Automobile Refrigeration And

Air Conditioning

Chapter - 1

Department of Automobile
IOE, Thapathali Campus
and Mechanical Engineering
 History of Air Conditioning
• Automobiles were not very comfortable for passengers in the early
years because the cabins were open.

• Eventually, car companies began to close up the passenger cabins,

which required a change in temperature control systems.

• At first, vents were put in the floors of cars, bringing in more dirt and
dust than cool air

• In 1939, Packard produced the first passenger cars using

refrigeration components. A huge evaporator was mounted in the
trunk.

• Cadillac introduced an air-conditioned car in 1941.

• In 1954, Delphi Harrison Thermal Systems introduced an air-

conditioning system that located all the major components under the
car’s hood
A 1939 Packard with air conditioner.
 Today’s Air-Conditioning Systems
❖ Today’s vehicles are very comfortable no matter what the weather is like
outside.

❖ Innovations and improvements in overall durability have increased the

complexity of today’s air-conditioning systems.

❖ As today’s vehicle drivers travel through different regions, they can enjoy
the same comfort levels as they do at home.

❖ Climate-control systems automatically make the transition from heating to

cooling and back.

❖ For vehicles operating in the cold region, heating systems keep occupants
warm and comfortable and help keep the windshield clear of ice and snow.

❖ For those operating in the southern hot region, air conditioning greatly
improves the comfort level of the occupants.

❖ An added benefit of air conditioning systems is that they remove humidity

from the circulating air.
 Vehicle Heat and Cold Sources
❖ The heat and cold that an HVAC system must overcome
originates from many different sources.

❖ Ambient air temperature and solar radiation are two such

sources.

❖ Tinting of windows can reduce the effects of solar radiation.

❖ Other heat sources are those generated by the engine and

cooling system. These include transmission heat, exhaust system
heat, and heat radiated up through the floor of the vehicle.

❖ Human body heat and warm moist air from breathing constantly
radiate into the air in the cab.

❖ All add to the heat and moisture that must be removed by an

HVAC system
Heat enters the cab through windows. Engine heat enters
through the firewall, and heat radiates up through the floor
of the vehicle.
 Vehicle Heat and Cold Sources
❖ Another source of hot or cold air is the fresh air
ventilation system. Air is circulated by a fan, usually
referred to as a blower motor.
❖ Outside air coming into the cab must either be heated or
cooled before it reaches the vehicle interior.
❖ The ventilation system improves the performance of the
air-conditioning or heating system by improving air flow
within the vehicle.
 Purpose of the HVAC System
HVAC systems perform three very important functions:
• Temperature control. The HVAC maintains the
temperature within the passenger compartment as
selected by the operator.
• Humidity control. The HVAC system reduces the
humidity within the passenger compartment.
• Air circulation control. The HVAC refreshes the air in
the vehicle’s interior.
 Air-Conditioning Components
❖The most common components of truck
air-conditioning systems are:

1. Compressor 4. Evaporator
2. Condenser 5. Receiver-drier
3. Pressure regulating 6. Accumulator
devices:
❖ Orifice tube
❖ Thermostatic
expansion valve
 Compressor
❖ The compressor can be referred to as the heart of the HVAC
system.

❖ Compressors are bolted to the engine and are belt-driven by either a

V-belt or a serpentine belt.

❖ The compressor is responsible for compressing and transferring

refrigerant gas

❖ The air-conditioning system may be divided into two different sides:

the high-pressure (discharge) side and the low-pressure (suction)
side.

❖ The compressor is the dividing point between the suction and

discharge sides of the air-conditioning system.
 Compressor
❖ The suction side of the compressor draws in refrigerant gas from the
outlet of the evaporator.

❖ Once refrigerant is drawn into the suction side, it is compressed,

which concentrates the heat in the vapor, raising its temperature.

❖ The vapor leaving the compressor must be hotter than the

atmosphere so that, while it is in the condenser, it will dissipate the
heat that it carries to the cooler ambient air.

Swash plate compressor. Two-piston type compressor.

 Condenser
❖ The condenser dissipates the heat that was once inside the cab of
the vehicle.

❖ The condenser is designed to radiate heat, and it is usually located

in front of the radiator.

❖ In some retrofit applications, it may be located on the cab roof

❖ Condensers must have air flow any time the system is in operation.
This is accomplished by the ram air effect or by the engine cooling
fan.

❖ The compressor pumps hot refrigerant gas into the top of the
condenser.

❖ The gas is then cooled and condenses into high-pressure liquid

refrigerant at the bottom of the condenser or condenser outlet.
Refrigerant surrenders heat from the cab to the ambient air
in the condenser.
 Pressure Regulating Devices
The desired temperature of an evaporator is maintained by
controlling refrigerant pressure. Two pressure-regulating
devices are:
❖ Orifice Tube. This is a simple restriction located in the
liquid line between the condenser outlet and the
evaporator inlet
❖ Thermostatic Expansion Valve (TXV). The TXV’s job is
to regulate the flow of refrigerant so that any liquid
refrigerant metered through it has time to evaporate or
change states from liquid to gas before leaving the
evaporator
 An orifice tube is used to
meter the flow of refrigerant An assortment of thermostatic
into the evaporator of an expansion valves.
orifice tube air-conditioning
system.
 Evaporator
❖ The evaporator’s primary function is to remove heat from within the
cab of the vehicle. It is also used for dehumidification.

❖ It is usually located within the controlled space or is in some way

isolated from the outside of the vehicle.

❖ A blower motor circulates air from the cabin through the evaporator
coil.

❖ As the warmer air travels through the cooler fins of the evaporator,
the moisture in the air condenses on their surface.

❖ In order to keep the evaporator from freezing, several different

temperature- or pressure-regulating devices may be used.

❖ Keeping the evaporator from freezing is extremely important

because a frozen evaporator will not absorb very much heat
The evaporator is the component that
absorbs heat from the vehicle’s cab.
 Evaporator
❖ Refrigerant enters the evaporator as a low-pressure liquid.

❖ The refrigerant temperature is lower than that of the air inside the
cab, and heat flows from a warm substance to a cooler one.

❖ The warm air from the cabin passes through the evaporator fins and
causes the liquid refrigerant in the evaporator to boil

❖ The boiling refrigerant absorbs large quantities of heat from the

cabin.

❖ This heat is then carried off with the refrigerant to the outside of the
vehicle.

❖ The force that draws this low-pressure refrigerant through the

evaporator is the suction effect of the compressor.
 Receiver-Drier
❖ The receiver-drier is used in air-conditioning systems
with a TXV.
❖ It is used to store refrigerant and separate any gas
refrigerant from liquid refrigerant.
❖ It is a cylindrical metal container usually located on the
bulkhead.
❖ The TXV requires liquid refrigerant to operate efficiently.
❖ The receiver and desiccant types are chosen for the type
of system and refrigerant used within the system
 Evaporator

The receiver-drier provides storage filtration and moisture

removal for passing refrigerant.
 Accumulator
• An accumulator is used in systems that employ a fixed
orifice tube to control the flow of refrigerant into the
evaporator.
• The accumulator prevents liquid refrigerant from
reaching the compressor.
• It is plumbed into the system between the exit of the
evaporator and the inlet of the compressor.
• It also contains a desiccant that removes debris and
moisture from the passing refrigerant
The accumulator ensures that only vaporous refrigerant
may be returned to the compressor.
 Special Air-Conditioning Tools
• To service air-conditioning systems,
technicians must be familiar with the use
of tools designed specifically for the
mobile air-conditioning field.
• One of the tools that must be mastered by
any air-conditioning or refrigeration
technician is the manifold gauge set.
 Manifold Gauge Set
• A technician must be able to read the
manifold gauge set and interpret the
pressures of the air-conditioning system as it
operates.
• These pressures tell the technician if the
system is operating correctly or if there is a
problem.
• The manifold gauge set is usually the first
tool installed on an air-conditioning system
before any diagnostic work takes place.
 Manifold Gauge Set
❖A manifold gauge set consists of a manifold
block, two hand valves, three refrigerant hoses,
and two pressure gauges (Figure 1-11).
❖The refrigerant hoses are usually color-coded to
indicate where they should be connected.
❖The hose on the left is color-coded blue and is
connected to the low-pressure/suction side of an
air-conditioning system.
❖A gauge that reads either vacuum or pressure is
connected to the low-pressure hose through the
manifold and is also usually blue.
 Manifold Gauge Set

A manifold gauge set is

probably the technician’s
best diagnostic tool.
 Manifold Gauge Set
❖ Because the gauge reads in two different ranges of
pressure, it is usually referred to as a compound gauge.
❖ On the vacuum side, the gauge will read to 30 inches of
mercury.
❖ On the positive pressure side, the gauge will read
accurately up to 120 psi with a retard section of the
gauge reading up to 250 psi.
❖ Pressures from 120 psi to 250 psi can’t be measured
accurately, but they will not damage the gauge.
 Manifold Gauge Set
❖ The hose on the right side of the gauge set is color-
coded red. It is connected to the high-pressure/
discharge side of the air-conditioning system.
❖ A gauge that reads in psi or kilopascals is connected
to the high-pressure hose through the manifold.
❖ This gauge is usually red, like the hose to which it is
connected.
❖ The high side is usually calibrated from 0 psig (0 kPa)
to 500 psig (3447 kPa).
❖ This is usually referred to as the high-pressure gauge.
 Safety Eyewear
❖Safety eyewear should be worn any time a
person enters a shop environment!
❖This is especially true when working with
refrigerants.
❖Full face shields are available for technicians
working on air-conditioning systems.
❖The safety eyewear worn by the technician
should be a type that is approved for working
with liquids or gases and must meet
ANSIZ87.1-1989 standards
 Safety Eyewear

Safety eyewear, glasses, goggles, or shields should be

worn by everyone entering the shop.
 Leak Detectors
❖The purpose of a leak detector is to
determine the origin of a refrigerant leak.
❖Special tools are required to find
refrigerant leaks because often the gas will
escape, leaving no visible trace as to
where it exited the system.
 Leak Detectors (continued)

A flame-type leak detector used to identify refrigerant leaks.

 Leak Detectors
❖Many different leak detectors are available to
find the refrigerant leaks.
❖Electronic leak detectors are extremely
sensitive.
❖These units are capable of detecting leaks as
small as 0.5 oz (14 ml) per year.
❖Electronic leak detectors are called halogen
leak detectors and may be used to test for
refrigerant leaks with HFC-134a.
 Leak Detectors
❖Another style of leak detector uses fluorescent
dye.
❖The dye is injected into the system, mixes with
the refrigerant and oil, and is circulated
throughout the system by the compressor.
❖When refrigerant leaks, it pushes out some
compressor oil and some of the dye.
❖An ultraviolet lamp is used to cause the dye to
fluoresce and indicate the source of the leak.
 Leak Detectors

Electronic refrigerant leak

detector for finding very
small leaks.
 Leak Detectors
❖One other way of finding refrigerant leaks is to
listen for them with an ultrasonic tester.
❖Ultrasonic testers are able to detect sounds in
the ultrasonic frequency that can’t be heard by
the human ear.
❖The detector then converts and amplifies the
sound so that the technician can hear it using a
head set.
❖Some detectors will also display the
sound/leak rate
 Leak Detectors (continued)

Ultrasonic leak detectors allow the technician to hear the

refrigerant leak in the ultrasonic range.
 Thermometers
❖ A thermometer is used by the technician to
measure temperatures throughout the air-
conditioning system.
❖ The temperature range of the thermometer should
be between 0F and 220F (−18C and 104C).
❖ When accuracy is the main concern, an electronic
thermometer may be required.
❖ Infrared temperature guns are used to measure
radiator temperatures, coolant lines, and engine
operating temperatures.
 Thermometers (continued)

Thermometers are used to make accurate diagnoses of air-

conditioning systems.
 Shop Specialty Tools
❖Technicians require the use of some expensive
tools that are generally supplied by the shop.
❖Some of these tools are: a vacuum pump,
refrigerant recovery and recycling system,
antifreeze recovery and recycling system,
electronic scale, refrigerant identifier, and
electronic thermometer.
❖There are also scan tools used for diagnosis of
the automatic temperature control system and
specialty tools required for compressor service.
 Vacuum Pump
❖ A vacuum pump is used to remove moisture and air
from a system that has been opened for service or when
a leak has been repaired in it.
❖ Removing air and moisture that has entered the air-
conditioning system is called evacuation.
❖ If left in the system, air will cause higher than normal
pressures and carbonizing of the compressor oil.
❖ If moisture is left in the system, it will mix with the oil,
causing acids to form in the system.
 Vacuum Pump

A vacuum pump is used to remove air, moisture, and

impurities from the air-conditioning system.
 Refrigerant Recovery and
Recycling Equipment
• Shops that service air-conditioning equipment must have
recovery and recycling equipment so that refrigerant is
not released into the atmosphere.
• The equipment does this by circulating the refrigerant
through replaceable filter and drier elements that remove
contaminants and moisture.
• Recovery and recycling equipment is generally
dedicated to one type of refrigerant to prevent cross-
contamination of refrigerant.
 Refrigerant Recovery and
Recycling Equipment

A recovery/recycling refrigerant machine removes

refrigerant from the system and recycles the refrigerant for
reuse.
 Antifreeze Recovery and
Recycling Equipment

❖ The mixture of antifreeze and water in a vehicle’s cooling

system will eventually need to be replaced.
❖ Over time, the corrosion-inhibiting additives are gradually
used up and the coolant loses its ability to protect the
metal parts within the cooling system.
❖ The main ingredient in antifreeze (ethylene glycol) never
wears out and can be recycled.
❖ Many shops use recovery/recycling equipment to avoid
the high cost of disposing of their used antifreeze.
 Antifreeze Recovery and
Recycling Equipment

An antifreeze recovery machine is used to recycle

antifreeze so that it can be reused in the engine cooling
system.
 Electronic Weigh Scales
❖Electronic weigh scales are used to
dispense refrigerant accurately by weight.
❖Accuracy is important because too much
refrigerant in the system creates high
compressor discharge pressures, and too
little refrigerant creates low compressor
suction and discharge pressure and
insufficient cooling.
 Electronic Weigh Scales

A portable electric scale is used by technicians to weigh in the

correct refrigerant charge accurately.
 Scan Tools/
Onboard Diagnostics
• Scan tools are used to improve troubleshooting
capabilities, allowing the technician to get to the
origin of a problem accurately.
• These tools can display trouble codes for the
technician, and some of the more highly
sophisticated tools will allow the technician to
monitor and view sensor and computer
information.
• This allows the technician to pinpoint a heating,
ventilation, or air-conditioning (HVAC) problem.
Scan Tools/Onboard Diagnostics

A scan tool is used to improve the technician’s trouble-

shooting capabilities.
 Refrigerant Identifier
• A refrigerant identifier is used to determine
the contents of an air-conditioning system.
• It is important to know what type of refrigerant
is in a system so that cross-contamination
within a recovery machine can be prevented.
• The identifier should be used whenever the
technician is not certain of the contents of an
air-conditioning/refrigeration system.
 Refrigerant Identifier

A refrigerant identifier is
used to test the type and
purity of refrigerant within
the system.
 CAUTION
If the sample contains a flammable
hydrocarbon, it should not be serviced
unless extreme care is taken to prevent
serious personal injury.
 Compressor Servicing Tools
❖Compressor servicing tools are used to
remove the compressor’s electromagnetic
clutch assembly and to remove and
replace the compressor’s rotary front drive
shaft seal.
❖These tools are usually quite compact so
that the technician can service the
compressor without having to remove it
from the vehicle.
Refrigeration can be classified into two types :
1.Natural method
2.Artificial or Mechanical Refrigeration

1.Natural method:
The natural method includes the utilization of
ice or snow obtained naturally in cold climate. Ice melts at zero degree
centigrade. So, when it is placed in a system or space warmer than that
temperature, heat is absorbed by the ice and the space is cooled.

The different methods of natural refrigeration include:

❖ Use of ice transported from colder regions
❖ Use of ice harvested in winter and stored in ice houses
❖ Use of evaporative cooling
❖ Cooling by salt solution
2.Artificial or mechanical refrigeration:
This consists of a refrigeration cycle , where heat is removed
from a low temperature space or source and rejected to a high
temperature sink with the help of external work.
Heat naturally flows from hot to cold.Work is applied to cool a
living space or storage volume by pumping heat from a lower
temperature heat source into a higher temperature heat sink.
Different types of artificial refrigeration include:
❖ Vapor compression refrigeration
❖ Vapor absorption refrigeration
❖ Gas cycle refrigeration
❖ Thermoelectric refrigeration
❖ Magnetic refrigeration
 Vapor compression refrigeration
The vapor compression cycle is used in most household refrigerators as well as
in many large commercial and industrial refrigeration systems.
❖ In this method,a circulating refrigerant such as r134a enters the
compressor as a vapor during which it is compressed at constant
entropy and exits the compressor as a vapor at a higher temperature.
❖ This heated vapor travels through the condenser which cools the vapor
and condenses it into a liquid by removing additional heat at constant
temperature and pressure.
❖ This liquid refrigerant now goes through the expansion valve or throttle
valve, where its pressure abruptly decreases,which results in a mixture
of liquid and vapor at a lower temperature and pressure.
❖ This cold liquid vapor mixture then enters the evaporator coil and is
completely vaporized by cooling the warm air being blown by a fan
across the evaporator coil.
❖ The evaporator is the main component of the system that produces the
cooling effect by extracting heat from the working space.
❖ The resulting refrigerant vapor returns to the compressor inlet and the
cycle repeats.
 Vapor absorption refrigeration
❖ The absorption system differs fundamentally from vapour
compression system only in the method of employed for compressing
the refrigerant.
❖ In the absorption system, the compressor is replaced by an
absorber, generator and a pump.
❖ The vapour absorption system uses heat energy, instead of
mechanical energy as in vapour compression system, in order to
change the conditions of the refrigerant for the operation of the
refrigeration cycle.
❖ The major drawback of the vapour compression refrigeration system
is that it requires large volume of refrigerant vapour which requires
large mechanical power for its operation.
Principle of Vapour Absorption System
❖ There is the peculiar property of some substances to have affinity for another
substances at some temperature and pressure conditions and less affinity at
another conditions.
❖ This idea for the working principle of a vapour absorption system was generated
by Michael Faraday in 1824.
❖ He knew that silver chloride (AgCl)m a white powder , had a property of
absorbing large amount of ammonia gas at the normal temperature and
pressure.
❖ Two chambers are combined with the help of a tube.
❖ The white powder was kept inside the first chamber to which ammonia gas was
supplied and sealed.
❖ The powder was heated up while other end was cooled using circulating water.
❖ Liquid ammonia was obtained in the cool end of the apparatus. After stopping
heat, it was observed that, the liquid ammonia instead of sitting there, started
boiling( bubbles produced) and vapour was reabsorbed by the white powder.
❖ Upon touching the boiling end , it was surprised to find that the vessel was very
cold.
❖ He repeated the experiments and cooling was observed again.
❖ This led to invention of the intermittent Vapour absorption system having solid as
an absorber
❖The major applications of refrigeration can
be grouped into following four major
equally important areas.
1. Food processing, preservation and
distribution
2. Chemical and process industries
3. Special Applications of
4. Application of air conditioning
I. Industrial air-conditioning
II. Comfort air-conditioning
Application of refrigeration in Food processing,
preservation and distribution
1. Storage of Raw Fruits and Vegetables:
❖It is well-known that some bacteria are responsible for
degradation of food, and enzymatic processing cause
ripening of the fruits and vegetables. The growth of bacteria
and the rate of enzymatic processes are reduced at low
temperature. This helps in reducing the spoilage and
improving the shelf life of the food.
❖In general the storage life of most of the food products
depends upon water activity, which essentially depends upon
the presence of water in liquid form in the food product and
its temperature
2. Fish:
❖ Icing of fish during transportation or storage
3. Meat and poultry:
❖ These items also require refrigeration right after slaughter during
processing, packaging. Short-term storage is done at 0o C.
Long-term storage requires freezing and storage at -25o C.
4. Dairy Products:
❖ The important dairy products are milk, butter, buttermilk and ice
cream. To maintain good quality, the milk is cooled in bulk milk
coolers immediately after being taken from cow. Bulk milk cooler
is a large refrigerated tank that cools it between 10 to 15o C.
❖ Ice cream manufacture requires pasteurization, thorough mixing,
emulsification and stabilization and subsequently cooling to 4 to
5o C. Then it is cooled to temperature of about – 5 o C in a
freezer where it stiffens but still remains in liquid state. It is
packaged and hardened at –30 to –25o C until it becomes solid;
and then it is stored at same temperature.
5. Beverages:
❖ Production of beer, wine and concentrated fruit juices require
refrigeration. The taste of many drinks can be improved by
serving them cold or by adding ice to them. This has been one of
the favourite past time of aristocracy in all the countries.
6. Candy:
❖ Use of chocolate in candy or its coating with chocolate requires
setting at 5-10o C otherwise it becomes sticky.
7. Processing and distribution of frozen food:
❖ Many vegetables, meat, fish and poultry are frozen to sustain the
taste, which nearly duplicates that of the fresh product. Freezing
retains the sensory qualities of colour, texture and taste apart
from nutritional qualities.
Applications of refrigeration in chemical and process
industries
❑ The industries like petroleum refineries, petrochemical plants and paper
pulp industries etc. require very large cooling capacities. The
requirement of each industry process wise and equipment-wise is
different hence refrigeration system has to be customized and optimized
for individual application.
1. Separation of gases:
❖ In petrochemical plant, temperatures as low as –150o C with
refrigeration capacities as high as 10,000 Tons of Refrigeration (TR)
are used for separation of gases by fractional distillation. Some
gases condense readily at lower temperatures from the mixtures of
hydrocarbon. Propane is used as refrigerant in many of these
plants.
2. Condensation of Gases:
❖ Some gases that are produced synthetically, are condensed to
liquid state by cooling, so that these can be easily stored and
transported in liquid state. For example, in synthetic ammonia plant,
ammonia is condensed at –10 to 10o C before filling in the cylinders,
storage and shipment. This low temperature requires refrigeration.
3. Dehumidification of Air:
❖ Low humidity air is required in many pharmaceutical industries. The air
is cooled below its dew point temperature, so that some water vapour
condenses out and the air gets dehumidified.
4. Solidification of Solute:
❖ One of the processes of separation of a substance or pollutant or
impurity from liquid mixture is by its solidification at low temperature.
Lubricating oil is dewaxed in petroleum industry by cooling it below –25o
C. Wax solidifies at about –25o C.
5. Storage as liquid at low pressure:
❖ Liquid occupies less space than gases. Most of the refrigerants are
stored at high pressure. This pressure is usually their saturation
pressure at atmospheric temperature. For some gases, saturation
pressure at room temperature is very high hence these are stored at
relatively low pressure and low temperature. For example natural gas is
stored at 0.7 bar gauge pressure and –130o C. Heat gain by the
cylinder walls leads to boiling of some gas, which is compressed, cooled
and expanded back to 0.7 bar gauge.
6. Removal of Heat of Reaction:
❖ In many chemical reactions, efficiency is better if the reaction
occurs below room temperature. This requires refrigeration. If
these reactions are exothermic in nature, then more refrigeration
capacities are required. Production of viscose rayon, cellular
acetate and synthetic rubber are some of the examples.
Fermentation is also one of the examples of this.
7. Cooling for preservation:
❖ Many compounds decompose at room temperature or these
evaporate at a very fast rate. Certain drugs, explosives and
natural rubber can be stored for long periods at lower
temperatures.
8. Recovery of Solvents:
❖ In many chemical processes solvents are used, which usually
evaporate after reaction. These can be recovered by
condensation at low temperature by refrigeration system. Some
of the examples are acetone in film manufacture and carbon
tetrachloride in textile production.
Special applications of refrigeration
1. Cold Treatment of Metals:
❖ The dimensions of precision parts and gauge blocks can be stabilized
by soaking the product at temperature around – 90o C.
❖ The hardness and wear resistance of carburized steel can be increased
by this process.
❖ Keeping the cutting tool at –100o C for 15 minutes can also increase the
life of cutting tool. In deep drawing process the ductility of metal
increases at low temperature.
❖ Mercury patterns frozen by refrigeration can be used for precision
casting.
2. Medical:
❖ Blood plasma and antibiotics are manufactured by freeze-drying
process where water is made to sublime at low pressure and low
temperature. This does not affect the tissues of blood.
❖ Centrifuges refrigerated at –10o C, are used in the manufacture of
drugs.
❖ Localized refrigeration by liquid nitrogen can be used as anesthesia
also.
3. Ice Skating Rinks:
❖ Due to the advent of artificial refrigeration, sports like ice hockey
and skating do not have to depend upon freezing weather.
These can be played in indoor stadium where water is frozen
into ice on the floor. Refrigerant or brine carrying pipes are
embedded below the floor, which cools and freezes the water to
ice over the floor.
4. Construction:
❖ Setting of concrete is an exothermic process. If the heat of
setting is not removed the concrete will expand and produce
cracks in the structure. Concrete may be cooled by cooling
sand, gravel and water before mixing them or by passing chilled
water through the pipes embedded in the concrete. Another
application is to freeze the wet soil by refrigeration to facilitate
its excavation.
5. Desalination of Water:
❖ In some countries fresh water is scarce and seawater is desalinated to
obtain fresh water. Solar energy is used in some cases for desalination.
An alternative is to freeze the seawater. The ice thus formed will be
relatively free of salt. The ice can be separated and thawed to obtain
fresh water.
6. Ice Manufacture:
❖ This was the classical application of refrigeration. Ice was manufactured
in plants by dipping water containers in chilled brine and it used to take
about 36 hours to freeze all the water in cans into ice. The ice thus
formed was stored in ice warehouses. Now that small freezers and
icemakers are available. Hotels and restaurants make their own ice, in a
hygienic manner.
Application of air conditioning:
❑Divided into two categories, i.e.
1. Industrial Air-conditioning
2. Comfort Air-Conditioning:
 Industrial Air-conditioning

1. Laboratories:
❖ This may involve precision measurement to performance testing
of equipment and processes at controlled temperature and
relative humidity. Laboratories carrying out research in
electronics and biotechnology ares require very clean
atmosphere. Many laboratories using high voltage
2. Printing
3. Manufacture of precision parts
❖ If the metal parts are maintained at uniform temperature during
manufacturing process, these will neither expand nor shrink,
maintain close tolerance
4. Textile Industry:
❖ The yarn in the textile industry is spun and it moves over spool at very
high speeds in modern machines. It is very sensitive to humidity the
generation of static electricity should be avoided. Its flexibility and
strength should not change. If it breaks during the process, the plant
will have to be stopped and yarn repaired before restarting the plant
5. Pharmaceutical Industries:
❖ In these industries to obtain sterile atmosphere, the airborne bacteria
and dust must be removed in the air-conditioning system by filters.
These industries require clean rooms. If capsules are made or used in
the plant, then air has to be dry otherwise the gelatin of capsules will
become sticky.
6. Farm Animals:
❖ The yield of Jersey cows decreases drastically during summer months.
Low temperature results in more efficient digestion of food and
increase in weight of cow and the milk yield. Animal barns have to be
ventilated in any case since their number density is usually very large.
In many countries evaporative cooling is used for creating comfort
conditions in animal houses.
6. Computer Rooms:
❖ The dust spoils the CD drives and printers etc.; hence the rooms
have to be kept clean also by using micro filters in the air-
conditioning system.
7. Power Plants:
❖ Most of the modern power plants are microprocessor controlled.
These days the control rooms are very compact, hence these
require air-conditioning for persons and the microprocessors.
8. Vehicular Air-conditioning:
❖ Bus, tram, truck, car, recreational vehicle, crane cabin, aircraft
and ships all require air-conditioning. In bus, tram, aircraft and
ship, the ccupancy density is very high and the metabolic heat
and water vapour generated by persons has to be rejected. The
cooling load in these is very high and rapidly changes that
provides a challenge for their design.
Comfort Air-Conditioning:
❖ Energy of food is converted into chemical energy for functioning
of brain, lungs, heart and other organs and this energy is
ultimately rejected to the surroundings. Also the internal organs
require a temperature close to 35oC for their efficient operation,
and regulatory mechanisms of human body maintain this
temperature by rejecting appropriate amount of heat. Human
beings do not feel comfortable if some extra effort is required by
the body to reject this energy. The air temperature, humidity and
velocity at which human body does not have to take any extra
action, is called comfort condition
 Cryogenic car
Cryogenic Heat Engine
❖ It is a engine which uses very cold substances to produce useful
energy.
❖ There is always some heat input to the working fluid during the
expansion process.
Liquid Nitrogen(LN2)
❖ Liquid Nitrogen is the cheapest, widely produced and most
common cryogen.
❖ It is mass produced in air liquefaction plants
❖ The liquefaction process is very simple.
❖ Normal, atmospheric air is passed through dust precipitator and
pre-cooled.
❖ It is then compressed inside large turbo pumps to about 100
atmospheres(10.13 MPa).
❖ Once the air has been cooled to room temperature it is allowed
to expand rapidly through a nozzle into an insulated chamber.
❖ By running several cycles the temperature of the chamber becomes
low enough. The air entering it starts to liquefy.
❖ Liquid nitrogen is removed from the chamber by fractional distillation
and is stored inside well-insulated Dewar flasks .
Main Components of the Engine:
❖ A pressurized tank(24 gallon) to store liquid nitrogen.
❖ Pressurant bottles of N2 gas substitute for a pump. The gas
pushes the liquid nitrogen out of the Dewar that serves as a fuel
tank.
❖ A primary heat exchanger that heats (using atmospheric heat)
LN2 to form N2 gas, then heats gas under pressure to near
atmospheric temperature.
❖ An Expander to provide work to the drive shaft of the vehicle.
❖ An economizer or a secondary heat exchanger, which preheats
the liquid N2 coming out from the pressurized tank taking heat
from the exhaust.
Principle of Operation:
❖ LN2 at –320oF (-196oC) is pressurized and then vaporized in a
heat exchanger by ambient temperature of the surrounding air.
❖ This heat exchanger is like the radiator of a car but instead of
using air to cool water, it uses air to heat and boil liquid nitrogen.
❖ Liquid N2 passing through the primary heat exchanger quickly
reaches its boiling point.
❖ The N2 expands to a gas with a pressure of 150 KPa.
❖ The pressurized N2 gas drives the motor.
❖ The only exhaust is nitrogen, which is major constituent
of our atmosphere.
❖ Energy+N2(l)-->N2(g )Hence, there is no pollution
produced by running this car.
• Advantages over electric cars:
❖A liquid nitrogen car is much lighter and refilling its
tank takes only about 10-15 minutes.
❖The exhaust produced by the car is environmental
friendly.
❖A cryogenic car could have three times the range of
an electric car of the same weight and no battery
disposal concerns .
Drawbacks:
❖ The N2 passing through the tubes of the heat exchanger is so
cold that the moisture in the surrounding air would condense on
the outside of the tubes, obstructing the air flow.
❖ Should a nitrogen car be kept in a poorly ventilated space and, if
the Nitrogen leaks off, it could prove fatal.
❖ Turning N2 gas into a liquid requires a lot of energy. So while
cryogenic cars have zero emissions, they rely on energy
produced at emission generating power plants.
Efficiency:
❖ The LN2 car can travel 79 miles(127.58 km) on a full 24
gallon(90 liter) tank of liquid nitrogen going 20 MPH.
❖ Its maximum speed is over 35 MPH.
Chapter 2- Refrigerants
 Introduction
❖ Refrigerant : is the primary working fluid used for
absorbing and transmitting heat in a refrigeration
system
❖ Refrigerants absorb heat at low temperature and
low pressure and release heat at a higher
temperature and pressure
❖ Most refrigerants undergo phase changes during
heat absorption (evaporation) and heat releasing
(condensation)
 Introduction
❖ The thermodynamic efficiency of a refrigeration
system depends mainly on its operating
temperatures.
❖ However, important practical issues such as the
system design, size, initial and operating costs,
safety, reliability, and serviceability etc. depend
very much on the type of refrigerant selected for a
given application.
❖ Due to several environmental issues such as
ozone layer depletion, global warming and their
relation to the various refrigerants used, the
selection of suitable refrigerant has become one of
the most important issues in recent times.
❖ Replacement of an existing refrigerant by a completely
new refrigerant, for whatever reason, is an expensive
proposition as it may call for several changes in the design
and manufacturing of refrigeration systems.
❖ Hence it is very important to understand the issues
related to the selection and use of refrigerants. In
principle, any fluid can be used as a refrigerant.
❖ Air used in an air cycle refrigeration system can also be
considered as a refrigerant.
❖ However, attention is mainly focused on those fluids that
can be used as refrigerants in vapor compression
refrigeration systems only.
 Primary and Secondary
Refrigerants
❖ Fluids suitable for refrigeration purposes can be
classified into primary and secondary refrigerants.
❖ Primary refrigerants are those fluids, which are
used directly as working fluids, for example in
vapor compression and vapor absorption
refrigeration systems.
❖ When used in compression or absorption systems,
these fluids provide refrigeration by undergoing a
phase change process in the evaporator.
❖ As the name implies, secondary refrigerants are
those liquids, which are used for transporting
thermal energy from one location to other.
Secondary refrigerants are also known under the
name antifreezes.
❖ Of course, if the operating temperatures are above
0oC, then pure water can also be used as
secondary refrigerant, for example in large air
conditioning systems.
❖ Antifreezes or brines are used when refrigeration is
required at sub-zero temperatures.
❖ Unlike primary refrigerants, the secondary
refrigerants do not undergo phase change as they
transport energy from one location to other.
❖ Cooling Medium: is a working fluid cooled by the
refrigerant to transport the cooling effect between a
central plant and remote cooling units and terminals
❖ Chilled water, brine, and glycol are used as cooling
media in many refrigeration systems.
❖ The cooling medium is often called a secondary
refrigerant, because it reduces the extensive
circulation of the primary refrigerant
❖ An important property of a secondary refrigerant is its
freezing point. Generally, the freezing point of a brine will
be lower than the freezing point of its constituents.
❖ The temperature at which freezing of a brine takes place
depends on its concentration. The concentration at which
a lowest temperature can be reached without solidification
is called as eutectic point.
❖ The commonly used secondary refrigerants are the
solutions of water and ethylene glycol, propylene glycol or
calcium chloride. These solutions are known under the
general name of brines.
Essential Properties of Refrigerants
❖ Chemical stability under conditions of use is the
most important characteristics
❖ Safety codes may require a nonflammable
refrigerant of low toxicity for most applications
❖ Cost, availability, efficiency, and compatibility with
compressor lubricants and materials with which the
equipment is constructed are other concerns
❖ Latent heat of vaporization is another important
property
 Physical Properties

• The refrigerants are arranged in increasing order of

atmospheric boiling point, from air at -194.3 oC to water
at 100 oC
• The boiling point is most important because it is a direct
indicator of the temperature level at which a refrigerant
can be used
Physical Properties of Selected
Refrigerants
 Refrigeration effect and unit of
refrigeration
❖ The rate at which heat is absorbed from space to be
cooled is termed as the refrigeration effect
❖ The refrigeration effect can be compared with the
production of ice
❖ In the refrigeration industry, the unit used is ton
❖ A tone of refrigeration is equivalent to the rate of heat
transfer needed to produce 1 ton of ice at 0 oC from
water at 0 oC in 24 hours
❖ A machine capable of producing a net refrigeration effect
of 210 kJ/min or 3.5 kW is called a 1 ton machine
 Types of Refrigerants

1. HaloCarbons
2. Azeotropic Refrigerants
3. Zeotropic Refrigerants
4. Inorganic Refrigerants
5. Hydrocarbon Refrigerants
 Halocarbon Refrigerants

❖Halocarbon Refrigerant are all synthetically

produced and were developed as the Freon
family of refrigerants.

❖Examples :
❖CFC’s : R11, R12, R113, R114, R115
❖HCFC’s : R22, R123
❖HFC’s : R134a, R404a, R407C, R410a
 Inorganic Refrigerants

❖Carbon Dioxide
❖Water
❖Ammonia
❖Air
❖Sulphur dioxide
 Azeotropic Refrigerants

❖A stable mixture of two or several refrigerants

whose vapour and liquid phases retain identical
compositions over a wide range of
temperatures.

❖Examples : R-500 : 73.8% R12 and 26.2% R152

❖ R-502 : 8.8% R22 and 51.2% R115
❖ R-503 : 40.1% R23 and 59.9% R13
 Zeotropic Refrigerants
❖ A zeotropic mixture is one whose composition in liquid
phase differs to that in vapour phase. Zeotropic
refrigerants therefore do not boil at constant
temperatures unlike azeotropic refrigerants.
❖ Examples :R404a : R125/143a/134a (44%,52%,4%)
R407c : R32/125/134a (23%, 25%, 52%)
R410a : R32/125 (50%, 50%)
R413a : R600a/218/134a (3%, 9%, 88%)
 Hydrocarbon Refrigerants

❖ Many hydrocarbon gases have successfully been used

as refrigerants in industrial, commercial and domestic
applications.
❖ Examples: R170, Ethane, C2H6
R290 , Propane C3H3
R600, Butane, C4H10
R600a, Isobutane, C4H10
Blends of the above Gases
 Environmental Effects of
Refrigerants
❖ Depletion of the ozone layer in the stratosphere
❖ Global warming :
Refrigerants directly contributing to global warming when
released to the atmosphere
 Survey Of Refrigerants
Refrigerant Group Atmospheric ODP GWP
life
R11 CFC 130 1 4000
R12 CFC 130 1 8500
R22 HCFC 15 .05 1500
R134a HFC 16 0 1300
R404a HFC 16 0 3260
R410a HFC 16 0 1720
R507 HFC 130 1 3300
R717 NH3 - 0 0
R744 CO2 - 0 1
R290 HC <1 0 8
R600a HC <1 0 8
 The TEWI Factor

❖The Total Equivalent Warming Impact (TEWI) rating

measures the efficiency of a refrigerant by combining
its direct and indirect global warming contribution.
❖ It is expressed in kg of CO2.

• TEWI = leakage rate + recuperation Rate + Indirect

emissions due to energy consumption
 Leakage Rate
❖ Leakage rate is the amount of green house gases released into the
atmosphere by the refrigeration system. It is given by the mass of
refrigerant emissions in kilograms times the global warming potential
(GWP) of the refrigerant
❖ Leakage Rate = Mass of refrigerant leaking from system x GWP of
Refrigerant
❖ Typical leakage rates:
Hermetic compressor : 1 - 2%
Split units : 6 - 8%
Automotive air conditioning : 10 - 20%
 Recuperation Rate

❖ Recuperation rate = GWPref x Chargeref x

( 1 – recuperation factor )

Recuperation factor is the percentage of refrigerant recovered when

a refrigeration or air conditioning equipment reaches the end of its
useful life.
Refrigerant selection criteria:
• Selection of refrigerant for a particular
application is based on the following
requirements:
I. Thermodynamic and thermo-physical
properties.
II. Environmental and safety properties, like:
ozone depletion potential, global warming
potential, and combustibility
III. Economics.
The requirements are:
a) Suction pressure: At a given evaporator temperature, the
saturation pressure should be above atmospheric for
prevention of air or moisture and ease of leak detection.
Higher suction pressure is better as it leads to smaller
compressor displacement
b) Discharge pressure: At a given condenser temperature,
the discharge pressure should be as small as possible to
allow light-weight construction of compressor, condenser
, pipe, etc.
c) Pressure ratio: Should be as small as possible for high
volumetric efficiency and low power consumption
d) Latent heat of vaporization: Should be as large as
possible so that the required mass flow rate per unit
cooling capacity will be small
g) Vapour specific heat: Should be large so that the degree
of superheating will be small
h) Thermal conductivity: Thermal conductivity in both liquid
as well as vapor phase should be high for higher heat
transfer coefficients
i) Viscosity: Viscosity should be small in both liquid and
vapor phases for smaller frictional pressure drops
 Environmental and Safety Properties

• In fact, at present the environment friendliness of the

refrigerant is a major factor in deciding the usefulness
of a particular refrigerant. The important environmental
and safety properties are:
a) Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP): According to the
Montreal protocol, the ODP of refrigerants should be
zero, i.e., they should be non-ozone depleting
substances.
❖ Refrigerants having non-zero ODP have either
already been phased-out (e.g. R 11, R 12) or will be
phased-out in near-future(e.g. R22).
❖ Since ODP depends mainly on the presence of
chlorine or bromine in the molecules, refrigerants
having either chlorine (i.e., CFCs and HCFCs) or
bromine cannot be used under the new regulations.
b) Global Warming Potential (GWP):
❖ Refrigerants should have as low a GWP value as
possible to minimize the problem of global warming.
❖ Refrigerants with zero ODP but a high value of GWP
(e.g. R134a) are likely to be regulated in future.
c) Total Equivalent Warming Index (TEWI):
❖ The factor TEWI considers both direct (due to release
into atmosphere) and indirect (through energy
consumption) contributions of refrigerants to global
warming.
❖ Naturally, refrigerants with as a low a value of TEWI
are preferable from global warming point of view.
d) Toxicity:
❖ Ideally, refrigerants used in a refrigeration system should be non-toxic.
However, all fluids other than air can be called as toxic as they will cause
suffocation when their concentration is large enough.
❖ Thus toxicity is a relative term, which becomes meaningful only when the
degree of concentration and time of exposure required to produce harmful
effects are specified.
❖ Some fluids are toxic even in small concentrations. Some fluids are mildly
toxic, i.e., they are dangerous only when the concentration is large and
duration of exposure is long.
❖ Some refrigerants such as CFCs and HCFCs are non-toxic when mixed
with air in normal condition. However, when they come in contact with an
open flame or an electrical heating element, they decompose forming
highly toxic elements (e.g. phosgene-COCl2).
❖ In general the degree of hazard depends on:
➢ Amount of refrigerant used vs total space
➢ Type of occupancy
➢ Presence of open flames
➢ Odor of refrigerant, and
➢ Maintenance condition
e) Flammability:
❖ The refrigerants should preferably be non-flammable
and non-explosive. For flammable refrigerants special
precautions should be taken to avoid accidents.
❖Based on the above criteria, American Society of
Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
Engineers (ASHRAE) has divided refrigerants into six
safety groups (A1 to A3 and B1 to B3).
❖Refrigerants belonging to Group A1 (e.g. R11, R12,
R22, R134a, R744, R718) are least hazardous, while
refrigerants belonging to Group B3 (e.g. R1140) are
most hazardous.
❖ Economic properties:
❖ The refrigerant used should preferably be inexpensive and
easily available.
❖ Designation of refrigerants:
❖ Figure shows the classification of fluids used as
refrigerants in vapor compression refrigeration systems.
❖ Since a large number of refrigerants have been developed
over the years for a wide variety of applications, a
numbering system has been adopted to designate various
refrigerants.
❖ From the number one can get some useful information
about the type of refrigerant, its chemical composition,
molecular weight etc.
❖ All the refrigerants are designated by R followed by a
unique number.
I. Fully saturated, halogenated compounds:
❖ These refrigerants are derivatives of alkanes (CnH2n+2)
such as methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6).
❖These refrigerants are designated by R XYZ,
where:
❖X+1 indicates the number of Carbon (C) atoms
❖Y-1 indicates number of Hydrogen (H) atoms, and
❖Z indicates number of Fluorine (F) atoms
❖The balance indicates the number of Chlorine
atoms.
❖ Only 2 digits indicates that the value of X is zero.
Ex: R 22
❖ X = 0 ⇒ No. of Carbon atoms = 0+1 = 1 ⇒ derivative of
methane (CH4)
❖ Y = 2 ⇒ No. of Hydrogen atoms = 2-1 = 1
❖ Z = 2 ⇒ No. of Fluorine atoms = 2
❖ The balance = 4 – no. of (H+F) atoms = 4-1-2 = 1 ⇒ No. of
Chlorine atoms = 1
∴The chemical formula of R 22 = CHClF2
• Similarly it can be shown that the chemical formula of:
» R12 = CCl2F2
» R134a = C2H2F4 (derivative of ethane)
• (letter a stands for isomer, e.g. molecules having same
chemical composition but different atomic arrangement,
e.g. R134 and R134a)
II. Inorganic refrigerants: These are
designated by number 7 followed by the
molecular weight of the refrigerant
(rounded-off).
• Ex.: Ammonia: Molecular weight is 17, ∴ the
designation is R 717
• Carbon dioxide: Molecular weight is 44, ∴
the designation is R 744
• Water: Molecular weight is 18, ∴ the
designation is R 718
III. Mixtures:
❖ Azeotropic mixtures are designated by 500 series, where as
zeotropic refrigerants (e.g. non-azeotropic mixtures) are
designated by 400 series.
Azeotropic mixtures:
• R 500: Mixture of R 12 (73.8 %) and R 152a (26.2%)
• R 502: Mixture of R 22 (48.8 %) and R 115 (51.2%)
• R503: Mixture of R 23 (40.1 %) and R 13 (59.9%)
• R507A: Mixture of R 125 (50%) and R 143a (50%)
Zeotropic mixtures:
❖ R404A : Mixture of R 125 (44%), R 143a (52%) and R 134a (4%)
❖ R407A : Mixture of R 32 (20%), R 125 (40%) and R 134a (40%)
❖ R407B : Mixture of R 32 (10%), R 125 (70%) and R 134a (20%)
❖ R410A : Mixture of R 32 (50%) and R 125 (50%)
Hydrocarbons:
❖ Propane (C3H8) : R 290
❖ n-butane (C4H10) : R 600
❖ iso-butane (C4H10) : R 600a
❖ Unsaturated Hydrocarbons: R1150 (C2H4)
❖ R1270 (C3H6)
 Ozone Layer Depletion
❖ The R22 refrigerant is generally an HCFC or single
hydro chlorofluorocarbon compound. Besides its potential of
causing ozone depletion being low, this refrigerant also has a low
content of chlorine, which makes it a friendly compound to the
environment.
• stable chlorine containing fluorocarbons could, overtime, migrate to
the upper reaches of the atmosphere and be broken by the intense
radiation and release chlorine atoms responsible for catalytic ozone
depletion.

❖Normal reaction
❖ But CFC refrigerants leaked during the manufacturing and normal
operation or at the time of servicing or repair, mix with surrounding
air and rise to troposphere and then into stratosphere due to normal
wind or storm. The Ultraviolet rays act on CFC releasing Cl atom,
which retards the normal reaction:

Retarded reaction
 Harmful consequences of ozone depletion
For Humans Increase in
❖ Skin cancer For marine life
❖ Snow blindness ❖Reduced
➢plankton
❖ Cataracts
➢juvenile fish
Less immunity to ➢larval crabs and
❖ Infectious diseases shrimps
❖ Malaria
❖ Herpes
For plants
❖ Smaller size
❖ Lower yield
❖ Increased toxicity
❖ Altered form•
Montreal protocol- Control Schedule
Global Warming Potential (GWP):
❖ Refrigerants should have as low a GWP value as possible to
minimize the problem of global warming. Refrigerants with zero
ODP but a high value of GWP (e.g. R134a) are likely to be
regulated in future.
Total Equivalent Warming Index (TEWI):
❖ The factor TEWI considers both direct (due to release into
atmosphere) and indirect (through energy consumption)
contributions of refrigerants to global warming. Naturally,
refrigerants with as a low a value of TEWI are preferable from
global warming point of view.

The leakage rate has already been defined

The leakage rate has already been defined

QL= Leakage rate Pam3s-1

p = pressure change during measurement Pa
V = Volume m3
t = Measurement period s
 Example Of TEWI Calculation

❖ Chiller unit running on R407c with a charge of 426 kg.

❖ Average leakage rate pa : 4 kg
❖ Lifespan of equipment : 25 years
❖ GWP of R407c : 1610 kg CO2
❖ Average power rating of unit : 298.3 kW
❖ Chiller working on an average of 20 hours per day
❖ Recuperation factor assumed to be 50 %
 Calculation of TEWI
❖ Leakage Rate = 4 x 1610 x 25 = 128 800 kg CO2
❖ Recuperation rate = 1610 x 426 x (1 – 0.5) = 342 930 kg CO2
❖ Indirect contribution due to energy consumption =
❖ = 25 x (298.3 x 20 x 365) x 0.6 = 32 663 850 kg CO2
❖ {Emission factor is assumed to be 0.9 for Mauritius}

❖ TEWI factor for the chiller unit calculated over its lifetime of 25 years
:
❖ 128 800 + 342 930 + 32 663 850 = 33 135 580 kg CO2
❖ This implies that the chiller will contribute to the equivalent of
33 135 580 kg of CO2 over its useful life of 25 years.
❖ Direct emissions = 1.4 % of the indirect emissions
Improving TEWI of a System

❖ Using refrigerant with lower GWP

❖ Eliminating leakages in the system
❖ Improving the electrical efficiency of the system
 Comparison between Different Refrigerants
❖ Synthetic refrigerants that were commonly used for refrigeration,
cold storage and air conditioning applications are: R 11 (CFC 11),
R 12 (CFC 12), R 22 (HCFC 22), R 502 (CFC 12+HCFC 22) etc.
❖ However, these refrigerants have to be phased out due to their
Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP).
❖ The synthetic replacements for the older refrigerants are: R-134a
(HFC-134a) and blends of HFCs.
❖ Generally, synthetic refrigerants are non-toxic and non-flammable.
However, compared to the natural refrigerants the synthetic
refrigerants offer lower performance and they also have higher
Global Warming Potential (GWP). As a result, the synthetic
refrigerants face an uncertain future.
❖ The most commonly used natural refrigerant is ammonia. This is
also one of the oldest known refrigerants.
❖ Ammonia has good thermodynamic, thermophysical and environmental
properties.
❖ However, it is toxic and is not compatible with some of the common
materials of construction such as copper, which somewhat restricts its
application.
❖ Other natural refrigerants that are being suggested are hydrocarbons
(HCs) and carbon dioxide (R-744). Though these refrigerants have
some specific problems owing to their eco-friendliness, they are being
studied widely and are likely to play a prominent role in future.
❖ Prior to the environmental issues of ozone layer depletion and global
warming, the most widely used refrigerants were: R 11, R 12, R 22, R
502 and ammonia.
❖ Of these, R 11 was primarily used with centrifugal compressors in air
conditioning applications.
❖ R 12 was used primarily in small capacity refrigeration and cold
storage applications, while the other refrigerants were used in large
systems such as large air conditioning plants or cold storages.
❖ Among the refrigerants used, except ammonia, all the
other refrigerants are synthetic refrigerants and are non-
toxic and non-flammable.
❖ Though ammonia is toxic, it has been very widely used due
to its excellent thermodynamic and thermophysical
properties.
❖ The scenario changed completely after the discovery of
ozone layer depletion in 1974.
❖ The depletion of stratospheric ozone layer was attributed to
chlorine and bromine containing chemicals such as
Halons, CFCs, HCFCs etc.
❖ Since ozone layer depletion could lead to catastrophe on a
global level, it has been agreed by the global community to
phase out the ozone depleting substances (ODS).
❖ As a result except ammonia, all the other refrigerants used
in cold storages had to be phased-out and a search for
suitable replacements began in earnest.
❖ At the same time, it was also observed that in addition to
ozone layer depletion, most of the conventional synthetic
refrigerants also cause significant global warming.
❖ In view of the environmental problems caused by the
synthetic refrigerants, opinions differed on replacements
for conventional refrigerants.
❖ The alternate refrigerants can be classified into two broad
groups:
I. Non-ODS, synthetic refrigerants based on Hydro-Fluoro-Carbons
(HFCs) and their blends
II. Natural refrigerants including ammonia, carbon dioxide,
hydrocarbons and their blends
What are the Alternatives ?
HFC’s are definitely not a good option for the
replacement of CFC’s and HCFC’s

The best choices from an environmental point of view

are the natural refrigerants:
❖Ammonia

❖Hydrocarbons

❖Carbon dioxide : Mainly for Vehicle AC and mobile

refrigeration
 Halocarbon Refrigerants
❑ Halocarbons are a family of manufactured molecules
consisting of hydrogen, carbon, fluorine, chlorine,
and/or bromine. The history of halocarbons, sometimes
known as CFCs and Halons, is tied to the development
of refrigeration.
❑ Halocarbon Refrigerant are all synthetically produced
and were developed as the Freon family of refrigerants.
❑ Examples :
❖ CFC’s : R11, R12, R113, R114, R115
❖ HCFC’s : R22, R123
❖ HFC’s : R134a, R404a, R407C, R410a
 HFCs
❖ Remain a popular choice
❖ especially for R22 phase out
❖ Good efforts at improving leakage performance
❖ e.g. Real Zero project
❖ Interest in R407A to replace R404A
❖ 50% reduction in GWP

❖ Zero ODP as no chlorine atom contains only Hydrogen and

Flurodine
❖ Very small GWP values
❖ No phase out date in Montreal Protocol
❖ R134a and R152 a – Very popular refrigerants
❖ HFC refrigerants are costly refrigerants

Environmental Effect Of Some Refrigerants

R134a
❖ ODP-0, GWP-1300
❖ Used as a substitute for R12 and to a limited range for R22
❖ Good performance in medium and high temp application
❖ Toxicity is very low
❖ Not miscible with mineral oil

R152a
❖ ODP-0,GWP-140
❖ R152a is another attractive HFC with similar properties to R12.
❖ GWP is one order less than HFC134a but it is slightly flammable.
❖ Also it has lower energy consumption. Hence the Environmental
Protection Agency of Europe prefers HFC152a to HFC134a
Environmental Effect Of Some Refrigerants
HCFC
❖Transitional compounds with low ODP
❖Partially halogenated compounds of hydrocarbon
❖Remaining hydrogen atom allows Hydrolysis and can
be absorbed.
❖R22, R123
❖Production frozen at 1996 level
❖35% cut by 2005,65% by 2010
❖90% by 2015,100 % by 2030
❖10 year grace period for developing countries.
R22
❖ODP-0.05, GWP-1700
❖R22 has 40% more refrigerating capacity
❖Higher pressure and discharge temp and not suitable
for low temp application
❖Extensively used in commercial air conditioning and
frozen food storage and display cases
R123
❖ODP-0.02,GWP-90
❖As a replacement for R11 as similar thermodynamic
properties.
❖Very short atmospheric life but classified as
carcinogen
❖Retrofit alternative to R11
 Carbon Dioxide as Refrigerant

❖ Non Flammable
❖ Non toxic
❖ Inexpensive and widely available
❖ Its high operating pressure provides potential for system
size and weight reducing potential.

Drawbacks:
❖Operating pressure (high side) : 80 bars
❖Low efficiency
 Hydrocarbon
❖ Very promising non-halogenated organic compounds with no ODP and
very small GWP values
❖ Their efficiency is slightly better than other leading alternative
refrigerants
❖ They are fully compatible with lubricating oils conventionally used with
CFC12.
❖ Extraordinary reliability- The most convincing argument is the reliability
of the hydrocarbon system because of fewer compressor failures.
❖ But most of the hydrocarbons are highly flammable and require
additional safety precaution during its use as refrigerants.
❖ Virtually no refrigerant losses
❖ Hydrocarbons have been used since the beginning of the century and
now being considered as long term solutions to environmental
problems,
• Dominant in domestic market like household refrigerators and freezers
• Growing use in very small commercial systems like car air-conditioning
system
• Examples:
❖R170, Ethane, C2H6
❖R290 , Propane C3H3
❖R600, Butane, C4H10
❖R600a, Isobutane, C4H10
❖Blends of the above Gases
R290
❖ ODP-0,GWP-3
❖ Compatible with copper.Miscible with mineral oil
❖ Highest latent heat and largest vapour density
❖ A third of original charge only is required when replacing
halocarbons refrigerant in existing equipment
❖ Energy saving : up to 20% due to lower molecular mass and
vapour pressure
R 600a
❖ ODP-0,GWP-3
❖ Higher boiling point hence lower evaporator pressure
❖ Discharge temp is lowest
❖ Very good compatibility with mineral oil
 Flammability
❖ALL refrigerants are flammable at some point
❖Lubricants, heated and under pressure have a
lower flash point to refrigerant
❖Source of ignition, Air, Fuel
❖Most HC’s are only flammable at between 2 and
10% when mixed with air
 Flammability

• Approximate auto ignition temperatures

• R22 630 ºC
• R12 750 ºC
• R134a 740 ºC
• R290 465 ºC
• R600a 470 ºC
• Oil 222 ºC
 Flammability

❖When HC’s burn they produce carbon and

steam
❖When chemical refrigerants burn they ALL
produce highly toxic fumes.
 Modifications of Electrical
Equipment
❖ Sealed to ensure that any sparks do not come into
contact with leaking gas
❖ Relocated to a position where the component would not
come into contact with leaking gas
❖ Faulty components.
❖ Poor, corroded, loose, or dirty electrical connections.
❖ Missing or broken insulation which could cause
arcing/sparks.
❖ Friction sparks, like a metal fan blade hitting a metal
enclosure.
❖ Modifications must meet local regulations and standards
Ammonia – A Natural Refrigerant

Ammonia is produced in a natural way by human beings

and animals; 17 grams/day for humans.

Natural production 3000 million tons/year

Production in factories 120 million tons/year

Used in refrigeration 6 million tons/year

 Advantages of using Ammonia as Refrigerant

❖ ODP = 0
❖ GWP = 0
❖ Excellent thermodynamic characteristics: small
molecular mass, large latent heat, large vapour density
and excellent heat transfer characteristics
❖ High critical temperature (132C) : highly efficient cycles
at high condensing temperatures
❖ Its smell causes leaks to be detected and fixed before
reaching dangerous concentration
❖ Relatively Low price
 Some Drawbacks of Ammonia as Refrigerant

❖Toxic
❖Flammable ( 16 – 28% concentration )
❖Not compatible with copper
❖Temperature on discharge side of
compressor is higher compared to other
refrigerants
 Properties of Ammonia
Concentration ( ppm ) Effect

5 Noticeable by smell

25 Irritation noticeable

50 Irritation of nose, mouth and throat; acclimatization after a while

500 Immediate irritation of mucous membranes, respiration difficult

3500 Lethal after a short period of exposure

20000 Causes blisters and chemical burns

Lower explosion limit 16 % by volume in air

Higher explosion limit 25 % by volume in air

Ignition temperature 650 C

Ignition energy required .01 to 1 Joule

 Refrigeration Properties of NH3

❖ Evaporation enthalpy 0 oC 1262 KJ/KG

❖ Pressure at 0 oC 4.9 bar
❖ Pressure ratio 0/35 oC 3.15
❖ COP 0/35 oC 6.77
❖ Discharge temperature 0/35 oC 81 oC
❖ Volumetric refrigerating capacity 3800 KJ/m3

❖ Volumetric refrigerating capacity of R134a 2000 KJ/m3

 General Safety measures for refrigerating plants

❖ Reduction of refrigerant contents:

❖ Components with reduced contents
❖ Indirect systems with secondary refrigerant: distinction between
generation and transport of cold

❖ Scheduled maintenance and leak testing

❖ Governmental surveillance – Refrigerant Audits for systems

operating with HFC’s. Recovery, Stock of used refrigerants,
Recycling of refrigerants.

❖ For the Netherlands, the combined measures resulted in a leak rate

reduction of 35% (1995) to 8% (2001) for R22-systems
 Conclusions

❖ In the aftermath of the Montreal protocole HFC’s have

predominantly replaced CFC’s and HCFC’s in RAC
equipment.
❖ Due to their high GWP, HFC’s are not a good
replacement solution.
❖ The solution are the natural refrigerants :
❖ Ammonia, Hydrocarbons and Carbon dioxide
❖ System need to have low TEWI factor
❖ High efficiency with ammonia and lower power
consumption with hydrocarbons
Typical A/C System and Flow.
The Compressor
The Compressor
 The Compressor
❖Commonly referred to as the heart of the
system, the Compressor is typically a belt driven
pump that is fastened to the engine or motor. It
is responsible for compressing and transferring
refrigerant gas.
❖The A/C system is split into two sides, a High
pressure side and a Low pressure side; defined
as Discharge and Suction. Since the
Compressor is basically a pump, it must have an
intake side and a discharge side.
The Compressor Clutch
 The Compressor Clutch Assembly
❖The compressor Clutch Assembly has 3 major
components.
❖The Coil
❖The Pulley
❖The Clutch
❖The compressor is an electromagnet Clutch Assembly
that can engage and disengage to the compressor
drive. The compressor Pulley always turns when the
engine or motor is running, but the compressor only
runs when the Clutch is magnetically engaged to the
Pulley by use of the electromagnetic Coil. The Clutch
is attached to the compressor driving shaft.
The Condenser
 The Condenser

❖ This is the area in which heat dissipation occurs. The

Condenser, in many cases, will have much the same
appearance as the radiator in you car as the two have
very similar functions. The Condenser is designed to
radiate heat. Its location is usually in front of the radiator.
❖ As hot compressed gasses are introduced into the top of
the Condenser, they’re cooled off. As the gas cools, it
condenses and exits the bottom of the Condenser as a
high pressure liquid.
Receiver/Dryer
 Receiver/Dryer

❖The Receiver/Dryer is used on the high side of systems

that use a thermal expansion valve. This type of metering
valve requires liquid refrigerant. To ensure that the valve
gets liquid refrigerant, a receiver is used. The primary
function of the Receiver/Dryer is to separate gas and
liquid. The secondary purpose is to remove moisture and
filter out debris.
❖Newer Receiver/Dryers use desiccant type XH-7 and are
compatible with both R-12 and R-134a refrigerants.
Older Receiver/Dryers are not compatible with R-134a
refrigerants.
Thermal Expansion Valve
 Thermal Expansion Valve

❖ Thermal Expansion Valve, or TXV. Commonly used on

import and aftermarket systems, this type of valve can
sense both temperature and pressure. A TXV is very
efficient at regulating refrigerant flow to the evaporator.
❖ These types of valves, although efficient, have some
disadvantages over Orifice Tube systems. Like Orifice
Tubes these valves can become clogged with debris, but
also have small moving parts that may stick and
malfunction due to corrosion.
Orifice Tube
 Orifice Tube

❖ The Orifice Tube, probably the most commonly used, is

located in the inlet tube of the evaporator, or in the liquid
line, somewhere between the outlet of the condenser
and the inlet of the evaporator.
❖ Most of the Orifice Tubes in use today measure
approximately three inches in length and consist of a
small brass tube, surrounded by plastic, and covered
with a filter screen at each end.
Evaporator
 Evaporator
❖Located inside the vehicle, the Evaporator serves as the
heat absorption component. The Evaporator provides
several functions. Its primary duty is to remove heat from
the inside of your vehicle. A secondary benefit is
dehumidification. On humid days you may have seen
this as water dripping from the bottom of your vehicle.
❖The ideal temperature of the evaporator is 32° Fahrenheit
or 0° Celsius. Refrigerant enters the bottom of the
Evaporator as a low pressure liquid. The warm air
passing through the Evaporator fins causes the
refrigerant to boil (refrigerants have very low boiling
points). As the refrigerant begins to boil, it can absorb
large amounts of heat.
 Refrigerant

❖There are two types of refrigerants used in

automotive applications.
❖R-12
❖R-134a
Refrigerants
 Problems with A/C

❖There are a few things to consider when trying to

retain your A/C system.
❖How to drive the compressor.
❖How/Where to mount the Compressor.
❖How to keep air flow over the Condenser.
❖How to evacuate and then recharge the system.
❖How/Where to get new lines/hoses made.