levels of abstraction, as well as removing institutional barriers to
trade and to enhance interstate trade mechanisms (Commonwealth of Australia 2004). The key trade
related aspects included the separation of water licenses from land titles and the development of a Torrens
type register, together with water plans to define the availability and quantity of water trading.
25.8.2 Definitions
The term water trading is a term given to denote the buying and selling of part or all of a water licence,
or, more correctly, the entitlement to draw water under the issued licence. Another term often associated
with trading is transferable water entitlements and this term describes the ability of a licensee to trade all
or part of this licensed entitlement to another user. Trading in the licensed entitlement generally requires
that a resource limitation has been reached or, in other words, the available long term sustainable yield
has been fully allocated in a particular groundwater management unit, although this does not prevent
the trading of unused allocations to higher value uses. It is important to note that while full allocation
may have been achieved, it does not guarantee that full usage of this allocation has been attained. There
may be some licensed entitlement holders that are not using their full allocation. The converse may also
occur, particularly where metering of bores is limited or non-existent, and licence holders may actually
be using more than their entitlements.
Water trading is intended to ensure that the highest economic value is placed on water so that it is used
productively and for maximum economic benefit. Such an outcome requires systems and processes that
facilitate efficient water trading (Department of Water 2008).
25.8.3 Types of trade
There are basically two types of trades, permanent and temporary, and it is probably fair to say that
neither meets fully the requirements of producers. For example, there is currently no trading in water

options, which could allow producers to plan with more certainty. Permanent trades occur where the
licensed entitlement has been traded to a second party on a permanent basis. Temporary trades, however,
occur where the existing licensee temporarily transfers all or part of the existing entitlement to a second
party for a limited time. The second party can then operate under the licence for the agreed period of
time, perhaps seasonal, usually under a leasing arrangement. Most trades to date in Australia have been
of the temporary kind. One reason for the relatively low volumes of permanent transfers is the lack of
secure water entitlements. In addition there are discrepancies and differences between States in relation
to the property rights to be transferred.
The perception among some that a permanent trade is more reliable than a temporary one is not neces-
sarily true. Water purchased on a temporary trade is more reliable in that such water can be guaranteed
to be delivered. A permanent trade will not guarantee delivery during periods of drought or in a dry
or low allocation season. Permanent and temporary trades also differ with respect to price structures
and fluctuations. The price paid for temporary water can fluctuate considerably on the trading market
depending on the scarcity of water, whereas the price of water obtained from a permanent trade is gen-
erally regulated through fees to the water resource manager. Thus, in the case of horticulture, where a
relatively constant supply of water needs to be maintained at a guaranteed price, the preference is for
permanent trades particularly in regions where there is a historical high reliability.
It is also important to note that in most States trading can only occur within the same aquifer and within
the same groundwater management unit. It is generally not allowed between aquifers and/or between
the management units. It is also generally not permitted across State borders or between surface water
and groundwater, although in the case of major groundwater and surface water basins that cross State
borders a case for both can be argued.
In the case of the Murray-Darling Basin, interstate trading of surface water has been possible since the
late 1980’s. In 1998 a pilot interstate water trading project that allowed limited interstate trading of
permanent water entitlements between Victoria, New South Wales and South Australia, and in 2004 the
NWI agreed to expand the area within which such trading could occur. In May 2007, an agreement was
concluded between South Australia and Victoria for expansion of the permanent trading of surface water
(Government of South Australia 2007).
Interstate trading of groundwater is yet to be initiated, and is only likely where aquifers and groundwater
management units cross State boundaries
25.8.4 Benefits of trading
Water trading is therefore a market-based tool that seeks to re-allocate water, and in doing so to enable
:
• water licence holders to buy water to expand their operations, or alternatively to sell water they no
longer need (either temporarily or permanently), or perhaps to change their use of the water (that
is their industry) in response to changing economic conditions and therefore realise the value of the
water;
• potential water users to obtain an access to water, either permanently or temporarily, in an otherwise
fully allocated area;
• more efficient water users to have the opportunity to generate higher economic returns;
• water to be moved from low value uses to high value uses;
• an increase in water efficiency by a licence holder to enable an opportunity to capitalise on the
water savings through sale or lease
• an optimization of the benefits of water use to the economy;
• the continuation of development in an otherwise fully allocated area; and,

• the potential to reduce environmental risks and impacts, and to relieve pressure on the demand for
environmental water.
In addition, trading can allow retiring landholders or those wishing to stop production to sell their water
entitlement without having to sell their land. Trading should be between all sections of the economy,
particularly in water scarce regions, which are experiencing rapid development of population and industry
in an otherwise historical rural water use area. For example this could mean the trading of water from
irrigation to public water supplies, or from pastoral to mining [Anderson, 2008]. However it is important
that trading provisions are implemented in a way that does not threaten water resource values. As such
there is generally no trading allowed in that part of the resource that has been allocated to ensuring the
environment is not degraded, that is the environmental water provisions.
25.8.5 Impediments to trading
There are currently several issues or barriers that can impede trading, and the development of water
markets.
Information issues
Lack of basic information such as:
• little or no data on prices either for temporary or permanent transfers, i.e. market information,
it can be expected that the price of water will fluctuate according to supply and demand as with
other commodities;
• the development of an understanding of the process involved, i.e. no clear guide to trading or
trading rules; and,
• in some areas the lack of metering to understand usage issues, can restrict the development of a
water trading market.
Institutional barriers
These include such issues as:
• the presence of different procedures and processes in different areas of the same State;
• a hesitation in the identification and imposition of caps to current allocations;
• poorly defined property rights and entitlements; and,
• choices on the methods of executing trades.
In Western Australia, for example, prior to amendments of the Rights in Water and Irrigation Act 1914
in 2001 licence holders were the land owners using the water on their property. After the amendments
the scope of licensing was extended to allow licenses to be held for example by a third party with the
written approval of the land owner, or a public utility vested with powers in relation to water, or persons
described under local by-laws as being eligible to hold a licence (FindLaw Australia 2008).

Economic barriers
Economic issues affecting trading and the development of markets include:
• transaction costs;
• the perception of increasing capital value of the water; and
• the implications of restrictions to capital efficiency.
Social barriers
Although trading of unused water entitlements is a logical method of moving water from one licensee
to another and from one use to another, there remain some social barriers or misconceptions about the
process. These include:
• a community perception that there will be speculation and windfall gains that will favour some to
the detriment of others;
• a concern that trading will open up the potential for rapacious competitors; and,
• a general ignorance of the true value of water.
The development of trading rules and procedures are needed to allay the first two concerns and the
involvement of the community in all aspects of developing these, along with determining water plans will
improve the understanding of the community with respect to the value of water.
Technical barriers
One of the greatest barriers to the development of water markets is the lack of, or insufficient technical
information, to determine the need for, and to develop the procedures and rules for trading. Such technical
information includes:
• a confidence in the estimate of sustainable yield , and hence the need for a cap on allocations and
the change to a trading market;
• an understanding that a change in the location of abstraction following trade may result in a
different yield for the groundwater unit;
• a confidence of the risk in the reliability of supply, particularly in the face of climate change and
rainfall reduction;
• an understanding of the impact that the change of abstraction location may have on groundwater
salinity and its distribution; and,
• a knowledge of the potential for additional environmental impacts that this change may have on
other existing users, groundwater dependent ecosystems, and nearby surface water.
Ongoing development and adaptive management of groundwater management units will gradually im-
prove this situation and provide the technical information that will enable trading, and water markets to
develop.

25.8.6 Methods of trading
In general terms there are three main methods of trading:
1. personal;
2. through private water traders; and,
3. through a government-administrated trading market.
It should be noted however that trading is voluntary and not compulsory, although unused allocations or
sleeper licenses can be resumed by State Governments for reallocation and trading.
Personal trading
These are generally agreements that have been arranged, for example between neighbours, over the fence.
While this still needs ratification by government, the same conditions that have been set on the existing
license, or the entitlement to access water under that licence, will apply to the new recipient. Most of
these types of arrangements are temporary and offer the recipient an opportunity to utilize an entitlement
that perhaps would otherwise not been accessed by the existing licensee. Where this trading occurs on a
personal approach, the true cost of the water may not be always considered.
Private water traders
In some States where trading has been developed for some years, there has been the establishment of
water traders or brokers who specialize in the trading of water. In all cases they can be accessed through
specialized web-sites where they maintain a database or register of parcels of water that are available for
sale. The brokers can match buyers and sellers, and can complete all the necessary documentation and
regulatory approvals to transact the sale.
As with normal stock brokers water brokers are bound by government regulations, particularly the trading
rules that are determined by, and linked to, water allocation plans, and which set the volumes that can
be traded. Brokers ensure that the rules and regulations that govern each water trading region within
groundwater management units are entered into their databases to identify those areas that can legally
trade with others.
Prospective purchasers of water can bid for available volumes and sellers may receive more than one bid for
the same parcel of water. The seller can either accept one of these offers or make a counter offer to a buyer.
However when a bid is accepted it becomes non-revocable and creates a legally binding contract between
the purchaser and seller. When sellers list their water for sale they can gauge the price of water by compar-
ing past or comparable sales, and by viewing prices of currently listed water. The benefits for clients are
that they can obtain quick ready advice across a wide market, and can be assured that all water transfer
documentation is processed efficiently and in accordance with the respective water authority or manager.
Brokers also have strict codes of conduct and defined dispute resolution processes where needed. Exam-
ples of water brokers and their websites include, among others, Waterfind (www.Waterfind.com.au ), who
specialize in South Australian trades, Watermove (www.Watermove.com.au ) who conduct trade through
Victoria and Southern New South Wales, Water Trading Australia (www.watertradingaustralia.com ),
WaterNET (www.waternet.com.au ) who conducts trade through Victoria, New South Wales and South
Australia, and Waterexchange (www.waterexchange.com.au ) which offers an overview of water trad-
ing operating throughout Australia, including historical information on amounts and prices. Fig 25.8,
Fig. 25.9 and Fig. 25.10 provides examples from one of the websites.

Figure 25.8: Typical website Home Page
Figure 25.9: Available allocations

Figure 25.10: Historical trading information
Government administered trading markets
Under government administered trading markets a State government would maintain its own water trad-
ing website and registry where it would list of licences, and exemptions and directions related to the
licenses, and available water for trade. This registry would be open to the public.
The same principles would apply with respect to limitations on trading within specified groundwater
management units and generally not between them. Government would approve the transfer of the
licence or part of the entitlement under the licence to a third party, but on-trading to a third party may
not be permitted (for example in Western Australia (FindLaw Australia, 2008)). Governments may also
be able to buy, sell or lease water entitlements, and can also purchase water for environmental flows
(Carrard, 2004). This is particularly the case for surface water within the Murray-Darling basin where
$500mill has been allocated by the Federal Government in 2007/08 to purchase back entitlements from
licence holders, in order to return environmental flow back to the rivers. An example of a government
trading site from South Australia is given in Figure 9 and shows both the areas for trading and a notice
board for advertising water available for trading.
Other trading requirements
Some States have other particular requirements that must be adhered to or fulfilled for trading to occur.
In Western Australia for instance only water entitlements that are clearly defined in terms of volume can
be traded, but no trading is allowed in riparian rights, normal (low volume) stock, and domestic supplies.
These must remain on the property. In addition in Western Australia only the consumptive part of the
entitlement can be traded. Return flows to the aquifer from, say irrigation, are not able to be traded. A
further trading requirement limits trading only to the unused amount of the total allocation for a year
(licence year or calendar year), while trading in sleeper licences, particularly in Western Australia is not
allowed, primarily to avoid speculation. Entitlements under unused sleeper licenses would be returned

Figure 25.11: Example of government trading site

Table 25.1: Water access, entitlements and allocations, in Australia, by water source for 2004/05
ACT NSW2 NT QLD3 SA TAS VIC4 WA Australia
Surface Water
Number of entitlements 27 24,694 64 27,336 3,486 3,110 17,030 878 76,625
Entitlement volume (GL) 64 10,644 60 3,488 789 1,038 5,828 903 22,814
Allocated volume (GL) 64 7,136 60 na 789 1,038 4,370 903 na
Groundwater
Number of entitlements 114 93,416 102 21,255 6,179 - 8,484 16,635 146,185
Entitlement volume (GL) 660 2,658 80 909 854 0 852 1,644 6,998
Allocated volume (GL) 60 2,663 80 na 854 0 364 1,644 na
Surface Water and Groundwater1
Number of entitlements 12 0 0 0 734 0 0 0 746
Entitlement volume (GL) 1 0 0 0 17 0 0 0 19
Allocated volume (GL) 1 0 0 0 17 0 0 0 19
Notes:
1: Water access entitlements that allow holder to access both surface and groundwater supplies
2: Maximum available water has been used for allocated volume
3: Excludes 1,931 water licences without a volumetric entitlement volume
4: Volume taken has been used as a proxy for allocated volume
to the available consumptive pool for re-allocation by government. However, savings achieved through
the application of water use efficiency measures can be traded, thus giving some financial incentive for
the licence holder to adopt these measures. It is obvious therefore that for trading to operate efficiently
there is a need for the resource to be properly measured and monitored, and this requires metering of
water supplies. While some parts of Australia are well used to the presence of meters, there are many
areas where meters are not viewed with enthusiasm (Department of Water 2008).
25.8.7 Current trading situations
The Australian Bureau of Statistics publication Water Access Entitlements, Allocation, and Trading
presents data on the number of water access entitlements, the volume of water allocated to water access
entitlements and water trading. The latest readily available data (Table 25.1 and 25.2) covers the 2004/05
period and were provided by the relevant government agencies in each State and Territory (Australian
Bureau of Statistics 2008) or obtained from public sources. The data show that:
• there were 223,556 water access entitlements in Australia with a total entitlement volume of 29,831
GL in 2004/05;
• surface water entitlements accounted for 76,625 (or 34%) of all water access entitlements and
22,614 GL (or 76%) of the total entitlement volume;
• groundwater access entitlements accounted for 146,185 (or 64%) of all water access entitlements
and 6,998 GL (or (23%) of the total entitlement volume;
• there were 1,802 permanent water trades in Australia with 248 GL of water traded permanently;
and,
• there were 13,456 temporary trades in Australia with 1053 GL of water traded temporarily.
In South Australia and the Australian Capital Territory water access entitlements that allowed access to
both surface and groundwater also existed, but accounted for a very small percentage of the number and
volume of all water access entitlements. Table 25.2 does not differentiate between trades in groundwater
or surface water. The highest number of both permanent and temporary trades occurred in Victoria, and

Table 25.2: Permanent and temporary water trades in Australia in 2004/05
ACT NSW NT QLD SA TAS VIC4 WA Australia
Permanent Water Trading

Water Traded within (no) - 154 - 168 328 232 656 218 1,756
Water Traded within (ML) - 40,846 - 20,285 28,643 37,603 52,175 62,810 242,362
Water Traded into (no) - 10 - - 36 - - - 46
Water Traded into (ML) - 436 - - 4,778 - - - 5,214
Water Traded out (no) - - - - - - 46 - 46
Water Traded out (ML) - - - - - - 5,214 - 5,214
Total Water Traded (no) - 164 - 168 364 232 702 218 1,802
Total Water Traded (ML) - 41,282 - 20,285 33,421 37,603 57,389 62,810 247,576a
Average Price $/ML - na - 1,750 na na na 680 na
Temporary Water Trading
Water Traded within (no) - 1,739 - 1,874 314 111 9,042 8 13,088
Water Traded within (ML) - 316,506 - 194,195 49,525 5,601 396,723 8,617 971,168
Water Traded into (no) - 117 - - 72 - 179 - 368
Water Traded into (ML) - 37,848 - - 24,560 - 19,259 - 81,667
Water Traded out (no) - 186 - - 80 - 102 - 368
Water Traded out (ML) - 28,196 - - 25,190 - 28,281 - 81,667
Total Water Traded (no) - 2,042 - 1,874 466 111 9,323 8 13,456
Total Water Traded (ML) - 382,550 - 194,195 99,275 5,601 444,263 8,617 1,052,834a
Average Price $/ML - 96 - na na na na 80 na
Note:
- nil or rounded to zero (including null cells)
a: Total for Australia cannot be calculated by taking the sum of the States and territories as this would double count
interstate trades
this State also had the highest volume of water temporarily traded in Australia (444 GL). The highest
volume of water traded permanently occurred in Western Australia (63 GL).
Interstate trading only occurred between Victoria, New South Wales and South Australia and probably
relate to surface water traded within the Murray-Darling Basin. Although data with respect to prices is
limited it is clear that permanent traded water has a higher value than temporary traded water. While the
information provided in the Tables 25.1 and 25.2 is limited in provision of figures for trade in groundwater
and the value of water, other information in Table 25.3 & 25.4 give a better indication of the direction
of trade and the value placed on groundwater.
Table 25.3: Source and destination of permanent trades South Australia and Victoria
South Australia 1987 - 1993 Victoria 1992-1994
Water User % Sellers % Buyers Water User % Sellers % Buyers
Vines 6.4 26.9 Sheep 39.9 1.6

Citrus 0.9 8.7 Cattle 37.9 9.8
Stone fruit 4.4 0.5 Horticulture 2.8 5.8
Horticulture 1.7 38.5 Dairy 6.8 79.3
Vegetables 13.6 16.4 Other crops 6.7 3.5
Dairy 12.3 0.4 No crops 5.9 -
Lucerne grain 49.3 6.9
Other 11.4 2.1

Table 25.4: Extent and price of groundwater trade in Australia

State and Location $ per ML Allocation
Minimum Maximum
South Australia
Northern Adelaide Plains Temporary $200 $600
Permanent $1200 $3500
McLaren Vale Temporary $2800 $5000
Permanent $14,000 $21,500
Barossa Temporary $2000 $3500
Permanent $5000 $8,000 to $10,000
South East Temporary $2000 $3,500
Permanent $5,000 $8,000 to $10,000
Victoria
Ascot, Bungaree, Condah, Dennison, Temporary: Cost of Third to half of
Koo-wee-rup, Lake Mundi, Rosedale, Sale, allocation fee permanent transfer
Seacombe, Spring Hill, Wa-de-lock,
Yangery, Yarrum Permanent $325 $700 to $1,000
New South Wales
Murrumbidgee, Namoi Temporary $0 Unknown
Permanent $ N/A $1,150
Queensland
Bundaberg, Callide, Condamine, Oakey Temporary $0 $110
Creek, Pioneer, Upper Hodgson
Western Australia
Wanneroo (Mariginiup), Busselton-Capel Permanent $497 $1,1320
25.9 Future directions in groundwater management and plan-

ning
In 2006, the Chairman of the National Water Commission presented his views on how he envisaged water
management arrangements would look in Australia in succeeding years. His views focused on:
• shared national objectives;

• highly effective water planning and decision making;
• environment sustainability; and,
• world class management.
The Vision Statement by the Chairman of the National Water Commission is quoted here:
Water Management in Australia: A vision of a Positive Future

Shared National Objectives
1. The national Water Initiative continues in place as the agreed national blueprint for water
reform in Australia.
2. Cost-effective water use efficiency is adopted throughout Australia as a unifying national
objective in water use and management.
Highly effective water planning and decision making
3. Water planning processes throughout Australia are fully participatory; consultation with
stakeholders is thorough.
4. Production, environmental and social objectives are all taken into account.

5. Best available science and economics are used for planning and decision making.
6. The necessary investments are made in acquiring scientific and economic data, knowledge
and information sufficient for sound decision making. Water data is openly shared among all
parties.
7. Australian water users, including environmental managers, enjoy certainty and clarity
about their water entitlements.
8. Australia’s approaches to water regulation and management are nationally harmonized
among states and territories, at best practice.
Environment Sustainability
9. The need for sustainable use of Australia’s water resources is taken as given and judgements
about environmental sustainability of Australia’s water systems are made in an integrated
fashion with decisions about entitlements and allocations for production purposes.
10. Water management is integrated with wider natural resource management.
World Class Water Management
11. Best available water management techniques and technologies are actively sought and
implemented.
12. Throughout Australia adaptive water management practice is employed to reflect learn-
ings.
13. Australia’s irrigation industry is seen as a model for the rest of the world in terms of water
use efficiency and sustainability; irrigation technologies and practices are tuned to Australia’s
unique circumstances.
14. Australia is recognized as a world leader in water reuse and recycling.
15. Water markets and water trading are widespread throughout Australia and considered
normal.
16. There are expanding opportunities for private sector involvement in the Australian water
industry.
Subsequently, in 2008 the National Water Commission [Hamstead et al., 2008] identified a set of priority
actions to help agencies and governments to meet their NWI commitments. They have recommended
that future water planning should:
• Achieve a shared understanding of sustainable levels of water extraction so that over-allocation is

both rectified and avoided in the future;
• Improve our knowledge of groundwater -surface water connectivity, with significantly connected
systems to be managed as one integrated resource;
• Factor in the impacts of climate change and the effects of interception activities (e.g. farm dams,
forestry) on future inflows and recharge;
• Ensure that environmental outcomes are clearly specified, decisions are based on best available
information, and environmental managers have adequate resources;
• Increase inputs from socio-economic analyses and incorporate consultation to improve the quality
of decisions and build community confidence in the fairness of outcomes;
• Give higher priority to ensuring that the values and interests of indigenous people are considered;
• Be better integrated with regional natural resource management planning and urban water supply
planning;
• Provide adequate resources to develop and implement water plans, and evaluate their outcomes;
and,

• Improve monitoring and compliance of water use.
Relevant Web Sites

Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2008. Water access entitlements, allocations and trading. http:
abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/4610.0.55.003.html
Carrard, N., 2004. Case study of Australia, South East Asia Geography Conference Panel: Water gover-
nance in context http:
www.mekong.es.usyd.edu.au/events/past/GeogConference2004/australia casestudy.pdf.html
Commonwealth of Australia, 1992. National strategy for ecologically sustainable development. http:
www.environment.gov.au/esd
national/nsesd/strategy/index.html
Commonwealth of Australia, 2002. Case examples of managing over-allocated groundwater systems. Oc-
casional Paper, Natural Resource management Ministerial Council, Commonwealth of Australia.
Commonwealth of Australia, 2004. Intergovernmental Agreement on a National Water Initiative between
the Government of Australia, and the Governments of New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, the
Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory. http:
www.nwc.gov.au/nwi/docs/iga national water initiative.pdf
Commonwealth of Australia, 2008a. Conjunctive water management and New South Wales water policy.
http:
www.connectedwater.gov.au/water policy/nsw perspective.html
Commonwealth of Australia, 2008b. Conjunctive water management and Northern Territory water pol-
icy. http:
www.connectedwater.gov.au/water policy/nt perspective.html
Commonwealth of Australia, 2008c. Conjunctive water management and Queensland water policy. http:
www.connectedwater.gov.au/water policy/qld perspective.html
Commonwealth of Australia, 2008d. Conjunctive water management and South Australian water policy.
http:
www.connectedwater.gov.au/water policy/sa perspective.html
Commonwealth of Australia, 2008e. Conjunctive water management and Tasmanian water policy. http:
www.connectedwater.gov.au/water policy/tas perspective.html
Commonwealth of Australia, 2008f. Conjunctive water management and Victorian water policy. http:
www.connectedwater.gov.au/water policy/vic perspective.html
Commonwealth of Australia, 2008g. Conjunctive water management and Western Australian water pol-
icy. http:
www.connectedwater.gov.au/water policy/wa perspective.html

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Appendix A
Glossary of Terms
This glossary is based on the USGS and modified to include typical Australian terms. The spelling
adopted follows the USGS with the sigle exception that groundwater is presented as one word rather
than two and is not used with a hyphen (ground-water) when forming an adjective.
Available Drawdown: For a particular pump installation this is the distance between the S.W.L. and the pump suction
or the depth of water over the pump suction.
Absorption: The process by which substances in gaseous, liquid, or solid form are assimilated or taken up by other
substances.
Acid: Has a pH of water less than 5.5; pH modifier used in the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service wetland classification system;
in common usage, acidic water has a pH less than 7.
Acidic deposition: The transfer of acidic or acidifying substances from the atmosphere to the surface of the Earth or to
objects on its surface. Transfer can be either by wet-deposition processes (rain, snow, dew, fog, frost, hail) or by dry
deposition (gases, aerosols, or fine to coarse particles).
Acre-foot (acre-ft.): - The volume of water needed to cover an acre of land to a depth of one foot; equivalent to 43,560
cubic feet or 325,851 gallons.
Adsorption: - The adherence of gas molecules, ions, or molecules in solution to the surface of solids.
Aerate: - To supply air to water, soil, or other media.
Aerobic: - Pertaining to, taking place in, or caused by the presence of oxygen.
Algae: - Chlorophyll-bearing nonvascular, primarily aquatic species that have no true roots, sterns, or leaves; most algae
are microscopic, but some species can be as large as vascular plants.
Algal bloom: - The rapid proliferation of passively floating, simple plant life, such as blue-green algae, in and on a body
of water.
Alkaline: - Has a pH greater than 7; pH modifier in the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service wetland classification system; in
common usage, a pH of water greater than 7.4.
Alluvial aquifer: - A water-bearing deposit of un consolidated material (sand and gravel) left behind by a river or other
flowing water.
Alluvium: - General term for sediments of gravel, sand, silt, clay, or other particulate rock material deposited by flowing
water, usually in the beds of rivers and streams, on a flood plain, on a delta, or at the base of a mountain.
Alpine snow glade: - A marshy clearing between slopes above the timberline in mountains.
Amalgamation: - The dissolving or blending of a metal (commonly gold and silver) in mercury to separate it from its
parent material.
Ammonia: - A compound of nitrogen and hydrogen (NB3) that is a common by-product of animal waste. Ammonia
readily converts to nitrate in soils and streams.
Anadromous fish: - Migratory species that are born in freshwater, live mostly in estuaries and ocean water, and return
to freshwater to spawn.
Anaerobic: - Pertaining to, taking place in, or caused by the absence of oxygen.
Anomalies: - As related to fish, externally visible skin or subcutaneous disorders, including deformities, eroded fins,
lesions, and tumors.
Anthropogenic: - Having to do with or caused by humans.
Anticline: - A fold in the Earth’s crust, convex upward, whose core contains stratigraphically older rocks.
Aquaculture: - The science of farming organisms that live in water, such as fish, shellfish, and algae.
732
Chapter A. Glossary of Terms
Aquatic: - Living or growing in or on water.

Aquifer: - A geologic formation, group of formations, or part of a formation that contains sufficient saturated permeable
material to yield significant quantities of water to springs and wells.
Artificial recharge: - Augmentation of natural replenishment of groundwater storage by some method of construction,
spreading of water, or by pumping water directly into an aquifer.
Atmospheric deposition: - The transfer of substances from the air to the surface of the Earth, either in wet form (rain,
fog, snow, dew, frost, hail) or in dry form (gases, aerosols, particles).
Atmospheric pressure: - The pressure exerted by the atmosphere on any surface beneath or within it; equal to 14.7
pounds per square inch at sea level.
Average discharge: - As used by the U.S. Geological Survey, the arithmetic average of all complete water years of record
of surface water discharge whether consecutive or not. The term ”average” generally is reserved for average of record
and ”mean” is used for averages of shorter periods, namely, daily, monthly, or annual mean discharges. See also
Mean
Background concentration: - A concentration of a substance in a particular environment that is indicative of minimal
influence by human (anthropogenic) sources.
Backwater: - A body of water in which the flow is slowed or turned back by an obstruction such as a bridge or dam, an
opposing current, or the movement of the tide.
Bacteria: - Single-celled microscopic organisms.
Bank: - The sloping ground that borders a stream and confines the water in the natural channel when the water level, or
flow, is normal.
Bank storage: - The change in the amount of water stored in an aquifer adjacent to a surface-water body resulting from
a change in stage of the surface-water body.
Barrier bar: - An elongate offshore ridge, submerged at least at high tide, built up by the action of waves or currents.
Barrier beach: - A narrow, elongate sandy ridge rising slightly above the high-tide level and extending generally parallel
with the mainland shore, but separated from it by a lagoon.
Base flow: - The sustained low flow of a stream, usually groundwater inflow to the stream channel.
Basic: - The opposite of acidic; water that has a pH of greater than 7.
Basin: - See Drainage basin.
Bed material: - Sediment composing the streambed.
Bed sediment: - The material that temporarily is stationary in the bottom of a stream or other watercourse.
Bed sediment and tissue studies: - Assessment of concentrations and distributions of trace elements and hydrophobic
organic contaminants in stream bed sediment and tissues of aquatic organisms to identify potential sources and to
assess spatial distribution of those constituents.
Bedload: - Sediment that moves on or near the streambed and is in almost continuous contact with the bed.
Bedrock: - A general term used for solid rock that underlies soils or other unconsolidated material.
Benthic invertebrates: - Insects, mollusks, crustaceans, worms, and other organisms without a backbone that live in,
on, or near the bottom of lakes, streams, or oceans.
Benthic organism: - A form of aquatic life that lives on or near the bottom of streams, lakes, or oceans.
Best management practice (BMP): - An agricultural practice that has been determined to be an effective, practical
means of preventing or reducing nonpoint-source pollution.
Bind: - To exert a strong chemical attraction.
Bioaccumulation: - The biological sequestering of a substance at a higher concentration than that at which it occurs in
the surrounding environment or medium. Also, the process whereby a substance enters organisms through the gills,
epithelial tissues, dietary, or other sources.
Bioavailability: - The capacity of a chemical constituent to be taken up by living organisms either through physical
contact or by ingestion.
Biochemical: - Refers to chemical processes that occur inside or are mediated by living organisms.
Biochemical process: - A process characterized by, produced by, or involving chemical reactions in living organisms.
Biochemical-oxygen demand (BOD): - The amount of oxygen, expressed in milligrams per liter, that is removed from
aquatic environments by the life processes of micro-organisms.
Biodegradation: - Transformation of a substance into new compounds through biochemical reactions or the actions of
microorganisms such as bacteria.
Biomass: - The amount of living matter, in the form of organisms, present in a particular habitat, usually expressed as
weight-per-unit area.
Biota: - All living organisms of an area.
Blowout: - A small saucer- or trough-shaped hollow or depression formed by wind erosion on a pre-existing dune or other
sand deposit.
Blue-baby syndrome: - A condition most common in young infants and certain elderly people that can be caused by
ingestion of high amounts of nitrate, which results in the blood losing its ability to effectively carry oxygen.

Bog: - A nutrient-poor, acidic wetland dominated by a waterlogged, spongy mat of sphagum moss that ultimately forms
a thick layer of acidic peat; generally has no inflow or outflow; fed primarily by rain water.
Boreal: - A climatic zone having a definite winter with snow and a short summer that is generally hot, and which is
characterized by a large annual range of temperature.
Borehole: - See Drilled well; Exploratory borehole; Observation borehole; Piezometer; Test well.
Bottom land - See Flood plain.
Bottom-land forest: - Low-lying forested wetland found along streams and rivers, usually on alluvial flood plains.
Brackish water: - Water with a salinity intermediate between seawater and freshwater (containing from 1,000 to 10,000
milligrams per liter of dissolved solids).
Braided stream: - A stream characterized by an interlacing or tangled network of several small branching and reuniting
shallow channels.
Breakdown product: - A compound derived by chemical, biological, or physical action upon a pesticide. The breakdown
is a natural process that may result in a more toxic or a less toxic compound and a more persistent or less persistent
compound.
Brine: - Water that contains more than 35,000 milligrams per liter of dissolved solids.
Calcareous: - A rock or substance formed of calcium carbonate or magnesium carbonate by biological deposition or
inorganic precipitation, or containing those minerals in sufficient quantities to effervesce when treated with cold
hydrochloric acid.
Caldera: - A large, more or less circular, basin-shaped volcanic depression whose diameter is many times greater than the
volcanic vent.
Canopy angle: - Generally, a measure of the openness of a stream to sunlight. Specifically, the angle formed by an
imaginary line from the highest structure (for example, tree, shrub, or bluff ) on one bank to eye level at midchannel
to the highest structure on the other bank.
Capillary fringe: - The zone above the water table in which water is held by surface tension. Water in the capillary fringe
is under a pressure less than atmospheric.
Carbonate rocks: - Rocks (such as limestone or dolostone) that are composed primarily of minerals (such as calcite and
dolomite) containing the carbonate ion (C032-).
Center pivot irrigation: - An automated sprinkler system involving a rotating pipe or boom that supplies water to a
circular area of an agricultural field through sprinkler heads or nozzles.
Channel scour: - Erosion by flowing water and sediment on a stream channel; results in removal of mud, silt, and sand
on the outside curve of a stream bend and the bed material of a stream channel.
Channelization: - The straightening and deepening of a stream channel to permit the water to move faster or to drain a
wet area for farming.
Chlordane: - Octachloro-4,7-methanotetrahydroindane. An organochlorine insecticide no longer registered for use in
the US. Technical chlordane is a mixture in which the primary components are cis- and trans-chlordane, cis- and
trans-nonachlor, and heptachlor.
Chlorinated solvent: - A volatile organic compound containing chlorine. Some common solvents are trichloroethylene,
tetrachloroethylene, and carbon tetrachloride.
Chlorofluorocarbons: - A class of volatile compounds consisting of carbon, chlorine, and fluorine. Commonly called
freons, which have been in refrigeration mechanisms, as blowing agents in the fabrication of flexible and rigid foams,
and, until banned from use several years ago, as propellants in spray cans.
Chrysene: - See Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH).
Cienaga: - A marshy area where the ground is wet due to the presence of seepage or springs.
Circumneutral: - Said of water with a pH between 5.5 and 7.4; pH modifier used in the US. Fish and Wildlife Service
wetland classification system.
Cirque: - A deep, steep-walled, half-bowllike recess or hollow situated high on the side of a mountain and commonly at
the head of a glacial valley; and produced by the erosive activity of mountain glaciers.
Clastic: - Rock, such as sandstone, or sediment composed principally of broken fragments that are derived from preexisting
rocks which have been transported from their place of origin.
Climate: - The sum total of the meteorological elements that characterize the average and extreme conditions of the
atmosphere over a long period oftime at anyone place or region of the Earth’s surface.
Combined sewer overflow: - A discharge of untreated sewage and stormwater to a stream when the capacity of a
combined storm/sanitary sewer system is exceeded by storm runoff.
Commercial withdrawals: - Water for use by motels, hotels, restaurants, office buildings, commercial facilities, and
civilian and military institutions. The water may be obtained from a public supplier or it may be self-supplied.
Community: - In ecology, the species that interact in a common area.
Concentration: - The ratio of the quantity of any substance present in a sample of a given volume or a given weight
compared to the volume or weight of the sample.
Cone of depression: - The depression of heads around a pumping well caused by withdrawal of water.

Confined aquifer (artesian aquifer): - An aquifer that is completely filled with water under pressure and that is overlain
by material that restricts the movement of water.
Confining layer: - A body of impermeable or distinctly less permeable (see permeability) material stratigraphically ad-
jacent to one or more aquifers that restricts the movement of water into and out of the aquifers.
Confluence: - The flowing together of two or more streams; the place where a tributary joins the main stream.
Conglomerate: - A coarse-grained sedimentary rock composed of fragments larger than 2 mm in diameter.
Constituent: - A chemical or biological substance in water, sediment, or biota that can be measured by an analytical
method.
Consumptive use: - The quantity of water that is not available for immediate reuse because it has been evaporated,
transpired, or incorporated into products, plant tissue, or animal tissue. Also referred to as water consumption.
Contact recreation: - Recreational activities, such as swimming and kayaking, in which contact with water is prolonged
or intimate, and in which there is a likelihood of ingesting water.
Contamination: - Degradation of water quality compared to original or natural conditions due to human activity.
Contributing area: - The area in a drainage basin that contributes water to streamflow or recharge to an aquifer.
Coral reef: - A ridge of limestone, composed chiefly of coral, coral sands, and solid limestone resulting from organic
secretion of calcium carbonate; occur along continents and islands where the temperature is generally above 18 ◦ C .
Core sample: - A sample of rock, soil, or other material obtained by driving a hollow tube into the undisturbed medium
and withdrawing it with its contained sample.
Criterion: - A standard rule or test on which a judgment or decision can be based.
Crystalline rocks: - Rocks (igneous or metamorphic) consisting wholly of crystals or fragments of crystals.
Cyclone: - An area of low pressure around which winds rotate counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise
in the Southern Hemisphere. See also Tropical cyclone
Datum plane: - A horizontal plane to which ground elevations or water surface elevations are referenced.
DDT: - Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane. An organochlorine insecticide no longer registered for use in the United States.
Deciduous: - Refers to plants that shed foliage at the end of the growing season.
Deepwater habitat: - Permanently flooded lands lying below the deepwater boundary of wetlands.
Degradation products: - Compounds resulting from transformation of an organic substance through chemical, photo-
chemical, and/or biochemical reactions.
Degraded: - Condition of the quality of water that has been made unfit for some specified purpose.
Delta: - The low, nearly flat tract of land at or near the mouth of a river, resulting from the accumulation of sediment
supplied by the river in such quantities that it is not removed by tides, waves, or currents. Commonly a triangular
or fan-shaped plain.
Denitrification: - A process by which oxidized forms of nitrogen such as nitrate (N03 -) are reduced to form nitrites,
nitrogen oxides, ammonia, or free nitrogen: commonly brought about by the action of denitrifying bacteria and
usually resulting in the escape of nitrogen to the air.
Detect: - To determine the presence of a compound.
Detection limit: - The concentration of a constituent or analyte below which a particular analytical method cannot
determine, with a high degree of certainty, the concentration.
Diatoms: - Single-celled, colonial, or filamentous algae with siliceous cell walls constructed of two overlapping parts.
Dieldrin: - An organochlorine insecticide no longer registered for use in the United States. Also a degradation product of
the insecticide aldrin.
Direct runoff: - The runoff entering stream channels promptly after rainfall or snowmelt.
Discharge: - The volume of fluid passing a point per unit of time, commonly expressed in cubic feet per second, million
gallons per day, gallons per minute, or seconds per minute per day.
Discharge area (groundwater): - Area where subsurface water is discharged to the land surface, to surface water, or to
the atmosphere.
Dispersion: - The extent to which a liquid substance introduced into a groundwater system spreads as it moves through
the system.
Dissected: - Cut by erosion into valleys, hills, and upland plains.
Dissolved constituent: - Operationally defined as a constituent that passes through a OA5-micrometre filter.
Dissolved oxygen: - Oxygen dissolved in water; one of the most important indicators of the condition ofa water body.
Dissolved oxygen is necessary for the life of fish and most other aquatic organisms.
Dissolved solids: - Minerals and organic matter dissolved in water.
Diversion: - A turning aside or alteration of the natural course of a flow of water, normally considered physically to leave
the natural channel. In some States, this can be a consumptive use direct from another stream, such as by livestock
watering. In other States, a diversion must consist of such actions as taking water through a canal, pipe, or conduit.
Dolomite: - A sedimentary rock consisting chiefly of magnesium carbonate.

Domestic withdrawals: - Water used for normal household purposes, such as drinking, food preparation, bathing, wash-
ing clothes and dishes, flushing toilets, and watering lawns and gardens. The water may be obtained from a public
supplier or may be self-supplied. Also called residential water use.
Dominant plant: - The plant species controlling the environment.
Drainage area: - The drainage area of a stream at a specified location is that area, measured in a horizontal plane, which
is enclosed by a drainage divide.
Drainage basin: - The land area drained by a river or stream.
Drainage divide: - Boundary between adjoining drainage basins.
Drawdown: - The difference between the water level in a well before pumping and the water level in the well during
pumping. Also, for flowing wells, the reduction of the pressure head as a result of the discharge of water.
Drip irrigation: - An irrigation system in which water is applied directly to the root zone of plants by means of applicators
(orifices, emitters, porous tubing, or perforated pipe) operated under low pressure. The applicators can be placed on
or below the surface of the ground or can be suspended from supports.
Drought: - A prolonged period of less- than-normal precipitation such that the lack of water causes a serious hydrologic
imbalance.
Drilled well: - A water well constructed by drilling. Synonyms are tube-well, production well or production borehole.
Ecoregion: - An area of similar climate, landform, soil, potential natural vegetation, hydrology, or other ecologically
relevant variables.
Ecosystem: - A community of organisms considered together with the nonliving factors of its environment.
Effluent: - Outflow from a particular source, such as a stream that flows from a lake or liquid waste that flows from a
factory or sewage-treatment plant.
Emergent plants: - Erect, rooted, herbaceous plants that may be temporarily or permanently flooded at the base but do
not tolerate prolonged inundation of the entire plant.
Endangered species: - A species that is in imminent danger of becoming extinct.
Endocrine system: - The collection of ductless glands in animals that secrete hormones, which influence growth, gender
and sexual maturity.
Environment: - The sum of all conditions and influences affecting the life of organisms.
Environmental sample: - A water sample collected from an aquifer or stream for the purpose of chemical, physical, or
biological characterization of the sampled resource.
Environmental setting: - Land area characterized by a unique combination of natural and human-related factors, such
as row-crop cultivation or glacial-till soils.
Ephemeral stream: - A stream or part of a stream that flows only in direct response to precipitation; it receives little or
no water from springs, melting snow, or other sources; its channel is at all times above the water table.
Erosion: - The process whereby materials of the Earth’s crust are loosened, dissolved, or worn away and simultaneously
moved from one place to another.
Estuarine wetlands: - Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments where the salinity of the water is greater than
0.5 part per thousand and is variable owing to evaporation and the mixing of seawater and freshwater; tidal wetlands
of coastal rivers and embayments, salty tidal marshes, mangrove swamps, and tidal flats.
Estuary: - Area where the current of a stream meets the ocean and where tidal effects are evident; an arm of the ocean
at the lower end of a river.
Eutrophication: - The process by which water becomes enriched with plant nutrients, most commonly phosphorus and
nitrogen.
Evaporation: - The process by which water is changed to gas or vapor; occurs directly from water surfaces and from the
soil.
Evaporite minerals (deposits): - Minerals or deposits of minerals formed by evaporation of water containing salts.
These deposits are common in arid climates.
Evaporites: - A class of sedimentary rocks composed primarily of minerals precipitated from a saline solution as a result
of extensive or total evaporation of water.
Evapotranspiration: - The process by which water is discharged to the atmosphere as a result of evaporation from the
soil and surface-water bodies, and transpiration by plants.
Exotic species: - Plants or animals not native to the area.
Exploratory borehole: - A borehole drilled for the specific purpose of obtaining information about the subsurface geology
or groundwater. Synonyms are investigation borehole, exploration borehole or pilot borehole
Fallow: - Crop land, tilled or untilled, allowed to lie idle during the whole or greater part of the growmg season.
Fecal bacteria: - Microscopic single-celled organisms (primarily fecal coliforms and fecal streptococci) found in the wastes
of warm-blooded animals. Their presence in water is used to assess the sanitary quality of water for body-contact
recreation or for consumption. Their presence indicates contamination by the wastes of warm-blooded animals and
the possible presence of pathogenic (disease producing) organisms.
Fecal coliform: - See Fecal bacteria.

Fen: - Peat-accumulating wetland that generally receives water from surface runoff and (or) seepage from mineral soils in
addition to direct precipitation; generally alkaline; or slightly acid.
Fertilizer: - Any of a large number of natural or synthetic materials, including manure and nitrogen, phosphorus, and
potassium compounds, spread on or worked into soil to increase its fertility.
Filtrate: - Liquid that has been passed through a filter.
Flood: - Any relatively high streamflow that overflows the natural or artificial banks of a stream.
Flood attenuation: - a weakening or reduction in the force or intensity of a flood.
Flood irrigation: - The application of irrigation water whereby the entire surface of the soil is covered by ponded water.
Flood plain: - A strip of relatively flat land bordering a stream channel that is inundated at times of high water.
Flow line: - The idealized path followed by particles of water.
Flowpath: - An underground route for groundwater movement, extending from a recharge (intake) zone to a discharge
(output) zone such as a shallow stream.
Fluvial: - Pertaining to a river or stream.
Fluvial deposit: - A sedimentary deposit consisting of material transported by suspension or laid down by a river or
stream.
Flyway: - A specific air route taken by birds during migration.
Freshwater: - Water that contains less than 1,000 milligrams per liter of dissolved solids.
Freshwater chronic criteria: - The highest concentration of a contaminant that freshwater aquatic organisms can be
exposed to for an extended period of time (4 days) without adverse effects. See also Water-quality criteria.
Friable: - Descriptive of a rock or mineral that crumbles naturally or is easily broken, pulverized, or reduced to powder.
Fumigant: - A substance or mixture of substances that produces gas, vapor, fume, or smoke intended to destroy insects,
bacteria, or rodents.
Furrow irrigation: - A type of surface irrigation whereby water is applied at the upper (higher) end of a field and flows
in furrows to the lower end.
Gage height: - See Stage
Gaging station: - A particular site on a stream, canal, lake, or reservoir where systematic observations of hydrologic data
are obtained.
Geomorphic: - Pertaining to the form or general configuration of the Earth or of its surface features.
Geomorphology: - The science that treats the general configuration of the Earth’s surface; the description of land forms.
Geothermal: - Relating to the Earth’s internal heat; commonly applied to springs or vents discharging hot water or steam.
Glacial: - Of or relating to the presence and activities of ice or glaciers.
Glacial drift: - A general term for rock material transported by glaciers or icebergs and deposited directly on land or in
the sea.
Glacial lake: - A lake that derives its water, or much of its water, from the melting of glacial ice; also a lake that occupies
a basin produced by glacial erosion.
Glacial outwash: - Stratified detritus (chiefly sand and gravel) ”washed out” from a glacier by meltwater streams and
deposited in front of or beyond the end moraine or the margin of an active glacier.
Granite/Granitic rock: - A coarse-grained igneous rock.
Groundwater: - In the broadest sense, all subsurface water; more commonly that part of the subsurface water in the
saturated zone.
Groundwater flow system: - The underground pathway by which groundwater moves from areas of recharge to areas
of discharge.
Growing season: - The frost-free period of the year.
Habitat: - The part of the physical environment in which a plant or animal lives.
Hand-dug well: - A large-diameter, usually shallow, water well constructed by manual labour. Synonyms are dug well
or open well
Hardness: - A property of water that causes the formation of an insoluble residue when the water is used with soap and
a scale in vessels in which water has been allowed to evaporate. It is due primarily to the presence of ions of calcium
and magnesium. Generally expressed as milligrams per liter as calcium carbonate (CaC03).
Hardpan: - A relatively hard, impervious, and usually clayey layer of soil lying at or just below land surface; produced as
a result of cementation by precipitation of insoluble minerals.
Headwaters: - The source and upper part of a stream.
Herbicide: - A type of pesticide designed to kill plants.
Hydraulic conductivity: - The capacity of a rock to transmit water. It is expressed as the volume of water at the existing
kinematic viscosity that will move in unit time under a unit hydraulic gradient through a unit area measured at right
angles to the direction of flow.
Hydraulic gradient: - The change of hydraulic head per unit of distance in a given direction.

Hydraulic head: - The height of the free surface of a body of water above a given point beneath the surface.
Hydric soil: - Soil that is wet long enough to periodically produce anaerobic conditions, thereby influencing the growth
of plants.
Hydrograph: - Graph showing variation of water elevation, velocity, streamflow, or other property of water with respect
to time.
Hydrologic cycle: - The circulation of water from the sea, through the atmosphere, to the land, and thence back to the
sea by overland and subterranean routes.
Hydrologic regime: - The characteristic behavior and total quantity of water involved in a drainage basin.
Hydrology: - The science that deals with water as it occurs in the atmosphere, on the surface of the ground, and
underground.
Hydrophobic: - Not capable of uniting with or absorbing water.
Hydrophyte: - Any plant growing in water or on a substrate that is at least periodically deficient in oxygen as a result of
excessive water content.
Hydrostatic pressure: - The pressure exerted by the water at any given point in a body of water at rest.
Igneous rocks: - Rocks that have solidified from molten or partly molten material.
Immobilize: - To hold by a strong chemical attraction.
Impermeability: - The incapacity of a rock to transmit a fluid.
Impervious: - Impermeable. See Impermeability.
Indurated: - Cemented, hardened, or a rocklike condition.
Industrial withdrawals: - Water withdrawn for or used for thermoelectric power (electric utility generation) and other
industrial and manufacturing uses such as steel, chemical and allied products, paper and allied products, mining,
and petroleum refining. The water may be obtained from a public supplier or may be self-supplied.
Infiltration: - The downward movement of water from the atmosphere into soil or porous rock.
Infiltration gallery: - A shallow horizontal well usually constructed in the bed of a river or along a river bank in an
alluvial aquifer
Inorganic: - Containing no carbon; matter other than plant or animal.
Inorganic soil: - Soil with less than 20 percent organic matter in the upper 16 inches.
Insecticide: - A substance or mixture of substances intended to destroy or repel insects.
Instantaneous discharge: - The volume of water that passes a point at a particular instant of time.
Instream use: - Water use taking place within the stream channel for such purposes as hydroelectric power generation,
navigation, water-quality improvement, fish propagation, and recreation. Sometimes called nonwithdrawal use or
in-channel use.
Integrated drainage: - Drainage developed during geomorphic maturity in an arid region, characterized by coalescence
of drainage basins as a result of headward erosion in the lower basins or spilling over from the upper basins.
Interface: - In hydrology, the contact zone between two fluids of different chemical or physical makeup.
Intermittent stream: - A stream that flows only when it receives water from rainfall runoff or springs, or from some
surface source such as melting snow.
Internal drainage: - Surface drainage whereby the water does not reach the ocean, such as drainage toward the lowermost
or central part of an interior basin or closed depression.
Intertidal: - Alternately flooded and exposed by tides.
Intolerant organisms: - Organisms that are not adaptable to human alterations to the environment and thus decline in
numbers where alterations occur. See also Tolerant species.
Invertebrate: - An animal having no backbone or spinal column. See also Benthic invertebrate.
Ion: - A positively or negatively charged atom or group of atoms.
Irrigation: - Controlled application of water to arable land to supply requirements of crops not satisfied by rainfall.
Irrigation district: - A cooperative, self-governing public corporation set up as a subdivision of the state, with definite
geographic boundaries, organized to obtain and distribute water for irrigation of lands within the district; created
under authority of the State legislature with the consent of a designated fraction of the land owners or citizens and
the taxing power.
Irrigation return flow: - The part of irrigation applied to the surface that is not consumed by evapotranspiration or
uptake by plants and that migrates to an aquifer or surface-water body.
Irrigation withdrawals: - Withdrawals of water for application on land to assist in the growing of crops and pastures or
to maintain recreational lands.
Karst: - A type of topography that results from dissolution and collapse of carbonate rocks such as limestone, dolomite,
and gypsum, and that is characterized by closed depressions or sinkholes, caves, and underground drainage.
Kettle: - A steep-sided hole or depression, commonly without surface drainage, formed by the melting of a large detached
block of stagnant ice that had been buried in the glacial drift.
Kettle lake: - A body of water occupying a kettle, as in a pitted outwash plain or in a kettle moraine.

Kill: - Dutch term for stream or creek.

Lacustrine: - Pertaining to, produced by, or formed in a lake.
Lacustrine wetlands: - Wetlands within a lake or reservoir greater than 20 acres or within a lake or reservoir less than
20 acres if the water is greater than 2 metres deep in the deepest part of the basin; ocean-derived salinity is less than
0.5 part per thousand.
Lagoon: - A shallow stretch of seawater (or lakewater) near or communicating with the sea (or lake) and partly or
completely separated from it by a low, narrow, elongate strip ofland.
Latent heat: - The amount of heat given up or absorbed when a substance changes from one state to another, such as
from a liquid to a solid.
Lateral moraine: - A low ridgelike moraine carried on, or deposited near, the side margin of a mountain glacier.
Leachate: - A liquid that has percolated through soil containing soluble substances and that contains certain amounts of
these substances in solution.
Leaching: - The removal of materials in solution from soil or rock; also refers to movement of pesticides or nutrients from
land surface to groundwater.
Limestone: - A sedimentary rock consisting chiefly of calcium carbonate, primarily in the form of the mineral calcite.
Limnetic: - The deepwater zone (greater than 2 metres deep)
Littoral: - The shallow-water zone (less than 2 metres deep); a subsystem of the Lacustrine System of the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service wetland classification system.
Load: - Material that is moved or carried by streams, reported as weight of material transported during a specified time
period, such as tons per year.
Loess: - A widespread, homogeneous, commonly nonstratified, porous, friable, slightly coherent, fine grained blanket
deposit of wind-blown and wind-deposited silt and fine sand.
Long-term monitoring: - The collection of data over a period of years or decades to assess changes in selected hydrologic
conditions.
Main stem: - The principal trunk of a river or a stream.
Major ions: - Constituents commonly present in water in concentrations exceeding 1.0 milligram per liter. Major cations
are calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium; the major anions are sulfate, chloride, fluoride, nitrate, and those
contributing to alkalinity (see alkaline), most generally assumed to be bicarbonate and carbonate.
Marine wetland: - Wetlands that are exposed to waves and currents of the open ocean and to water having a salinity
greater than 30 parts per thousand; present along the coastlines of the open ocean.
Marsh: - A water-saturated, poorly drained area, intermittently or permanently water covered, having aquatic and grasslike
vegetation.
Maturity: - A stage in the evolutionary erosion of land areas in which the flat uplands have been widely dissected by deep
river valleys.
Maturity (stream): - The stage in the development of a stream at which it has reached its maximum efficiency, when
velocity is just sufficient to carry the sediment delivered to it by tributaries; characterized by a broad, open, flat-
floored valley having a moderate gradient and gentle slope.
Maximum contaminant level (MCL): - Maximum permissible level of a contaminant in water that is delivered to any
user of a public water system.
Mean: - The arithmatic average of a set of observations, unless otherwise specified.
Mean discharge (MEAN): - The arithmetic mean of individual daily mean discharges of a stream during a specific
period, usually daily, monthly, or annually.
Mean low tide: - The average altitude of all low tides recorded at a given place over a 19-year period.
Mean high tide: - The average altitude of all high tides recorded at a given place over a 19-year period.
Median: - The middle or central value in a distribution of data ranked in order of magnitude. The median is also known
as the 50th percentile.
Mesophyte: - Any plant growing where moisture and aeration conditions lie between the extremes of ”wet” and ”dry.”
Metabolite: - A substance produced in or by biological processes.
Metamorphic rocks: - Rocks derived from preexisting rocks by mineralogical, chemical, or structural changes (essentially
in a solid state) in response to marked changes in temperature, pressure, shearing stress, and chemical environment
at depth in the Earth’s crust.
Method detection limit: - The minimum concentration of a substance that can be accurately identified and measured
with current laboratory technologies.
Micrograms per liter (/mug/l): - A unit expressing the concentration of constituents in solution as weight (micrograms)
of solute per unit volume (liter) of water; equivalent to one part per billion in most streamwater and groundwater.
One thousand micrograms per liter equals one milligram per liter.
Milligram (mg): - A mass equal to 10−3 grams.
Milligrams per liter (mg/l): - A unit expressing the concentration of chemical constituents in solution as weight (mil-
ligrams) of solute per unit volume (liter) of water; equivalent to one part per million in most stream water and
groundwater.

Mineral soil: - Soil composed predominantly of mineral rather than organic materials; less than 20 percent organic
material.
Minimum reporting level (MRL): - The smallest measured concentration of a constituent that may be reliably re-
ported using a given analytical method. In many cases, the MRL is used when documentation for the method
detection limit is not available.
Mitigation: - Actions taken to avoid, reduce, or compensate for the effects of human-induced environmental damage.
Monitoring: - Repeated observation, measurement, or sampling at a site, on a scheduled or event basis, for a particular
purpose.
Monitoring well: - A well designed for measuring water levels and testing groundwater quality.
Monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: - Single-ring aromatic compounds. Constituents of lead-free gasoline; also used
in the manufacture of monomers and plasticizers in polymers.
Montane: - Of, pertaining to, or inhabiting cool upland slopes below the timber line; characterized by the dominance of
evergreen trees.
Moraine: - A mound, ridge, or other distinct accumulation of unsorted, unstratified glacial drift, predominantly till,
deposited chiefly by direct action of glacier ice.
Mouth: - The place where a stream discharges to a larger stream, a lake, or the sea.
Muck: - Dark, finely divided, well-decomposed, organic matter forming a surface deposit in some poorly drained areas.
Muskeg: - Large expanses of peatlands or bogs in subarctic zones.
Natural levee: - A long, broad, low ridge built by a stream on its flood plain along one or both banks of its channel in
time of flood.
Nitrate: - An ion consisting of nitrogen and oxygen (N03 -). Nitrate is a plant nutrient and is very mobile in soils.
Noncontact water recreation: - Recreational activities, such as fishing or boating, that do not include direct contact
with the water.
Nonpersistent emergent plants: - Emergent plants whose leaves and stems break down at the end of the growing season
from decay or by the physical forces of waves and ice; at certain seasons, there are no visible traces of the plants
above the surface of the water.
Nonpoint source: - A source (of any water-carried material) from a broad area, rather than from discrete points.
Nonpoint-source contaminant: - A substance that pollutes or degrades water that comes from lawn or crop land runoff,
the atmosphere, road ways, and other diffuse sources.
Nonpoint-source water pollution: - Water contamination that originates from a broad area (such as leaching of agri-
cultural chemicals from crop land) and enters the water resource diffusely over a large area.
Nonselective herbicide: - Kills or significantly retards growth of most higher plant species.
Nuisance species: - Undesirable plants and animals, commonly exotic species.
Nutrient: - Any inorganic or organic compound needed to sustain plant life.
Observation borehole: A borehole constructed to obtain information on variations in groundwater level or water quality.
Also known as an observation well
Occurrence and distribution assessment: - A component of the USGS National Water Quality Assessment (NA
WQA) Program that entails characterization of broad-scale spatial and temporal distributions of water-quality con-
ditions in relation to major contaminant sources and background conditions for surface water and groundwater.
Offstream use: - Water withdrawn or diverted from a ground- or surface-water source for use. See also Withdrawal
Organic: - Containing carbon, but possibly also containing hydrogen, oxygen, chlorine, nitrogen, and other elements.
Organic detritus: - Any loose organic material in streams - such as leaves, bark, or twigs removed and transported by
mechanical means, such as disintegration or abrasion.
Organic soil: - Soil that contains more than 20 percent organic matter in the upper 16 inches.
Organochlorine compound: - Synthetic organic compounds containing chlorine. As generally used, term refers to
compounds containing mostly or exclusively carbon, hydrogen, and chlorine. Examples include organochlorine insec-
ticides, polychlorinated biphenyls, and some solvents containing chlorine.
Organonitrogen herbicides: - A group of herbicides consisting of a nitrogen ring with associated functional groups and
including such classes as triazines and acetanilides. Examples include atrazine, cyanazine, alachlor, and metolachlor.
Organophosphate insecticides: - A class of insecticides derived from phosphoric acid. They tend to have high acute
toxicity to vertebrates. Although readily metabolized by vertebrates, some metabolic products are more toxic than
the parent compound.
Organophosphorus insecticides: - Insecticides derived from phosphoric acid and generally the most toxic of all pesticides
to vertebrate animals.
Orographic: - Pertaining to mountains, in regard to their location and distribution; said ofthe precipitation caused by
the lifting of moisture-laden air over mountains.
Outwash: - Soil material washed down a hillside by rainwater and deposited upon more gently sloping land.
Overland flow: - The flow of rainwater or snowmelt over the land surface toward stream channels.
Oxbow: - A bow-shaped lake formed in an abandoned meander of a river.

Paleohydrology: - Study of hydrologic processes and events, using geological, botanical, and cultural evidence, that
occurred before the beginning of the systematic collection of hydrologic data and observations.
Palustrine wetlands: - Freshwater wetlands including open water bodies ofless than 20 acres in which water is less than
2 metres deep; includes marshes, wet meadows, fens, playas, potholes, pocosins, bogs, swamps, and shallow ponds;
most wetlands are in the Palustrine system.
Part per million (ppm): - Unit of concentration equal to one milligram per kilogram or one milligram per liter.
Pathogen: - Any living organism that causes disease.
Peak stage: - Maximum height of a water surface above an established datum plane. Same as peak gage height.
Peat: - A highly organic soil, composed of partially decomposed vegetable matter.
Perched groundwater: - Unconfined groundwater separated from an underlying main body of groundwater by an un-
saturated zone.
Percolation: - The movement, under hydrostatic pressure, of water through interstices of a rock or soil (except the
movement through large openings such as caves).
Perennial stream: - A stream that normally has water in its channel at all times.
Periphyton: - Micro-organisms that coat rocks, plants, and other surfaces on lake bottoms.
Permafrost: - Any frozen soil, subsoil, surficial deposit, or bedrock in arctic or subarctic regions where below-freezing
temperatures have existed continuously from two to tens of thousands of years.
Permeability: - The capacity of a rock for transmitting a fluid; a measure of the relative ease with which a porous medium
can transmit a liquid.
Pesticide: - Any substance used to kill plant or animal pests; major categories of pesticides include herbicides and
insecticides.
pH: - A measure of the acidity (less than 7) or alkalinity (greater than 7) of a solution; a pH of 7 is considered neutral.
Phenols: - A class of organic compounds containing phenol (C6HSOH) and its derivatives. Used to make resins, weed
killers, and as a solvent, disinfectant, and chemical intermediate. Some phenols occur naturally in the environment.
Phosphorus: - A nutrient essential for growth that can play a key role in stimulating aquatic growth in lakes and streams.
Photosynthesis: - The synthesis of compounds with the aid of light.
Phthalates: - A class of organic compounds containing phthalic acid esters (C6H4(COOR)2] and derivatives. Used as
plasticizers in plastics. Also used in many other products (such as detergents, cosmetics) and industrial processes
(such as defoaming agents in paper and paperboard manufacture, and dielectrics in capacitors).
Physiographic province: - A region in which the landforms are distinctive and differ significantly from those of adjacent
regions.
Physiography: - A description of the surface features of the Earth, with an emphasis on the origin of landforms.
Phytoplankton: - See Plankton.
Picocurie (pCi): - One trillionth (10−12 ) of the amount of radioactivity represented by a curie (Ci). A curie is the
amount of radioactivity that yields 3.7 x 1010 radioactive disintegrations per second (dps). A picocurie yields 2.22
disintegrations per minute (dpm) or 0.037 dps.
Piezometer: - A small diameter borehole or tube constructed for the measurement of hydraulic head at a specific depth
in an aquifer. In a piezometer, the section of the borehole (the screened section) in contact with the aquifer is usually
very short
Pioneer plant: - Herbaceous annual and perennial seedling plants that colonize bare areas as a first stage in secondary
succession.
Piping: - Erosion by percolating water in a layer of subsoil, resulting in caving and in the formation of narrow conduits,
tunnels, or ”pipes” through which soluble or granular soil material is removed.
Placer: - A surficial mineral deposit formed by mechanical concentration of mineral particles from weathered debris.
Plankton: - Floating or weakly swimming organisms at the mercy of the waves and currents. Animals of the group are
called zooplankton and the plants are called phytoplankton.
Playa: - A dry, flat area at the lowest part of an undrained desert basin in which water accumulates and is quickly
evaporated; underlain by stratified clay, silt, or sand and commonly by soluble salts; term used in Southwestern
United States.
Playa lake: - A shallow, temporary lake in an arid or semiarid region, covering or occupying a playa in the wet season
but drying up in summer; temporary lake that upon evaporation leaves or forms a playa.
Point source: - Originating at any discrete source.
Point-source contaminant: - Any substance that degrades water quality and originates from discrete locations such as
discharge pipes, drainage ditches, wells, concentrated livestock operations, or floating craft.
Pollutant: - Any substance that, when present in a hydrologic system at sufficient concentration, degrades water quality
in ways that are or could become harmful to human and/or ecological health or that impair the use of water for
recreation, agriculture, industry, commerce, or domestic purposes.
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs): - A mixture of chlorinated derivatives of biphenyl, marketed under the trade name
Aroclor with a number designating the chlorine content (such as Aroclor 1260). PCBs were used in transformers and
capacitors for insulating purposes and in gas pipeline systems as a lubricant. Further sale for new use was banned
by law in 1979.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH): - A class of organic compounds with a fused-ring aromatic structure. P
AHs result from incomplete combustion of organic carbon (including wood), municipal solid waste, and fossil fuels,
as well as from natural or anthropogenic introduction of uncombusted coal and oil. PAHs include benzo(a)pyrene,
fluoranthene, and pyrene.
Pool: - A small part of a stream reach with little velocity, commonly with water deeper than surrounding areas.
Population: - A collection of individuals of one species or mixed species making up the residents of a prescribed area.
Porosity: - The ratio of the volume of voids in a rock or soil to the total volume.
Postemergence herbicide: - Herbicide applied to foliage after the crop has sprouted to kill or significantly retard the
growth of weeds.
Potable water: - Water that is safe and palatable for human consumption.
Potential evapotranspiration: - The amount of moisture which, if available, would be removed from a given land area
by evapotranspiration; expressed in units of water depth.
Potentiometric surface: - An imaginary surface that represents the total head in an aquifer. It represents the height
above a datum plane at which the water level stands in tightly cased wells that penetrate the aquifer.
Precipitation: - Any or all forms of water particles that fall from the atmosphere, such as rain, snow, hail, and sleet. The
act or process of producing a solid phase within a liquid medium.
Pre-emergence herbicide: - Herbicide applied to bare ground after planting the crop but prior to the crop sprouting
above ground to kill or significantly retard the growth of weed seedlings.
Pristine: - The earliest condition of the quality of a water body; unaffected by human activities.
Public-supply withdrawals: - Water withdrawn by public and private water suppliers for use within a general commu-
nity. Water is used for a variety of purposes such as domestic, commercial, industrial, and public water use.
Quality assurance: - Evaluation of quality-control data to allow quantitative determination of the quality of chemical
data collected during a study. Techniques used to collect, process, and analyze water samples are evaluated.
Qanat: - An infiltration gallery in which the water flows to the point of abstraction under gravity. There are many
synonyms, including falaj (Oman), karez (Afghanistan) and kariz (Azerbaijan)
Radon: - A naturally occurring, colorless, odorless, radioactive gas formed by the disintegration of the element radium;
damaging to human lungs when inhaled.
Radial collector well: - A large diameter well with horizontal boreholes extending radially outwards into the aquifer.
Also known as a Ranney well
Rain shadow: - A dry region on the lee side of a topographic obstacle, usually a mountain range, where rainfall is
noticeably less than on the windward side.
Reach: - A continuous part of a stream between two specified points.
Reaeration: - The replenishment of oxygen in water from which oxygen has been removed.
Recessional moraine: - An end moraine built during a temporary but significant pause in the final retreat of a glacier.
Recharge (groundwater): - The process involved in the absorption and addition of water to the zone of saturation; also,
the amount of water added.
Recharge area (groundwater): - An area within which water infiltrates the ground and reaches the zone of saturation.
Recovery: - The amount by which the water level in a bore has risen at a given time after pumping ceased. It is the
difference between the Residual Drawdown after the given time and the hypothetical drawdown if pumping had not
ceased. When the water level returns to S.W.L. recovery is said to be complete.
Recurrence interval: - The average interval of time within which the magnitude of a given event, such as a storm or
flood, will be equaled or exceeded once.
Regolith: - The layer or mantle of fragmented and unconsolidated rock material, residual or transported, that nearly
everywhere forms the surface of the land and overlies or covers the bedrock.
Regulation (of a stream): - Artificial manipulation of the flow of a stream.
Relative abundance: - The number of organisms of a particular kind present in a sample relative to the total number of
organisms in the sample.
Residential water use: - See Domestic withdrawals.
Residual Drawdown: - The distance that the water level in a bore or well remains lowered from the S.W.L. after pumping
ceases. It is measured at specified times after pumping stopped.
Retrospective analysis: - Review and analysis of existing data in order to address NA WQA objectives, to the extent
possible, and to aid in the design ofNAWQA studies.
Return flow: - That part of irrigation water that is not consumed by evapotranspiration and that returns to its source
or another body of water.
Riffle: - A shallow part of the stream where water flows swiftly over completely or partially submerged obstructions to
produce surface agitation.
Riparian: - Pertaining to or situated on the bank of a natural body of flowing water.
Riparian rights: - A concept of water law under which authorization to use water in a stream is based on ownership of
the land adjacent to the stream. See alsoWater rights.

Riparian zone: - Pertaining to or located on the bank of a body of water, especially a stream.
Riverine wetlands: - Wetlands within river and stream channels; ocean-derived salinity is less than 0.5 part per thousand.
Rock: - Any naturally formed, consolidated or unconsolidated material (but not soil) consisting of two or more minerals.
Runoff: - That part of precipitation or snowmelt that appears in streams or surface-water bodies.
Rural withdrawals: - Water used in suburban or farm areas for domestic and livestock needs. The water generally is self-
supplied and includes domestic use, drinking water for livestock, and other uses such as dairy sanitation, evaporation
from stock-watering ponds, and cleaning and waste disposal.
Salina: - An area where deposits of crystalline salt are formed, such as a salt flat; a body of saline water, such as a saline
playa or salt marsh.
Saline water: - Water that is considered unsuitable for human consumption or for irrigation because of its high content of
dissolved solids; generally expressed as milligrams per liter(mg/L) of dissolved solids; seawater is generally considered
to contain more than 35,000 mg/L of dissolved solids.
Saturated zone: - A subsurface zone in which all the interstices or voids are filled with water under pressure greater than
that of the atmosphere. See also Water table.
Sea level: - Long-term average position of the sea surface. Sea level varies from place to place and with the time period
for which the average is calculated. For the conterminous United States, sea level is most commonly referenced to
the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929.
Sea water: - See Saline water.
Sediment: - Particles, derived from rocks or biological materials, that have been transported by a fluid or other natural
process, suspended or settled in water.
Sedimentary rocks: - Rocks formed by the consolidation of loose sediment that has accumulated in layers.
Sedimentation: - The act or process of forming or accumulating sediment in layers; the process of deposition of sediment.
Seep: - A small area where water percolates (see percolation) slowly to the land surface.
Seiche: - A sudden oscillation of the water in a moderate-size body of water, caused by wind.
Selective herbicide: - A compound that kills or significantly retards growth of an unwanted plant species without signif-
icantly damaging desired plant species.
Semivolatile organic compound (SVOC): - Operationally defined as a group of synthetic organic compounds that
are solvent-extractable and can be determined by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. SVOCs include phenols,
phthalates, and Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PARs).
Shale: - A fine-grained sedimentary rock formed by the consolidation of clay, silt, or mud.
Shallows: - A term applied to a shallow place or area in a body of water; a shoal.
Shoal: - A relatively shallow place in a stream, lake, or sea.
Short-wave trough (meteorlogical): - A wave of low atmospheric pressure in the form ofa trough that has a wave
length of 600 to 1,500 miles and moves progressively through the lower troposphere in the same direction as that of
the prevailing current of air motion.
Shrubland: - Land covered predominantly with shrubs.
Sideslope gradient: - The representative change in elevation in a given horizontal distance (usually about 300 yards)
perpendicular to a stream; the valley slope along a line perpendicular to the stream (near a water-quality or biological
sampling point).
Siliciclastic rocks: - Rocks such as shale and sandstone that are formed by the compaction and cementation of quartz-rich
mineral grains.
Siltation: - The deposition or accumulation of silt (or small-grained material) in a body of water.
Siltstone: - An indurated silt having the texture and composition of shale but lacking its fine lamination.
Silviculture: - The cultivation of forest trees.
Sinkhole: - A depression in an area underlain by limestone. Its drainage is subterranean.
Sinuosity: - The ratio of the channel length between two points on a channel to the straight-line distance between the
same two points; a measure of meandering.
Skewness: - Numerical measure of the lack of symmetry of an asymmetrical frequency distribution.
Slough: - A small marshy tract lying in a swale or other local shallow, undrained depression; a sluggish creek or channel
in a wetland.
Soil: - The layer of material at the land surface that supports plant growth.
Soil horizon: - A layer of soil that is distinguishable from adjacent layers by characteristic physical and chemical properties.
Soil moisture: - Water occurring in the pore spaces between the soil particles in the unsaturated zone from which water
is discharged by the transpiration of plants or by evaporation from the soil.
Solution: - Formed when a solid, gas, or another liquid in contact with a liquid becomes dispersed homogeneously through-
out the liquid. The substance, called a solute, is said to dissolve. The liquid is called the solvent.
Solvent: - See Solution.
Sorb: - To take up and hold either by absorption or adsorption.

Sorption: - General term for the interaction (binding or association) of a solute ion or molecule with a solid.
Source rocks: - The rocks from which fragments and other detached pieces have been derived to form a different rock.
Species: - Populations of organisms that may interbreed and produce fertile offspring having similar structure, habits, and
functions.
Species diversity: - An ecological concept that incorporates both the number of species in a particular sampling area
and the evenness with which individuals are distributed among the various species.
Species (taxa) richness: - The number of species (taxa) present in a defined area or sampling unit.
Specific capacity: - The yield of a well per unit of drawdown.
Specific conductance: - A measure of the ability of a liquid to conduct an electrical current.
Specific storage: The volume of water that a unit volume of aquifer releases from storage under a unit decline in hydraulic
head.
Specific yield: - The ratio of the volume of water that will drain under the influence of gravity to the volume of saturated
rock.
Spit: - A small point or low tongue or narrow embankment of land having one end attached to the mainland and the other
terminating in open water.
Split sample: - A sample prepared by dividing it into two or more equal volumes, so that each volume is considered a
separate sample but representative of the entire sample.
Spoil: - Overburden or other waste material removed in mining, quarrying, dredging, or excavating.
Spring: - Place where a concentrated discharge of groundwater flows at the ground surface.
Stage: - Height of the water surface above an established datum plane, such as in a river above a predetermined point
that may (or may not) be at the channel floor.
Standard deviation: - Statistical measure of the dispersion or scatter of a series of values. It is the square root of the
variance, which is calculated as the sum of the squares of the deviations from the arithmetic mean, divided by the
number of values in the series minus 1.
Standing Water Level (S.W.L.): - The depth from ground level to the water level in a non pumping bore outside the
area of influence of any pumping bore.
Static Head: - This is the flowing bore equivalent of S.W.L. It is the height above ground level that water at a particular
temperature would stand if the casing were extended upwards. It is expressed as metres or kilopascals.
Statistics: - A branch of mathematics dealing with the collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of masses of
numerical data.
Storage coefficient: The product of the specific storage and the aquifer thickness - derived from pumping test analysis
and barometric efficiency calculation.
Storativity: See ’Storage coefficient’.
Storm surge: - An abnormal and sudden rise of the sea along a shore as a result of the winds of a storm.
Stratification: - Subdivision of the environmental framework. NAWQA Study Units are divided into subareas that exhibit
reasonably homogeneous environmental conditions, as determined by both natural and human influences.
Stream-aquifer interactions: - Relations of water flow and chemistry between streams and aquifers that are hydraulically
connected.
Stream kilometre: - A distance of 1 kilometre along a line connecting the midpoints of the channel of a stream.
Stream order: - A ranking of the relative sizes of streams within a watershed based on the nature of their tributaries.
The smallest unbranched tributary is called first order, the stream receiving the tributary is called second order, and
so on.
Stream reach: - A continuous part of a stream between two specified points.
Streamflow: - The discharge of water in a natural channel.
Streamline: - A line on a map that is parallel to the direction of fluid flow and shows flow patterns.
Submerged plant: - A plant that lies entirely beneath the water surface, except for flowering parts of some specIes.
Subsidence: - The gradual downward settling or sinking of the Earth’s surface with little or no horizontal motion.
Substrate: - The surface beneath a wetland, lake, or stream in which organisms grow or to which organisms are attached.
Substrate size: - The diameter of streambed particles such as clay, silt, sand, gravel, cobble and boulders.
Subsurface drain: - A shallow drain installed in an irrigated field to intercept the rising groundwater level and maintain
the water table at an acceptable depth below the land surface.
Subtidal: - Continuously submerged; an area affected by ocean tides.
Subtropical anticyclone: - A semipermanent anticyclone located, on the average, over oceans near 30o N. and 30o S.
latitude.
Surface runoff: - Runoff that travels over the land surface to the nearest stream channel.
Surface water: - An open body of water such as a lake, river, or stream.
Survey: - Sampling of a representative number of sites during a given hydrologic condition.

Suspended: - (as used in tables of chemical analyses) The amount (concentration) of un dissolved material in a water-
sediment mixture. Most commonly refer to that material retained on a 0.45 µm filter.
Suspended sediment: - Sediment that is transported in suspension by a stream.
Suspended solids: - Different from suspended sediment only in the way that the sample is collected and analyzed.
Suspended-sediment concentration: - The velocity-weighted concentration of suspended sediment in the sampled zone
(from the water surface to a point approximately 0.3 foot above the bed); expressed as milligrams of dry sediment
per liter of water-sediment mixture (mglL).
Swale: - A slight depression, sometimes filled with water, in the midst of generally level land.
Swamp: - An area intermittently or permanently covered with water, and having trees and shrubs.
Synoptic sites: - Sites sampled during a short-term investigation of specific water-quality conditions during selected
seasonal or hydrologic conditions, to provide improved spatial resolution for critical water-quality conditions.
Tailings: - Rock that remains after processing ore to remove the valuable minerals.
Tarn: - A relatively small and deep, steep-sided lake or pool occupying an ice-gouged basin amid glaciated mountains.
Taxa richness: - See Species richness.
Taxon (plural taxa): - Any identifiable group of taxonomic ally related organisms.
Tectonic activity: - Movement of the Earth’s crust resulting in the formation of ocean basins, continents, plateaus, and
mountain ranges.
Terminal moraine: - The end moraine extending across a glacial plain or valley as an arcuate or crescent ridge that
marks the farthest advance or maximum extent of a glacier.
Terrane: - Area or surface over which a particular rock type or group of rock types is prevalent.
Terrestrial: - Pertaining to, consisting of, or representing the Earth.
Tertiary-treated sewage: - The third phase of treating sewage that removes nitrogen and phosphorus before it is dis-
charged.
Test well: - A borehole drilled to test an aquifer by means of pumping tests
Thermal loading: - Amount of waste heat discharged to a water body.
Thermoelectric power: - Electrical power generated by use of fossil-fuel (coal, oil, or natural gas), geothermal, or nuclear
energy.
Tidal flat: - An extensive, nearly horizontal, tract of land that is alternately covered and uncovered by the tide and
consists of un consolidated sediment.
Tide: - The rhythmic, alternate rise and fall of the surface (or water level) of the ocean, and connected bodies of water,
occurring twice a day over most of the Earth, resulting from the gravitational attraction of the Moon, and to a lesser
degree, the Sun.
Tile drain: - A buried perforated pipe designed to remove excess water from soils.
Till: - Predominantly unsorted and unstratified drift, deposited directly by and underneath a glacier without subsequent
reworking by meltwater, and consisting of a heterogeneous mixture of clay, silt, sand, gravel, and boulders.
Tissue study: - The assessment of concentrations and distributions of trace elements and certain organic contaminants
in tissues of aquatic organisms.
Tolerant species: - Those species that are adaptable to (tolerant of) human alterations to the environment and often
increase in number when alterations occur.
Topography: - The general configuration of a land surface or any part ofthe Earth’s surface, including its relief and the
position of its natural and man-made features.
Total concentration: - Refers to the concentration of a constituent regardless of its form (dissolved or bound) in a sample.
Total DDT: - The sum ofDDT and its metabolites (breakdown products), including DDD and DDE.
Total head: - The height above a datum plane of a column of water. In a groundwater system, it is composed of elevation
head and pressure head.
Trace element: - A chemical element that is present in minute quantities in a substance.
Tracer: - A stable, easily detected substance or a radio isotope added to a material to follow the location of the substance
in the environment or to detect any physical or chemical changes that it undergoes.
Trade winds: - A system of easterly winds that dominate most of the tropics. A major component of the general circulation
of the atmosphere.
Tranmissivity: - The rate at which water of the prevailing kinematic viscosity is transmitted through a unit width of an
aquifer under a unit hydraulic gradient. It equals the hydraulic conductivity multiplied by the aquifer thickness.
Transpiration: - The process by which water passes through living organisms, primarily plants, into the atmosphere.
Triazine herbicide: - A class of herbicides containing a symmetrical triazine ring (a nitrogen-heterocyclic ring composed
of three nitrogens and three carbons in an alternating sequence). Examples include atrazine, propazine, and simazine.
Triazine pesticide: - See Triazine herbicide.
Tributary: - A river or stream flowing into a larger river, stream or lake.

Tritium: - A radioactive form of hydrogen with atoms of three times the mass of ordinary hydrogen; can be used to
determine the age of water.
Tropical cyclone: - A cyclone that originates over the tropical oceans. Tropical cyclones are classified according to their
intensity and windspeed and, when fully mature, are characterized by extremely high-speed winds and torrential
rains. See also Cyclone
Troposphere: - Lowest 6 to 12 miles of the atmosphere, characterized by a general decrease in temperature with height,
appreciable water content, and active weather processes.
Trough (groundwater): - An elongated depression in a potentiometric surface.
Trough (meteorological): - An elongated area of relatively low atmospheric pressure; the opposite of a ridge. This term
commonly is used to distinguish a feature from the closed circulation of a low (or cyclone). A large trough, however,
may include one or more lows, and an upper-air trough may be associated with a lower-level low.
Tundra: - A vast, nearly level, treeless plain ofthe arctic and subarctic regions. It usually has a marshy surface which
supports mosses, lichens, and low shrubs, underlain by mucky soils and permafrost.
Turbidity: - The state, condition, or quality of opaqueness or reduced clarity of a fluid due to the presence of suspended
matter.
Unconfined aquifer: - An aquifer whose upper surface is a water table free to fluctuate under atmospheric pressure.
Unconsolidated deposit: - Deposit ofloosely bound sediment that typically fills topographically low areas.
Understory: - A foliage layer lying beneath and shaded by the main canopy of a forest.
Un-ionized: - The neutral form of an ionizable compound (such as an acid or abase).
Un-ionized ammonia: - The neutral form of ammonia-nitrogen in water, usually occurring as NH40H. Un-ionized am-
monia is the principal form of ammonia that is toxic to aquatic life. The relative proportion of un-ionized to ionized
ammonia (NH4+) is controlled by water temperature and pH. At temperatures and pH values typical of most natural
waters, the ionized form is dominant.
Unsaturated zone: - A subsurface zone above the water table in which the pore spaces may contain a combination of air
and water.
Upgradient: - Of or pertaining to the place(s) from which groundwater originated or traveled through before reaching a
given point in an aquifer.
Upland: - A general term for non wetland; elevated land above low areas along streams or between hills; any elevated
region from which rivers gather drainage.
Uranium (V): - A heavy silvery-white metallic element, highly radioactive and easily oxidized. Of the 14 known isotopes
of uranium, U238 is the most abundant in nature.
Urban site: - A site that has greater than 50 percent urbanized and less than 25 percent agricultural area.
Vascular plant: - A plant composed of or provided with vessels or ducts that convey water or sap. A fern is an example
of this type of plant.
Vernal pool: - A small lake or pond that is filled with water for only a short time during the spnng.
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs): - Organic chemicals that have a high vapor pressure relative to their water
solubility. VOCs include components of gasoline, fuel oils, and lubricants, as well as organic solvents, fumigants,
some inert ingredients in pesticides, and some by-products of chlorine disinfection.
Wasteway: - A waterway used to drain excess irrigation water dumped from the irrigation delivery system.
Water budget: - An accounting of the inflow to, outflow from, and storage changes of water in a hydrologic unit.
Water column: - An imaginary column extending through a water body from its floor to its surface.
Water column studies: - Investigations of physical and chemical characteristics of surface water, which include suspended
sediment, dissolved solids, major ions, and metals, nutrients, organic carbon, and dissolved pesticides, in relation to
hydrologic conditions, sources, and transport.
Water content of snow: - Amount of liquid water in the snow at the time of observation. Water equivalent of snow.
Water demand: - Water requirements for a particular purpose, such as irrigation, power, municipal supply, plant tran-
spiration, or storage.
Water exports: - Artificial transfer (by pipes or canals) of freshwater from one region or subregion to another.
Water gap: - A deep, narrow pass in a mountain ridge through which a stream flows.
Water imports: - Artificial transfer (by pipes or canals) of freshwater to one region or subregion from another.
Water rights: - Legal rights to the use of water. See also Riparian rights.
Water-quality criteria: - Specific levels of water quality which, if reached, are expected to render a body of water
unsuitable for its designated use. Commonly refers to criteria established by the US. Environmental Protection
Agency. Water-quality criteria are based on specific levels of pollutants that would make the water harmful if used
for drinking, swimming, farming, fish production, or industrial processes.
Water-quality guidelines: - Specific levels of water quality which, if reached, may adversely affect human health or
aquatic life. These are non enforceable guidelines issued by a governmental agency or other institution.
Water-quality standards: - State-adopted and Environmental Protection Agency approved ambient standards for water
bodies. Standards include the use of the water body and the water-quality criteria that must be met to protect the
designated use or uses.

Watershed: - See drainage basin.

Water table: - The top water surface of an unconfined aquifer at atmospheric pressure.
Water well: - Any hole excavated in the ground that can be used to obtain a water supply
Water year: - A continuous 12-month period selected to present data relative to hydrologic or meteorological phenomena
during which a complete annual hydrologic cycle normally occurs.
Weather: - State of the atmosphere at any particular time and place.
Weathering: - Process whereby earthy or rocky materials are changed in color, texture, composition, or form (with little
or no transportation) by exposure to atmospheric agents.
Weighted mean: - A value obtained by multiplying each ofa series of values by its assigned weight and dividing the sum
of these products by the sum of the weights. In the ordinary arithmetic mean, each value is assigned a weight of 1.
Wetland function: - A process or series of processes that take place within a wetland that are beneficial to the wetland
itself, the surrounding ecosystems, and people.
Wetlands: - Ecosystems whose soil is saturated for long periods seasonally or continuously, including marshes, swamps,
and ephemeral ponds.
Willow carr: - A pool, or wetland dominated by willow trees or shrubs.
Withdrawal: - Water removed from the ground or diverted from a surface-water source for use. Also refers to the use
itself; for example, public-supply withdrawals or public-supply use. See also Offstream use
Xerophyte: - A plant adapted for growth under dry conditions.
Yield: - The mass of material or constituent transported by a river in a specified period of time divided by the drainage
area of the river basin.
Zoo plankton: - See Plankton.

Appendix B
Groundwater Field Work - OH&S

Aspects
Contents
B.1 Health and Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748
B.2 Personnel and Their general Responsibilities for Occupational Health and
Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749
B.3 Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749
B.3.1 Chemical Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749
B.3.2 Drilling hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750
B.4 First aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750
B.4.1 DRABC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750
B.4.2 Bleeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 752
B.4.3 Heat Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 752
B.5 Poisonous animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754
B.5.1 Mosquitoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754
B.5.2 Ticks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755
B.5.3 Sandflies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755
B.5.4 Leeches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755
B.5.5 Snakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755
B.5.6 Bush Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756
B.6 Manual Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757
B.1 Health and Safety
Occupational health and safety is now an integral part of the work place in Australia. While there
are risks in working and traveling to an office environment this chapter is primarily directed at the
field environment. Within the field there is a large range from pristine bush, working alongside drilling
rigs, to contaminated sites where chemical hazards exist and precautions must be taken, or at mines or
landfills. For these latter sites they must have Occupational Health and Safety Plan (OH&S Plan) and is
a requirement for, even working temporarily at the site, to comply with all provisions and advice given
in this Occupational Health and Safety Plan. Additionally, all persons participating in site work must
be aware of the dangers and assume appropriate responsibilities to protect themselves and others.
This chapter lists precautions and treatment for a number of health and safety risks for the hydrogeological
field worker. It is not indented to replace First Aid courses and manuals, or OH&S Plans, but be
complimentary to them.
748
Chapter B. Groundwater Field Work - OH&S Aspects
B.2 Personnel and Their general Responsibilities for Occupa-

tional Health and Safety
The general requirement for a field worker is given from the mining sector. All Australian Departments of
Mines regard mineral exploration tenements as mines from a safety point of view. Therefore, appropriate
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) must be worn at all times while on site.
PPE comprises the following:
Footwear : Steel capped boots must be worn when working around drill rigs, earth moving equipment,
using tools such as, chainsaws, etc. For traversing and field work, hiking boots that provide good
ankle support and traction are recommended. Long pants will also provide some protection.
Eye Protection : Protect your vision whenever you perform a job that might endanger your eyesight.
Wear safety glasses with eye shields whenever you:
• Strike rocks with a Geological hammer
• Operate a chainsaw or core saw
• Work near a working drill rig
• Handle hazardous chemicals or materials.
Wear safety sunglasses whenever you work in conditions that expose your eyes to extra amounts of
ultraviolet light.
Hard Hats : Wear an approved hard hat whenever you work in situations that present danger from
falling or flying objects such as:
• near a working drill rig
• In pits, trenches and costeans
• Sampling at cliff faces or on steep slopes.
Safety vests: Wear a safety vest where required as in a landfill or mine.
When camping it is recommended practice to choose:
• a camp site and layout which provides acceptable standards of safety and hygiene minimises the
risk from fire and flood.
• Camps site not placed among trees which will shed branches.
B.3 Hazards
In most situations, where people are injured or property is damaged, this has occurred as the result of
contact with an energy source or exposure to a substance that is above the threshold limit of the body or
structure. The potential hazards at the site will generally be defined as being of a physical or chemical
type. Not all sites will have associated chemical or other hazards, although assessments of potential
hazards should be made prior to commencement of a field program.
B.3.1 Chemical Hazards
A site can contain a variety of chemical contaminants which could be in gaseous, liquid or solid phases.
These substances could enter the unprotected body via the following exposure pathways:

• Dermal contact - This may include direct contact with contaminated fill, dust, leachate or ground-
water.
• Ingestion - Contaminated fill, dust, leachate or groundwater.
• Inhalation - Airborne dust, gases or vapours.
• Injection - Contaminated fill, dust, gases or groundwater entering a puncture wound.
When working with contaminated materials, care needs to be taken to ensure that the contamination is
not introduced to the worker via the above mentioned pathways. PPE plays a major role in ensuring
that the possible contamination does not provide a health risk to the worker. The presence of some site
contaminants may pose a potential explosive hazard, especially in confined spaces due to their low flash
points; explosion hazards in the open environment are expected to be low. A combustible gas / oxygen
meter will be used to monitor ambient conditions during tank removals. Oxygen deficient atmospheres
may be encountered in tanks, excavation pits, manholes etc.
Entry into confined spaces will be conducted to strict accordance with Australia Standard 2865-1986 Safe
Working in a Confined Space.
B.3.2 Drilling hazards
A drilling site should not be located:
• on a steep or unstable ground

• close to electric or gas supply
• in trenches only if precautions have been taken
In the case of the drilling contaminated sites, the drilling company needs to be informed of the risk.
Personal protective clothing and other protective equipment will be maintained in good condition and
will be worn on all relevant occasions as required by notices, instructions, work permits, safety and
environment regulations and good work practice. Drill and water samples are to be taken in a way which
minimizes any exposure.
Those in close proximity to a working drill rigs should wear a hard hat, where protective goggles and
hearing protection.
B.4 First aid
These field safety guidelines do not attempt to cover the whole topic of first aid. Every field worker should
have completed a basic level first aid and CPR (cardio-pulmonary resuscitation) course. The information
below is designed to assist in the management of a casualty’s immediate needs. Personal First Aid kits
should be carried at all times when working away from the vehicle. Make sure you replace any used items
and regularly check the kits contents for items which may have passed their use by date. There should
be more comprehensive first aid kits in the field camps, vehicles and offices In all emergencies follow the
DRABC (Danger Response Airway Breathing Circulation) action Plan:
B.4.1 DRABC
Danger : Only proceed if it is safe to do so. Ensure that no one else gets injured and if possible remove
the casualty to a safer position.

Table B.1: CPR Rates

One Operator Two Operators
2 Breaths in 5 seconds 1 breath every 5 compressions
15 compressions in 10 seconds 1 compression every 1 second
Repeat 4 times per minute Repeat 12 times per minute
Cardiac operator must count aloud
Response : Check the casualty for consciousness. If conscious, manage any bleeding, if unconscious;
turn the casualty on their side.
Airway : With the casualty on their side, check for and remove any foreign objects from their airway
with your fingers.
Breathing : Look and listen for breathing. If the casualty is not breathing turn them on their back and
commence EAR (Expired Air Resuscitation).
Circulation : Feel the carotid pulse at the neck. If the pulse is present continue to manage bleeding, if
there is no pulse commence CPR (Cardio Pulmonary Resuscitation).
Initial Resuscitation
If the patient is not breathing:
• Tilt the head back (pistol Grip)

• Give 2 breaths in 10 seconds (Chest must move)
• Check pulse (carotid)
• If no pulse, go immediately to CPR
EAR (Expired Air Resuscitation)
• Tilt head back

• Give 1 breath every 4 seconds (15 per minute)
• Check pulse after 1 minute, then every 2 minutes
• If no pulse, go immediately to CPR
CPR (Cardio Pulmonary Resuscitation)
• Place the heel of one hand on lower half of sternum

• Grasp wrist area with other hand, keep fingers off chest
• Compress (push down) sternum vertically 4-5 cm

• Check Pulse after 1 minute then every 2 minutes
• Rate: The timing of CPR will depend upon the people available to carry out CPR. It is a tiring
process for one person.

B.4.2 Bleeding
All bleeding should be stopped (except for the ear: cover the ear loosely and let drain freely then seek
medical aid).
ARTERIAL BLEEDING is bright red and spurts (being pumped out under pressure)
VENOUS BLEEDING is dark red and pours out
CAPILLARY BLEEDING oozes out
B.4.3 Heat Stress
The combination of high temperature, high humidity, over-exertion, and lack of acclimatisation all con-
tribute to the development of heat-related illnesses. It need not be especially hot. Heat-related illnesses
can develop if the air temperature exceeds 23 ◦ C .
Prevention of Heat-Related Illness
Drink plenty of water. Avoid dehydration. Do not rely on thirst to indicate how much to drink. Drink
large quantities before you begin work regularly while working. Water is best; carbonated drinks are
less effective. Do not drink milk, undiluted fruit juices, or any form of alcohol. Alcohol actually causes
your body to lose fluids. When performing moderately strenuous work in a hot environment, you need
to drink at least 5 litres of water a day.
• Wear a broad brimmed hat in the sun.

• Increase your salt intake slightly. The salt in most prepared foods should be sufficient. Salt tablets
should be taken only on the advice of a doctor. However, if you have been sweating heavily, an
electrolyte-glucose drink Poweraid) might be advisable.
• Wear light colored, loose fitting clothing that does not leave too much skin exposed.
• Become acclimatised, whether you are new to a hot climate or are returning from a break, sickness,
or annual leave.
Hyperthermia
There are three main types of hyperthermia or heat stress: heat cramps, heat exhaustion, and heat stroke.
Heat cramps and heat exhaustion result from dehydration and salt depletion as the body sweats to lower
its internal temperature. Heat stroke occurs when the body core temperature exceeds 41 ◦C because its
cooling mechanisms have broken down. This condition can cause death. Heat stroke requires immediate
medical attention. You can avoid almost all cases of hyperthermia by taking preventative measures.
Prickly Heat/Heat Rash : This skin condition is common in the tropics. It is aggravated by high
humidity. Tiny droplets of sweat become trapped under the outer layer of skin. These droplets
appear as an irritating, blister-like red rash. Frequent showering helps prevent its development.
Sometimes a drying lotion and mild talcum powder help, but ointments and creams will clog up
the outlets of your sweat glands even further.
Heat Cramps : These painful spasms usually occur in your arm and leg muscles. They can be disabling,
but they are preventable if you pay attention to replacing the salt and water lost through sweating.
Heat cramps can be treated by gently stretching the muscle and applying ice.

Heat Exhaustion : If you do not replace the fluids lost through sweating, you may develop heat ex-
haustion. Although a person suffering from heat exhaustion can continue to produce sweat, the
production is not great enough to cool the body satisfactorily. While there is no significant rise in
the core body temperature of a victim of heat exhaustion, the condition can rapidly develop into
heat stroke. The symptoms for heat exhaustion are the same as for shock.
Symptoms of Heat Exhaustion : cool clammy skin; weakness or fatigue; headache nausea, vomiting
muscle cramps; dizziness and confusion
Treatment : Move the victim to a cool area. Cool the victim if necessary, and replace the water and
salt lost by dehydration. Have the victim lie down with feet elevated. Although a victim of heat
exhaustion may feel better almost immediately and wish to return to work, 24 hours of rest is
needed for adequate rehydration to occur.
Heat Stroke : Heat stroke is a life-threatening condition demanding immediate medical attention. As
the body core temperature approaches 41 ◦ C , the skin usually becomes hot and dry, and the victim
can no longer produce sweat. Once this happens, the victim will die if his or her body temperature
continues to rise. Provide interim treatment and transport victims of heat stroke to a medical
treatment facility as soon as possible, because complications frequently develop.
Symptoms of Heat Stroke : hot dry skin; rapidly rising core temperature; rapid pulse; headache
nausea and vomiting; delirium; convulsions; collapse and coma.
Interim Treatment prior to Medical Evacuation : Get the victim out of the sun and into the
coolest possible location. Loosen tight clothing and elevate the feet. Cool the victim as quickly
as possible, paying particular attention to the head, armpits, and groin. Drape the victim with
lukewarm wet sheets or towels to conduct heat away from the body. Fan the body. Try to place
the victim on a screen so they can be cooled both from above and below. The aim is maximise
evaporation from the body to cool the core body temperature, without chilling the victim.
Sunburn
The sun produces ultraviolet radiation (UV) that can cause serious burns to your eyes and skin. Both
direct and reflected radiation cause burning and the best way to avoid sunburn is to avoid exposure as
much as possible. You can do this by wearing sunglasses with Polaroid lenses, wearing trousers, long
sleeved shirts, a wide brim hat and by using sun screen on your exposed skin. Various products are
available that contain agents to block UV radiation. Skin damage from repeated episodes of sunburn can
lead to premature aging of the skin and other serious complications. Pay special attention to your hands;
people that work outdoors frequently develop skin cancers on their hands due to prolonged exposure to
the sun.
Prevention : The best prevention is to cover exposed areas. Wear a broad brimmed hat, shirt, long
pants, sunglasses, and sun screen when appropriate. Shorts expose your legs to sunburn.
Filters : Sunglasses fitted with Polaroid lenses will cut down UV radiation exposure to your eyes.
Medicines : Taking certain medications often increases a person’s sensitivity to UV radiation. These
include tetracyclines, sulphonamides, and oral anti-diabetics.
Treatment : Keep the sunburned area covered loosely to stop exposure to more sun. Cold compresses
help; creams or lotions, such as moisturisers may help, but do not apply these to blisters.
Hypothermia
Travelling or working in cold weather conditions can lead to Hypothermia. The conditions leading to
hypothermia are: Cold temperatures, in combination with improper clothing, wetness, fatigue, poor food
intake, or alcohol intake - causes vasodilation leading to increased heat loss.

How to assess if someone is Hypothermic
• If shivering can be stopped voluntarily this is impending to mild hypothermia.

• Ask the person a question that requires higher reasoning in the brain (count backwards from 100
by 9s). If the person is hypothermic, they won’t be able to do it.
• If shivering cannot be stopped voluntarily they have moderate to severe hypothermia.
• If you can’t get a radial pulse at the wrist it indicates a core temperature below 32.2 - 30.0 ◦C .
Treating Hypothermia
The basic principles of rewarming a hypothermic victim are to conserve the heat they have and replace
the body fuel they are burning up to generate that heat.
Impending Hypothermia : Seek or build a shelter to get the person out of the cold, windy, wet
environment. Start a fire or get a stove going to provide warmth. Provide the person with a hot
drink (no alcohol, coffee or tea). Halt further heat loss by insulating the person with extra clothes,
etc. This person should recover from the present condition quite quickly.
Mild Hypothermia: Remove or insulate the patient from the cold environment, keeping the head and
neck covered. This prevents further heat loss and allows the body to rewarm itself. Provide the
patient with a warm, sweetened drink (no alcohol, coffee or tea) and some high energy food. Limited
exercise may help to generate some internal heat, but it depletes energy reserves.
Moderate Hypothermia : Remove or insulate the patient from the cold environment, keeping the
head and neck covered. Apply mild heat (comfortable to your elbow) to the head, neck, chest,
armpits and groin of the patient. Use hot water bottles, wrapped Thermo-Pads, warm rocks, or
warm moist towels. It is possible that you may have to continue this treatment for some time. Offer
sips of warm, sweetened liquids (no alcohol, coffee or tea) if the patient is fully conscious, beginning
to rewarm and is able to swallow. Patient should be seen by a physician.
Severe Hypothermia : Place patient in a prewarmed sleeping bag with one or two other people. Skin
to skin contact in the areas of the chest (ribs) and neck is effective. Exhale warm air near the
patient’s nose and mouth, or introduce steam into the area. Try to keep the patient awake, ignore
pleas of leave me alone, I’m OK. The patient is in serious trouble; keep a close, continuous watch
over the patient. Apply mild heat, with the aim of stopping temperature drop, not rewarming. If
patient has lost consciousness be very gentle, as by now the heart is extremely sensitive. Always
assume the patient is revivable, do not give up. Check for pulse at the carotid artery. If, after
two minutes you find no pulse, check on the other side of the neck for two minutes. If there is any
breathing or pulse, no matter how faint, do not give CPR but keep very close watch for changes
in vital signs. If no pulse is found begin CPR immediately, stopping only when the heart begins to
beat or the person applying CPR can not carry on any longer without endangering himself. Medical
help is imperative, hospitalisation is needed.
B.5 Poisonous animals
B.5.1 Mosquitoes
Mosquitoes can spread diseases such as Malaria, Dengue Fever, Murray Valley encephalitis and Ross
River Virus. Prevention is the best cure. Avoid being bitten. Wear long sleeved shirts and long pants
especially in the evening. Use an insect repellent on all exposed skin and reapply frequently. Also apply

repellents to your clothes. Use a repellent containing at least 15% but not more than 55% DEET (N,
N-diethyl metatoluamide). Do not use higher concentrations, as small quantities of DEET are absorbed
through the skin and reactions may occur. Sleep under a mosquito net.
B.5.2 Ticks
Some sixty species of ticks exist in Australia. The Australian scrub tick, also known as the paralysis tick
or dog tick is potentially the most dangerous tick in Australia. It is a minute parasite that delivers a
paralysing toxin and if not removed can eventually cause death, even in human beings. The Australian
scrub tick occurs mainly along the coastal areas of eastern Australia. On humans they tend to hide in
the folds of the skin or above the hairline and have been known to attach themselves to the eardrum.
Prevention is the best cure. Avoid being bitten.
Wear long sleeved shirts and long tucked in pants and footwear that completely cover your feet. Apply
DEET insect repellents to yourself and your clothes. Conduct daily checks on your clothing and body
for attached ticks.
Remove ticks by sliding the open blades of a pair of small, sharp scissors or tweezers, one on each side of
the tick, and lever the tick outwards, being careful not to leave the mouth parts in the skin. Cleanse the
area thoroughly and apply a mild antiseptic.
• Do not apply the hot tip of a cigarette or match to the tick’s body.
• Do not apply petrol, acetone, methylated spirits or turpentine to the tick.
B.5.3 Sandflies
Sandflies are common and their bites can cause irritation. Prevention is the best cure. Avoid being
bitten. Wear long sleeved shirts and long pants especially in the evening. Use an insect repellent on all
exposed skin and reapply frequently. Also apply repellents to your clothes.
B.5.4 Leeches
There are a number of species of leeches in Australia living in ponds, waterways and the damp bush. Not
all species are blood suckers. Many are predators, which eat earthworms etc. Leeches, once attached to
humans, pierce the skin and inject an anticoagulant (hirudin) which prevents the blood clotting whilst
they are feeding.
If you discover a leech attached to you do not, if possible, pull it off. A lighted match, salt or insect spray
will induce it to let go. After removing the leech allow some bleeding from the wound and then wash it
with strong antiseptic to prevent infection. The wound may still keep bleeding for several hours.
B.5.5 Snakes
Some seventy percent of Australian snakes are venomous. Assume all snakes are venomous and leave
them alone. Ninety percent of snakebites in Australia are at the ankle or below. Eight percent occur
on the hand and two percent elsewhere. If you wear above ankle field boots and/or thick long trousers
you are less likely to get bitten. Use gloves when collecting wood. Never put your hand under anything
without rolling it over away from you with your boot.
If a person is bitten by a snake use the pressure bandage/immobilisation method of treatment.

The venom is conveyed from the site of the bite and absorbed into the blood stream via the small
superficial lymph vessels just beneath the skin. These can easily be compressed thus slowing the venom
flow into the blood system. The cause of death by snakebite is respiratory arrest by the gradual paralysis
of all muscles including the diaphragm.
Using a pressure bandage, bandage straight over the snakebite and wind the bandage up the limb towards
the body keeping a firm pressure.
• Apply the bandage tightly enough to compress the tissues, but not so tight as to restrict the flow
of blood to the areas below the bandage.
• If the snake has been killed, bring it with the patient, but do not waste time, risk further bites and
delay application of pressure bandage and splint by trying to kill the snake.
• Do not wash the wound.
• Do not use a tourniquet.
• Do not cut or suck the wound.
• Do not give alcohol to the patient.
• Do not give food and only non-alcoholic clear fluids may be used for drinks.
• Rest and avoid excessive activity on the part of the patient.
• Reassure the patient.
• Seek medical aid urgently
The pressure immobilisation method of first aid is ideal for Australian snakebite by all species, as well as
bites from suspected funnel web spiders, and for bites by the blue ringed octopus, cone shells and severe
stings by the box jellyfish (this must not precede vinegar treatment). It is not appropriate for bites from
the red back spider, other spiders, scorpions or centipedes or stings from venomous fish.
B.5.6 Bush Fires
Preparation is the key to avoiding damage from bush fires. A firebreak must protect all field camps. All
flammable materials such as wood and fuel should be stored well away from tents, buildings.
If a bush fire approaches:
• Contact the local bush fire brigade, land holder and your office or base. Radio reports
• Wet down all building etc.
• Evacuate the area if safe to do so, if not;
• Remain inside a building or a large cleared area or a large dam until the fire front has passed.
After the fire front has passed (10 - 15 minutes) go outside and put out the small fires which may have
started. Only do so if it is safe.
If you are in a vehicle and get caught in a bush fire:
• Do not drive through flames or thick smoke.

• Drive away from the fire.

If you cannot escape:
• Stop your vehicle in a clearing or area of low vegetation.

• Turn off the ignition.
• Remain in the vehicle with all vents, windows and doors shut.
• Cover yourself with a blanket, towels etc and lie down below window level.
If you are on foot and get caught in a bush fire:
• Move across the slope away from the fire front, then down slope towards the rear of the fire.
• Look for a burnt out area to safely cross the fire front.
If you cannot escape the fire front:
• Lie down behind a bank, log or in a hollow or dam or stream until the fire front passes.
• Where possible, cover yourself to protect yourself from the fire’s radiant heat.
B.6 Manual Handling
Statistics show that most of the victims of back strains are below the age of 20 or above the age of
60. This points to inexperience and lack of supervision and training in the former group, and to an
accumulation of minor damage and decreasing physical resilience in the latter. As a rough rule of thumb,
persons should not lift unassisted, weights greater than about 20 kg. To reduce the incidence of back
strain:
• the task should be planned before work begins;

• suitable protective clothing should be provided and worn;
• minimise double handling;
• take rest breaks during heavy or repetitive work;
• store heavier objects at waist level, smaller objects on high or low shelves;
• lighten loads (break loads into smaller quantities);
• reduce bending, twisting, reaching movements;
• use two people to carry bigger loads; and
• prevent muscle strain and fatigue. This includes warming up before working, allocating time for
rest breaks, and allowing time to gradually get used to a new job.
• Bend the knees, but not beyond a right angle.
• Keep the back straight but not vertical.
• Lift using the strong thigh and calf muscles.
• Keep the centre of gravity of load and body in line with the feet.
• While carrying, clasp the load close to the body.

These notes have been compiled and or consolidated from a range of references including:
1. AusIMM. Field Geologists Manual - 3rd Ed

2. Department of Mines and Energy QLD 1998., Exploration Safety Guidelines
3. Pasminco Exploration.1999., Pasminco exploration and environmental procedures and guidelines
for field operations
4. RFDS Queensland Section., 1998., Guide to Safety and Survival
5. Radusin, S., (Editor) 1992., Australian Bush Survival Skills and Search Rescue Manual.
6. St Johns Ambulance Australia., 1996., Australian First Aid 2nd Edition Volume One
7. WorkSafe Western Australia Commission, 1998., Manual Handling Guidelines

Appendix C
List of Presenters from previous

Groundwater Schools
Many groundwater professions have contributed to presenting the Groundwater Schools since their in-
ception. Many presenters have written their own notes or have supplemented the given material with
additional material. The Editorial Committee had free access to the last edition (digital) of the notes
through the CGS. They have variously made use of this material; replaced material or supplemented
material as appropriate. The Groundwater Community in Australia owns the product as a result.
A list of past presenters is given below in alphabetic order:

Ian Acworth, Jim Alvey, Stephen Appleyard, Don Armstrong, Peter Baker, Chris Barber, Steve Barnett,
John Barton, Elise Bekele, Volmer Berens, Tamara Boyd, John Bradd, Anthony Brinkley, Keith Brown,
Ian Cartwright, Francis Chiew, Des Cleary, Craig Clifton, Peter Cochrane, Ron Colman, Phil Comman-
der, Peter Cook, Jim Cox, Richard Cresswell, Jim Cull, Greg Davis, Jenny Deakin, Kevin Dennis, Peter
Dillon, Peter Dundon, Joe Duran, Robert Ellis, Ray Evans, Richard Evans, Howard Fallowfield, Simon
Fitzgerald, Peter Franzmann, David Free, Rob Freeman, George Gates, Richard George, Mat Gilfedder,
Bruce Gill, Ian Gordon, Iain Hair, Robert Hammond, Karen Hansen, John Harbison, Glenn Harrington,
Bryan Harris, Rod Harwood, Tom Hatton, Greg Hausler, Colin Hazel, Graham Heinson, StJohn Herbert,
Andrew Herczeg, Tony Hill, Clem Hill, John Hillier, Greg Hoxley, John Hutson, Bill Huxley, David Ife,
Trevor Ingram, Paul Jackson, Julianne James-Smith, Jerzy Jankowski, Ian Jolly, Phillip Kalaitzis, Frans
Kalf, Bryce Kelly, John Kobelke, Robert Kuzelka, Anthony Lane, Miladin Latinovic, Charles Lawrence,
Tony Laws, Corinne Le Gal La Salle, Leon Leach, Fred Leaney, John Leonard, Lazarus Leonhard, Andrew
Love, Barry Mann, Russell Martin, Kevin Masterton, John McAvan, Don McCarthy, Sandie McHugh,
Andy McIntyre, Gerard McMahon, Noel Merrick, Hugh Middlemis, William Milne-Home, Joe Odins,
Claus Otto, Stephen Parsons, Bruce Pearce, Geoff Pettifer, Trevor Pillar, Jason Plumb, Daniel Pollock,
Neil Power, John Radcliffe, David Reynolds, Stuart Richardson, Virginia Riches, Chris Robson, John B
Ross, Matt Scaddan, Ludovic Schmidt, Robert Scott, Richard Sheldrake, Kerry Shine, Zac Sibenaler,
Jatinder Sidhu, Mark Silburn, Craig Simmons, Anthony Smith, Chris Smitt, Fred Stadter, Matthew
Stenson, Darryl Strudwick, Baskaran Sundaram, Lindsay Thomas, David Thomas, Lloyd Townley, Si-
mon Toze, Brian Traeger, Jeffrey Turner, Bradley Van Blomestein, Jason Van Den Akker, Harry Ventriss,
Ryan Vogwill, Ray Volker, Stuart Wade, Glen Walker, Tamie Weaver, Adrian Werner, Phillip Wharton,
Michael Williams, Vernon Wilson, Peter Woods, Don Woolley.
759

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Australian

These notes were produced by partners and associates of the

Australian groundwater school notes i

Australian groundwater school notes ii

Australian groundwater school notes iii

Australian groundwater school notes iv

Supplementary and Derived Units

Quantity Unit Name Unit Symbol

Area square metre m2

Definitions of Fundamental Units

Australian groundwater school notes v

Derived SI Units with Special Names

The Multiplying Prefixes

The SI prefixes for multiplication are given in Table 3. Examples:

The Greek Alphabet

Australian groundwater school notes vi

Prefix Name Prefix Symbol Multiplication Factor

Table 4: The Greek Alphabet

Greek Character Greek Name English Equivalent

Australian groundwater school notes vii

1 Importance of groundwater in Australia 1

1.2 Global water balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.2.1 Groundwater and society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.2.2 Impacts of groundwater abstraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.3 Water supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.3.1 Geological and palaeoclimatic controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.3.2 Recent temperature changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2.1 What is hydrogeology? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2.2 Factors affecting groundwater occurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2.3 Occurrence of groundwater in Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2.4 Groundwater in sedimentary basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2.4.2 The Tertiary Murray Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

2.4.3 The Late Paleozoic to Mesozoic Perth Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2.5 Groundwater in fractured rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2.5.1 Weathered granites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2.5.2 Fractured sandstones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2.6 Groundwater in Tertiary palaeochannels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

2.7 Groundwater in surficial deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

2.7.1 Swan Coastal Plain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2.7.2 Sand dune aquifers of the east Australian coast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2.8 Groundwater in basalts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2.9 Groundwater on oceanic islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

3 Surface water hydrology 30

3.1.1 The distribution of water on the planet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

3.1.2 The global water balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

3.1.3 Residence times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

3.1.4 The Australian water balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

3.2 Extraterrestrial radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

3.2.1 Incoming radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

3.2.2 Effect of variations in the earth-sun distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

3.2.3 Effect of earth’s rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3.2.4 Effect of latitude and curvature of the earth’s surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3.3 Radiation budget within the atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

3.3.2 Estimate of incoming short wave radiation Rc at ground surface . . . . . . . . . . 40

3.3.3 Estimate of long wave radiation (Rb ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

3.3.4 Net radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

3.4 Hydrological cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

3.4.1 Hydrology as a science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

3.4.2 The history of hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

3.4.3 Central concept in hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

3.5.1 Rainfall in Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

3.5.2 Rain gauges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

3.5.3 Radar estimates of rainfall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

3.5.4 Measurement of snow fall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49