Elements of Workshop Technology: U J I I I

ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY
VOL II : MACHINE TOOLS

Revised and Enlarged Edition - 2007
T his revised and enlarged edition is aimed at meeting the current

needs of the students as well as the teachers and to fulfill the ever
increasing demand in accordance with the various syllabuses
prescribed by the State Technical Universities and Deemed
Universities for the related subjects. New diagrams and useful
information encompassing new technology and researches have
been added in the chapters; Transmission of motion and power,
The lathe, Grinding machines, Numerical control of machine tools
and Non-traditional machining.
In this Edition, a new chapter "Rapid prototyping" is added. This
chapter is written primarily to present a brief introduction of many
of the rapid prototyping methodologies. In this edition "Industrial
robot" has also been included in the chapter "CAD, CAM and
CIM".
ISBN: 81-85099-15-4 Rs. 200/-
SOME IMPORTANT BOOKS BY THE AUTHORS

1. Elements of Workshop Technology
Vol. I : Manufacturing Processes
2. Elements of Mechanical Engineering
3. Elements of Heat Engines
4. Industrial Engineering and Management
5. Material Science and Processes
MEDIA PROMOTERS & PUBLISHERS PVT. LTD.

(x)
Prentice-Hall, Inc., New York:

CONTENTS
E. Stieri, Fm1dame111als of Mac/1i11e shop Practice (Fig. 8.8).
L.E. Doyle, Man11fac111ring Processes and Materials for Engineers (Figs 10.6, 10.8, 1. Transmission of motion and power 01-34
13.3, 13,8, 16.I, 16.3, 16.4).
R.M. Dyke. Numerical Control. I. Introduction I; 2. Methods of drive I; 3. Power of
W.H. Pallack, Manufac111ri11g a11d Machine Tool Operation. transmission elements 3; 4. Shafting 4; 5. Couplings for
J.V. Valentino, and Goldenberg J., lntroduclio11 to Computer Numerical Control, shafting 5; 6. Bearings for shafting 7; 7. Belt-drive 8; 8.
1993, (Fig.19.30, 19.31) Belting 13; 9. Pulleys 17; 10. Rope drive I9; 11. Chain drive
21; 12. Variable speed transmission 21; 13. Clutches 22; 14.
Sehgal Educational Consultants & Publishers (P) Lid., Faridahad India : Friction drive 23; 15. Gear drive 24; 16. Spur drive 25; 17.
B.L. Juneja, Man11fac111ring Processes, Theory and Praclice (Fig. 20.2). Helical gear 27; 18. Spiral gear 28; 19. Bevel gear 28; 20.
Wonn gear 30; 21. Rack and pinion 31; 22. Velocity ratio ol
Sir Issac Pitman & Sons Ltd., London: toothed wheel 31; 23. Power transmitted by gearing 32; 24.
B.R, Hilton, Engineering Machine Shop Practice (Figs. 7.1, 11,43 , I 1.4 7, I 1.48, Hydraulic system 33.
1151-1154).
B.R. Hilton, The Lathe Opera/or's Manual (Figs. 3.22-3.25). 2. Metal cutting and cutting tools .iS-81
P.S. Houghton, lathes, Vol. I (Fig. 3.86). I. Introduction 35; 2. Types of culling tools 36; 3.
W.C. Durney, Capstan a11d forret Lathes (Figs 4.22, 4.23, 4.27, 4. 35). Orthogonal and oblique cutting 37; 4. Mechanics of culling
W.C. Durney, Maclri11e Shop Practice (Fig. 3.15).
and chip forn1ation 38; 5. Chip thickness ratio 40; 6. Velocity
Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co., New Delhi : relationships 41; 7. Culling forces in orthogonal cutting 42;
P.C. Pandey & H.S. Shan, Modem Machining processes (Fig 2.10). 8. Stress in shear plane 45; 9. Work clone and power rcquirrd
Hindustan Machine Tool. Production Technology, (Figs 20.1, 20.4, 20.8). in cutting 45; 10. Culling forces in oblique cutting 47; 11.
Measurement of forces 49; 12. Types of chip 51; 13. Chip
The English Language Book Society, London : breakers 52; 14. Culling-tool nomenclature 53; 15.
R.T. Prichard, Workshop Processes (Figs. 2.18-2.21). Geometrical control of tool angles 55; 16. The cutting action
W.A. Chapman, Workshop Tech11ology, Pt 1•2.3, (Figs. 3.9, 10.12, '17. 4, 20.6)
of hand tools 56; 17. Cutting speeds and feeds 59; 18.
The English University Press Lid., London
rriction and heat sources in culling 60; 19. Tool life and
T. Nuttall, Higher Natio11al Certificate Work. Tech. (Figs. I I 56, 11.58). wear 62; 20. Mach inability 69; 21. Cutting tool-materials 71;
M. Haslehurst, Manufacturing Technology. 22. Cutting fluids 76; 23. Economics of machining 79.
SJ. Martin, Numerical Co111rol of Machine Tools.
The lathe 83-182
The Institution of Engineers (India), Calcutta 1. Introduction 83; 2. Function of lathe 83; 3. Types of lathe
A. Bhattacharya.New Tech110/ogy (Fig. 20.66). 83; 4. The size of a lathe 86; 5. Descriptions and functions of
Proceedings of the Seminar on applications of New Technologies in India.
lathe parts 88; 6. The bed 88; 7. The headstock 90; 8.
The Machinery Publishing Co. Lid., London Tailstock or loose headstock 98; 9. Carriage 99; IO. Feed
Monday, Centre lathe Work (Figs. 3.91, 3. 93). mechanism 104; I I. Thread cutting mechanism 1,1 O; 12.
F.B. Lockwood, Fundamentals of NC. Lathi: accessories and attachments 111; 13. Lathe operations
122; 14. Centering 123; 15. Turning 124; 16. Tapers and
The Macmillan Co. New York : taper turning 126; 17. Eccentric turning 138; 18. Chamfering
E. Paul Degarmo, Materials and Processes in Engineering (Figs. 1332, 13.36, 139; 19. Thread cutting 139; 20. Facing 149; 21. Knurling
14.12). 150; 22. Filing 151; 23. Polishing 151; 24. Grooving 151;
25. Spinning 152; 26. Spring winding 152; 27. Fonning 152;
Theo. Audet & Co. (Publishers), New York :
Machi11ist and Tool Makers Hand Book (Figs. 7.18, 9.1).
28. Drilling 153; 29. Reaming 154; 30. Boring 154; 31.
Internal thread cutting 155; 32. Tapping 156; 33.
Undercutting 156; 34. Parting-off 157; 35. Milling 157; 36.
Grinding 158; 37. Cutting tools 158; 38. Forged tool 159; 39.
(xii) ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY
Brazed tipped tool 159; 40. Mechanically fastened l4p�ed

tool 161; 41. Solid tool 161; 42. Tool bit and tool holders
162; 43. Influence of too! angles 163; 44. Influence of tool
height of tool angle 168; 45. Types of tool 169; 46. Cutting
/ CONTENTS
boring machine 288; 12. Vertical boring machine parts 290;

13. Size of a vertical boring machine 291; 14. Work holding
devices for vertical boring machine 291; 15. Vertical bo ring
machine operations 291; 16. Vertical boring machine tools
(xiii)
speed 177; 47. Feed 178; 48. Depth of cut 179; 49. 293; 17. Precision boring machine 293; 18. Jog boring
Machining time 179; 50. Cutting tool signature 180. machine 293; 19. Methods of locating holes in jig boring
294; 20. Jig boring operations 295.
4 Capstan and turret lathes 183-226
1. Introduction 183; 2. Difference between a capstan and 7. Shaper 297-324
turret and an engine lathe 183; 3. Types of machine 185; 4. 1· . Introduction 297; 2. Types of shapers 297; 3. Principal
Difference between a capstan and a turret lathe 187; 5. parts 299; 4. Shaper size 302; 5. Shaper mechanism 302; 6.
Principal parts of capstan and turret lathes 188; 6. Capstan Work holding devices 311; 7. Shaper operations 315; 8.
and turret lathe mechanism 191; 7. Capstan and turret lathe Shaper tools 319; 9. Cutting speed, feed and depth of cut
size 194; 8. Work holding devices 194; 9. Tool holding 321; 10. Machining time 323.
devices 198; 10. Capstan or turret lathe tools 210; 11.
Capstan and turret lathe operations 217; 12. Turret tooling 8. Planing machines 325-346
lay out 219; 13. Production of a hexagonal bolt 220; 14. I. Introduction 325; 2. Types of planing machine 325; 3.
Cutting speed, feed and depth of cut 223. Size of a planer 327; 4. Planing machine parts 328; 5. Planer
mechanism 331 ; 6. Work holding devices 338; 7. Planer
operations 340; 8. Planer tools 342; 9. Cutting speed, feed
5. Drilling machine 227-278
and depth of cut 342; 10. Machining time 343; 11. Shaper vs
1. Introduction 227; 2. Types of drilling machine 227; 3.
Portable drilling machine 228; 4. Sensitive drilling machine planer 343; 12. Safety on the planer 344.
228; 5. Upright drilling machine 229; 6. Radial drilling
machine 230; 7. Gang drilling machine 232; 8. Multiple 9. Slotting m;1chines 347-356
spindle drilling machine 232; 9. Automatic drilling machine I. Introduction 347; 2. Types of slotting machine 347; 3.
233; 10. Deep hole drilling machine 233; 11. The size of a Slotter size 348; 4. Slotting machine parts 348; 5. Work
drilling machine 233; 12. Upright drilling machine parts 234; holding devices 354; 6. SI otter operations 354; 7. Slotter
13. Radial drilling machine parts 239; 14. Work holding tools 355; 8. Cutting speed, feed and depth of cut 356.
devices 240; 15. Tool holding devices 244; 16. Drilling
machine operations 250; 17. Drilling machine tools 254; 18. 10. Grinding machines 357-396
Twist drill nomenclature 258; 19. Drill size 262; 20. 1. Introduction 357; 2. Kinds of grinding 357; 3. Grinding
Designation of drill 263; 21. Drill material 263; 22. Reamer machines 359; 4. Floor-stand and bench grinders 359; 5.
263; 23. Reamer nomenclatures 267; 24. Counterbore 271; Portable and flexible shaft grinders 360; 6.' Swing frame
25. Countersinks and spot facers 271; 26. Taps 271; 27. Tap grinders 360; 7. Abrasiw belt grinders 361; 8. Cylindrical .....
nomenclature 272; 28. Cutting speed 275; 29. Feed 276; 30. centre-type grinders 361, 9. Centrcless grinders 364; I 0.
Depth of cut 276; 31. Machining time in drilling 277. Internal grinders 366; 11. Surface grind1:rs 367; 12. Tool and
cutter grinders 371; 13. Special grinding machines 373; 14.
6. Boring machines 279-296 Size and capacities of grinders 375; 15. Work holding
1,. Introduction 279; 2. Types of boring machine 279; 3. devices and attachments 376; 16. Principal grinding
Horizontal boring machine 279; 4. Parts of -a horizontal operations 377; 17. Wet and dry grinding 378; 18.
'boring machine 282; 5. Size of a horizontal boring ·machine Allowance and tolerance for grinding 379; 19. The grinding
283; 6. Boring machine mechanism 283; 7. Work holding wheel 379; 20. Abrasives 379: 21. Bonds and bonding
devices for horizontal boring 284; 8. Horizontal boring processes 381: 22. Grit, grade and structure of wheels 383;
machine operations 284; 9. Boring tool mountings for 23. Wheel shapes and sizes 385; 24. Mounted wheels 386; 25
horizontal boring 285; 10. Boring tool 288; 11. Vertical Standard marking system 386; 26. Selection of grinding
(xiv) ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY
CONTENTS (xv)
wheels 387; 27. Mounting the grinding wheels 390; 28.

14. Jigs and fixtures 513-532
Glazing and loading in wheels 391; 29. Dressing and truing
1. Introduction 513; 2. Principles of jigs and fixtures design
grinding wheels 392; 30. Balancing grinding wheels 393; 31.
514; 3. Component 515; 4. The machine 515; 5. Location
Diamond wheels 394; 32. Cutting speed and work speed 394;
515; 6. Methods of location 518; 7. Loading and unloading
33. Feed 395; 34. Depth of cut 395; 35. Machining time in
521; 8. Clamping 521; 9. Types 'of clamps 522; 10. Power
grinding 395.
devices of clamping 525; 11. Clearance in a jig fixture 525;
12. Indexing arrangement 525; 13. Tool guiding and cutter
I
11. Milling machines 397-450
setting arrangement 526; 14. Fool-proofing 527; 15. Ejection
1. Introduction 397; 2. Types of milling machine 397; 3.
527; 16. Swarf removal 528; 17. Rigidity ad vibration 528;
Principal parts 403; 4. Milling machine mechanism 406; 5.
18. Table fixing arrangement 528; 19. Safety devices 529;
Size of milling machine 407; 6. Work holding devices 408;
20. Jig base, body or frame construction 529; 21. Jig and
7. Cutter holding devices 410; 8. Milling machine
fixture types 530.
attachments 411; 9. Milling cutters 414; 10. Standard milling
cutter 417; 11. Elements of a plain milling cutter 426; 12.
IS. Broaching and sawing 533-544
Elements of a side milling cutter 429; 13. Elements of a face
1. Introduction 533; 2. Broaches 533; 3. Broaching methods
milling cutter 429; 14. lnnuence of tooth angles on cutter
536; 4. Broaching machines 537; 5. Broaching machine sizes
performance 430; 15. Sharpening milling cutters 433; 16.
539; 6. Broaching fixtures 540; 7. Broaching operation 540;
Milling cutter materials 434; 17. Fundamentals of the milling
8. Advantages and limitations of broaching 541; 9. Sawing
processes 434; 18. !"filling machine operations 437; 19.
542; I 0. Sawing machines 542; 11. Selecting a blade for
Cutting speed, feed and depth of cut 445; 20. Number of
sawing machine 543.
cutter teeth 446; 21. Calculation of machining time 447; 22.
Safety measures in milling 449.
16. Sui·face finishing processes 545-552
t. Introduction 545; 2. Lapping 545; 3. Honing 546; 4.
12. �ar cutting 451-486
Superfinishing 547; 5. Polishing 548; 6. Buffing 548; 7.
1. Gear culling methods 451; 2. Formed cutter method 451;
Power brushing 549; 8. Tumbling 549; 9. Pickling and
3. Gear cutting by formed disc cutter 452; 4. Fundamental of
oxidizing 549; I 0. Electroplating 550; 11. Hot dipping :
spur gear milling by a formed disc cutter 452; 5. Spur gear
Galvanizing 550; 12. Metal spraying 551; 13. Metallisation
proportions 453; 6, Indexing and dividing heads 454; 7.
551.
Indexing methods 457; R Spur gear milling operation 465; 9.
Fundamentals of helical gear milling by a form disc cutter
17. Erecting and testing machine tools 553-562.
466; 10. Fundamentals of bevel gear milling by form disc
1. Introduction 553; 2. Location 553; 3. Foundations 553; 4.
cutter 474; 11. Gear cutting by a formed end mill 481; 12.
Erection 554; 5. Testin11. 555; 6. Practical test 557; 7.
Gear cutting by a formed single point tool 481; 13. Gear
Geometrical checks 557; 8. Measuring equipment for testing
cutting by shear speed process 481; 14. Broaching gear teeth
559; 9. Magnitude and direction of tolerances 561; 10. Test
482; 15. Templet gear cutting process 482; 16. Generating
charts 561.
methods 482; 17. Rack cutter generating process 483; Hl.
Pinion cutter generating process 483; 19. Gear hobbing 484;
18. Kinematic design of machine tools 563-570
20. Bevel gear generating process 486.
1. Fundamentals 563; 2. Fixation of limit speeds 565; 3. On
the manner of layout 566: 4. On the number of output steps
13. Press and press work 487-512
1. Introduction 487; 2. Types of presses 487; 3. Power press (Z) 567; 5. Standard values of common ratio (4>) 568; 6.
parts 490; 4. Power press driving mechl!nism 492; 5. Press Inter-relation between Z, ¢, and R,v 569; 7. Some
size 494; 6. Press tools 494; 7. Methods of punch support considerations for designing the speed structure 569.
495; 8. Methods of die support 496; 9. Die accessories 497;
1O. Types of dies and operations 499; I 2. Press guards 511.
(xvi) ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY
19. Numerical control of machine tools

I. Introduction 571; 2. NC and its components 571; 3.
571-604
\
1
Position and motion control in NC machine: open and
closed loop 574: 4. Measuring systems for control 575: 5.
NC machine - axis of motion 577; 6. Classification of NC
system.578; 7. Tool positioning modes 580: 8. NC part
programming 581; 9. Manual part programming 581; IO.
Computer aided NC language 586: I I. Manual data input TRANSl\HSSION OF MOTION AND POWER
592; 12. Preparation of processing instructions 592; 13.
NC/CNC/DNC system 596; 14. NC machines 599.
20. Non-traditional machining 605-650
I. Introduction 605: 2. Classification of the machining 1.1 INTRODUCTION
processes 605; 3. Abrasive jet machining (AJM) 608; 4.
Ultrasonic machining (USM) 611: 5. Chemical machining
(CIIM) 615; 6.Electro-chemical machining (ECM) 618; 7. A source of power is always needed in various workshop processes
Electro-chemical grinding 628; 8. Electro-discharge particularly in cutting and fonning of metals in a machine tool. The
machining 631; 9.Electron-beam machining (EBM) 638; electricity as a means of conveying power to machinery is now widely
I 0. Laser beam machining (LBM) 641; I I.Plasma arc adopted. The power is nearly always supplied to the machine in the form of
machining (PAM) 646; 2. Ion-beam machining (IBM) 648. I•
rotational energy. The electricity or electrical energy is converted to
21. Transfer machining 651-660 rotational energy by means of an electric motor and the machine converts
I. Introduction 651; 2. Classilication of transfer machines the input of rotational energy into various fom1s necessary for doing the
<i5 I: 3. Main part of a transfer machine 654; 4. i\uxilliary
equipments 658: 5. Advantages and disadvantages 659.
job.
22. Process planning an cost evaluation 661-676 1.2 METHODS OF DRIVE

I.Introduction 661; 2.Requirement for process planning
661; 3. Steps in process planning 662: 4. Planning the Machines may be driven by any one of the following two methods
operations sequence 665; 5. Process planning sheet 667;
6.An example of operation sequence 669:
?.Disadvantages of manual process planning 669: 8. l. Individual drive
Computer aided process planning 670: 9. Cost evaluation 2. Group drive
672; IO. Standard i;osts 674; 11. Estimating labour cost�
674; 12. Methods of costing 676. Individual drive: This is also termed self-contained drive. The motor may
23. CAD, CAM and CIM 677-688 drive the machine shaft through direct coupling or belt, chain, gears or
1. Introduction 677: 2. Computer system 677: 3. Computer through some multi- or variable-speed transmission. Machine tools use
aided design 680; 4. Input and output devices of CAD hydraulic actuators, DC motors, AC motor or stepping motors for drives. '
work 681; 5. Geometric modeling 682; 6. Computer
aided manufacturing (CAM) 683; 7. Computer integrated The type of drive used is determined by the power requirement of the
manufacturing 687. machine tools, the power sources available and the desired dynamic
24. Rapid Prototyping 691-700 characteristics. Rotational motion of the drive may be transmitted to the
I.Introduction 691; 2. Basic principles of Rapid machine shaft th.rough. direct coupling or belt, chain, gears or through some
Prototyping 691; 3. Rapid Prototyping technologies 693; 4. multi- or variable speed transmission. Machines whi� require wide speed
Limitations of Rapid Prototyping 699; 5. Practical variations also are best driven by individual drive.
applications of Rapid Prototyping 699.
Th.is system has become very popular because of the following
APPENDIX A-1-A-4
advantages
INDEX 1-1-1-11
I. There is considerable economy of power for driving any single
' ..
2 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY
or group of machines as desired for that much of time as i�

required by a particular machine.
I \ TRANSMISSION OF MOTION AND POWER
5. Replacement of belts causes the power to shut down producing

great disturbance and annoyance 10 the workmen.
3
2. In case of drive failure, a particular machine remains idle and 6. Gives greater power cost for driving the mainshaft even if only
this does not affect the working of other machines. one machine works in the whole of the workshop.
3. Gives a better look and the working hazard being reduced there 7. Overhead traveling cranes cannot be used if required.
is practically no chance of any accident. Cleanliness and 8. Layout is difficult.
lighting are also improved for having no overhead shaft and r ........
1
belts in the shop.
4. Gives a wide speed variation and better control of speed range.
5. Power losses are small.
6. Replacement of belt takes ve1y little time as direct-drive motor
employs grooved pulleys and V-belts. Layout is ve1y ea�y.
Group drive : In this system a very powerful motor drives an overhead 11

shaft, called main.shaft, that runs from one end to the other end of the shop.
This mainshaft drives another shaft called countershaft which in turn,
drives the machine drive shaft. For starting and stopping the machine
spindle, fast and loose pulleys are provided on the countershafl. [t also
contains a set of cone pulleys to give a wide range of spindle speed.
Sometimes, when a machine is driven by a single pulley, and the stop and
start arrangements are contained in the machine itself, no countershaft is
necessa1y and the machine gets the drive direct from a pulley on the
mainshaft. A diagram showing group drive is shown in Fig.1.1.
The transmission of motion and power from the mainsha fl to the
countershaft and then to the machines is generally cITected through belts
and pulleys. The mainshafl is driven f rom the electric motor by a belt or
chain, the motor being placed either on the floor or mounted overhead.
Group drive is most suitable where power consumption of
individual machines is extremely variable, with occasional brief high Figure I.I Counter shaft drive arrangement
peaks. This is usually more economical in fixed charges, power I. Lever, 2. Loose pulley, 3. Fast pulley, 4. Belt fork, 5. Striking bar, 6. Belt drive
conswnption, and maintenance. But group drive has the following from main lineshafl, 7. Bearing, 8. Headstock spindle, 9. Cone pulleys, JO.
disadvantages Hanging wire, 11. 'U'-hanger.
I. Shafts, pulleys belts, etc. absorb greater power and the efficiency 1.3 POWER TRANSMISSION ELEMENTS
,
is considerably low.
2. In case of motor failme, all the machines become idle. The elements which are common to all methods of drive, for convenience,
3. Gives a ve1y clumsy appearance and there are greater chances of may be classified under the following heads
accidents. Cleanliness and lighting are badly affected by the
presence of overhead shafts and many belts. 1. Shafting, bearings, and fixings.
4. Does not give a wide speed variation and better control of speed 2. Belt-driving.
range. 3. Rope-driving.
4. Chain-driving.
S.
6.
7.
Variable speed gear.
Clutches.
Friction-driving.
I ".
TRANSMISSION OF MOTION AND POWER
to facilitate fixing wheel s or pulleys at any point, it is important that

shafting should be truly round and straight.
0
5
8. Toothed gearing. Speed of shafting : The speed of shafting varies according to the type of
machinery driven in a mill or workshop. At the present time the following
Belts, ropes, chains, gears , etc. are used for transmitting power from speeds are common
of a
prime mover to machine or from one shaft to the other. The selection ,- "'
the power required and the
particular type, of course, depends mostly upon Main shaft s and shafting for driving heavy Revs. per min.
These are de cribed in the
distance between the two driving shafts. s
Machinery 100 to 200
following articles. Shafting in light machine shop 150 to 300
Countershafts 200 to 600
1.4 SHAFTING Shafting for driving textile machinery 300 to 800
Shafting for driving wood working machinery 250 to 750
power
It may be said that the shaft is the essential element for transmitting
n a shaft is ubject to combine d
in mills and workshops. Under operatio s
Power transmitted by shafting : Shafting running at speeds higher than
on which pulley and
torsion and bending. An axle is a stationa ry shaft s
those usually encountered in power-transmission work requi,·es special
d to
other members rotate. An axle sometimes rotates, but is subjecte consideration, but for average conditions the following well-known
the bearing is known a journal .
bending only. The part of the shaft within s
formulae are useful
haft or (axle) in Fig.1.2 are called
Journals I and 3 at the end of the s
2rr.n T
pivots, while the intermediate journal 2 is a neck journal. A spindle is
a h.p. =-- /
a cutting tool or the work on 4,500

machine shaft that drives and support s either
where. n = speed of the shaft in r.p.m.
which machining and other operations are performed.
The shafting used in ... and T = twisting moment of the shaft in metre kilogram
machine shops is made of mild Again, T = !!:_d3fs
steel and may be cold-rolled or 16
turned, but it is generally where, d diameter of the shaft
considered amongst metal workers and f = maximum shearing stress induced in the shaft
that turned shafting is more due to twist
e. Upto about 125 mm
Figure 1.2 Elements ofa shaft desirabl 1.5
diamete r it is generally supplied COUPLINGS FOR SHAFTING
1, 3. Journal 2. Neck journal
and used in the cold-drawn or cold
cheap and Shafting i� supplied in reasonable lengths , and to make up a long length
rolled bright condition. Cold-drawn shafting is comparatively
surface several pieces may be joined together by couplings. The coupling should
the drawing gives a certain amount of work hardening to the outer
m diameter al ays be placed as close to a bearing as possible and should support and
of the shaft which is an advantage. In order to obtain minimu :,v
are sometimes align the two ends of the shaft rigidly so as to give an effect of a
and increased wear resistance of heavily loaded shafts they
and case- continuous shaft. The two principal types of couplings are
made from alloy steels of various grades treated by heat
hardening methods.
also if 1. Rigid coupling
Larger shafts are turned from steel forgings , and this applies
turned out 2. Non-rigid or flexible coupling.
collars or bosses are required. A reduced neck or sunk journal
alway
of a shaft causes a serious loss of strength and stiffness and should
s
in bearing Rigid couplings : Rigid couplings are used to connect two shafts when
be avoided. To avoid unnecessary loss of power due to friction
6 \ ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY
TRANSMISSION OF MOTION AND POWER 7
they are in perfect rigid axial alignment. There are two principal types of
rigid coupling : (1) muff coupling, and (2) flange coupling. built up of leather washers or similar
A muff coupling or box materials. This construction permits some
coupling, illustrated in Fig.1.3, axial movement and takes care of starting
consists of a solid box or muff made of shock or slight mis-alignment. Another
cast iron, bored out to fit the shafts advantage is that it can quickly be __r,,1,,,..,/.
whose ends are made to butt together disconnected by removing the driving pins.
inside the box. The box may be Other types of flexible couplings are
secured to the shaft by means of a : belt-type flexible coupling used to transmit "'7'-r7"7'7-r7� t-��'C"'CI
sunk key which extends the whole medium power at low speeds ; iflfernal gear "'-'..i:�;...-:,n:v-+:i.-�;:;,.;,J
Figure I.3 Muff coupling length of the box. Sometimes two keys type flexible coupling used for heavy drives
are used to fit the muff on the shafts. sllch as in rolling mills, cement mills, etc.
and Bibley coupling applied universally to
A flanged shaft coupling, illustrated in Fig.1.4, is perhaps the most machinery and shafting drives upto the
widely used particularly for heavy power transmission at low speeds. Two largest powers. Figure 1.5 Flexible
coupling halves I and 3 arc keyed to the ends of the shafts and bolted coupling
together. To ensure correct alignment, one of the flanges has a circular 1.6 BEARINGS FOR SHAFTING
projection 2 which fits into a
corresponding depression in the other The support in which a shaft or axle rotates is called a bearing. Bearing�.
flange. To guard against t�e nuts and are classified according to the nature of the applied load and the r.p.m. of
bolt heads catching the clothes of the axle or shaft. For different forms of bearings sec lubricaflfs and
workmen, who might be near the
couplings, flanges are provided to .. Lubrication in Vol. I.
In practice, the bearings may be in the form of plain bearings, e.g .
cover the nuts and bolt heads. plummer block, or some form of ball or roller bearings. The use of plain .
Another type of rigid coupling bearings for line shafting is giving way to ball and roller bearings as the
is the ribbed coupling or split sleeve latter have many advantages. The outstanding feature of ball and roller
coupling. This consists of two bearings is their low starting friction, which is practically the same as
longitudinal halves mounted running friction. Therefore, if a shaft must frequently be started from rest,
simultaneously on the ends of both i• is worthwhile considering the adoption of ball or roller bearings to
Figure 1.4 Flange coupling
I, 3. Flange coupling, 2. Centering shafts and then tightened with bolts. support it, as they will no doubt effect a considerable saving in power and
projection To overcome the possibility of the lubricant. For light duty, ball bearings can be run at higher speeds than
shaft twisting in the coupling, the plain bearings without danger of overheating and seizing. Other important
ends of both arc keyed together. points in favour of ball bearings are cleanliness and saving in lubricant and
attendance. Again, for taking up end-thrust, the ball bearing is
Flexible couplings : Flexible couplings are used to protect the driving and indispensable, and has a field of application entirely of its own.
driven machinery from detrimental effects, which may arise from mis
alignernnt of shafts, vibration, sudden shock loads, end float, or shaft Lubrication of bearing : Proper lubrication of bearing surfaces involves
expansion. The most extensively used of all types of flexible couplings is careful consideration of materials comprising of the journal and its
probably the crown-pin type coupling shown in Fig.1.5. One or both bearings. The bearing surfaces in general use come mainly under the
halves of the coupling arc provided with studs engaging in holes in the following heads: cast iron, steel, various alloys of bronze and babbitt. �ast
0ther half. Studs have insulating and renewable flexible driving surfaces iron bearing surfaces should only be used for low speeds and light
pressures. All normally loaded bearings should have continuous
8 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY TRANSMISSION OF MOTION AND POWER 9
lubrication, and the simplest and cheapest method of obtaining a regular when flat belts are used, while a maximum surface speed of 1,500 m per
supply of oil is by ring oiling. Heavily loaded or higher speed bearings are min can be used with V-belts.
sometimes fitted with pumps to force oil on to the surfaces and to keep a In a belt-drive arrangement, one of the pulleys called driver is
large volume of oil in circulation. mounted on the driving shaft while the other, which is mounted on the
Ball and roller bearings, of course, require a small quantity of shaft to which power is to be transmitted is called the driven pulley or
grease. Although lubrication is only required at intervals of from three to follower. When the belt moves over the pulleys there is always the
six months, it is an important matter, but it should be understood that it is possibility of some slipping between the belt and the faces of the pulleys,
mainly intended to prevent rusting of the polished working surfaces. A and hence the character of the motion transmitted is not positive. Where
simple way of replenishing the grease when required is by means of a positive action is required, gears or chai�s must be used.
grease gun.
Fixing for shaft bearings : Line shaft bearings are placed at suitable
distances and supported by brackets or hangers according to the prevailing
condition. Due to subsidence of foundations, deflection of columns, walls,
girders, etc. from which the shaft is supported, some displacement will -t
almost inevitably occur after running some time under full load. Shafting
Driver Driver
in factories is frequently found to be very much out of line and level, and
in consequence a considerable amount of power may be absorbed in the Open-belt drive Cross-belt drive
drive. It is important, therefore, to ensure that shaft bearings are capable of Figure 1.6 Open and cross-belt drive
maintaining the shaft in correct level and alignment, and designed to
enable errors in alignment to be easily corrected. A swiveling or self
aligning bearing can only be employed for such adjustment. The bearing Types of belt-drive : There arc two common types of belt drives : (a)
automatically adjusts itself to the shaft and is independent of exact level or open-belt drive, and (b) crossed-belt drive. In the open-belt drive the driver
alignment of fixings on which it is supported. With plain bearings this and the follower move in the same direction. While in the crossed-belt'
swiveling movement is achieved by clamping the bearing housing between drive, the sense of rotation of the driven pulley must be opposite to that of
large spherical ended plugs in the hanger or bracket. In ball and roller the driving pulley. These two arrangements illustrated in Fig.1.6 arc used
bearings, the outside diameter of the outer race is grourid to spherical form,
and fits a spherical seating in the cast-iron housing. In another type, self
alignment is obtained within the bearing itself by the employment of a E�
double row of balls running in two grooves on the inner race, the
spherically ground outer race permitting the required deviation from the
normal position.
1.7 BELT-DRIVE
Belt drive is one of the most common and effective devices of transmitting
motion and power from one shaft to the other by means of a thin
inextensible band running over two pulleys. This is largely used for
general purposes in mills and factories specially when the distance Quarter - turn drive Right angle drive
between the shafts is not very great. Belts can transmit, however, upto a Figure 1.7 Quarter-tum and right angle drive
distance of about 10 m with a maximum surface speed of 1,400, m per min I. Guide pulley.
..
TRANSMISSION OF MOTION AND fbWER 11
to connect shafts which are parallel.
Belt may be used for drives that are not parallel and which do not through a number of intermediate pulleys 8, C, D, E, of which B and C,
intersect, provided the pulleys arc so located as to conform to a are fixed to one shaft and D and E fixed to another, then,
fundamental principle that governs the operation of all belt drives, namely
: /he cen1re line of 1ha1 part of the belt approaching a pulley must lie in the
central plane of that pulley. The angle at which the belt leaves the pulley is 1.3
immaterial.Sometimes guide pulleys arc necessary to direct the belt. These ' .,
present no disadvantages and may be used to adjust the belt tension. Belt
connections between non-parallel shafts are shown in Fig.1.7. They are Here d 1., d21 d31 d41 d5, and dr, are the diameters of the pulley A, B, C, D, E
known as quarler-turn drive and right angle drive. and F respectively, and 111 and n 6 are the speed ofA and F respectively. To
be exact, the diameters taken should be the effective diameters as
Velocity ratio of belt-drives : The velocity ratio of a belt drive is defined explained above.
as the ratio of the number of turns of the driving pulley to the number of Hence we can write.
turns of the driven pulley in a unit of time. This may be determined with
sufficient accuracy in the following manner: velocity of the last shaft dia. of the drivers multiplied
= ----------�
In Fig.1.6, let d, and d2 be the diameters of the driver and follower velocity of the first shaft dia. of the followers multiplied
respectively, and let n I and 112 denote their speeds in revolutions per
minute. The surface speed of the driver= :nd 1 n 1 and the surface speed of Example I.I : A 10 kW motor running at 1750 r.p m. has a pulley of 160 m111
the follower = ndt1 2• If there is no slip between the belt and the pulley, diameter fitted to it. It drives a line-shaft at a speed of 800 r.p. m.Three machine�
these are equal, i.e. arc driving by the line-shaft, thcir speed being 300, 500 and 200 r.p.m. The driving
nd 1 n 1 = nd2n 2 pulleys of the machines are respectively 240, 320 and 400 mm in diameter. Find
that is d,n I = dzll z the size of the pulleys to be filled on to the line-shaft.
. .,
nz
or = :!J_ 1.1 Here D 1 = 160, n 1= 1750, n 2= 800. 0 2 - ?
-16 0xl750
or, in words, the velocity ratio - D1 x�-
From equation (1.1), D -, - = 350 mm.
n2 800
rev. per minute of the follower dia. of the driver
= =------- D 2 is the diameter of the pulley on the line-shaft through which
rev. per minute of the driver dia. of the follower power from the motor is transmitted.
Let d 1 , d2 and d, he the diameters of the pulleys fitted on the line
The equation (1.1) is true whether the belt is open or crossed. With shaft for driving machines.
an open belt the sense of rotation of the two pulleys is same-, while with a
crossed belt this is opposite. d 1 X800J.300 X240or dl = 90mm.
If t is the thickness of the belt, then, d2 X800= 500x320or d2= 200mm.
d3 x800= 2 00X400or d3 = 100mm.
1.2
H.P. transmitted by a belt: Let T, be the tension in the tight side of the
belt and let T2 be the tension in the slack side. The effective turning force
When the motion is transmitted from a pulley A to a pulley F at the circumtcrence of the follower is the difference of the tension in the
tight and slack sides of the belt. T1 being greater than T2 , the difference of
tensions is (T1 - T2 ). Therefore, effective pull of the belt is equal to
1333 x 3.142 x 220

h.p. =------- = 20.S
4,500
This force Pis called the driving force or driving tension. If vis the
linear velocity in metre per minute, and if Pis the driving force in kgf then
Ratio of driving tensions in a belt : The ratio of driving tensions in a belt
' r.(
just on the point of slipping is given by
work transmitted per min = Pxv kgfm.
Therefore, h.p. = Pv 1.5

4500
If the belt passes over a pulley which makes n revolutions per where e is the base of the Napierian log = 2.718, µ = co-efficient of
minute, and which has a diameter din metre, then friction for the belt on the pulley, and (:) = angle of lap or arc of
circumference embraced by the belt in radians.
Speed of the belt, v = circumference x rev. per minute Taking log on both sides, the equation (1.5) becomes
v· = 7tdn
T,1
log - = µ8 log e
7tdnP
=--
\ Tz
h.p 1.4
4,500
In British system h.p. transmitted = 0.43 4 µ() in circular measure
=---
7tdnP = 0.007578 µ()if() is in degrees 1.6
h.p .
33,000
where d is the diameter in ft. and Pis the driving force in lb. 1.8 BELTING
Example 1.2: The width of a belt is 150 mm and the maximum tension per mm of Belting is made of different materials and of varied cross-sections either
flat or V-shaped. The materials of belting in common use for power
width is not to exceed 1.6 kg. The ratio of tension on the two sides is 2 .l the
4 ' transm;ssion are : (1) leather, (2) cotton and canvas, (3) India rubber, and
diameter of the driver I m, and it makes 220 r.p.m. Find the horse-power that can ( 4) steel.
be transmitted.
leather belts are made from the "prime" or "butt" portion of the
hide. The method of c1.1tting up the butt for the production of belting of the
In this case, T1 = 1.6 x 150 = 240 kg.
highest quality is very important. The butt is only about 1.5 m long, but
belts of any length can be made by joints about every 1.5 m. Belts are also
T, 240 made of a single and double thickness.
and ......!..=225 or T, = - = 106.7 kg.
T1 - 225 Single belting, i.e. with the thickness composed of one piece only,
is now made in four standard thickness denoted by the numbers 1 to 4, and
p = T 1 -·T1 = (240-106.7) = 133.3 kg. of 4, 5, 6, and 7 mm in thickness respectively. Some makers grade their
belting by the weight in gm per sq cm, varying between certain fixed limits
We know that v = 7tdn = 3.142 x 1 x 220 m/min. according to width.
Metal belt-fasteners, in common use are : alligator-type fasteners,
Double belts, formed by cementing, sewing, or riveting together jackson button fastener, clipper fastener, crescent fastener, etc. The type
I two thickness of leather are sometimes employed for heavy duty, but
of lacing depends upon the width of the belt.
should be avoided as far as P.Ossible, and should never be used on pulleys
less than 900 mm in diameter-:Where circumstances will allow, single' belts
are much to be preferred, as they are more flexible, absorb less power in
bending round pulleys, and are in consequence more durable.
Leather belts may preferably be used both in dry and wet places at
ordinary temperatures.
C�nvas or woven belts are manufactured from c6tton•or c&mel hair.
They ar� 'made in two distinct varieties, known commercially as canvas
and solid woven respectively. Canvas belting is made from stout canvas or
cotton "duck" folded to the required breadth and thickness, the latter
dimension' being denoted by the number of folds or "plies". This is made
in thickness from 3 to 10 ply.
Solid woven belting is produced in the loom in one piece of the
required breadth and thick�ess from yarns spun from long stapled cotton. Laced belt joint Wire belt hooks
L=-ll I
Hair belting is growing in favour, and may be woven entirely from camel
hair or hair may be used in combination with weft and binders of cotton.
The canvas and woven belting are stronger and they are preferable
to leather in warm climates, in damp atmosphere, and in exposed positions.
India-rubber belts are made by cementing together the canvas plies
with a composition of vulcanized India-rubber. This kind of belting is t:r(======�z=r b=�o
i cct= i hn=run,==:::::li/
considered the best in damp situations, but is expensive, and must be kept
free from oil or grease, which are ruinous to rubber.
Balata belting has also wide applications in industry. This is
primarily a cotton canvas belting prepared in a similar manner with balata Cemented belt splice
in place of rubber. Balata is a gummy substance resembling gutta-percha, Figure l.8 Beltjoints
obtained from the milktjuice of a tree which grows in British Guiana.
Balata belting is often preferred in the heavily saturated steam-laden Leather and balata belts may be made endless by splicing and
atmosphere of a dyehouse, or when subjected to chemical fumes, or again, cementing exactly in the same way as the permanent joints employed in
for out-of-door use. the manufacture of the belt itself. The belt is opened up by heating with a
hot iron to enable the plies to be separated. They are then cut to stepped
Joints in belting : belt fasteners : Belting is generally supplied by the form, so that �hen the ends are placed together, the thickness of the joint
maker in one continuous length ready for use, so that when placed upon in any part is the same as in the body of the belt. The plies are successively
the pulleys it only remains to make the closing joint by some form of covered with solution, and the joint after thorough heating, is fixed in a
fastener to produce an endless belt. Three methods are generally used for clamp or press for ten to thirty minutes until it is set. There are two kinds
such fastening, namely, lacing ; metal fastener of various kinds ; and of belt cements, one for dry and the other for damp conditions. The first is
"
endless, cemented or solutioned joints (Fig.1.8). available in cakes ot lumps, which dissolve in a glue pot. The other type is
Leather belts are often joined by raw hides. For lacing the ends of sold ready to apply.
the belts are cut square and butted together, and the la'ce is threaded in
round or oval holes which are made with a hand-tool known as belt-punch.
TRANSMISSION OF MOTION AND P9WER 17
V-Belt : When a belt is trapezoidal in section, designed to run in a V
shaped groove, it is known as a V-belt. The modem V-belts are made of The face of the belt is also very important. The ca.nvas side of a
fabric and vulcanized rubber with a cotton-cord tension element. Tf\e belt balata belt is the driving face, whether the drive be crossed or open. As
regards leather belts, the grain side is the correct driving side. It should
runs in 40° V-grooves turned in the pulleys as shown in Fig.1.9. The cross
transmit nearly twice the power conveyed by the flesh side. The flesh side,
sectional .area varies, depending on the dimensions, the smallest
which has the greatest tensile strength, will stand the stretching strain
dimensions are 10 and 6 mm, and the largest 50 and 30 mm, respectively.
necessary in the outside bend around the pulleys.
V-belt drives are used when centre distance between shafts is short
and transmission numbers are large. The distance, in general, should not be
1.9 PULLEYS
less than the larger pulley diameter and not more than the sum of the two
pulley diameters. V-belt transmits a larger amount of power from a pulley
of a given width of face, and being Pulleys are used to transmit power from one shaft to the other at a
almost positive and slipless in action, moderate distance away by means of a belt or strap running over them.
it is displacing chain and gear drives They· may be made of cast iron, wrought iron, pressed steel or wood.
for many short-centre distance Mainshaft pulleys are generally made of wrought iron, pressed steel or
wood which gives them suitable strength combined with lightness, while
machine drives. When calculating
countershaft pulleys which arc usually smaller than mainshaft pulleys are
speed ratios for V-belt drives, pulley
made of cast iron. These pulleys have a thin rim of rectangular section
diameters measured to the centre of
over which the belt runs. Usually, pulleys arc provided with arms which
the belt should be taken into account,
since contact between belt and pulley may be straight or curved and the cross-section is usually described as
Figure 1.9 Grooved pulley "oval", i.e. roughly elliptical. The central part of the pulley is called the
extends over an appreciable distance. with V-belt
"nave", "eye", or "boss". To add strength and stiffness large pulleys arc
Care and maintenance of belt : The life of a belt will be prolonged and provided with ribs between the rim and the boss. Sometimes these ribs arc
its driving powers kept at capacity by giving it proper attention. reinforced with arms for greater stiffness.and durability. The rims of all
Driving surface of the belt should be kept clean and free from any cast iron pulleys are generally : "crowned", ·i.e. slightly greater in diameter
dirt and other foreign matter. Such dirt, if allowed to get into the surface, at the centre than at the edges. As the belt seeks the highest point on the
forms into lumps, tearing or distorting the driving face of the belt and pulley, the effect of crowning is to keep the belt in a central position. The
preventing it from forming proper contact with the face of the pulley. crowning of pulleys, in most cases, should not exceed 25 mm on the
Care should be taken to prevent oil or grease from getting at the diameter per metre of width, and the width of the pulley should be onc
belt. It will cause loss of power by slip, and is particularly harmful to fourth greater then the width 'of the belt used. The minimum diameter of
balata or cotton belts, tending to separate the plies. It will also rot a leather pulleys should be at least 24 times the thickness of belt used to run on the
belt and rapidly lessen the efficiency. An application of ground chalk will pulley.
absorb the oil on a leather belt and make it workable for a time.
To keep a leather belt from becoming dry and lifeless, it should be Fast and loose pulleys : It has already been described in the methods of
given an occasional washing and brushing in warm water, and afterwards a drive that in workshops and factories, power is in certain cases transmitted
good greasing with tallow or with one of the patent dressings sold for the to the machines from a main line-shift called mainshaft, through an
purpose. intermediate shaft, called countershaft, and two· pulleys known as fast
If belt slip becomes troublesome there are many compositions on pulley and loose pulley that are mounted on the countershaft. A fast and
the market to increase the friction between the belt and the pulley. A loose pulley arrangement enables a machine to be started or stopped at
cheaper and better known remedy is powdered resin. will, without stopping the belt. Loose pulleys should revolve freely on the
shaft, but the fast pulley or fixed p,ulley is firmly keyed on the shaft, as
shown in Fig.1.1. To stop the machine shaft, the belt is moved from the
fast pulley to the loose pulley by means of a belt shifter. The diameter of
the loose pulley is sometimes made slightly smaller than that of the fast Wrought-iron pulleys : They are now used in great numbers for several
pulley so that when the belt is on the loose pulley there is very little important advantages. Wrought iron pulleys are light, strong, and durable,
tension in the belt. A loose pulley is usually provided with a brass or gun and are entirely free from ·the initial St!'3ins which exist in cast iron pulleys
metal bush and needs efficient lubrication for smooth running. due to unequal contraction in cooling. In wrought iron pulley the rim is
made of sheet wrought iron or pressed steel sheet and riveted to the arms
Speed cones or stepped pulleys: Speed cones are cast iron pulleys having which are made from bar-iron or mild steel. The boss is sometimes also
several steps of different diameters on which a belt may run (Fig.1.1). made of wrought iron, but generally it is made of cast iron. To facilitate
Speed cones are used for varying the velocity ratio between a pair of the erection of pulleys on the main shaft they are usually made in halves,
parallel shafts by simply shifting the belt from one step of the pulley to the and the parts securely bolted together. Steel often takes the place of
other. They work in pairs, one on the countershaft and the other on the wrought iron in the construction of pulleys.
machine spindle. The diameters of the corresponding steps must be such
that the same belt can operate, no matter how many steps are employed. Wooden pulleys : Wooden pulleys are made from 150 to 3000 mm in
diameter, the rim built up in thickness, each composed of a number of
Guide pulleys : Guide pulleys are used to connect non-parallel shafts segments arranged to break joint, the whole properly fitted and nailed and
those which intersect and those which do not intersect to guide the belt into glued together. The arms are put in when the rim is being built up, and
the proper plane as shown in Fig.1.7. Guide pulleys are also used when the extend entirely through to the outside, The smaller sizes are made in block
two shafts to be connected are close together. Each portion of the belt, as form. The pulleys are made in halves, and are fitted with interchangeable
it passes from one pulley to the other, being taken round part of the bushings so that they may be clamped tightly upon the shaft, dispensing
periphery of a guide pulley, which is suitably placed. with the use of a key.
As the coefficient of friction of leather on wood is higher than on
Jockey pulleys or rider pulleys : Jockey pulleys are used to increase the thl! metal, it is claimed that wooden pulley will transmit more power than
arc of contact, and also to produce a an iron pulley under the same condition, but they are not so durable as
more tension in the belt as shown in iron. Wooden pulleys <;an only be used in situations free from excessive
Fig.1.10. They are mounted near the dampness or moisture, and not subjected to high or varying temperatures.
smaller of the two pulleys in a belt
drive and always ride on the slack 1.10 ROPE DRIVE
side of the belt. The pulley presses
down the slack side due to having Rope drive is used to transmit power over a moderately long distance. The
loaded bearing in which it runs. Figure 1.10 Jockey pulley to horizontal distance apart of the shaft centres in a rope drive should not be
increase arc of contact less than 9 or 12 m, but may be made as much as 24 or 30 m. The working
Grooved pulleys : Grooved pulleys for rope, V-belt etc. are generally stress on the rope is usually taken 14 kg/cm2 of section and they can impart
made entirely of cast iron, but occasionally the arms are mape of wrought as much as 2,000 h.p. One big advantage of rope drives is that a number of
iron. They are mainly used for the transmission of large powers over great separate drives may be taken from one of the driving pulleys. Ropes for
distances and the effect of the groove is to increase the frictional grip of transmitting power are made of cotton, manila, or hemp, cotton ropes
the rope on the pulley and thus reduce the te.ndency to slip. The grooves on being usually considered the best on account of their greater driving power
the pulleys are V-shaped, the angle between the two faces being from 40° and flexibility. The rope used arc endless, being joined by a splice, and fit
to 60° . The rope rests on the two sides, and not on the bottom of the into circumferential grooves on the pulleys which they connect, and are
groove (Fig.1.9). In guide pulleys, ihe grooves are semi-circular, and the from 35 to 50 mm in diameter. In transmitting large powers, it is better to
rope rests on the bottom of the groove. The diameter of a rope pulley is use a number of ropes of small diameter rather than a single rope of large
generally not less than thirty times the diameter of the rope. diameter. The pulleys or wheels connected by ropes are grooved and the
groove angle varies from 40° to 60°, but is generally 45°.
Steel or wire ropes are used for transmission of power in cases log -1. = 0.4343 x
03x 227 =
0.77 ; IL = 5.888
where the parts to be connected are at a large distance apart, and where
T,
Tz sin 225 T2
extra strength is needed. They are used in lifts, colliery winding and (T1 - T2 )v (T1 -T2 )1000
hauling arrangements, mill drives, etc. The ropes run on grooved puHeys, h.p. or 20 =
4500 4500
but contrary to the practice adapted with cotton ropes, they rest on the
bottom of the grooves and are not wedged between the sides of the 20x4500
grooves. (fi -Tz) = = 90 kgf 5.888 T2 - T2
1000
PvxN (T1 -T2)vx N or, 18.4 kgf
H.P. transmitted by ropes = = T2
4500 4500
where p is driving force in kgf, v the velocity in m per minute, and N the or r, 5.888 T2 = 5.888 x 18.4 108.3 kgf
number of ropes in the pulley.
The relation between two tensions T 1 and T2 is given by : 1.11 CHAIN DRIVE
Chains are used for high transmission numbers (up to 15) and can impart
�
!j_ = e sin<X 1.7 as much as 5,000 h.p. They are mostly used when the distance between
T2 centres is short. But they are also employed when the center distance is as
where e is the base of the napierian log= 2.718, µ=coefficient of friction much as 8 m. They are now in general use for the transmission of power in
for the rope on the pulley, e=angle of lap in radians and 2cx = angle of the cycles, motor vehicles, agricultural machinery, road rollers, etc. and for
groove. gearing in workshops and factories, and are continually being installed to
Taking log on both sides, the equation (1.7) becomes displace belt or rope drive and wheel gearing.
Well-conceived chain drives are highly effective, are positive in
motion, i.e. pennit no· slip, and may be used where an exact average
µ0
T1 = 0.434x--
Jog - in circular measure velocity ratio is essential. A chain drive takes up less space than a belt
T2 Sina drive and has no initial tension. For belt or rope drives a certain minimum
distance between the shafts is necessary unless jockey pulleys are to be
= 0.007578 x � if e is in degrees. 1.8
Sina used. This prevents the use of belts or ropes for connecting directly to
... shafts which are closed together.
Example 1.3 : A rope pulley with 5 ropes and surface speed of 1000 m/min A chain may be regarded as a belt built up of rigid links, which are
transmits 100 hp. Find the tensions on the tight side and slack side, if the angle of hinged together in order to provide the necessary flexibility for the
lap is 130°, and the angle between the sides of the groove is 45 °. Assumeµ = 0.3. wrapping action round the driving and driven wheels. Wheels having teeth
especially designed for chains are known as chain sprockets and bear a
Power transmiued per rope, h.p. = � = 20 hp superficial resemblance to spur gears.
In case of rope pulleys,
1.12 VARIABLE SPEED TRANSMISSIONS
°]
1ogIL = o.4343 x � ; ex=�= 22.5 ° r 2a = 45
e
sm ex It has been observed that a change of speed is obtained with flexible

r2
connectors running on a pair of stepped pulley or speed cone of different
0 1;0 x 130 = 2.27 radian diameters. For many purpose� the arrangement is defective, as only three
or four definite speeds can be obtained in this way, and it is impossible to
dfect a gradual change from one speed to another. There is further ·
disadvantage that it is generally necessary to stop the machine when it by means of a groove in the flange.
making the change. The clutch contact surfaces are usually,
A practical solution of the problem is found in but not in all cases, made at a ·slight ....JLinn- _
the Reeves variable-speed transmission in which the angle about 3 ° to 4 ° to the shaft axis io
operator is able to control the speed while the speed facilitate disengagement.
is running without any interruption of the work in
hand, and the change is continuous instead of being Friction clutches : In friction clutches
power is transmitted by friction. They Figure 1.12 Claw clutch
abrupt. This consists of a pair of pulleys connected
by a V-shaped belt in the manner indicated in ar� �sed to communicate, gradually and without shock, the molion of
the
Fig.1.11. Each pulley consists of a pair of driving dnvmg shaft to the follower shaft at rest. Again, they are used where
disks with cone-shaped faces, the disks revolving sudden and complete disconnection of two rotating shafts is necessa
ry,
with the shafts, but the same time capable of sliding where such shafts are in axial alignment. The frictional surfaces may
be
longitudinally along it to a certain extent. To adjust conical or cylindrical, or in the form
the diameters of the pulleys, the two conical disks on of one or more flat rings of disks. A
one shafts forming a pair are caused to approach each simple form of cone clutch is
other, virtually increasing the diameter or recede Figure 1.11 illustrated in Fig.1.13. It consists of
from each other when the diameter is reduced. It Variable speec two iron castings marked A and 8.
follows that when the disks of one pair are transmission The motion is transmitted from the
approaching each other, those of the opposite pair driving member A to the driven
must automatically be made to recede to the same extent. In this manner member B by the frictional resistance
the ratio of driving diameter to driven diameter is readily and quickly of the conical surfaces.
Figure 1.13 Cone clutch
changed, thus securing any desired speed without the necessity of stopping
the machine. 1.14 FRICTION DRiVE
Variable speed transmission in the case of a chain drive may be
secured by a device similar to that described above using PIV (positive, Friction drive is used for light load transmission between parallel shafts
or
infinitely variable) gear which has radial teeth in the conical disk. between shafts with intersecting axes. In friction drive one wheel drives
another with which it is in contact by reason of the friction between their
1.13 CLUTCHES surfaces, provided the
surfaces to the two wheels
A clutch is a form of connection between a driving and a driven member are sufficiently rough. If
on the same axis.' It is so designed that the two members "!ay be engaged the cylindrical friction
or disengaged at will either by a hand-operated device or automatically by wheels shown in Fig. l .14
the action of some power-driven device. The common types of clutches are assumed to operate
may be dived into two general classes, namely, the positive clutch and the without slip, the surface
friction clutch. speed of both the wheels
must be equal. The
Positive clutches : Claw clutches are slow-speed positive clutches. A velocity ratio of a pair of
simple form of claw clutch is shown in Fig.} .12. The right-handed marked wheels is, therefore, Figure 1.14 Friction drive
B is keyed to the driven shaft and rotates with it. The lefthand end marked inversely proportional to their diameter, that is
A is spliced so that it can be moved axially by shifting device that engages
1.16 SPUR GEAR
Gears whose axes are parallel and whose teeth

are parallel to the centre line of the· gear are
called spur gears (Fig.1.15). They are used to
As in a belt drive, slipping may occur if the power to be transmitted transmit power from one shaft or element to
is too great for the frict'ional grip between the surfaces, and friction wheels another in cases where those shafts have their
do not give a positive drive. axes parallel. Spur gearing is used over .a wide
range of articles- from small watches, precision
I.IS GEAR DRIVE measuring instruments, machine tools to gear Figure I .IS Spur
boxes fitted in motor cars and aero engines, etc. gear showing straight
It is possible to drive shafts that are parallel, intersecting, or neither line teeth
parallel not intersecting by the use of toothed gears. Toothed gearing is Spur gear elements and toothed parts : A common and usual type of
often used in preference to belting, friction drives, or chain drives, where wheel teeth form is shown in Fig.1.16 and the terms in general use in
moderate or large amounts of power must be transmitted at a constant connection with spur gearing are given below
velocity ratio. Many different forms of gears are used and the types most
commonly used in industry are Addendum : The radial
height form the pitch circle lo the
1. Spur gear. tip of the tooth.
2. Spiral gear. Dedendum : The radial
3.
4.
5.
Helical gear.
Bevel gear.
Worm and worm wheel.
depth from the pitch circle to the
bottom of lhe tooth space in the
mating gear. 9 .. .
,,
· 1
6. Rack and pinion. Cl,1arance The radial
Toothed gear may be classified according to the relation of the } xes

and pitch surfaces, as in Table 1.1 ,.
distance from the top of the tooth to
the bottom of the tooth space in the
mating gear.
fa'�\\ 2
Face of tooth : The surface
Figure 1.16 Spur gear elements
TABLE 1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF TOOTHED GEARING of a tooth between the pitch line 1. Thickness, 2. Circular pitch, J, 5.
and the top of the tooth. Face 4. Tip or crest, 6. Flank, 7. Bottom
Name Kind Relation of axes Pitch surface Flank of tooth: The surface or root, 8. Dedendum circle or root
Parallel Cylinders between the pitch line and the circle radius, 9. Addendum circle or Tip
Spur gears circle radius, 10. Pitch circle radius, 11.
bottom of the tooth.
Bevel gears Straight Intersecting Cones
Tooth surface : Includes Addendum, 12. Dcdcndum.
Spiral Intersecting Cones both face and flank.
Skeew Not in one plane Hyperboloids Thickness: The thickness of the tooth on the pitch circle.
Hypoid Not in one plane Cones Working depth : The greatest depth to which a tooth of one gear
Helical gears Parallel Parallel Cylinders extends into the tooth space of a mating gear, equals addendum plus
Crossed Not in one plane Cylinders dedendum minus the clearance.
Worm and worm wheel Not in one plane Cylinders Outside circle : The circle that contains the top of the teeth. The
diameter of this circle is called outside 'diameter.
Pitch circle : An imaginary circle through the pitch point having its
centre at the axis of the gear. The diameter of pitch circle is called pitch Example 1.4: A large gear has 80 teeth and small mating gear has 10 teeth. If the
diameter (d') module is 4 mm, calculate the distance between the centres of the gears.
Root circle : The circle that contains the bottoms of the teeth. The
diameter of this circle is called root diameter. d' 1 =Z 1 m=80x4=320
Pitch point: The point of contact of two pitch circles. d '2 = Z 2 m = 10 x4 = 40
Pitch line : The line of contact of two pitch surfaces. d' +d 2 = 320+40
Circular pitch (p) : The distance measured on the circumference of :. Centre distance the gears = t = 180 mm
2 2
the pitch circle from a point of one tooth to the corresponding point on the
next tooth. Example 1.5: A wheel has 50 teeth of module 5 mm. Find the pitch diameter and
Module (m) : The pitch diameter in millimeter divided by the the circular pitch.
number of teeth.
Pressure angle or angle of obliquity : The angle which the d'=Zm=50x5 = 250mm.
common normal to the two teeth at the point of contact makes with the 7rd
= 3.142 x5 = 15.71 mm.
I
p=
common tangent to the two pitch circles at the pitch point. Z
In the British system the diametral pitch (P) is used instead of the module. 1.17 HELICAL GEAR
It is the ratio of the number of teeth in a gear per inch of pitch diameter.
Helical gears are gears in which the teeth are cut in the form of helix
Relation between diametral pitch and module: By definition,
around the gear. Helical gearing is used to connect parallel shafts as well
z
P=- and m=-
d'
as non-parallel, non-intersecting shafts. The pitch surfaces, are cylindrical
d' z as in spur gearing, but the teeth, instead of being parallel to the axes, wind
around the cylinders helical like screw threads.
Bearing in mind that 1 inch = 25.4 mm, we obtain
The outstanding advantage of helical gears, as compared with
mZ 25.4
P = Z: = corresponding spur gear, is that helical gears run more smoothly and more
255 m quietly at high speeds and under other severe service conditions.
We thus see that the module is the reciprocal of diametral pitch.
Relation between circular pitch and diametrical pitch : Helical gear for parallel shaft : Helical gears connecting parallel shafts
are illustrated in Fig.1.17. The
z
P=- and p=-
7rd' conception of a helical gear is
d' z simplified by considering it as a
so that
z 7t
-=- and P=
7t
or P.p = 7t
spur gear with the teeth twisted.
The teeth of helical gears with
d' p p parallel axes have line contact,
just as do spur gear. This
Forms of wheel teeth : The standard form of tooth is involute in form
provides gradual engagement
except that a slight easing of the point is permissible. It has many
and continuous contact of the
advantages, the chief being that involute gears will work well together
engaging teeth. The efficiency
when the center distances are slightly varied.
f
of transmission with helical
The standard pressure angles for teeth are 14 O and 20 °. form of teeth is high, and there
is less noise and less friction Fi' gure 1.17 s1·ngle F1gure
' 1 • 18 D011 ble
helical gear helical gear
\
loss. So they can be used to transmit large powers, and larger velocity ratio pair are equal, the gears arc called mitre gears. When the pitch angle of a
can be obtained in one step than is possible with ordinary spur gears.
bevel gear is 90° , it is called crown gear.
One disadvantage in the use of helical gears is that the teeth impart
axial thrust to each other. To obviate this axial thr u st the teeth are more
Bevel gear may be divided into· fo ur classes:
often cut in the form of a doubl e helix, as shown in Fig.1.18, when eq ual
and opposite thrusts are produced on each wheel and no axial thrust is
1. Straight-tooth bevel gears, in which the el ements of the tooth
transmitted to the shafts. Double hel ical gears are called herringbone
surfaces are straight. The pitch surfaces are cones. Straight-tooth
gears, which give the smooth-running advantages of helical gears.
bevel gears are very much used in drilling, shaping and milling
machines to transmit power from vertical shafts to the horizontal
Helical gear for non-parallel shafts : Helical gearing for non-parallel,
one.
non-intersecting shafts may be designed for any angle between the shafts
2. Spiral bevel gears, in which the teeth are curved on a spiral. Tht:
but the shafts are usually at right angles. The tooth action of this gear is
pitch surfaces are cones. The outstanding advantage of spiral
quite different from that of the helical gears for parallel shafts. The former
bevel gears as compared with straight-tooth bevel gears is tht:
have merely point contact, while the latter have line contact. In the former
greater smoothness and quietness of operation of spiral hcvcl
case, also there is a large amount of sliding in the direction of the common
gears, particularly at high speeds. Consequently, these arc ust:d
tangent to the tooth elements, which is entirely absent in the latter case.
in machine tools, motion-picture machinery, sewing machines.
Helical gears for non-parallel, non-intersecting shafts may consequently be
etc.
used for comparatively light service.
3. Skew bevel gears may be used to connect non-parallel and non
intersecting shafts. The teeth su rfaces hyperboloids and the teeth
1.18 SPIRAL GEAR
are straight. Skew bevel gears are rarely used in machint:
construction because of the difficulties involved in prod ucing
Skew or Spiral gearing illustrated in Fig.1.19
correct tooth forms.
is used to connect non-parallel, non
4. Hypoid gears, also connect non-parallel and non-intersecting
intersecting shafts. The pitch surfaces are
shafts. Hypoid gears possess the main characteristics of skew
cylindrical and the teeth have point contact.
bevel gears, but they have cu rved teeth, whereas skew bcvt:I
These gears are, therefore, suitable only for
gears have straight teeth.
transmitting small power. The center
-----1-------
distance for a pair of spiral gears is the
-----2-------
shortest distance between the two shafts
making any ang l e between them.
Figure 1.19 Spiral gear 9
1.19 BEVEL GEAR
When two shafts, the axes of which inters(':ct, are to be connected by

gearing, the wheels are known as bevel gears illustrated in Fig.1.20. In a
bevel gear the teeth are cut on a conical surface, such as would be
_
represented by a truncated cone. In the great majority of bevel gear dnves
j
the shafts are at right angles, but the ang l es between the shafts may be
either greater or less than 90°. In such cases the gears are called angu,lar Figure 1.20 Bevel gear elements
I. Outside diameter, 2. Pitch diameter, 3. Dedendum (large end), 4. Addendum
bevel gears. When the angle between the shafts is 90° and two gears of a
(large end), 5. Root angle Culling angle, 6. Pitch angle, 7. Tip angle or Face angle,
8. Face width, 9. Back angle.
I
\ 1.21 RACK AND PINION
1.20 WORM GEAR
The function of a rack and pinion, shown in Fig.1.22 is to transform
Worm gearing is essentially a special form of helical gearing in which the circular motion to rectilinear motion: Small gears are called pinions and
teeth have line contact and the axes of the driving and driven shafts are racks are a series of teeth on a straight line. They may be considered as
usually at right angles and do not intersect. The distinction between helical spur gears of infinite radii.
gearing may be explained as follows : If the number of threads, or teeth is Lathe, drill, planer, etc. are fitted with rack and pinion to convert
such that no one thread makes a complete_tum, the gear is called a helical rotary motion to straight-I in::: motion.
gear. If on the other hand, a thread makes a. complete tum, the result is a
worm and the mating gear is called worm wheel. A worm and worm wheel 1.22 VELOCITY RATIO OF A TOOTHED WHEEL
is illustrated in Fig.1.21.
The action of this gearing Worm wheel Let n 1 and n 2 be the speed of the driver and follower respectively in
is like the action of a screw and revolutions per minute, d' 1 and d' 2 their pitch circle diameter, and let the
nut and this class of gearing is, driver contain Z 1 teeth and the follower 22 teeth.
therefore, sometimes called
screw gearing. In appearance Then as in belt drive
the worm resembles a multiple
threaded screw and its teeth are
referre_d to as threads. Worms
are designated like screw threads
as right- ha.nd or left-hand
single-thread worm, right-hand
or left-hand double-thread
Oi
worm, etc.
Worm gearing is 'worm
commonly employed to obtain But since the diameters of the pitch circles arc proportional to the
higher velocity ratios than can Figure 1.21 Worm and worm wheel circumference, and the driver and follower, to work together, must have
conveniently be obtained from the same pitch, the circumferences are proportional to the number of teeth
other forms of gearing. This in the wheels.
velocity ratio in worm gearing, of
course, dose not depend upon the
diameters of the worm and gear or 1.9
but upon the ratio of th� number
of teeth on the worm gear to the
number of threads on the worm. It is obvious that the direction of rotation of two gears directly in
Machine tools like Lathe, Drill, contact will be opposite to each other. If instead of directly gearing the
Milling, etc. are equipped with driver A with the follower B (Fig.1.23) a wheel C is introduced between
worm gearing to get large the driver A and the follower B, the driver A will drive the wheel C, and C
velocity ratio. will drive B, the effect of C being to make the wheel B turn in the same
Figure 1.22 Rack and pinion
direction as A instead of in the opposite direction if it is connected directly
A. Pinion, B. Rack.
with A. The wheel C is called the idle wheel as it has no effect on the
32
.
ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY TRANSMISSION OF MOTION AND POWER 33
velocity ratio. The f�nction of an idle wheel is, therefore, to change the f
direction of rotation of the train.
Velocity rntio of worm and worm wheel : As in the case of other

..
\ Then work transmitted
effort applied to the driver x distance moved by the effort.
P xv kgf-m
gearing, the velocity ratio of worm gearing may be expressed as:
r.p.m. of worm shaft number of teeth in worm wheel h =�

r.p.m. of worm wheel number of threads in worm shaft
.p. 4,500
The threads in worm or h.p.

P x 1td' n I. IO
shaft are sometimes referred to 4,500
as teeth and the number of In British system,
Follower
threads in the worm shaft is

equal to the lead of the worm h.p.
P x 1td' n
shaft divided by the pitch. 33,000
where, Pis in lb, d' in ft, and n in r.p.m.
Example 1.6 : Find out the r.r,.m.
of a 50-tooth wonn wheel when it
is being driven by a wom1 shaft
Figure 1.23 Diagram showing the 1.24 HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
whose lead is equal to 3 pitch Hydraulic systems are extensively utilised for driving high-power machine
function of an idle wheel
revolving at a speed of 300 r.p.m. tools. This is due to the reason that a relatively small hydraulic system can
The velocity ratio of worm gearing may be expressed as deliver a high level of power and can develop much higher maximum
angular acceleration than DC motors of the same peak power.
r .p.m. of worm shaft no. of teeth in worm wheel A hydraulic system is shown in Fig. 1.24. Maintenance of a
r.p.m. of worm wheel no of threads in worm shaft hydraulic system is crucial due to high pressw·e development in the
transmission lines. The oil must be kept clear and leakage should be
Lead of the worm shaft being equal to 3 pitch, it is a 3-start thread. detected and prevented for proper working of the system.
Let n be the r.p.m. cf :he worm wheel, then
Hydraulic
power supply
300 50 900
= or 50n = 900or n = - = 18
n 3 50 Actuating Servovalve
signal amp.
The worm wheel will revolve at a speed of 18 r.p.m.
1.23 POWER TRANSMITIED BY GEARING
In a train of gear wheels th! work put into the train by the first driver must
,.
111111
be equal to the work obtained from the last follower, and assuming there
is no loss due to friction, this must be equal to the work transmitted.
Hydraulic System
Figure .1.24 Hydraulic system

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Name the methods for driving machines in machine shops. Describe

them in brief.
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages for (a) individual drive
( \ 2
and (b) group drive ?
3. List the various elements used in methods of drive / power METAL CUTTING AND CUTTING TOOLS
transmission.
4. What are the couplings used for shafting ? Describe any two of them
with sketches if any.
5. What is the main difference between a shaft and an axle ? Why the
shafts are made round in cross section ? 2.1 INTRODUCTION
6. What is a bearing ? List the names of bearings used in shaftings. How
the bearings are lubricated ? Why ? In the metal-working industry workpieces of most different shapes and
7. In which situation you recommend belt drive for power transmission ? dimensions and of different materials are worked. The various working
What are the common types of belt drives ?
8. Define velocity ratio for belt drive. processes fall into two groups, the group of non-culling shaping, e.g.
9. Name the belt materials and list their merits and demerits. forging, pressing, drawing, etc. and that of culling shaping by which finish
10. State the different types of pulleys used in power transmission. surface of desired shape and dimension is obtained by separating a layer
11. What is the function of a pulley in transmission of motion ? Name from the parent workpiece in the form of chips, e.g. turning, drilling,
various types of pulleys ? Describe any two of them. milling, etc. These two gro.ups may be sub-divided as shown in Fig.2.1.
12. What are the advantages and disadvantages of rope drives compared
to chain drives ?
13. Describe various elements of a gear. List the different types of gears Machine tools take Metal working
used in industry. all aspects of this
14. Why helical gears are preferable in certain situations in power bra11ch
Chip-fpnning process
transmissions ? Justify your answer.
(Metal cuttin )
15. What is worm and a worm wheel ? Describe in brief.
16. What is racl< and a pinion ? Discuss their utility.
17. A gear wh�,:il having 40 teeth and running at 100 r.p.m. is driving enerauon o cy m- enerat1on o straig t-cut
drical and conical sur- plane surfaces wilh or with-
another wheel having 20 teeth. Find the speed of the driven gear
out rotation of work- ieces ._c.aat c...______, ....____......_...__.-
wheel. (200 r.p.m.)
18. Two wheels are connected by a cross belt. The velocity ratio of the
drive is 3. The driving wheel runs at 1,000 r.p.m. and has a diameter of
__
120 cm. Find the speed and the diameter of the driven pulley. (3,000 moves (gear
r.p.m., 40 cm) ._ ....,
cutting)
19. A pump consuming 5 hp at 200 r.p.m. is drawn by a belt and pulley. If
the diameter of the pulley is 375 mm, what is the tension in the belt ? Non parallel to the Sizable chips
Assume T, = 3 T2. (T, - T2 = 94.5 kgf) axis of rotation (Milling)
External Internal Straight but Com plex Cutter axis

(Turning. (Boring, intersecting shapes perpendicular to perpendicular lo
Necking, (Plating, Sur- (Copying, generates surface
__
Threading generates surface
Screwing, Grooving) facing, Taper contour (Surface grinding, ( Surface grind
Grooving) turning) forming) Face milling) ing, Face milling)
..._ ....,
Figure 2.1 Metal working process

METAL CUTTING AND CUTTING TOOLS 37
The process of metal cutting in which chip is formed is affected by
machining as performed by single-point tools. In this text the cutting
a relative motion between the workpiece and the hard edge of a cutting
action of a single-point tool is dealt with elaborately.
tool held against the workpiece. Such relative motion is produced by a
combination of rotary and translating movements either of the workpiece
2.3 ORTHOGONAL AND OBLIQUE CUITING
or of the cutting tool or of both. Depending on the nature of this relative
motion, metal cutting processes are called by names example : turning,
planing, boring etc. Nature of relative motion for various continuous The two basic methods of metal cutting using a single-point tool are the
cutting operation is listed in Table 2.1. orthogonal or two-dimensional, and the oblique or three-dimensional.
Orthogonal cutting takes place when the cutting face of the tool is 90° to
TABLE2.l NATURE OF RELATIVE MOTION FOR VARIOUS the line of action or path of the tool. If, however, the cutting face is
CUITING OPERATIONS inclined at an angle less than 90 ° to the path of the tool, the cutting action
is known as oblique. Orthogonal and oblique cutting action are illustrated
Operation Morion ofjob Morion of c1111ing tool in Fig.2.2, which shows two bars receiving identical cuts. The depth of cut
Turning Rotary Forward translation is the same in both cases, and so is the feed, but the force which cuts or
Boring Forward translation Rotation
shears the metal acts on a larger area in the case of the oblique tool. The
oblique tool will, thus, have a longer life as the heat developed per unit
Drilling Fixed Rotation as well as translatory feed
area due to friction along the tool-workpiece interface is considerably
Planing Translatory Intermittent translation
small. Alternatively, the oblique tool will remove more metal in the same
Milling Translatory Rotation life as an orthogonal tOS)I.
2.2 TYPES OF CUITING TOOLS Depth of cut
A cutting tool may be used either for cutting apart, as with a knife, or for •
removing chips. Parts are produced by removing metal mostly in the form
of small chips.
Chip removal in the metal-cutting process may be performed either
by cutting tools having distinct cutting edges or by abrasives used in
grinding wheels, abrasive sticks, abrasive cloth, etc. These abrasives have
a very large number of hard grains with sharp edges which remove metal
from the workpiece surface in such operations as grinding. '°l Knife edge
All cutting tools can be divided into two groups. These are : Orthogonal Oblique
Figure 2.2 Orthogonal and oblique cutting
1. Single-point tools. 2. Multi-point tools.
Fig.2.3 shows the chip flow in orthogonal and oblique cutting. In
Single-point cutting tools having a wedge-like action find, a wide orthogonal cutting shown at (a) where the cutting edge of the tool OC is at
application on lathes, and slotting machines. Multi-point cutting tools are right angles to the direction of the relative velocity V of the work, the chip
merely two or more single-point tools arranged together as a unit. The coils in a tight, flat spiral. In oblique cutting as shown at (b) and at (c)
milling cutter and broaching tool are good examples of this type. where the cutting edge of the tool is inclined at the angle i, the chip flows
The simplest form of cutting tool is the single-point tool. Thi! sideways in a long curl. The inclination angle i is defined as the angle
cutting process as performed by multi-point tools closely resembles between the cutting edge and the normal to the direction of the velocity V
of the work. An angle of interest in oblique cutting is the chip flow angle
continuous chip is formed having a highly compressed and burnished
cutting face
n0 which is defined as the angle measured in the plane of the underside, and a minutely serrated top side caused by the shearing action.
edge. In
between the chip flow direction and the normal to the cutting The place along which the element shears is called the shear plane. Thus
orthogonal cutting, i = 0, n 0 = 0. the chip is formed by plastic deformation of the grain structure of the metal
along the shear plane as shown in Fig.2.4.
Actually, the deformation does not occur sharply across the shear
a .... plane, but rather it occurs along a narrow band. The structure begins
elongating along the line AB below the shear plane and continue to do so
until it is completely deformed along the line CD above the shear plane in
Fig.2.5. The region between the lower surface AB, where elongation of the
grain structure begins, and the upper surface CD, where it is completed and
the chip is born, is called the shear zone or prima,y deformation zone.
In Fig.2.5 the shear zone is
included between two parallel lines
AB and CD. Actually, however,
\al \bl \cl these two lines may not be parallel
but may produce a wedge-shaped
Figure 2.3 Direction of chip flow in orthogonal and oblique cutting
zone which is thicker near the tool
D face at the right than at the left. This
Orthogonal cutting in the machine shop is confined mainly to such
J3 is one of the causes of curling of
operations as knife turning, broaching and slotting, the bulk of machining
chips in metal cutting. In addition,
being done �y oblique cutting. But orthogonal cutting is the simplest type
· owing to the non-uniform
and is considered in the major part of this Chapter. The principles Fl.gore 2.5 S.h ear zone d urmg
distribution of forces at the chip-
developed for orthogonal cutting apply generally to oblique cutting. . metal cuttin g tool inierface and on the shear plane
the shear plane must be slightly curved concave downward. This also
2.4 MECHANICS OF CUTIING AND CHIP FORMATION
causes the chip to curl away from the cutting face of the tool.
In Fig.2.4 the tool is considered stationary, and the workpiece moves to the
right. The metal is severely compressed in the area in front of the cutting
tool. This causes high temperature shear, and plastic flow if the metal is
ductile. When the stress in the
workpiece just ahead of the cutting
tool reaches a value exceeding the
ultimate strength of the metal,
particles will shear to form a chip
element which moves up along the
face of the work. The outward or
shearing movement of each
successive element is arrested by Figure 2.6 Geometry of chip formation in orthogonal cutting
work hardening and the movement
Figure 2.4 Shear plane in
transferred to the next element. The
metal cutting
process is repetitive and a
METAL CUITING AND CUITING TOOLS 41
2.5 CHIP THICKNESS RATIO
tely since
It is difficult to measure the cross-section of chip accura
The o�tward flow of the metal causes the chip to be thicker after is often determined from
one side of the chip is usually rough. Hence r...
separation from the parent metal. That is, the chip produced is thicker than
length measurement.
the depth of cut as shown in Fig.2.6. chip reduction
The density of metal may be used to find the
coefficient thus :
Let, a2 = thickness of chip - t. w .p
a, = uncut thickness (feed-in case of turning) r... - -
m
where, w = width of chip.
From the Geometry of Fig.2.6, p = density of metal.
m = weight per unit length of the metal.
cos(P-y)
a,- = a1 _....:.:...__:..:...
sinP
r1...,
If the degree of reduction or chip reduction coefficient is designated
. .V
_ a2 _
r1.: - -
( -cos P y)
- -----'-'- 2.1 : !;,-
�-p� ">.
aI sinP
from which,
tan p =
cosy
2.2 Figure 2.7 Velocity relationship during chip-removal
re - siny
The chip r�duction coefficient can also be estimated in a different 2.6 VELOCITY RELATIONSHIPS
manner by measuring the length of the chip (le) when
r, = !JL. The velocity relationships for orthogonal cutting are illustrated in Fig.2.7
I,· where Ve is the cutting velocity, Vs is the velocity of shear and Vr is the
where , r1 = ch!p reduction coefficient from length measurements. velocity of chip-flow up the tool face. Therefore, from Fig.2.7 :
.
I,, = ongmal length of uncut material in mm.
Form constancy of volume removal ' cosy 2.5
Vs = Ve
� a,.. b,. A. cos(� - y)
r,= = -- =-' = ra 2.3
le au.bu Au sin� 2.6
2 Vr = Ve
where, Au= uncut area of layer to be removed in mm cos(� - y)
2
A, =·area of the chip cross-section in mm
r" = chip reduction coefficient from area measurement. or from eqn. (2.1), Vr = �
atics that the relative
If there is no side flow of the chips, It can be inferred from the principle of kinem
the chip) is equal to the vector
b,. = b0 velocity of two bodies (here tool and
ive to the refer ence body (the
when difference between their velocities relat
workpiece).
So, 2.7
42 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY MET AL CUTTING AND CUTTING TOOLS 43
2.7 CUTTING FORCES IN ORTHOGONAL CUTTING shear plane, is the resistance to shear of the metal in forming the chip, P0 is
normal to the shear plane. This is a 'backing-up' force on the chip
The force system in the general case of conventional turning process is provided by the workpiece. Force F is the frictional resistance of the tool
shown in Fig.2.8. The resultant cutting force R may be resolved into three acting downward against the motion of the chip as it moves upward along
components : Px , known as the "feed force" acting in a horizontal plane, the tool force. Force N acting on the chip is normal to the cutting face of
the tool and is provided by the tool.
Work Piece
Figure 2.8 Cutting forces in conventional turning process
but in the direction opposite to the feed; Pv called "thrust force" acting in Figure 2.10 Forces on chip
the direction perpendicular to the generated surfaces ; and P2 , the "cutting
force" or the "main force" acting' in the direction of the main cutting Fig.2.10 is depicted to show the forces acting on the chip in which
motion. forces P5 and P0 may be replaced by their resultant R and so the forces F
The largest in magnitude is and N by their resultant R'. These resultant forces R and R' are equal in
the vertical force P2 which, in magnitude, opposite in direction and collinear. Therefore, for purpose of
turning, is about 2 or 3 times larger analysis tbe chip is regarded as an independent body held in mechanical
than thrust force Py and from 4 to equilibrium by the action of two equal and opposite forces R which the
10 times larger than the feed force workpiece exerts upon the chip and R' which the tool exerts upon the chip.
Px. ..... .....
In case of orthogonal R' = N + F and R = Ps + Pn
cutting when i=O, <1>=90, the force
Fig.2.11 shows a circle diagram which is convenient to determine
system is reduced to a 2-
the relations between the various forces and angles. In the diagram, two
dimensional system as indicated in
Fig.2.9. force triangles of Fig.2.10 have been combined, and R and R' together
The forces acting on the have been replaced by R. Now the force R can be resolved into t..vo
chip in orthogonal cutting are component forces : P5 , the cutting. force of the tool on the workpiece, and
Figure 2.9 2-dimensional force shown in Fig.2.10. They are as
system in orthogonal cutting Px , the feed force.
follows : P5 , which acts along the
44 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY METAL CUITING AND CUITING TOOLS 45
The cutting force P 2 and feed force P x can be determined by the use
of force dynamometer. After Pz and Px are determined they can be laid of
as in Fig.2.11 and their resultant is the diameter R of the circle.
The rake angle can be laid off or measured from the tool, and forces
F and N can then be determined. The shear angle /3 can be measured
approximately from a photomicrograph or from the relation (2.2). After
these forces are known, all the component forces on the chip may be
determined from the geometry of Fig.2.11.
From the force system shown in Fig.2.11, the following
relationships are evident :
Figure 2.11 Merchant's circle diagram for cutting forces
F = Px cos y + Pz sin y 2.8
N = Pz cosy+ Pxsin y 2.9 2.8 STRESS IN SHEAR PLANE
where, F = Frictional resistance at the rake surface in kgf. Let, Ao = area of chip before removal
N = Normal force on the rake surface in kgf. As area of the shear plane
Ps = shearing force
Hence, average kinetic coefficient of friction (µ) can be estimated by : s = shear stress on shear plane in kgf/mm
2
F P + P tany
s = P,
µ= tan 11= -= z z 2.10 A,
N Pl - Pxtany
but As = �
where, 11 = mean angle of friction at the rake surface. sinP
Hence s = p -
s
sin p-
Similarly, P 5=P 2 cos�-Pxsin� 2.11 Au
P 0= Px cos P + P 2 sin P 2.12 From equation (2.11),
= P s tan (P+11-y) 2.13
2
S= ( P, cos P - Px sin P) sin P = (P, �os P sin P - P. sin P) 2.14
Merchant has developed a relationship between the shear angle /3, Ao Au
the angle of friction r, and the cutting rake angle y as follows ;
2.9 WORK DONE AND POWER REQUIRED IN CUTTING
2P+ri-y= c In general, power equals force times velocity. In the calculation of power
where C is a machining constant for the work material dependent on the requirements only that force components in the direction of the cutting
rate of change of the shear strength of the metal with applied compressive speed should be considered as the effect upon the power required of the
stress, besides taking the internal coefficient of friction i"nto account. force component in the direction of feed and depth of cut is negligible and
46 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY METAL CUTTING ANO CUTTING TOOLS 47
equals zero respectively. In orthogonal cutting, vertical component P2 The torque is also determined from the formula :
should be used. This force component is tangential to the machined surface
produced in the cutting speed direction. T =
The total work done in cutting
The thrust in drilling is determined from the formula
= cutting force x cutting speed
= P2 Ve kgfm. B =
The work done in shear: where d= diameter of the drill in mm, and s= feed in mm, and c= 34 and
k= 85 for steel of ultimate strength of 75 kg/mm2 .
shearing force x velocity of the chip relative to the work The total net horsepower developed at the drill point equals the
= P5 V5 kgf, horsepower due to the torque plus the horsepower due to the thrust as I
follows:
The work done in friction 21tTn Bsn
= + kW.
1000x 60x 1 02 1 000x 60x 1 02
= friction force x velocity of the chip relative to the cutting tool
= Vr kgfm. Torque and power in milling : The torque in milling is determined from
the formula
The total work done in cutting : P2 d
T =
2
=
P, Ve where d= diameter of the cutter in mm.
-��--kW 2.15
60x 75x136
21tTn
kW
But the cutting power h.pc can be estimated by measuring the gross 1000x60x 1 02
horse-power h.ps and tare horse power h.p 1 , when
2.10 CUTTING FORCES IN OBLIQUE CUTTING
h.pc h.pg - h.pt-
As stated earlier, orthogonal cutting is confined mainly to few operations
as there are certain practical limitations to orthogonal cutting. In most
So Pz = h.PcX 6120/Vc kgf
cases, e.g. in drilling, milling, etc. oblique cutting is employed. Fig.2.8
shows the force system in oblique cutting.
h.p c
Again, 11 =
h. p g
gives the resultant force acting on the tool face.
Torque and power in drilling : The torque T in drilling equals the
product of the circumferential force Q and the arm of the couple: The component of force P,y is given by
T = Q � kg.mm
2
The force system is drilling process : The resultant force R required for
the plastic deformation of the layer under drilling can be resolved into a
tangential component, P2 , and thrust force, Pxy perpendicular to the cutting
edge as shown in Fig.2.12. The force Px is required for calculating the
torque required in drilling. The force Pxy can further be resolved into a
radial component P, and a vertical component· Py acting axially along the
drill. This force, Py is commonly known as "thrust" in drilling.
Figure 2.13 Force system in slab milling
2.11 MEASUREMENT OF FORCES
There are several important reasons for measuring forces which include
Figure 2.12 Force system in drilling
1. To estimate the various power required in a machine tool.
The force system in milling process : The periodic chip-discontinuity 2. To estimate the forces acting on the tool, that must be resisted
inherent with the milling chip formation and associated changing geometry by the machine tool components, bearings, etc.
of the cutter lead to cyclic conditions of force. Such periodically varying 3. To survey the characteristics of new work and tool materials.
forces produce torsional vibration of the arbor that leads to variation in /
cutting speed with consequent lesser cutter life. The variable radial and Cutting forces or power at the cutting tool may be measured m
axial forces may also have a damaging effect on the surface finish. Further, various ways, such as
the cyclic variation of the force can provide the necessary energy to excite
a natural mode of vibration in any part of the machine. 1. Dynamometer 4. Calorimeter
Fig.2.13 shows the forces acting on the tooth point of a plain slab 2. Ammeter 5. Thermocouple
cutter. The resultant force R could be resolved into a vertical force Py 3. Wattmeter
horizontal force P, and an axial thrust P, as shown, when
Direct measurements by dynamometers have won gcnt:ral
J, , ,
acceptance. Mechanical and strain-gauge dynamometcrs arc most
R = p-x + p-y + p-z commonly used for measuring forces in metal cutting. The common
feature in all type of dynamometers is the measuring springs whose
so ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY
The major difference in the the two sots of four gauges are connected into two bridge circuits to enable
deflections are proportional to cutting forces. the determination of Px and Py . The strain-gauge dynamometer is more
ique employed to measure
design of various dynamometer lies in the techn accurate and is in common use.
spring deflection.
2.12 TYPES OF CHIP
The form and dimension of a chip in metal machining indicate the nature
and quality of a particular machining process, but the type of chip formed
is greatly influenced by the properties of the material cut and various
cutting conditions.
In engineering manufacture particularly in metal machining
processes hard brittle metals have a very limited use, and ductile metals arc
mostly used. Chips of ductile metals are removed by varying proportions
of tear, shear, and flow. This results in three general types or shapes
(Fig.2.16) :
1. The discontinuous or segmental form.

Figure 2.14 Mechanical tool force dynamometer 2. The continuous or rihbon type.
3. The continuous with built-up edge.
A mechanical tool force dynamometer which is shown in Fig.2.14
measures deflection on the tool holder by the use of sensitive dial Discontinuous or segme111al
indicators. Another way the sensitivity can be achieved by using a lever chips consist of elements fractured into
system that can magnify the deformation. Various researchers utilized this fairly small pieces ahead of the cutting
methodology by combining a sensitive dial gauge and a lever, the end of tool. This type of chip is obtained in
which is connected with the tool using a roller and a screw. machining most brittle materials, such
Continuous as cast iron and bronze. These
materials rupture during plastic
deformation, and form chips as
separate small pieces. As these chips
are produced, the cutting edge
smoothes over the irregularities, and a
{ a) Tool • ·-.l_______________ j fairly good finish is obtained. Tool life
Built-up
D
Gaging section is also reasonably good, and the power
(b) consumptions low. Discontinuous
Ba chips can also be formed on some
ductile metals only under certain
Figure 2.15 Strain gauge turning dynamometer conditions pa�icul�rly at very low
speeds and if the coefficient of friction
The basic principle of a strain gauge dynamometer is illustrated in Segmental is low. With ductile metals, however,
Fig.2.15 with respect to a turning dynamometcr designed by Shaw. The the surface finish is bad and the tool
unhalancc of the Wheatstone Bridge indicates the cutting forces. Each of '4111urr 2.16 Basic chip forms life is short.
I. Shear plane
'11
Conditions tending to promote its formation include : brittle metal,
already work-hardened helps the chip breaker to perform effectively.
greater depth of cut, low cutting speed and small rake angle.
Various types of chip breakers are made, but all of them consist mainly of
Continuous chips consist of elements bonded firmly together
a step or groove ground into the leading edge of the tool or a piece of
without being fractured. Under the best conditions the metal flows by
cutting-tool material clamped on top of-the cutting-tool (see Fig.2.17)
means of plastic deformation, and gives a continuous ribbon of metal
which, under the microscope, shows no signs of tears or discontinuities.
The upper side of a continuous chip has small notches while the lower
side, which slides over the tool face, is smooth and shiny. The continuous
form is considered most desirable for low friction at the tool-chip interface,
lower power consumption, long tool life and good surface finish.
Factor favourable to its formation are : ductile metal, such as mild Step type Groove type Clamp type
steel, copper, etc., fine feed, high cutting speed, large rake angle, keen Figure 2.17 Chip breakers
cutting edge, smooth tool face and an efficient lubrication system.
The term built-up edge implies the building up of a ridge of metal In normal shop practice common methods of breaking the chips arc
on the top surface of the tool and above the cutting edge. It appears that, summarized as follows
when the cut is started in ductile metals, a pile of compressed and highly
stressed metal forms at the extreme edge of the tool. Owing to the high 1. By clamping a piece of sheet metal in the path of the coil.
heat and pressure generated there, this piled up metal is welded to the 2. By a stepped type breaker in which a step is ground on the face
cutting tip and forms a "false" cutting edge to the tool. This is usually of the tool along the cutting edge.
· referred to as the "built up edge". This weld metal is extremely strain 3. By a groove type breaker in which a small groove is ground
hardened and brittle. So the weaker chip metal tears away from the weld as behind the cutting edge.
the chip moves along the tool face. The built-up becoming unstable, breaks 4. By a clamp type breaker in which a thin-carbide plate or clamp
down and some fragments leave with the chip as it passes off and the rest is brazed or screwed on the face of the tool.
adheres to the work surface producing the characteristic rough surface. The
built-up edge appears to be a rather permanent structure as long as the cut Effective control of the chip, as it moves across the face of the tool,
is continuous at relatively high speeds and has the effect of slightly altering may also be achieved by proper selection of tool angle, feed, depth of cut
the rake angle. At very high speeds, usually associated with sintered and cutting fluids used. A large positive front rake gives rise to a looser
carbide tools, the built-up edge is very small or nonexistent, and a smooth chip formation, which flows down the face of the tool, and away from the
machined surface results. workpiece, leaving the newly cut surface unscratched. A small positive or
Conditions tending to promote the formation of built-up edges negative side rake has the effect of decreasing the radius at which the chip
include : lt>w cutting speed, low rake angle, high feed, lack of cutting fluid coils. Hence the tendency to produce short, easily managed chip. Slightly
and large depth of cut. increased feed gives a thicker chip which hreaks more quickly. A small
depth of cut with a fine feed allows the chip to form into comparatively
2.13 CHIP BREAKERS small pieces or direct it into the swarf tray. The use of a good stream of
cool-ant that acts as a quenching medium causes the hot chip to become
A continuous-type chip from a long cut is usually quite troublesome. Such harder and break into small pieces.
chips foul the tools, clutter up the machine and workplace, besides being
extremely difficult to remove from the swarf tray. They should be broken 2.14 CUTIING-TOOL NOMENCLATURE
into comparatively small pieces for ease of handling and to prevent it from
becoming a work hazard., Hence chip breakers are used to reduce the Cutting-tool nomenclature means systematic naming of the various par1s
swarf into small pieces as they are formed. The fact that the metal is and angles of a cutting-tool. The surface:. on the point of a tool bear
51 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY METAL CUTTING AND CUTTING TOOLS 55
definite relationship to each other that are defined by angles. The cutting force and power reduce. A large rake angle is conducive to good
principles underlying cutting-tool angles are the same whether the tool is a surface finish. Each tool has a side and back rake. Back rake i'ndicates that
single-point tool, a multipoint tool, or a grinding wheel. Since a single the plane which forms the face or top of a tool has been ground back at an
point tool is the easiest to understand, it will be discussed in greater detail. angle sloping from the nose. Side rake indicates that the plane that form
The basic angles needed on a single-point tool may be best understood by the f ace or top of a tool has been ground back at an angle sloping from the
removing the unwanted surface from an oblong tool blank of square side cutting edge. Side rake is more important than back rake for turning
section. However, the complete nomenclature of the various parts of a operations.
single-point tool is shown in Fig.2.18. These are: shank, face, flank, heel, The side clearance or side relief indicates that the plane that forms
nose, base, back rake, side rake, side clearance, end cutting edge, wide the flank or side of a tool has been ground back at an angle sloping down
cutting edge, and lip angle. These elements define the shape of a tool. form the side cutting edge. Likewise, the end clearance or end relief
indicates that the nose or end of a tool has been ground back at an angle
/ End cu �ting edge angle
sloping down from the encl cutting edge.
The end culling edge angle indicates that the plane which forms the
Nose radius end of a tool has been ground back at an angle sloping form the nose to the
side of the shank, whereas the side cutting edge angle indicates that the
plane which forms the flank or side for a tool has been ground back at an
Z Side cutting edge angle angle to the side of the shank. In the main, chips are removed by this
cutting edge.
Side rake angle Top face The lip or cutting angle is the included angle when the tool has
been ground wedged-shaped.
Flonk---'ll Lip angle
Shonk
Multipoint tools : Cutters like twist drills, reamers, taps, milling cutters
Heel
have two or more tool points each. They differ in overall appearance and
End relief angle purposes, but each cutting blade acts as and has the b11sic features of a
Up angle �
Side relief angle --.J single-point tool. The milling cutter, and drill like a single point tool, have
various angles of importance. A milling cutter has clearance ; it often has
Figure 2.18 Tool nomenclature and tool angles both a secondary and a primary clearance. A land also exists on a milling
(sec. 3.50 for tool signature) cutter and a drill. This is the narrow surface resulting from providing a
primary clearance. They may have different rakes depending on the
The Shank is that portion of the tool bit which is not ground to form intended use. These kinds of tools have been described in more detail in
cutting edges and is rectangular in cross-section. connection with these machines in later chapters.
The face of the cutting-tool is that surface against which the chip
slides upward. 2.15 GEOMETRICAL CONTROL OF TOOL ANGLES
The flank of a cutting-tool is that surface which face th.e workpiece.
The heel of a single point tool is the lowest portion of the side Geometrical control of the cutting edge means control or influence of the
cutting edges. cutting edge including the various angles in a cutting tool in the effective
The nose of a tool is the conjunction of the side- and end-cutting machining of a metal. A tool is ground to a given form to produce a cutting
edges. A nose radius increases the tool life and improves surface finish. edge of a given shape in a given position in relation to the shank of the
The base of a tool is the under-side of the shank. tool, and to produce a form that will permit the cutting edge to be fed into
The rake is the slope of the top away from the cutting edge. The the workpiece so that it can cut efficiently. To grind the tool properly the
larger the rake angle, the larger the shear angle and subsequently the edge must keep its shape-flat or curved as the case may be. Also, to cut
well, the surfaces that form edge must be ground to "certain angles". These whether at the bench or in a machine tool. In some cases, at the fin,t
angles are measured in degre.es. instance, it appears that the principle of cutting perhaps does not apply, but
The exact shape of a cutting tool depends upon the kind of metal upon more detailed examination the fundamental rake or clearance may be
being cut. This applies particularly to the keenness or cutting angle of the found out. In the subsequent paragraphs a few of the more common hand
tool. Hard materials require a greater lip angle than soft materials because tools are described.
of the strength inherent in the cutting edge with the greater angle.
However, since an increase in the lip angle also increases the amount·of The Oat chisel : A flat cold chisel is a single-point tool used at the bench
force necessary to cut the metal, it is advisable to compromise the two and the point is considered as a wedge. A diagram of a chisel point in the
factors to obtain the best results. action of cutting is shown at Fig.2.19, where the angle of rake and wedge
Experience and study have established that certain shapes of tools angle are indicated. For mild steel a rake angle of 30° and wedge angle of
are more satisfactory for certain types of work than others. Besides the 60° are recommended. The chisel is seen flat on the work and there is no
variation of cutting angles required for different materials, tool shapes are clearance angle. This ensures that the depth of cut can be maintained. It
designed in working these materials to secure the best possible finish, the should be understood that the clearance angle takes on actual part in the
longest tool life, and the most rapid cutting. The rake, relief, side- and end cutting or shearing action, but is given on a tool to remove the loss of
cutting edge angles each influence tool performance to a considerable energy caused by frictional resistance. Using a cold chisel with no
extent. Therefore, their values should be selected with great care and clearance angle, the loss through friction is small as one cutting point is in
consideration. A general discussion of the tool performance with reference contact with the metal. It is, therefore, better to use the chisel as in
to these angle is presented in Art.3.43. Fig.2.19, for the loss of energy due tll friction at the heel of the chisel is
less than that by the maintenance of the depth of the cut giving a little
2.16 THE CUTIING ACTION OF HAND TOOLS amount of clearance angle.
The force of the hammer blow F is transmitted at approximately
As described in Art.2.2, all hand tools may also be classified as single 90 ° to the cutting face ac, and this sets up shear stress across the shear
point tools and multi-point tools, and the action of removing metal is one plane ab. Provided the hammer blow is heavy enough, the metal will shear
of shear. The fundamental cutting form that has been described before, ncross the shear plane and move up the face ac as a continuous chip. The
applies, in principle, on every type of cutting edge used for metal cutting, energy required to shear the metal will be the shearing force along the
shear plane ab and this force is proportional to the length of the shear
F Hammer blow plane, and the greater the energy required to shear the metal.
The hack saw blade : A hack saw blade is a multi-point tool and has a
F very large number of wedge-like points each with its own rake and
clearance angle. The rake and clearance angle of a hack saw blade is
shown in Fig.2.20. The rake i<: necessary but too much rake makes the
tooth weak . It is also necessary to have clearance angles on these wedge
like points. A large amount of energy would be lost in overcoming the
frictional forces set up if there were no clearance.
The hollow space between each tool is sloped more sharply to give
the form as shown in Fig.2.20. If this would be too shallow it .would have
clogged with chips of the metal being cut. The radiussed portion in the
upper part of the hollow space adds strength.
Figure 2.19 Shearing action of a cold chisel

section of a tap is
\ shown in Fig.2.21. It
will be seen that the
rake angle is obtained
by offsetting the
flutes.
The rake angle
of a die used for
cutting external
threads is shown in Culling direction
Fig.2.22. This is ;.. .
obtained by
position of the four
the
�! i "'.�··
holes in a die. Figure 2.22 Rake angle on a die
Figure 2.20 Rake and clearance angles on hack saw blade and file 2.17 CUTIING SPEEDS AND FEEDS
The file: A file is also a multi-point tool and has a large number of wedge The cutting speed of a cutting tool may be defined as the speed at which
like points as in the case of a hack saw blade. The most usual form of file the cutting edge passes over the material. Cutting speed is ordinarily
is that with cross-cut teeth and the grooves in the face run in two directions expressed in metre per minute, often referred to as surface speed in meter
dividing it up into small diamond shaped teeth. In a single-cut file there is per minute.
only one series of grooves . The result of the two sets of cuts is to raise The feed of a cutting tool is the distance the tool advances into or
teeth in the form of small pyramids with edged tops turned back towards along the workpiece each time the tool point passes a certain position in its
the direction in which the file must cut. An enlarged view of the teeth of a travel over the surface. In the case of turning on a lathe, the feed is the
file with rake and clearance angle is shown in Fig.2.20. distance that the tool advances in one revolution of the workpiece. On a
shaper, the teed is the distance the work is moved relative to the tool for
each cutting stroke. For single-points tools, feed is specified in millimeters
per revolution, millimeters per stroke, etc. It also may be expressed as
millimeters per tooth for milling cutters and broaches.
Since so many factors arc required to be considered, it is difficult to
state definitely what the speed and feeds for a given material should be. In
general, the speed and feed are determined by the following factors:
1. Kind of material being cut. The harder the material, the more
force required to remove the chip and the more rapid the wear
there is no clearance angle on the tool. For this reason, hard materials are to be machined
on hand taps and that the ;:::,!::::�� Rake angle on at lower cutting speeds and smaller feeds than soft materials.
frictional forces set up will lathe tool 2. Kind of material and life of the tool. An increase in cutting
increase the turning speed will result in more intensive heat generation,
moment and tend to cause consequently, more heat resistant tool materials should be used
breakage. The cross- when machining at high cutting speeds. Carbon steel tools can
Figure 2.21 Rake angle on a tap
take about one half the cutting speed of a high-speed steel tool. W = P2 v kgfm per min.
Stellite and carbide and carbide tools will stand still greater
speeds. These heat resistant tools may be used under heavier The amount of heat Q generated in a unit of time (one minute) by
feeds than other tool materials. metal cutting is based upon the thermal equivalent of work, equal to 427
3. Shape (angles) and dimension of the cutting elements. A change kgfm per kcal ; then
in the chief angles of the tool will correspondingly change the
forces due to the cutting action, as well as the conditions for W Pv
2 kcal per min.
Q = - =--
heat transmission through the cutting elements of the tool. The
427 427
heavier the cutting elements, the easier the heat will flow to the
body of the tool. Therefore, tool wear will vary for various The generated heat is distributed between the workpiece, chip and
shapes and dimensions of the cutting clements and even of the tool : only a negligible amount of heat is dissipated to the ambient air.
body of the tool. Forming tools, taps, and other tools that are
expensive and difficult to sharpen should be operated at speeds
and feeds that insure long life.
4. Size of chip cross-section. The size of chip cross-section affects
the forces due to cutting and, consequently the amount of heat
generated. Tool wear is more rapid with an increase in cutting
speed than with an increase in chip cross-section. For this
reason, an increase in production capacity at a given tool life
can be provided by increasing the cross-section of the chip
removed and not the cutting speed. In such cases, the cross
section of the chip should be increased by increasing the depth
of cut and not the feed.
5. Types offinish desired. In general, high cutting speeds and fine
feeds give the best finish. Figure 2.23(a) Source of heat Figure 2.23(b) Temperature
6. Rigidity of the machine. No work should be done at speeds and in metal cutting distribution in cutting zone
feeds that cause vibration in the machine.
7. .Types of coolant used. Cooling with cutting fluids is not only The main sources of heat in metal cutting are shown in Fig.2.23(a).
for carrying away the heat generated, but also because of the These three distinct heat sources are·:
lubricating effect of the fluid on the working surface of the
tool. When a cutting fluid is used in machining tough material, l. The shear zone, 1, where the main plastic deformation takes place due to
the productivity may be increased from 15 to 30 % and more in shear energy. This heat raises the temperature of the chip. Part of this heat
comparison with dry operation. So higher cutting speeds and is carried away by the chip when it moves upward along the tool.
larger feeds may be given using a suitable cutting fluid. Considering a continuous type chip, as the cutting speed increases
for a given rate of feed, the chip thickness decreases and less shear energy
2.18 FRICTION AND HEAT SOURCES IN CUTIING is required for chip deformation so the chip is heated less from this
deformation.
All the mechanical work done in cutting metal is converted into an 2. The chip-tool inte1face zone, 2, where secondary plastic defom,ation
equivalent amount of heat. due to friction between heated chip and tool takes place. This causes a
The work (W) done in cutting depends upon the cutting force P2 further rise in the tempaature of the chip.
and the cutting speed v. It is determined from the formula
A tool cannot cut for an unlimited period of time. It has its definite
The frictional heat increases with increasing cutting speed. The
tool-chip interface temperature increases with the cutting speed and the life. If a cutting tool is to have a long life it is essential that the face of the
work hardness because the heat is ·concentrated upon a smaller area even tool be as smooth as possible. Tool life is the time a tool will operate
though the quantity of heat transferred to be remained constant. The tool atisfactorily until it is dulled. A blunt tool causes chatter in machining,
chip temperature rise but less rapidly than for a rise in the cutting speed. oor surface finish, increase in cutting forces and power consumption,
Changes in the depth of cut is appreciably greater than the nose radius verheating of the tool.
Less heat is generated when higher feed rates are used but the surfac
quality is adversely affected. ol failure : The failure of cutting tools may be the result of:
3. The work-tool interface wne, 3, at flanks where friction rubbing occurs
Fig.2.23(b) shows the temperature distribution during cutting 1. Wear on the flank of the tool (Fig.2.25). Flank Wear is a flat
operation. • I portion worn behind the cutting edge which eliminates some
clearance or relief. Flank wear takes place when machining brittle
100-r-��WT�C�- materials like C.J. or when feed is less than 0.15 mm/rev. The worn
Heat In wor�pirce
go region at the flank is called the wear land. The wear land width is
TC
<ii 80 measured accurately with a Brine) microscope. Increased wear land
QJ
c means that frictional heat will cause excessive temperature of the
.s:::. 70
cii
:§ 60 tool at its cutting point ; it will rapidly loose its hardness, and
o 50
catastrophic failure of the tool will be imminent. In the meantime,
the burnishing action of the tool at its wear land will mean poor
� 40 Heat in chip
surface finish on the workpiece.
cii 30
a.. 20
10
00 .......---''--.........---''--:U....�L--L�L-....J
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Cutting speed, m/min
Side Top Side
Figure 2.24 Distribution of heat during metal cutting
WTC = 100% total heat, TC= total heat in tool and chip, C= heat in chips.
Figure 2.25 Common types of tool failure
In machining steel with a single-point tool having a cemented I. Flank wear, 2. Wear land, 3. Crater, 4. Chipping.
carbide tip, the relative amount of heat passing into the chip, workpiece,
and tool at different cutting speeds i:, illustrated in Fig.2.24. It is seen that A quantitative term setting the limit of the permissible value of
as the cutting speed increases, proportionately more heat is carried away wear is known as "criterion of wear". The criterion of wear for different
by the chip am.I less is transferred to the work-piece and the tool. The fact tool materials is given below in Table 2.2.
that at high cutting speeds most of the heat energy is carried away by the
chip leads to the advantage and practicability of the tool is tolerable. 2. Wear at the tool-chip interface occurs in the form of a depression
or crater (Fig.2.25). This is caused by the pressure of the chip as it
2.19 TOOL LIFE AND WEAR slides up the face of the cutting tool . Both flank and crater wear
take place when feed is greater than 0.15 mm /rev at low or
The tool life is an important factor in a cutting tool performance since moderate speeds. Actually a limited amount of cratering or
considerable time is lost whenever tool is ground and re-set. depression improve the cutting action. but as the crater is further
. METAL CUTTING AND CUTTING TOOLS 65
enlarged, some material which supports the cutting edge is hardness- 200° to 250 ° C for carbon tool steels, 560 ° C for high
removed. This eventually will cause the cutting edge to be speed steels and 800° to 1,000° C for cemented carbides.
weakened so that it will break. This type of failure occurs when 6. Fracture by a process of mechanical brealcage when the cutting
high speed steel, stellite, or sintered-carbide tools turn ductil force is very large or by developing fatigue cracks under chatter
metals. conditions.
TABLE2.2 CRITERION OF WEAR IN CUTTING TOOLS Frequently in the formation of chips, high -frequency vibration
ccurs when the tool or work is not supported rigidly, because of the
Tool Material Job Material Culling Predominant Criterion of We
Condition Wear �iding of the chip elements into sections, because of the flank wear, or
because of the periodic sloughing off of the built-up edge. These work, or
h.s.s.
er Semi-rough flank 1.5 to 2 mm,
even the whole machine, which in turn may cause a disagreeable noise
h.s.s. Steel Semi-rough flank 0.6to 1.0 mm called chatter.
Cemented carbide Steel S > 0.3 mm flank 1.4 to 1.7 mm
Factors affecting tool life : The life of a tool is affected by many factors
Cemented carbide C.l. S < 0.3 mm flank 0.8 mm to 1.0 mm such as : cutting speed, feed, depth of cul, chip thickness tool geometry,
material of the cutting fluid and rigidity of the machine. Physical and
Ceramic tool C.I., Steel flank 0.6mm chemical properties of work materials influence tool I ifc by affecting form
stability and rate of wear of tools. The nose radius also tends to affect tool
life. Researchers have identified a number of factors which are established
3. A combination offlank wear and cratering. by experimental verification. Some of them are briefly described in the
4. The spa/ling or crumbling of the cutting edge (Fig.2.25) as when subsequent paragraphs.
cutting extremely hard material. A cutting tool that has improperly
ground relief angles will either rub on the material or be weak
because of excessive clearance angles. If the cutting edges are not soo Work material: Mild steel
well supported, they will be subject to cracking and spalling. The 400
300
proper setting of the tool is, therefore, an important consideration.
,::
·- 200
�
Other factors that cause the tool to chip or spall are excessive chip
loads, intermittent heating and cooling, and interrupted cutting. Excessive ��f- HSS
> 100
chip loads are caused by too fast a feed or too deep a cut. Intermittent "O ...............
heating and cooling result because the cutting fluid is not able to cover the ..........
: 50 ....
cutting point constantly, and because the tool keeps entering and leaving .§ 40 _ '
the material. Interrupted cutting is caused by a tool entering and leaving :5 30 ...
...:::-
--
u Carbon steel tool
the work as in milling or planing. Hard grades of carbide are likely to chip 20
under these conditions.
5. The loss of hardness because of excessive heat but under cutting l00.2 0.3 0.4 05 I 2 3 4 5 8 10 20 30 40 50
conditions when the temperature and stresses are high, plastic Tool life min
deformation may cause loss of "form stability", i.e. cutting ability
of the tool. Various tool materials can withstand various heating Figure 2.26 Tool life vs cutting speed
temperatures (critical temperatures) before they lose the required
Cutting speed : Cutting speed has the greatest influence on tool life. As where, s = feed in mm per min,
the cutting speed increases the temperature also rises. The· heat is more and t = depth of cut in mm.
concentrated on the tool than on the work and the hardness of the tool Another relation between cutting speed for a given tool life, depth
matrix changes so the relative increase in the hardness of the work f cut and feed is given by :
accelerates the abrasive action. The criterion of wear is dependent o
CV
cutting speed because the predominant wear may be wear for flank o V1 = -- m per mrn.
crater if cutting speed is increased. It has been found that at cutting speed t x .sY
greater than 100 m per min in carbide turning of steel, crater wear ma where, V1 = cutting speed for a given tool life in m per min,
become predominant. Cv = a coefficient depending upon machine and workpieces
The relation of the cutting speed to the tool life is expressed by the variables,
formula: x,y = exponents which depend on the mechanical properties
VT' = c of the material being machined.
The above relation shows that for a constant tool life cutting speed
where, v = cutting speed in m per min.
decreases with the increase of feed and depth of cut.
T = tool life in minutes.
n = exponent which depenc,1s on the tool and the Tool geometry : The tool life is also affected by tool geometry. A
workpiece. The value of exponent n is about tool with large rake angle becomes weak as a large rake reduces the tool
0.1 for high-speed steel tool, 0.20 to 0.25 for cross-section and the amount of metal to absorb the heat. It is -5 ° and +10 °
carbide tools, and 0.4 to 0.55 for ceramic for turning austenitic steel by a carbide tool. The nose radius tends to
tools. improve tool life and is evident from the relation:
C = constant which is numerically equal to cutting
VT).1�127 = 331 R0.244
speed that gives a tool life of one minute.
A typical V vs. T relationship is shown in Fig.2.26 which indicates where R = nose radius of h .s.s. tool. But the size of the radius is limited by
that as cutting speed increases, tool life decreases. Obviously, if a very low vibration. The effect of clearance is to improve tool life at first and then
cutting speed is used, the tool will last a long life. In case of carbide tools tool life decreases because of decreased strength. The optimum clearance
very low cutting speed, usually below 30 m per min, may reduce tool life. is between 10 ° to 15 °. Side cutting edge angle (cp5) may improve tool life
However, an intricate cutting tool that is difficult to sharpen should be run under non-chatter conditions
at a low speed so that it does not have to be sharpened again.
VT o .11 = 78( <Ps + 15 ".)0.264
Feed and depth of cut : The tool life is influenced by the feed rate also.
With a fine feed the area of chip passing over the tool face is greater than where <l>s = side cutting edge angle of h.s.s. tool cutting steel. With
that of a coarse feed for a given volume of swarf removal, but to offset this cemented carbide, side cutting edge angle varies between 3 ° to 25 °. The
chip will be greater. Hence the resultant pressure will nullify the effect of end cutting edge angle is to improve surface finish, rigidity and
advantage ; it is, however, possible to balance the two opposing influences equivalent speed. The optimum end cutting edge angle is 4 ° to I 0 °.
to obtain an optimum feed rate. Similarly, the clearance is seen to be optimum for 12 ° to 15 °.
The effect of f�ed and depth of cut on tool life is given by :
Tool material: The effect of tool material on tool life is shown in Fig.2.27
257
v = ------- m per min.
T0.19 XS0.36 X(0.08
which indicates that higher cutting speed is not the only criteria considered
for removing large volume of metal. Wh�· · most desirable is the high rate
at which the stock will be removed per cutting edge or tool-life. An ideal
I
68 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY METAl CUTTING AND CUTTING TOOLS 69
tool would remove the same amount of metal per cutting edge at any chip passing over the tool surface. The volume of metal removed from the
speed. workpiece between tool sharpenings for a definite depth of cut, feed, and
cutting speed can be determined as follows
2000
·=
Ideal
IOOO Notation
\.Cemented oxide t = depth of cut in mm
"'
500
S = feed in mm per rev
_§. 400
,
E 300 .......
""
\. d = diameter of the workpiece in mm
V = cutting speed in m per min
] 200
g_ T = time to tool failure in min
. 00.§ 100
Cemented car�
"....... n = revolution per min of the workpiece
- -
........ L = tool-life in terms of metal removed until tool fails in mm3 .
� �
50 � � Cross sectional area of chip = ts mm2
40
30 Length of chip in one revolution = 1Td mm
5 10 50 100 200 :. Volume of metal removed I rev = ndts mm"
Volume of metal removed I min
°'
= ndtsn mm /min
Stock removed in cubic centimeter x 156 3
Volume of metal removed until tool fails = ndtsnTmm
Figure 2.27 Stock removed vs cutting speed
L = 1t dtsnT
Physical and chemical properties of work materials influence tool
life by affecting form stability and rate of wear of tool. ndn
v m/min
Cutting fluid : Cutting fluids affect tool-life to a great extent. A 1,000
cutting fluid does not only carry away the heat generated and keep the tool,
chip and workpiece cool, but reduces the coefficient of friction at the chip :. Too-life, l = 1,0001sVT mm3/min
tool interface and increases tool-life.
2.20 MACHINABILITY
Measuring tool-life : Tool-life is the time elapsed between two
successive grinding of a cutting tool. Tool-life may be measured in the The 'ease' with which a given material may be worked with a cutting tool
following ways is machinability. Machinability depends on:
1. Number of pieces machined between tool sharpenings. 1. Chemical composition of workpiece material.
2. Time of actual operation, viz., the time the tool is in contact 2. Micro-structure.
with the job. 3. Mechanical properties.
3. Total time of operation. 4. Physical properties.
4. Equivalent cutting speed. 5. Cutting conditions.
5. Volume of material removed between tool sharpenings.
In evaluating machinability the following criterion may be
In practice it is more profitable to assess the tool-life in terms of the considered
volume of metal removed because the wear is related to the area of the
/
I. Tool-life between grinds. 2.21 CUTIING TOOL-MATERIALS

2. Value of cutting forces.
3. Quality of surface finish. Characteristic : The characteristics of the ideal material are :
4. Form and size of chips.
5. Temperature of cutting. 1. Hot hardness. The material must remain harder than the work
6. Rate of cutting under a standard force. material at elevated operating temperatures.
7. Rate of metal removal. 2. Wear resistance. The material must withstand excessive wear
even though the relative hardness of the tool-work materials
The main factor to be chosen for judging machinability depends on changes.
the type of operation and production requirements. 3. Toughness. The term 'toughness' actually implies a
Some factors that are used to predict and calculate machinability combination of strength and ductility. The material must have
are tensile strength, Brine II hardness and shear angle. The shear angle of a sufficient toughness to withstand shocks and vibrations and to
given material may be cal'culated, as explained before, by comparing chip prevent breakage.
thickness before removal a 1 with the chip thickness after removal a2 , i.e., in 4. Cost and easiness in fabrication. The cost and easiness of
terms of a/a 1. In terms of shear angle this is found by use of the formula fabrication should have within reasonable limits.
(Refer section 2.5):
cosy Type of Tool Materials : The selection of proper tool material depends on
tan�
the type of service to which the tool will be subjected. No material is
superior in all respects, but rather each has certain characteristics which
limits its field of application.
Machinability index : Good machinability implies satisfactory results in The principal cutting materials are
machining. But this machinability is not a basic standard, but is relative.
The rated machinability of two or more metals being compared may vary 1 . Carbon steels. 5. Cemented carbides.
for different processes of cutting, such as heavy turning, light turning, 2. Medium alloy steels. 6. Ceramics.
forming, milling, drilling, etc. Good machinability indicates many aspects, 3. High-speed steels. 7. Diamonds.
but many times one or more objectives must be sacrificed to obtain others. 4. Stellites. 8. Abrasives.
The machinability of different metals to be machined may be
compared by using the machinability index of each. This is defined as 1. Carbon steels : Carbon steels contain carbon in amounts ranging
follows: from 0.08 to 1.5 per cent. A disadvantage of carbon tool steels is their
comparatively low-heat and wear-resistance. They lose their required
Machinability index, hardness at temperatures from 200 ° to 250((;. Therefore, they may only be
used in the manufacture of tools operating at low cutting speeds (about
cutting speed of metal investigated for 20 min. tool-life 12m/min) and of hand operated tools. But they are comparatively cheap,
Ml% = ---------------------
cuttfng speed of standard steel for 20 min. tool-life easy to forge, and simple to harden.
2. Medium alloy steels: The high carbon medium alloy steels have
a carbon content akin to plain carbon steels, but in addition there is, say, up
A free-cutting steel, which is machined relatively easily and to 5 per cent alloy content consisting of tungsten, molybdenum, chromium
machinability index of which is arbitrarily fixed at I 00 per cent, is and vanadium. Small additions of one or more of these elements improve
considered a standard steel. This steel has carbon contents of 0.13 the performance of the carbon steels in respect of hot hardness, wear
maximum, manganese of 0.06 to 1.10 and sulphur of 0.08 to 0.03 per cent. resistance, shock and impact resistance and resistance to distortion during
heat treatment. The alloy carbon steels, therefore, broadly occupy a
)
midway performance position between plain carbon and high speed steels. Table 2.3 shows the compositions of selected types of h.s.s.
They lose their required hardness at temperatures from 250 ° to 350'C.
These tool steels are of two types ; (1) Type - 0 tool steels, (2) TABLE 2.3 COMPOSITIONS OF H.S.S
Type - A tool steels.
Type - 0 tool steels are oil quenched for hardening. It has C-
...
Designation Percentages of contributions
0.90%, Mn-1.00%, W-0.5% and Cr-0.5%. Punching dies are generally c w Mo Cr v Co
manufactured from this steel. T-1 0.75 18.00 4.00 1.00
Type - A tool steels are hardened by slow cooling in a current of T-2 0.85 18.00 4.00 2.00
air after heating it to a high temperature (1100'C to 1300'C). The T-5 0.80 18.00 4.25 2.00 8.00
composition of this type of steel is C-1.0%, Cr-5%,. It is mainly used to T-15 1.50 12.00 4.50 5.00 5.00
manufacture thread rolling dies, coining dies and guages. M-1 0.80 1.75 8.50 3.75 1.20
3. High-speed steels : High-speed steel (h.s.s) is the general M-2 0.85 6.00 5.00 4.00 2.00
purpose metal for low and medium cutting speeds owing to its superior hot M-10 0.90 8.00 4.00 2.00
hardness and resistance to wear. High-speed steels operate at cutting M-45 1.25 8.25 5.00 4.25 1.60 5.50
speeds 2 to 3 times higher than for carbon steels and retain their hardness
up to about 900'C. It is used as a popular operations of drilling, tapping, 4. Stellites : Stellite is the trade name of a nonferrous cast alloy
hobbing, milling, turning etc. There are three general types of high-speed composed of cobalt, chromium and tungsten. The range of elements in
steels; high tungsten, high molybdenum, and high cobalt. Tungsten in these alloys is 40 to 48 per cent cobalt, 30 to 35 per cent chromium, and 12
h.s.s. provides hot hardness and form stability, molybdenum or vanadium to 19 per cent tungsten. In addition to one or more carbide forming
maintains keenness of the cutting edge, while addition of cobalt improves elements, carbon is added in amounts of 1.8 to 2.5 per cent. They can not
hot hardness and makes the cutting tool more wear resistant. Three be forged to shape, but may be deposited directly on the tool shank in an
general types of high-speed steels are as follows oxy-acetylene flame, alternately, small tips of cast stellite can be brazed
a. 18-4-1 high-speed steels (T-series). This steel containing 18 per into place. Stellites preserve hardness up to 1 OOO'C and can be operated on
cent tungsten, 4 per cent chromium and 1 per cent vanadium, is steel at cutting speeds 2 times higher than for high-speed steel. These
considered to be one of the best of all purpose tool steels. In some materials are not widely used for metal cutting since they are very brittle,
steels of similar composition the percentage of vanadium is slightly however, they arc used extensively in some non-metal cutting application,
increased to obtain better results in heavy-duty work. such as in rubbers, plastics, where the loads are gradually applies and the
b. Molybdenum high-speed-steel (M-series). This steel containing support is firm and where wear and abrasion are problems.
6 per cent molybdenum, 6 per cent tungsten, 4 per cent chromium 5. Cemented carbides : Cemented carbides are so named because
and 2 per cent vanadium have excellent toughness and cutting they are composed principally of carbon mixed with other elements. The
ability. basic ingredient of most cemented carbides is tungsten carbide which is
There are other molybdenum high speed steels now marketed, extremely hard. Pure tungsten powder is mixed under high heat, at about
having various tungsten-molybdenum ratios, with or without cobalt, or 1500'C, with pure carbon (lamp black) in the ratio of 94 per cent and 6 per
with variations in percentages of the minor alloys chromium and cent by weight. The new compound, tungsten carbide, is then mixed with
vanadium. cobalt until the mass is entirely homogeneous. This homogenous mass is
2
c. Cobalt high-speed steels : This is sometimes called super high pressed, at pressures from 1,000 to 4,200 kg/cm , into suitable blocks and
speed steel. Cobalt is added from 2 to 15 per cent to increase hot then heated in hydrogen. Boron, titanium and tantalum are also used to
hardness and wear resistance. One analysis of this steel contains 20 form carbides. The amount of cobalt used will regulate the toughness of
per cent tungsten, 4 per cent chromium, 2 per cent vanadium and the tool. A typical analysis of a carbide suitable for steel machining is 82
12 per cent cobalt. per cent tungsten carbide, 10 per cent titanium carbide and 8 per cent
cobalt.
Carbide tools are made by brazing or silver-soldering the fonned supported by the tool holder. Heat conductivity of ceramics being very low
inserts on the ends of commercial steel holders. The most important the tools are generally used without a coolant.
properties of cemented carbides are their very high heat and wear 7. Diamond : The diamonds used for cutting tools are industrial
resistance. Cemented carbide tipped tools can machine metals even when diamonds, which are naturally occurring diamonds containing flaws and
their cutting elements are heated to a temperature of 1,000<c. They can therefore of no value as gemstones. Alternatively they can be also
withstand cutting speed 6 per cent or more than 6 times higher artificial. The diamond is the hardest known material and can be run at
manufactured material and has extremely high compressive strength. cutting speeds about 50 times greater than that for h.s.s. tool, and at
However, it is very brittle, has low resistance to shock, and must be very temperatures up to 1650'C:. In addition to its hardness the diamond is
rigidly supported to prevent cracking. incompressible, is of a large grain structure, readily conducts heat, and has
The two types of cemented carbides are the tungsten and titanium a low coefficient of friction. Diamonds are suitable for cutting very hard
tungsten varieties. The tungsten-type cemented carbides are less brittle materials such as glass, plastics, ceramics and other abrasive materials and
than the titanium-tungsten type; they contain 92 to 98 per cent tungsten for producing fine finishes. The maximum depth of cut recommended is
carbide and from 2 to 8 per cent cobalt. These cemented carbides are 0.125 mm with feeds of say, 0.05 mm.
designed chiefly for machining brittle metals such as cast iron, bronze, but 8. Abrasive : Abrasive grains in various forms-loose, bonded into
they may also be used for non-ferrous metals and alloys, steel, etc. The wheels and stone, and embedded in papers and cloths-find wide
titanium-tungsten type are more wear-resistant. They contain 66 to 85 per application in industry. They are mainly used for grinding harder materials
cent tungsten carbide, 5 to 30 per cent titanium carbide and 4 to 10 per and where a superior finish is desired on hardened or unhardened
cent cobalt. These cemented carbides are designed for machining tougher materials.
materials chiefly for various steels. For most grinding operations there are two kinds of abrasives in
6. Ceramics: The latest development in the metal-cutting tools uses general use, namely aluminium oxide (carborundum) and silicon carbide.
aluminium oxide generally referred to as ceramics. Ceramics tools are The aluminium oxide abrasives are used for grinding all high tensile
made by composing aluminium oxide powder in a mould at about 280 materials, whereas silicon carbide abrasives are more suitable for low
kg/cm 2 or more. The part is then sintered at 2200CC. This is known as cold tensile materials and non-ferrous metals.
pressing. Hot pressed ceramics are more expensive owing to higher mould 9. Cubic boron nitride (CBN) : This material, consisting atoms of
costs. Ceramic tool materials are made in the fonn of tips that are to be boron and nitrogen,. is
clamped on metal shanks. Other materials used to produce ceramic tools considered as the hardest
include sillicon 'carbide, boron carbide, titanium carbide and titanium tool material available next
boride. to diamond. It is having
These tools have very low heat conductivity and extremely high high hardness, high
compressive strength. But they are quite brittle and have a low bending thennal conductivity and
strength. For this reason, these materials can not be used for tools tensile strength. In certain
operating in interrupted cuts, with vibrations as well as for removing a application a thin layer
heavy chip. But they can withstand temperatures up to 1200CC and can be (0.5 mm) of CBN 1s
used at cutting speeds 4 times that of cemented carbides, and up to about applied on cemented car
40 times that of high-speed cutting tools. They are chiefly used for single bide tools to obtain better h.s.s. Cemented
point tools in semi-finish and finish turning of cast iron, plastics, and other 500 'carbide
machining performance. It
work, but only when they are not subject to impact loads. To give them 200 400 600 800 JO()()
can also be made in terms
increased strength often ceramic with a metal bond, known as "cennets" is Temperature °C
of indexable inserts in
used. Because of the high compressive strength and brittleness the tips are standard form and size.
given a 5 to 8 ° negative rake for carbon steel and zero rake for cast iron This material is traded in Figure 2.28 Hardness profiles of cutting
and for non-metallic materials to strengthen their cutting edge and are well the name of 'BOROZON'. tool materials
10. Coated carbide tools : For coated carbide tools, a thin cooling effect and lubrication condition in metal cutting.
chemically stable, shock resistance refracto1y coatings of TiC, Al2 0 3 and 4. To improve surface finish.
TiN are applied on the tungsten carbide inserts, using chemical vapour 5. To protect the finished su,face from corrosion. To protect the
deposition method (CVD). In this coating first layer is ofTiC, second layer finished surface from coITosion, especially in cutting fluids
is of Ali0 3 and the top thin layer is of TiN. This process makes 1he insert made up of a high percentage of water, co1Tosion inhibitors are
two to three times stronger for wear resistance effective in the fonn of sodium nitrate or triethanolamine.
The variations of hardness of a few of the tool materials with 6. To cause chips break up into small parts rather than remain as
temperatures are shown in Fig.2.28. long ribbons which are hot and sharp and difficult lo remove
from the workpiece.
2.22 CUTTING FLUIDS 7. To wash the chips away from the tool. This is par1icularly
desirable to prevent fouling of the cutting tool with the workpiece.
Cutting fluids, sometimes referred to as lubricants or coolants are liquids
and gases applied to the tool and workpiece to assist in the cutting Properties of Cutting Fluids : A culling fluid should have the following
operations. properties
Purpose of Cutting Fluids Cutting fluids are used for the following 1. High heat absorption for readily absorbing heat developed.
purposes: 2. Good lubricating qualities to produce low-coefficient of
friction.
1. To cool the tool. Cooling the tool is necessary to prevent 3. High flash point so as to eliminate the hazard of fire.
metallurgical damage and to assist in decreasing friction at the 4. Stability so as not to oxide in the air.
tool-chip interface and at the tool-workpiece interface. 5. Neutral so as not to react chemically.
Decreasing friction means less power required to machine, and 6. Odorless so as not to produce any bad smell even when heated.
more important, increased tool life and good surface finish. The 7. Harmless to the skin of the operators.
cooling action of the fluid is by direct carrying away of the heat 8. Harmless lo the bearings.
developed by the plastic deformation of the shear plane and that 9. Non-corrosive to the work or the machine.
due to friction. Hence, a high specific heat and high heat 10. Transparencx so that the cutting action of the tool may be
conductivity together with a high film-coefficient for heat observed.
transfer is necessary for a good coolant. For cooling ability, 11. Low viscosity to permit free flow of the liquid.
water is ve1y effective, but is objectionable for corrosiveness 12. Low priced to minimize production cost.
and lack of friction reducing wear.
2. To cool the workpiece. The role of the cutting fluid in cooling Choice of cutting fluids : The choice of cutting fluid depends upon the
the workpiece is to prevent its excessive thermal distortion. following factors.
3. To lubricate and reduce friction. (a) The energy or power
consumption in removing metal is reduced : (b) abrasion or wear I. Type of operation.
on the cutting tool is reduced thereby increasing the life of the 2. The rate of metal removal.
tool ; (c) by virtue of lubrication, Jess heat is generated and the 3. Material of the workpiece.
tool, therefore, operates at lower temperatures with the tendency 4. Material of the tool.
to extend tool life ; and (d) chips are helped out of the flutes of 5. Surface finish requirement.
drills, taps, dies, saws, broaches, etc. An incidental improvement 6. Cost of cutting fluid.
in the cutting operation is that the built-up edge will be reduced,
which, in tum, will decrease friction at the tool-workpiece area Type of Cutting Fluids : The type of cutting fluid to be used depends
and contribute toward a cooler tool. It is, therefore, evident that upon the work material and the characteristic of the machining process.
the proper choice of lubricant is important to give the optimum For some machining processes, a cutting fluid which is predominantly a
lubricant is desirable. With other machining processes, a cutting fluid

percentage of water. Chemical compounds have grown in
which is predominantly a coolant should be used. Cutting fluids are favour as coolants, particularly in grinding and on machined
classified in seven main groups. These include water, soluble oils, straight surfaces where formation of rust is to be avoided.
oils, mixed oils, chemical additive oils (sulphurized and chlorinated), 7. Solid lubricants: Stick waxes and bar soaps are sometimes used
chemical compounds and solid lubricants. as a convenient means of applying lubrication to the cutting
tool.
1. Water: Water, either plain or containing an alkali, salt or water
soluble additive but little or no oil or soap are sometimes used Table 2.3 shows different types of coolants and lubricants used for
only as a coolant. But water alone is, in most cases, different machining operations.
objectionable for its corrosiveness.
2. Soluble oils : Soluble oils are emulsions composed of around Theory of Cutting Fluid : The basic function of an effective cutting fluid
80 per cent or more water , soap and mineral oil. The soap acts is to reduce kinetic coefficient of friction, Dr. Merchant, one of the
as an emulsifying agent which break the oil into minute particles pioneers in the theory of metal cutting, has suggested a theory to explain
to dispose them throughout water. The water increases the the penetration of cutting fluid. It is assumed that minute capillaries exist at
cooling effect, and the oil provides the best lubricating the tool-chip interface as shown in Fig.2.29 on a submicroscopic scale. As
properties and ensures freedom from rust. By mixing various the chip move up the tool face, it contacts mainly the tops of the asperities
proportions ot water with soluble oils and soaps, cutting �luids in the point contact zone creating capillaries between the chip and the tool.
with a wide range of cooling and lubricating properties can be These capillaries draw in the cutting
obtained. fluid which chemically reacts to
3. Straight oils : The straight oils may be (a) straight mineral produce a solid low-shear strength
(petroleum) oils, kerosene, low-viscosity petroleum fractions, film. Under the condition of high
such as mineral seal, or higher-viscosity mineral oils, (b) pressure and temperature at the
straight fixed or fatty oils consisting animal, vegetable, or "nascent" chip surface the highly
synthetic equivalent, lard oil, etc. They have both cooling and reactive chemical action produces
lubricating properties and are used in light machining relatively weak solid providing a
operations. "sandwich filling" to keep the chip
4. Mixed oils : This is a combination of straight mineral and and tool apart thereby reducing Figure 2.29 Penetration of
straight fatty oil. This blend makes an excellent lubricant and friction. It is well established that cutting fluid
coolant for automatic-screw-machine work and other light small change in tool temperature can
machining operations where accuracy and good finish are of produce considerable change in tool life. Cutting fluids directly control the
prime importance. amount of heat at the chip tool face and thereby increase tool life.
5. Chemical-additive oil: Straight oil or mixed oil when mixed up
with sulphur or chlorine is known as chemical additive oil. 2.23 ECONOMICS OF MACHINING
Sulphur and chlorine are used to increase both the lubricating
and cooling qualities of the various oils with which they are All the foregoing information is of little use unless it is intelligently
combined. Sulfurized mineral oils are commonly used for applied to obtain the lowest possible unit cost and highest possihle
machining the tough, stringy, low-carbon steels. Chlorinated production rate for any given operation. It is known that, at high cutting
mineral oils are particularly effective in promoting anti-weld speeds, one may expect increased tool cost owing to shorter tool life. At
characteristics. the same time, it is expected that the machining cost per piece to go down.
6. Chemical compounds : These compounds consist mainly of a So much emphasis has been given on tool-life that sometimes other factors
rust inhibitor, such as sodium nitrate, mixed with a high fade into the background.
The lowest possible unit cost and highest possible production cost
.l_J
K 1tDl L1
cost per Kr(idle time) + 1--+K 1 nDL V" l1tDV II

(TCT)+K2---
depend on a particular machining process. However, the total
=
piece is based on idle cost, tool changing cost, and tool grindin
g cost.
1 OOOs
1 OOOsC t 1000sC 11
minimum
Fig.2.29 schematically shows optimum cutting speed for where, K1 =
production. directed labour rate+ overhead rate in Rs/min,
K2 = tool cost per grind in Rs/tool,
Cutting cost per
L = length of machining in mm,
piece depends on the time
D = diameter of machined part in mm,
the tool is actually cutting.
This time can be reduced
v = cutting speed in m/min,
s = feed in mm/rev,
by removing metal at a
VT" = C, tool-life equation,
higher rate. In proportion
TCT = tool changing time.
to total cost, cutting cost is
small in small job shops
TABLE 2.3 COOLANTS AND LUBRICANTS FOR DIFFERENT
but may be proportion
OPERATIONS
ately larger in production
work. The cutting-cost Coolants and lubrlcanls
curve in Fig.2.30 shows ·20·------- Material Turning Threading Drilling Reaming Shaping,
Cost of l oading & boring Planing Milling
the reduction in cutting ·io•�_:u::::nl oa d
� ;.:: '::.;:"9�-1--+-+---t---;I Slottin
cost as the cutting speed Cast iron Dry Dry Dry Dry, Tallow. Dry Dry
increases.
I•
200 150 lOO JSO Lard oil

100 ISO
· Idle costs include d m/mi n Soft steel Cutting Cutting Any coolant Cutting Soap-water, Soluble
Cutti ng spee
compound, compound, compound Soda water sulphurized. or
costs for time spent in Figure 2.30 Effect of cutting speed on Cutting oil, Cutting oil, mineral oil
loading and unloading the total cost of a product Soap-water Soap-water
piece, for crane time and · Hard steel Mineral Mineral Kerosene, Mineral Mineral Soluble
ized
for tool approach. This can be reduced by loading fixtures, central
lard oil lard if Strong soda lard oil lard oil sulphurized, or
helps. It is obviou s that loading and water mineral ell.
controls, and other time saving mineral lard ell
unloading costs per piece are indepe ndent of cutting speed. Brass Dry Dry, erosene, Dry Dry, kerosene, Dry Dry
Tool-changing cost includes operator's time to remove the tool and Turp ntine turpentine
machine
to grind it, if necessary, to replace and reset the tool, and put the
Bronze Mineral Mine I Dry or any Dry, Mineral Dry Soluble
lard oil lard I coolant lard oil sulphurized,
in operation. This increas es with cutting speed. mineral lard oil
Tool-regrinding cost includes depreciation of the tool and cost of Aluminium Kerosene Kero ene Dry, Kerosene Kerosene Kerosene Soluble
regrinding. This cost may become excessive at high cutting speed.
with 25% sulphurized, or
m soluble
The total cost curve is the sum of the individual curves for optimu
mineral oil and
cutting oil kerosene
cutting speeds. Copper Mixture of Dry a Dry, cooling Dry or a Dry Soluble
(b)
W.W. Gilbert evaluated tool-life for (a) minimum cost and for lard oil and mix! e of compound, coolant sulphurized or
turpentine lard ii and lard oil and mineral lard oil
maximum production. tu ntine tur entine
Tool
Cost per piece = Idle cost per piece + Cutting cost per piece+
changing cost per piece+ Tool grindin g cost per piece.
/
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Differentiate between orthogonal and oblique cutting. What is the utility
2.
of orthogonal cu!ting?
Derive the expression of chip reduction coefficient in single point
cutting. State the assumptions used.
3
3. Considering the various forces acting on the chip, draw Merchant force
4.
diagram. State the assumptions made.
Derive the formula for stress developed in shearing zone for
THE LATHE
orthogonal cutting.
5. Establish average kinetic coefficient of friction for orthogonal cutting.
· 6. Derive the formulae for work done and power needed in orthogonal
cutting. 3.1 INTRODUCTION
7. Establish the formula for torque and power required in drilling.
8. Why cutting forces are measured ? What ate the different ways to
The lathe is one of the oldest machine tools and came into existence from
measure cutting forces ?
the early tree lathe which was then a novel device for rotating and
9. List the various types of chips produced during metal cutting. Describe
the conditions in which these types of chips are produced. Why machining a piece of work hold between two adjacent trees. A rope wound
discontinuous chips are preferred over the continuous type? round the work with its one end attached to a flexible branch of a tree and
10. List various types of chip breakers. Why they are used ? the other end being pulled by a man caused the job to rotate intermittently.
11. What do you understand by cutting - tool nomenclature ? Sketch and Hand tools were then used. With its further development a strip of wood
label tool angles/tool nomenclatures. called "lath" was used lo support the rope and that is how the machine
12. List various hand tools and discuss their cutting actions. came to be known as "lathe". This llevicc continued to develop through
13. How do you define cutting speed and feed ? State various factors that centuries and in the year 1797 Henry Maudslay, an Englishman, designed
may be considered to fix cutting speed and feed. the first screw cutting lathe which is the forerunner of the present day high
14. Why heat is generated in cutting. Label various heat sources (and speed, heavy duty production lathe, a machine tool which has practically
zones) in metal cutting ? Draw a sketch to s ow heat distribution to
given shape to our p sent d�y civilization by building machines and
various elements during metal cutting.
15. Why tools fail during cutting? Explain, giving r sons of tool wear. industries.
16. What are the factors that affect tool life . Briefly describe their
influence. 3.2 FUNCTION O THE LATHE
17. Describe in brief how you measure tool life. W at is machinability and
what is machinability index? The main function of lathe is to remove metal from a piece of work to
18. What are the desirable characteristics of c tting tool materials ? give it the required sh e and size. This is accomplished by holding the
Describe them in brief. work securely and rigid y on the machine and then turning it against cutting
19. Name various cutting tool materials. Briefly de ribe one important tool tool which will remove etal from the work in the form of chips. To cut the
materials along with its characteristics and usa ility. material properly the tool should be harder than the material of the
20. Briefly describe the properties of high speed steel as tool material. workpiece, should be igidly held on the machine and should be fed or
Name various types of high speed steels.
progressed in a definit way relative to the work.
21. Why cemented carbide is considered as an use I tool material ?
22. What are the purposes of cutting fluids ? What re the types ?
23. What do you understand by economics of m hining ? How do you 3.3 TYPES OF
evaluate machining cost.
24. Discuss the role of the tungsten, chromium and vanadium in h.s.s. Lathes of various desi s and constructions have been developed to suit the
25.
'
What are the significant characteristics of h.s.s.? various conditions of etal machining. But ail of them employ the same
fundamental principle f operation and perfonn the same function.
84 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY THE LATHE 85
The types generally used are of spindle speeds. A lathe that receives its power from an individual motor
integral with the machine is called a motor driven lathe. A geared-head
1. Speed lathe. 3. Bench lathe.
lathe gets i'ts power from a constant speed motor, and all speed changes
(a) Wood working. 4. Tool room lathe.
are obtained by shifting various gears located in the headstock. It has no
(b) Centering. 5. Capstan and Turret lathe.
cone pulley.
(c) Polishing. 6. Special purpose.
(d) Spinning. (a) Wheel lathe.
The bench lathe : This is a small lathe usually mounted on a bench. It has
2. Engine lathe. (b) Gap bed lathe.
practically all the parts of an engine lathe or speed lathe and it performs
(a) Belt drive. (c) T-lathe.
almost all the operations, its only difference being in the size. This is used
(b) Individual motor drive. (d) Duplicating lathe. for small and precision work .
(c) Gear head lathe. 7. Automatic lathe.
The tool room lathe : A tool room lathe having features similar to an
The Speed Lathe: The speed lathe, in construction and operation, is the engine lathe is much more accurately built and has a wide range of spindle
simplest of all types of lathe. It consists of a bed, a headstock, a tailstock speeds ranging from a very low to a quite high speed up to 2500 r.p.m. This
and a tool-post mounted on an adjustable slide. There is no feed box,
is equipped, besides other things, with a chuck, taper turning attachment,
leadscrew or conventional type of carriage. The tool is mounted on the
draw in collet attachment, thread chasing dial, relieving attachment, steady
adjustable slide and is fed into work purely by hand control. This
and follower rest, pump for coolant, etc. This lathe is mainly used for
characteristic of the lathe enables the designer to give high spindle speeds
precision work on tools, dies, gauges and in machining work where
which usually range from 1200 to 3600 r.p.m. As the tool is controlled by
accuracy is needed. The machine is costlier than an engine lathe of the
hand, the depth of cut and the thickness of chip is very small. same size.
The headstock construction is very simple and only two or three
spindle speeds are available. Light cuts and high speeds necessitate the u �e The capstan and turret lathe : These lathes are development of the
of this type of machine where cutting force is minimum such as in engine lathe and are used for production work. The distinguishing feature
woodworking, spinning, centering, polishing, etc. The "speed lathe" has of this type of lathe is that the tailstock of an engine lathe is replaced by a
been so named because of the very high speed of the headstock spindle. hexagonal turret, on th face of which multiple tools may be fitted and fed
into the work in prope sequence. The advantage is that several different
The engine lathe or centre lathe : This lath is the most important
types of operations can e done on a workpiece without re-setting of work
member of the lathe family and is the most widely used. The term "engine"
or tools, and a number f identical parts can be produced in the minimum
is associated with the lathe owing to the fact that early lathes were driven
time.
by steam engines. Similar to the speed lathe, the e gine lathe has got all the
basic parts, e.g. bed, headstock, and tailstock. ut the headstock of an
Special purpose lathe : As the name implies, they are used for special
engine lathe is much more robust in construction nd it contains additional
purposes and for jobs which cannot be accommodated or conveniently
mechanism for driving the lathe spindle at mul iple speeds. Unlike the
machined on a standar lathe. The wheel lathe is made for finishing the
speed lathe, the engine lathe can feed the cuttin tool both in cross and
journals and turning th tread on railroad car and locomotive wheels. The
longitudinal direction with reference to the lathe axis with the help of a
gap bed lathe, in whic a section of the bed adjacent to the headstock is
carriage, feed rod and leadscrew. With these addi ·onal features an .engine
recoverable, is used to swing extra-large diameter pieces. The T-lathe, a
lathe has proved to be a versatile machine adapte for every type of lathe
new.member of the lat family, is intended for machining of rotors for jet
work.
engines. The axis of t e lathe bed is at right angles to the axis of the
Engine lathes are classified according to th various designs of the
headstock spindle is t e form of a T. The duplicating lathe is one for
headstock and methods of transmitting power to t e machine. A lathe that
duplicating the shape f a flat or round template on to the workpiece.
receives its power from an over-head line shaft is belt-driven lathe and is
Mechanical, air, and hydraulic devices are all used to coordinate the
equipped with a speed-cone and one or more back gears to get a wide range
movements of the tool to reproduce accurately the shape of the template.
The missile lathe, which has a very large swing for accommodating long
missile component of very large diameter, is the most modem and latest in
lathe design.
Automatic lathe : These are high speed, heavy duty, mass production
lathes with complete automatic control. Once the tools are set and the
machine is started it performs automatically all the operations to finish the
job. The changing of tools, speeds, and feeds are also done automatically.
After the job is complete, the machine will continue to repeat the cycles
producing identical parts even without the attention of an operator. An
operator who has to look after five or six automatic lathes at a time will
simply look after the general maintenance of the machine and cutting tool,
load up a bar stock and remove finished products from time to time.
3.4 THE SIZE OF A LATHE
The size of a lathe is expressed or specified by the following items and

illustrated in Fig.3.1
1 . The height of the centres 0.

Ql
measured from the lathe i;l
-;!
(,i
bed. V) ,.;i
2. The swing diameter over
bed. This is the largest
diameter ofwork that will
r olve without touching
�
t bed and is twice the
h ight of the centre
asured from the bed of
(a) lathe.
i
(b)
Figure 3.1 Lathe siz.?
(a) D. Swing diameter over bed, D1 • Swing diam ter over carriage.
(b) L. Length between centres
3. The length between centres. This is the maximum length of work 3. It must resist the twisting stress set up
that can be mounted between the lathe centres. due to the resultant of two forces- the
4. The swing diameter over carriage. This is the largest diameter of downward cutting force on the tool
work that will revolve over the lathe saddle, and is always less and the force tending to move the
than the swing diameter over bed. tool away from the wo'rk in a
5. The maximum bar diameter. This is the maximum diameter of horizontal direction. This is best done
bar stock that will pass through hole of the headstock spindle. by diagonal ribbing or making box
6. The length of bed. This indicates the approximate floor space section casting shown in Fig.3 .3 and
occupied by the lathe. Fig.3.4.
4. The bed should be seasoned naturally Figure 3.3 Box
· In ordering a lathe it is necessary to ask for certain other important to avoid distortion or warp that may
particulars to specify the lathe correctly. These are : width of t�e bed, depth section lathe bed
develop when it is cooled after the
of the bed, depth and width of gap if it is a gap bed lathe, swmg over gap, bed is cast. On the top of the bed there are two sets of slides or
.
spindle nose diameter, centre taper Morse number and range of spindle guideways- outerways and innerways. The outer guidcways
speeds, number of feeds, number and range of metric and English threads
provide bearing and sliding surfaces for the carriage, and the
that may be cut, pitch value of leadscrew, power input and floor are
innerways for the tailstock. The guiding surfaces arc accurately
required.
machined to make them parallel to the lathe axis, absolutely
horizontal, and sufficiently plain. The guiding su rfacc should
3.5 DESCRIPTIONS AND FUNCTIONS OF LATHE PARTS
also be resistant to wear. Chilled castings arc sometimes used to
improve wear resisting qualities.
Fig.3.2 illustrates the basic parts of a geared head lathe. Following are the
principal parts
1. Bed. 4. Carriage.
2. Headstock. 5. Feed mechanism.
3. Tailstock. 6. Screw cutting mec anism.
3.6 THEBED 3 .4 Lathe bed diagonal ribs

I. Diagonal rib, 2. Bedways.
The lathe bed forms the base of the machine. he headstock and the
tailstock are located at either end of the bed and t carriage rests over the The guideways the lathe bed may be flat and inverted -V having
lathe bed and slides on it. The lathe bed being the ain guiding member of an included angle of 90 . The wide flat guideways provide a large bearing
the tool, for accurate machining work, must atisfy the following surface with correspo ding reduction in wear. Obviously the bearing
conditions surface requires particu ar care and attention to keep it always clean and
perfectly smooth. In t is type of guideways some adjustment of saddle
1. It should be sufficiently rigid to p vent deflection unde1 keep-plates is necessa y after wear. The inverted V type guideways,
tremendous cutting pressure transmitte through the tool-post although expensive to machine, provide better guide for carriage and
and carriage to the lathe bed. tailstock, ensure accur e alignment, and are unaffected by any wear. The
2. It must be massive with sufficient dep h and width to absorb shape of the Vis such f�at the chips automatically fall through. But it has a
vibration. small bearing surface �ich results increase in wear. This also weakens the
saddle. Both Vand tlatways for each set of guidcways arc more commonly
THE LATHE 91
passed through the bore. The front end of the hole is appeared for holding
used to combine the advantages of both the types. Fig.3.5 i llustrates
centres and other tools having a standard Morse taper shank. A taper sleeve
different types of lathe bedways. Many lathes are made with a gap in the
fits into the taper hole, and a Live centre which supports the work and
bed. This gap is used to swing extra large diameter pieces.
revolves with the work fits into the sleeve that acts as a bush. There are two
common types of spindle noses : the· threaded design which carries the
chuck, driving plate and face plate, and the flanged nose which enable them
to be directly attached. The lathe most commonly used has a threaded
spindle nose.
The spindle revolves on two large bearings housed on the headstoc
casting. The clearance between the spindle and the bearing should be
3 minimum to prevent vibration. The bearing may be either bush, ball or
roller type depending on whether it is a high speed, heavy duty or precision
4 machine. Thrust bearing$ are provided to take up the end load owing to the
feeding action of the tool. Provision is made for expansion of the spindle
Figure 3.5 Types of lathe bedways when it gets heated under high speed metal machining.
I. lnverted-V bed way, 2. Flat bedways, 3. Rack, 4. Box section, 5. Flat bedways
for saddle. Speed changing: In a lathe it is necessary to vary the speed of the work to
The bed material should have high compressive strength, should be suit to different machining conditions. These conditions are
wear resistant and absorb vibration. Cast iron alloyed with nickel and
chromium forms a good material suitable for lathe bed. 1. The type of material to be cut. Hard and tough materials like cast
iron will require slower speed than soft materials like brass or
3.7 THE HEADSTOCK aluminium.
2. The type of cutting tool material used. The spindle speed may be
The headstock is secured permanently on the innerways at the left hand end increased while using hard material like tungsten carbide.
of the lathe bed, and it provides mechanical means of rotating the work at 3. The type of finish desired. The finishing cut requires small depth
multiple speeds. It comprises essentially a holloy., spindle and m')chanism of cut and thf work is rotated at a high speed . While rough
for driving and altering the spindle speed. All t e parts are housed within turning the epth of cut is heavy and the work is rotated
the headstock casting. comparative! at a slower speed.
4. The type of c tting fluid used. Proper selection of coolant and
The spindle lubricant per its high spindle speeds.
of the headstock, 5. The rigidity nd condition of the machine. A new and rigid
illustrated in Fig. machine can ork at a speed higher than an old and worn out
3.6, is made of machine.
carbon or nickel 6. The diamete fof work. The turning a work of large diameter
chrome steel. This requires slow r spindle speed.
is usually of a large Figure 3.6 He stock spindle 7. The type of o eration. Operations, like turning, boring or drilling
diameter to resist I. Threaded end, 2. Tape leeve, 3. Live centre, require higher spindle speeds than that required in thread cutting,
bending and it 4. Threaded nose, . Spindle hole. tapping or reaming operations.
should be perfectly
aligned with the lathe axis and accurately machined for producing true As the lathe may have to work under all the· above conditions, it is
work sµrface. A hole extends through the spindle so that a long bar may be necessary to provide arrangements fqr obtaining different speeds of the
lathe spindle. The usual methods to vary the speed of a lathe spindle are :
I THE LATHE
step cone pulley to the spindle to obtain direct speed a lock p in is

93
introduced into the hole provided on the face of the cone pulley. T�1s lock
1. By belt drive on cone pulley fitted on the headstock spindle pin engages the bull gear D with the cone pulley. The number of different
with or without a back gear arrangement. speeds obtained by the lathe spindle depe�ds �n the ?umber of steps on the
2. By all gear drive using sliding gears or clutches. cone pulley. A cone pulley with 4 steps will give 4 direct speeds.
3. By variable speed motor.
The back gear : The back gear is an additional fe�ture of a belt driven
Belt driven headstock : In a belt driven lathe fitted with back gear, there lathe and this is used to obtain wider range of spindle speeds, for the
are usually two different methods of obtaining multiple speed of the lathe number of speeds obtained from "direct speeds" is limited to the number of
spindll!. These are steps only. When the backgear is engaged, the spindle speed reduces
_
considerably. So it is also used when it is necessary to have a slow speed of
1. Direct speed or back gear out. the spindle that cannot otherwise be obtained by direct speed. A slow speed
2. Indirect speed or back gear in. is necessary in the following cases :
Direct speeds : All belt driven lathes are provided with countershaft. The 1. In turning jobs of large diameter within the available cutting
countershaft receives its power from the main shaft which is driven at speed of the material.
constant speed. The countershaft is a short shaft having a set of fast and . .
2. In turning jobs of tough or hard material. When the material is
loose pulley and a stepped cone pulley for each machine. Fig.1.1 illustrates hard it becomes necessary to apply greater cutting force by the
a typical countershaft drive. The step cone pulley on the countershaft is tool to shea; out the metal. This increase in cutting force will
connected with the step cone pulley on the headstock spindle by a belt. A require greater turning torque necessitating slower spindle
number of speeds can speed.
be obtained when the 3. In operations like thread cutting, reaming, etc.
position of driving belt
Handle
4. In taking deep cut as in rough turning.
on the step pulley is
changed. The spindle Description of back gear: The back gears Band C in Fig.3.7 arc
speed increases when both fastened to a quill. This is a hollow shaft that revolves on a fixed shaft
the belt is shifted from which is housed on an eccentric bearing. This construction permits the
a larger to a smaller changing of the positio 1 of the back gears putting them into engagement ·
step of the cone pulley. with the gears A and D by partly rotating the shaft by means of the back
To stop the machine
the belt is to be shifted
r . _
gear handle. The gear I is permanently connected With the cone pulley
while the gear Dis key1d to the spindle. The back gears are engaged when
rom the fast to the
the Jock pin connectiri� the bu II gear D with the step cone pulley is out. In
oose pulley on the . _
using back gears, the ower 1s transmitted from the cone pulley and the
ountershaft by means
gear A to the back gea Band C, from C to the gear D, and from the gear D
of a belt fork attached l
o a striking bar which to the spindle. If the ge r 8 is three times as large as A, it will revol�e on�
Figure..3.7 Backgeared headstock _
s operated through a third as fast as 8. Ge rs B and C bemg both fastened to the quill will
lever by simply pulling a cord. revolve at equal speed. If Dis three times as large as C, it will revolve one
third as fast, with the result that D will revolve one-third of ·one-third, i.c.
A back geared headstock is illustrated in Fig3.7 The cone pulley is one-ninth as fast as A or cone pulley. For a particular speed of the cone
not keyed to the spindle and revolves freely on it. The gear "D" called the pulley, the gear Dor the spindle will rotate at a speed :
"bull gear" is keyed to the spindle. In order to transmit motion from the
So,
16 16 1
t. n 0 =2333x-x- = 2333x- = 25.9 r.p.m.
48 48 9
where, ZA, Z8 , Zc and Z0 are the numbers of teeth on gears A, B, C
and D, and n0 and nA are the speeds of the spindle and the speed of the 16 16 1
2. n 0 =130.7x-x- = 130.7x- = 14.5 r.p.m.
cone pulley, respectively. 48 48 9
A lathe with four steps on the cone pulley and with backgears would
thus have eight spindle speeds-- four direct and four indirect, the latter 16 16 1
3. n0 =765x-x- = 765x- = 8.5 r.p.m.
being slower than the former. 48 48 9
Example 3.1 : A lathe has four steps, the diameter of each being 90 mm, 130 mm, 16 16 1 =
4. n 0 =42.Sx-x- = 42.Sx- 4.7 r.p.m.
170 mm and 210 mm. The countershaft pulley revolves at 100 r.p.m. The gears 48 48 9
A,B,C, and D have 16,48,16,48 teeth respectively. Find the various speeds of the
spindle. , Available 8 speeds of the spindle are:
4.7, 8.5, 14.5, 25.9, 42.8, 76.5, 130.7, 233.3
Speeds without back gear :
All-gear drive : Modern lathes are equipped with all-geared headstock to
As in Equ (1.1), or obtain various spindle speeds. These lathes are driven by a constant-speed
motor usually located in the base of the lathe, or they may be driven by belt
on a single pulley. Speed changes are made through a series of gear
where, n 1 = r.p.m. of the countershaft, co111binations by shifting two or three levers in different positions. The gear
n2 r.p.m. of the spindle, drive is mostly used in heavy duty machines and where smooth running is
D 1 = diameter of the countershaft pulley, required.
and D2 = diameter of the spindle pulley. The different mechanisms that are commonly used in -all-geared
headstock are
Now,
210 1. Sliding gea mechanism.
1. n2 =-XJ()() = 233.3 r.p.m. 2. Sliding clut h mechanism.
90 3. Combinatio of the above two types.
170 A two speed dniving motor is sometimes employe.d to extend the
2. n 1 =-x100 = 130.7 r.p.m.
- 130 range of speeds availa le from gear mechanism.
In a lathe desig , the standard practice is to arrange the gearing in a
130 manner so that the spi�dle speed increases in geometrical progression, that
3. n, =-xlOO = 76.5 r.p.m.
- 170 is, each speed is multiplied by a constant to get the next higher speed. As
for example, if L be the first.sped and r be the constant number, the second
90 speed will be Lxr, the third speed will be L xrxr=Lr2 and so on. This
4. n, =-x100 = 42.8 r.p.m.
- 210 method of computing spindle speeds is adopted to distribute the different
speeds uniformly between the high and the low limits. If n be the number of
Speed with back gears
speeds required and H and l be the highest and the lowest speed
respectively, the constant r can be determined by the formula
r= n-n 1. The design permits a totally enclosed compact unit giving better
appearance and larger range of spindle speeds.
2. The initial high belt or mot9r speed of a geared drive ensures
The international standard values of r are 1.12, 1.25, 1.4, 1.6 and 2.
that practically the full power is available for all speeds, and the
Please refer chapter 18 for further details.
· power input and that available at the tool edge are roughly
The most simple and very common arrangement of obtaining
constant at all spindle speeds. In .a cone-pulley the power input
multiple speeds in an all-geared headstock is the one by sliding gear
to the machine spindle varies with the speed.
mechanism. Various speed changes are obtained when a set of gears is 3. No belt shifting is necessary and the power supply to the
made to slide on a splined shaft bringing them into mesh only one at a time headstock can be greatly increased by using a wide belt at high
with a cluster of gears mounted on a second shaft. A friction or claw clutch initial belt speed.
which ensures engagement or disengagement of a shaft is also employed in 4. All changes in the spindle speed, being made by a simple
many headstocks to obtain multiple speeds. movement of one or more levers, arc obtained more quickly and
Modem lathes are often equipped with both sliding gear and sliding with no chance of any accident.
clutch mechanism. Fig.3.8 illustrates a 9-speed all-geared headstock 5. No overhead shafting is needed, as the power is normally taken
employing sliding gear mechanism. Gears 4, 5 and 6 are mounted on a from an independent motor. Even if the power is not taken from
splined shaft and receives power from the fast and the loose pulley. Gears an independent motor, the n�ccssity of mounting a countcrshaft
4, 5 and 6 may be made to mesh with gears 7, 8 and 9 respectively by is eliminated. This makes the machine shop more spacious,
shifting with the levers. Gears 7, 8 and 9 rotate freely on the intermediate clean, airy and lighted.
shaft and cannot move axially. Similarly, gears 11, 12 and 13 may be made
to slide by means of a second lever on the headstock spindle which is a
splined one. Number of gear teeth corresponding a gear i is denoted by Zi
for example Z1 is the number of teeth of gear 1.
The gear combinations for nine different speeds are
4
Z -
1. -x Z1 Z 4 x-
4.- Zs 7. �x Z9
Z1 Z 11 Z 1 Z 12 Z 1 Zn
Zs x-
2. - Z1 5. �x Zs 8. �x Z9
Zs Z11 Zs Z 12 Zs Zn
Z6 -
3. -x Z1 Z6 x-
6.- Zs 9. �x Z9
Z9 Zn Z q Z12 Z 9 Zn
In gear selection the rule is : the total number of teeth between any
one pair of gears mounted on two shafts must be equal to the total number
of teeth on the other pair. Figure 3.8 9-Speed all-geared headstock.
1. Fast pulley, 2. Loose pulley, 3. Splined shaft, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13. Gears
The advantages of an all-geared drive compared to a cone pulley
having�. Zs, Z,, Z,, Zii, Zi, 2 1 i, Z 12, 2 13 numbers of teeth respectively, IO.
drive are summarized below :
Intermediate shaft, 14. Headstock casting, 15. Splined headstock spindle.
/ THE LATHE 99
6. The drive may be isolated from the headstock spindle by

mounting the driving pulley .on another shaft, and thus vibration
of the spindle is reduced to a minimum.
The disadvantages are :
1. All -geared lathes are costlier than the belt driven lathes owing
to more complicated gear and lever and lever mechanism.
2. Some power is lost due to friction of the gears.
3. In case of overloading the machine, for having no arrangement
of belt slipping, there is little possibility to prevent damage to
the parts.
3.8 TAILSTOCK OR LOOSE HEADSTOCK Figure 3.9 Tailstock

I. Dead centre, 2. Spindle, 3. Spindle clamp, 4. Barrel, 5. Bush, 6. Square threaded
screw, 7. Hand wheel, 8. Split lug, 9, Tailstock clamping bolt, 10. Lathe bedways,
The tailstock is located on the innerways at the right hand end of the bed. 11. Clamping plate, 12. Selover screw, 13. Body, 14. Keyway, 15. Key.
This has two main uses : (1) it supports the other end of the work when it
is being machined between centres, and (2) it holds a tool for perfonning Other features sometimes incorporated on tailstocks arc graduated
operations such as drilling, reaming, tapping, etc. A tailstock is illustrated spindles and micrometer dials on the handwhccls for accurate length
in Fig.3.9. setting, and felt wiper pads on the base and spindle.
To accommodate different lengths of work, the body of the tailstock
can be adjusted along the ways chiefly by sliding it to the desired position 3.9 CARRIAGE
where it can be clamped by bolts and plates. The upper casting of the body
can be moved toward or away from the operator by means of the adjusting The carriage of a lathe has several parts that serve to support, move a11d
screws to offset the tailstock for taper turning and to realign the tailstock control the cutting tool. It consists of the following parts : (1) saddle, (2)
centre for straight turning. The body is bored to act as the barrel which cross-slide, (3) compoupd slide or compound rest, (4) tool post, and (5)
carries the tailstock spindle that moves in and out of the barrel by means of apron. A sectional view of the carriage is shown in Fig.3.10.
a screw when the tailstock handwheel is turned. The front of the spindle
has a taper hole into which the dead centre or other tools fit. The screw Saddle : The saddle is n H-shaped casting that fits over the bed and slides
thread is left handed, so that clockwise rotation of the handwheel causes along the ways. It carries the cross slide and tool post. Some means are
the spindle to advance, while anticlockwise rotation causes the spindle to generally provided for ocking the saddle to prevent any movement when
be drawn inward and ultimately the end of the screw strikes the back of the surfacing operations ar carried out.
dead centre or any tool that is fitted into the hole. To remove tools from the
spindle, it is therefore, only necessary to back up on the handwheel until The cross-slide : The cross-slide comprises a casting, machined on the
the spindle end is nearly inside the casting. The spindle has a key way in underside for attachment to the saddle and carries locations on the upper
the underside which mates with a small key fitted on the barrel to prevent face for the tool post or compound rest. The cross-piece of the saddle is
rotation. After the adjustment is made, the spindle is clamped in position by mechanized with a dovetail way, at right angles to the centre axis of the
tightening the locking bolt on split lug. lathe, which serves to guide the cross-slide it�P.lf.
100 ELEMENTS Of WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY
I \ THE LATHE
in a V-groove around the compound-rest base, the rest or the slide may be
101
In order to mov·e the cross-slide, the feed screw is turned by rotating

the handwheel. Transverse movement is obtained when the nut mounted on swivelled to any angle within a circle. There is no power feed to the
the feed screw is engaged with the binder screw of the cross-slide. When a compound rest and it is hand operated. The compound-rest handle is also
taper turning attachment is used the binder screw of the cross-slide. When a equipped with a micrometer dial to assist in determining the depth of the
taper turning attachment is used the binder screw is opened to disconnect cut. After necessary setting the compound slide is locked solid with its
the cross-slide from the cross-feed screw, and the extension of the slide is base.
attached with the guide block shown in Fig.3.49. Automatic movement of
the cross-slide is obtained when the pinion keyed to the cross-feed screw is The tool post : This is located on the top of the compound rest to hold the
in mesh with the apron gearing. tool and to enable it to be adjusted to a convenient working position. The
type and mounting of the tool post depends upon the class of work for
which it is to be used. The rigidity of the tool holder and effective method
of securing are the essential factors in designing a toolpost. Following arc
the common types of tool post
1 . Single screw tool post 3. Open side tool post

2. Four bolt tool post 4. Four way tool post
I
I
Figure 3.10 Carriage

1. Toolpost screw, 2. Tool post, 3. Rocker, 4. Tool, 5. Concave ring, 6. Compound
rest swivel base, 7. Crossfeed screw, 8. Binder screw, 9. Cross slide, 10. Cross
I
____ i......
------ -----
_t__
..._ __
I I
..J.i_ -----
-_.J
slide nut, 11. saddle, 12. Pinion on Crossfeed screw for putomatic feed, 13. Cross
slide hand wheel, 14. Compound slide hand wheel, Compound slide feed screw,
16. Compound rest, 17. Compound slide nut. Figure 3.11 Single screw toolpost
1. Toolpost screw, 2. Toolpost body, 3. Tool, 4. Convex rocker, 5. Concave ring.
Usually cross-slide hand wheels are graduated on their rims, or a
separate micrometer dial may be fitted on them so that a known amount of Single screw tool post : The single screw tool post is illustrated in
feed can be applied. One small division of the dial is equal to 0.05 mm. Fig.3.11. This consists of a round bar with a slotted hole in the centre for
fixing the tool by means of a set screw. The tool post with concave ring and
The compound rest : The compound rest or compound slide is mounted convex rocker slides in a T-slot on the top of the compound rest. The
on the top of the cross-slide and has a circular base graduated in degrees. It height of the tool point can be adjusted by tilting the rocker and clamping it
is used for obtaining angular cuts and short tapers as well as convenient in position by the set screw. The tool post can be swivelled about its
positioning of the tool to the work. By loosening two set-screws which fit vertical axis.
THE LATHE 103
The disadvantage with this type of tool post is that adjustment to

This type forms a very firm support for either a single or double tool
height by tilting obviously alters all the cutting angles of the tool. The tool
set-up. This is, therefore, often fitted to heavy duty lathes. This type does
post is not also rigid enough for heavy work as only one clamping screw is
not swivel in itself, and setting of the tool in any desired angle is effected
used to clamp the tool.
by the adjustment of the compound slide.
Open side tool post : The open side tool post is illustrated in
,..:.!
Fig.3.13. The tool is held quite independent of the main fixing bolt and
clamped in position by two set screws. The height of the cutting point can
be adjusted by using parallel pa1.:king strips and the tool post slide can be
swivelled to any desired position after loosening the central bolt which
: i·: : II :
I I I slides in a T-slot. This arrang'ement ensures quick replacement of the tool.
I I
I'
( 1 I
I I
Four way tool post : The four way tool post is illustrated in
I I II
I I I I Fig.3.14. In this type of tool post four sides are open to accommodate four
I... J '-t'J
I L1,J tools at a time. The tool is held in position by separate screws and a locking
bolt is located at the centre. The tools are fitted in proper sequence of
Figure 3.12 Four bolt toolpost operation and by indexing the too·t post through 90 ° any one of the tools
I. Tool, 2. Coil spring, 3. Strap, 4. Fulcrum block. may be fed into the work. Indexing device may be incorporated to enable
the post to be swivelled exactly through 90 °. This type of tool post is used
Four bolt tool post : The four bolt tool post is illustrated in in moderately heavy lathes and is suitable for repetition work.
Fig.3.12. The tool is held in position by two straps and four bolts. Loose
coil springs are fitted to each bolt to keep the straps in place and greatly
facilitate the setting up of the tools. Adjustment for tool heigl}t can be made
by using parallel packing strips under the tools.
I
- --.,-l-L I- - - -
L_...J
Figure 3;14 Four way toolpost

• 1. Clamping handle, 2. Central locking boll, 3. Set screws, 4. Tool.
Figure 3.13 Open side toolpost
I. Setscrew, 2. Central clamping bolt, 3. Clamping bolt handle, 4. Tool. The apron : The apron is fastened to the saddle and hangs over the front of
the bed. It contains gears, clutches, and levers for operating the carriage by
hand and power feeds. The apron also contains friction clutches for
automatic feeds. In addition, there is a split nut wh1cn engages, when bracket is pivoted about the 1st stud shaft. The design provides three
required with the lead screw, when cutting either internal or external positions of the bracket : forward, neutral, and reverse. With the forward
threads. The lay out of the apron includes an interlocking device which position, only one gear is in contact between the lathe spindle and the main
prevents the simultaneous engagement of the feed shaft and the lead screw. gear train, and the lathe carriage is moved towards the headstock. With the
The apron hand wheel can be turned to move the carriage back and forth reverse, the drive is through the two gears, the second gear being
longitudinally by hand. The complementary motion to this is obtained by introduced only to reyerse the direction of rotation, and the carriage is
the cross-feed handle which moves the cross-slide back and forth across the moved away from the headstock. I{ the tumbler gears are brought into the
saddle. The hand wheel is connected via a pinion to a series of spur gears, neutral position, the spindle is disengaged from the lead screw or feed shaft
and then- to pinion meshing with a f'ilCk fitted to the lathe bed. Usually a gear box. Spindle Drivin1
Wheel
chasing dial or thread cutting dial is fitted either to the side or top of the
apron and consists of a graduated dial. It has entirely independent drive
provided by a worm wheel which is in constant mesh with the lead screw.
)
Tumbler Wheels
3.10 FEED MECHANISM
The movement of the tool relative to the work is termed as "feed". A lathe
tool may have three types of feed-longitudinal, cross, and angular. When
the tool moves parallel to the lathe axis, the movement is termed as
longitudinal feed and is effected by the movement of the carriage. When
the tool moves at right angle to the lathe axis with the help of the cross
slide the movement is termed as cross feed, while the movement of the tool Follower,
by compound slide when it is swivelled at an angle to the lathe axis is
termed as angular feed. Cross and longitudinal feed are both hand and Figure 3,15 Tumbler gear feed reversing mechanism.
power operated, but angular feed is only hand operated.
The feed mechanism has different units through which motion is Bevel gear feed reversing mechanism : The tumbler gear
transmitted from the headstock spindle to the carriage. Following are the mechanism being a non-rigid construction, cannot be used in a modern
units: heavy duty lathe. The clutch operated bevel gear feed reversing mechanism
incorporated below the headstock or in apron provides sufficient rigidity in
1. End of bed gearing. construction. This is shown in Fig.3.16.
2. Feed gear box. The motion is communicated from the spindle gear 2 to the gear on
3. Feed rod and lead screw. the stud shaft through the intermediate gear. The bevel gear 8 is attached to
4. Apron mechanism. the gear on the stud shaft and both of them can freely rotate on shaft 7. The
bevel gear 8 meshes with bevel gear 12. 12 meshes with JO. 12, JO, and 8
End of bed gearing : This gearing serves the purpose of transmitting the are having equal number of teeth. The bevel gear IO can also rotate freely
drive to the lead screw and feed shaft, either direct or through a gear box. on shaft 7. A clutch 11 is keyed to the shaft 7 by a feather key and may be
In modern lathes, tumbler gear mechanism or bevel gear feed reversing shifted to the left or right, by the lever 9 to be engaged with gear 8 or IO or
mechanism is incorporated to reverse the direction of feed. it remains in the neutral position. When the clutch engages with bevel gear
Tumbler gear mechanis"! : Fig.3.15 illustrates tumbler gear 8, gear 3 which is keyed to the shaft 7 and the lead screw, rotates in the
mechanism. Tumbler gears are used to give the desired direction of same direction as the gear 2. The direction of rotation is reversed when the
movement to the lathe carriage, via lead screw or the 'feed shaft. The clutch 11 engages with gear JO.
tumbler gearing comprises of two pinions mounted on a bracket. The
Change gears : The train The sliding gear and sliding clutch mechanism explained in Art 3.7
of gears through which the gives a smaller range of feed. The gear cone and tumbler gear mechanism
motion is transmitted from is very common and is used in almost all modem lathes. When used in
the stud shaft to the lead combination with sliding gear or sliding key mechanism this provides a
screw is called change wide range of feed.
gears. The change gear Usually two or three levers must be moved to obtain the desired
train consists of the gear combination within a glven range. An index chart or plate attached to the
on stud, the intermediate machine indicates the position of the lever for a given feed, or number of
and the gear on the lead threads per inch or per so many millimeter pitch.
screw. This is illustrated in Gear cone and tumbler gear mechanism : Fig.3.17 illustrates the
Fig.3.15. The stud gear mechanism. A number of different sizes gears are keyed to the driving shaft
transmits motion through in the form of a cone. A sliding gear 4, keyed to the driven shaft, meshes
the intermediate gear to the with the idle gear 2 which is held in a bracket pivoted on the driven shaft.
driven gear. The 5
To change the gears the handle is pulled downwards to slide the whole
intermediate gear is assembly of gears 2 and 4 to the proper position and the idler is then
mounted on a 'quadrant', a engaged with the cone.
slotted link pivoted on the
Figure 3.16 Bevel gear feed
lead screw and is arranged
reversing mechanism
in any desired position. 1. Headstock spindle, 2. Spindle gear, 3. Driver
The intermediate gear can gear on shaft, 4. Intermediate gear, 5. Gear on the
be adjusted to any position leadscrew, 6. Leadscrew, 7. Shaft, 8, 10, 12. Bevel
in a fairly long slot of the gears, 9. Lever, 11, Clutch.
quadrant to engage both the
stud gear and the lead screw gear. By changing the sizes of the gears on
stud and screw various velocity ratio between the two may be obtained.
Feed gear box : The feed gear box or quick change gear box is fitted
directly below the headstock assembly. Power from the lathe spindle is
transmitted through gears to the quick change gear box. This gear box
Figure 3.17 Tumbler gear mechanism
contains a number of different sizes of gears which provides a means to
1. Gear cone, 2. Idle gear, 3. Bracket, 4. Sliding gear.
change the rate of feed, and the ratio between revolutions of the headstock
spindle and the movement of the carriage for thread cutting by altering the
Sliding key mechanism
speed of rotation of the feed rod or lead screw.
The mechanism consists
The arrangements which are employed in feed gear boxes to obtain
of a cone. of gears
multiple speeds and different rates of feeds are :
mounted on a hollow shaft
1. Sliding gear mechanism. 5 and any one of the gears
2. Sliding clutch mechanism. may be engaged with the
3. Gear cone and tumbler gear mechanism. shaft I by a sliding key 3
4. Sliding key mechanism. Figure 3.18 Sliding key mechanism that slides within the
5. Combination of any two or more of the above. 1. Driven shaft, 2. Sliding key operating handle, hollow shaft. Steel
3. Sliding key, 4. Sliding rod. 5. Driving shaft, washers are placed
6. Leaf spring.
· 108 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY THE LATHE 109
between the gears to prevent simultaneous engagement of adjacent gears by all other times the lead·screw is disengaged from the gear box and remains
the sliding key. The cone of gears is permanently in mesh with the driven stationary, but this may be used to provide motion for turning, boring, etc.
shaft gears transmits motion from the keyed gear to the driven shaft. in lathes that are not equipped with a'feed rod.
Fig.3.18 illustrates a sliding key mechanism.
Apron mechanism : Different designs of apron mechanism for
Drive of the feed rod and the lead screw : Fig.3.19 shows a complete transforming rotary motion of the feed rod and the lead screw into feed
driving arrangement of a feed rod and lead screw. The motion is motion of the carriage are constructed by different makers of the lathe.
transmitted from the spindle gear through the tumbler gears and change Fig.3.20 illustrates a typical apron mechanism. A sliding gear 22 mounted
gears to the shaft 5 on which twelve gears are keyed. Twelve different on the feed rod drives the worm gear 8 through the gear 23 and worm 24.
speeds may be obtained by the shaft 7 by the sliding gear. With the use of To get an automatic longitudinal feed motion, a knob 17 on the apron is
the sliding key and four additional gears on shaft 7 and 12, the shaft 12 can turned. This causes the cone clutch 9 mounted on the worm gear shaft to be
receive 12x4=48 speeds, i.e. 48 different feeds. The clutch enables the lead engaged, and the motion is transmitted from the worm gear through the
screw to be engaged or disengaged only one at a time. cone clutch and driving gears JO and JJ to the pinion 13 mounted on the
Feed rod : The feed rod is a long shaft that has the keyway extending from
the feed box across and in front of the bed. The power is transmitted from
the lathe spindle to the apron gears through a feed rod via large number of
gears. The feed rod is used to move the carriage or cross-slide for turning,
boring, facing and all other operations except thread cutting.
Lead screw : The lead screw is a long threaded shaft used as a master
screw, and is brought into operation only when threads have to be cut. In
1
Figure 3.20 Apron mechanism

1. Leadscrew, 2. Feed rod, 3. Half nut, 4. Crossfeed screw, 5,6,7. Gear train for
crossfeed, 8. Worm gear, 9. Cone clutch for longitudinal feed, 10, 11. Gear train
Figure 3.19 Layout diagram of feed drive for longitudinal feed, 12. Gear for hand feed, 13. Pinion, 14. Apron, 15. Rack, 16.
1. Headstock spindle, 2. Tumbler gear, 3. Tumbler bracket, 4. Change gears, 5. Handwheel for longitudinal feed, 17. Knob for longitudinal feed, 18. Cone clutch
Cone gear shaft, 6. Cone gears, 7. Sliding gear shaft, 8. Sliding key operating for crossfeed, 19. Knob for cross-feed, 20. Lever, 21. Cam, 22. Sliding gear, 23.
handle, 9. Clutch handle, 10. Leadscrew, 1 I. Feed rod, 12. Driven shaft. Gear on worm shaft, 24. Worm, 25. Cam plate, 26. Half nut operating handle.
THE LATHE 111
the split nuts and thus engages or disengages �ith the lead screw. The half
driving gear shaft. The pinion meshes with the rack I 5 and the carriage gets nuts slide within the guide or frame 2. Closing the half nuts causes the
the automatic longitudinal feed motion. To obtain automatic cross-feed carriage to move a fixed distance for each revolution of the spindle. The
movement, a separate knob 19 on the apron is tum'ed. This causes a second direction in which it moves depends upon the position of the feed reverse
pair of cone clutch 18 to be engaged. Both the cone clutches have teeth cut .
lever on the headstock. The split nut is used only for thread cutting and
on their periphery and they are in mesh with one another. So when the never for any other operation.
worm gear rotates, the motion is transmitted to the cross-feed screw 4
through the cone clutches 9 to 18 and through a set of gears 7, 6 and 5. The LATHE ACCESSORIES AND ATTACHMENTS
cross-feed movement is obtained as the screw is rotated within the cross
slide nut. To disengage the feed, both cross and longitudinal, a lever 20 is s, chucks.• collets,
Lathe accessories include centres, catch plates and carrier
and r sts. They are used either for
operated to drop the .worm out of engagement with the worm wheel. The face plates, angle plates, mandrels, �
mechanism also ensures that when the half nut is engaged with the lead holding and supporting the work or for holdin g the tool.
..
1c purposes.
screw the worm drops down disconnecting the feed motion. This Attachments arc additional equipment used for spec1f
g di ls, and taper
interlocking device prevents simultaneous engagement of the carriage with They include stops, ball turning rests, thread chasin _ �
rchevmg and crank
the feed shaft and lead screw and saves the machine from any probable turning, milling, grinding, gear cutting, turret, cutter,
damage. This arrangement of the apron is called fool-proof arrangement. pin turning attachments.
3.11 THREAD CUTTING MECHANISM
The rotation of the lead screw is used to transverse th� tool along the work <[ I A Jl �
[cca
to produce screw thread. The half-nut mechanism illustrated in Fig. 3.21
makes the carriage to engage or disengage with the lead screw. It comprises
a pair of half nuts 7 capable of moving in or out of mesh with the lead
screw. The two halves of the nut are connected in the cam slots 1 in a
c(J l B J)
circular disc 6 by two pins 5. When the disc is rotated by a hand lever 4
attached to it, the pins being guided in the cam slots serve to open or close
�\
D J)
Figure 3.22 Lathe c4lntre

1. Insert type cent.re, 2.
A. Ordinary centre, B. Ball centre, C. Frictionless centre-
Half centre, E. Tipped
Nut, 3. Roller bearing, 4. Thrust bearing, 5. Housin g, 0.
Figure 3.21 Half nut mechanism- -I. Insert, G. Pipe centre, H. Use of half
centre-I. Brazed tip, F. Insert type centre
1. Cam slot, 2. Guide or (rame, 3. Lead screw, 4. Hand lever, 5. Pin, centre-I. Half centre, 2. Facing tool.
6. Circular plate, 7. Half nuts.
112 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY THE LATHE ll3
Lathe centres : The most common method of holding the work in lathe is taper of the tailstock spindle. The ball and roller bearings reduce friction
between the two centres-live centre and dead centre. These two centres and take up end thrust and allow the centre to revolve with the work for a
take up the thrust due to metal cutting and the entire load of the workpiece long period without developing any appreciable heat. The pipe centre is
on small bearing surface. So they are made of very hard materials to resist used for supporting the open end of pipes, shells, etc. for thread cutting or
deflection and wear. The dead centre is subjected to wear due to friction. turning in the lathe.
The included angle of the centre is usually 60 ° for general purpose work To reduce friction at the dead centre point tallow, tallow and
and 75° for heavy work. The shanks of all the centres are machined to the graphite or graphitized oil may be used.
Morse (0 to 6) or Metric ( 4 and 6) standard tapers. Different types of centre
for different types of work are shown in Fig.3.22. Carriers and catch plates: Carriers and catch plates arc used to drive a
The ordinary centre is the type used for most general work. In the workpiece when it is held between two centres. Carriers or driving dogs arc
tipped centre, the point consists of a hard alloy tip brazed into an or�inary attached to the end of the workpiece by a set screw, and catch plates arc
steel shank. This is more expensive type of centre, one which will give either screwed or bolted to the nose of the headstock spindle. A projecting
excellent service against pin from the catch plate or carrier fits into the slot provided in either of
wear and strain. The ball them. This imparts a positive drive between the lathe spindle and
centre is used to minimize workpiece. Fig.3.23 illustrates different types of catch plates and carriers.
wear and strain on the 'F!'ie projecting pin of a single pin catch plate drives the straight end or tail
ordinary centre except that of a carrier attached to the workpiece. Two pins of a double pin catch plate
little less than half of the engage with the double tail or double slotted carrier and provide uniform
centre has been ground drive. The bent tail type is used in conjunction with a face plate or slotted
away. This construction catch plate.
facilitates facing of the bar
ends without removal of the
centre. Fig.3 .22-H
Chucks : A chuck 4
is one of the most
illustrates the use of a half important devices
centre in a facing operation. for holding and 5
The insert type of centre is rotating a piece of
used for reasons of work in a lathe.
economy as only the high Workpieces of
speed steel "insert" can be short length, and
replaced instead of large diameter or
replacing the whole centre. of irregular shape
The rotating or Frictionless which cannot be
centre is always used in conveniently
tailstock for supporting mounted between Figure 3.24 Four jaw independent chuck
heavy work revolving at a centres arc held 1. Concentric circle, 2. Chuck body, 3. Jaw screw,
high speed. An ordinary quickly and rigidly 4. Jaw, 5. Gripping surface, 6. Recess for back plate.
insert type centre revolves Figure 3.23 Catch plates and carriers m a chuck. A
freely on the ball and the A. Single pin catch plate, B. Straight tail carrier, chuck is attached
roller bearings fitted in a C. Double pin catch_pJ_ate, D. Double slotted to the lathe spindle by means of bolts with the back plate screwed on to the
housing having a taper carrier, E. Double slotted catch plate, F. Double spindle nose. Accurate alignment of the chuck with the lathe axis is
shank corresponding to the tail carrier, G. Bent tail carrier. effected by spigotting. The different types of chucks are
THE LATHE llS
1. Four jaw ind,ependent chuck 5. Collet fhuck the pinions, all the. three jaws
6. Combination chuck move backward or forward by
2. Three jaw universal chuck
3. Air or hydraulic operated chuck 7. Drill chuck equal amount. The chuck is
4. Magnetic chuck suitable for holding round, or
hexagonal, and other similar
Four jaw independent chuck : A four jaw independent chuck is shaped workpiece and the job
illustrated in Fig.3.24. This chuck has four jaws which may be made to is centered automatically and
quickly. But it has less gripping
.slide within the slot.s provided in the body of tQe chuck for gripping
different sizes of work piece. Each jaw may be moved independently by capacity as only three jaws arc
used and centering accuracy is
rotating the screw which meshes with the teeth cut on the underside of the
soon lost due to wear.
jaw. Each jaw made of tough steel has three inner and one outer gripping·
Combination chuck
surfaces. The outer
As the name implies, a
gripping surface is
combination chuck, shown in
used for holding 5 Fig.3.26, may be used both as a Figure 3.27 Magnetic chuck
larger sizes of J. Magnets, 2, Chuck body.
workpiece by 1
reversing the jaw. self centering and an
Concentric circles independent chuck to
inscribed on the face take advantage of both
of the chuck facilitate the types. The jaws may
quick centering of the be operated individually
workpiece. This type by separate screws or
of chuck is Figure 3.25 Universal chuck simultaneously by the
particularly used in 1. Bevel pinion, 2. Scroll disc, 3. Bevel teeth on scroll scroll disc. The screws
the setting up of disc, 4. Chuck body, 5. Jaw. mounted on the frame
heavy and irregular have teeth cut on its
Figure 3.28 Principle of magnetic chuck
shaped articles. The diameter of the underside which meshes
1. Work, 2. Non magnetic material, 3. Keepers,
body specifies the size of the chuck. 4. Face plates, 5. Magnet. with the scroll and all the
Universal or self centering jaws together with the
chuck : In a three jaw universal &vrews move radially when the scroll is made to rotate by a pinion.
chuck illustrated in Fig.3 .25 all the Magnetic chuck : The front view of a magnetic chuck is shown in
jaws may be made to slide Fig.3.27. The chuck is used for holding a very thin workpiece
made of
simultaneously by an equal amount magnetic material which cannot be held in an ordinary chuck.
It is also
within the slots provided on the body �sed wh�re any distortion of the work piece due to the pressure of the j�s
by rotating any one of the three is undes1rable. The working of a magnetic chuck is shown in Fig.3.28
_ . The
pinions which meshes with the teeth h�ldmg power of the chuck is obtained by the magnetic flux
radiating
cut, on the underside of the scroll either from the electro-magnets or from the permanent magnet
s introduced
disc. The scroll disc having a spiral within the chuck. In the ON position the flux passes through the
workpiece
groove cut on the top face meshes and grips it. In OFF position the magnets are set aside bringin
Figure 3.26 Combination chuck g them in
with the teeth on the jaws. When the contact with high permeable "keepers" which short circuit the
1. Ghucifbody, 2. Frame, 3. Screw, flux and
disc is made to rotate by any one of prevent them from passi·ng through the workpiece.
4. Jaw,�· Scroll.
116 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY THE LATHE , 117
Collet chuck capacity. The mechanism in�orporates a hydraulic or air cylinder mounted
Collet chucks are used at the back end of the headstock spindle and rotates with it. Fluid pressure
for holding bar stock may be communicated to the cylinder by operating a valve with a lever and
--'=��;��i��j�_,
in production work the piston will slide within the cylinder. The movement of the piston is
where quick setting transmitted to the jaws by a connecting rod and links and the jaws grip the
and accurate centering workpiece securely.
is needed. Fig.3.29 Drill chuck: A drill chuck is sometimes used in a lathe for holding
illustrates a collet straight shank drill, reamer or tap
chuck. The chuck for drilling, reaming or tapping
attached to the spindle operations. The chuck may be held
by a nut consists of a either in headstock or tailstock
thin cylindrical spindle. It has self-centering jaws
bushing known as Figure 3.29 Collet chuck
1. Bearing, 2. Spindle, 3. Nut, 4. Key, 5. Chuck, 6. which may be operated by rotating a
col/et having a slot cut key. A drill chuck is explained in
· Collet.
lengthwise on its Art 5.7.
periphery. The inside bore of the collet may be cyliiidrical, hexagonal,
square, etc. depending on the shape of the work th_at will pass through it. Face plates : A face plate consists
The outside surface of the collet which is tapered fits in the taper 1hole on Figure 3.31 Faceplate
1 of a circular disc bored out and
the body of the chuck, and the tail end which is threaded meshes with a threaded to fit the nose of the lathe
key. When the key is turned from outside, the collet is drawn in resulting spindle. This has the radial, plain
the split tapered end to be pushed inward due to the springy action and the
and 'T' slots for holding work by
workpiece is securely and accurately held in the chuck. Different sizes of
bolts and clamps. Face plates arc
collets are used for holding different si�es of the bar stock.
used for holding ·workpieces which
Air or hydraulic operated chuck : This type of chuck shown in cannot be conveniently held
Fig.3.30 is used in mass production work for its fast and effective gripping between centres or by chucks. This
is shown in Fig.3.31
Angle plates : This is a cast iron

plate having two faces machined to
\make them absolutely at right angles
to each other. Holes and slots are
provided on both faces so that it
may be clamped on a faceplate and
can hold the workpiece on the other
face by bolts and clamps. Angle
plates are used in conjunction with a
face plate when the holding surface Figure 3.32 Angle plate
of the workpiece should be kept 1. Faceplate, 2. Balance weight,
Figure 3.30 Air operated chuck
I. Cylinder, 2. Air passage, 3. Headstock spindle, 4. Piston, 5. Valves, horizontal, as for example, in 3. Elbow pipe, 4. Clamping nut for
6. Piston rod, 7. Link, 8. Jaw, 9. Guide, 10. Sliding unit. machining a flange of a pipe elbow. elbow pipe, 5. Angle plate, 6. Clamping
When eccentric jobs are bolted to nut for angle plate.
the face plate, a balance weight or counter weight must be added. Fig3.32,
illustrates the use of an angle plate.
Mandrels : A mandrel is a device for holding and rotating a hollow piece

of work that has been previously drilled or bored. The work revolves with
--·--
the mandrel which is mounted between two centres. The mandrel should
be true with accurate centre holes for machining outer surface of the
workpiece concentric with its bore. To avoid distortion and wear it is made
of high carbon steel. The entls of a mandrel are slightly smaller in diameter
and, flattened to provide effective gripping surface of the lathe dog set
screw. The mandrel is rotated by the lathe dog and the catch plate and it
Figure 3.34 Step mandrel
drives the work by friction. To secure the mandrel in the work, it is driven
by a copper or lead hammer or pressed by a special mandrel press. Collar mandrel : A collar mandrel having solid collars is used for
Different types of mandrels arc employed according to specific turning workpieces having holes of larger diameter, usually above 100 mm.
requirements. This construction reduces weight and fits better than a solid mandrel of
equal size. A collar mandrel is illustrated in Fig.3.35.
Plain mandrel : The plain mandrel is illustrated in Fig.3.33. This
type of mandrel is most commonly used in shops and finds wide
application where a large number of identical pieces having standard size
holes are required to be mounted on it. The body of the mandrel is slightly
tapered, the difference in diameter being 1 to 2 mm per 100 mm length.
The length varies from 55 to 430 mm. The taper is provided for proper
gripping of the workpiece. This type of mandrel is suitable for only one
size of bore. For different sizes of holes in workpieces different mandrels
are used.
Figure 3.35 Collar mandrel
p----------s-•
Screwed mandrel : A screwed mandrel illustrated in Fig.3.36 is
threaded at one end with a collar. Workpieces having internal threads are
screwed on to it against the collar for machining. The size and type of the
thread used on the mandrel
Figure 3.33 Plain mandrel depends on the internal
1. Flattened end thread of the workpiece. It
may be right or left handed, -
Step mandrel: A step mandrel having steps of different diameters square, 'V' or any other
may be employed to drive different workpieces having different sizes of type. External surface of
holes without replacing the mandrel each time. This type of mandrel is screwed flanges, holding
suitable for turning collars, washers and odd sized jobs us�d in repairing them on the screwed
workshops. A step mandrel is illustrated in Fig.3.34. mandrel. Figure 3.36 Screwed mandrel
Cone mandrel: A cone mandrel illustrated in Fig.3.37 consists of a
solid attached to the one end of the body, and a sliding cone which can be
adjusted by turning a nut at a threaded end. This type of mandrel is suitable mandrel to grip various workpieces with different hole diameters within a
for holding work- iimit that cannot otherwise be held in an ordinary mandrel. This has proved
pieces having its use in repairing workshops. To use this mandrel, the sleeve is first
different hole placed within the work with the pin removed. The tapered. pin is then
diameters Ly a pressed from the end into the sleeve and the sleeve expands, gripping the
placing the work securely and accurately. An expansion mandrel with a particular
workpiece on two sleeve can hold workpieces of varying hole diameters ranging from 0.5 to 2
cones and tighten mm. This range am be increased with different sizes of the sleeve.
ing the nut.
Forcing the cone
too much tightly
upon the Figure 3.37 Cone mandrel I
workpiece may I. Solid cone, 2. Sliding cone, 3. Nut.
spoil its outer edge.
Gang mandrel : This has a fixed collar at <?ne end and a movable
collar at the threaded end which may be adjusted to this position by a nut.
The mandrel is used to hole a set of hollow workpieces between two collars Figure 3.39 Expansion mandrel
by tightening the nut. The friction between the sides of the work and the I. Sleeve, 2. Ta pered pin.
collar is sufficient to drive the work without slipping in the mandrel. A
gang mandrel is illustrated in Fig.3.38. Rests : A rest is a mechanical device which supports a long slender
workpiece, which is turned between centres or by a clutch, at some
intermediate point to prevent bending of the workpiece due to its own
weight and vibrations set up due to the cutting force that acts on it. A rest
should always be used when the length is 10 to 12 times the diameter of
workpiece. Rests when properly
set provide greatest accuracy in
machining and permit heavier
depth of cut on the workpieces.
The two types of rests used in an
engine lathe are the steady or
centre rest and the follower rest.
Steady rest : A steady rest

Figure 3.38 Gang mandrel shown in Fig.3.40 consists of a
I. Fixed collar, 2. Hollow workpieces, 3. Movable collar, 4. Nut. cast iron base, which may be
made to slide on the lathe
Expansion mandrel : There are different types of expansion bedways and clamped at any
mandrels. The mandrel as shown in Fig.3.39 consists of a tapered pin desired position where a support
which is driven into a sleeve that is parallel outside and tapered inside. The is necessary. This is so designed
sleeve has three longitudinal slots, two of which are cut nearly through, and that the upper portion is hinged
the third splits it completely. This construction enables an expansion at one end which facilitates Figure 3.40 Steady rest
THE LATHE 123
122 .ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY
3. Held and driven by chuck with the other end supported on the
setting and re[!loval of the workpiece without disturbing the position of the tailstock centre.
steady rest. The three jaws on the steady rest, two on the lower base and 4. Held and driven by a chuck or a faceplate or an angle plate.
one on the upper fram�. may be adjusted radially by rotating individual
screws to accommodate workpieces of different diameters. The jaws which
The above methods of holding the work may be broadly classified
act as a bearing to the workpieces are clamped in position after the setting
under two headings :
is properly made. They rest on a spot on the workpiece which has been
previously turned to provide the true bearing surface. The main function of 1. Workpiece held between centres
a steady rest is to provide support to a long slender work. For this purpose 2. Workpiece held by a chuck or any other fixture.
one or more steady rests may be used to support the free end of a long
workpiece. It is also used to support the free end of a long workpiece for ·, Operations which are performed in a lathe either by holding the
drilling, boring, tapping operations etc. when support from the tailstock end �orkpiece between centres or by a chuck are :
cannot be given. The carriage cannot be fed to the full length of the work
when the steady rest is used. 8. Taper turning.
1.
Straight turning.
2.
Shoulder turning. 9. Eccentric turning.
Follower rest : A follower rest sh.own in Fig.3.41 consists of a ·:c"like
3.
Chamfering. 'JO..,Polishing.
casting having two adjustable jaws which support the workpiece. The rest Thread cutting.
4. 11. Grooving.
is bolted to the back end of the carriage and moves with it. Before setting
the follower rest, the end of the workpiece is machined slightly wi�er than
"s. Facing. \12. Spinning.
6. Knurling. lJ3. Spring winding.
the jaws to provide the true '-7, Filing. 14. Forming.
bearing surface. The tool is set \.
slightly in advanced position than Operation which are performed by holding the work by a chuck
the jaws, and as the tool is fed or a faceplate or an angle plate are :
longitudinally by the carriage, the
jaws always follow the tool giving 1. Drilling '6. Jnternal thread cutting
continuous support to
workpiece. The follower rest
the '2. Reaming '7 ...,Tapping
•3. 'soring ·B. Undercutting
prevents the job from springing 1 4< Counterboring '9. Parting-off
away when the cut is made and is 5. Taperboring
used in finish turning operations or '-�
where the entire length of the Operations which are performed by using special attachments
workpiece is required to be turned are:
without disturbing the setting.
1. Grinding 2. Milling
3.13 IATHE OPERATIONS Figure 3.41 Follower rest
3.14 CENTERING
In order to perfonn different machining operations in a lathe, the workpiece Where the work is required to be turned between centres or between a
may be supported and driven by any one of the following methods : _
chuck and a centre, conical shaped holes must be provided at the ends of
the workpiece to provide bearing surface for lathe centres. Centering is the
1. Held between centres and driven by carriers and catch plates. operation of producing conical holes in workpieces. To prepare a
2. Held on a mandrel which is supported between centres and
cylindrical workpiece for centering, it is first necessary to locate the centre
driven by carriers and catch plates.
hole by marking off. This is done by rubbing the end with a chalk and the finished after two or three similar cuts. There are two kinds of cuts in a
centre may be located by any one of the following instruments : (1) using a machine shop work
centre head and steel rule of a combination set, (2) using a hermaphrodite
caliper, (3) using a divider and surface plate, (4) using a surface gauge, and 1. Roughing cut or rough turning.
(5) using a bell centre punch. After the centre has been located, a centre 2. Finishing cut or finish turning.
punch and a hammer are used to make a deep indentation to produce the
hole to hold and to revolve tlte work on lathe centres. Centre holes are Rough turning : The rough turning is the process of removal of excess
produced by using a combined drill and countersink tool. This is held on a material from the workpiece in a minimum time by applying high rate of
drill chuck and may be mounted on the headstock or on the tailstock feed and heavy depth of cut. The roughing cut shoi.ild be so made that the
spir,ujle to produce � conical hole on the ends of the workpiece. The machine, the tool, and the workpiece can bear the load and it does not make
included angle of the hole should be exactly 60 ° to fit with the 60 ° point too rough a sutface and spoil the centres. The depth of cut for roughing
angle <>f the lathe centres. The straight hole projected beyond the conical operations in average machine shop work is form 2 to 5 mm and the rate of
hole serves as a small reservoir for lubricating oil and relieves the tip of the feed is from 0.3 to 1.5 mm per revolution of the work. In rough turning
dead centre from rubbing with the workpiece. operations shown in Fig.3 .42 a rouf?h' 'turning tool is used.
I
3.15 TURNING Finish turning : The finish turning operation requires high cutting speed,
small feed, and a very small depth of cut to generate a smooth surface. A
Turning in a lathe is to remove excess material from the workpiece to finish turning tool having sharp cutting fdge is held securely on the tool
produce a cone-shaped or a cylindrical surface. The various types of post for this purpose. In finish turning operation shown in Fig.3 .43 the
turning made in lathe work for various purposes are described below. depth of cut ranges from 0.5 to I mm and feed from 0.1 to 0.3 mm per
revolution of th� workpiece. The cross feed micrometer dial is used to set
Straight turning : The work is turned straight when it is made to rotate an accurate depth of cut. After measuring the diameter of rough turned
· about the lathe axis, and the tool is fed parallel to the lathe axis The straight surface, the depth of cut to be given is determined by subtracting the
turning produces a cylindrical surface by removing excess metal from the finished diameter from the measured value. The tool is then made to
workpiece. advance by half the above value by rotating the cross slide hand-wheel
After facing the ends and drilling the centre, the job is carefully through required number of divisions on the dial. The machine is started
mounted between the centres using a lathe dog attached to the workpiece, and a trial cut is made from the end of the work to 5 or 6 mm by applying
the bent tail of the dog fitting into the slot provided on the catch plate. If hand feed and the finished diameter is checked by a micrometer. Once the
the workpiece is mounted on a chuck or a face plate, care should be taken correct setting is made, the rest is finished by the automatic feed. Copious
to centre it accurately with the lathe axis. The trueness of the workpiece supply of coolant and lubricant should be used to produce a smooth
held on a chuck is tested by holding a chalk or a scriber or a dial indicator surface.
against the rotating workpiece.
A properly ground right hand turning tool selected for the purpose is
clamped on the tool post with the minimum overhang and is set with its
cutting edge approximately at the lathe axis or slightly above it. For light \
cuts the tool may be inclined towards the headstock, but for heavy cuts the
tool must be inclined towards the tailstock to swing it clear out of the work,
if there is any slip. The machine is started after the workpiece and the tool
is properly set and the correct spindle speed and the amount of feed to be
given is determined. The automatic feed is engaged to move the carriage to
the desired length, then the feed is disengaged and the carriage is brought Figure 3.42 Rough turning Figure 3.43 Finish turning
back to the starting position. The process is repeated until the job is finally operation operation
126 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY °
THE LATHE 127
Shoulder turning : When a workpiece having different diameters is

turned, the surface forming the step from one diameter to the other is called
D = large diameter of taper in mm.
the shoulder, and machining this part of the workpiece is called shoulder
d = small diameter of taper in mm.
turning. There are four kinds of the shoulder : (1). square shoulder, (2).
angular or beveled shoulder,, �3). radius shoulder, and (4). under cut = length of tapered parl'in mm.
shoulder, Fig.3.44 shows diffetent types of shoulders. The location of the 2<X = full taper angle.
shoulder is first marked on the workpiece by a hermaphrodite caliper, (X = angle of taper or half taper angle.
measuring from one end by a steel rule. The first diameter is then turned to
the finished size within 0.5 to 1 mm of the shoulder mark. For square or The amount of taper in a workpiece is usually specified by the ratio
beveled shoulder a right cut facing tool is used to finish upto the shoulder of the difference in diameters of the taper to its length. This is termed as the
mark. A round nose tool will produce a radius shoulder. A undercut conicity and its designated by the letter K.
shoulder may be machined by using a parting tool, being fed into the work
helow the first diameter surface to the desired depth. D-d
K = 3.2
I
Example 3.2 : tn fig. 3.45 lot D=90 mm, d=80 mm, and/= I 00 mm, find the value
of K.
Figure 3.44 Types of shoulders K = --

D-d
A. Square shoulder, B. Beveled shoulder, C. Radius shoulder, d. Undercut shoulder I
3.16 TAPERS AND TAPER TURNING

= ---
90-80
=
1
-
JOO 10
A taper may be defined This I 1/10 means that the amount of taper is 1:10, or in a length of
10 mm, the diameter of the taper is reduced by 1 mm. The amount of taper
-.
as a uniform increase or
decrease in diameter of 1/10 may also be �xpressed as a decimal, i.e. 0.1.
a piece of work �
measured along its ·-:r-�
_>· -- · The equation (3.2) may be rea�ranged in various ways to calculate
length. In a lathe, taper any one of the unknown quantities.
_, ___
turning means to
produce a conical sur D-d 3.3
=
face by gradual reduc K
tion in diameter from a
Figure 3.45 Taper elements /'
cylindrical workpiece. lf the large diameter, the small diameter and the conicity are known
This tapering of a part D. large diameter of taper, d. Small diameter of taper,
I. Length of taper, a. Half angle of taper the length of the taper can be calculated.
has wide applications in
the construction of machines. Almost all machine spindles have taper holes Example 3.3 : In Fig. 3.45 let D=80 mm, d=70 mm, and the conicity or the
which receive taper shank of various tools and work holding devices. amount of taper is 1/20, find the length of the taper.
Taper elements: A tapered piece shown in Fig.3.45 may t,e designated by

=
D-d =
80-70 =
--1- 200 mm -
the following symbols K 20
If the conicity, the length of taper, and the small diameter are
known, the large diameter can be calculated from the equation D-d K
Therefore, tan ex = =
2/ 2
D = Kl+d 3.4
or K = 2 tan ex 3.7
Example 3.4: In Fig.34.5 let the conicity is 1/30, the length of taper 300 mm the
small diameter 80 mm, find the large diameter.
The taper of a workpiece is sometimes expressed by the angle exthe
D = Kl+d half taper angle or the angle of taper.
Example 3.6 : In Fig. 3.45 let D=90 mm, d=80 mm and 1=100 mm. Find the
1
= -x300+80 = 90 mm. angle of taper.
30
If conicity, the length of taper and the large diameter are known, Tan ex=
D-d =---=
90-80 10
=1
2/ 100x2 200 20
the small diameter can be calculated from the equa!ion
= ex = 1 °25'56"
d D-Kl 3.5
Example 3.S : In Fig.3.45 let the conicity is 1/50, the length of taper 250 mt1i, and and the full taper angle, 2a = 2 ° 51' 52".
the large diameter 55 mm, find the small diameter.
Taper in the British System is expressed in taper per foot or taper
d = D-Kl per inch. If Dis the diameter of the large end, d the diameter of the small
end, and I the length of the taper, all expressed in inches, then
= 55-�x250 = 50 mm_. . D-d

50 taper per inch = - 3.8
/
Referring to Fig.3.45, BC is drawn parallel to the axis and in the
right angle triangleABC. When the taper is expressed in taper per foot, the length of the taper
l is expressed in foot, but the diameters are expressed in inches.
AB = --
D-d
BC = l
Examples 3.7 : Find the taper per inch and the taper per foot, if the diametcr,s of
3
D-d the taper are � inch and - inch ; and the length of the taper is 3 � inch.
Hence, tan <X 3.6 8 8 4 -
2/ ---
5
2 4 1
Taper per inch = � = -x- = in.
The tangent of the half taper angle can be determined if the two 3.!. 8 13 13
diameters and the length of the taper are known.
5
From the equation (3 .2) � 2 12 12
Taper per foot = = -x- = 0.923 in.
D-d 8 13 13
K = 3.!.
I 12
THE LATHE 131
standard, the taper is 0.500 in per ft in all of its numbers except the No. 10
Standard Tapers : Machine parts and tools having inside or outside taper which has a taper of 0.5161 in per ft.
are standardized to facilitate interchangeability of parts. Tapered surfaces The Jamo system of taper is the most sensible system. This was
which follow standard dimensions are called standard tapers. Standard originally designed for use in lathes. There are 20 sizes in the series, each
tapers adapted by the Indian Standard Institution for various tools and one being identified by a number ranging from 1 to 20, and the taper is
machine parts like drills, reamers, milling cutter shanks, arbors, lathe 0.60 in per ft in each size.
centres, etc. are Morse tapers. Morse tapers are available in seven sizes
numbered: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. The amount of taper varies from number Taper turning methods : A taper may be turned in a lathe by feeding the
to number. The No. 0 (zero) Morse taper is the smallest while No. 6 is the tool at an angle to the axis of rotation of the workpiece. The angle formed
largest in size. by the path of the tool with the axis of the workpiece should correspond to
The non-uniformity of the angle of the taper for different Morse the half taper angle.
taper sizes is its greatest disadvantage. While turning taper, it is essential that the tool cutting edge should
Metric tapers are sometimes used as standard tapers. Metric tapers be set accurately on the centre line of the workpiece, otherwise correct
are made in seven sizes and designated by the number 4, 6, 80, 100, 120, taper will not be obtained. A taper may be turned by any one of the
160 and 200. The taper number stands for the large diameter of the taper in following methods
mm. The advantage is that all metric tapers have the same angle of taper.
The amount of taper and taper angle for standard tapers are given in 1. By a broad nose form tool.
•
table 3.1. 2. By setting over the tailstock centre.
3. By swivelling the compound rest.
TABLE 3.1 STANDARD TAPERS 4. By a taper turning attachment.
5. By combining longitudinal and cross feed in a special lathe.
Standard tapers Amount of taper or f/a If taper angle Fu/I taper
conicity angle
Taper Turning by a form tool: Fig.3.46 illustrates the method of turning
Morse No. 0 1: 19.212 1"29'27" · 2"58'54"
. taper by a form tool. A broad nose tool having straight cutting edge is set
Morse No. 1 1 : 20.047 1"25'43" 2"51'26" on to the work at half taper angle,
Morse No. 2 1: 20.020 1 "25'50" 2"51'41" and is fed straight into the work to
Morse No. 3 1: 19.922 1"26'16" 2"52'32" generate a tapered surface. The
Morse No. 4 I: 19.254 1 °29'15" 2�8'31" half angle of taper will correspond
Morse No.5 1: 19.002 1"30'26" 3'00'53" to 90 minus side cutting edge angle
Morse No. 6 1: 19.180 l "29'36" 2"59'12" of the tool. In this method the tool
angle should be properly checked
Metric tapers : Nos. 4, 6, 80, before use. This method is limited
100, 120, 160,200 1: 20 1"25'26" 2"51'5]" to tum short length of taper only.
This is due to the reason that the
In the British system, in addition to Morse standard tapers there are metal is removed by the entire
two other important standard tapers cutting edge, and any increase in
the length of the taper will
1. Brown and Sharpe standard taper. Figure 3.46 Taper turning by a
necessitate the use of a wider
2. Jamo standard taper. form tool
cutting edge. This will require
ex. Half angle of taper.
excessive cutting pressure, which
The Brown and Sharpe standard taper is used mostly on milling may distort the work due to vibration and spoil the work surface.
machines. There are 18 sizes in the series, numbered from l to 18. In this
Taper turning by setting over the tailstock : The principle of turning D d

being tenned as the conicity or amount of taper, the fonnula
taper by this method is to shift the axis of rotation of the workpiece, at an 7
angle to the lathe axis, and feeding the tool parallel to the lathe axis. The (3.9) may be written in the following fonn
angle at which the axis of rotation of the workpiece is shifted is equal to
half angle of the taper. This is done when the body of the tailstock is made entire length of the work x conicity
to slide on its base towards or away from the operator by a setover screw as Setover 3.11
illustrated in Fig.3.9. 2
The amount of setover
being limited, this Example 3.8 : The length of a work is 200 mm, the amount of taper is I : 50. find
method is suitable for the setover required.
turning small taper on Using equation (3. I I)
long jobs. The main
disadvantage of this 200x�
method is that the live Setover 2mm.
and dead centres are 2
not equally stressed and
the wear is not uniform. + Example 3.9 : Determine the amount of setover required to turn a taper on the
Moreover, the lathe entire length of a workpiece having diameter of the large end 30 mm and diameter
of the small end 20 mm.
carrier being set at an
angle, the angular Figure 3.47 Taper angle by setover method
Using equation (3.10),
velocity of the work is D. Large diameter of taper, d. Small diameter of taper,
not constant. L. Length of the work, I. Length of the taper, a. Half
taper angle, S. Selover. 30-20
Setover = Smm.
The amount of setover required to machine a particular taper may· 2
be calculated as
From the right angle triangleABC in Fig.3.47 Example 3.10 : A shaft 1200 mm long has a taper of I : 200 for a length or 600
mm. The maximum diameter of th� shall is 75 mm. Determine the minimum
diameter of the shaft and the amount sctover.
BC= AB sin a, where BC= setover
Length of the taper = 600 mm
or setover = l sin a
Using equation (3.2),
If the angle a, the angle of taper, is very small, for all practical
purposes, sin a"' tan a 75-d
= ord = 72 mm.
D-d 200 600
or setover = l tan a= l x-- in mm 3.9
21
If the taper is turned on the entire length of the workpiece, then l = l, and D- d 75-72
Setover = l x -- = 1200x 3mm.
the equation (3.9) be<::omes: 2/ 2x600
D-d = D-d
Selover = lx-- 3.10 Example 3.11 : A shaft 900 mm long is to be turned taper for a length of 225
2l 2
mm. The amount of taper is I: I 00. Determine the setover required.
(
THE LATHE 135
900x 100
1
The amount of the offset required may be more accurately set by
Using equation (3.11 ), Setover = ---'--'- 4.5mm. allowing the tool post to touch the tailstock bane! in the nonnal and in the
2
offset position. This is done by turning the crosslide screw when the offset
in British system, Setover = L x
D-d is measw-ed directly by the difference of readings on the micrometer dial.
21 The dial indicator used in conjunction with the crosslide screw gives a
more accurate reading.
But D- d is taper per i�ch. Slip gauges are sometimes used for accw-ate setting of the tailstock.
entire length of the work in inch x taper per inch Taper turning by swivelling the compound rest : This method employs
Therefore, setover = the principle of turning taper by rotating the workpiece on the lathe axis
and feeding the tool at an angle to the axis of rotation of the workpiece.
2
The tool mounted on the comp0tmd rest is attached to a circular base,
graduated in degree, which may be swivelled and clamped at any desired
Example 3.12: A shaft 10 inch long has a taper off fnch per foot for a distance angle. This is illustrated in Fig.3.48. Once the compound rest is set at the
of 4 inch. the maximum diameter of the shaft is 2 f inch. How much must the desired half taper angle, rotation of the compound slide screw will cause
dead centre be set out of line ? the tool to be fed at that angle and generate a corresponding taper. This
method is limited to turn a short taper owing to the limited movement of
the compound rest. But a small taper may also be tmned. The compound
Taper per foot f inch rest may be swivelled at 45 ° on either side of the lathe axis enabling it to
Taper per inch = 48 meh
3 •
tum a steep taper. Tl;ie movement of the tool in this method being pw·ety
controlled by hand, this gives a low production capacity and poorer surface
entire length of the work in inch x tap:r per inch finish. I
The setting of the compound rest is done by swivelling the rest at
Setover = --------------------
the half taper angle, if this is already known. If the diameter of the small
2
and large end and length of taper are known, the half taper angle can be
calculated from the equation (3.6).
I Ox 4� 10x3 5
---=-- inch
2 48x2 16
Small/iameter of the work can be detennined from the fonnula:

·.:i;-aper per mch =
I . D-d
-,k--
3 11-d -0
-=-8__ and d 25
.
- m .
48 4 8
Measuring the tailstock offiet : Once the amount of setover

re quired for taper turning is found out, the body of the tailstock is made to
_
shde by the same amount accurately using a scale littached to the base of
Figure 3.48 Taper turning by swivelling the compound rest.
the tailstock. Where the tailstock is not equipped with the scale a double
ex. Half angle of taper.
sided
_ �teel rule may be placed between two centres and the amount of
offset 1s measured. But this is not a very accurate method.
136 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY THE LATHE- 137
Example 3.13 : Detennine the angle at which the compound rest will be switched
when cutting a taper on a piece of work having th� following dimensions : (i)
--
outside diameter of the rod 60 mm, (ii) length of the tapered portion 80 mm, and
(iii) smallest diameter on the tapered end of the rod 20 mm;,
D-d 60-20
tan <X = = = = 0.25
21 80x2 4
or oc = 14'2'
The rest should be switched at an angle of 14°2'.
Example 3.14 : The spindle end of a milling machine arbor has a taper of 7 : 24.
Detennine the setting of the compound rest.
K 7 7
tan ex = = = = 0.1458
2 24x2 48
or, oc = 8°18'
The rest should be swivelled at an angle of 8°18'. Figure 3.49 Taper turning attachment
1. Bracket or frame, 2. Guide block, 3. Guide bar, 4. Crossslide, 5. Binder Screw
Taper turning by a taper attachment : The principle of turning taper by
a taper attachment is to guide the tool in a straight path set at an angle to If the diameters D and d and the length L of the taper are specified,
the axis of rotation of the workpiece, while the work is being revolved the angle of swivelling the guide bar can be determined from equation\
between centres or by a chuck aligned to the lathe axis. A taper turning
attachment illustrated in Fig.3.49 consists essentially of a bracket or frame D-d
which is attached to the rear end of the lathe bed and supports a guide bar tan ex= --
21
pivoted at the centre. The bar having graduations in degrees may be
swivelled on either side of the zero graduation and is set at the desired The advantages of using a taper turning attachment are:
angle with the lathe axis.
When the taper turning attachment is used, the crossslide is first 1. The al.ignment of live and dead centres being not disturbed, both
made free from the lead screw by removing the binder screw. The rear end straight and taper turning may be performed on a work piece in
of the crossslide is then tightened with the guide block by means of a bolt. one setting without much loss of time.
When the longitudinal feed is engaged, the tool mounted on the crossslide 2. Once the taper is set, any length of a piece of work may be turned
will follow the angular path, as the guide block will slide on the guide bar taper within its limit.
set at an angle to the lathe axis. The required depth of cut is given by the 3. Very steep taper on a long workpiece may be turned, which
compound slide which is placed at right angles to the lathe axis. The guide cannot be done by any other method.
bar must be set at half taper angle and the taper on the work must be 4. Accurate taper on a large number of workpieces may be turned.
converted in degrees. The maximum angle through which the guide bat 5. Internal tapers can be turned with ease.
may be swivelled is 10 ° to 12 ° on either side of the centre line.
Taper turning by combining 3.18 CHAMFERING

feeds : Taper turning by
combining feeds is illustrated Chamfering, illustrated in Fig.3.52, is the operation of bevelling the
in Fig.3.50. This is a more extreme end of a workpiece This
specialized method of turning is done to remove the burrs, to
taper. In certain lathes both protect the end of the workpiece
longitudinal and cross feeds from being damaged and to have
may be engaged a better look. The operation may
simultaneously causing the be performed after knurling,
too! to follow a diagonal path rough turning, boring, drilling or
which is the resultant of the thread cutting. Chamfering is an
Figure 3.50 Taper turning by essential operation after thread
magnitude of the two feeds.
combining feed cutting so that the nut may pass
The direction of the resultant
may be changed by varying the rate of feeds by change gears {rovided freely on the threaded workpiece. Figure 3.52 Chamfering operation
inside the apron.
3.19 THREAD CUTTING
�.17 ECCENTRIC TURNING
Thread cutting is one of the most important operations performed in a
If a cylindrical workpiece has two separate axis of rotation one being out of lathe. Different standard forms and proportions of screw threads have been
centre to the other, the workpiece is tenned eccentric and turning of described in Vol. I. under Tapping and screwing.
different surfaces of the workpiece is known as eccentric turning which is The principle of thread cutting is to produce a helical groove on a
illustrated in Fig.3.51. Crank shaft turning in a lathe is a common example cylindrical or conical surface by feeding the tool longitudinally when the
of eccentric turning. In turning a single throw overhang crank shaft, two job is revolved between centres or by a chuck. The longitudinal feed
sets of centre holes are drilled at the ends of the shaft spaced by an amount should be equal to the pitch of the thread to be cut per revolution of the
equal to one half the total throw of the crank. The shaft is first mounted on workpiece. The leadscrew of the lathe, througt> which the saddle receives
its true centre and the part forming the journal is turned. The job is then its traversing motion, has a definite pitch. A definite ratio between the
remounted on the longitudinal feed and rotation of the headstock spindle should therefore be
offset centre and the
eccentric surfaces
are machined. In
eccentric turning,
counterbalance
weights are mounted 4
on the face plate to
get uniform turning Figure 3.51 Crankshaft turning
moment. If the throw
of the crank is sufficiently high so that the offset centre cannot be
accommodated on the face of the workpiece, special flanges are attached to
the ends of the workpiece and centre holes are then drilled. For double or
rymltithrow crank, centre holes are drilled to correspond with the different Figure 3.53 Principles of thread cutting
axis. 1. Headstock spindle, 2. Carriage, 3. Leadscrew, 4. Change gears
found out so that the relative speeds of rotation of the work and the drives direct through the intermediate gear to the gear on thP leadscrew.
leadscrew will result in the cutting of a screw. of the desired pitch. This is This intermediate gear has no effect on the ratio between the driver and the
effected by change gears arranged between the spindle and the leadscrew driven, but merely acts as a connection between the two, and serves to
or by the change gear mechanism or feed box used in a modem lathe keep the rotation of driver and driven iri the same direction. In a compound
where it provides a wider range of feed and the speed ratio can be easily train, shown in Fig.35. 4 the stud
and quickly changed. Fig. 3.53 illustrates the principle of thread cutting. carries two wheels which are
keyed together so that they rotate
..----1
Calculation for change-wheels : To calculate the wheels required for as a unit.
cutting a screw of certain pitch it is necessary to know how the ratio is The gear on the stud shaft
obtained, and exactly where the driving and driven wheels are to be acts as a driver, and in all
placed. Suppose the pitch of a lead screw is 12 mm and it is required to cut calculations it is considered as the
a screw of 3 nim pitch, then the ·lathe spindle must rotate 4 times the speed spindle gear, as usually it runs at
of the leadscrew, that is the same spindle speed. In modern
lathes using quick change gears,
the correct gear ratio for cutting a
spindle turn 4 particular thread is quickly
leadscrew tum obtained by simply shifting the Figure 3.54 Simple and
levers in different positions which compound gear train
But spindle turn mean 4
leadscrew turn
- means that are given on the charts or I. Gear on the spindle (Driver).
I instruction plates supplied with 2. Intermediate gear. 3. Gear on the
the machine. leadscrew (Driven).
driver teeth since a small gear rotates faster than a larger Example 3.15 : The pitch or a leadscrew is 6 mm. and the pitch or the thread to be
4
one with which it is connected. cul is I mm. Find change gears.
driven teeth
driver teeth leadscrew tum Driver teeth Pitch of the work
Hence,
driven teeth spindle turn Driven teeth Pitch of the leadscrew
or Driver teeth
pitch of the screw to be cut = -I = I x20 = 20 Driven teeth
pitch of the leadscrew 6 6x20 120
In Fig. 3.54 t he driver will have 20 T and the driven gear on the
In English measurement,_ lead screw 120 T.
driver teeth thdread per inch on leadscrew
Example 3.16: The pitch ofa leadscrew is 6 mm. and the pitch of the thread to be
,driven teeth thdread per inch on work cut is 1.25 mm. Find the change wheels.
Often engine lathes are equipped with a set of gears ranging fr,ofll Driver teeth Pitch of the work
20 to 120 teeth in steps of5 teeth, and one gear with 127 teeth. Driven teeth Pitch of the leadscrew
The types of gear connections on a lathe may · be simple, and
compound. In a simple train, shown in Fig.35. 4 the gear on the spindle
THE LATHE 143
_or Driver teeth 7x5x4= 140

Driver teeth 1.25 1.25x4 5
-=---=-=- 5 -I Dnven teeth
= X 127 127
Driven teeth 6 6x4 24 4 6
Since we have no gear of 140 teeth we must compound it thus :
' --
5x IO --=-
Ix20 SO -20
x x 70x40
140 70x2 70x2x20=---
4x IO 6x20 40 120 -=--=
127 127 127x20 127x20
In Fig.3.54 the driving gears will have 50 and 20 T and driven
gears 40 and 120 T. Therefore, driver gears will have 70 and 40 T, and driven gears 127
and 20 T.
Metric thread on English leadscrews : The cutting of metric threads on a
lathe with an English pitch leadscrew may be carried out by introducing a Exam pie 3.18 : Find the gears for cutting screw of lead 1/28 inch on a
translating gear of 127 teeth. lathe whose leadscrew has 4 threads per inch.
If the leadscrew has n threads per in. to cut p mm pitch then,
5pn
Lead screw has 4 t.p.i., so pitch= f inch.
Driver teeth
Driven teeth 127 Driver teeth Pitch of the work
Driven teeth Pitch of the leadscrew
This is derived as follows
1
4 2x2 2x20 --
Driver teeth pitch of the work (p) X2x IO
= 5pn
t
-=-=--=--
28
Driven teeth pitch of the Jeadscrew (*x 1�7) 127 28 4x7 4x20 7x10
40x20
· · I 80x70
( smce p1tch =
No. of thread per inch )
The driving gears will have 40 & 20 T, and the driven gears 80 & 70 T.
'
The factor 1�7 comes from the fact that 25.4 mm is equal to I in. So Example 3.19 : Show the arrangement of gears for cutting a screw thread of 26
it is made whole number by multiplying and dividing by 5 as t.p.i. in a lathe with a leadscrew having 4 t.p.i., change wheels avai'lable arc from
20 to 120 teeth with a progression of 5.
25.4xS -
--- 127
= Pitch of the screw to be cut I .
5 5 26 m.
I .
Pitch of the leadscrew 4 In.
Example 3.17: It is required to cut a screw having 7 mm pitch o_n a lathe I
having leadscrew of 4 threads per inch. Calculate the gears: Driver teeth 26 4 4x5 4x5 4xS 5x IO
t
-------------X--
Driven teeth 26 26x5 13x 10 13x5 10x 10
Driver teeth Spn 20 5 0
=-
Driven teeth X-
127 65 100
THE LATHE 145
The. driving gears will have iO and SO T and the driven gears 65
and 100 T.
Thread cutting operation : In a thread cutting operation the first step is

to remove the excess material from the workpiece to make its diameter
equal to the major diameter of the screw thread. Change gears of correct
size are then fitted to the end of the bed between the spindle and the
leadscrew. The shape or form of the thread depends on the shape of the
cutting tool to be used. In a metric thread, the included angle of the cutting
edge should be ground
Figure 3.56(a) Applying Figure 3.56(b) Applying
exactly 60 °. The top of the
perpendicular cut angular cut
tool nose should be set at
1. Depth of cut 1 . Depth of cut.
the same height as. the
centre of the workpiece. A
After the tool has produced a helical groove upto the end of the
thread tool gauge is
work this is quickly withdrawn by the use of the crossslide, the half-nut
usually used against the
turned surface to check the disengaged, and the tool is brought back to the starting position to give a
cutting tool so that each fresh cut. Before re-engaging the half-nut it is necessary to ensure that the
face of the tool may be tool will follow the same path it has traversed in the previous cut,
equally inclined to the otherwise the job will be spoiled. Several cuts are necessary before the full
centre line of the depth of thread is reached. Arising from this comes the necessity to "pick-
, Fi�ure 355 Thread tool gauge up" the thread. The different methods of picking up a thread are described
workpiece. This is
1. Thread tool gauge, 2. Thread cutting tool. below:
illustrated in Fig. 3_55_
The speed of the spindle is reduced by one half to one-fourth of the Reversing the machine : After the end of one cut the tool is
speed required for turning according to the type of the material being brought back to the starting position by reversing the machine, keeping the
machined, and the half-nut is then engaged.The depth of cut which usually h,\lf-nut permanently engaged. This method is very tedious and requires
varies from 0.05 to 0.2 mm is applied by advancing the tool perpendicular considerable time.
to the axis of the work or at an angle equal to one-half of the angle of the Marking the lathe parts : The general procedure is to mark the
thread, and 30 ° in the case of metric thread, by swivelling the compound leadscrew and its bracket, the large ge;u and the headstock casting, and the
rest. The different methods of applying depth of cuts are illustrated in Fig. starting position of the carriage on the lathe bed. The aim is to bring each
3.56 (a) & (b). Except when taking very light finishing cuts, the latter of the n:iarkings on the leadscrew and on the gear opposite the markings on
method is superior to the former as it the s�at1onary portions of the lathe, and have the carriage at the starting
_
pos1t1on before attempting to engage the split nut.
a. Permits the tool to have a top rake; Using a chasing dial or tl,read indicator : The chasing dial
.
b. Permits cutting to take place on one edge of the tool only; illustrated in Fig.3 .57 is a special attachment used in modern lathes for
c. Allows the chips to slide easily across tlie face of the tool accurate "picking up" of the thread. This dial indicates when to close the
without crowding; split or half nuts. This is mounted on the right end of the apron. It consists
d. Reduces cutting strain that acts on the tool; of a verti�al shaft with a worm gear engaged with the lcadscrew. The top
e. Reduces the tendency to cause the tool to "dig-in" of the spindle has a revolving dial marked with lines and numbers. The
dial turns with the Ieadscrew so long the half nut is not engaged. If the half
nut is closed and the carriage moves along, the dial stands still. As the dial
turns, the graduations pass a fixed reference line. The half-nut is closed for
THE LATHE 147
all even threads when any line on the dial coincides with the �eference li�e
For all odd threads, the half-nut is closed at any numbered line �n the dial Cutting multiple threads : In a piece of
determined from the charts. If the pitch of the thread to be cut 1s an exact work it is possible to have several
multiple of the pitch of the leadscrew, the thread !s called even thread, separate and independent threads running
otherwise the thread is called odd thread. along it. Accordingly, there may be single
. . . . .
In a chasing dia(the rule for determining the dial d1v1s10n IS: In tQe threaded screw and multiple or multi-start
case of metric threads, the product of the pitch of lead screw and the threaded screw. The independent threads
_
number of teeth on the worm wheel must be an exact multiple of the pitch are called starts. For one complete turn
of the threads to be cut. In the case of English threads, the product of the round the screw when there is a
threads per inch to be cut and the number of teeth on the worm wheel must movement of one thread the screw is
1 2
be an exact multiple of the number called single threaded screw, but wl\en
of threads per inch of the there is a movement of more than one
leadscrew. For example, if the thread the S<.:rcw is called multiple or
pitch of a leadscrew is 6 mm and
_ multi-start threaded screw. In the case of, Figure 3.58 Thread chaser
the worm wheel has 15 teeth, the say, a three-start thread, for one complete I. Work, 2. Thread chaser.
product will be 90. So any pitch turn the thread advances three times as far as if it was a !>inglc thread. The
which is exactly divisible by 90, distance a multiple screw thread advances along its axis in one turn is
such as 1, 1.25, 1.5, 2, 2.25, 3, called lead.
3.75, 4.5, 6, 7.5, 9, 10, 15, 30, 45, The calculations for a multi-start thread arc identical with those
90, may be picked up when any required for a single start thread. The ratio depends upon the relationship
line of the dial coincides with the between the pitch of the lead screw of the machine, and the lead, but not
reference line. For picking up the pitch, of the thread to be cut. This may be written as
threads of different pitches, a set of
worm wheels is used to give the Driver teeth Lead of the screw to be cut
=
desired value. Driven teeth Pitch of the lead screw
Thread chaser : A chaser is a Figure 3.57 Thread chasing dial Note: The lead screw of a lathe is always singlc-star1ed.
multipoint threading tool having 1. Dial, 2. Carriage, 3. Leadscrcw, 4. Cutting procedure of multi-start threads is similar to that of single
the same form and pitch of the Worm ge�r.
. start threads. In multi-start threads, circumference of the job should be
thread to be chased. An externa l thread chaser is shown m Fig. 3.5�. A divided equally into as many parts as there are starts on the thread, and
required.
chaser is used to finish a partly cut thread to the size and shape every part or division of the circumference of the job becomes the starting
Thread chasing is done at 1/3 to 1 f2 of the speed of turning . point for the new thread. There are three general methods of arranging the
spacing of each start. They are listed as
Cutting right-and left-hand thread : When cutting a right-hand thread
the carriage must move towards the headstock, for a left �and thread !he 1. Marking the gearing, and indexing round after completing each
. carriage moves away from the headst�ck a�d !�wards the t�1lstock. The Job start.
moves as always, in the anticlockwise d1re�t10n when v1ewed from the 2. Moving the top slide, on which the tool is firmly clamped, the
_ _ _
tailstock end. As previously mentioned the direction at which the carnage desired distan<.:e.
moves in relation to lathe headstock is controlled by means of the tumbler 3. Using an index driving plate.
gears or bevel gear feed reversing mechanism.
Indexing the gears: As regards the gear train it becomes necessary
to arrange the layout so that the first driver is a multiple of the number of
t 48 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY
THE LATHE 149
starts required; thus for a two start thread the gear teeth must be divisible Driver teeth 4.5
45
by two, for a three-start by three, and so on. Driven teeth
-'=-
6 60
Assuming that the gear train is correctly chosen, the driver is
divided into the same number of equal teeth as there are starts and marked So the driver will have 45 T and the driven 60 T.
whilst the fi.rst 'driven wheel is marked at
the tooth space which is mating with one of Cutting tapered thread : The surface is first turned taper to the required
the marked driver teeth. For cutting a two angle by any one of the taper turning methods described before. The thread
start thread, the gears are disengaged, those cutting tool is then set perpendicular to the lathe axis and not to the tapered
on the quadrant being drawn just clear of surface. To produce an accurate thread a taper turning attachment is used.
the driver on the top stud so that the top This is swivelled to be the half taper angle. The thread is finished in the
driver may, in this instance, be rotated half usual manner.
a revolution, thus permitting the second
marked position to mesh with the marked Checking a screw-cutting set-up : After setting a lathe for screw
cutting
tooth space in the first driven gear. Then operation a final examination should cover some or all of the
the gears are locked in position so that the
.
pornts:
followi,10�
second start may be machined. This
procedure is repeated where there are more Figure 3.59 Marking on I. The gear train; this must be correct for the thread to be cut.
than two starts. Fig. 3 .59 illustrates marking change gears 2. The tumbler gears must give the carriage the movement in
I. Chalk mark. the
on change gears. right direction.
Movi11g tile top slide. The top slide may be used for adjusting the 3. The slide must be so adjusted that vibration is avoided.
tool to have the correct spacing while cutting multi-start threads. After one 4. The tool and all portions of the machine should be clear of
any
start of the thread has been cut the top slide is moved a distance equal to rotating mass.
the pitch of the thread, whilst the tool is yet clamped in the position used 5. The spindle must be arranged to give the low cutting speed
when cutting the previous start. When adopting this procedure the top slide required.
must be parallel to the axis of the workpiece, and hence cuts parallel; after 6. The feed shaft must be disengaged.
such adjustment the slide should again be firmly clamped in position using 7. The apron feed mechanism should be at neutral.
a gib. Assuming that each is completed before adjusting the slide, the
number of times the top slide is moved is equal to the number of starts less 3.20 FACING
one.
Using an index driving plate : Special index plate may be used Facing is the operation of machining the ends of a piece of work to
where a large number of multiple threads is cut on a lathe. On the plate produce a flat surface square with the axis. This is also used to cut the
means are provided to rotate the job through a given fractional part of a work to the required length. The operation involves feeding the tool
revolution. 1
perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the workpiece. A properly ground
facing tool is mounted in a toolholder in the tool post. A regular turning
Example 3.20 : Calculate the change gears to cut a 3-start thread having a pitch of tool may also be used for facing a large workpiece. The cutting edge
1.5 min:' the leadscrew has a pitch of 6 mm. should be set at the same height as the centre of the workpiece.
Lead of the work= pitch x no. of starts = 3 x 1.5 = 4.5 mm. A spindle speed is selected to give the proper surface speed at the
Driver teeth Pitch of the work outer edge of the face, and the lathe is started. The tool is brought in to
clean stock from around the centre for the desired depth of cut and then is
Driven teeth Pitch of the leadscrew fed outward, generally by hand. The selection of hand-feed or power-feed
depends upon the length of the cut. The surface is finished to the size by
THE LATHE 151
giving usual roughing and finishing workpiece. If the surface to he knurled is wider than the rollers,,automatic
cuts. For roughing the average feed may be engaged. The feed varies from 1 to 2 mm p�r revoJution. Two
value of the cross feed is from 0.3 or three cuts may be necessary to give ·the full impression. At the end of
the first cut 1 the tools is brought back to the starting position by reversing
,,,, -
to 0.7 mm per rev. and the depth of
cut is from 2 to 5 mm, for finishing ?" the machine, leaving the rollers engaged. A fresh cut is given and so on.
the feed is from 0.1 to 0.3 mm per
1--i ),'
J
rev. anci the depth of cut is from O.7 3.22 FILING
to 1 mm. The facing operation is
illustrated in Fig.3.60. �P6",
I '
Filing is the finishing operation performed after turning. This is done in a
lathe to remove burrs, sharp corners, and feed marks on a workpiece and
also to bring it to the size hy removing very small amount of metal. The
Figure 3.60 Facing operation operation consists of passing a flat single cut file over the workpiece which
3.21 KNURLING
revolves at high speed. The speed is usually twice that of turning. The file
Knurling is the process of embossing a diamond shaped pattern on the sur should be slowly moved forward so that the work may pass 2 to 3
face of a workpiece. The purpose of knurling is to provide an effective revolutions during the cutting stroke. During the return stroke the pressure
gripping surface on a workpiece to prevent it from slipping when operated is relieved but an endwise feeding movement is given, overlapping the
by hand. In some press fit work knurling is done to increase the diameter rreyious cut. The file handle is grir,ped by the left hand and the tip of the
of a shaft. The operation is performed by a special knurling tool which file by the right hand to avoid accidents. Overfilling in a lathe damages the
consists of 1 set of hardened steel rollers in a holder with the teeth cut on trueness of the workpiece.
their surface in a definite pattern. The tool is held rigidly on the tool post
and the rollers are pressed against the revolving workpiece to squeeze the 3.23 POLISHING
metal against the multiple cutting edges, producing depressions in a
regular pattern on ftte'surface of the workpiece. When a single roller is Polishing is performed after filing to improve the surface quality of the
used to genera�parallel grooves, the tool should be set at the centre height workpiece. Polishing with successively finer grades of emery cloth after
and pe��..ndicular to the lathe axis. But when two rollers are used, one filing results in very smooth, bright surface. The lathe is run at high speeds
rig�.!)tand and the other left hand, to generate crossed or diamond shaped from 1500 to 1800 m per min, and oil is used on the emery cloth.
.,.,p�tern, the rollers are set at equal distance from the centre. Knurls are
available m coarse, 3.24 GROOVING
medium and fine pitches.
Fig.3.61 illustrates a Grooving is the process of reducing the diameter of a workpiece over a
revolving holder with three very narrow surface. It is often done at the end of a thread or adjacent to a
sets of knurls. Any one set shoulder to leave a small margin. The work is revolved at half the speed of
rn
or pair may be brought turning and a grooving tool of required shape' is fed straight into the work
00
into operation by revolving
D1J
the unit. Knurling is done
g e
at the slowest speed
available in a lathe.
Usually the speed is
reduced to 1/4th of that of
Figure 3.61 Revolving knurl holder
g (a) (b) (c)
1. First set of Knurl, 2. Knu�J,holcl,ci,
turning, and plenty of oil is Figure 3.62 Groovfog operation
3. Second set of knurl.
flowed on the tool and (a). Square groove, (b). Round groove, (c). Bevelled groove.
by rotating the crossslide screw. A grooving tool is similar to a parting-off For turning a small length of formed surface, a forming tool having
tool. Fig.3.62. illustrates a grooving operation. cutting edges conforming to the shape required is fed straight into the
work. Forming tools are not supposed to remove much of the mate.rial and
3.25 SPINNING is used mainly for finishing formed surfaces. Usually two types of forming
tools are used -- straight and circular. Straight type is used for wider
Spinning is the process of forming surfaces and the circular type for narrower surfaces. Fig.3.64 illustrates
· a thin sheet of metal by revolving forming operations performed by straight or circular tools. The cross feed
the job at high speed and pressing ranges from 0.01 to 0.08 mm per revolution and the cutting speed 1s
it against a "former" attached to slightly less than that of the straight turning.
the headstock spindle. A support is
also given from the tailstock end.
The pressure is gradually applied
to the revolving sheet metal by a
long round nose forming tool
supported on the special tool rest
when the piece slowly acquires the
shape of the former. This is
illustrated in Fig.3.63
3
3.26 SPRING WINDING
Figure 3.63 Spinning
Spring winding is the process of 1. Former, 2. Sheet of metal,
making a coiled spring by passing 3. Forming tool.
a wire around a mandrel which is
revolved on a chuck or between centres. A small hole is provided on a Figure 3.64 Forming operation
steel bar which is supported on the tool post and the wire is allowed to pass 1. Work, 2. Straight fomiing tool, 3. Circular fomiing tool.
through it. The diameter of the mandrel should be less than the desired
spring diameter as all springs expand in diameter after they are taken out When the length of the formed surface is sufficiently great, the
of the mandrel. In order to wind the spring of the required pitch, the lathe required shape may be obtained by using straight turning tool, which is fed
is geared similar to the thread cutting operation. into the work using both longitudinal and crossfeed simultaneously by
hand. The process is tedious and requires much skill.
3.27 FORMING When a large number of wide, formed surfaces ate to be turned, a
template having the required shape is attached to the rear end of the lathe
Forming is the process of turning a convex, concave or of any irregular bed and the crossslide is attached to the guide block after disengaging the
shape. Form-turning may be accomplished by the following methods: crossslide screw. With the longitudinal travel of the carriage, the tool will
reproduce the contoured surface of the template as the guide block will
1. Using a forming tool. trace the curved path.
2. Combining cross land longitudinal feed.
3. Tracing or copying a template. 3.28 DRILLING
-
Drilling is the operation of producing a cylindrical hole in � workpiece by
... . �,�
THE LATHE 155
1. The work is revolved in a chuck or a face plate and the .tool

the rotating cutting edge of a cutter known as the drill. Drilling in a lathe is
which is fitted to the tool post is fed into the work. This. meihod,
performed by any one of the following methods:
is adapted for boring small sized works. One piece forged tool iS'
1. The workpiece is revolved in a chuck or a faceplate and the drill used for boring small hole, whereas a bpring bar with a tool bit
attached to it is suitable for machining a large hole. The depth of
is held in the tailstock drill holder or in a drill chuck. Feeding is
effected by the movement of the tailstock spindle. This method cut is given by the cross�..de screw and the feed is effected by
is adopted for drilling regular shaped workplaces. the longitudinal travel ofihe carriage.
2. The drill is held and driven by a drill chuck attached to th� 2. The work is clamped on the carriage and a boring-bar holding
headstock spindle, and the work is held against a pad or crotch the tool is suppo11ed between the centres and made to revolve.
supported by the tailstock spindle. Feeding is effected by the Longitudinal movement of the carriage provides feeding
movement of the tailstock spindle. Workpieces of very movement and the depth of cut is given by adjusting the
irregular shape which cannot be accommodated on a chuck or position of the tool 'insert'. Fig.3.65. illustrates boring operation
faceplate arc drilled by this method. by a boring bar.
Tape\ shank drilis are mounted on sockets or drill holders and the Counterboring : Counte�boring is the operation of enlarging a hole
straight shank drills are fitted to the drill chucks. Speeds and feeds for through a certain distance from one end instead of enlarging the wholc
drilling in a lathe are 25% lower than the corresponding figures for drilling drilled surface. It is similar to a shoulder work in external turning. The
in a drilling machine. operation is similar to boring and a plain boring tool or a countcrbore may
be used.
3.29 REAMING
Taper boring f The prindple of turning a taper hole is similar to the
Reaming is the operation of finishing and sizing a hole which has been external taper turning operation and is..accomplished by rotating the work
previously drilled or bored. The tool used is called the reamer, which has on a chuck or a face plate, and feeding the tool at an angle to the axis of
multiple cutting edges. The reamer is held on the tailstock spindle, either rotation of the workpiece. The taper boring may be done by any one of the
direct or through a drill chuck and is held stationary while the work is following methods
�volved at a very slow speed. The feed varies from 0.5 to 2 mm per
revolution. 1. A boring tools is mounted on the tool post and by swivelling the
compound slide to the desired angle, a short taper hole is
3.JO:· BORING machined by hand feeding.
2. The taper turning attachm.ent may be used to guide the boriog
Boring is the opera tool at an angle to the lathe axis by disengaging the crossslide
tion of enlarging and ·. from the crossslide screw. The operation is si1_11ilar to ·:i plain
truing a hole pro boring op�ration.
duced by drilling, 3. Standard small tapers may be bored by using taper reamers
punching, �asting or J mounted on the tailstock spindle.
forging. Boring can-
not originate a hole. 3.31 INTERNAL THREAD CUTTING
Figure 3.65 Boring operation
Boring is si�ilar to
I. Work, 2. Boring bar, 3. Boring tool. The principle of cutting internal threads shown in Fig.3.66 is similar to that
the external turning
operation and can be performed in a lathe by the following two methods of an external thread, the only difference being in the tool used. The tool is
similar to a boring tool with cutting edges ground to the shape conforming
THE LATHE 157
to the type of the thread to be cut. The hole 'is first bored to the root
3.34 PARTING-OFF
diameter of the thread. For cutting metric thread, the compound slide is
swiveled 30 ° towards the headstock. The tool is fixed on the tool post or on
Parting-off is the operation of cutting a workpiece after it has been
the boring bar after setting it at right angles to the lathe axis, using a thread
machined to the desired size and shape. A parting-off operation is shown
gauge. The use of thread gauge is illustrated in Fig.3.67. The depth of cut
in Fig.3.69. The process involves rotating the workpiece on a chuck or
is given by the compound slide and the thread is finished in the usual
faceplate at half the speed that of turning and feeding by a narrow parting
off tool perpendicular to the lathe axis by rotating the crossslide screw by
hand. Before the operation is
started, the carriage is locked in
position on the lathe bed and the 1
cutting tool is held rigidly on the
-·--
2
., tool post with the compound slide
set parallel to the lathe axis. The
tool should be fed very slowly to
prevent chatter. The feed varies
Figure 3.66 Internal thread Figure 3.67 Use of thread tool from 0.07 to 0.15 mm per
cutting operation gauge for internal thread cutting revolution and the depth of cut
1. Internal thread cutting tool, which is equal to the width of the
3.32 TAPPING 2. Thread tool gauge. tool ranges from 3 to 10 mm. In
·-' parting a work of very large Figure 3.69 Parting off operation
Tapping is the operation of cutting internal threads of small diameter using diameter, cuts are made in stages. t. Work, 2. Parting off tool.
. "--
a multipoint cutting tool called the tap. In a lathe, the work 1s mounted on a The parting tool is first fed
chuck or on a face plate and revolved at a very slow speed. A tap of through a certain depth it is then withdrawn, and two more cuts are made
required size held on a special fixture is mounted on the tailstock spindle. at the two sides of the central groove. The tool is next fed into the central
The axis of the tap should coincide exactly with the axis of the work. The groove until the work is cut off in two parts.
tap will automatically feed into the work with the help of the special
fixture. 3.35 MILLING
3.33 UNDERCUTTING Milling is the operation of removing metal by feeding the work against a
rotating cutter having multiple cutting edges. It is performed in a lathe by
Undercutting shown in any one of the two methods
Fig.3.68 is similar to
grooving operation when 1. For cutting keyways or grooves, the work is supported on the
performed inside a hole. It crossslide by a special attachment and fed against a rotating
is the process of boring a Figure 3.68 Undercutting operation ·milling cutter held by a chuck. The depth of cut is given by
groove or a large hole at a 1. Undercut. vertical adjustment of the work provided by the attachment.
fixed distance from the end of a hole this is similar to boring operation. 2. The work may be supported between centres and held
except that a square nose parting tool is used. Undercutting is l :me at the stationary. The attachment mounted on the carriage drives the
end of an internal thread or a counterbore to provide clearance for the tool cutter from. an individual motor. The feeding movement is
or any mating part. provided by the carriage and the vertical movement of the cutter
is arranged in the attachment. A number of grooves on the
.1 \
periphery of the work may be cut by rotating the work by a

[ THE LATHE 159
fixed amount and machining it against the cutter. A gear wheel 3.38 FORGED TOOL
may be cut on a lathe by fixing a universal dividing head at the
rear end of the headstock spindle. This permits dividing the-
Forged tools are
periphery of the work by an equal amount.
manufactured from high
carbon steel or high speed
3.36 GRINDING steel. The required shape
of the tool is given by
Grinding is the operation of removing metal in the form of miriute chips ·by forging the end of a solid
feeding the work against a rotating abrasive wheel known as the grinding tool steel shank. The
wheel. Both internal and external surfaces of a workpiece may be ground cutting edges i1re �then
by using a special attachment mounted on the crosslide. For grinding ground to the shape to
external surface, the work may be revolved between centres or on a chuck. provide necessary. tool
For internal grinding the work must be revolved on a chuck or faceplate. angles. Fig.3.70 shows a
The feeding is done by the carriage and the depth of cut is provided by the forged tbol.
crossslide. Grinding is performed in a lathe for finishing a job, sharpening Figure 3.70 Forged tool
a cutter, or sizing a workpiece after it has been hardened. 3.39 BRAZED TIPPED TOOL
3.37 CUTIING TOOLS Stellite and cemented carbide tool materials, in view of the very high cost,
brittleness, and low tensile strength, are used in the form of small tips.
For general purpose work, the tool used in a lathe is a single point tool, but They are made to the various shapes to form d'ifferent types of tools and
for special ; operations multipoint tools may be used. are attached permanently to the end of a carbon steel shank by a brazing
operation. High speed steel due to its high cost is also sometimes used' in
Classification : single point lathe tools are classified under the following the form of tips brazed on carbon steel shank.
groups: High speed steel tip
Brazing : Brazing is a
e::/===::::::i�
1. According to the method of manufacturing the tool : method of joining two or
(a) Forged tool. more metals by means of
(b) Tipped tool brazed to the carbon steel shank. a fusible alloy or metal Copp�r brazing
(c) Tipped tool fastened mechanically to the carbon steel shank. /
,
______ �
,/" piece
·2, called "speller" which
. A'ccprding to the method of holding the tool : fuses at some temperature
(a) Soi'id tool. ; (b) Tool bit inserted in the tool holder. above red heat, but below
3. According to titt metf,od of using the tool : the melting temperature of
(a) Turning · · (f).Forming , the parts to be joined. Carbon steel shank
(b) Chamfering (g) Boring The brazing of a
(c) Thread cutting (h) Internal thread cutting tip on the ·carbon steel Figure 3.71 Brazing process
(d) Facing (i) Parting-off shank is performed in four
(e) Grooving steps. This is illustrated in Fig.3.71'. The first step is to prepare the shank
4. According to the method of applying feed : and to form the recess at the end of the shank to accommodate the tip. The
(a) Right-hand (b) Left-hand 'recess is formed either by. grinding or milling and slant surfaces are
(c) Round nose r'nathin_ed approximately to the cutting angles. The second step is to clean
the brazing surface' either b)' mechanical or chemical means. Mechanical
I THE LATHE 161
cleaning is done either by light grinding or sand blasting the surface. is effected by passing a high frequency alternating current through a coil
Chemical cleaning is done by. dipping the edge in hydraulic acid and then surr�unding the tip. The resistance offered by the tip to the flow of an
in carbon tetrachloride solution for a few minutes. The cleaned surfac� is electric current causes the heat to be generated and melts the brazing
then coated with flux, usually borax, which prevents the surface from metal. the induction brazing process is i·llustrated in Fig.3.73.
oxidization. The common brazing metals used are : copper which melts are After the tip has been securely brazed on the tool shank, the last and
1080CC, tobinbronze which melts at 885CC and silver solder which melts at the final step is to grind the cutting edges to exact tool angles.
700CC. The third step is to heat the shal\k and the tip as one piece. This is
performed by any one of the following methods. 3.40 MECHANICALLY FASTENED TIPPED TOOL
Torch brazing : When a To ensure rigidity that a brazed

small number of tools are tool does not offer, tips are
brazed, a nonoxidizing sometimes clamped at the end 3
flame from an oxy- of a tool shank by means of a
acetylene torch is used to clamp and bolt. Ceramic tips
preheat the shank. The which are difficult to braze arc
surface is then tinned with a clamped at the end of a shank,
brazing metal and the tip is Fig.3.74 shows a mechanically
placed in position. The fastened tipped tool.
£_________.]
whole assembly is next
heated at the bottom and 3.41 SOLID TOOL
Figure 3.72 Furnace brazing
when it gets properly heated
1. Tip on brazing metal, 2. Hydrogen inlet,
the tip is pressed from the 3. Hydrogen name. Solid tools are made of high
top. carbon steel forged and ground
to the required shape. They are Figure 3.74 Mechanically fastened
Furnace brazing : When a large number of tools are brazed the heating is mounted directly on the tool tipped tool
done in an electric furnace in an atmosphere of hydrogen or in a gas post of a lathe. I. Clamping screw, 2. Clamp, 3. Shank.
furnace to prevent it from oxidization.
The furnace brazing process is Shank section : The shank section of a tool may be round , square or
illustrated in Fig.3.72. The brazing rectangular. Round section ranges from 6 to 63 mm. In the Indian standard
surface is coated with a fluxing system this is denoted as 63 IS : 1983 if the diameter is 63 mm. Square
material and a thin sheet of brazing section ranges from 6 x 6 to 63 x 63 all in mm and is denoted as, say, 20 x
tnetal is placed on it. The tip is seated 20 IS : 1983. Rectangular section tools may have height to breadth ratio as
above the brazing metal and the whole 1.25 : 1 or 1.6 : 1 or 2:1. The height of the shank range from 6 to 63 mm in
assembly is then heated in the furnace. each case, and the breadth is calculated from the given ratio. For example,
The tool is withdrawn at the correct in the case of height to breadth ratio of 2 : 1 if the height is 6 mm, the
temperature when the brazing metal breadth will be 3 mm and it will be denoted as 63 IS : 1983. the accepted
Figure 3.73 Induction brazing
melts and the tip is pressed on the numbers in each case which ranges from 6 to 63 mm are 6, 8, 10, 12, 16 ,
recess. 20, 25, 32, 40, 50 and 63. Severe machining conditions demand larger
shank section of the tool.
High frequency induction brazing : To prevent accidental cracking of The standard dimensions of carbide tool shanks arc given in Table 3.2.
tips that may happen in any one of the previous methods, localized heating
\
THE LATHE 163

162 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP T�HNOLOGY
4. A tool bit may be easily withdrawn and replaced in position
TABLE 3.2 INDIAN STANDARD DIMENSiONS OF Ct\l\BIDE TOOL without disturbing the setting·
SHANKS AND NOSE RADIUS
Inspite of all these advantages, solid tools are still preferred in cases
Shank section Ix b mm x mm Tool Length mm Nose radius mm where rigidity of the tool is of prime importance. Moreover, the solid tool
I Ox JO 90 05 being made of one material the heat is uniformly distribute� t�roughout.
J2x12 100 05
3.43 INFLUENCE OF TOOL ANGLES
16xl6 110 05
20x20 125� 05 Tool angles of a single point tool, which have been explained in Art. 2.14
25x25 MO 1.0 anc;I ·given ii'! Fig.2.17 exert direct influence in all metal cutting operations
32x32 170 1.0 in a lathe. These arc summarized below
40x40 200 1.0
Rake The rake or slope of the tool face has the following functions :
50x50 240 1.6
1. It allows the chips to flow in a convenient direction.
3.42 TOOL BIT AND TOOL HOLDERS 2. It reduces the cutting force required to, shear the metal and
consequently helps to increase the tool life and reduces the
A tool bit is a small piece power consumed.
2
of cutting material 3. It provides keenness to the cutting edge.
having a very short 4. It improves the surface Finnish.
shank which is inserted
in a forged carbon steel The amount of rake angle to be given in a tool, depends on the
tool holder and clamped following factors
in position by bolt or
screw. A tool bit may be Figure 3.75 Tool bit and tool holder (i) Type of material being cut : A harder material like cast iron
of solid type or tipped 1. Work, 2. Clamping screw, may be machined with a smaller rake angle than that required by a soft
one according to the type 3. Tool holder angle 15 °, 4. Tool bit. metal like mild steel or aluminium. Maximum support to the cutting edge
of the cutting tool material. Tool h_olders are made of different designs in machining hard metal is afforded to by increasing the lip angle and
according to the shape and purpose of the cutting tool. Fig.3.75 illustrates a decreasing the rake angle.
common type of tool holder using h.s.s. tool bit. The tool bit is inserted in (ii) Type of tool material being used: Tool material like cemented
a slot set at an angle of 15 ° to the base. This inclination redu�s the carbide permits turning at a very high cutting speed . It has been observed
effective clearance angle and increases the top rake angle _by. 15 °. So in that in machining at a very high cutting speed rake angle has a little
grinding the tool this 15 ° is to be added to the actual clearance angle and influence of cutting pressure. Under such condition, the rake angle is
deducted from the rake angfe. reduced to a minimum or even negative rak!': is provided to increase the
The advantages of using a tool bit over a solid tool are as follows ·, tool strength . This increases the lip angle.
.
· . · (iii)' Depth of cut : In rou"gh turning, high depth of cut is·giwen· to·
1. The tool can be adjusted to the correct height easily by simply withstand severe cutting pressure.. So.the rake angle should be decreased to
adjusting the position of the tool bit in the.slot. increase the lip angle that provides strength to the cutting edge. Tools may
2. This is less expensive than a solid tool. have larger rake angle.where small depth of cut is necessary.
3. Regrinding of the tool is easier as only the end cutting edges are
required to be ground.
•
A
164 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY THE LTHE 165
.,
(iv) Rigidity of the toolholder and condition of machine : An increases the strength of the tool and prevents ·the cutting edge from .
improperly supported tool on an old and worn out machine cannot take up digging into the work.
severe cutting pressure . So in machining under the above condition, the
tool used should have larger rake angle than that at the normal condition Negative rake : A tool has a negative rake when the face of the tool slopes
to reduce the cutting pressure. away from the cutting edge and slants upward towards the back or side of
the tool. Negative rake is used in turning metal with cemented carbide
Front rake : The front rake influences the machining condition when the tipped tool in mass production work.
tool removes metal from its front cutting edge. A common example is a Turning with a negative rake has the following advantages:
parting-off tool.
1. The point of application of the cutting force is altered from the
Side rake : The side rake influences tne machining'condition when it cutting edge where the tip is weak to a stronger section.
removes metal on its side cutting edge only . A knife edge turning tool 2. The thrust gives a compressive load on the tip. The cemented
may not have any front rake but it must have a definite amount or side carbide tips which are capable of withstanding compressive
rake. Side rake also allows the chips to flow by the side of the tool without loads 3 to 4 times than bending loads are very suitable for
getting entangled with the tool post. negative rake turning.
3. It can work against a very high cutting speed.
True rake : As most of the standard tools remove metals both on its end 4. It decreases tool wear and consequently increases the tool life.
and side cutting edges a slope on the face of the tool is given suitably 5. Negative rake increases the lip angle of the tool permitting it to
combining the front and side rake together. This resultant slope is called take heavier depth of cut.
true rake.
The rake or slope of the face may be : (a) positive, (b) zero or The conditions which limit the application of negative rake turning
(c)negative. Fig. 3.76 shows positive, negative and zero rake of a single f are as follows
point cutting tool.
1. High speed : The machine must be operated at a very high
speed to take full advantage of negative rake turning. This
imposes a certain limit.
2. Rigidity of the machine : The machine and the tool holding
device must be sufficiently rigid to resist vibration that may set
up in the machine when it runs at a high speed. Cemented
carbide tips being very brittle may fracture under vibration.
Figure 3.76 Positive, zero and negative rake 3. High heat dissipation : High heat generated in negative rake
R. Rake, T. Thrust turning must be properly dissipated, otherwise the tool will fail
very soon.
Positive rake : A tool has a posi.tive rake when the face of the tool slopes 4. Increase power : The cutting force and the power required is
away from the cutting edges and slants towards the back or side of the tool. increased by 10 to 15 per cent of that required in positive rake
In most cases, tools are provided with a positive rake. machining under similar condition.
Zero rake : A too' �as a zero rake when the face of the tool has no slope Clearance angle : The main function of the clearance angle is to prcvenc
and is in the same plane or parallel to the upper surface of the shank. the flank of1he tool from rubbing against the surface of the work allowing
Turning tools for brass usually have zero rake as the metal is removed in the cutting edges of the tool only to come in contact with the work
short chips exerting little cutting pressure on the tool face. Zero rake material.
•
166 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY THE LATHE
Front clearance a{lgle: The front clearance angle prevents the front flank although angle from 30 ° to 40 ° are sometimes used.
of the tool from rubbing against the work. A minimum clearance angle. is Two ·e�treme geometrical values of side cutting edge angle are 0 °
given to provide maximum support to the tool cutting edges by increasing; and 90 °. AcKf!ife edge turning tool has 0 ° side cutting edge angle, and its
the lip angle. The front clearance angle should be increased for larg¢ cutting edg�is perpendicular to the work surface. This type of tool is used
diameter work. for turni·flg:Shtnder ·work as no bending stress is developed when the tool is
.;'
fed into the work. The end thrust is taken up by the live centre.
Side clearance angle : The side clearance angle prevents the side of the · A square nose tool ,having side cutting angle equal to 90 ° has its
tool from rubbing against the work when longitudinal feed is applied. The cutting edges parallel to the·,work surface. This type of tool is used for
side clearance angle depends upon the amount of feed given. Larger feed finish turning where a very fi1-1e depth of cut and coarse feed may be given.
will require greater side clearance angle.
E�d cutting edge angle : The main fun'ction of the end cutting edge angle
Nose radius : The· nose of a tool is slightly rounded in all turning tools. is to,prevent tlie trailing front cutting edgc'of the tool from rubbing against
The functions of nose radius are as follows: 1
the·o.rork·. The end cutting edge angle ranges from 8 ° to 15 °. A large end
cutting edge angle unnecessarily weakens the tool.
1. Greater nose radius clears up the feed marks caused by the
previous shearing action and provides better surface finish. All Lip angle : The amount of cutting angle or lip angle determines the
finish turning tools have greater nose radius than rough turning strength of the cutting edge. As the lip angle depends upon the amount of
tools. rake and clearance angle provided on the tool, the lip angle is maximum
2. It increases the strength of the cutting edge, tends to minimize when the rake and the clearance angle are minimum. In the case of a
wear taking place in sharp pointed tool with consequent increase negative rake tool, lip angle increases with the rake angle. Large lip angle
in tool life. permits machining harder metals, applying heavier llepth of cut, anll
3. Accumulation of heat is less than that in a pointed tool which rotating the work at higher cutting speed. It also increases tool life, and
permits higher cutting speeds. improves dissipation of heat.
4. Slight reduction in cutting force may be obtained.
Recommended tool angles : It has beon observed from the foregoing
Very large nose radius may cause chatter. For rough turning, nose radius is discussion that the tool angles vary under different machining conditions.
usually 0.4 mm and for finish turning it varies from 0.8 to 1.6 mm. Tables 3 .· J, 3 .4 and 3.5 show average recommended tool angles fo.r
different work and tool materials.
Side cutting edge angle: The side cutting edge angle of turning tools vary
from 0 ° to 90 °. The following are the advantages of increasing side cutting TABLE 3.3 THE RECOMMENDED ANGLES FOR HIGH CARBON
edge angle. AND HIGH SPEED TURNING TOOLS
1. It increases tool life as, for the same depth of c'ut, t�e <;�tting Material Fron/rake Fron/ Side rake Side clearance
force is distributed on a wider surface. , ·. · --: . deg. clearance deg. deg. deg.
2. It diminishes chip thickness for the same amount of feed and Mild steel 10-12 6-8 10-12 6-8
pennits gteater cutting speed. Stainless steel 5-7 6--8 8-10 7-9
3. It dissipates hear quickly for having wider cutting edge. Aluminium 30-35 8-10 14-16 12-14
4. It improves surface finish. Brass 0-6 8-10 1-5 10-12
Cast iron 3-5 6-8 10-12 6-9
Very large side cutting edge angle produces chatter or bending on a Copper 14-16 12-14 18-20 12-14
slende_r. workpiece. The usual value of the side cutting edge angle is· 15 c
TABLE3.4 RECOMMENDED ANGLES FOR STELLITE TURNING Therefore, as a rule, the correct pos1t1on is that the tool is set in
TOOLS horizontal position with its no-;c touching exactly to the centre of the part
to be turned. In many cases of rough and finish turning I per cent variation
Front Front Side rake Side Side End
rake deg. clearance deg. clearance cutting cutting above or below the centre line is permitted. Fig.3.77 the centre line of the
Material
deg. deg. edge deg. edge deg. work.
Mild steel 8-15 7 8-15 7 10 15
Stainless steel 8-15 7 8-15 7 10 15 3.45 TYPES OF TOOL
Aluminium 10-20 7--8 12-15 7--8 10 10
Brass 4 5 4 5 10 10 In a lathe work different operation require different types of tools which
Cast iron 0 5-6 5 5-6 0-15 10 arc described below
Copper 20 8 10 10 10 10
· TABLE J.S RECOMMENDED ANGLES CEMENTED CARBIDE
3.44 INFLUENCE OF TOOL HEIGHT ON TOOL ANGLES TURNING TOOLS
. Clearance and rake angles are dependent on the position of the cutting tool ,
,\/01,,rwl l-i·o111 l·i 11111 Sidi! ml.I! .\'11/e S111t, ,;,,c1 Nose
rake c/(!{)J'(IIIC.'i.! deg. cle,11·t111ce l'/111/llg ,·1111/111< radi11s
in relation to the axis of rotation of the work. If the tool point is on the deg. deg dl!g ,·dge edge d<!f. llt/11
centre line and the base of the tool is horizontal, the rake and clearance deg
angles are operative under their values as ground on the tool. Mild steel 0-(-7) 5 10 t (, ( 7) 5 x 0
If the cutting edge of a turning tool is held below the centre of the
Sl!linlcss slccl 0-(-7) 5-10 , 6-(-7)
part to be turned, the rake angle is reduced and the clearance angle is 10 0
increased. If the tool angle is set sufficeently below the centre line, the Aluminium () 10 (,- 10 10 20 (, 10 0 45 5-15 0.5-1.5
effective rake angle may even be negative. This results in an unfavorable l3rass 0-(-7) "x + x ( 5) (, 8
working position. The flow of chips is obstructed, the cutting edge of the O.J-0.5
tool may seize and break and the cutting pressure is increased. As a Cast iron 0-(-7) 5-8 + 6-(-7) 5-8 0.5-1.1
consequence, the surface quality of the workpiece will be impaired. Coppcr 0-4 6 R 15-20 6-8 0.5-1.5
If the turning tool is held in such a way that its cutting edge is
above the centre of the workpiece the rake angle is increased, whereas the
clearance angle is reduced. The flow of chips is improved, whereas the
\...__-_-- ____.(
'- []
friction between the flank of the cutting tool and the workpiece is
increased.
Figure 3.78 Rough turning tool Figure 3.79 Finish turning tool
Turning tool : There ,ire mainly two classes of turning tool: (I) rough
turning tool, and (2) finish turning tool.
Figure 3.77 Influence of tool height on tool angles
Tool nose at the centre height: 1. True rake, 2. True clearance angle
Tool nose above the centre height: 3. Effective rake, 4. Effective clearance angle.
Tool nose below the centre height: 5. Effective rake, 6. Effective clearance angle.
THE LATHE 171
Rough turning tool : The main function of a rough 'H1hring tool is
QJ
to remove maximum amount of metal in a minimum time' >t�� the tool, Chamfering tool : A straight turning tool may be used as a chamfering
.
work,. and the machine will permit. Fig. 3.78 illustrates· a'typical rough tool when the cutting edges are set at the angle of chamfer. Where a large
turning tool. The cutting angle is so ground that it can wit��fand;inaximum number of chamfer works
cutting pressure. are to be performed a spe-
Finish turning tool : A finish turning tool is used to remove a very cial chamfering tool with
small amount of metal. The tool angle is so ground that it can produce a its side cutting edge angle · -- --- -- . -- - -- ·--
very smooth and accu ground to the angle of . �
.
rate surface. Fig.3.79 chamfer used. A chamfer-
illustrates a typical fin ing tool is shown in
ish turning tool. Fig.3.52. Figure 3.82 Shoulder turning tool
Fig.3.90 illustrates
a h.s.s. boring tool. The Shoulder turning tool A square shoulder is turned by a knife edge
rake and clearance turning tool or facing tool. A beveled shoulder may be turned by a straight
angles are similar and turning tool having a side cutting edge angle and zero nose radius as
can be given for turning illustrated in Fig. 3.82. A filleted shoulder may be turned by a straight
mild steel according to turning tool with a nose radius corresponding to the fillet radius of the
Table 3.3. For turning work.
any other metal the rake
and clearance angles are
changed keeping front
cutting edge angle and Figure 3.80 Cemented carbide tipped turning
side cutting edge angle tool
approximately constant. Fig.3.80 illustrates a cemented carbide tipped
,.(.] ....J
turning tool conforming Indian standard specification. The end view given
shows true rake and clearance angles °of the culli�g edge. Fig.3.81(a)(b)(c)
illustrates a stellite tipped and diamond pointed turning tool.
Figure 3.83 h.s.s. threatt Figure 3.84 Cemented carbide
cutting tool tipped thread cutting tool
External thread cutting tool: Metric, B.S.W., or American "V" threads

are formed by a single point thread cutt'ing tool with it.s cutting edges
ground to the shape and size of the thread to be cut. The shape of the tool
is determined by the included angle at the nose of the tool which should
correspond to the angle of the thread. It may be 60 ° fo r metric threads or
55 ° for B.S.W. threads. The size or cross-section of the cutting edges of the
(b) (c)' tool depends upon the pitch of the thread. Fig.3.83 illustrates a h.s.s. thread
(a)· 1s 0
cutting tool.
Figure 3.81 Stellite tipped and diamond pointed turning tool So for machining different screw threads having different pitches
(a). Stellite tipped turning tool, (b). Diamond pointed rough turning tool; separate tools are used to generate accurate threads. The nose of the tool
(c). Diamond pointed finish tool. may be pointed, flat or rounded according to the shape of the root of the
thread. A thread tool gauge may be used to check the shape and size of the
tool after it has been ground. No top rake is given to the tool if it removes Internal thread cutting tool : The cutting edge of the tool is exactly
metal on both of inside cutting edges and the successive cuts are given by similar to an external thread cutting tool but the front clearance angle is
feeding the tool perpendicular to the work surface. Some amount of side sufficiently increased as in a boring tool. The tool may be forged type or
rake is given to the tool when it removes metal from one of its side cutting bit type or bit type and held on a boring bar. The tool may be tool must be
edge only and successive cuts are given by the compound slide which is set square with the work.
swiveled to the half angle of the thread. The side clearance on a thread
straight turning tool, because the effective side clearance is reduced by the Facing tool : The facing tool removes metal by its side cutting edges. So
helix angle of the thread. Fig.3.84 and 3.85 illustrates cemented carbide no top rake is necessary in a facing tool. Fig.3.87 illustrates a h.s.s. facing
and diamond pointed thread cutting tools. tool intended for finishing operation. The tool having 0 ° side cutting edge
angle and 34 ° end cutting edge angle can be accommodated in the space
Tool for cutting square threads : The side clearance of the tool for between the end of the work and 60 ° dead centre leaving a clearance 2 ° on
cutting square thread is of prime importance in order to prevent the tool both sides.
from interfering or rubbing against the vertical flank of the thread. As a
rule, the forward side clearance angle is detennined by adding 5 ° to the
helix angle of the thread and trailing side clearance is obtained by
subtracting 5 ° from the helix angle. If <I> be the forward side clearance
angle and 0 be the trailing side clearance angle, then from the fonnula:
I
ead__
L<P = 50+(tan -1 ___l_ _ J
-5°
3.12
7t x core dia.
J
___l_ead _ ___ Figure 3.87 h.s.s. facing tool Figure 3.88 Cemented carbide
L<P =(tan_, _ 3.13 cranked facing tool
7t x outside dia.
The width of the cutting edge should be equal to half the pitch of Fig.3.88 illustrates a cemented carbide cranked facing tool
the thread. conforming the Indian standard specification. The standard shank sections
Small clearance angle of 1 ° to 2° are provide at the side of the tool are 20x20, 25x25, 30x30, 32x32, 40x40, and 50x55 all expressed in mm.
in order to prevent the surface from rubbing with the work. A square The length of the tool may be 125, 140, 170, 200 and 240 mm and the nose
thread cutting too is shown in Fig. 3.86. radius varies from 0.5 to 1.6 mm.
Grooving tool : Grooving tool is similar to a parting-off tool illustrated in

Fig. 3.95. The cutting edges may be made square, rounded or "V" shaped
according to the shape of the groove to be cut.
Forming tool : Turning curved profiles may be effected by using (I)

f'.2• ordinary lathe tools, (2) flat forming tools, and (3) circular forming
copying attachment is used to rep�oduce the form of a template. Flat
fr:
1'i'=-2·
) fonning tools are made of two types: (1) simple forming tools, and (2) flat
dovetail fonning tools.
Figure 3.85 Diamond pointed Figure 3.86 Square thread cutting tool Simple forming tools have their cutting edges ground to the shape
thread cutting tool o. Forward side clearance, of the groove, undercut, or thread to be cut. Flat dovetail fonning tools
0. Trailing side clearance. have wider cutting edges corresponding to the shape desired. Dovetail end
THE LATHE 175
Boring bar are held in the tailstock for boring small holes ranging
of the tool is fitted in special tool holder. No front ranges irom 10 ° to t 5 °. from 12 to 100 mm. For boring larger hole diameters, boring bars are
Regrinding is always done on the top face of the tool which does not alter gripped by two clamp blocks and held in the tool post. For precision
the form of the tool. Circular form tools are preferred in production work boring or boring in odd size work tha� is supported on crossslide, the bar
as a very long cutting surface can be used resulting in a long tool life. The may be supported on centres and is made to revolve.
centre of the tool is set slightly above the centre line of the work to provide
an effective front clearance angle on the tool. The tool will rub against the
work if the centres are on the same height. The tool centre is usually higher
than the centre line of the lathe by 1/20 to 1/10 of the tool diameter. This
height is termed 'offset'. Regrinding is done by grinding the flat face only.
Fig.3.64 illustrates a form tool.
ICl°•l2"
Figure 3.91 Boring cutters on boring bar

I!"
Figure 3.92 Tipped

Figure 3.89 Cemented carbide Figure 3.90 h.s.s. tool bit for boring tool in operation
tipped boring tool boring bar
Although a forged tool is
Boring tool : A boring tool is similar to a left hand external turning tool so commonly used it is not a very rigid
far its cutting edge is concerned. A cemented carbide tipped boring tool is unit as a very small cross-section of
illustrated in Fig. 3.89. The tool may be a bit type inserted in boring bar or the tool is used to enable the tool to Figure 3.93 Double clearance
holder, or forged type having a tool shank. Fig. 3.90 shows a h.s.s. tool bit pass into the work. For this reason of a boring tool
inserted in boring bar. A boring bar is made of mild steel with slots or holes less than 100 mm cannot be I. Primary clearance,
holes cut into it to accommodate the tool bit which may be locked by an conveniently bored by a forged tool. 2. Secondary clearance.
Allen screw. the amount of projection of the cutting edge of the tool from Fig.3.92 shows a tipped boring tool in operation.
the centre of the bar determined the finished hole diameter of the work. In a boring tool, the tool cutting edge must have sufficient front
The bit is generally inserted at right angles to the centre line of the bar for clearance in order to clear the work. In order to strengthen the tool point
boring a continuous hole passing from one end to the other end. The bit is double clearance, primary and secondary, may be provided. Fig.3 .93
set at an angle to the axis projecting beyond the end of the bar for boring a shows a boring tool with double clearance. The smaller the hole diameter
blind hole. A tool .bit having two cutting edges at its two ends is used for the larger should be the front clearance. Larger clearance angle
quick machining. A wide double bladed cutter may be inserted in the necessitates reduction in rake angle in boring tool. The nose of the tool
boring bar for finish boring·operation. Fig. 3.91 shows different designs of may be straight or round according to the type of finish desired.
boring cutter mounted on a boring bar. Two or more bits may be inserted
in a boring bar for boring different diameters in one setting.
THE LATHE
tool
177
Counterboring
operat i n can be Right hand tool: A right hand tool illustrated in Fig.3.97 is that which is
Counterboring o
an ordinary boring fed from right to the left hand end of the lathe bed, i.e. from the tailstock
10"·12"
performed by -
tool. The tool cutting edge is so
1tt=J to the headstock end when operations like turning, thread cutting etc. are
performed. A right hand tool may be known by its cutting edge which is
ground that it can l eave a shoulder
formed on its left hand end when viewed from the top with its nose
after turning. A counterbore having
multiple cutting edges is commonly lr-J pointing away from the operator.
used. � Left hand tool: A left hand tool illustrated in Fig.3.98 is that which is fed
from Left to the right hand end of the lathe bed, i.e. from the headstock to
Undercutting tool : Undercutting Figure 3.94 Undercutting tool
or grooving tool has a point and
form of the c utting edge exactly
similar to the form of the required
groove. Clearan ce angle is given at
p·-6: s I
the tailstock end. A left hand tool may be used for left hand thread cutting
operation or turning operation which leave a shoulder on the right hand
end of the workpiece. A left hand tool has its cutting edge formed on its
right hand end when viewed from the top with its nose left hand tool may
also be used for facing operation.
all the wider than the width of the Jl
tool cutting edge, longitudinal feed I
is employed. Fig.3.94 illustrates an 1-v 't
undercutting tool. The front

:z:
clearance angle depends upon the 1r11

bore of the work.
·' .
... 2" 2-,
�
Parting off tool : A parting off tool
is usually forged and may be used Figure 3.95 h.s.s. Parting off tool
as bits for cemented carbide tipped
Figure 3.97 Right Figure 3.98 Left Figure 3.99 Round
tools. Parting tool is made as narrow
as possible to remove minimum of hand tool hand tool nose tool
metal. The length of the cutting tool
.rtJ [IL
Round nose tool : A round nose turning tool shown in Fig.3.99 may be
which penetrates into the work
fed from left to the right or from right to the left hand end of the lathe bed
should be slightly longer than the
radius of the barstock being ways. For this reason they have no back rake and side rake. In some cases
machined. As the tool penetrates � small back rake may be provided on the tool. A round nose turning tool
deep into the work, clearance is 1s generally used for finish turning operation.
I
provided all around the tool cutting

CUTIING SPEED
edge to prevent it from rubbing
against the work surface. As the tool
is purely end cutting it has no side
rake; slight back rake may be
rJZJ
Figure 3.96 Cemented carbide
3.46
The cutting speed (v) of a tool is the speed at which the metal is removed
by the tool from the workpiece. In a lathe it is the peripheral speed of the
work past the cutting tool expressed in meters per minute.
provided on the tool to promote tipped parting off tool
easy flow of the chips. Fig.3.95 and
3.96 illustrates a high speed and cemented carbide parting off tool. Cuttmg
. speed = -- m I min . 3.14
1,000
'Tf.lin
THE LATHE 179
where, d is the diameter of the work in mm, setting as regards overhang, the rigidity bf the machine, depth of cut,
and n is the r.p.m. of the work. power available, etc. Coarser feeds are used for roughing and finer feeds
for finishing cuts.
In the British syskm, cutting speed is expressed in feet per minute
and diameter of the work in inches. 3.48 DEPTH OF CUT
Cutting speed=
rtd11
-- feet/min.· 3.15 The depth of cut (t) is the perpendicular distance measured from the
· .. 12 . machined surface to the uncut surface of the workpiece. In a lathe the
where d is the diameler of the work in inches, and 11 is the r.p.m. of the depth of cut is expressed as follows
work.
The cutting . speed, d, -d?-
direction of feed and depth of Depth of cut = 3.16
2
cul to be given to a workpiece
where, d 1 = diameter of the work surface before machining,
are illustrated in Fig.3.100. and d2 = diameter of the machined surface.
-2
Example 3.21 : A stel!I shaft of
25 mm diameter is turned at a Other factors remaining constant, the depth of cut varies inversely
cutting speed of 50m per min. Find as the cutting speed. For general purposes, the ration of the depth of cut to
the r.p.m. of the shaft. Figure 3.100 Cutting speed, the feed varies from 10 : 1.
feed and depth of cut
I. Diameter on which cutting speed is 3.49 MACHINING TIME
ndn .
Cutting speed= -- m 1min. calculated. 2. Feed. 3. Depth of cut.
· 1,000
fhe machining time in lathe work can be calculated for a particular
operation if the speed of the job, feed length of the job is known.
n x 25x n
or, 50= ---- If s is the feed of the job per revolution expressed in mm per
1,000 revolution and L the length of the job in mm, then number of revolutions of
the job required for a complete cut will be
50x1000 = If the r.p.m. of the work is n, time taken to revolve the job through
or, n= 637r:p.m.
TC X25 Lis number revolutions for a complete cut will be:
In practice when the calculated speed is not available in the I
machine the next lower value i�; selected. -- mm. 1
sxn
1
3.47 FEED Therefore, the time taken for a complete cut= -- min. 3.17
sxn
The feeds of a cutting tool in a lathe work is the distance the tool advances Example 3.22 : Find the time required for one complete cut on a piece of work
for each revolution of the work. Feed is expressed in millimeters per 350 mm long and 50 mm in diameter. The cutting speed is 35 meters per minute
revolution. and the feed is 0.5 mm per revolution.
In the British system it is expressed in inches per revolution.
Increased feed reduces cutting time. But increased feed greatly 1tdn 1t x50xn
. speed = --
Cuttmg = ---- 35
reduces the tool life. The feed depends on factors such as size, shape, 1,000 1,000
strength and method of holding the component, the tool shape and its
THE LATHE 181
1000 x35
or, n= = 2225 The seven elements that comprise the signature of a single point
x50 1t
cutting tool are always stated in the following order : back rake angle, and
Number of revolutions required for complete cut nose radius. Thus a tool with a shape specified as
0 8-14-6-6-6-15-4
= 35 =700
05
700 has 8 ° back rake, 14 ° side rake, 6 ° end relief, 6 ° end or side relief, 6 ° end
Time required for complete cut= = 3.14 min.
2225 cutting edge and 15 ° side cutting edges angles, and 4 mm nose radius.
Plan approach angle : In cutting tool terminology used in the U.S.S.R.,

TABLE 3.6 AVERAGE CUITING SPEED EXPRESSED IN m/min FOR there is another angle called plan approach angle. This is the
DIFFERENT OPERATIONS IN A LATHE USING A H.S.S TOOL complementary angle to the slide-cutting-edge angle used in cutting tool
terminology in India, Great Britain and the U.S.A.
Material Tuming. Thread cutting Drilling Reaming This is the angle between the projection of the side cutting edge on
the basic plane and the direction of feed. It is sometimes called the
Cast iron 15-19 7-8 22-31 6-8
entering angle.
Mild steel 25-31 9-10 28-35 10-15
Aluminium 60-90 20-25 60-90 25-30 REVIEW QUESTIONS
Brass 120 25-30 60-90 20-30 1. What is the main function of a lathe? List various types of lathes.
2. State the operations which may performed on a lathe.
TABLE 3.7 AVERAGE CUITING FEED AND DEPTH OF CUT FOR 3. Describe in brief an engine lathe.
DIFFERENT TOOL MATERIAL 4. How a lathe is specified? Discuss.
5. What are the basic parts of an engine lathe ? Discuss the function of
head stock.
Material h.s.s Ste/lite qmented Feed Depth of cut mm 6. What is the function of a back gear?
v.m.p.m. v.m.p.m carbide v.m.p.m mm/rev 7. {a) Differentiate between the motion of cross slide and a compound
rest. (b) What are the different types of lathe bedways? Why ther£' is a
Cast iron 15-19 30 63 0.2 0.5 to I for gap in the bed?
Mild steel
Aluminium
25-31
60.:.90
55
120
80
180
to
0.8
.
finishing operation
2 to 5 for roughing
8.
9.
Why chucks are used ? List various types of chucks used in lathes.
Describe any one in brief.
What is a mandrel? Why they are used in lathes ? List different types
of mandrels.
operations
Brass 120 300 360 10. What are the different machining operations performed· on a lathe by
holding workpieces between centres or chucks?
11. Distinguish rough and finish turning.
3.50 CUTIING TOOL SIGNATURE 12. Define taper. How is the amount of taper expressed ? Name different
methods of taper turning done on a centre lathe drawing simple
The signature is a sequence of numbers listing the various angles, in sketc'1es?
degrees, and the 'size of the nose radius. This numerical method of 13. Explain with schematic diagram the principle of thread cutting on a
identification has been standartlized by the American Standard lathe. Find out the relation between ratio of change gears to the work
pitch and lead screw pitch. The pitch of a lead screw is 6 mm and the
Association.
pitch of the thread to be cut in 1.5 mm. Find the change gear. (30: 120)
4
14. What is a thread chaser? Briefly describe it.
15. Why turning is produced on a surface? How it is produced on a lathe. I
16. What is spinning? Sketch and describe the spinning process on lathe.
17. How turning tools are classified? li&t various turning tools.
18. Why brazed tipped tools are produced ? What are the techniques of
bra::lng the tips with the tool shank? Describe one. CAPSTAN AND TURRET LATHES
19. What are the influences of cutting tool angles on machining ? Briefly
state the effect of rake angle during cutting.
20. Describe various rakes of turning tools.
21. Sketch a square thread cutting tool and label tool angles.
22. Define cutting tool signature of a turning tool. 4.1 INTRODUCTION
A capstan or a turret lathe is a production lathe used to manufacture any

number of identical pieces in the minimum time. These lathes are
development of engine lathes. The capstan lathe was first developed in the
United States of America by Pratt and Whitney sometimes in 1860.
The capstan or turret lathe consists of a bed, all geared headstock,
and a saddle on which a four station tool post is mounted to hold four
different tools. A tool post fitted at the rear of the carriage holds a parting
tool in an inverted position. The tool post mounted on the cross-slide is
indexed by hand. In a capstan or turret lathe there is no tailstock, but in its
place a hexagonal turret is mounted on a slide which rests upon the bed.
All the six faces of the turret can hold six or more number of different
tools. The turret may be indexed automatically and each tool may be
brought in line with the lathe axis in a regular sequence. The workpieces
are held in collets or in chucks. The longitudinal and cross feed movement
of the turret saddle and cross-slide are regt•lated by adjustable stops. These
stops enable different tools set at different stations to move by a
predetermined amount for performing different operations on repetitive
workpieces without measuring the length or diameter of the machined
surface in each case. These special characteristics of a capstan or turret
lathe enables it to perform a series of operations such as turning, drilling,
boring, thread cutting, reaming, necking, chamfering, cutting-off and many
other operations in a regular sequence to produce a huge number of
identical pieces in a minimum time.
4.2 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A CAPSTAN AND TURRET AND

AN ENGINE LATHE
Although a capstan and a turret lathe is a development of an engine lathe

they possess certain basic differences as regards their construction,
operation and use. The differences are :
184 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY ,,
CAPSTAN AND TURRET LATHES 185
1. The head stock of a turret lathe is similar to that of an engine setting up only for a large number of machines, whereas actual
lathe in construction but possess wider range of speeds, and is of production may be given by a semiskilled operator.
heavier in construction. For .similar sizes of capstan and turret 7. Capstan and turret lathes. are not usually fitted with leadscrews
lathe and engine lathe, when an engine lathe will require a for cutting threads similar to an engine lathe. The thread s are
motor of 3 h.p. to d rive its spindle and other parts, a capstan and usually cut by dieheads and taps. A short length of Jeadscrew,
turret lathe will demand power as high as 15 h.p. for high rate of called "chasing screw" are sometimes provid ed for cutting
production. thread s by a chaser in a turret lathe.
. 8. The capstan or turret lathe is fund amentally a production
2. The tool post mounted on the cross-slide of a turret la�he 1s a
four way tool post which holds four tools that may be indexed machine, capable of producing large number of identical pieces
by 9ooand each tool may be brought into operation in a regular in a minimum time. The special feature of holding eleven· or
order. In addition to this, there is a rear tool post mounted upon more tools which may be brought into operation in a regular
the carriage which holds another tool, whereas in the case of an sequence and the use of feed trips and stops justifies its use as a
engine lathe the usual practice is to hold only one tool oti the production machine. On the other hand , the centre lathe is
tool post, and for different operations the tool must be changed suitable for odd jobs having d if�erent shapes and sizes.
and will require too much of setting time in repetitive works.
3. In a turret lathe, the tailstock of an engine lathe is replaced by a In short, an engine lathe is a versatile machine capable of
turret. This is a six sid ed block each side of which may carry machining any or every .type of jobs within its limit. The machine is
one or more tools. Thus, in place of tailstock in a centre lathe unsuitable as a production unit as considerable time is taken to set different
which can accommodate only one tool of limited size, the six tools on the tool post of the lathe after each operation and for each job. On
faces of the turret hold six or more tools. These tools may be the other hand , the capstan or turret lathe is a mass production machine.
indexed one after the another to perform different operations in They are unsuitable where only one or few jobs are to be machined. The
a regular or der. This is a decisive advantage in mass production high initial setting time compared to an engine lathe does not justify its use
work. in a single or few number of jobs.
4. The feed movement of each tool set on square or hexagonal 4.3 TYPES OF MACHINE
turret may be regulated by stops and feed trips. They �nable the
same t9ol to perform operation on each workpiece to a
. The two main types of horizontal lathes of this family arc:
• predetermined amount making duplication of work without
further measurement.
1. The capstan or ram type lathe.
5. In a turret lathe, combination cuts can be taken. Two or mor�
2. The turret or saddle type lathe.
tools may be mounted on the same face of the turret, making it
_ _
possible to machine more than one surface at a ttme This
_.
feature reduces total operational time. In a centre lathe, this type The capstan or ram type lathe : The ram type turret lathe or capstan
of arrangement is quite uncommon. lathe as shown in Fig.4.1 carries the hexagonal turret on ct ram or a short
6. The labour cost required to operate a capstan or turret lathe 1s slid e. The ram slides longitudinally on a saddle positioned and clamped on
less than that required in a centre lathe. Once the to�ls have lathe bedways. This type of machine is lighter in construction and is
been set in the turret hold ers to perform different operations and suitable for machining bar of smaller diameter. The tools are mounted on
the stop and feed trips have been adjusted to determine !he the square turret and six faces of the hexagonal turret. The feeding
correct machining lengths, the operation of the machine movement is obtained when the ram moves from left to the right, and
becomes very simple. A semiskilled operator can operate a when the ram is moved backward the turret indexes automatically and the
capstan or turret lathe after the machine has been s�t up by a tools mounted on the next face comes into operation.
_ .
skilled machinist. A skilled machinist may be requ1s1t1oned for
4.4 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A CAPSTAN AND A TURRET

� ADJUSTMENT IATHE
FEED
� SPINDLE SPEED The capstan and turret lathes although appear to be identical in the first
sight, present lot of differences in construction, operation and use. The
SQUARE TURRET following are the difference between capstan and turret lathes
(INDEXES)
1. The turret of a capstan lathe is mounted on a short slide or ram

which slides on the saddle. The saddle is clamped on bedways
after adjusting the length of the workpiece. Thus in a capstan
lathe, the travel of the turret is dependent upon the length of the
travel of the ram. This limits the maximum length of the work to
be machined in one setting. The turret of a turret lathe is
mounted on a saddle which slides directly on the bed. This
REACH OVER feature enables the turret to be moved on the entire length of the
bed and can machine longer work.
CARRIAGE
RAM TYP;, SADDLE TYPE
2. In the case of a turret lathe, the turret is mounted on the saddle
which slides directly on the lathe bedways. This type of
Figure 4.1 Ram type (capstan) and saddle type (turret) lathes construction provides utmost rigidity to the tool support as the
(Reproduced from Doyle el al) entire cutting load is taken up by the lathe bed directly. In the
case of a capstan lathe as the ram feeds into the work, the
The turret or saddle type lathe: The hexagonal turret as shown in
overhanging of the ram from the stationary saddle presents a
Fig.4.1 is mounted directly on a saddle and the whole unit mo�es bac� a�d
non-rigid construction which is subjected to bending, deflection
forth on the bedways to apply feed. This type of turret lathe 1s heavier m
or vibration under heavy cutting load. For this reason the turret
construction and is particularly adapted for larger diameter bai:work and
lathe can operate under severe cutting conditions,
chucking work. The machine can accommodate longer workpieces than
accommodating heavier workpieces with high cutting speeds,
that in a capstan lathe.
feeds, and depth of cuts. Turret lathes are capable of turning bars
125 to 200 mm in diameter and absorbing upto 50 h.p. in the
main drive, whereas maximum size of bar that a capstan lathe
3 can accommodate is 60 mm in diameter.
3. Larger and heavier chucking works are usually handled on a
turret lathe, whereas a capstan lathe is suitable for bar work.
4. On the capstan lathe, the hexagonal turret can be moved back
and forth much more rapidly without having to move the entire
saddle unit. Thus capstan lathes are particularly handy for small
articles which require light and fast cuts. While operating the
machine by hand, the cuts are sensitive and there is less fatigue
Figure 4.2 Capstan and turret lathe to show their difference to the operator due to the lightness of the ram, whereas in the
l Hexagonal turret, 2. Auxiliary slide, 3. Feed stop rod, 4. Lathe bed, 5. case of a turret lathe, the hand feeding is a laborious process due
Handwheel for auxiliary slide, 6. Saddle, 7. Turret saddle, 8. Handwheel for saddle. to the movement of the entire saddle unit.
5. Some turret type lathes are equipped with crosswise movement
of the hexagonal turret. The crosswise movement may be
effected by hand or power. This feature enables turning of large upon which are mounted the carriage and turret saddle. The bed is
diameters, facing, contour turning and many other operations on designed to ensure strength, rigidity and permanency of alignment under
the lathe. heavy duty services. Like engine lathe precission surface finishing
6. Heavier turret lathes are equipped with power chucks like air methods must be applied to keep it resistant to wear during service period.
operated chucks for holding larger sizes of work quickly.
7. In the case of a capstan lathe, the cross-slide is mounted on a
carriage which rests on bedways between headsock and the ram.
Ji-
The carriage rests on both the front and rear ways on the top of 3
the bed. Some turret type lathes are equipped with side hung
type carriage. The carriage oft.his type does not require support
from the rear bedways but slides on the top and bottom
guideways provided at the front of the lathe. This construction
enables larger diameter of work to be swung above the lathe
bedways. There is no rear tool post on this type of the machine
as the carriage does not extend upto the rear bedways.
4.5 PRINCIPAL PARTS OF CAPSTAN AND TURRET LATHES
The turret lathe has essentially the same parts as the engine lathe except the
turret and complex mechanism incorporated in it for making it suitable for Figure 4.4 Turret lathe parts
mass production work. Fig. 43 illustrates the different parts of a capstan I. Headstock, 2. Cross-slide toolpost, 3. Hexagonal turret, 4. Turret saddle,
lathe and Fig. 4.4 shows the different parts of a turret lathe. The following 5. Feed rod, 6. Saddle for cross-slide.
are the principal parts of a capstan and turret lathe
Headstock: The head stock is a large casting located at the left hand end
Bed : The bed is a long box like casting provided with accurate guideways of the bed. The headstock of a capstan or turret lathe· may be of the
l following types
1. Step cone pulley driven headstock.

J
2. Direct electric motor driven headstock.
3. All geared headstock.
6 4. Preoptive or preselective headstock.
Step cone pulley driven headstock : This is the simplest type of

headstock and is fitted with small capstan lathes where the lathe is
engaged in machining small and almost constant diameter of workpieces.
Only three or four steps of pulley can cater to the needs of the machine.
Figure 4.3 Capstan lathe parts The machine requires special countershaft unlike that of an engine lathe,
t. Headstock, 2. Cross-slide toolpost, 3. Hexagonal turret, 4. Saddle for auxiliary where starting, stopping and reversing of the machine spindle can be
slide, 5. Auxiliary slide, 6. Lathe bed, 7. Feed rod, 8. Saddle for cross-slide. effected by simply pressing a foot pedal.
Electric motor driven headstock : In this type of headstock the spindle

machining lengths for different operations each time. These stops first trip
of the machine and the armature shaft of the motor are one and the same.
out the feed and then serve as a deadstop for small hand operated
Any speed variation or reversal is effected by simply controlling the
movements of the tool to complete the cut. The stopbars are indexed by
motor. Three or four speeds are available and the machine is suitable for
hand to synchronize with the indexing of the tool.
smaller diameter of workpieces rotated at high speeds.
The tools are mounted on the tool post and correct heights are
adjusted by using rocking or packing pieces.
All geared headstock : On the larger lathes, the headstocks are geared and
different mechanisms are employed for speed changing by actuating
The turret saddle and auxiliary slide : In a capstan lathe, the turret
levers. The speed changing may be effected without stopping the machine.
saddle bridges the gap between two bedways, and the top face is accurately
machined to provide bearing surface for the auxiliary slide. The saddle
Preoptive or preselective headstock : It is an all geared headstock with
may be adjusted on lathe bedways and clamped at the desired position. The
provisions for rapid stopping, starting and speed changing for different
hexagonal turret is mounted on the auxiliary slide. In a turret lathe, the
operations by simply pushing a button or pulling a lever. For different
turret is directly mounted on the top of the saddle and any movement of
operations and for turning different diameters, the speed of the spindle
the turret is effected by the movement of the saddle. The movement of the
must change. The required speed for next operation is selected beforehand
turret may be effected by hand or power. The turret is a hexagonal-shaped
and the speed changing lever is placed at the selected position. After the tool holder intended for holding six or more tools. Each face of the turret
first operation is complete, a button or a lever is simply actuated and the is accurately machined. Through the centre of each face accurately bored
spindle starts rotating at the selected speed required for the second holes are provided for accommodating shanks of different tool holders.
operation without stopping the machine. This novel mechanism is effected The centre line of each hole coincides with the axis of the lathe when
by the friction clutches.
aligned with the headstock spindle. In addition to these holes, there arc
four tapped holes on each face of the turret for securing different tool
Cross-slide and saddle : In small capstan lathes, hand operated cross-slide
holding attachments. At the centre of the turret on the top of it there is a
and saddle are used which arc clamped on the lathe bed at the required
clamping lever which locks the turret on the saddle. Six stop bars arc
position. The larger capstan lathes and heavy duty turret lathes are
mounted on the saddle which restrict the movement of each tool mounted
equipped with usually two designs of carriage.
on each face of the turret to be fed to a predetermined amount for
duplicating workpieces. After one operation is completed, as the turret is
1. Conventional type carriage. brought back away from the spindle nose, the turret indexes automatically
2. Side hung type carriage. by a mechanism incorporated on the bed and in turret saddle, so that the
tool mounted on the next face is aligned with the work.
The conventional type of carriage bridges the gap between the front
and rear bedways and is equipped with four station type tool post at the 4.6 CAPSTAN AND TURRET LATHE MECHANISM
front, and one rear tool post at the back of the cross-slide.
The side-hung type carriage is generally fitted with heavy duty
The carriage, cross-slide, turret slide, and the saddle holdirtg the turret may
turret lathes where the saddle rides on the top and bottom guideways on
be fed into the work by hand or power. Separate feed rods transmit power
the front of the lathe bed. The design facilitates swinging of larger to the carriage and turret saddle for this purpose. In addition to the apron
diameter of workpieces witho1..t being interfered by the cross-slide. The mechanism and complicated geared headstock, a capstan or turret lathe
saddle and the cross-slide may be fed longitudinally or crosswise by hand incorporates a novel device by virtue of which the turret indexes
or power. The longitudinal movement of each tool may be regulated by automatically when it is brought back away from the spindle nose after the
using stopbars or shafts set against the stop fitted on the bed and carriage. first operation is completed. The mechanism is explained below.
. These stops are set so that each tool will feed into the work to the desired
length for the purpose of duplicating the job without checking the
'
192 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY CAPSTAN AND TURRET LATHES 193
Turret indexing mechanism : A simple line sketch of the mechanism is forward and the pawl is released from the ratchet plate by the spring
shown in the Fig.4.5. The Fig.4.5 illustrates an inverted plan of the turret pressure.
assembly. The turret I is mounted on the spindle 5, which rests on a The synchronized movement of the stop rods with the indexing of
bearing on the turret saddle (not shown in the sketch). The index plate 2, the turret can also be understood from Fig.4.5. The bevel pinion 6 meshes
the b evel gear 3 and an indexing ratchet 4 are keyed to the spindle 5. The with the bevel gear 3 mounted on the turret spindle. The extension of the
plunger 14 fitted within the housing and mounted on the saddle locks the pinion shaft carries a plate holding six adjustable stop rods 8. As the turret
index plate by spring I 5 pressure and prevents any rotary movement of the rotates through one sixth of the revolution, the bevel gear 3 causes the
turret as the tool feeds into the work. A pin I 3 fitted on the plunger 14 plate to rotate. The ratio of the teeth between the pinion and the gear are so
projects out of the housing. An actuating cam 10 and the indexing pawl 7 chosen that when the tool mounted on the face of the turret is indexed to
are attached to the lathe bed 9 at the desired position. Both the cam and the bring it to the cutting position, the particular stop rod for controlling the
pawl are spring loaded. As the turret reaches the backward po�ition, the longitudinal travel of the tool is aligned with the stop 12. The setting of the
. stop rods 8 for limiting the feed of each operation may be adjusted by
actuating cam 10 lifts the plunger 14 out of the groove m the mdexplate
due to the riding of the pin 13 on the beveled surface of the cam JO and unscrewing the lock nuts and rotating the stop rods on the plate. Thus six
thus unlocks the indexplate 2. The spring loaded pawl 7 which by this time stop rods may be adjusted for controlling the longitudinal travel of tools
engages with a groove of the ratchet plate 4, causes the ratchet to rotate as mounted on six faces of the turret.
the turret head moves backward. When the indexplate or the turret rotates
through one sixth of revolution, the pin 13 and the plunger 14 drops out of Bar feeding mechanism : The capstan and turret lathes while working on
the cam JO and the plunger locks the indexplate at the next groove. The bar work require some mechanism for bar feeding. The long bars which
turret is thus indexed by one sixth of revolution and again locked into the protrude out of the headstock spindle require to be fed through the spindle
new position automatically. The turret holding the next tool is now fed upto the bar stop after the first piece is completed and the collet chuck is
opened. In simple cases, the bar may be pushed by hand. But this process
unnecessarily increases the total operational time, because the spindle and
the long bar must come to a dead stop before any adjustment can be made.
Thus in each case unnecessarily long time is wasted in stopping, setting,
and starting the machine. Various types of bar feeding mechanism have,
therefore, been designed which push the bar forward immediately after the
collet releases the work without stopping the machine, enabling the setting
time to be reduced to the minimum. Fig.4.6 illustrates a simple bar feeding
mechanism. The bar 6 is passed through the bar chuck 3, spindle of the
machine and then through the collet chuck. The bar chuck 3 rotates in the
sliding bracket body 2 which is mounted on a long slide bar. The bar
chuck 3 grips the bar centrally by two set screws 5 and rot�tes with the bar
5 in the sliding bracket body 2. One end of the chain 8 is connected to the
pin 9 fitted on the sliding bracket 10 and the other end supports a weight 4,
the chain running over two fixed pulleys 7 and 11 mounted on the slide
bar. The weight 4 constantly exerts endthrust on the bar chuck while it
revolves on the sliding bracket and forces the bar through the spindle, the
Figure 4.5 Turret indexing mechanism
moment the collet chuck is released. Thus bar feeding may be
t. Hexagonal turret, 2. Index plate, 3. Beveled gear, 4. Indexing ratchet, 5. Turret
spindle, 6. Beveled pinion, 7. Indexing pawl, 8. Screw stop rods, 9. Lathe bed, 10. accomplished without stopping the machine.
. Plunger actuating cam, 11. Pinion shaft, 12. Stop, 13. Plunger pin, 14. Plunger, 15.
Plunger spring.
194 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY CAPSTAN AND TURRET LATHES 19�
1. Jaw chucks. 2. Collet chucks.

(a) Self centering chuck. (a) Push out type
(b) Independent chuck. (b) Draw in type
(c) Combination chuck. (c) Dead length type
(d) Air operated chuck.
Jaw chucks : The jaw chucks are used in capstan lathes having two, three
or four jaws depending upon the shape of the work. The jaw chucks are
used to support odd sized jobs or jobs having larger diameter which cannot
be introduced through the headstock spindle and gripped by collet chucks.
Self centering chuck : The chuck has been described in Art.3.12 and
illustrated in Fig.3.25. The three jaws operate simultaneously by the
4 rotation of the scroll and grips the job quickly while centering it. The
chuck is suitable for gripping larger diameter bars, circular castings,
forgings, etc.
Figure 4.6 Bar feeding mechanism
1. Chuck bush, 2. Sliding bracket body, 3. Bar chuck, 4. Weight, 5. Bar chuck set Four jaw independent chuck : This type of chuck is used occasionally
screw, 6. Bar, 7, 11, Pylley, 8. Chain, 9. Pin on the sliding bracket, 10. Sliding for gripping irregular shaped workpieces, where the number of articles
bracket required does not justify the manufacture of special fixtures. Each jaw can
be operated independently and is reversible. The chuck has been described
4.7 CAPSTAN AND TURRET LATHE SIZE in Art.3.12 and illustrated in Fig.3.24.
The size of a capstan or turret lathe is designated by the maximum Combination chuck : The combination chuck is used to hold a variety of
diameter of rod that can be passed through the headstock spindle and the work following the principle of self-centering and independent jaw chuck.
swing diameter of the work that can be rotated over the lathe bed ways. In The chuck has been described and illustrated in Art.3.12 and Fig.3.26.
order to specify the lathe fully, other important particulars such as number
of spindle speeds, number of feeds available to the carriage and turret Air operated chuck : Heavy duty turret lathes and capstan lathes engaged
saddle, net weight of the machine, floor space and power required, etc. in mass production work are equipped with air operated chucks for certain
should also be stated. distinct advantages. The chuck grips the work quickly and is capable of
taking powerful grip with least manual exertion. The chucks are operated
2 2
4.8 WORK HOLDING DEVICES by air at a pressure of 5.5 kg/cm to 7 kg/cm • The working of the chuck
has been detailed in Art.3.12 and illustrated in Fig.3.30.
The standard practice of holding work between two centres in an engine
lathe finds no place in a capstan or turret lathe as there is no dead centre to Soft jaws : To ensure long life, chuck jaws are normally hardened. For
support the work at the other end. Work is, therefore, supported at the gripping certain classes of work the chuck jaws are made of soft steel.
spindle end by the help of chucks and fixtures. The usual methods of Certain jobs which have been machined previously are required to be
holding work in a capstan or turret lathe are gripped on chuck jaws on the machined surface for subsequent operations.
The soft jaws prevent any damage to the machined surfaces by the
serration of the jaws. For gripping a very irregular shaped work, soft jaws
are used which grip the contoured profile efficiently. Tapered components
are also suitably held by soft jaws.
Collet chucks : The collet chucks are used for gripping bars introduced
through the headstock spindle of a capstan or turret lathe and is one of the
most common method of holding work. They are much more suitable than
a self centering chuck in mass production work due to its quickness in
action and accurate setting. The chucks may be operated by hand or by
power. The working of a collet chuck has been described in Art.3.12 and
illustrated in Fig.3.29. Different sizes of spring collets having square,
hexagonal, round or any other shaped bore are fitted in the chuck body for Figure 4.8 Draw in type collet chuck
holding different sizes of bar having different sections. Collets grip the t. Draw tube, 2. Headstock spindle, 3. Hood, 4. Collet, 5. bar.
work by the spring action' of its split jaws. The collets are classified by the
methods used to close the Jaws on the work. Dead length type : For accurate positioning of the bar, both the push out
I and draw in type collet present some error due to the movement of the bar
along with the collet while gripping. This difficulty is removed by using a
stationary collet on the bar. A sliding sleeve closes upon the tapered collet
which is prevented from any end movement by the shoulder stop. Fig.4.9
illustrates a dead length type collet chuck.
2 3
Figure 4.7 Push-out type collet chuck

1. Push tube, 2. Headstock spindle, 3. Hood, 4. Collet, 5. bar.
Push out type : To grip the work, the tapered portion of the spring collct
is pushed into the mating taper of the chuck. There is a tendency of the bar
to be pus.hed slightly outward when the collet is pushed into the chuck
body for gripping. If the bar is fed against a stop bar fitted on the turret 6
head, this slight outward movement of the bar ensures accurate setting of
Figure 4.9 Dead length type collet chuck
the length for machining, Fig.4.7 illustrates a push type collet in use.
I Headstock spindle, 2. Chuck body, 3. Hood, 4. Collet, 5. bar, 6. Sliding sleeve,
7. Push tube.
Draw in type: To grip the work, the tapered portion of the spring collet is
pulled back into the mating taper of the chuck which causes the split end Fixture : A fixture may be described as a special chuck built for the
of the collet to close in and grip the bar. The machining length of the bar in purpose of holding, locating and machining a large number of identical
this type of chuck cannot be accurately set as the collet while closing will pieces which cannot be easily held by conventional gripping devices.
draw the bar slightly inward towards the spindle. Fig.4.8 illustrates a draw Fixtures also serve the purpose of accurately locating the machining
in type e;ollet chuck. surface. The main functions of a fixture are as follows :
1. They accurately locate the work. Straight cutter bolder : This is a simple tool holder constructed to take
2. They grip the work properly, preventing it from bending or standard section tool bits. The shank of the holder can be mounted directly
slipping during machining operations. I
into the hole of the turret face or into a hole of a multiple turning head. In
3. They permit rapid loading and unloading of workpieces. this type of holder, the tool is held perpendicular to the shank axis. The
tool is gripped in the holder by three set screws. Different operations like
4.9 TOOL HOLDING DEVICES turning, facing, boring, counterboring, chamfering, etc. can be performed
by holding suitable tools in the holder. Fig.4.10 illustrates a straight cutter
The wide variety of work performed in a capstan or turret lathe in mass holder.
production necessitated designing of many different types of tool holders
for holding tools for typical operations. The tool holders may be mounted Adjustable or plain angle cutter
on turret faces or on cross-slide tool post and may be used for holding bolder : The hotder has an
tools for bar and chuck work. Certain tool holders are used for holding angular slot cut into the body into
tools for both bar and chuck work while box tools are particularly adapted which the tool is fitted. The front
in bar work. In capstan or turret lathe practice the whole assembly of face of the holder is also beveled.
holder and its tool is designated according to the type of the holder. Thus a This type of setting of the tool
slide tool holder with the tool mounted in it is called a 'slide tool' and a and construction of the holder
knee tool holder with the tool fitted into it is called a "knee tool". Special body allows the tool to maintain a
'tool holders are also sometimes designed for special purposes. The permanent clearance with the
important and widefy used tool holders are listed below : work and permits turning or bor
ing operations close to the chuck
1. Straight cutter holder. jaws or upto a shoulder·without Figure 4.10 Straight cutter bolder
2. Plain or adjustable angle cutter holder. any interference. In plain type of
3. Multiple cutter holder. holder, the setting of the cutting
4. Offset cutter holder. edge relative to the work is
5. Combination tool holder or multiple turning head. effected by opening the set
6. Slide tool holder. screws and then adjusting the
7. Knee tool holder. tools by hand. In adjustable type
8. Drill holder. of holder, the accurate setting of
9. Boring bar holder or extension holder or flanged tool holder. the tool can be performed by
10. Reamer holder. rotating a micrometer screw.
Fig.4.11 illustrates an angular
11. Knurling tool holder.
cutter holder.
12. Recessing tool holder.
13. Form tool holder: (a) straight, (b) circular. Multiple cutter holder : The
14. Tap holder. multiple cutter holder can
15. Die holder. accommodate double tools in its
16. Balanced tool holder (box tool). body. This feature enables turning
17. V �steady box tool holder. of two different diameters
Figure 4.11 Adjustable angle cutter
18. Roller steady box tool holder. simultaneously. Turning and
holder
19. Bar ending tool holder. boring tools or turning and facing
1. Tool, 2. Adjustable micrometer screw.
tools can also be set in the holder
movement to the slide. Two holes are provided on the sliding unit for Boring bar holder : This
holding tools. The lower hole when aligned with the lathe axis is used for holder is also called
holding boring bars, drills, reamers, etc. The upper hole accommodates a extension holder or flange
turning tool holder. After necessary adjustments the slide is clamped to the tool holder. The holders
base by a clamping lever for turning or boring operations. For facing or are intended for holding
recessing operations, the crosswise movement of the tool is obtained in the drills, reamers, boring
vertical plane. The slide is equipped ·with two adjustable stops for facing or bars, etc. The flanged end
similar operations in order to be able to duplicate the workpiece. The of the holder is bolted
holder base is clamped directly on the turret face by studs. Fig.4.15 direct to the face of the
illustrates a slide tool holder. turret and is accurately
centered by means , of a
Knee tool holder : The knee tool holders are useful for simultaneous circular boss extending
turning and boring or turning and drilling operations. The knee holder is from the flanged end and
bolted direct on the turret face. The axis of the lower hole coincides with Figure 4.17 Flange tool holder
fitting into the turret face
the lathe axis and is used for holding boring bars, drills, etc. The turning bore. The holder can also be used to extend the length of shanked tools or
tool holder is fitted into the hole of an adjustable block which slides in the bars by fitting into the bore of the holder and then adjusting its length .
knee tool holder body. The adjustment of the turning tool holder may be This arrangement is particularly useful in machining longer work in
effected either by hand or by rotating a calibrated micrometer screw. A capstan lathes where the length of travel of the turret is short. Fig.4.17
guide bush is provided at the top of the holder for running of the pilot bar. illustrates an extension holder or flange tool holder.
Fig.4.16 illustrates a knee tool holder.
Reamer holder :
The standard 1
practice of holding
reamers in a cap
stan or turret lathe
is in some form of
floating holder
which permits
2
some amount of
end movement of
the reamer to align
itself with the
work. The reamer
Figure 4.16 Knee tool holder holder has been
described m
Drill holder: The twist drills having Morse taper shanks are usually held Art.5.15 and illus Figure 4.18 Knurling tool holder
in a socket which is parallel outside and tapered inside. These sockets are trated in Fig.5.25. I. Adjustable screw, 2. Knurls.
introduced in the bracket of a flange tool holder and clamped to it by set
screws. Straight shank drills are mounted on Jacob's chuck. Fig.4.17 Knurling tool holder : A knurling tool holder may be mounted on the
illustrates a flange tool holder into which a drill socket is fitted to hold a turret face or on the tool posts of the cross-slide. The knurling holder
twist drill. mounted on the cross-slide is similar to that described in Art.3.21 and ii-
lustrated in Fig.3.61. The holders with knurls mounted on the cross-slide illustrates straight form cutter holder and Fig.4.20(b) illustrates circular
can perform knurling operation on any diameter work. Fig.4.18 illustrates form cutter holder.
a knurling tool holder which is fitted on the turret face. The position of
knurls can be adjusted in a vertical plane to accommodate different
diameters of work, while the relative angle between them can also be
varied to produce different patterns of knurled surface.
Recessing tool holder : The recessing tool holder is provided with an

adjustable slide for producing a recess inside a bore. The tool holder is
clamped directly on the face of the turret. Mounted on the short slide, there
is a cylindrical extension having a bore into which the round shank of a
recessing tool is fitted and clamped. The adjustable slide with the tool may
be moved perpendicular to the lathe axis by turning a lever or a
handwheel. While recessing, the tool is fed into the bore to the required A B
distance being guided by the stop of the turret, and then the tool is fed Figure. 4.20(a) Straight form Figure 4.20(b) Circular form
perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the work by the adjustable slide to cutter holder cutter holder
produce a recess. The tool is guided to the required depth of the recess by a 1. Hplder, 2. Straight from cutler I. Circular form cutter, 2. Holder.
stop mounted on the holder slide. Fig.4.19 illustrates a recessing tool
holder. Tap holder : Taps are usually used for cutting internal threads. They are
mounted on tap holders clamped on the turret face. For holding taps of
finer sizes manually gripped tap holders are used. The tap is prevented
from rotati�n by the hand pressure given to the knurled sleeve which grips
the tap with the holder. The pressure on the sleeve can be released when
the tap gets stuck up or reaches the end of the job. Fig.4.21 illustrates a
solid tap holder of this type.
Taps may also be rotated in clutch driven tap holders as described
and illustrated in Art.5.15 and Fig.5.24. Slipping occurs when the tap gets
2 st�ck up. A combination tap or die holder of self releasing type may also
be used.
Die holder : Dies are used for cutting external threads. Dies may be fitted
Figure 4.19 Recessing tool holder
in: (1) solid or non-releasing type of holders, (2) releasing type of holders,
1. Tool holder, 2. Adjustable slide, 3. Adjustable slide clamp, 4. Adjustable
s I a-
and (3) collapsible or self opening type of holders.
slide handwheel.
Solid or non-
-+-· -. ·:-t]�
releasing type of die
Form tool holder : Two sets of form tool holders have been designed for
holders are used for finer
holding straight and circular form cutters. The usual procedure of holding
a form tool holder is on the cross-slide. In the straight form tool holder, the threads in capstan lathes.
tool is mounted on a dovetail slide and the height of the cutting edge may The cutting action is
purely sens1t1ve and ___ �
be adjusted by moving the tool within the slide. The height of the circular
form tool may be adjusted by rotating the circular cutter. Fig.4.20(a) � depends upon the skill of
- the operator. Figure 4.21 Solid tap holder
die holder can also be used to hold a tap by using a tap adapter, shown in
Fig.4.22(c).
Self opening type die holder : The self opening type die holder
illustrated in Fig.4.23 is used for cutting an exact length of thread, and
where quick removal of die head is necessary to reduce the production
time. When the desired length of thread has been cut the dies or chasers
spring open, thus clearing the dies from the thread and permitting the die
holder to be withdrawn without stopping or reversing the spindle rotation.
The self opening of the die head at the end of cutting desired length may
be effected by any one of the following methods
Figure 4.22 Releasing type die holder

(a)- I. Sleeve, 2. Ball in ball pocket, 3. Projecting pin, 4. Shank body.
(b)-l. Sleeve, 2. Ball in ball pocket, 3. Shank body.
(c)-1. Set screw, 2. Tap adapter.
Releasing type of die holders are used for releasing the dies after
.
cutting threads through the required length of cut. A releasing type of die Figure 4.23 Self opening type die holder
head has been illustrated in Fig.4.22.(a). The dies are fitted within the i. Die holder body, 2. Dies, 3. Die holder.
sleeve I and clamped to it by set screws. The shank 4 of the die head fitted
on the turret face prevents the sleeve from rotating by the help of dog By pulling off: The nose end of the die head is pulled off from the
elute� 3 or p�ojecting pins fitting into the groove of the sleeve body J as shank when the stop prevents any further movement of the turret face. The
the die� feed into the work. As the dies progress on the rotating work, the principle of action is similar to that which has been explained in releasing
thread 1s produced. At the end of cutting thread to the desired length, the type die holder. This causes the nose end of the die head to rotate with the
turret stop prevents any further movement of the shank but the sleeve J work as it is pulled apart from the shank and a pin is released which causes
holding the dies continues to screw forward due to th'e rotation of the a scroll plate to rotate and the dies fitted on the scroll plate are pushed
work. This forward movement of the sleeve relative to the shank 4 clears outward releasing them from the work.
the dog clutch 3 from engagement and the sleeve with the dies rotates By outside trip: When the length of the thread to be cut is short,
along with the work without cutting any further threads. To remove the there is not much of provision left for pulling the head off the shank, and
dies, the rot�tio� of the work is reversed and the sleeve starts rotating in release of the locking pin of the scroll is triggered by a stop fitted on the
the same direction as the spindle. Immediately a ball operated clutch rear toolpost.
_
engag�s with the shank body preventing the dies from rotating, and the die By insi.de trip: For more accurate positioning of the thread length,
head simply screws itself off the job. The ball clutch system for reversal an inside trip triggers off the locking pin.
c�n be understood from the Fig.4.22(b). When the sleeve J rotates freely
with the work at the end of the cut, the ball 2 lies in the ball pocket of the Box tool : The first operation to be performed in a capstan or turret lathe
shank body 3. When the work is reversed the ball 2 locks the shank body 3 engaged in bar work is to turn different diameters of the work from the end
_
with the sleeve I arresting its further rotation with the work. This type of of the workpiece. A box tool fitted on the turret face is employed for this
reversed for supporting different diameter of work. The Y-steady tool
.p�rpose. As the tool, mounted on the tool holder, is fed into the work from holder is mainly used in brass work. Fig.4.25 illustrates a V-steady tool
the unsupported end, some sort of support is supplied by the holder on to holder. 1
the work to prevent any deflection or vibration set up by the heavy cutting
acf},>n of the tool. The holders containing �he tool and the suppo� Roller steady box
practically encloses the work as the metal cutting progresses. Hence this tool holder : This
class of tool holders are named as box tool holders and the tools as box type of tool holder
tools. , illustrated in
Fig.4.26 is
commonly used in
bar work for
turning steel rods.
In construction, it
replaces Y-steady
and in its place two Figure 4.25 V-steady box tool holder
rollers are used to I. V-steady, 2. Tool.
provide support to
the work. The tool may be mounted radial or tangential to the workpiece.
When the tool is mounted
radial to the workpiece, the
cutting pressure acts through
Figure. 4.24 Balanced tool holder the weakest section of the
tool cutting edge. The
Balanced tool holder : Its name is derived from the fact that the tools tangential type of setting
mounted on the holder are so arranged that the cutting thrust exerted by enables the cutting pressure
one of the tools on the work is balanced by the cutting thrust developed by to be borne by the entire
the other tool fitted on the holder. This prevents any bending of the work shank. So this type of setting
and obviates the use of any other work support. The tools may be set is widely used with cemented
radially or tangentially at the opposite ends of the work, the position of one carbide tipped tool where the
being slightly advanced than the other along the axial-length. Both the rate of metal removal is very
tools may take full depth of cut or the depth of cut may be divided. high. The tool and the rollers
Fig.4.24 illustrates a balanced tool holder. can be adjusted in the holder
for proper setting. A high Figure 4.26 Roller steady box
V-steady tool holder: The V-steady box tool holders are �sed for lending class finish is obtained by I. Roller, 2. Tool
support to the workpiece while cutting action progresses from the end of a using roller steady box tool on the work surface due to burnishing action
bar stock. Both the tool and Y-steady are mounted on the adjustable slide of the rollers on the work. The rollers acting against the cutting pressure
in order to set the required diameter of the machined part and to position remove the feed marks on the workpiece. The deeper the cut the better is
the tool relative to the Y-steady. The tool is set slightly in advance than the the surface finish. This is due to the fact that as the cutting pressure
V-steady. The two faces of the Y-steady are so arranged that the top face is increases, equal and opposite pressure is exerted on the workpiece by the
parallel to the shank and the bottom face is perpendicular to the tool axis rollers improving the surface finish. The usual defects that may occur
allowing it to take both the up and side thrust of the tool. The steady block while using roller steady box tool are
is provided with another size of V on the other end and the block may be
CAPSTAN AND TURRET LATHES 2J 1
17"
1 . Production of uneven surface at the beginning of the cut due 12. External thread cutting tool.
to too much of setting pressure of the rollers on the work. 13. Internal thread cutting tool.
2. Production of tool withdrawal mark at the end due to improper 14. Workstop.
setting of the tool and rollers. �ir-L_-j�--...;;·' "'-'·*""-.\,��] 8
3. Productions of poor surface finish due to the application of Turning tool Fig.4.28 (A)
light cuts. illustrates a heavy duty turning tool
4. Continuous chips may get entangled with the rollers and which is mounted on the cross-slide
interfere with its working. or knee holder. Fig.4.28 (B) is a knife
edged bar turning tool which may be
Bar ending tool holder : mounted on the box tool holder or on Figure 4.28 Turning tool
These holders are used for the cross-slide tool post. A. Heavy duty turning tool
finishing the ends of bolts, Another special type of B. Knife edge turning tool
pins, rods, etc. The rollers turning tool used in capstan and turret lathe is a hollow
. mill. Three teeth
are set slightly in advance on the hollow mill are provided with cutting edges.
The tool is hollow
to the tool cutting edge, through which portion of the job which has been machi
ned passes through'.
which centre the work and The tool itself guides the
. Figure 4.27 · Bar ending tool holder
take up cutting pressure. work and prevents it from
. 1 . Ro 1 ler 2. TooI h o Ider
Different types of tools are bending. This type of tool
-E�-t------}
fitted on the holder for shaping different types of bar ends. The box tool is suitable for turning
may be adjustable or of one unit type. Fig.4.27 illustrates a bar ending tool smaller diameter of brass --------
.
holder. or steel. The
disadvantage of using this
chief
-- - --- - - --- --
4.10 CAPSTAN OR TURRET LATHE TOOLS type of tool is the
difficulty tn regrinding.
The different types of tools mounted on tool holders on the turret face and Moreover, each regrind Figure 4.29 Hollow mill
tools mounted on the cross-slide are simiti/r in construction as that of changes the diameter of
centre lathe tools. The tools mounted on the cross-slide loosely perform the work being machined.
turning, facing, necking and parting off operations. The standard tools Fig.4.29 illustrates a
listed for different operations are: hollow mill.
1. Turning tool.
2. Facing tool.
3. Parting tool.
4. Chamfe{ing tool.
5. Bar ending tool.
6. Grooving and recessing tool.
7. Forming tool.
8. Drill.
9. Boring tool.
Figure 4.30 h.s.s. facing
10. Counterbore. Figure 4.31 Cemented carbide tipped
tool
11. Reamer. facing tool
Boring tool : The boring topls mounted on boring bars are used for
Facing tool: Fig.4.30 illustrates a combined facing and turning tool. The enlarging a hole in a capstan or turret lathe. Boring tools mounted on
rake is provided in different directions for turning or facing operations. different boring bars have b,een described in Art.3.45.
The tool may be mounted on the cross. -slide or on the knee tool holder.
Fig.4 . 31 illustrates a combined turning and facing cemented carbide tipped Counterbore : The counterbores are used for enlarging the drilled hole
tool. from one end. The working of a counterbore has been described in
rft".., Art.5.24.
Parting off tool : Fig.4 .32 illustrates a parting
off tool. All round clearance is given on the Reamer : The reamers are used for sizing and finishing a hole. Different
tool to clear the work while cutting. The tool is types of reamers have been described in Art.5.22.
usually mounted on the rear tool post.
External thread cutting tool : External threads arc cut on a job in a
Bar ending tool and chamfering tool : For capstan or tu.rret lathe by using any one of the following tools:
forming the ends of a work, different formed
tools are mounted on the bar ending tool 1. Solid button dies
holder. Fig. 4.33 A and B illustrate different Figure 4.32 Parting 2. Chasers
bar ending tools. off tool 3. Single point tools
Grooving or recessing tool: This is similar to that described in Art. 3.45. Solid button dies : The button die is actually an adjustable split nut in
which teeth have been machined and hardened to provide cutting edges.
The cutting edges are pressed on the work by tightening the body of the
die by two set screws. The pressure can be released by allowing a third
screw to enter into the split portion to expand. As the die is non-releasing
type, it must be backed off after the thread is cut by reversing the machine
spindle. Button dies can cut thread close to the shoulder of the work. Fig.
4.34 illustrates a button die.
Chasers : All self opening die holders are fitted with four chasers for
cutting a thread. The chasers may be considered as a forming tool equally
Figure 4.33 Bar ending tool spaced on the circumference of the work. The shape and pitch of the
A. Form ending tool, B.,Charnfcring tool Figure 4.34 Solid button die cutting edges of the chaser conform to the solid button dies due to the
following reasons
Forming tool : The forming tools may be straight or circular type. A
forming tool has been described and illustrated in Art. 3.45 and Fig.3.64. 1. The chasers not being a solid unit can open up at the end of the
cut by the mechanism incorporated in the self opening die head.
Drill : The twist drill mounted on the turret face holders are the standard This permits quick removal of the die head from the work.
tools used for drilling holes. Different types of drills may be used for ·2. The chasers may be separately removed and reground with ease.
different purposes. A twist drill has been described in Art.5 .17 and
illustrated in Fig.5.43. The following three types of chasers are used in die heads :
1 . Radial chaser
2. Tangential chaser
3. Circular chaser
Radial chaser: Fig.4.35

sliows cutting edges of a radial
chaser. The chamfered portion of the
chaser enables the tool to enter and
cut gradually up to the full depth of
the thread. The circular opening of Figure 4.37 Tangential chaser Figure 4.38 Position of tangential
Figure 4.35 Radial chaser I. Rake chasers in a die head.
the dies at the beginning due to the 1. Centre line overlap, 2. Throat
chamfer is called the throat. The 1. Work, 2. Tangential chaser.
angle, 3. Cutting face.
included angle of the dies at the
Circular chaser: Fig.4.39 shows cutting edges of a circular chaser.
throat is usually 50 ° or less. Three or four threads arc chamfered at the
The circular chaser may be considered as a circular formed tool having the
throat. The advantages of radial chasers are
form of the thread cut on its circumference. The cutting action is similar to
the tangential chaser. This type of chaser ensures long tool life due to long
1. They are more rigidly mounted on the holder.
cutting edges. Fig.4.40 illustrates the position of a circular chaser mounted
2. Wider chamfer can be kept at the throat which permits smoother
on a die holder.
cutting action.
On the other hand, the radial chasers are difficult to regrind.

Breaking of one of the threads on the chaser will spoil the whole unit.
Fig.4.36 illustrates the position of a radial chaser.
Tangential chaser : Fig.4.37 shows cutting edges of a tangential
chaser. The tangential chaser has
the thread ground on the face of a
flat block. The starting edge of
the chaser is chamfered and the
rake angle is provided on the top
face. The first full thread is on the Figure 4.39 Circular chaser
centre line, and the entire cutting I. Rake, 2. Chamfered face, 3. Throat angle, 4. Centre line overlap.
action is performed by the
chamfered portion and the first Thread cutting by single point tool and chaser : While cutting thread on
thread. The remaining teeth are a workpiece of larger diameter, single point tool or chaser confo rming to
ground in a different way with a Figure 4.36 Position of radial the fo rm and pitch of the thread is mounted on the cross-slide and the
negative rake, so that they simply chasers in a die head. thread is cut in a similar manner as that in a centre lathe.
follow the thread cut by the first 1. Radial chaser, 2 . Work.
thread, and act as a guide. The regrinding of the chaser is easier as the top Internal thread cut�ing tool : The internal thread may be cut in a capstan
face of the chaser is ground from time to time. The long length of formed or turr�t lathe by using any one of the following tools: (1) Solid tap, (2)
cutting edge ensures long tool life. Fig.4.38 illustrates the position of a collaps1ble tap, and (3) single point tool or chaser.
tangential chaser mounted on a self opening die head.
CAP STAN AND TURRET LATHES ..? 17
Solid tap : The solid tap has been described and illustrated in
Art.5.26 and Fig.5.55. The solid tap may be mounted on a solid or self 4.11 CAPSTAN AND TURRET LATHE OPERATIONS
releasing holder.
Collapsible taps : Similar The operations performed in a capstan or turret lathe arc similar to that in a
to the working of a self opening centre lathe. The usual operations perfor�ed in a capstan or turret lathe
die head, collapsible taps are used l are: straight turning,_ shoulder turning, taper turning, chamfering, thread
_ _
for quick withdrawal of the tap cutt,ng, facing, knurling, forming, drilling, reaming, boring, countcrboring,
_
tapping, undercutting, and parting off. These operations are done in the
after the thread has been cut on
the job. Adjustable chasers are same way as in a centre lathe besides the use of special type of tool
placed in the tap body which holders. The operations which arc particularly special in a capstan or turret
collapses at the end of the cut, so lathe arc given below.
that the overall diameter of the tap
is reduced enabling quick Turning with a box tool : The setting and working of the box tools for
removal. This type of tap can only turning operations should be performed in the following order :
be used for cutting thread in holes Figure 4.40 Position ofcircular
of larger diameter due to the I. The bar is first turned to a length of 20 mm approximately from
chasers in a die head. one end.
presence of collapsible 1. Circular chaser.
mechanism. 2. The rollers are adjusted on the work in a manner so that it may
Single point tool or chaser: Single point tool or chaser is used for be rotated freely.
cutting thread on work having larger bore diameter in a manner similar to 3. The tool is brought forward and set slightly in advance than the
that described in the centre lathe. rollers.
4. Tht bar is now finish turned to the required dimension:
Workstop : In bar work, workstops are mounted on the turret face for 5. The diameter of the finished bar is measured. If the finished
maintaining correct length of bar for machining after it has been pushed diameter is slightly larger than the desired size, the tool is
through the collet chuck. In construction, it is a cylindrical bar whose brought forward and the cut is taken to obtain the correct size.
position can be adjusted relative to the spindle nose by the turret stop. For If the diameter of the bar is smaller than the finished size by a
accurate setting, the length of the stops are adjustable so that by very small amount, the nose of the tool is ground to bring it to
unscrewing the lock nut 2 and rotating the knurled knob J the exact length the correct size.
of the work can be adjusted. In some workstops, micrometer graduations 6. The work is then finished to the desired length by using the
are provided for accurate setting. Fig.4.41 shows a workstop. turret stop after setting properly the speed and feed of the
machine.
3 E�ternal thread c�tting: Th� external threads on bars may be cut by

. .
us1ng solid button dies, sohd adjustable dies, self opening die heads, single
•1--t-==t-•U-=-�-----:rr----------------- _
point _tools.or chasers. The working of dies for cutting a thread have been
11
explained in Art.4.10. � single point tool or chaser is used for cutting
thread on � �arger diameter work. For cutting threads, leaders or
leadscrews s1m1lar to these used in an engine lathe are provided in front of
th� bed. The leaders arc short threaded shafts which rotate at definite ratios
Figure 4.41 Workstop with the �eadstock spindle, such as 1:1, 1 :2, l :3 or l :4. This arrangement
_
1. Knurled knob, 2. Locknut, 3. Workstop body. �nab I es different p1t�hcs to be cut by using different leaders. Fig. 3.58
illustrates thread cutting by using a single point tool or chaser.
4.12 TURRET TOOLING LAY OUT
Internal thread cutting: Internal threads are cut by solid taps, collapsible
taps or single point tools or chasers. In order to perform any work in a capstan or turret lathe, proper planning
While cutting thread by a single for systematic operations should be carried out in advance before setting
point tool or chaser, leaders are the work on the lathe. The following procedures should be adopted to p lan
used. Fig. 4.42 illustrates thread · and execute a work.
cutting by a chaser.
1. For effective planning and control, for each capstan or turret
Taper turning : The usual methods lathe, an upto-date capacity chart is an essential requirement.
of turning taper in a capstan or The chart supplied by the manufacturers contains every working
turret lathe are as follows details of the machine such as the maximum and minimum
diameter of the work that can be mounted, maximum length of
1. By a forming tool stroke of the turret and saddle, maximum length of cross-slide
Figure 4.42 Internal thread 2. By a taper turning attachment
cutting chaser. movement, tools available, swing diameter over the carriage,
3. By a taper forming tool box. bore diameter on the turret face, bore diameter of the spindle,
l. Work, 2. Thread chaser.
and the maximum size of the collet chuck that can be mounted
While turning taper by a forming tool, the tool cutting edge is set at on the machine, number of spindle speeds and feeds available,
half angle of taper and the h.p. input, etc.
work is finished by giving 2. For tooling layout, a drawing of the finished part is also needed.
cross feed. 3. The proper tool selection for different operations should be
The principle of taper made from the available tools and tool holders. Standard tools
turning by using taper are preferred for a small number of works. Where large number
turning attachment is similar of identical pieces are to be manufactured, special tools and
to that described in Art.3.16. tool-holders may be designed for reducing setting and
A guide block 2 attached to machining time.
the cross-slide I is allowed to 4. Once the proper tool selection is made, the finished drawing of
follow an angular path set by the workpiece is superimposed on the capacity chart supplied
the guide bar 3 when the and the tools to be used are drawn out at the respective positions
longitudinal feed is applied. on the turret face and on the
This causes the tool mounted cross-slide toolposts in a
on the cross-slide to trace an regular sequence. The length
angular path with the lathe of travel of tools for each
axis to produce a taper. turret face is now calculated
Fig.4.43 illustrates a taper from the chart and position of
turning attachment for stops decided. Any difficulty
turning taper. in setting and operation is
A taper can also be worked out on the paper.
Figure 4.43 Taper turning attachment
turned by introducing a bar I. Cross-slide, 2. Guide block, 3. Guide bar 5. The proper spindle speed,
into a taper forming tool box feed and depth of the cut are
having a long cutting edge and a V-steady set at an angle to each other now worked out for each
according to the taper being turned. operation. Figure 4.44 Hexagonal bolt
A
220 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY CAPSTAN AND TURRET LTHES 221
6. The work and the tools are then set on the machine according to of 10 mm than the bolt length is allowed, 4 mm for parting off
the planned chart. and 6 mm for clearance off the collet face so that the parting off
tool may penetrate deep into the work without any interference
4.13 PRODUCTION OF A HEXAGONAL BOLT (See Fig. 4.46).
The planning production of a hexagonal bolt is given below :
1. The capacity chart of the machine is made available.

2. The drawing of the finished hexagonal bolt is taken into
consideration. (See Fig.4.44)
3. The tools and equipment such as bar stop, roller steady turning
tool holder, roller steady bar ending tool holder, self opening die
head, chamfering tool, parting tool are collected.
3
4. The sketch of the work and tools arc superimposed on the
�
capacity chart to decide the length of travel of the tool and the
position of stops. Fig.4.45 shows a typical tooling layout. Figure 4.46 Setting of bar stop
5. Proper speeds and feeds for each operation are next calculated. I. Workstop, 2. Position of bar stop, 3. Hexagonal bar.
6. Setting and machining operations are performed in the Setting of the
(b)
following order roller steady box
turning tool:
(a) Setting of the bar stops : The bar stop is set at a distance of 70 The roller steady
mm from the collet face by using a slip gauge. An extra length box turning tool
is set on the next
turret face for
turning a diame
ter of 16 mm. 2
The procedure
adopted for set
ting the box tool
has been ex Figure 4.47 Setting of box turning tool
plained in Art. I. Roller, 2. Turning tool, 3. Position of stop rod.
4.11. The stop
for turning th� tool is set 20 mm from the collet face by a slip
gauge. The rollers are set slightly behind the cutting edges,
_
approximately 1.5 mm. (See Fig. 4.47)
(c) Setting of bar ending tool: The bar ending tool is set on the
next turret face and is brought into operation after turning the
Figure 4.45 A typical Capstan and turret lathe tooling layout bar. The stop is adjusted in the position by using a slip gauge
I. Chuck, 2. Rear tool post, 3. Chamfering tool, 4 Reamer, 5. Second drill 6. First (See Fig. 4.48)
drill, 7. Drill and countersink, 8. Workstop, 9. Four-station turret.
(d) Setting of self (!) Setting of parting ojf tool : The parting off tool is set on the rear
opening die head tool post on the cross-slide and the longitudinal position of the
The self opening parting off tool is adjusted by the stop set at a distance of 6 mm
die head is 1 from the turret face
mounted on the (See Fig.4.51)
next face of the
turret and the dies Tooling schedule chart : A
are fitted into it to tooling schedule chart for
cut a thread of 16 each workpiece is of great
mm diameter. The 2 importance in a capstan or
stop is adjusted in turret lathe work for ready
a position keeping reference. A tooling schedule
in view the pulling � chart for the above operations
out length of the is given below.
die head for self Figure 4.48 Setting of bar ending tool See Fig. 4.52 for
tooling layout of a bush [J=tmm--3
· releasing. (See 1. Roller, 2. Bar ending, 3. Position or stop rod.
Fig. 4.49) bearing along with Table Figure 4.50 Setting of chamfering tool.
ed on
(e) Setting of chamfering tool: The chamfering tool is mount 22.2. 1. Position of stop on cross-slide, 2. Chamfering
on the cross-s lide and the extrem e tool. 3. Turret saddle stop.
the four station turret
longitudinal positio n of the saddle is adjuste d by a stop. The
TOOLING SCHEDULE CHART
cross feed movement of the cross-slide is adjusted by a stop
MACHINE - A 75 mm Capstan lathe MATERIAL - A hexagonal mild steel bar
(See Fig. 4.50)
Operation Description of Tool positions Tools
No. operation
1. Hold in collet Isl turret position Bar stop
2. Tum to 16 mm dia 2nd turret position Roller steady box turning
tool
3. Form end of the 3rd turret position Roller steady bar ending tool
b9lt
4. Screw 16 mm 4th turret position Self opening die head with
chasers for 16 mm
5. Chamfer Front cross-slide tool Chamferillg tool
post
6. Paning off Rear tool post Paning off tool
4.14 CUTIING SPEED, FEED AND DEPTH OF CUT
Cutting speed : Similar to a centre lathe, the cutting speed in a capstan or

turret lathe is the rate at which any point on the work passes over the tool.
Figure 4.49 Setting of self opening die head This is expressed in metres per minute.
I. Die head 2. Position of stop rod, 3. Pulling out length.
224 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY � .,., 00
00
�
N ,...: ,l) ,l) 0
.,.,r-: .,.,,l) v
It is the amount the v 00
Feed
00 0
,l) -i -i 0 0
tool mov per revolution of
es
.,"' � � "'
.... M
-i
00 N
.,; ....; 00 �
N
the work. This is expressed in

mm p er revolution.
r,i
..J
0
-5
j
� <"'!
M "' "'
00 <"'! "' "' "'
"' ,...: 00
Depth of cut : It is the per·

0
f- .....
0 "'
'CJ N
C'i
� � ,l) ..,.
M
00
,...:
"'
..J
w Oil
endicular distance measured
c � N �
" - .r:.:a"
V') V') V')
r,.l ·;3 0 ....; .,;
..
p ,l)
between a machined and an
!--
"'"'
::l
r,i
2 r-:
V') 0 0 .... 0
.....,
-0
unmachined surface.
0
Q
w � 0 ,...:
C'i .,; 0
N N
w ¢:
Q..
� °'-i 00"' V') V')
�
Tables 4.1 and 4.2 indicate the
N 0
,..: .,; ,..:
"'"'
r,i
suggested cutting speed and tool ::c "' "'-i

Figure 4.51 Setting of parting off 0 � � N M
sa
N 00
.,; ,..: -i
feed for a high speed steel tool
M
stop rod.
1. Parting off tool, 2. Position of ex: -5 ..... N ..... N N
....;
for different operations.
V')
0 -i ....; ....; 0
0 j ,l)
TABLE 4.1 FEEDS FOR HIGHSPEED STEEL

TOOLS, MM PER REV. z- .!;!
"'0 M
....; "' "'
°' 0
.,;
V') "'00 0
0
Material Straight Form 111r11ing, Drilling and Boring

:;
ex:
w �
"'"'
6 "'
V') N
C'i -i
� M
,l)
.,..
,..:
.
centering
"'
Oil
t
cut1i11g off
·e .,..
Q.. c
tuming 0 0 0
0.02--0.05 0.04-0.14 0.10-0.30 0 ..... <A "? 'i M

.,.. 0
.,.. N
Steel 50 kg/mm
2
0.05-0.18 N
0.015-0.04 0.03--0.10 0.08--0.18 r,i
Q
Steel 70 kg/mm
2
0.05--0.15 w
Free culling steel 0.06--0.19 0.02-0.05 0.04-0.12 0.10-0.30 w
I!
co 0 0 "' V') 0 0
0.06-0.15
M
r:i "'!' 0 "?
.,..
00
0.03-0.08 � .;,
.... 0
0
0.03-0.08 0.005-0.03 0
00 00
N 'CJ
Stainless steel N
0.08-0.25 0.15-0.35 z
E
0.10-0.22 0.02-0.10
Brass
0.02-0.08 0.03--0.18 0.18--0.45 Oil
.,..
0 .,.. "' 0 0 0 0
0
0.10-0.22 � � "I' �
Aluminium
u
:;;)
0 "'
..,. N v 0 'CJ 0 �
.,.. "'
Q
c§
w
""
!:::
Oil
c
0
�
0 .,.. N "' "'r:i
0 0
"'
(./)
§0 Oil
'i "'!'
0 0
0 u. '§ .§
3 5
0
M
0
M M .....
0
0
0 u N
;;;)
(./)
� c
Oil "' "' "' "'
0
:;;
0 0 0
·� '§ "' "' 0..,. "'

";' ";' 'CJ "';'
..,. 0
.....
� en 3 M 0
=
N
w
..J
� :§...
f-
1:E
·=
NE
E "' .:;
""'0 ""'0
ob ob Oil
�
"'"'
E
·c
::l
,!!!
... "' ..... t:
::l
u .,
c "' ·e
Figure 4.52 Tooling layout for a plain bush bearing � (/)
]
] ·:r. �
:.,,.
'j§
(":
�
co <
:::,
5
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Differentiate between a capstan, a turret and an engine lathe.

2. What are the differences between-a capstan and a turret lathe ?
3. Describe the features of turret lathe headstock. List also different types
of headstocks. DRILLING MACHINE
4. Describe in brief various parts of capstan and turret lathes.
5. Name the different work holding devices I methods in capstan / turret
lathe. Describe one method briefly with sketch.
6. What are various collet chucks ? List the names of various collet 5.1 INTRODUCTION
chucks. Describe one in brief.
7. List the various tool holding devices, used in capstan/ turret lathes. The drilling machine is one of the most important machine tools in a
8. What is a box tool ? Describe in brief. workshop. As regards its importance it is second only to the lathe.
9. What is a hollow mill ? Discuss its utility and operation. Although it was primarily designed to originate a hole, it can perform a
1 o. Sketch the tooling layout for prod'..lction of simple bush by a turret number of similar operations. In a drilling machine holes may be drilled
lathe. quickly and at a low cost. The hole is generated by the rotating edge of a
cutting tool known as the dril l which exerts large force on the work
clamped on the table. As the machine tool exerts vertical pressure to
originate a hole it is loosely called a "drill press".
Holes were drilled by the Egyptians in 1200 8.C. about 3000 years
ago by bow drills. The bow drill is the mother of present day metal cutting
drilling machine.
5.2 TYPES OF DRILLING MACHINE
Drilling machines are made in many different types and sizes, each
designed to handle a class of work or specific job to the best advantage.
The differen.t types of drilling machines arc :
1. Portable drilling machine.

2. Sensitive drilling machine.
(a) BenchJIIOunting, (b) Flour mounting
3. Upright drilling machine.
(a) Round column section, (h) Box column section
4. Radial drilling machine.
(a) Plain (b) Semiuniversal
(c) Universal
5. Gang drilling machine.
6. Multiple spindle drilling machine.
7. Automatic drilling machine.
8. Deep hole drilling machine.
(a) Vertical (b) Horizontal
...
228 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY DRILLING MACHINE 229
5.3 PORTABLE DRILLING MACHINE breaking. As the operator senses the cutting action, at any instant, it is
called sensitive drilling machine. Sensitive drilling machines are capable
As the name implies this type of drilling machine can be operated with of rotating drills of diameter from 1.5 to 15.5 mm. Super sensitive drilling
ease any where in the workshop and is used for drilling holes in machines are designed to drill holes as small as 0.35 mm in diameter and
workpieces in any position which can not be drilled in a standard drilling the machine is rotated at a high speed of 20,000 r.p.m. or above. Fig.5.1
machine. Some of the portable machines are operated by hand power, but illustrates a sensitive drilling machine.
most of the machines are driven by individual motor. The entire drilling
mechanism including the motor is compact and small in size. The motor is 5.5 UPRIGHT DRILLING MACHINE
usually of universal type which may be driven by both A.C. and D.C. The
maximum size of ttie drill that it can accommodate is not more than 12 to The upright drilling machine is designed for handling medium sized
18 mm. The .machine is operated at high speed as smaller size drills are workpieces. In construction the machine is very similar to a sensitive
only used. Some of the portable machines arc driven by pneumatic power. drilling machine for having a vertical column mounted upon the base. But
this is larger and heavier than a sensitive drill and is supplied with power
5.4 SENSITIVE DRILLING MACHINE feed arrangement. In an upright drilling machine a large number of spindle
speeds and feeds may be available for drilling different types of work. The
The sensitive drilling machine is a small machine designed for drilling a table of the machine also have different types of adjustments. There are
small holes at high speed in light jobs, The base of the machine may be two general classes of upright drilling machine:
mounted on a bench or on
the floor. It consists of a 5
1. Round column section or pillar drilling machine.
vertical column, a horizontal 2. Box column section.
table, a head �uppurling lht: 6
motor and driving 7 Round column section or pillar drilling machine : The round column
mechanism, and a vertical section upright drilling machine or pillar drilling machine consists of a
spindle for driving and round column that rises from the base which rests on the floor, an arm and
rntating the drill. There in no a round table assembly, and a drill head assembly.
arrangement for any The arm and the table have three adjustments for locating
automatic feed of the drill workpieces under the spindle. The arm and the table may be moved up and
spindle. The drill is fed into down on the column for accommodating workpieces of different heights.
the work by purely hand The table and the arm may be moved in an arc upto 180 ° around the
control. High speed and hand column and may be clamped at any position. This permits setting of the
feed are necessary for work below the spindle. Moreover, heavy and odd-size work may be
drilling small holes. High supported directly 'on the base of the machine and drilled .after the arm is
speeds are necessary to attain swung out of the way. The table may be rotated 360 ° about its own centre
required cutting speed by independent of the position of the arm for locating workpieces under the
small diameter drill. Hand spindle.
feed permits the operator to The construction of the machine being not very rigid and the table
feel or sense the progress of Figure 5.1 Sensitive drilling machine being supported on a horizontal arm, this is particularly intended for
the drill into the work, so that I. Table, 2. Vertieal drill spindle, 3. Sleeve, 4. lighter work. The maximum size of holes that the machine can drill is not
if the drill becomes worn out Cone pulley, 5. V-bclt, 6. Head, 7. Driving more than 50 mm.
or jams on any account, the motor, 8. Vertical column, 9, Base.
pressure on the drill may he released immediately to prevent it from
, ..
Box column section upright drilling machine : The upright drilling heights. The arm may be swung around to any position over the work bed.
machine with box column section has the square table fitted on the slides The drill head containing mechanism for rotating and feeding the drill is
at the front face of the machine column. Heavy box column gives the mounted on a radial arm and can be moved horizontally on the guide-ways
machine strength and rigidity. The table is raised or lowered by an and clamped at any desired position. These three movements in a radial
elevating screw that gives additional support to the table. These special drilling machine when combined together permit the drill to be located at
features permit the machine to work with heavier workpieces, and holes any desired point on a large workpiece for drilling the hole. When several
more than 50 mm in diameter can be drilled by it. holes are drilled on a large workpiece, the position of the arm and the drill
head is altered so that the drill spindle may be moved from one position to
the other after drilling the hole without altering the setting of the work.
This versatility of the machine allows it to work on large workpieces. The
work may be mounted on the table or when the work is very large it may
be placed on the floor or in a pit. Fig.5.3 illustrates a radial drilling
machine.
7
4
5 8
Figure 5.2 Upright pillar drilling machine ..

I. Bevel gear drive to spindle, 2. Spindle, 3. Overhead shaft, 4. Back stay, 5.
Counter shaft cone pulley, 6. Fast and loose pulley, 7. Table elevating handle, 8. 1
Foot pedal, 9. Base, 10. Rack on column, 11. Table elevating clamp handle, 12.
Table clamp, 13. Table, 14. Column, 15. Handwheel for quick iland feed, 16.
Handwheel for sensitive hand feed. Figure 5.3 Radial drilling machine
I. Base, 2. column, 3. Radial arm, 4. Motor for elevating the arm, 5. Elevating
5.6 RADIAL DRILLING MACHINE screw, 6. Guide ways, 7. Motor for driving the drill spindle, 8. Drill head, 9. Drill
spindle, 10. Table
The radial drilling machine is intended for drilling medium to large and
heavy workpieces. The machine consists of a heavy, round. vertical · Plain radial drilling machine : In a plain radial drilling machine
column mounted on a large base. The column supports.a radial ,,:·m which provisions are made for vertical adjustment of the arm, horizontal
can be raised and lowered to accommodate workpieces r � different movement of the drill head along the arm, and circular movement of the
arm in horizontal plane about the vertical column.
... �.,.
DRILLING MACHINE 233
5.9 AUTOMATIC DRILLING MACHINE

Semiuniversal machine : In a semiuniversal machine, in addition to 1he
llbove three movements, the drill head can be swung about a horizontal Automatic machine can perform a series of machining operations at
�xis perpendicular to the arm. This fourth movement of the drill head successive units and transfer the work from one unit to the other
permits drilling hole at an angle to the horizontal plane other than the automatically. Once the work is loaded at the first machine, the work will
normal position. move from one machine to the other where different operations can be
performed and the finished work comes out from the last unit without any
Universal machine: In a universal machine, in addition to the above four manual handling. This type of machine is intended purely for production
movements, the arm holding the drill head may be rotated on a horizontal purposes and may be used for milling, honing and similar operations in
axis. All these five movements in a universal machine enables it to drill on addition to drilling and tapping.
a workpiece at any angle.
5.10 DEEP HOLE DRILLING MACHINE
5.7 GANG DRILLING MACHINE
Special machines and drills arc required for drilling deep holes in rine
When a number of single spindle drilling machine columns are placed side barrels, crank shafts, long shafts, etc. The machine is operated at high
by side on a common base and have a common worktable, the machine is speed and low feed. Sufficient quantity of lubricant is pumped to the
known as the gang drilling machine. In a gang drilling machine four to six cutting points for removal of chips and cooling the cutting edges of the
spindles may be mounted side by side. In some machines the drill spindles drill. A long job is usually supported at several points to prevent any
are permanently spaced on the work table, and in others the position of the deflection. The work is usually rotated while the drill is fed into the work.
columns may be adjusted so that the space between the spindles may be This helps in feeding the drill in a straight path. In some machines both the
varied. The speed and feed of the spindles are controlled independently. work and the drill are rotated for accurate location.
This type of machine is specially adapted for production work. A series of The machine may be horizontal or vertical type. In some machines
operations may be performed on the work by simply shifting the work step feed is applied. The drill is withdrawn automatically each time when it
from one position to the other on the work table. Each spindle may be set penetrates into the work to a depth equal to its diameter. This process
up properly with different tools for different operations. permits the chip to clear out from the work.
5.8 MULTIPLE SPINDLE DRILLING MACHINE 5.11 THE SIZE OF A DRILLING MACHINE
The function of a multiple spindle drilling machine is to drill a number of The size of a drilling machine varies with the type of machine being
holes in a piece of work simultaneously and to reproduce the same pattern considered.
of holes in a number of identical pieces in a mass production work. Such A portable drilling machine is specified by the maximum diameter
machines have several spindles driven by a single motor and all the of the drill that it can hold.
spindles holding drills are fed into the work simultaneously. Feeding The sensitive and upright drilling machines arc specified by the
motion is usually obtained by raising the work table. But the feeding diameter of the largest piece that can be centered under the spindle. Thus
motion may also be secured by lowering the drill heads. The spindles are in the case of a 600 mm size upright drilling machine, the spindle placed at
so constructed that their centre distance may be adjusted in any position as a distance is slightly greater than 300 mm from the front face of the
required by various jobs within the capacity of the drill head. For this column.
purpose, the drill spindles are connected to the main drive by universal To specify a drilling machine fully further particulars such as the
joints. Drill jigs may be used for guiding the drills in mass production maximum size of drill that the machine can operate, table diameter, the
work. maximum spindle travel, numbers of spindle speeds and feeds available,
Morse taper number of the drill spindle, power input, floor space required, about its own axis. After the required adjustments have been made the
net weight of the machine, etc. are all needed. table and the arm are clamped in position.
The size of a radial drilling machine is specified by the diameter of
the column and length of the arm. Other particulars such as maximum Head : The drill head is mounted on the top of the column and houses the
drilling radius, minimum drilling radius, spindle speeds and feeds, etc. driving and feeding mechanism for the spindle. In some of the machines
should also be stated to specify the machine fully. the drill head may be adjusted up or down for accommodating different
heights of work in addition to the table adjustment. In lighter machines, the
5.12 UPRIGHT DRILLING MACHINE PARTS driving motor is mounted at the rear end of the head counterbalancing the
weight of the drill spindle.
The different parts of an upright drillin� machine is shown in Fig.5.2. They
are as follows Spindle and drill head assembly : A drill spindle assembly is illustrated
in Fig.5.4. The spindle is a vertical shaft which holds the drill. It receives
1. Base 4. Head its motion from the top shaft through bevel gears. A long key-way is cut on
2. Column 5. Spindle, qu:11 and drill head assembly the spindle and the bevel gear is connected to it by a sliding key. This
3. Table 6. Spindle drive and feed mechanism construction is made to allow the spindle to
be connected with the top shaft irrespective
Base : The base is that part of the machine on which vertical column is of its position when the spindle is raised or
mounted. In a belt driven machine the countershaft consists of a fast and a lowered for feeding the drill into the work.
loose pulley and cone pulley is fitted to the base of the machine. The top of The spindle rotates within a non-rotating
the base in round column section type upright drilling machine is sleeve which is known as the quill. Rack
accurately machined and has T-slots on it so that large work pieces and teeth are cut on the outer surface of the 6
work holding devic;es may be.set up and bolted to it. sleeve, and in precision machines a block
having rack teeth cut on it is bolted to the
Column : The column is the vertical member of the machine which vertical face of the sleeve. The sleeve may be
supports the table and the head containing all the driving mechanism. The moved up or down by rotating a pinion
column should be sufficiently rigid so that it can take up the entire cutting which meshes with the rack and this
pressure of the drill. The column may be made of box section or of round movement is imparted to the spindle to give
section. Box column is a more rigid unit. In some of the round column the required feed. The downward movement
machines, rack teeth are cut on the face of the column for vertical of the spindle is effected by rotating the
movement of the arm and the table. The vertical movement is effected by pinion which causes the quill to move
rotating the table elevating handle which causes a pinion mounted within downward exerting pressure on the spindle
the arm to rotate on the rack teeth. In box column type, the front face of through a thrust bearing and washer. The
the column is accurately machined to form guideways 0;1 which the table spindle is moved upward by the upward
can slide up and down for vertical adjustment. pressure exerted by the quill acting against a
nut attached to the spindle ·through the thrust
Table : The table is mounted on the column and is provided with T-slots Figure 5 .4 Drill
bearing. The lower end of the spindle is
for clamping the work directly on its face. The table may be round or spindle assembly
provided with Morse taper hole for
1. Key way on the spindle, 2.
rectangular in shape. For centering work below the spindle, the table of a accommodating taper shank drill. A slot is Spindle, 3. Nut, 4, 7. Thrust
pillar drilling machine may have three types of adjustments : vertical provided at the end of the taper hole for bearing, 5. Quill or sleeve, 6.
adjustment, radial adjustment about the column, and circular adjustment holding the tang of the drill to impart it a Rack, 8. Washer, 9. Lower
positive drive. A drift or key may be pushed end of the spindle.
through the slot for removing the drill. For holding drills of smaller size, a the top cone pulley J 6, through gears Z 1 , Z2 , 23 , and Z4 to the shaft IO
Morse taper socket or a drill chuck having a taper shank is put on the taper which rotates at a slower speed. The shaft JO transmits motion to the drill
hole of the spindle. spindle 8 through bevel gear 9. In order to change the spindle speed, the
belt may be shifted on different steps of the cone pulley and the number of
Spindle drive mechanism : The spindle drive mechanism of a drilling single speeds with the back gears "in" position is equal to the number of
machine incorporates an arrangement for obtaining multiple speed of the steps on the cone pulley. The spindle speed with back gears "in" position
spindle similar to a lathe to suit to various machining conditions. Multiple may be derived as follows
speed of the spindle may be obtained as follows:
Speed of the spindle 8
= x - 5.1
1. By step cone pulley drive. Speed of the pulley 16
2. By step cone pulley drive with one or more back gears.
3. By gearing. To obtcc1in additional speeds, the lever 2/ is shifted towards the left.
This will cause gears Z 2 and Z3 to be disengaged with gears Z 1 and Z4 and
Step cone pulley drive : Fig.5.2 illustrates a spindle driving
mechanism incorporating a step cone pulley. The motion is transmitted
from an overhead line shaft to the countershaft mounted on the base of the
machine. The countershaft may be started or stopped by shifting the belt
from loose pulley to fast pulley or vice versa by operating the foot-pedal 7.
The step cone pulley mounted on the head of the machine receives power
from the countershaft step cone pulley 5 through the belt. The drill spindle
2 receives power from the overhead shaft 3 through bevel gears J and the
speed of the spindle may be varied by shifting the belt on different steps of
the cone pulley 5. The number of spindle speeds available is dependent
upon the number of steps on the cone pulley.
Step cone pulley drive with back gear : In order to obtain larger
number of spindle speeds backgears are incorporated in the machine in
addition to the step cone pulley.
As shown in Fig.5.5 the countershaft mounted on the base of
machine receives power from the overhead line shaft. The belt on the fast
and the loose pulley may be shifted to start or stop the countershaft. The
countershaft cone pulley 18 and the top shaft cone pulley 16 are connected
by a belt 17. Gear Z 1 and the pulley 16 are attached together on the hollow
shaft 15 and they rotate freely on the shaft JO. The clutch 13 is keyed to Figure 5.5 Drilling machine mechanism
the shaft 10 and the clutch may be shifted towards the right to be engaged I. Sensitive feed handwheel, 2. Pinion, 3. Quill, 4. Quick feed handwheel, 5.
with gear 21• Gear 24 is keyed to the shaft JO. Back gears 22 and 23 are Worm gear, 6. Feed gears on worm gear shaft, 7. Key way on drill spindle, 8. Drill
joined together by a sleeve 25 in the centre of which a groove is turned to spindle, 9. Bevel gear, I 0. Top shaft, 11. Worm and worm gear drive for automatic
receive a 'C' shaped shifter attached to the lever 21. This lever has a feed, 12. Gear 24 , 13. Sliding clutch, 14. Gear 2 1 , 15. Hollow shaft, 16. Top shaft
similar connection with the clutch 13 and is fulcrumed on the frame below cone pulley, 17. Belt, 18. Countershaft cone pulley, 19. Fast and loose pulley, 20.
the gears. Foot pedal, 21. Lever, 22., 24. Back gears 23 and�. 23. Fulcrum, 25. Back gears
The back gears 22 and 23 are in mesh with the gears Z 1 and 24 sleeve, 26. Feed gears on driven shaft, 27. Bevel gears, 28. Shaft, 29. Clutch, 30.
respectively. The motion is transmitted from the bottom ·cone pulley 18 to Worm, 31. Rack, 33. Sliding key.
·!
will cause the clutch 13 to be engaged with the gear Z 1 • The motion is now driven shaft through the corresponding gear keyed to the shaft. Other gears
z
transmitted from the pulley 16 to the gear Z 1 and from gear 1 to the shaft
on the worm shaft revolve freely with their mating gears on the driven
shaft. Thus six different speeds of driven shaft are obtained by sliding the
10 through the clutch 13. The spindle 8 now receives motion directly from
key to engage with six different gears on the worm gear shaft. The motion
the pulley 16 and the speed of the spindle is equal to the speed of the
of the driven shaft is transmitted to the shaft 28 through two mating bevel
pulley 16 The speed may be altered by shifting the belt on different steps.
: gears 27 and the clutch 29. The worm 30 mounted on the shaft 28 operates
Thus 4 direct speeds are obtained with back gears "out" and 4 indirect
speeds with back gears "in" making altogether 8 spindle speeds. the worm gear 5 mounted on a shaft. A small pinion 2 fitted at the end of
_ this shaft meshes with the rack 31 which is bolted to the quill 3. The
With backgears "out" the speed of the spindle is increased and the
machine is used for drilling smaller holes. For drilling larger diameter rotation of the pinion 2 causes the quill 3 to move up and down giving
holes or for tapping, the spindle speed is reduced by engaging the spindle feed.
backgears. When the sensitive hand feed is applied, the 'clutch 29 is
Spindle drive by gearing : Modern heavy duty drilling machines disconnected-. The sensitive feed hand wheel 1 is attached to the rear end
are driven by individual motor mounted on the frame of the machine. The of the worm shaft 28. Rotation of the hand wheel I will cause the worm
and worm gear to rotate and a slow but sensitive feed is obtained.
multipl � speeds may be obtained by sliding gear or sliding clutch
Quick hand feed is obtained by rotating the hand wheel 4 and
mechanism �r by the combination of the above two methods. The sliding
_ operating the clutch mounted on the worm gear shaft. One turn of the hand
gear and sltdtng clutch mechanism in drilling is similar to that described in
wheel 4 will cause the pinion 2 to rotate through one complete revolution
Art. 3.7.
giving quick hand feed movement of the spindle.
•
Fee� mechanism : In a drilling machine, the feed is effected by the
vertical movement of the drill into the work. The feed movement of the 5.13 RADIAL DRILLING MACHINE PARTS
drill may be controlled by hand or power. The hand feed may be applied
by two methods The different parts of a radial drilling machine have been illustrated m
Fig.5.3. They are as follows
1. Quick traverse hand feed
2. Sensitive hand feed 1. Base 4. Drill head
2. Column 5. Spindle speed and feed mechanism
The quick traverse feed is used to bring the cutting tool rapidl; to 3. Radial arm
the hole location or for withdrawing the drill when the operation is
Base : The base of a radial drilling machine is a large rectangular casting
completed. The sensitive hand feed is applied for trial cut and for drilling
that is finished on its top to support a column on its one end and to hold the
smal: ;,oles.
work table at the other end. In some machines T- slots are provided on the
The automatic feed is applied while drilling larger diameter holes as
base for clamping work when it serves as a table. In some m.achines two or
the cutting pressure required is sufficiently great. Fig.5.5 illustrates the
automatic feed mechanism. The automatic feed motion is derived from the more number of bases are provided. When drilling is done on a job
supported on an� one of the bases, another job may be set up on the other
top shaft 10 through the worm gearing I I to a six speed feed box. The feed
changes are effected by the lever 33 operating a sliding key mechanism. In for a continuous production.
the feed box, six gears mounted on the worm gear shaft are constantly in
Column : The column is a cylindrical casting· that is mounted vertically
mesh with another six gears mounted on the driven shaft. Gears on the
at one end of the base. It supports the radial arm which may slide up or
driven shaft are all keyed to the shaft and rotate with it. Gears on the worm
down on its face. An electric motor is mounted on the top of the column
gear shaft are all free to rotate, but may be keyed to the shaft by a sliding
which imparts vertical adjustment of the arm by rotating a screw passing
key only by one gear at a time. When the sliding key is in the first gear, it
through a riut attached to the arm.
causes the gear to rotate with the shaft and the motion is transmitted to the
Radial arm : The radial arm that is mounted on the column extends
horizontally over the base. It is a massive casting with its front vertical T-bolts and clamps : One of the most common methods of holding the.
face accurately machined to provide guide ways on which the drill head work directly on the drilling machine table is by means of T-bolt and
may be made to slide. The arm may be· swung round the column. In some clamps. Drilling machine tables are provided with T-slots into which T
machines this movement is controlled by a separate motor. bolts may be fitted. Fig.5.6 shows different views of T-bolts. The diameter
of T-bolts usually ranges from 15 to 20 mm. The clamps or straps are
Drill head : The drill head is mounted on the radial arm and drives the made of mild steel flats 12 to 20 mm thick and 45 to 70 mm wide. A slot
drill spindle. It encloses all the mechanism for driving the drill at multiple or opening is cut at the centre of the strap to allow the T-bolt to pass
speed and at different feed. All the mechanisms and controls are housed through it. The clamp is made to rest horizontally on the work surface and
within a small drill head which may be made to slide on the guide ways of a clamping block and the nut
the arm for adjusting the position of drill spindle with respect to the work. is then tightened. The T-bolt
After the spindle has been properly adjusted in position the drill head is •must remain as close to the
clamped on the radial arm. work as possible. Some of the
common types of clamps are
Spindle drive and feed mechanism : There arc two common methods of
driving the spindle. A constant speed motor is mounted at the extreme end Plain slot clamp : The
of the radial arm which balances partially the weight of the overhanging clamps are made of mild steel
arm. The motor drives a horizontal spindle which runs along the length of flat having a central slot
the arm and the motion is transmitted to the drill head through bevel gears. through which a T-bolt is Figure 5.6 Different views of
By train of gearing within the drill head, the speed of the spindle may be made to pass. This is a general "T" bolts
varied. Through another train of gearing within the drill head, different purpose clamp. Fig.5.13 1. T-bolt.
feeds of the spindle are obtained. In some machines, a vertical motor is illustrates a plain slot clamp in
fitted directly on the drill head and through gear box multiple speed and use.
the feed of the spindle can be obtained. Goose neck clamp :
The clamp is used for holding
5.14 WORK HOLDING DEVICES work of sufficient height.
Smaller size of T-bolts, and
Before performing any operation in a drilling machine it is absolutely packing pieces can clamp the
necessary to secure the work firmly on the drilling machine table. The work securely due to the Figure 5.7 Use of goose neck clamp
work should never be held by hand, because the drill while revolving typical shape of the clamp. 1. Goose neck clamp, 2. Work.
exerts so much of torque on the workpiece that it starts revolving along The clamps are sufficiently
with the tool and may cause injuries to the operator. strong and are usually
The devices commonly used for holding the work in a drilling manufactured by forging.
machine are Fig.5.7 illustrates a goose neck
clamp in use.
1. T-bolt and clamps. U-clamp : U-clamps
2. Drill press vise. are very qseful for quick
3. Step block. adjustment of the work. The
4. V-block. clamp can be removed without
5. Angle plate. removing the nut. Fig.5.8 Figure 5.8 U Clamp
6. Drill jigs. illustrates;,. U-clamp.
without damaging the vise table. The drill press vise may be plain or
Finger clamp The universal type. In a universal vise the base may be swiveled at any angle
finger clamps have a round or about the vertical axis and it may be tilted in a vertical plane to drill hole in
flat extension which may be a work at different angles. Two lugs are provided at the base of the vise for
fitted in a hole of the workpiece
I Q_
1..-----'1£ clamping it securely on the work table. Fig.5.11 illustrates a plain vise and
for clamping. Fig.5 .9 illustrates Fig.5.12 a universal vise.
·a finger clamp.
Adjustable step clamp
The adjustable step clamp has a
Figure 5.9 Use of finger clamp
screw at its one end which is
1. Finger clamp, 2. Work.
used to level the clamp when its
other end rests against the 2
Figure 5.12 Universal vise Figure 5.13 Use of step block

' :
:---------[�: -=�r------------
� I. Work, 2. Slotted arm. 1. Step block, 2. Plain slot clamp,
3. T-bolt, 4. Work
5 Step blocks : The step blocks are used in conjunction with T-bolts and
clamps for holding the work directly on the table. The step block provides
support for the other end of the clamp. The different steps of the step
blocks are used for leveling the clamp while handling workpieces of
different heights. The stepblocks are made of mild steel. Fig.5.13
illustrates the use of step block.
Figure 5.10 Use.of adjustable Figure 5.11 Plain vise

step clamp 1. Work, 2. Parallels, 3. Movable unit 4. l
1. Adjusting screw, 2. Clamp. Screw
work. The. work may be quickly set up without any packing pieces.
Fig.5 .10 illustrates an adjustable step clamp.
Drill press vise : The drill press vise is one of the most common methods
of holding small and regular shaped workpieces. The work is clamped in a
vise between a fixed jaw and a movable jaw. Extra slip jaws are supplied
for holding cylindrical or hexagonal bars. The screw of the vise rotates in a Figure 5.14 Use ofV-block
fixed nut in the movable jaw. The screw of the vise may be square or acme I. Clamp, 2. V-blocks.
threaded. While clamping the work in a vise, parallel blocks are placed
below the work so that the drill may completely pass through the work
V-blocks : The V-blocks are used for holding round workpieces. The
1. By directly fitting in the spindle.
work may be supported on two or three blocks and clamped against them
by straps and bolts. V-blocks are accurately machined cast iron or steel 2. By a sleeve.
blocks. Fig.5.14 illustrates the use of a V-block. 3. By a socket.
4. By chucks.
5. By special attachments.
A.ogle plates : The angle plates
are usually made of cast iron a. Tapping attachment.
having two faces at right angles b. Floating holder.
to each other. The faces are
accurately finished and are Directly holding the tool All general purpose drilling machines have
provided with holes and slots for the spindle bored out to a standard taper to
clamping the work on one of its receive the taper shank of the tool. The
face while the other face rests taper used in a drill spindle is usually
upon the table and is bolted to it. Morse standard taper which is
Angle plates are used when it is Figure 5.15 Use ofan angle plate approximately 1 :20. While fitting the tool
necessary to drill a hole parallel
angle plate. the shank is forced into the tapered hole
to another surface. Fig.5 .15 illustrates the use of an
and the to.ol is gripped by friction. The tool
the work in a mass
Drill jigs : The drill jigs are used for holding may be rotated with the spindle by friction
ely, locate the work, and
production process. A jig can hold the work secur between the tapered surface and the
may be clamped and
guide the tool at any desired position. The work spindle ; but to ensure a positive drive the
for each type of work
unclamped quickly. Jigs are specially designed tang or tongue of the tool fits into a slot at
where quantity production is the end of the taper hole. The tool may be
desired. Holes may be drilled at the removed by pressing a tapered wedge
same relative positions on each of Figure 5.17 Drill inserted known as the drift into the slotted hole of
the identical workpieces without in drill spindle. the spindle. Fig.5.17 illustrates a drill fitted
marking the work individually. 1. Slots for inserting drifts, directly into the spindle through a sleeve.
Fig.5.16 illustrates a drill jig. The 2. Drill spindle 3. Sleeve, Fig.5.18 shows a drift or key. It can be
work is clamped below the jig and 4. Drill. noted that sleeve used in drill spindle
the holes are located. The drill is
should not be affected while the drift is
guided by the bushing, and when
the work is completed the second pushed to take out the drill bit. Usually a
Figure 5.16 Use ofdrilljig
work is clamped below, the jig and 1. Drill, 2. Clamping nut, 3. T-bolt, mallet should be used instead of a
the process is repeated. 4. Dril,I bush,5. Work. hammer. The operator must· be ensure that
the tool is not dropped while removing it.
5.15 TOLL HOLDING DEVICES The taper should be standardised to the
Figure 5.18 Drift
Mourse standard taper and non-standard
The revolving spindle of a drilling machine can hold different cutting tools .
ta�mg should not be allowed for drill spindle sleeve. Unmatched drill
for different operations. The different methods used for holding toolS- in a
spindle and .sleece may cause inconvenience during machine running.
drill spindle are
DRLLING MACHINE 247
Drill chqcks : The chucks arc especially intended for holding smaller size
u
Sleeve : The drill spindle is suitable for
drills or any other tools. A sleeve or socket can hold one size of tool shank
holding only one size of shank. If the taper
only but a chuck may be used to hold different sizes of tool shanks within
shank of the tool is smaller than the taper in
a certain limit. Drill chucks have tapered shanks which are fitted into the
the spindle hole, a taper sleeve is used: The drilling machine spindle. Different types of drill chucks are manufactured
outside taper of the sleeve conforms to the for different purposes. The most common types of chucks are
drill spindle taper and the inside taper holds
the shanks of smaller size tools or smaller I I 1. Quick change chuck.
sleeves. The sleeve fits into the taper hole of : I 2. Three-jaw self-centering chuck
the spindle and holds tool shanks of smaller I I
sizes i� the tapered hole. The sleeve has a I I Quick change chuck : The quick
flattened end or tang which fits into the slot I
change chuck also known as magic chuck
of the spindle. The tang of the tool fits into a illustrated in Fig.5.21 is particularly useful in
slot provided at the end of the taper hole of production work. The chuck is used for
the sleeve. The sleeve with the tool may be locating a series of tools one after another for
removed by forcing a drift within the slot of machining a hole without stopping the
Figure 5.19 Drill sleeve
the spindle and the tool may be separated spindle. This reduces much of machining
1. Inside taper.
from the sleeve by the similar process. time.
Different sizes of tool shanks may be held in It consists essentially of a body 1
the spindle by using different sizes of sleeve. having taper shank which is fitted into the
The taper on the outer surfac� does not Figure S.21 Quick
spindle. A sliding collar 4 is fitted loosely on
change but that on the inner surface varies change chuck
the rotating body. The collar 4 may be raised
with the different sizes of the tool shanks. 1. Chuck body, 2. Sleeve,
or lowered by hand without stopping the 3. Balls, 4. Sliding collar
Fig.5.19 illustrates a drill sleeve. spindle. The sleeve 2 has a taper hole which
holds the tool shank. The sectional view of
Socket : When the tapered tool shank is the sleeve is shown in Fig.5.22. There are
larger than the spindle taper drill sockets are •
several sleeves which are used for holding
used to hold the tool. Drill sockets are much different tools required for different
n
longer in size than the drill sleeves. machining operations. The sleeve 2 holding
A socket consists of a solid shank the tool may be fitted into the body I. Holes
attached to the end of a cylindrical body. are provided on the body I of the chuck in
The taper shank of the socket conforms to which balls 3 are placed and recesses are cut
the taper of the drill spindle and fits into it. on the corresponding surface of the sleeve
The body of the socket has a tapered hole 1 I where the balls are placed when it is fitted
larger than the drill spindle taper into which t
I into the chuck. When the collar 4 is raised
the taper shank of any tool may be fitted. I with one hand the sleeve with its tool may be
The tang of the socket fits into the slot of the I fitted in the chuck body with the other hand.
spindle and the tang of the tool fits into the I The sleeve causes the balls to come out from Figure 5.22 Quick
slot of the socket. Fig.5.20 illustrates a drill the recess. When the collar 4 is lowered it change chuck sleeve
socket. forces the balls into the recesses and the 1. Sleeve.
Figure 5.20 Drill socket
1 . Socket body. sleeve 2 is locked by the balls 3 with the body
of the chuck I. The driving motion is transmitted to the tool from the through the spring 2 and two clutch plates 3 and 4. The teeth on the clutch
chuck body through the balls 3. To remove the sleeve with the tool, the plate 3 pressing against the bevel teeth on the clutch plate 4 ensures the
collar is lifted by hand and the sleeve drops out from the chuck body. drive. When the tap reaches the bottom of the hole or jams due to any
Three-jaw self-centering chuck : A self-centering drill chuck is other reason, the frictional torque is no longer sufficient to run the clutch
illustrated in Fig.5.23. This type of chuck is particularly adapted for plate 4 and the plate 4 with the tap becomes stationary. The plate 3
holding tools having straight shanks. Three slots are cut 120 ° apart in the continues to revolve with the spindle and the bevel teeth on 3 slips over
chuck body which houses three jaws having threads cut at the back that the bevel teeth on 4 giving a peculiar
meshes with a ring nut. The ring nut is attached to the sleeve. Bevel teeth sound. When this so happens the
are cut all round the sleeve body. The sleeve may be rotated by rotating a machine should be reversed. The main
key having bevel teeth cut on its face which meshes with the bevel teeth on difficulty of using a tap in drill machine
the sleeve. The rotation of the sleeve causes the ring nut to rotate in a fixed is the damaging of a tool. The operator
position and all the three jaws close or open by the same amount from the must be careful in sensing if the tap
centre holding or releasing the shank of a tool. reaches the bottom. If the hole is blind,
the operator must keep a stopper to
Tapping attachment : prevent the tap 'to reach the end point.
This is a special
attachment used for
Floating holder : When a reamer or
tapping operation in a
tap needs to follow a previously drilled
drilling machine. Hand
or bored hole a floating holder is used
tapping is a slow
to compensate for out of alignment of
6 process and in mass
drill spindle with work and permits self
production work the
alignment of the tool. When an ordinary
tap must be driven by a
reamer or a tap has to follow a drilled
machine. The tapping
hole it is almost impossible to locate the
attachment serves as a
reamer exactly in line with the axis of
flexible connection
the hole. Fig.5.25 illustrates a floating
Figure 5.23 Self Figure 5.24 Tapping between the drill
holder. The taper shank of the holder
centering drill chuck attachment spindle and the tap.
fits into the spindle taper. A slot is cut
1. Key, 2. Bevel teeth on 1. Nut, 2. Spring, The principle of
at the cylindrical end of the shank
sleeve, 3. Body, 4. Sleeve, 3.,4. Clutch plates. working is that when
5. Ring nut, 6. Jaw across its diameter. The cylindrical
the tap reaches at the
plate' 2-has. a key type projection on one
bottom or jams in the hole, the driving torque on the tap is released
of its face �hich fits into the slot of the
immediately. This prevents any damage to the tap. Fig. 5.24 illustrates a
shank body. Another short key-type
tapping attachment. The taper shank of the attachment is fitted into the projection on the other face of the plate
_
drill spindle. The clutch plate 3 having bevel teeth c�t on its face res!s 2 fits into the slot provided at the boss
against the clutch plate 4 having similar teeth cut on its face. The tap is like extension of the sleeve I. The two
attached to the body of the clutch plate 4. The clutch plate 3 exerts projections on the face of the plate 2 are
sufficient pressure on the clutch plate 4 due to he compression in the at right angles to each other and the
spring. 2. The spring tension may be adjusted �y rota�ing the nut I whi!e
_ length of the projections are sfightly Figure 5.25 Floating holder
using different sizes of taps to regulate the perm1ss1b�e tor�ue on the \ap m
shorter than the length of the slots. The I. Sleeve, 2. Cylindrical plate,
each case. The motion is transmitted from the drill spindle to the tap
sleeve and the shank body are held 3. Coupling, 4. Taper hole.
0.125 mm oversize and a 22 mm drill may produce one as much as 0.5 mm
together by the coupling 3 screwed to the shank body. The rotation of the versize. Fig. 5.26 illustrates a drilling operation.
spindle is communicated to the ,sleeve through the shank body and the
plate 2. The sleeve may be adjusted in four directions by the sliding of the Reaming: Reaming shown in Fig. 5.27 is an accurate way of sizing and
plate 2. The sleeve may be adjusted in four directions by the sliding of the nishing � ho!e which has been �reviously drille<;l. In order to finish a hole
_ _ _
plate 2 in either of the slots of the shank body or sleeve at right angles to * d to bring 1t to the accurate size ,.. the hole 1s drilled slightly undersize.
each other. The tool thus automatically aligns itself with the drilled hole. e speed of the spindle is made half that of drilling and automatic feed
may be employed The tool used for reaming is known as the reamer which
5.16 DRILLING MACHINE OPERATIONS has multiple cutting edges. Reamer cannot originate a hole. It simply
follows the path which has been previously drilled and removes a very
The different operations that can be performed in a drilling machine are small amount of metal. For this reason a reamer cannot correct a hole
location. The material removed by this process is around 0.375 mm and for
1. Drilling. 6. Spot facing. accurate work this should not exceed 0.125 mm.
2. Reaming. 7. Tapping.
3. Boring. 8. Lapping. Boring : Boring illustrated in Fig.5.28 is performed in a drilling machine
4. Counterboring. 9. Grinding. for reasons stated below :
5. Countersinking. 10. Trepanning.
1. To enlarge a hole by means of an adjustable cutting tool with
Drilling : Drilling is the operation of producing a cylindrical hole by only one cutting edge. This is necessary where suitable sized
removing metal by the rotating edge of a cutting tool called the drill. The drill is not available or where hole diameter is so large that it
drilling is one of the simplest methods of producing a hole. Before drilling cannot be ordinarily drilled.
the centre of the hole is located on the workpiece by drawing two lines at 2. To finish a hole accurately and to bring it to the required size.
right angles to eac;h other and then a centre punch is used to produce an 3. To machine the internal surface of a hole already produced in
indentation at the centre. The drill point is pressed at this centre point to casting.
produce the required hole. Drilling does not produce an accurate hole in a 4. To correct out of roundness of the hole.
workpiece and the hole so generated by drilling becomes rough and the 5. To correct the location of the hole as the boring tool follows an
hole is always slightly oversize than the drill used due to the vibration of independent path with respect to the hole.
the spindle and the drill. A 12 mm drill may produce a hole as much as
Figure S.28 Boring operation Figure 5.29 Counterboring operation
The cutter is held in a boring bar which has a taper shank to fit into
the spindle socket. For perfect finishing a hole, the job is drilled slightly.
undersize. In precision machines, the accuracy is as high as± 0.00125 mm.
It is a slow process than reaming and requires several passes of the tool.
Figure 5.26 Drilling operation Figure 5.27 Reaming operation
25,2 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY DRILLING MACHINE 253
Counterboring : Counterboring shown in Fig.5.29 is the operation o hich are hard ened and ground. When the tap
. _
enlarging the end of a hole cylind rically. The enlarged hole forms a squa screwe� into the hole it removes metal and
shoulder with the original hole. This is necessary in some cases tt c ts internal threads which will fit into external
I
accommod ate the heads of bolts, studs and pins. The tool used f, r th eads of the same size.
counterboring is called a counterbore. The counterbores are mad e wifh
straight or tapered shank to fit in the ,d rill spindle. The cutting ed ges m, y T p Drill size : The size of the tap being the
have straight or spiral teeth. The tool is guided by a pilot which extends o side diameter of its thread s, it is evident that
beyond the end of the cutting edges. The pilot fits into the small diameter th� drilled hole must be smaller than the ' ...p by
hole having running clearance and maintains the alignment of the tool. tw ce the depth of the thread. The amount to be
These pilots may be interchanged for enlarging different size of holes. suotracted from the tap diameter depends on the
Counterboring can give an accuracy of about ± 0.050 mm. The cutting shape of the thread, e.g. B.S.W., B.S.F., Indian
sp eed for counterboring is 25 % less than that of d rilling operation. Standard Thread (IS) etc. Tap d rill size may
thus be derived from the following formula Figure 5.32 Tapping
of
Countersinking : Countersinking shown in Fig.5.30 is the operation operation
making a cone-shaped enlargement of the end of a hol to provide a recess D = T-2d
for a flat head screw or countersunk rivet fitted into the hole. The to�I used°
e
60 ,
for countersinking is called a countersink. Standard countersinks have where D is the diameter of tap d rill size, T diameter of tap or bolt to be
e ges of the tool are formed at used an d d depth of thread.
82° or 90° included angle and the cutting
in counter sinking is 25% less than
the conical surface. The cutting speed
d
that of drilling. For example:

In a tap or bolt of Indian Standard Specification, if
outsid e d iameter T = 10 mm
pitch of the thread p = 1.5 mm
depth of the thread d = 0.61 p (Aporox.)
then, tap drill D = 10-2 x0.61x1.5= 10-1.83= 8.17 mm
Nearest drill size = 8.20 mm
Figure S.31 Spot facin� Tap drill size can also be worked out when applying the following "rule of
Figure S.30 Countersinking
operation thumb", which is sufficiently accurate for most case s. �
operation
smoothing Tap d rill size= Outside diameter x0.8
Spot facing: Spot facing shown in Fig.5.31 is the operation of
t for a nut or the head of
an d squaring the surface around a hole for the se·a For example:
tool may b emplo y ed for
a screw. A counterbor e or a special spot facing e
Tap d rill size = 10 x0.8 = Bmm
this purpose.
Nearest drill size = 8.0 mm
Tapping : Tapping shown in Fig.5.32 is the operation of cutting internal
For �ommercial purposes a tapped thread need not be full depth threacl.
threads by means of a cutting tool called a tap. A tap may be·consi dered as
Tappmg a thread by 75% of its full depth gives a satisfactory result.
a bolt with accurate threads cut on it. The threads act as cutting edges
Flat or spade drill : A flat drill is sometimes used when a same sized
Lapping : Lapping is the operation of sizing and finishing a sm I
wist drill is not available. It is usually made from a piece of round tool
diameter hole already hardened by removing a very small amount f
teel which is forged to shape and ground to size, then hardened and
material by using a lap. There are many kinds of lapping tools. The cop er
mpered. The cutting angle varies from 90 ° to 120 ° and the relief or
head laps are commonly used. The lap fits in the hole and is moved up nd
learance at the cutting edge is 3 ° to 8 °. The disadvantage of this type of
down while it revolves.
rill is that each time the drill is ground the diameter is reduced. Further, it
anno,t be relied upon to drill a true straight hole, since the point of the drill
Grinding : Grinding operation may be performed in a drilling mac�in to
as a tendency to run out of centre.
finish a hardened hole. The grinding wheel is made to revolve withJ he I ,
nother difficulty of using this
spindle and is fed up and down. A suitable grinding wheel may be seter.ied
I�->---------�
t pe of drill is that the chips do not �
for surface grinding operation. Grinding can also be done to � orre�t out of
_ _ c me out from the hole
roundness of the hole. The accuracy in grinding operation is quite high
a tomatically, but tends lo pack ----
about± 0.0025 mm. ore or less tightly, if deep holes =-----
1 ��.1
are to be drilled. Fig.5.34 illustrates
Trepannings : Trepanning shown in Fig.5.33 Figure 5.34 Flat drill
a flat drill.
is the operation of producing a hole by
removing metal along the circumference of a
Straight Outed drill A straight fluted drill has grooves or flutes running
hollow cutting tool. Trepanning operation is
parallel to the drill axis. A straight fluted drill may be considered as a
performed for producing large holes. Fewer cutting tool having zero rake. This type of drill is inconvenient in standard
chips are removed and much of the material is practice as the chips do not come out from the hole automatically. It is
saved while the hole is produced. The tool may mainly used in drilling brass, copper or other softer materials. In drilling
be operated at higher speeds as the variation in brass, the twist drill tends to advance faster than the rate of feed and the
Figure S.3J
diameter of the tool is limited by the narrow drill digs into the metal.
Trepanning operation
cutting edge. The tool resembles a hollow tube No such difficulty occurs
. .
having cutting edges at one end and a solid shank at the ot�er to fit into the in the use of a straight
drill spindle. This is one of the efficient methods of producing a hole. fluted drill when drilling
sheet metal. The straight
5.17 DRILLING MACHINE TOOLS fluted drill does not tend to
lift the sheet as does the
Drill : A drill is a fluted cutting tool used to originate or enlarge a hole in twist drill. Fig.5.35
a solid material. Drills are manufactured in a wide variety of types and Figure 5.35 Straight Outed drill
illustrates a straight fluted
sizes. The types of the drill commonly used are drill.
1. Flat or spade drill
2. Straight fluted drill Twist drills : The most common type of drill in use today is the twist
3. Two-lip twist drill drill. It was originally manufactured by twisting a flat piece of tool steel
a. Parallel shank (short series or "Jobbers" twist drill)
longitudinally for several revolutions, then grinding the diameter and the
b. Parallel shank (stub series) twist drill point. The present day twist drills are made by machining two spiral flutes
c. Parallel shank (long series) twist drill or grooves that run lengthwise around the body of the drill.
d. Taper shank twist drill Twist drill is an end cutting tool. Different types of twist drills are
4. Taper shank core drill (Three or four fluted)
classified by Indian standard Institution according to the type of the shank,
5. Oil tube drill length of the flute and overall length of the drill.
6. Centre drill
Parallel shank (short series or 'Jobbers'? twist drill: The drill ha eries having Morse taper shank No. 1, by 0.25 mm in Morse taper shank
two helical flutes with a parallel shank of approximately the same diamet r mber 2 and 3, by 0.5 mm in Morse taper shank No. 4, and by 1 mm in
as the cutting end. The orse taper shank number 5 and 6. The use of Morse taper shank below 6
diameter of the drill range m size is not preferred. A drill gauge enables any drill to be readily
i----D-�-L I� :
a
from 0.2 to 16 mm se ected by trying in the holes of the gauge. Fig. 5.39 illustrates the drill.
increasing by 0.02 to 0.03
mm in lower series to 0.25 T per shank core drill (three or four fluted) : These drills are intended
mm in higher series. Figure 5.3£ Parallel shank short serie fo enlarging cored, punched or drilled holes. These drills cannot originate
Fig.5.36 illustrates the drill. twist drill a ole in solid material because the cutting edges do not extend to the
Parallel shank (stub 1. Flute length, L. Overall length, D. Diamet ce tre of the drill. The metal is removed by a chamfered edge at the end of
series) twist drill : The ea h tlute. Cored drills produce better finished holes than those cut by
drill is a shortened form of or inary two fluted drills. The cutting action of a core drill is similar to
the parallel shank twist that of a rose reamer and
drill; the shortening being it is of!en used as a
on the flute length. The roughing reamer. In some
diameter of the drill ranges cases, a two fluted twist I
C) I JI��
from 0.5 to 40 mm Figure 5.37 Parallel shank (stub series) drill is chosen to originate !4'·.·------L l jo
increasing by 0.3 mm in twist drill a hole half the required
lower series to 0.25 to 0.5 1. Flute length, L. Overall length, D. Diameter. size and the rest is Figure 5.40 Taper shank core drill
mm in higher series. finished by a three or four (Three fluted)
Fig.5.37 illustrates the drill. fluted drill. Fig.5.40 1. Flute length, L. Overall length, D. Diameter
Parallel shank (long series) twist drill: The drill have two helical ' illustrates the drill.
flutes with a para.Ile! shank of approximately the shank diameter as the
cutting end, which however does not exceed the diameter at the drill point. Oil tube drill : The oil tube drills are used for drilling deep holes. Oil
l�r
The overall length of this .. -1 tubes run lengthwise spirally through the body to carry oil directly to the
I
t..l=---=-
drill is the same as that of a 0
cutting edges. Cutting fluid or compressed air is forced through the holes
. .
taper shank twist drill of to the cutting point of the drill to remove the chips, cool the cutting edge
corresponding diameter. I, L --------
l --:
and lubricate the machined surface. Fig.5 .41 illustrates the oil tube drill.
The diameter varies from Figure 5.38 P arallel shank (long series)
1.5 to 26 mm increasing by twist drill
0.3 mm in lower series to 1. Flute length, L. Overall length, D. Diameter
0.25 mm in higher series.
Fig.5.38 illustrates the drill.
Taper shank twist
drill : The drill have two Figure 5.41 Oil tube drill
helical flutes with a taper
shank for holding and Centre drills : The centre drills are
driving the drill. The shank straight shank, two fluted twist
drills used when centre holes are� ��
for these drills conform to Figure 5.39 Taper shank twist drill t..L:_--
Morse tapers. The diameter I. Flute length, L. Overall length, D. Diameter. drilled on the ends of a shaft. They ------- :::::::...:;:;,�
ranges from 3 to 100 mm. The diameter increases by 0.3 mm in lowest are made in finer sizes. Fig.5.42
Figure s.42 Centre drill
illustrates the drill.
5.18 TWIST DRILL NOMENCLATURE
Body clearance : That portion of the body surface which is
The following are the nomenclature, definitions and functions of t c duced in diameter to provide diametral clearance.
. different parts o� a drill illustrated in Fig.5.43. Chisel edge : The edge formed by the intersection of the flanks.
Body clearance he chisel edge is also sometimes called dead centre. The dead centre or
diameter Point t e chisel edge acts as a flat drill and cuts its own hole in the workpiece. A
eat amount of axial thrust is required to cut a hole by the chisel edge. In
me drills chisel edge is made spiral instead of a straight one. This
Depth ot r duces the axial thrust and improves the hole location. Chances of
body clearance p oduction of oversize holes is also reduced.
Chisel edge corner: The comer formed by the intersection of a lip
and the chisel edge.
Face : The portion of the flute surface adjacent to the lip on which
the chip impinges as it is cut from the work.
corner
Flank: That surface on a drill point which extends behind the lip to
Lip clearance the following flute.
angle
Flutes : The groove in the body of the dlill which provides lip
The functions of the flutes are :
1. To form the cutting edges on the point.

2. To allow the chips to escape.
' 3. To cause the chips to curl.
4. To permit the cutting fluid to reach the cutting edges.
Heel : The edge formed by the intersection of the flute surface and
the body clearance.
Lands : The cylindrically ground surface on the leading edges of
the drill flutes. The width of the land is measured at right angles to the
flute helix. The drill is full size only across the lands at the point end. Land
keeps the drill aligned.
Lip (cutting edge) : The edge formed by the intersections of th\
flank and face. The requirements of the drill lips are :
1. Both lips should be at the same angle of inclinatiort with the drill
Figure 5.43 Twist drill nomenclature axis, 59 ° for general work.
2. Both lips should be of equal length.
Twist drill elements : The following are the twist drill elements. 3. Both lips should be provided with the correct clearance.
Axis: The longitudinal centre line of the drill.
Body : That portion of the drill extending from its extreme point to Neck : The diametrically undercut portion between. the body and
the commencement of the neck, if present, otherwise extending to the the shank of the drill. Diameter and other particulars of the drill are
commencement of the shank. engraved at the neck.
260 ELEMENl:S OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY DRILLING MACHINE 261
Outer corner : The corner fanned by the intersection of the flan t ickness gives additional rigidity to the drill and reduces the cutting
and face. p essure at the point end.
Point: The sharpened end of the drill, consisting of all that part f Web thickness : The minimum dimension of the web or core
the drill which is shaped to produce lips, faces, flanks and chisel edge. m asured at the point end of the drill. Considerable power is required to
Right hand cutting drill : A drill which cuts when rotating n fo ce this portion through the work, and web thinning is employed to
counter-clockwise direction viewed on the point end of the drill. reduce the web thickness.
Shank : That part of the drill by which it is held and driven. ';' e
most common types of shank are the taper shank and the straight sharik.
l
Drill angles : Following are the drill angles which are ground on a twist
The taper shank provides means of centering and holding the drill by drill for efficient removal of metal.
friction in the tapered end of the spindle. l
Tang : The flattened end of the taper sh,rnk intended to fit intd a Chisel edge angle : The obtuse angle included between the chisel
drift slot in the spindle, socket or drill holder. The tang ensures positive edge and the lip as viewed from the end of the drill. The usual value of this
drive of the drill from the drill spindle. angle varies from 120 ° to 135 °.
Web : The central portion of the drill situated between the roots of Helix angle or rake angle : The helix or rake angle is the angle
the flutes and extending from the point toward the shank; the point end of formed by the leading edge of the land with a plane having the axis of the
the web or core forms the chisel edge. drill. If the flute is straight, parallel to the drill axis then there would be no
rake; if the flute is right handed then it is positive rake; and if it is left
Linear dimensions : The following are the linear dimensions of the drill. handed then the rake is negative. The usual value of rake angle is 30 °,
although it may vary up to 45 ° for different materials. Smaller the rake
Back taper (longitudinal clearance): It is the reduction in diameter angle, greater will be the torque required to drive the drill at,a given feed.
of the drill from the point towards the shank. This permits all parts of the Point angle : This is the angle included between the two lips
drill behind the point to clear and not rub against the sides of the hole projected upon a plane parallel to the drill axis and parallel to the two
being drilled. The taper varies from 1 : 4000 for small diameter drills to 1 cutting lips. The usual point angle is 118 °, but for harder steel alloys, the
700 for larger diameters. angle increases.
Body clearance diameter : The diameter over the surface of the Lip clearance angle: The angle formed by the flank and a plane at
drill body which is situated behind the lands. right angles to the drill axis. The angle is normally measured at the
Depth of body clearance : The amount of radial reduction on each periphery of the drill. Lip clearance is the relief that is ground to the
side to provide body clearance. cutting edges in order to allow the drill to enter the metal without
Diameter : The measurement across the cylindrical lands at the interference. The lip clearance angle should increase towards the centre of
outer comers of the drill. the drill than at the circumference. This is due to the fact that different
Flute length : The axial length from the extreme end of he point points on the drill cutting edge follow different helical paths. Any point on
to the termination of the flute at the shank end of the body. the cutting edge at the circumforence moves through a smaller helical
Lead of helix : The distance measured parallel to the drill axis angle than a point on the cutting edge near the centre. This happens to be
between the corresponding point on the leading edge of the flute in one such due to the lead of the helix being same in each case and hence the
complete tum of the flute. clearance angle given to the drill cutting edge should increase towards the
Lip length : The minimum distance between the outer comer and centre. The clearance angle is 12 ° in most cases. The clearance angle
the chisel edge comer of the lip. should be minimum to add rigidity and strength to the cutting edge.
Overall length: The length over the extreme ends of the point and
the shank of the drill. Drill angles for different materials and coolants : The Table 5.1, gives
Web (core) taper : The increase in the web or core thickness from different drill angles for different materials and coolants while using h.s.s.
the point of the drill Ito the shank end of the flute. This increasing drill.
I
,,:
5.19 DRILL SIZE

5.20 DESIGNATION OF DRILL
In metric system, drills are commonly manufactured from 0.2 to 100 m�. ' In Indian standard system, twist drills are designated by the series to which
In British system the drills are manufactured in three different sizes. The
sizes are: they belong, the diameter, the I.S. number and the material of the drill.
Unless mentioned in the designation, it should be presumed that the drill
Number sizes : The drill sizes range from No. 1 to No. 80. Number 80 is type is N and point angle 118 °. The drills are made in three types, namely,
the smallest having diameter equal to O.Dl 35 inch and the number 1 is the normal (N), hard (H) and soft (S). These designation arc based on the
largest having diameter equal to 0.228 inch. Number 1 to number 60 are material to be cut and design requirements of the drill. Thus a parallel
the standard set of drills. The numbers 61 to 80 sizes drills are not so shank twist drill of long series, 10 mm dia, conforming to I.S. standard,
commonly used. The diameter of drills increases in steps of approximately made of carbon steel, of type Sand point angle 80 ° is designated as
by 0.002 inch. Parallel shank twist drill (Long) 10.00 - IS : 599-CS-S-80
TABLES.I DRILLING ANGLES AND COOLANTS USED IN 5.21 DRILL MATERIAL

DRILLING
The materials for the manufacture of twist drills are as follows
Material Coolant Point angle Up Chisel Helix
deg. clearance point deg. angle I. One piece construction : High speed steel or carbon steel.
deg. deg. 2. Two piece construction :
Aluminium ,1 tard oil, 90-140 12-17 125-135 24-48 Cutting portion- High speed steel.
Shank portion - Carbon steel with a minimum tensile strength
3 kerosene of 70 kg per sq mm.
Brass 1 lard oil, 118 12-15 125-135 0-17
High speed drills are more widely used due to its greater cutting
3 kerosene efficiency. Cemented carbide tipped drills arc also used in mass production
Cast iron hard soluble oil 118 10-12 125-135 24-32
work.
Copper soluble oil 100-118 12-15 125-135 28-40
Nickel pure Lard oil 118 12 125-135 24-32
Stainless steel Sulphur base oil 125-135 10-12 120-130 24-32 5.22 REAMER
Steel Soluble oil, 118 12-15 125-135 24-32
mineral oil, A reamer is a tool used for enlarging or finishing a hole previously drilled,
sulphurised and bored or cored to give a good finish and an accurate d�mension. A reamer
chlorinated oil is a multi-tooth cutter which removes relatively small amount of material.
There are various classifications of reamers depending upon the operation,
Letter sizes : The drill sizes range from A to Z, A being the ·smallest purpose and shape. The commonly used reamers detailed in I.S.
having diameter equal to 0.234 inch and Z being the largest having specifications are
diameter equal to 0.413 inch, increasing in steps of approximately 0.010
inch. 1. Chucking reamer with parallel or taper shank (a) Fluted reamer,
(b) Rose reamer
Fractional sizes : The drill sizes range from � inch to 5 inch in steps of 2. Machine bridge reamer
3. Machine jig reamer
� inch upto Ji inch, then the steps gradually increase.
4. Parallel hand reamer with parallel shank
5. Parallel or taper shank socket head reamer
6. Shell reamer
7. Taper pin hand or machine reamer
8. Expansion reamer
Chucking reamer with parallel or taper shank (fluted) : The chucking

reamer shown in Fig.5.44 is also known as machine reamer. The reamer
has short virtually parallel cutting edges, with bevel lead, and Jong body
recess between shank and cutting edges integral with a parallel or taper Figure 5. 46 (a) Straight Outed machine bridge reamer
I. Length of the cutting edge, L. Overall length, d 1• Diameter, D. Nominal diameter
shank for holding and driving the reamer. The flutes are all straight but the
shank may be straight or taper. The reamer is intended to be used in a drill
L:=±-$•
press, turret lathe or s<.:rew
--=:! ;
cutting machine. It is
ddveo at slow speed aad
1.-;J
O
the entire cutting is done
along the flutes. The flutes
are spaced irregularly
around the circumference Figure 5.44 Chucking reamer with taper
shank Figure 5. 46 (b) Helical fluted machine bridge reamer
of the body of the reamer.
I. Length of the cutting edge, L. Overall length, d1• Diameter, D. Nominal diameter
This reduces the tendency to chatter. The fluted reamer is used for reaming
more accurate work. The diameter of a straight shank chucking reamer virtually parallel
varies from 1.5 to 32 mm and for taper shank from 5 to 32 mm. Machine jig reamer : A machine jig reamer has short,
shank and cutting
cutting edges with bevel lead and guide between the
edges integral with
�bucking reamer (rose) : It differs from the fluted type in that the cutting a taper shank for
is all done by the beveled edges at the end. The chamfered cutting edges
make an angle of holding and
45 °. The fluted driving. The flutes
are helical. The
body fits into the
plain part of the
reamed hole. The
body fits into a
body is slightly
tapered, smaller bushing in the jig
Figure 5. 45 Chucking rose reamer and accurately Figure 5.47 Machine jig reamer
towards the shank
locates the reamer. 1 1 • Guide length, I. Cutting edge length, L. Overall length,
to prevent binding in the hole. This type of reamer can remove greater D. Nominal diameter
The diameter of the
amount of metal than a fluted type. A chucking rose reamer is shown in
reamer varies from
Fig.5.45.
7 to 50 mm. The reamer is illustrated in Fig.5.47
Machine bridge reamer : A machine bridge reamer illustrated in Parallel hand reamer with parallel shank : This reamer has virtually
Fig.5.46 (a) and (b) is used in portable electric or pneumatic tool for parallel cutting edges with taper and bevel lead integral with a shank of the
rea �ing in ship-building, structural, and plate work. This has parallel nominal diameter of the cutting edges, and with a square on the end. The
cu tt1 ng edges, with a long lead integ?al with a taper shank for holding and flutes may be straight or helical. The hand reamer has square tang and is
. .
dnving the reamer. The flutes may be straight or helical. The diameter of intended to be hand driven for accurately sizing the holes. The reamers are
reamer varies from 6.4 to 37 mm.
supposed to remove minimum amount of metal from 0.05 to 0.125 mm.-lt can be interchanged with one arbor. This saves the cost of the solid shank
is slightly tapered towards the end for a distance equal to its diameter for in each case. The shell reamer may be either of the rose chucking type for
easy starting. This type of reamer is shown in Fig.5.48. truing the hole or fluted type for finishing. The flutes may be straight or
helical. The diameter of the reamer varies from 24 to 100 mm.
Taper pin reamer : The reamer shown in Fig.5.51 may b� han� or

.
machine driven. This has taper cutting edges for holes to suit pins with a
taper of 1 in 50, having a parallel or taper shank for holding and driving
the reamer. The flutes may be straight or helical.
Figure 5.48 Parallel hand reamer with parallel shank

I. Length of culling edge, L. Overall length, 14 . Length of driving.square, D.
Nominal diameter, a. Driv;ng square sizing.
Socket reamer for Morse taper : This reamer may be straight or taper
shank type and may be hand or machine driven. The reamers. have taper Figure 5.51 Taper pin hand reamer
�e�c�
cutting edges to suit Morse I. Length of cutting edge, L. Overall length, 1 4 • Le�gth of drivin� �quare, D,. �,g
taper, integral with a end diameter, d,. Small end diameter, d4 • Shank diameter, a. Dnv1ng·square size.
para I lei or taper shank. The
flutes may be straight or Expansion reamer : An expansion reamer is so made that it may be
helical. The reamers are
available in a set of three L L __ :::::::j
____. adjusted by very small amount to compensate for wear, or to accommodate
some variation in hole size. As
roughing, pre-finishing and shown in the Fig.5.52, to effect
finishing. The diameter of Figure 5,.49 Parallel shank socket hand expansion, the clamping nut is
reamers are available for reamer for Morse tapers loosened and the plug I is
finishing Morse taper holes I. Length of cutting edge, 1 2. Small end to gauge pushed inward. This causes the
.from No. 1 to 6. A socket plane, L. Overall length, 1 4 • Length of driving expansion of the blades by a Figure 5.52 Expansion reamer
reamer is shown in square, D. Diameter at gauge plane, 02. Big end small amount. 1. Adjusting plug, 2,3. Blades.
Fig.5.49. diameter, d2 • Small end diameter, a. Driving
square size.
5.23 REAMER NOMENCLATURES
Shell reamer : A shell
reamer shown in Fig.5.50 n The following are the nomenclatures of a reamer illustrated in Fig.5.53 (a),
has an axial hole for use on �
-•- o--1----,----.----,rF (b), (c), and (d).
an arbor, and has virtually
parallel cutting edges with
li��tr� Elements of reamer : The reamer elements are described below
a sharpened bevel lead.
Shell reamers are employed Axis : The longitudinal centre line of the reamer.
of
for finishing large holes to Figure 5.50 Shell reamer Backer taper : The reduction in a diameter per 100 mm length
save the tool cost. I. Length of cutting edge, L. Overall length, reamer from the entering end towards the shank.
Numerous sizes of shells D. Nominal diameter, 0 1 • Large end diameter.
Bevel lead : The angular cutting portion at the entering end to Flutes : The grooves in the body of the reamer to provide cutting
.. edges, to permit the
facilitate the entry of the reamer into the hole. It is not provide with a
circular land. removal of chips and
to allow cutting fluid
to reach the cutting
edges.
ltNGTH o, Heel The
50UAII£
edge formed by the
intersection the sur -----OVUAU. l.1NOTM ---�
face left by the pro
IIECE55
vision of secondary Figure 5.53(c) Ream�r nomenclature :
,-.---MIIALl LENGTH ---llf clearance and the Heads reamer with pilot
flute.
Land : That portion of the fluted body left standing between the
Figure 5.53(a) Reamer nomenclature for parallel hand reamer, right
flutes, the surface or the surfaces included between the cutting edge and
hand rotation with left hand helical Outes
the heel.
Figure 5.53(b) Reamer nomenclature: Entering end of a parallel

hand reamer
Body : That portion of the reamer extending from the entering end
of the reamer to the commencement of its shank . LANO ,iuw.1.111
Circular land : The cylindrically ground surface adjacent to the

CLLutAHC(
. $!.CONO.U'f
cutting edge, on the leading edge of the land. CUARAHCt
Clearance:
1. Primary : That portion of the land removed to provide
clearance immediately behind the cutting edge.
2. Secondary : That portion of the land removed to provide
clearance behind the primary clearance or circular land.
Cutting edge : The edge formed by the intersection of the face and
the circular land or the surface left by the provision of primary clearance.
Face : �h� po�ion of the flute surface adjacent to the cutting edge Figure 5.53(d) Reamer nomenclature: Terms relating to cutting
. characteristics of reamers
on which the chip impinges as it is cut from the work.
Pilot : A cylindrically ground portion of the body at the entering

end of the reamer to keep the reamer in alignment. S.24 COUNTERBORE
Recess : That portion of the body which is reduced in diameter
below the cutting edge, pilot or guided diameter. A counterbore is an end cutting tool with three or
Shank : That portion of the reamer by which it is held and driven. four cutting teeth, The counterbore may be straight
Diameter : The maximum cutting diameter of the reamer at the or heli.cal fluted. Straight fluted counterbores are
entering end. used for short depth of cut and for machining softer
materials like brass and aluminium. Helical fluted
Rotation of cutting : A reamer is named, according to the direction of tools are used for counterboring larger holes.
rotation, as Counterbores may be carbide tipped for mass
production work. Fig.5.54 illustrates a counterbore.
Counterbores are classified as Figure 5.54
Left hand cutting reamer : A reamer which cuts while rotating in a Counterborc
' clockwise direction when viewed on the entering end of the reamer.
Right hand cutting reamer : A reamer which cuts while rotating in I. Solid 2. Shell 3. Insert type
,
a anticlockwise direction when viewed on the entering end of the reamer.
Solid counterbore : The solid counterbore has the shank-cutter and pilot
Reamer angles : The reamer angles are given below. in one piece. This type of counterbore is used for enlarging holes for
accommodating machine screw heads.
Bevel lead angle : The angle formed by the cutting edges of the
Inserted blade counterbore : The inserted blade counterbore is used for
bevel lead and the reamer axis.
enlarging larger sizes of holes. The pilot may be solid with the body or it
Clearance angles : The angles formed by the primary or secondary
may be removable.
clearances and the tangent to the periphery of the reamer at the cutting
edge.
Shell counterbore : This is a three piece counterbore consisting of holder,
Helix angle : The angle between the cutting edge and the reamer
cutter and pilot. Different sizes of counterbore cutter may be fitted in the
axis.
holder. Pilots are also interchangeable.
Rake angle: The angles, in a diametral plane, formed by the face
and a radial line from the cutting edge.
5.25 COUNTERSINKS AND SPOT FACERS
1. If the face and the radial line coincide, the angle is zero degree
Except for the angle of the cutting edges, countcrbores, spot facers and
and the face is called radial.
countersinks arc of similar construction. They are all end cutting tools and
2. If the angle formed by the face and the radial line falls behind
made with two or more flutes with a right hand helix. Countersinks have
the radial line in relation to the direction of cut, the rake angle is
edges on a conical surface.
positive, and the face is known as undercut.
3. If the angle formed by the face and the radial line falls in front
5.26 TAPS
of the radial line in relation to the direction of cut, the rake
angle is negative, and the face is known as over cut.
A tap is a screw-like tool which has threads like a bolt and three or four
flutes cut across the thread. It is used to cut threads on the inside of a hole,
Taper lead angle : The angle formed by the cutting edges of the
as in a nut. The edges of the thread formed by the flutes are the cutting
taper lead and the reamer axis.
edges. The lower part of the tap is somewhat tapered so that it can well dig
into the walls of the drilled hole. The upper part of the tap consists of a
shank ending in a square for holding the tap in the machine spindle or by a
tap wrench. Taps are made from carbon steel or high speed steel and are ------.w. LtllltM-------i
hardened and tempered.
Taps are classified as (1) hand tap and (2) machine tap.
Hand tap : The hand taps illustrated in

Fig.5.55 are usually made in sets of
three : (1) taper tap, (2) second tap, and
(3) bottoming tap. According to IS
specification they are called Rougher,
Intermediate and Finisher respectively. MAJ'� ""''"" ·--·--r
t
NA.IOII DIA
J:
NA.IOII
t
DIA IASIC
All hand taps are straight fluted. l"ICTIVI
The end of the rougher has about ..IA5'C.

- Tt
six threads tapered. This is used to start
j .::r i
the thread so that the threads are formed
gradually as the tap is turned into the .......��
LANO
YID 1 rUN·�r
D
jf
�HLlf.Vl'.D
D fD
Ul'4tt
- AIIOL.l
s
-
HEIL�
hole.
The intermediate is tapered back 1
rAATIAL RUIIP fUU. OlUll' -frvl .... ZlltO IAII&
from the edge about three or four Ill) a�Lllf
threads. This is used after the rougher (a) (b) (c) Figure 5.56 Tap nomenclature
tap has been used to cut the thread as far
Figure 5.55 Hand taps
as possible.
(a). Taper tap, (b). Second tap. Chamfer relief : The gradual decrease in land height from the
The finisher has full threads for radial
(c). Bottoming tap cutting edge to heel on the chamfered portion of the land to provide
the whole of its length. This is used to clearance for the cutting edge.
finish the work prepared by the other two taps. Cutting edge : The edge formed by the intersection of the flute face
and the form of the thread, imposed on the land.
Machine tap : Machine taps have straight or helical flutes. In machine Driving square : That portion of the extreme end of the tap shank
tapping it is necessary to see that the chips always clear the cutting edges. by which the tap is held and driven. .
Face : That portion of the flute surface ad1acent to the cutting edge
527 TAPNOMENCIATURE upon which the chip impinges as it is cut from the work. . .
Flute : The grooves in the body of the tap to provide cutting edges,
reach the
The following are the tap nomenclature illustrated in Fig.5.56. permit the removal of chips and to allow lubricant or coolant to
cutting edges. . .
Elements of tap : The elements of a tap are descrihed below : Flute relief: Radial relief in the thread form starting at the cutting
edge and continuing to the heel. . .
Axis: The longitudinal centre line of the tap. Heel : The edge formed by the intersection of the relieved surface
Body: The threaded portion extending from the entering end of the behind the cutting edge and the flute.
n the
tap to the shank. Land : The portion of the body of the tap left standing betwee
Chamfer or tapered lead : The taper cutting portion provided with flutes also the surface betwee n the cutting edge and the heel.
ed behind the
cutting clearance at the entering end of the tap to distribute the cutting ' Radial relief: Radial relief in the thread form provid
action over several thread forms and to facilitate the entry of the tap into unrelieved land.
the hole.
2 74 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY
Shank : That portion of the tap by which it is held or located and

driven. Radial rake angle : The angle formed in a diametral plane
between the face and a radial line from the cutting edge at the
Thread relief: The clearance produced on a tap land by reducing
crest of the thread form
the diameter of the entire thread form between the cutting edge and the
heel.
1. Zero rake: If the face and the radial line coincide, the angle is
Web: The central portion of the tap situated between the roots of
zero, and the face is radial.
the flutes and extending along the fluted portion of the tap.
2. Positive rake: If the angle formed by the facl.! and the radial line
Web taper : The increase of the web thickness from the entering
falls behind the radial line in relation to the direction of cut, then
end of the tap towards the shank end of the flutes.
the radial angle is positive and the face is known as undercut.
Back taper : The reduction in diameter of the tap body of the
3. Negative rake : If the angle formed by the face and the radial
threaded portion from the entering end towards the shank.
line falls in front of the radial line in relation to the direction of
Effective or pitch diameter : On a tap having a parallel threaded
cut, then the radial angle is negative and the face is known as
portion, the effective diameter is the diameter of an imaginary coaxial
overcut.
cylinder which would pass through the threads at such points as to make
the width of the threads and the width of the spaces between the threads
Relief angle: The equivalent angle between a relieved land surface
equal at those points, measured at the cutting edge.
and the cutting diameter circle of the tap thread form.
Major diameter: On a tap having a parallel threaded portion, the
major diameter is the diametral measurement over the crests of the thread
5.28 CUTTING SPEED
form at the cutting edge.
Minor diameter : On a tap having a parallel threaded portion, the
The cutting speed in a drilling operation refers to the peripheral speed of a
minor diameter is the diametrical measurement over the roots of the thread
point on the surface of the drill in contact with the work. It is usually
form at the cutting edge.
expressed in metres per minute. The cutting speed (v) may be calculated
Overall length: The axial length over the extreme ends of taps.
as:
rrdn
Rotation of cutting: A tap is named, according to the direction of rotation v=--=m per min. 5.3
as: 1,000
where, d is the diameter of the drill in mm and n is the r.p.m. of the drill
0
left hand tap : A tap which cuts while rotating in a clockwise

direction when viewed from the entering end of the tap. spindle.
Right hand tap : A tap which cuts while rotating in an
anticolckwise direction when viewed from the entering end of the tap. Thus it is evident that a small drill must rotate faster than a large
drill to maintain the same cutting speed. Unlike the turning tool of a lathe,
Angles : The tap angles are given below : cutting speed of a drill varies from point to point on the cutting edges of
the drill. The cutting speed is maximum at the periphery and it is zero at
Chamfer angle : The angle formed by the cutting edges of the the centre of the drill. This results inefficient cutting towards the centre.
taper lead and the tap axis. The cutting speed of a drill depends, as in other machining processes,
Flank angle : The angle included between the flanks of the upon several factors which include mainly the following:
thread, measured in an axial plane.
Flute helix angle: The angle formed between the leading edge of 1. The kind of material being drilled. Softer the material the
the land and the tap axis. higher the speed.
2. The cutting tool material. High speed steel drills can be
operated at about twice the speed of high carbon steel drills
3. The quality of surface finish desired. S.31 MACHINING TIME IN DRILLING

4. The efficient use of cutting fluid.
5. The method of holding the work. Machining time in drilling is determined by the formula :
6. The size, type, and rigidity of the machine.
l
T =--mm.
. 5.6
5.29 FEED n xs,
where, n = r.p.m. of the drill
The feed of a drill is the distance the drill moves into the work at each
s, = Feed per revolution of the drill in mm
revolution of the spindle. It is expressed in millimeter. The feed may ·also
l = Length of travel of the drill in mm
be expressed as feed per minute. The feed per minute may be defined as
the axial distance moved by the drill into the work per minute. The feed
and T = Machining time in min.
(s,,,) per minute may be calculated as
Sm = s,x n 5.4
where, / 1 = length of the workpiece
where, Sm = Feed per minute in mm. 1 2 = approach of the drill,
s, = Feed per revolution in mm. 13 = length of the drill point (0.29d)
n = r.p.m. of the drill. 14 = overtravel Figure 5.57 Drilling
The amount of feed, as in the cutting speed, is dependent upon

E�ample 5.1 : At what speed a 20 mm drill will run for cutting steel at 25 m per
several machining conditions, such as min surface speed ?
1. Material being cut, e.g. hard, tough, etc. 7rdn

2. Rigidity of the job and machine. v=--
1,000
3. Depth of hole.
4. Type of finish desired. = 1t x20n 25x1000
so 25 or 11= =398r.p.m.
5. Power available. 1,000 1tx20
6. Range of feeds available.
TABLE 5.2 CUTTING SPEEDS FOR DRILLING IN M PER MIN
Too great a feed may split the drill in the web, The feed per
revolution usually increases with the increase in size of the drill. h.s.s drills C.S. drills
Soft cast iron 30 - 45 12.0- 23
5.30 DEPTH OF CUT Medium cast iron 21 -30 9.0 - 15
Malleable iron 24 • 27 9.0 • 14
The depth of cut in drilling is equal to one half of the drill diameter. Thus
Mild steel 24 · 45 9.0 • 17
if d be the diameter of the drill, the depth of cut (t) may be expressed as :
Stainless steel 18 · 21 7.5 - 10.5
Aluminium and alloys 60 • 90 24.0 - 45
t =-mm 5.5
Brass and Bronze 60 · 90 24.0 - 45
2
Copper 18 · 30 7.5 - 15
6
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Name different types of drilling machines?

2. Sketch and describe in brief of a radial drilling machine.
3. How the size of a drilling machine is specified? Discuss.
4. Name various work holding devices of drilling machine. Describe one
BORING MACHINES
with sketch.
5. Explain the construction of the following parts of a drilling machine : (a) 6.1 INTRODUCTION
Base, (b) Drill head, (c) Spindle drive and feed mechanism.
6. What are different tool holding devices in drilling machine?
The boring machine is one of the most versatile machine tools used to bore
7. Describe of a tapping attachment in drill machine.
holes in large and heavy parts such as engine frames, steam engine
8. List various drilling machine operations.
9. How the drill size for tapping is fixed? Explain. cylinders, machine housings, etc. which are practically impossible to hold
10. What is a spade drill? When is it used? Sketch one. and rotate in an engine lathe or a drilling machine. Boring machines have,
11. What is trepanning? Describe. therefore, been developed primarily to do this. In addition to its primary
12. Explain counter-boring and counter sinking operations. purpose of boring the range of speeds and feeds provided to the various
13. List various types of drill. traversing components allow drilling, milling and facing to be performed
14. Describe twist drill nomenclature using sketches. with equal facility. By the fitting of simple attachments, the use of the
15. How is the drill size specified ? Discuss of the codification of drill sizes machine can be extended still further to include screw cutting, turning,
and types. planetary grinding, or gear cutting.
16. Draw a sketch of a simple twist drill with tapered shank and show its
various elements.
6.2 TYPES OF BORING MACHINES
17. Name drill bit materials. Which material is mostly used?
18. What is a reamer? When it is used? List various types of reamers.
19.' Describe various elements of a reamer. The boring machines may be classified under the four headings :
20. Discuss reamer nomenclatures.
21. What is a tap? How taps are classified? 1. Horizontal boring machine.
22. How tap nomenclature is described? (a) Table type.
23. List and describe elements of taps. (b) Floor type.
24. At what speed a 20 mm drill will run for a cutting sheet at 30 m per min (c) Planer type.
surface speed. (Ans 477 r.p.m.) (d) Multiple head type.
2. Vertical boring machine.
(a) Vertical turret lathe.
(b) Standard vertical boring machine.
3. Precision boring machine.
4. Jig boring machine.
(a) Vertical milling machine type.
(b) Planer type.
6.3 HORIZONTAL BORING MACHINE
In a horizontal boring machine, the work is supported on a table which is

stationary and the tool revolves in a horizontal axis. A horizontal boring
280 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY BORING MACHINES 281
machine can perform boring, reaming, turning, threading, facing, milling, motion. The machine essentially consists of a bed, headstock supporting
grooving, recessing and many other operations with suitable tools. column, end supporting column1 headstock, saddle and table, and boring
_
Workpieces which are heavy, irregular, unsymmetncal or bulky can be bar. The table, saddle and headstock may be adjusted by leadscrews using
. .
conveniently held and machined. Different types of h�nzont�I bonng micrometer dials. This type of machine is suitable for general purpose
machines have been designed to suit different purposes. Fig.6.1 illustrates work where other operations, in addition to boring, are required to be
a horizontal boring machine. performed. A block diagram of a table type machine is shown in Fig.6.2.
2
Floor type horizontal boring machine : The floor type horizontal boring
machine having no table uses a stationary floor-plate on which T-slots arc
provided to hold the work. The headstock supporting column and the end
supporting column and the end
supporting column are mounted
on the runways which are placed 7
at right angles to the spindle axis.
Thus any crosswise adjustment or
cross-feed movement is provided
by the spindle itself and not by the
work. This is so designed for
holding very large and heavy
Figure 6.3 Floor type horizontal
workpieces which are difficult to
boring machine
be mounted and adjusted on a
1. End supporting column, 2. Column
table. A block diagram of a floor
base, 3. Spindle, 4. Floor plate,
type machine is shown in Fig.6.3. 5. Headstock, 7. Motor.
Figure 6.1 Horizontal boring machine
J. Headstock, 2. Pulley for counter balancing weight of headstock, 3. Headstock Planer type horizontal boring machine : The planer type horizc,ntal
elevating screw, 4. Boring head, 5. Boring cutter on borin? bar, 6. Work, 7. End boring machine resembles the table type but table slides directly on the bed
supporting column, 8. Bearing block, 9. Saddle, 10 Cross-shde, 11. Table. instead of on a saddle and
reciprocates at right angles to the
Table type horizontal boring 4 7
spindle similar to a planer. The
machine : The table type is the end supporting column and 2 l _ 'r----..--...J-
most common of all horizontal headstock supporting column
boring machines. This is so may be adjusted towards or
8
namer:!, because the work is away' from the table for -� 8
___.
mounted on the table which is I
.accommodating different widths Figure 6.4 Planer type horizontal
adjustable and feed is given by of work. This type of machine is boring machine
hand or power, lengthwise or suitable for supporting a long 1. End supporting column, 2. Column
crosswise with respect to the Figure 6.2 Table type horizontal work. A block diagram of a base, 3. Table, 4. Spindle 5. Headstock
bed of the machine. The boring machine planer type machine shown in supporting column, 6. Headstock,
headstock may be adjusted 1. Column base, 2. End sµpporting column, Fig.6.4. 7. Motor, 8. Bed.
vertically on the column and the 3. Table, 4. Saddle, 5. Spindle,
spindle has a horizontal feed 6. Headstock supporting column,
7. Headstock, 8. Motor, 9. Bed.
- ...
BORING MACHINES 283
rotar move ent to the tool and the q uill may be moved longitudinally to
: The machine resembles � 1:1
Multiple head type horizontal boring machine on a long
provide feeding movement of the boring cutter or any other tool mounted
r. The tabl e is supported
a double h ousing planer or a piano-mille on the spindl e. The spindle nose is provid ed with a taper hole for receiving
vertical columns at two sides
bed on which it reciprocates. There are two taper shanks of the boring bar or any other tool. The he adstock may be
of the bed, nearly at the moved up and down on the column for setting the tool for different heights
middle of the bed. The two of the work. Th� headstock and the end supporting be aring block are
_
columns are br idged by a raised or lowered m unison by the help of screws.
crossrail. The machine may /
have two, three or four Saddle and table : The table supports. the work and is therefore provided
headstocks . This type of with T-slots for clamping the work or for holding various devices. The
machine may be used both saddle permits the work to be moved longitudi nally on th e bed. The table
as a hor izontal and vertical may be moved crosswise on the saddle. These move ments may be slow or
machine. The machining rapid and is performed by hand or power.
operations can be per
formed sim ultaneously at
Figure 6.5 Multiple head type
horizontal boring machine �oring �ars : The boring bar supp orts the cutter for boring operatio'ns on
different work surfaces. A Jobs having large bore diar;neters. For short holes the bar may be supported
l. Crossrail, 2,4. Headstocks, 3. Column,
block d i agram of_ the ma on th e headstock spindle end only, whereas for long work the bar is
5. Bed, 6. Table.
chine is shown in Fig.6.5. supported on the spindle end and on the column bearing block.
HINE
6.4 PART OF A HORIZONTAL BORING MAC 6.5 SIZE OF A HORIZONTAL BORING MACHINE
ing machin e are illu strate
s in Fig.6.1
The different parts of a horizontal; bor The size of a horizontal boring machine is sp ecified by the diameter of its
spindle in mm. The diameter of the spindle varies fro m 75 to 355 mm. To
which is fitted on the floor of the
Bed : The bed is that part of th e machine specify a boring machine fully other important dimensions such as spindle
bed supports the columns , tables and
shop and has a box like casting. The motor horse power, column heigh ts, size of the table or size of the floo r
other pa rts of the machine
.
plate, spindle speeds, feeds and length of feeds, floor space required,
weight of the machine, etc. should also be stated.
mn provides support to the
Headstock supporting column : The colu by the guide ways
n accurately
headstock and guides it up and dow 6.6 BORING MACHINE MECHANISM
colu mn. The column which is hollow .h�u�es
p rovided on the face of the y.
and is heavily ribbed to add ng1d1t
the counte tweights of the headstock, alon g th b . The machine contains different controls for movements of the different
may be made to slide e ed
Some columns are stationary, others parts of the machine. A table type machine has the following movements
g column situated at the other
End supporting column : The end supportin a long boring bar. 1. The headstock and the end supporting block may be moved "P
end of the b e d houses the
bearing block for supporting
and down.
sideways of the bed towards or away
The column may be adj usted on the bars or it may 2. The spindle may be rotated. The spindle has different speeds.
erent lengths of boring
from the spindle for supporting diff of a floor type 3. The spindle may be, moved in or out by hand or power for
dle as in the case
be moved at right angles to the spin feeding.
machine. 4. The saddle and the table may be moved by hand or rower.
5. The columns may be moved by hand or power.
the column supports, drives, and
Headstock : The headstock mo unted on . The spindle provides
tool. The spindle revolves within a quill
feeds the
All these movements may be given independently or in All other operations such
combination. As all 'the contr6ls are housed in a particular position of t�e as drilling, reaming,
machine the operator may give a closer attention to the work while counterboring, tapping and
controlling the machine. spotfacing operations may be
performed similar to boring
6.7 WORK HOLDING.DEVICES FOR HORIZONTAL BORING operations. Fig.6.8 illustrates a
drilling operation.
Figure 6.8 Drilling operation
The work may be supported on the table by the conventional ':ork hol�ing
devices or by special fixtures. Conventional work holding �ev1:es
_ 6.9 BORING TOOL MOUNTINGS FOR HORIZONTAL BORING
comprise of T-bolts and clamps, angle plates, step blocks, etc. Special Jtgs
are used in mass production work. The jig locates the work and supports
and guides the boring bar. The different equipment for mounting cutters in a horizontal boring
machine are
6.8 HORIZONTAL BORIN.G MACHINE OPERATIONS
1 . Boring bar.
1 2 2. Boring head or cutter head .
In boring, the work remains
stationary and the tool is 3. Facing head.
rotated. Holes are bored by
using boring bars. Multiple Boring bar : Ordinary boring operations are carried out with tools
holes may be bored one mounted on a bar held in spindle having Morse taper hole. The maximum
after ano!her by changing diameter of the bar employed is ordinarily not larger than the spindle
the pos1t1on of the diameter, and the length is such that it can reach the end column support.
workpiece and aligning it A boring bar should be of maximum diameter and minimum length to
each time with the boring reduce bending or vibration and it may be supported in various ways to
bar. To bore a hole, the suit to different types of workpieces. The different methods of supporting
boring bar is fitted to the Figure 6.6 Boring machine operation boring bars are described below.
spindle and the cutter is I. End supporting column, 2. Work,
adjusted in the boring bar 3. Boring bar, 4. Spindle, 5. Table. Supported by spindle : For boring blind holes, bars are used to be
supported at the spindle end only. This type of bar is called stub bar.
to the required dimension and a light cut is
then taken. The bore is measured, required Supported by spindle and end column : While boring long open
speed and feed adjusted and the cut is t� en holes, boring bars are supported at the spindle end and by a bearing block
completed. Fig.6.6 illustrates a bonng at the other end mounted on the end supporting column. This type of bar is
operation. called line bar. Fig.6.6 illustrates a line bar.
. .
In a boring machine, for milling
operation, and type of milling cutter may be Supported by the workpiece : In some types of work, the bar may
Figure 6.7 Face mt·11·mg f1'tted to the spindle. Facing cutter is used for be supported in the bored holes of the work by bushings. This type of
operation machining flat vertical surfaces. For face support takes much of setting time, and is used in stray jobs where only
milling operation, the tool or work may be one or two similar articles are machined that do not call for a special jig to
fed to complete the cut. End mills arc used to produce grooves and slots. be manufactured. Fig.6.9 illustrates a boring bar supported by the bushings
Fig.6.7 illustrates a face milling operation. in the workpiece.
286 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY BORING MACHINES . 287
Supported by boring fixture : In mass production work boring jigs

are used. They locate, guide
and support the bars at
intermediate points. Fig.6.10 I
illustrates a boring bar which is (
I
supported by a boring fixture.
a+----
I
Boring bars used for 1

I
boring smaller diameter holes l
are made of manganese-chrome
alloy steel annealed to relieve
internal stress. Heat treated bars Figure 6.12 Double cutter
Figure 6•9 Boring bar supported by
of medium carbon steel alloyed
workpiece Boring head or cutter head : The boring heads arc used
with chromium and manganese for mounting
1. Boring tool, 2. Bushing, 3. Work, cutters while machining large
at'e used where severe cutting 4. Boring bar.
condition exists. diameter holes where a
. standard boring bar is
Method of attaching cutters on boring bars : There are vanous
methods of attaching I unsuitable due to smaller
'0
cutters to boring bars. diameter or excessive
overhang of the cutter. Boring
\;J:
Slots are cut at intervals ---I-
I
along the entire length of heads having maximum I
I
the bar so that the cutter permissible diameter arc I
0
may be set at the required bolted or keyed on the ___, ___

I
j_
3 spindle. They hold two or ,,, I
position. Different types / /I
of cutters are used for more cutters. This device '0
different classes of work. amply supports the tool and
The most important type reduces machining time due to
of cutter is a fly cutter. It
the larger number of cutting Figure 6.13 Boring head
edges. The cutters may be I. Cutter, 2. Boring head, 3. Boring bar.
consist of a single point Figure 6.10 Boring bar supported by adjusted by micrometer dials. Fig.6.13 illustrates
cutting tool mounted on a boring fixture a boring head.
bar. The adjustment of I .Work, 2. Boring bar, 3. Boring fixture.
the fly cutter may be Facing head : The facing
J heads are mounted on the
2
made by a micrometer dial.
Fig.6.11 illustrates a fly end of the spindle. It 3
cutter. comprises of a flange
Double cutters are provided with a diametrical
widely used in production slide-way on which the tool
boring as the machining carrying a bracket may be
time is reduced to a great adjusted. The bracket may
2
extent compared to that of be fed radially or located Figure 6.14 Facing head
J and clamped at the centre
a single fly cutter. Fig.6.12 Figure 6.11 Fly cutter I. Spindle, 2. Tool on sliding bracket,.
illustrates a double cutter. for supporting along boring 3. Boring bar.
I .Lock screw, 2. Micrometer dial, 3. cutter.
BORING MACHINES 289
bar. The facing head enables enlarging of large diameter holes, facing and
The vertical boring machine is of two types : (1) vertical turret
external turning operations. Fig.6.14 illustrates a facing head.
lathe, and (2) standard vertical boring machine.
6.10 BORING TOOL
Vertical turret lathe : This
Cutting tools used in boring bars arc of type of boring machine
di ffercnt shapes and sizes for different combines the advantages of the
types of operations. Fig.6.15 illustrates vertical boring mill and the
� ./4(),
a typical boring tool. turret lathe. A vertical boring
Figure 6.15 Boring tool machine of smaller size is
6.11 VERTICAL BORING MACHINE called a vertical turret lathe. It
has an indexable turret mounted
A vertical boring machine illustrated in Fig.6.16 is so named because the upon the crossrail above the
table for multiple tooling. A
work rotates on a horizontal table about a vertical axis and the tool is
four station square turret side
stationary except for the feed. The machine may be looked upon as a
head which enables facing,
vertical lathe with its headstock resting on the floor and Its large faceplate
or chuck lying in a horizontal plane. This specific design of the machine
Figure 6.16 Vertical boring machine turning under-cutting and many
I. Feed adjusting levers, 2. Tool box, 3. other operations is mounted at
provides certain distinct advantages over a lathe for a particular class of
Tool head assembly, 4. Ram, 5. Housing, 6. the side of the lathe. The
work. The advantages are Handwheel for ram adjustment, 7. Crossrail, crossrail may have vertical
8. Fine hand adjustment for ram, 9. Crossrail adjustments and for ease of
I. Large diameter and heavy workpieces, similar to chucking elevating screw, 10. Table, 11. Bed.
operation it is counter
jobs on a lathe, may be set up more conveniently and quickly
than on a lathe. It is easier to lay a workpiece down on the balanced. The turret mounted on the
table rather than to hang it up. saddle may be moved crosswise by
2. The table and the work it carries rotate in a horizontal plane, hand or power. The turret may also
and there is no overhang as in the case of a lathe spindle, and be moved in a vertical plane. The
consequently any chance of bending the spindle which side-head also has up and down and
supports the heavy workpiece is eliminated. to and fro adjustments from the
3. The table being horizontal, the diameter of the table may be centre of the table. The machine is
designed as large as possible to support large workpieces. suitable for boring and turning
4. Multiple tooling may be adapted in the case of a vertical railroad wheels, piston rings, gear
boring machine with its turret type tool post increasing the rate blanks, etc. A vertical turret lathe is
of production. shown in Fig.6.17
A vertical boring machine is particularly adapted for holding and Standard vertical boring machine :
machining large, heavy, and cumbersome workpieces. The typical works Vertical boring machines are larger
are : large gear blanks, locomotive and rolling stqck tires, steam and water in size than vertical turret lathe and
turbine castings, fly wheels, large flanges and number of circular shaped there is no turret head. The machine
parts. The size of the work is limited by the diameter of the table. The is provided with two vertical heads
machine can take only circular cut. and one or two side-heads. The tool Fim1re 6.17 Vertical turret lathe
heads are mounted on the crossrail I. Housing, 2. Crossrail, 3. Saddle,
4. Turret, 5. Table, 6. Bed.
which may be adjusted up and down. The saddle of the tool-head may be 6.13 SIZE OF A VERTICAL BORING MACHINE
fed crosswise and the tool head ram fed in vertical direction. The ram
heads can be swiveled to incline the ram upto 60 ° on either side of the The size of a vertical boring machine is specified by the diameter of its
vertical axis for machining tapers. The machiM is particularly intended for table or chuck expressed in mm. It can also be specified by the swing
boring large, cylindrical and symmetrical workpieces. Turbine castings, diameter of the largest work which can be accommodated in the machine.
locomotive tires, etc. are some of the common examples which need The size of a vertical turret lathe varies from 600 to 2000 mm. The
vertical boring machine. A standard vertical boring machine is shown in size of a standard vertical boring machine is as high as 6000 mm.
Fig.6.16. I
6.14' WORK HOLDING DEVICES FOR VERTICAL BORING
6.12 VERTICAL BORING MACHINE PARTS MACHINE
Bed : The bed of a boring machine consists of a hollow circular casting Most of the works done on a vertical boring machine are held in chuck
grouted on the floor. The top of the bed is finished to provide a bearing jaws. The chucks may be independent, universal or combination chuck.
surface for the table. It houses the spindle and a pinion for rotating the The chuck jaws are used for holding moderately regular workpieces on the
table. table. Irregular workpiec es arc held directly o n the table by clamps and T
bolts. In some cases the finished face of the workpiece is made to rest
Table : The boring machine table which may be rotated is a circular directly on the table and the job is then clamped. This maint ains accuracy
casting mounted on the top of the bed. The horizontal surface of the table of the work. In quantity production, jigs arc used to hold the work. In
is finished and is provided with T-slots or chuck jaws for holding and every case, the work should be accurately cen tered on the table.
clamping the work. Underside of the table may be- provided with bevel
gear teeth which meshes with a driving pinion. In large machines, a helical 6.15 VERTICAL BORING MACHINE OPERATIONS
pi nion meshes with a gear attached to the underside of the table.
A vertical boring machine may generate a horizontal flat surface, produce
Housing : The housings are two vertical members which rise from the cylindrical turned surface, bore internal hole, perform cutting-off, necking
two sides of the bed. They are made of ribbed construction to ensure or forming operations, and generate internal or external taper surfaces.
. .
rigidity of the machine. The housings are joined at the top by a cross For machining a flat horizontal surface, the ram and the crossrail is
member. Th e vertical front face of the housin gs are accurately machined Jocked at the desired position and the saddle is fed crosswise while the
to fonn guideways on which the crossrail slides. work revolves on the table. Depth of cut is given by the ram. Fig.6.18
shows the operatio n for production of a flat surface. For generating a
Crossrail : The crossrail is the horizontal member of the rectangular cylindrical surface, the saddle is clamped to pr ev,ent any horizontal
casting mounted on the two front faces of the housings. The crossrail may movement of the ram, and the ram is fed downwards. Fig.6.19 shows the
be moved up and down by rotating screws for accommodating different cylin drical turning operation. Larger diameter holes are bored by feeding
heights of work. The vertical front face of the crossrails is accurately
finished for holding and sliding the saddle of the.toolhead.
Tool-head assembly : It comprises saddle, ram and tool post. The saddle
is mou nted on the crossrail and may be made to slide on it to generate flat
horizontal surface by the tool. The ram holding the toolpost may be made
to slide up a nd down in the saddle perpendicular to the table to generate
cylindrical surface or at an angle to the table surface to generate taper. The Figure 6.18 Machining flat Figure 6.19 Turning cylindrical
rams are also counterbalanced for ease of operation. surface surface
the tool-head directly within the work and the smaller diameter holes are
bored by using a boring bar attached to the tool-head. Fig.6.20(a) and
Fig.6.20(b) show boring operations by a toolhead and a boring bar
respectively.
Figure 6.23 (a) Taper boring (b) Taper turning

operation operation
6.16 VERTICAL BORING MACHINE TOOLS
(a) The vertical boring machine tools are similar to lathe tools as regards rake,
(b)
clearance and other cutting angles. For boring operation, the clearance
Figure 6.20 (a) Boring by tool head (b) Boring by boring bar angle of the tool is greater than that in turning or facing tool. The tool may
be right and left handed, roughing, and finishing.
Cutting off, necking, and forming operations are performed by
crossfeed movement of the saddle. Fig.6.21 shows parting-off operation 6.17 PRECISION BORING MACHINE
and Fig.6.22 illustrates forming operation in a vertical boring machine.
The precision boring machine uses single point_ tools to _ machi�e surfa�es
rapidly and accurately. Cemented carbide and diamond tipped single P OJnt
.
tools are operated at a very high cutting speed to produce accurately s�zed
holes with a fine surface finish. The feeding movement may be provided
by the tool or by the work. The machine may be horizontal or vertical type.
6.18 JIG BORING MACHINE
The jig boring machine is the most accurate of all mac�ine tools. This ':as
Figure 6.21 Cutting off and first developed in the year 1910 in Switzerland and used as a locating
Figure 6.22 Forming
necking operation machine. The real jig borer was first built in the year 1917 by Pratt and
operat!on
Whitney.
. .. .
Conical or taper surfaces are turned by s�iveling the toolhead to Jig boring machines are now used for production of Jigs, fixtures,
the required angle. When a conical surface having a large included angle tools and other precision parts which require high degree of ac�u_ra�y.
which is beyond the range of the swiveling arrangement of the toolhead is They are characterized by provisions of highest accuracy throu �h ng1d1ty,
_
turned, a combined cross and downfeed is applied simultaneously on the low thermal expansion and precise means of measuring d1sta�ce for
tool to cut the required taper. Fig.6.23(a) and 6.23(b) show internal and accurately locating and spacing holes. The machining �ccuracy is ve�y
external taper turning operations. high, within a range of 0.0025 mm. A jig boring mac�ine resen:ibles ,n
appearance to a vertical milling machine, but so far its operation and
accuracy are concerned there cannot be any comparison between the two.
.294 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY BORING MACHINES 295
I
The spindle and other parts of the producing accurate jigs, fixtures, dies, etc. The most i�po�ant operation in
machine are extremely rigid to a jig boring machine is the accurate way of po�1t1onmg a hole. The
resist deflection and the vibration is accurate way of locating a hole in a jig boring machme may be secured by
minimum. The spindle runs in any one of the following methods
preloaded antifriction bearings. The
spindle housings are made of invar 1 . L.eadscrew method
having a very low coefficient of 2. Mechanical and electrical gauging method
linear expansion. The jig boring 3. Optical measuring method
-
machine requires to be operated in
temperature controlled rooms 6----ir--..e;--r.;@:--.., Leadscrew method : The leadscrew method is the most common and
where temperature can be 7 quick method of positioning the work below the spindle. Both longitudin�l
maintained constant. This is 8 and crossfeed leadscrew are rotated by a specified amount. Any error m
essential to prevent inaccuracy in Figure 6.24 Jig boring machine the leadscrew due to backlash, wear or manufacturing defect may be
the machine and in the work being t. Spindle head, 2. Quill, 3. Column, 4. corrected by using a compensating device.
manufactured due to thermal Spindle housing, 5. Spindle,
expansion of the metal. Fig.6.24 6. Table, 7. Saddle, 8. Bed. Mechanical and electrical gauging method : Mechanical gauges such as
shows the block diagram of a jig boring machine. gauge blocks or end measures are placed against a stop on the table and a
dial indicator is fitted at the outer end of the trough. The movement of the
Types of jig boring machines : There are mainly two types of jig IJc,ring table is now governed by the length of the end measures. The table may be
machines adjusted both in longitudinal and crosswise direction to locate the hole
accurately.
1. Vertical milling machine type. Electrical gauging devices are also sometimes adopted.
2. Planer type.
Optical measuring method : The scales used for measuri�g the
Vertical milling machine type : It resembles in construction to a movement of the table are enclosed within the machine to prevent 1t from
vertical milling machine. The spindle rotates on a vertical column and the any damage or wear. The movement of the table is adjusted by the
horizontal table rests on the bed in front of the column. The positioning of leadscrew or by hydraulic means, but the positioning of the table along the
the work mounted on the table may be obtained by compound movements two axis are performed by using the enclosed scale which may be observed
of the table, perpendicular and parallel to the column face. through a microscope.
Planer type : It consists of two vertical columns at the two sides of
the table and is mounted on the base. The table has reciprocating 6.20 JIG BORING OPERATIONS
movement for adjustment of the work. The spindle is mounted on the
.
crossrail bridging the two vertical columns. In a planer type jig borer, two The jig boring machines are primarily designed to p�oduce pr�cision dies,
co-ordinate movements for hole locaqon are provided by the longitudinal gauges, and jigs. They can also be used as a measunng '.1'achme to check
.
movement of the table and the cross movement of the spindle along the up a job already manufactured in other machines. Workpieces are clamped
crossrail. on the table by T-bolts and straps, and single point boring tools are used
for enlarging holes. Single point tools are preferred to multipoint tools as a
6.19 METHODS OF LOCATING HOLES IN JIG BORING single point tool enables maximum accuracy in locating holes and
produces better surface finish.
Holes should be bored on jigs and fixtures at specified distances from the
two square sides of the work. Accurate positioning is essential for
l96 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY
'REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.
2.
Classify and list boring machin
Wha! are �he different horizon
specify th eir suitability.
es.
tal boring machines ? List them
and
7
3. �ow a horizontal boring machine
Is specified ?
4· lis� the methods I equipm e
nt for mounting cutters in a horizon
SHAPER
b onn . tal
g machin e.
5· What !Sa _bori�g bar? D escri
be its utility.
6· 7.1 INTRODUCTION
�:r�;��t:I � ��: !: i/�: rent operations that can be performed on a
1 1
. 0 c .
7. � e:c�1 be' in b ri e! the vari�us types of op erations that
l can b e performed The shaper is a reciprocating type of machine tool intended primarily to
y ert 1 ca b onng machine
.
a. ae produce flat surfaces. These surfaces may be horizontal, vertical, or
:� �� itt;�;;,:f/ etw een a v ertical turr et lathe and a v ertical inclined. In general, the shaper can produce any surface composed of
i a n
9· What ar e the extra faciliti es .. · straight line elements. Modern shapers can generate contoured surface.
in a Jig bonn g machin e over an ordinary
boring machine ? The metal working shaper was developed in the year 1836 by
10. What ar e th e different m etho JamesI Nasmyth an, Englishman.
ds us ed to locat e holes in jig
D escribe th em in bri ef. boring ?
7.2 TYPES OF SHAPERS
Shapers are classified in a number of ways depending upon the general

features of design or the purpose for which they are intended. Shapers are
classified under the following headings.
1 . According to the type of mechanism used for giving

reciprocating motion to the ram : (a) Crank type (b) Geared
type (c) Hydraulic type.
2. According to the position and travel of ram : (a) Horizontal type
(b) Vertical type (c) Traveling head type.
3. According to �he type of design of the table : (a) Standard shaper
(b) Universal shaper
4. According to the type of cutting stroke: (a) Push type (b) Draw
type.
Crank shaper : This is the most common type of shaper in which a single
point cutting tool is given a reciprocating motion equal to the length of the
stroke desired while the work is clamped in position on an adjustable table.
In construction, the crank shaper employs a crank mechanism to change
circular motion of a large gear called ''bull gear" incorporated in the
machine to reciprocating motion of the ram. The bullgear receives power
either from an individual motor or from an overhead line shaft if it is a belt
driven shaper.
SHAPER 299
d static on the basement of
the
?eared type : The reciprocating motion of the ram in some type of shaper standard shaper and fed past the tool are hel me ts.
lies the feedi ng move
machine while the ram reciprocates and supp
n
as effected by means of a rack and pinion. The rack teeth which are cut
directly
_ b�low the ram mesh with a spur gear. The pinion meshing with the tenned ;;'st�n�;rd or pl�in when
rack is d nven by a gear train . The speed and the direction in which the Standard or plain shaper: A shaper is feed.
al atld horizontal ,. to give the
machine will traverse depend on the number of gears in the gear train . This the table has only two movements, vertic ,.
the outer end. ·--·
type of sh aper is not very widely used The table may or may not be supported at
shaper, in addition to the two
Hydraulic shaper : In a hydraulic shaper, reciprocating movement of the Universal shaper : In a universal be
standa rd shaper , the table can
�am is obtai ne.d by h_ydraul_ic power. Oil under high pressure is pumped movements provided on the table of a th pp p
.
rtion of
am ways , and
swivelled about an axis parallel to the r
e u er o
anto the operatang cyli nder fatted with a piston. The end of the piston rod is p rp dicu lar t t
orizontal a xi
the table can be tilted about a second h
s e en o he
connecte d to the ram. The high pressure oil first acts on one side of the
m unt d n th table can be adjusted in different
piston and then on the oth er causing the piston to recipr ocate and the first axis. As the work e o e
for different_ types of work .and is
o
motion is trans�itt�d to I he ram. The piston speed is chan ged by varying planes, the machine is most suitable ed m tool
. ersal shaper 1 s mostly us
the amount o f hqu ad deliv ered by th e pump . One of the most important given the name "Universal". A univ
adva nta ges of this type of shaper is that th e cutti ng speed and force of the room work.
ram drive are constant from the very' beginning to the end of the cut. It also er used in
ost ge nera l type of shap
offers great fle xibility of speed and feed con trol, eliminates shock and Push type shaper : This is the m ram m v s aw ay from
wh en t e
common practice. The metal is removed
h o e
pennit� slip or slowing up of motion when the cutting tool is overloaded,
protecti ng the parts or the too ls from breakage. Another advantag e is that the column, i.e. pushes the work.
th e ma chi ne does not make any noise and operates ve ry quietly.
r, the metal is removed when the ra m
Draw type shaper: In a draw shape
chine , i. e. draws the work towards the
Horizontal shaper : In a horizontal shaper, the ram holding the too l moves towards the colu mn of the ma r.
direction to that of a standard s.h�p�
reciproca tes in a horizontal a xis. Horizo ntal shape rs are mai nly used to machine. The toor is set in a r eversed ures ng1d 1ty
overhead arm which ens _
produce flat surfaces. The ram is generally supported by an p th cutti n g pres �ure
n of the tool . In t is h
and eliminate s deflectio
h s a er e
beanngs
Vertical shaper : In a vertical shaper, the ram holding the tool acts tow a ds the col mn which relieves the crossrail and other
to take deep cuts. Vibrati in these
r u
from e xcessive loading and allows

on
reciprocates in a vertical axis. I n some of the vertical machines provision is
made to allow adjustm ent of the ram to an angle of about 10 degrees from machines is practically eliminated.
the vertical position. Vertical shapers may be crank driven , rack driven,
screw driven or hyd raulic power driven. The work table of a vertical 7.3 PRINCIPAL PARTS
shaper can be given cross, longit udinal, and rotary movement. The too l
standard shaper.
used on a vertical shaper is entirely different from that used on a horizontal Fig.7.1 illustrates different parts of a
shaper. Vertical shapers .ar e very convenient for machining internal for all machine
ed or support required
surfaces, keyways, sl ots or grooves. Large internal and e xternal gears may Base : The base is the necessary b r f th shop or on the
ed to' the floo
tools The base may be rigidly bolt
o e
a lso be mach ined by indexi ng arr angeme nt of t he rotary table . There are
hine. It is s d sig that it �an take
bench according to the size of the mac
e ned
vertical shapers wh ich are specially designed for machining internal
o
d the fo �ces � t u p by t e cutting t?ol

up the entire load of the machine an
h
.
e
keyways. They are then called keyseaters
to resist v1brat1on and take up high
over the work. It is made of cast iron
Travelling head shaper : I n a traveling head shaper , the ra m carrying the compressive load .
too l while it reciprocates moves crosswise to give the required feed.
Heavy and unwieldy jobs which are very difficult to hold on the table of a
300 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNO
LOGY
SHAPER 301
Column : The column .1
b �x l"k
I casting mou nted upon the bas
encloses the ram driving m:c� e It Saddle : The saddle is mounted on the crossrail which holds the table
are provided o n the top of the
1
·
; o;��
::�tty machi�ed guidewa. ys
::1:: n : firmly on its top. Crosswise moveme nt of the sadd le by rotating the cross
front vertical face of the co lum e ram reciprocates. The
n whic . h serves as feed screw by hand or power causes the table to move sideways.
·1 .
crossra1 is also accurately mac the guideways for the
:? �
e ope
�
hi ned . The lid on the left side of
for ins�ection a nd oiling of the
the col
i n ternal mechanism :��
Table : The table which is bolted to the saddle receives crosswise a nd
co um n . e ot�er side of the column con vertical movements from the saddle and crossrail. It is a box like casting
. tains levers ha ndles etc for
operatmg the machi ne. ' • · having T-slots both on the top and sides for clamping the wo rk. I n a
u niversal shaper the table may be swivelled on a horizontal axis an d the
upper part of the table may be tilted up or down. In a heavier type shaper,
the front face of the table is clamped with a table support to make it more
rigid.
9 Ram The ram is the reciprocating member of the shaper. This is semi
3 cylindrical in form and heavily ribbed inside to make it more rigid. It
2 slides on the accurately machined dovetail guideways on the top of the
column and is connected to the reciprocating mechanism co ntained within
10 the column. It houses a screwed shaft for altering the position of the ram
11 with respect to the work and holds the tool head at the extreme forward
end.
Toolhead : The toolhead of a shaper holds the tool rigidly, provides

vertical and angular feed movement of the tool and allows. the tool to have
12 an automatic relief during its return stroke. The vertical slide of the
toolhead has a swivel base which isneld on a circular seat on the ram. The
swivel base is graduated in degrees, so that the vertical slide may be set
perpendicular to the work surface or at any desired angle. By rotating the
Figure 7 .I Parts of a standard shaper downfeed screw handle, the vertical slide carrying the tool executes down
��: ��:i,� �"s;i :; b�:�;- �l��er box,�- Apron cla_� ping bolts, 5. Downfeed
a p feed or angular feed movement while machining vertical or angular
6 v d' g graduallons, 7. Pos1t1on of stroke adju surface. The amount of feed or depth of cut may be adjusted by a
handwheel ·s R a m b l k I k stment
R a m, I O. C�l umn, 11. D riving ul micrometer dial on the top of the downfeed screw. ,1pron consisting of
12. B a se, 13. Feed dis�•\/�a:f�:; p ley,
:�en,1·s9m. , l 5 . E I evatmg screw. clapper box, clapper block and tool post is clamped upon the vertical slide
by a screw. By releasing the clamping screw, the apron may be swivelled
ross ail : The crossrail is mou
�e � nted on the front vertical guidewa upon the apron swivel pin either towards left or towards right with respect
co umn. It has two parallel guid ys of
. eways on its top in the vertical to the vertical slide. This arrangement is necessary to provide relief to the
that are perpend1cu!ar to the .ram Jane
axis. The table may be raised or lo!e tool while making vertical or angular cuts. The two vertical walls on the
to accommodate differe nt sizes O . . red
f JObs bY rotating a n elevating screw apron called clapper box houses the clapper block which is connected to it
wh ic
· h causes t Ii e crossrail to slide up
a nd down on the vertical face of by means of a hinge pin. The tool post is mounted upon the clapper block.
column. A hon. zontal cr�ss feed the
screw which is fitted within the cros On the forward cutting stroke the clapper block fits securely to the clapper
� nd paralle( to t�e top gu1deways srail
of the crossrail actuates the table box to make a rigid tool support. On the ret11rn stroke a slight frictional
m a crosswise d1 rect1on . to move
drag of the tool on the work lifts the block·- out of the clapper box a
sufficie nt amount preve nting the tool cutting edge from draggi ng and
SHAPER 303
consequent wear. Th e work mechanism is known as quick return mechanism. The recip�ating
surface is also prevented fro m movement of the ram and the quick return mechanism of the machme are
any da mage due to dragging. usually obtained by any one of the following methods
Fig.7.2 illustrates th e tool h ead
of a sliaper. 1. Crank and s lotted link mechan ism
2. W h itworth quick retur n mechanism
7 .4 SHAPER SIZE 3. Hydraulic shaper mechanism
Th e size of a shaper is
determined by the maximum
lengt h of stroke or cut it can 7
make. Th e usual s ize ranges 8
from 175 to 900 mm, Th e Figure 7.2 Toolheadof a shaper
length of stroke i ndicates, in I. Downfeed screw micrometer dial, 2.
addition to th e general size of Downfeed screw, 3. Vertical slide, 4.
th e mac hine, th e size of a cube Apr:>n, 5. Apron clamping boll, 6. Clapper
th at can be held and planed in block, 7. Toolpost, 8. Washer, 9. Apron
th e sh aper. Thus in a 250 mm swivel pin, 10. Swivel base
sh aper th e length of stroke may
be adjusted from Oto 250 mm, the cross feed adjustment of th e table will
be 250 mm and the extreme bottom position of th e crossrail will permit the
table to acco mmodate a workpiece 250 mm high.
The length of stroke of a sh aper merely indicates the overall size of
th e sh aper. Other particulars, such as th e type of drive : belt drive or
individual motor drive, power input, floor space required, weigh t of th e
machi n e, cutting to return stroke ratio, number and amou n t of feed, etc. are
lllso sometimes necessary.
7 .5 SHAPER MECHANISM
Crank and slottedl n i k mechanism
In a sh aper, rotary moveme nt of th e drive is con verted into reciprocatin g Figure 7.3
lever, 5. Handw�eel for
I · Driving pinion ' 2. Ram ' 3. Screwed shaft, 4. Clamping
movement by the mechanis m co ntained within th e colum n of the mach i ne. . , 8 · Ram block ' 9. Slotted link or
position of stroke adJustment 6 ·7 · Beve 1 gears
The ram h oldin g th e tool gets th e reciprocatin g movemen1. In a standard 11. Crank pin, 12. Rocker arm s•rd·'.�g
rocker arm 10 Bull gear sliding block,
sh aper metal is removed in the forward cutting strike, wh ile th e return Rocker arm pivot, 16. Bull gear sh e,
block, 13. Lead screw. 14. Bull gear, 15.
stroke goes idle a n d no metal is removed during th is period. To reduce th e 17,18. Bevel gears.
total mach i nin g ti me it is necessary to reduce the time taken by the return
link
ism • Th e crank and s lotted
stroke. Thus th e sh aper mech anism should be so desig ned that it can allow Crank _and soI tted . rnk. mechan tra itted to th e
. motion or pow er is
the ram holding the tool to move at a comparatively slower speed during mechanis m ,s shown ma F ,g.7 ·3 · The . . motio . n from_ an
nsm
I which receives ,t
th e forward cuttin g stroke, th e cutting speed dependi ng upon the type of bull ear 14 through a pinion
shaft through speed control m�ch�
s
material and machining co nditio n , whereas durin g th e return stroke it can indivfdual motor or overhead li e f
nism
differe t com bi atio n o

chan ged by
n
allow the ram to move at a faster rate to reduce the idle return time. Th is Speed of the bull gear may be
n n
304 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY SHAPER 305
gearing or by simply shifting the belt on the step cone pulley. Bull gear J 4 Cutting time to return time ratio usually varies between 2:1 and the
is a large gear mounted within the column. Bolted to the centre of the bull practical limit is 3:2. The only disadvantage lies with this mechanism is
gear is a radial slide 16 which carries a sliding block 10 into which the that the cutting speed and return speed is not constant throughout the
crank pin 11 is fitted. Rotation of the bull gear will cause the crank pin 1 J stroke. It is minimum when the rocker-arm is at the two extremities and the
to revolve at a uniform speed. Sliding block 12 which is mounted upon the speed is maximum when the rocker arm is vertical.
crank pin 11 is fitted within the slotted link 9. The slotted link 9 which is Adjusting the length of stroke: Fig.7.3 illustrates how the length of
also known as the rocker ann is pivoted at 15 at its bottom end attached to stroke in a crank shaper can be adjusted. The crank pin 11 is fastened to
the frame of the column. The upper end of the rocker rum is forked and the sliding block JO which can be adjusted and the radius of its travel may
connected to the ram block 8 by a pin. As the bull gear rotates causing the be varied. The block JO is again mounted upon the radial slide 16 bolted to
crank pin to rotate, the sliding block 12 fastened to the crank pin 11 will the centre of the bull gear. The bevel gear 18 placed at the centre of the
rotate on the crank pin circle, and at the sarne time will move up and down bull gear may be rotated by a handle causing the bevel gear 17 to rotate.
the slot in the slotted link 9 giving it a rocking movement which is The bevel gear 17 is mounted upon the small lead screw 13 which passes
communicated to the ram. Thus the rotary motion of the bull gear is through the sliding block JO. Thus rotation of the bevel gear 17 will cause
converted to reciprocating movement of the ram. the sliding block JO carrying the crank pin 11 to be brought inwards or
The principle of quick return outwards with respect to the centre of the bull wheel. Fig.7.5 shows the
motion is illustrated in Fig.7.4. When x: Displacement detail arrangement for altering the position of bull gear sliding block on
the link is in the position PM, the ram Velocity bull gear for adjusting the length of stroke. The sketch has been drawn
will be at the extreme backward Cut
without the rocker arm in position. The closer the pin is brought to the
position of its strok'e, and when it is at
centre of the bull wheel, the smaller will be the stroke. Maximum stroke of
PN, the extreme forward position of x the ram is obtained when the crank pin is shifted towards the farthest end
the ra1;n wiil have been reached. PM
of the slide. Fig.7.6 (A) and (B) shows the short and long stroke of the
and PN are shown tangent to the
crank pin circle. The forward cutting N
ram, effected by altering the position of crank pin.
M
stroke, therefore, takes place when the 2
crank rotates through the angle C 1
KC2 and the return stroke takes place
when the crank rotates through the 4
angle C2LC 1 • It is evident that the
angle C 1 KC2 made by the forward or
cutting stroke is greater than the angl�
C2LC 1 described by the returil. stroke.
The angular velocity of the crank pin
being constant the return stroke is, p
therefore, completed within a shorter Figure 7 .5 Bull gear sliding block mounting arrangement
Figure 7.4 Principle of quick
time for which it is known as quick I. Bullgear, 2. Bullgear slide, 3. Bull gear sliding block, 4. Crank pin,
return mechanism 5. Lead screw
rctwn motion.
The ratio between the cutting time and return time may be
determined from the fo1mula Adjusting the position of stroke: The position of the ram relative
to the work can also be adjusted. Referring to the Fig. 7.3, by rotating the
Cutting time hand wheel 5 the screwed shaft 3 fitted in the ram may be made to rotate
= 7.1 through two bevel gears 6 and 7. The ram block 8 which is mounted upon
Return time the screwed shaft 3 acts as a nut. When the machine is in operation, the
SHAPER 307
clamping lever 4 is
8
and the ram 8 by a pin 7. When bull gear will rotate at a constant speed the
tightened upon the ram
crank pin 2 with the sliding block 3 will rotate on a crank circle of radius
body 2 and the ram block,
A2 and the sliding block 3 will cause the crank plate to rotate about the
the screwed shaft, and the
point 5 with a variable angular velocity. Pin 9 fitted on the other end of the
ram becomes one unit. In
crank plate 4 will rotate in a circle and the rotary motion of the pin 9 will
order to set the position of
be converted into reciprocating movement of the ram similar to the crank
stroke, the clamping lever 4
and connecting rod mechanism. The axis of reciprocating of the ram
is loosened and by rotating passes through the pin 5 and is normal to the line A5.
the hand wheel 5 the When the pin 2 is at the position C the ram will be at the extreme
screwed shaft 3 will rotate 1 backward position but when the pin is at the position B. the extreme
within the ram block. The forward position of the ram will have been reached. When the pin 2 travels
nut remaining fixed in from C to B the crank pin 9 passes through the backward position to the
position, rotation of the Figure 7 .6 Stroke length adjustment
forward position in the cutting stroke, and the return stroke is completed
screwed shaft will cause the I. Position of crankpin, A. Short stroke length, B. when the pin 2 travels from B to C or the pin 9 passes from the forward
ram to move forward or Long stroke length.
position to the backward position. As the angular velocity of the crank pin
backward with respect to the ram block according to the direction of is uniform, the time taken by the crank pin 2 to travel through an arc
rotation of the hand wheel 5. Thus the position of ram may be adjusted covering CEB is greater than the time taken to move through an arc
with respect to the workpiece. The clamping lever 4 must be tightened covering BOC. Thus a quitk return motion is obtained by the mechanism .
after the adjustment has been made . The length of stroke of the ram may be changed by shifting the
position of pin 9 closer or away from the pivot 5. The position of stroke
Whitworth quick return mechanism : The Whitworth quick return may be altered by shifting the position of pin 7 on the ram.
mechanism is shown in Fig .7.7 and a simple line diagram of the
mechanism is shown in Fig.7.8. The bull gear is mounted on a large fixed
pin A upon which it is free to rotate. The crank plate 4 is pivoted
.
eccentrically upon the fixed pin at 5. Fitted on the face of the bull gear ts
the crank pin 2 on the top of which is mounted the sliding block 3. Sliding
block 3 fits into the slot provided on the crank plate 4. At the other end of
the crank plate 4, a connecting rod 6 connects the crank plate by a pin 9
Figure 7 .8 Line diagram of quick return mechanism

I. Driving pinion, 2. Crank plate, 3. Sliding block, 4. Crank pin for connecting rod,
5. Pivot for crank plate, 6. Ram, 7 . Bull gear, A. Fixed pin.
Hydraulic shaper mechanism : In a hydraulic shaper the ram is moved

forward and backward by a piston moving in a cylinder placed under the
Figure 7 .7 Whitworth quick return mechanism ram. The machine mainly consists of a constant discharge oil pump 2, a
I. Driving pinion, 2. Crank pin, 3. Sliding block, 4. Crank plate,�- Pivot for cr�nk valve chamber, a cylinder, and a piston 7. The piston rod 6 is bolted to the
_
plate, 6. Connecting rod, 7. Connecting pin for ram, 8. Ram, 9. P m, A. Fixed pm. ram body. As shown in Fig. 7 9 . the oil under high pressure is pumped
from the reservoir I and is made to pass through the valve chamber to the within a fixed period, the same amount of oil will be pumped into the right
right side of the oil cylinder 5 exerting pressure on the piston 7. This or to the left hand side of the cylinder. This will mean that the same
causes the ram 4 connected to the piston 7 to perform forward stroke, and amount of oil will be packed within a smaller stroke volume causing the
any oil present on the left side of the cylinder is discharged to the reservoir oil pressure to rise automatically and increasing the speed during the return
through the throttle valve 3. At the end of extreme forward stroke, the stroke.
shaper dog 8 hits against the reversing lever 9 causing the valves 12 to The length and position of stroke is adjusted by shifting the position
alter their positions within the valve chamber. Oil under high pressure is of reversing dogs.
now pumped to the left side of the piston causing the ram to perform return The cutting speed may be changed by controlling the throttle valve
stroke. Oil present on the right side of the piston is now discharged to the 3 which regulates the flow of oil. When the throttle valve is partially'
reservoir. At the end of the return stroke another shaper dog hits against closed the excess oil flows out through the relief valve 11 to the reservoir.
the reversing lever altering the direction of stroke of the piston and the maintaining uniform pressure during cutting stroke. A hydraulic shapc1 i:,
cycle is thus repeated. now widely used for having many advantages. Some of them are listed<
below.
1. The cutting and return speeds are practically constant

throughout the stroke. This permits the cutting tool to work
uniformly during cutting stroke.
2. The reversal of the ram is obtained quickly without any shock as
the oil on the other end of the cylinder provides cushioning
effect.
3. Infinite number of cutting speeds may be obtained from zero to
the maximum value and the control is easier.
4. With a high rate of return speed, a greater number of cutting
strokes may be available within the range of cutting speed.
5. The relief valve ensures safety to the tool and the machine when
the machine is overloaded.
Feed mechanism : In a shaper both downfeed and crossfeed movements

may be obtained. Unlike a lathe, these feed movements are provided
intermittently and during the end of return stroke only. Vertical or bevel
surfaces are produced by rotating the downfeed screw of the toolhead by
hand. Crossfeed movement is used to machine a flat horizontal surface.
This is done by rotating the crossfeed screw either by hand or power.
Figure 7 .9 Hydraulic shaper mechanism Rotation of the crossfeed screw causes the table mounted upon the saddle
I. Oil reservoir, 2. Oil pump,.3. Throttle valve, 4. Ram, 5. Cylinder, 6. Piston rod, to move sideways through a predetermined amount at the end of each
7. Piston, 8. Reversing dog, 9. Reversing lever, 10. Reversing lever pivot, 11.
return stroke so as to bring the uncut surface of the work in the direct path
Relief valve, 12. Valves.
of the reciprocating tool.
Fig.7.10 illustrates the automatic cross feed mechanism of a shaper.
The quick return motion is effected due to the difference in stroke
The rotation of the bull gear causes the driving disc 8 to rotate in a
v·Jlume of the cylinder at both ends, the left hand end being smaller due to
particular direction. The driving disc 8 is T-slotted and position of the
the presence of the piston rod. As the pump is a constant discharge one,
cran� pin 9 attached to the connecting rod may be altered to give different
throw of eccentricity. The 7.6 WORK HOLDING DEVICES

other end of the connecting
rod is a'.tached to the The top and sides of the table of a shaper have T-slots for clamping the
8
rocking arm by a pin 7. The work. The work may be supported on the table by the following methods
rocking arm is fulcrumed at depending on the nature of the workpiece.
6, the centre of the ratchet
wheel 5. The ratchet wheel 1. Clamped in a vise
5 is keyed to the crossfeed 2. Clamped on the table
screw. The rocking arm 3. Clamped to the angle plate
houses a spring loaded 4. Clamped on a V-block
pawl 4 which is straight on 5. Held between shaper index centre
one side and bevel on the
other side. As the driving Shaper vises : Fig.7.11 illustrates a typical shaper vise. A vise is a quick
disc rotates, the connecting method of holding and locating .relatively small and regular shaped
rod starts reciprocating and workpieces. It consists of a
base, table, screw, fixed 1 2 3 4 5
the rocking arm rocks on
the fulcrum 6. When the Figure 7.10 Automatic feed mechanism and movable jaws. The
driving disc rotates through of a shaper base has a projection or
half of the revolution in the
clockwise direction, top
1. Knob, 2. Pin, 3. Helical spring, 4. Pawl,
5. Ratchet wheel, 6. Rocker arm fulcrum,
tongue which fits into the
slot of the machine table.
�3
part of the rocking arm 7. Rocker are connecting pin, 8. Driving For properly securing it to 6
moves in the clockwise disc, 9. Crank pin. the table lugs are provided
direction and the pawl 4 for clamping the vise by
being slant on one side slips over the teeth of the ratchet wheel 5 imparting T-bolts. The work is
it no movement. As the driving disc rotates through the other half, the top clamped between fixed
of the rocking arm now moves in the anticlockwise direction and the and movable jaws by
straight side of the pawl engages with the teeth of the ratchet wheel .rotating the screw.
causing the wheel to move in anticlockwise direction only. As the driving Wherever possible the vise
disc is connected to the bull gear the table feed movement is effected when is so placed on the table
the bull gear or the driving disc rotates through half of the revolution, i.e., that the tool while cutting
during return stroke only. Rotation through other half imparts no feed exerts direct pressure upon Figure 7.11 Shaper vise
movement. To reverse the direction of rotation of ratchet wheel and the jaws. A machine vise I. Screw, 2. Movable jaw, 3. Hold down, 4. Work,
consequently the feed, a knob I on the top of the pawl 4 after removing may be classified under 5. Parallels, 6. Handle, 7. Base:, 8. Clamping hull,
the pin 2 is rotated through 180 degrees. following headings. 9. Swivelling base, 10. Lug.
The amount of feed may be altered by shifting the position of
crank pin 9 with respect to the centre. Greater the throw of eccentricity, 1. Plain vise
more will be the rocking movement of the arm and the pawl will pass (a) Single screw
through three or four teeth on the ratchet wheel at a time imparting greater (b) Double screw
feed movement. 2. Swivel vise
3. Universal vise
SHAPER 313
T-bolts and clamps : Fig.7.12 illustrates the use of T-bolts and
A plain vise is the most simple of aJI the types. The vise may have a clamps for holding the
single screw or double screws for actuating the movable jaw. �he qou�le work. T-bolts having T
screws add gripping strength while taking deeper cuts or handling heavier heads are fitted in the T
jobs. slots of the table. The
In a swivel vise the base is graduated in degrees, and the body of the length of the threaded
vise may be swiveJled at any desired angle on a horizontal plane. The portion is sufficiently long
_
swivelling arrangement is useful in bevelling the end of workpiece. in order to accommodate
A universal vise may be swivelled like a swivel vise. In addition to different heights of work.
that, the body may be tilted in a vertical plane upto 90 degrees from the The T-bolts are illustrated
horizontal. An inclined surface may be machined by a universal vise. in Fig.5.6. The clamps are
made of steel having slots
Parallels : Fig.7 .11 illustrates the use of parallels. When the height of the at the centre for fitting the Fi2ure 7.12 Use ofT-bolt and clamp
job is less than the height of the jaws of the vise, parallels are �sed to ra!se bolt. One end of the clamp I. Step block, 2. T-bolt, 3. Clamp, 4. Work.
and seat the workpiece above the vise jaws and parallel with the vise rests on the side of the work
bbttom. Parallels are square or rectangular bars of steel or cast iron, while the other end rests on a fulcrum block. The fulcrum block should be
hardened and ground with opposite sides parallel. They are available in of the same height as the part being clamped. The bolt is placed as near to
various sizes for seating workpieces of different heights and are always the work as possible and the nut is then tightened. To hold a large work on
used in pairs. the table a series of clamps and T-bolts are used all round the work.
Stop pins · Fig.7.13 illustrates stop pins. A stop pin is a one-leg
Hold downs : Fig.7.11 illustrates the use of hold downs. Hold downs or screw clamp. As the tool moves forward to perform cutting stroke the
grippers arc used for holding thin pieces of work ( n a shaper vise. �old work tends to be pushed out of its position under the pressure of the
_
downs are also used for holding work of smaller height than the vise Jaws cutting tool. Stop pins are used to prevent the work from coming out of
where suitable parallels are not available. The hold down is a hardened position. The body of the
wedge shaped piece with its two working edges ta�ered at an angle of 5 °. ' stop pin is fitted in the hole
.
llold downs arc placed between two jaws of the vise and the workpiece. or slot on the table and the
When the screw is tightened the typical shape of the hold down exerts screw is tightened till it
downward µressure on the work to hold it tight on the parallels or on the forces against the work.
yise table. Stop pins and toe
dogs : Fig.7.14 illustrates
Clamping work on the table : When the workpiece is too large t� be held the use of stop pins and toe
in a vise it must be fastened directly on the shaper table. In holding work dogs. While holding thin
on the table, clamping bolts should not be unduly tightened to produce work on the table stop pins
distortion of the work. The different methods employed to elamp different in conjunction with toe
types of work on a shaper table arc dogs are used. A toe dog
is similar in shape to that
1. T-bolts and clamps. of a centre punch or a Figure 7 .13 Stop pins
2. Stop pins. cold chisel. The head end I. Body, 2. Screw.
3. Stop pins and toe dogs. of a toe dog is drilled
4. Strip and stop pins. slightly so that the end of the stop pin screw may fit into it. Fig.7 .15
shows two types of toe dogs. A large number of stop pins and toe
\
dogs are placed all round made to reciprocate between the two clamps for cutting grooves or key
the work. When screw of ways. V-blocks are made of cast iron or steel and are accurately machined.
the stop pin is tightened,
the work is gripped down Shaper centers : Fig.7.18 illustrates a shaper center. This is a special
on the table.
\ attachment used for cutting equally spaced grooves or splines on the
l
periphery of a round work. In special cases, it may be used for cutting
Strip and stop gears. A shaper centre consists of a headstock and a tailstock, and the work
Figure7.14 Use ofstop pin andtoe dog is mounted between two centres. Mounted upon the headstock spindle is
pins :Fig.7.16 illustrates I. Toe dog, 2. Work, 3. Stop pin.
the working of strip and the worm gear 4 which meshes with the worm. The handle 2 is connected
stop pins for holding the work. Work �aving sufficient thickness is held on with the worm shaft. Rotation of the handle 2 causes the worm gear 4 to
the table by strip and stop pins. A strip is a long bar having a tongue with rotate and the motion is transmitted to the work through a catch plate and
holes for fitting the T-bolts. The strip with bolts is fitted in the T-slot of the carrier. After cutting a slot or groove on the top of the work, it may be
table, the tongue of the strip fitting within the slot. The nuts are then turned to a predetermined amount by an index plate 3 and index pin /. The
tightened so that the strip plate may rest on one side of the work. The stop indexplate is mounted on the worm gear shaft. The index plate has a series
pin screws are then tightened from the other end of the work so that the of holes around its circumference and is locked in any desired position by
work may be clamped between stop pins and strip plate. engaging the index pin in the corresponding hole. Index plates are
provided with various number of holes.
7.7 SHAPER OPERATIONS
A shaper is a versatile machine tool primarily designed to generate a flat

surface by a single point cutting tool. But it may also be used to perform
many other operations. The different operations which a sharper can
perform are as follows
Figure7l
. S Toe dogs 7.16 Use ofstrip and stop pins 1. Machining horizontal surface.
I. Strip, 2. Work, 3. Stop pin. 2. Machining vertical surface.
Angle plate : Fig.5.15 illustrates the use of an angle plate. For holding
"L" shaped workpiece, angle plates are used. Angle plates are made of cast
iron and is planed on two sides to an angle of exactly 90 °. One of the sides
is clamped to the table by T-bolts while the other side holds the. work by
clamps.
V- block: Fig.7.17 illustrates

the use of a V-block. For
holding round rods V-blocks
are used. Work may be
supported on two V-blocks at
its two ends and is clamped to
the table by T-bolts and Figure7 .18 Use of shaper centre
Figure7 .17 Use ofV-block I. Index pin, 2. Wonn handle, 3. Index plate, 4. Wonn gear, 5. Work.
clalj'lps. The tool may be I .T-bolt, 2. V-block, 3. Work, 4. Nut, 5. Clamp.
3. Machining angular surface. the side of the tool from dragging on the planed vertical surface during
4. Cutting slots, grooves, and keyways. return stroke. The downfeed is given by rotating the down feed screw by
5. Machining irregular surface. hand. The feed is about 0.25 mm given at the end of each return stroke.
6. Machining splines or cutting gears. Both roughing and finishing cuts are
performed to complete the job.
Machining horizontal surface : Fig.7.19 illustrates machining horizontal
surface on a workpiece. A shaper is mostly used to machine a flat, true Machining angular surface:
surface on a workpiece held in a vise or other holding devices. After the Fig.7.21 illustrates machining of an
work is properly held on the table, a planing tool is set in the tool post with angular surface on a workpiece. An
minimum overhang. The table is raised till there is a clearance of 25 to 30
mm between the tool and the workpiece. The length and position of stroke
are then adjusted. The length of stroke should be nearly 20 mm longer than
the work and the position of stroke is so adjusted that the tool begins to
move from a distance of 12 to 15 mm before the beginning of the cut and
continues to move 5 to 8 mm after the end of
the cut. Proper cutting speed and feed is then
adjusted. Short strokes should be given with
high speed while long strokes with slow
speed. Both roughing and finishing cuts are
performed to complete the job. For roughing
1,;ut speed is decreased but feed and depth of
cut is increased. Depth of cut is adjusted by Figure 7.21 Machining angular
rotating the down feed screw of the toolhead. Figure 7 .20 Machining surface
The amount of depth of cut is adjusted by a vertical surface I. Work, 2. Apron, A, Swivelling angle
micrometer dial. The depth of cut for 1. Apron, 2. Work. of the vertical slide.
roughing work usually ranges from 1.5 to 3 angular cut is made at any angle other than a right angle to the horizontal
mm, while for finishing work it ranges from or to the vertical plane. The work is set on the table and the vertical slide
0.075 to 0.200 mm. Feed is adjusted about of the toolhead is swivelled to the required angle either towards left or
one half the width of the cutting edge of the towards right from the vertical position. The apron is then further
tool so that each cut will overlap the last cut swivelled away from the work so that the tool will clear the work during
Figure 7 .19 Machining
giving a smooth surface finish. return stroke. The downfeed is given by rotating the down feed screw.
horizontal surface
Angular surface can also be machined in a universal shaper or by using a
Machining vertical surface : Fig7.20 illustrates machining vertical universal vise without swivelling the toolhead.
surface on a workpiece. A vertical cut is made while machining the end of
a workpiece, squaring up a block or cutting shoulder. The work is mounted Cutting slots and keyways : With suitable tools a shaper can very
in the vise or directly on the table and the surface to be machined is conveniently machine slots or grooves on a work or cut external keyways
carefully aligned with the axis of the ram. A side cutting tool is set on the on shafts and internal keyways on pulleys or gears. For cutting slots or
tool post and the position and length of stroke is adjusted. The vertical keyways a square nose tool similar to a parting tool is selected. Fig.7.22
slide is set exactly at zero position and the apron is swivelled in a direction illustrates cutting of external keyways and Fig.7.23 shows cutting of
away from the surface being cut. This is necessary to enable the tool to internal keyways in a shaper. External keyways are cut on a shaft by first
move upwards and away from the work during return stroke. This ptevents drilling a hole at the blind end of the keyway. The diameter of the holes
should be 0.5 to 0.8 mm oversize than the width of the keyway and the The work is mounted between two
depth should be about 1 .5 mm larger than the depth of the keyway. This is centres and a spl,ine is cut similar to the
necessary to leave a clearance on the tool at the end of the stroke. The cutting of a keyway. After the first spline is
length and position of stroke is carefully adjusted so that the stroke will cut, the work is rotated through . a
terminate exactly at the clearance hole. The speed is reduced while cutting predetermined amount by using the index
a keyway. Internal keyways are cut by holding the tool on a special tool plate and index pin. The periphery of a
holder so that the tool post will not hit against the work at the end of the gear blank is divided, and equally spaced
stroke. The clapper block is locked in the clapper box to prevent the tool grooves are cut by using an index plate
from lifting during return stroke. Lubrication is necessary on the work to having proper hole circles. While cutting
gear a formed tool is used. Figure 7 .24 Machining
prevent the cutting edge of the tool from wear due to dragging.
irregular surface
7.8 SHAPER TOOLS
The cutting tool used in � shaper is a single point cutting tool having rake,
clearance and other tool angles similar to a lathe tool. It differs from a
lathe tool in tool angles. Shaper tools are much more rigid and heavier to
withstand shock experienced by the cutting tool at the commencement of
each cutting stroke. In a lathe tool the effective angle of rake and clearance
may be varied by raising or lowering the point of the tool in relation to the
centre of the work, but in a shaper the tool angles cannot be changed as the
tool is always clamped perpendicular to the surface of the work. When it
Figure 7 .22 Cutting external keyway Figure 7 .23 Cutting becomes necessary to change the tool angles it can only be done by
I. Vise, 2. Tool, 3. Work. internal keyway grinding. In a lathe tool sufficient amount of side clearance angle must be
I. Tool bit, 2. Work., 3. Vise provided as the tool is continually fed sideways tracing a helical path, but
Machining irregular surface : A shaper can also produce a contour
ed in a shaper tool as the feed is given at the end of cutting stroke, a very
surface, i.e. a convex or concave surface or a combination of any of small clearance angle is necessary to give relief to the side cutting edge. In
the
above surfaces. To produce a small contoured surface a fo rm ing tool a shaper tool the amount of side clearance angle is only 2 ° to 3 ° and the
is
used. If the curve is sufficiently large, power-crossfeed in conjunction with front clearance angle is 4 ° for cast iron and steel. Small clearance angle
manual downfeed is so adjusted that the tool will trace the required adds strength to the cutting edge. As the tool removes metal mostly from
contour. If the contour has too many ups and downs both the feeds its side cutting edge, side rake of 10° is usually provided with little or no
are
operated by hand. A round nose tool is selected for machining irregular front rake. The side rake angle to be provided is dependent upon the kind
surfaces. For a shallow cut the apron may be set vertical but if the curve of metal being cut, the hardness of the tool material, type of cut: roughing
is
quite sharp, the apron is swivelled towards right or left away from the or finishing , and other factors which influence the rake angle. A shaper
surface to be cut. Fig.7.24 shows machining of a concave surface using a can also use a right hand or left hand tool. The left hand tool is more
round nose tool. common because it permits the operator to see the cut better than the right
hand tool. High speed steel is the most common material for a shaper tool
Machining splines or cutting gears: By using an index centre, illustrated rs
but shock resistant cemented carbide tipped tool also used where harder
in Fig.7.18, a gear or equally spaced spline may be cut. material is to be machined. As in a lathe, tool holders are also used to hold
the tool bits. Some of the most common cutting tools are
I. ft: left hand roughing tool for planing (Fig.7.25)

2. A left hand finishing tool for
planing (Fig.7.26)
3. A left hand side facing tool
l'
for vertical shaping and for
shaping sharp comer
_-r
_�·
\.
(roughing) (Fig.7.27)
4. A left hand side facing tool
(finishing) (Fig.7.28)
5. A left hand dovetail cutting
tool (roughing) (Fig.7.29)
6. A left hand dovetail cutting
Figure 7.25 A left hand Figure 7.26 A left hand tool (finishing) (Fig.7.30)
roughing tool for planing finishing tool for planing 7. A parting or slotting tool. Figure 7.31 A parting or
(Fig.7.31.) slotine tool
7.9 CUTTING SPEED, FEED AND DEPTH OF CUT
Cutting speed : In a shaper, the cutting speed is the rate at which the
metal is removed by the cutting tool. This is expressed in metre per
minute. In a lathe as the cutting action is continuous the cutting speed is
expressed by the peripheral speed of the work. But in a shaper the cutting
action is intennittent. In a shaper the cutting speed is considered only
during the forward cutting stroke.
Cutting speed calculations : The cutting speed in a shaper is
expressed by the formula
Figure 7.27 A left hand Figure 7 .28 A left hand
side roughing tool side finishing tool length of the cutting stroke
Cutting speed =
time required by the cutting stroke
2· In practice, to calculate the cutting speed, it is difficult to measure

exactly the time taken during the for:,vard cutting stroke. The ratio between
the return time to cutting time and the number of double strokes per minute
or r.p.m. of the bull wheel should be known. The cutting speed may be
obtained from the equation (7.2).
Let, L the length of cutting stroke in mm.

m the ratio between return time to cutting time.
n = the number of double strokes of the ram per minute
Figure 7.29 A left hand dovetail Figure 7 .30 A left hand dovetail or r.p.m. of the bull wheel
cutting tool for roughing cutting tool for finishing v the cutting speed expressed in m/min.
/
From the equation No. (7.2), when the tool is not cutting the metal. The selection of feed is dependent
length of cutting stroke in mm upon the kind of metal, type of job, etc.
Time taken by the cutting stroke, min =
cutting speed in m/min
Depth of cut : Depth of cut (t) is the thickness of metal that is removed in
l return stroke time one cut. It is the perpendicular distance measured between machined
= and, m = surface and non-machined surface of the workpiece.
1,000x v
cutting stroke time
7.IO MACHINING TIME
or return stroke time = m x cutting stroke time = mxl
1,000xv If the length of cutting stroke, breadth qf the job, feed and cutting speed
m l are known, the time required to complete the job may be calculated as
Time taken to complete one double stroke = __L__ + x
1,000xv 1,000xv Let,
l
L the length of the stroke in mm.
= ---(l+m) 7.3 B the breadth of the work in mm.
1,000xv s = the feed expressed in mm/double stroke.
Number of �?uble strokes per minute m the ratio return time to cutting time.
or r.p.m. of the bull wheel v the cutting speed in m/min.
l(l +m)
1000xv Then from equation (7.3),
1000xv nl(1 +m)
n = and, v = 7.4 Time taken to complete one double stroke, = (I+ m)
l(l+m) 1,000 1,000xv
The cutting speed so calculated is the average cutting speed as it Total number of double strokes required
has been as�um�d that the cutting stroke is completed at a uniform speed.
. to complete the job
But, 10 reality, 10 a crank driven shaper cutting speed and return speed is s
not uniform. LxB(l+m)
The factors which govern the amount of cutting speed are same as Total time taken to complete the cu, l,OOOxvxs
the discussed in Art. 2.17.
Example 7 .1 .: In a shaper work, the length of stroke is 200 mm, number of double Example 7.2 : Find the time required for taking a complete cut on a plate 600 x
strokes per minute is 30 and the ratio of return time to cutting time is 2 : 3. Find the 900 mm, if the cutting speed is 9 m/min. The return time to cutting time ratio is I :4
cutting speed. and the feed is 3 mm. The clearance at each end is 75 mm
In a shaper a stroke length of more than 900 mm is not ordinarily
30x20o(1+%) available so the work is placed on the table to take a cut of 600 mm plus
_nl_(_l_+_m-'-)
Cutting speed= =------ the clearances.
1,000 1,000
Total length of stroke 600 + 75 + 75 = 750 mm.
30x200x5 750x60
= = 10 m/min. Cutting time = 5 sec.
1,000x3 1,000x9
Feed : Feed (s) is the relative movement of the tool or work in a direction
perpendicular to the axis of reciprocatioh of the ram per double stroke and Return stroke time I
is expressed in mm. The feed is always given at the end of return stroke Cutting stroke time - 4
:. Return time = 5x
1
4 4 =
5
sec.
8
5 25
Total time for one complete double stroke = 5+
4 = 4 sec. PLANING MACHINES
Total number of double strokes necessary to comp lete the cut
900
= =300
3 8.1 INTRODUCTION
25x300 125
:. Total time req uired to complete the c ut
= 4 x 60
=
4 = 31.25 min. The planer like a s hape r i s a machine tool primarily intende� to produce
pl ane and fla t s urfaces by a sing le point cutting tool. A planer 1s very large
and m as sive compared to a shaper and capable of machining heavy
TABLE 7.1 AVERAGE VALUE OF CUTTING SPEED AND FEED
workpieces which cannot be accommodate d on a shaper table . The
Material High !d!.r/2.on ste.r.l High meed s.&.e(JQQJ. C.e.me.a.&.li. !d/_r/2.ide. fundamental difference between a shaper and a plane r is that in a plane r
v v v s. th e work which is supported on the table r eciprocates past the stationary
mm mm mm cutting tool and the feed is supplied by the lateral movement of the tool ,
m/min m/min m/min _
whe rea s in a s hap e r the tool w hich is mo unte d upon the ram recipr ocates
Cast iron 9 1.5 18 2 30 0.125-0.5 and the feed is given by the crosswise movement of the table.
Mild steel 12 1.25 24 1.5 45 0.125-0.5 The planing machine was de veloped by Richard R�berts, an
_ _
Brass 30 I 48 1.25 60 0.25-0.35 Englishman in the year 1817. The d esign and working p nnc1 �le of the
machine, of course, was almost iden tical to the present day machine.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
8.2 TYPES OF PLANING MACHINE
1. Classify and list shapers.
2. What are the advantages of hydraulic shaper over crank shaper ? Different classes of wor k necessitates designing of different types of
Discuss. planing machine to s uit to various re�uirements of our present da�
3. Name different parts of a shaper. Describe them in brief pinpointing in dustry. The differe nt types of planer which are most commonly used are.
their functions.
4. How the size of a shaper is specified? Discuss.
1. Double housing planer.
5. Describe the principle of quick return mechanism as used in shapers.
6. How you can adjust the length of stroke in a shaper? Explain. 2. Open side planer.
7. Describe Whitworth quick return mechanism, used in shapers in brief. 3. Pit planer
8. Name and describe the various work holding devices in shapers. 4. Edge or plate p lane r.
9. What types of operation can be performed in a shaper efficiently 5. Divided table planer.
Describe them in brief.
10. Which way a shaper tool differs from that of a lathe tool? Discuss. Standard or double housing planer : The standard or double ho using
11. In a shaper work the length of stroke is 300 mm, number of double p laner i s most widely used in workshops. A double ho using planer has a
strokes per minute is 40 and the ratio of return time to cutting time is 1 _
long heavy base on which a table reciprocates on accurate gu1deways . �he
: 2. Find the cutting speed. (18 m/min) length of the be d is little over twice the length of th table . Two mas s ive
12. Define speed, feed and depth of cut in a shaper. �
ve rtical housings or uprights are mou nted nea r the middle of the base, one
on each side of the bed. To ensure rigidity of the structure, these two
326 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY PLANING MACHINES 327
housings are connected at the top by a cast iron member. The vertical faces reciprocates past the edge of the plate. The feed and depth of cut is
of the two housings are accurately machined so that the horizontal crossrail adjusted by the tool holder which can be operated from the platfonn.
carrying two toolheads may slide upon it. The toolheads which hold the
tools are mounted upon the crossrail. These tools may be fed either by Divided table planer : This type of planer has two tables on the bed which
hand or by power in crosswise or vertical direction. In addition to these may be reciprocated separately or together. This type of design saves much
toolheads, there are two other toolheads which are mounted upon the of idle time while setting the work. The setting up of a large number of
vertical face of the housing. They can also be moved either in a vertical or identical workpieces on the planing machine table takes quite a long time.
horizontal direction to apply feed. The planer table may be driven either by It may require as much time for setting up as may be necessary for
mechanical or hydraulic devices. machining. To have a continuous production one of the table is used for
setting up the work, while the other reciprocates past the cutting tool
Openside planer : An openside planer has a housing only on one side of finishing the work. When the work on the second table is finished, it is
the base and the crossrail is suspended from the housing as a cantilever. stopped and finished jobs are removed. fresh jobs are now set up on this
This feature of the machine allows large and wide jobs to be clamped on table while the first table holding the jobs now reciprocates past the tool.
the table and reciprocated past the cutting tool. One side of the planer When a heavy and large job has to be machined, both the tables are
being opened, large and wide jobs may project out of the table and clamped together and are given reciprocating movement under the tool.
reciprocate without being interfered by the housing. In a double hou�ing
planer, the maximum width of the job which can be machinell is limited by 8.3 SIZE OF A PI.ANER
the distance between the two housings. As the single housing has to take
up the entire load, it is made extra-massive to resist the forces. Only three The size of a standard planer is specified by the size of the largest
toolheads are mounted on this machine. The constructional and driving rectangular solid that can reciprocate under the tool. The size of the largest
features of the machine are same as that of a double housing planer. solid is known by the distance between the two housings, the height from
the top of the table to the crossrail in its uppermost position, and the
Pit planer : A pit type planer is massive in construction. It differs from an maximum length of table travel. The length of the table always almost
ordinary planer in that the table is stationary and the column carrying the equal to the table travel. Double housing planers range from 750mm x
crossrail reciprocates on massive horizontal rails mounted on both sides of 750mm x 2.5m at the smallest upto 3000mm x 3000mm x 18.25m at the
the table. This type of planer is suitable for machining a very large work largest size. Usually the distance between the housings and the height from
which cannot be accommodated on a standard planer and the design saves the table to the crossrail in its highest position are equal. For this reason a
much of floor space. The length of the bed required in a pit type planer is planer may be roughly specified as 750 mm planer or 3000 mm planer.
little over the length of the table, whereas in a standard planer the length of The size of an openside planer is specified by the size of the largest
the bed is nearly twice the length of the table. The uprights and the job that can be machined on its table. The size of the largest job is
crossrail are made sufficiently rigid to take up the forces while cutting. detennined by the height of the crossrail from the top of the table, the
maximum length of table travel and the planing width. The maximum
Edge or plate planer : The design of a plate or edge planer is totally width of the job that can be -machined is known as the planing width,
unlike that of an ordinary planer. It is specially intended for squaring and which is determined by the distance _from the table side of the column to
bevelling the edges of steel plates used for different pressure vessels and the tool in the outer toolhead in a vertical position. The toolhead extends
ship-building works. One end of a long plate which remains stationary is beyond the table width by nearly 300 mm. Open side planers range from
clamped with the machine frame by a large num �r of air operated clamps. 900 mm x 1200 mm x 2.5 m to 2500 mm x 2800 mm x 18.25 m.
The cutting tool is attached to a carriage \\-htch is supported on two In addition to these basic dimensions, other particulars such as
horizontal ways of the planer on its front '!nd. The operator can stand on a number of speeds and feeds available, power input, floor space required,
platfonn extending from the carriage. The· carriage holding the tool net weight of the machine, type of drive, etc. are required to be stated in
l
order to specify a planer fully.
8.4 PLANING MACHINE PARTS giving cushioning effect. In some machines, if the table overruns, a large
cutting tool bolted to the underside of the table will takt a deep cut on a
A standard double housing planer is illustrated in Fig.8.1. The principle replaceable block attached to the bed, absorbing kinetic energy of the
parts of the planer are moving table.
1. Bed 4. Crossrail
2. Table or platen 5. Housing or column or upright
3. Tool head 6. Driving and feed mechanism
Bed : The bed of a planer is box like casting having cross ribs. It is a very
large in size and heavy in weight and it supports the column and all other
moving parts of the machine. The bed is made slightly longer than twice
the length of the table so that the full length of the table may be moved on
it. It is provided with precision ways over the entire length on its top
surface and the table slides on it. In a standard machine, two V-type of
guideways are provided. Three or more guideways may be provided on
very large wide machine for supporting the table. Some of these
guideways may be flat type to lend support to the table. The guideways
2
should be horizontal, true and parallel to each other. The ways are properly
lubricated and in modern machines oil under pressure is pumped in.to the
different part of the guideways to ensure a continuous and adequate supply
of lubricants. The hollow space within the box like structure of the bed
houses the driving mechanism fonhe table.
Figure 8.1 Standard double housing planer
Table : The table supports the work and reciprocates along the ways of the 1. Trip dog, 2. Table, 3. Bed, 4. Reversing lever, 5. Clapper box, 6. Tool, 7. Tool
bed. The planer table is a heavy rectangular casting and is made of good Post, 8. Hinge pin, 9. Vertical slide, 10. Downfeed screw, 11. Slide, 12. Guideways
quality cast iron. The top face of the planer table is accurately finished in on column face, 13. Feed screw for elevating crossrail, 14. Pawl, 15. Column or
order to locate the work correctly. T-slots are provided on the entire length housing, 16. Rack, 17. Feed gears, 18. Saddle, 19. Feed disc, 20. Table rack, 21.
of the table so that the work and work holding devices may be bolted upon Slide toolhead, 22. Feed screw, 23. Crossrail, 24. Vertical toolheads, 25.
it. Accurate holes are drilled on the top surface of the planer table at Crossmember, 26. Crossrail, elevating handle, 27. Cross elevating screw.
regular intervals for supporting the poppets and stop pins. At each end of
the table a hollow spac.e is left which acts as a trough for collecting chips. Housing : The housings also called columns or uprights are rigid box-like
Long works can also rest upon the troughs. A groove is cut on the side of vertical structures placed on each side of the bed and are fastened to the
the table for clamping planer reversing dogs at different positions. In a sides of the bed. They are heavily ribbed to trace up severe forces due to
standard planer, the table is made up of one single casting but in a divided cutting. The front face of each housing is accurately machined to provide
table planer there are two separate tables mounted upon the bedways. The precision ways on which the crossrail may be made to slide up and down
tables may be reciprocated individually or together. All planers have some for accommodating different heights of work. Two side-toolheads also
form of safety device to prevent thl! heavily loaded table from running slide upon it. The housing encloses the crossrail elevating screw, vertical
away in case of electrical or mechanical failure which otherwise would and crossfeed screws for tool heads, counterbalancing weight for the
have caused severe damage to the machine. Hydraulic bumpers are crossrail, etc. These screws may be operated either by hand or power.
sometimes fitted at the end of the bed to stop the table from overrunning
330 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY PLANING MCHINE 331
Crossrail : Crossrail is a rigid Toolheads are mounted on the crossrail 12 by a saddle 11. The
box-like casting connecting the saddle 11 may be made to move transversely on the crossrail to give
two housings. This crossfeed. The swivel base is pivoted on the saddle and is graduated on
construction ensures rigidity of each side to 60°. The swivel base may be swivelled to any desired angle
the machine. The crossrail may and the down feed screw is rotated to feed the tool at that angle for
be raised or lowered on the machining angular surface. The vertical slide 8 may be fed downwards by
face of the housing and can be rotating the downfeed screw 9 which passes through a nut 6 fixed on the
clamped at any desired swivel base IO. The ap ron 5 is clamped on the face of the vertical slide 8
position by manual, hydraulic by a clamping bolt 4 and may be swivelled upto 20 ° on each side of the
or electrical clamping devices. slide for g iving the tool clearance while machining vertical surface. The
The crossrail when clamped clapper block is hinged at 2 to the clapper box, and it holds the toolpost l
should remain absolutely in which the tool is clamped by straps. During the return stroke the
parallel to the top surface of toolhead is lifted upwards by the clapper block and prevents the tool
the table, i.e. it must be cutting edge from dragging on the work. The toolhead is fed crosswise by
horizontal irrespective of its rotating the crossfeed screw 16 within the crossrail which passes through a
position. This is necessary to nut 15 attached to the saddle. Vertical slide 8 holding the tool may be fed
generate a flat horizontal Figure 8.2 Tool head of a planer up or down by rotating the feed screw 14 within the crossrail and the
surface on a workpiece I. Tool Post, .2. Clapper block hinge pin, 3. motion is transmitted to the downfeed screw through bevel gears 13 and 3.
Bevel gears on down feed screw, 4. Apron
because the tool follows the
clamping bolt, 5. Apron, 6. Nut on swivel
part on the crossrail during base, 7. Downfeed hand wheel, 8. Vertical
8.5 PLANER MECHANISM
crossfeed. The two elevating slide 9. Down feed screw, 10. Swivel base,
screws in the two housing are 11. Saddle, 12. Crossrail, 13. Bevel gears on
The two important mechanisms of a planer are:
rotated by an equal amount to vertical feedshaft, 14. Vertical feed screw,
keep the crossrail horizontal in 15. Cross slide nut, 16. Cross feed screw.
1. Table drive mechanism.
any position. The front face of
2. Feeding mechanism.
the crossrail is accurately machined to provide a guide surface fo'r the
toolhead saddle. Usually two toolheads are mounted upon the crossrail
The different mechanisms used to drive the table arc
which are called railheads. The crossrail has screws for vertical and cross
fe ed of the toolheads and a screw for elevating the rail. These screws may
1. Open and cross belt drive.
be rotated either by hand or by power.
2. Reversible motor drive.
3. Hydraulic drive.
Toolhead : Fig.8.2 illustrates the toolhead of a planer. The toolhead of a
planer is similar to that of a shaper both in construction and operation. The Open and crossbelt drive : The open and crossbelt drive of the table is
important parts of a toolhead are used in a planer of smaller size where the table width is less than 900 mm.
Fig.8.3 illustrates the elevation and sectional plan of the mechanism. The
1. Saddle, 7. Toolpost, sectional plan shows that the gearing arrangement is contained within the
2. Swivel base, 8. Down feed screw, bed. The movement of the table 19 is effected by an open and crossed belt
3. Vertical slide, 9. Apron clamping bolt, drive 6 and 7 which run on the pulleys 9,10,11, and 12. The outer pulleys 9
4. Apron, 10. Apron swivelling pin, and J 2 run loosely and the inner pulleys JO and 11 are tight on the shaft
5. Clapper box, 11 . Mechanism for cross and 22.
6. Clapper block, downfeed of the tool.
The countershaft 3 mounted belt gives greater power and the speed is reduced as the belt connects
upon the housings receives its smaller pulley 4 on the shaft 3 to larger pulley 11 on the shaft 22. At the
motion from an overhead line end of the forward cutting stroke, the trip dog mounted on the side of the
shaft. By shifting the belt from planer table operates a belt shifter 8 through a lever arrangement 17, so
the fast to the loose pulley 2 to that the crossed belt 7 may be shifted from the driving pulley I J to the
I or vice-versa, the shaft 3 or loose pulley 12, and the open belt 6 may be shifted from the loose pulley
the machine may be started or 9, to the fast pulley JO. The motion is now transmitted from the large
stopped when required. pulley 5 on shaft 3 to the fast pulley JO on shaft 22 and no motion is now
Mounted upon the shaft 3 are transmitted by the crossed belt 7 to the shaft 22. When the shaft 22 will
two pulleys 4 and 5 of different receive motion from the open belt 6, the direction of rotation of the shaft
diameters which are keyed to 22 will be reversed and the table 19 will start moving to perform return
the shaft 3. The crossed belt 7 stroke. The speed during return stroke will increase as the open belt 6
connects the smaller diameter connects larger diameter pulley 5 on shaft 3 with the smaller diameter
pulley 4 on shaft 3 with the pulley JO on shaft 22 and quick return motion will thus be obtained. At the
larger diameter pulley I I end of the return stroke, a second trip dog will hit against the belt shifter
which is keyed on the shaft 22 lever I 7 causing the crossed belt 7 to be shifted on pulley I 1 and the open
and the open belt 6 connects belt 6 on pulley 9 and to repeat the cycle of cutting and return stroke. The
the larger diameter pulley 5 on length and position of stroke may be adjusted by shifting the p.Q1,ition of
shaft 3 with the smaller dogs 18.
diameter pulley 9 which is
loose on the shaft 22. If the Table drive by reversible motor : All modern planers are equipped with
shaft 3 rotates the motion will variable speed electric motor which drives the bullgear through a train of
be transmitted to the shaft 22 gearing. Fig.8.5 illustrates the electrical circuit layout for driving a
through pulley I I which is held reversible motor of a planer. The
- 1
fast on the shaft 22. No motion most efficient method of an electrical
Figure 8.3 Quick return
will be transmitted by the open drive is based on Ward Leonard
mechanism of a planer by open and
belt 6 to the shaft 22 as it runs system which comprises four
�o
crossbelt
on the loose pulley 9. Motion electrical machines. The usual supply
1. Loose pulley, 2. Fast pulley, 3.
-/
of the shaft 22 is transmitted Countershaft, 4, 5. Pulleys on shaft, 3, 6. being A.C. the power is taken from \
through a train of gearing 20, Open belt, 7. Cross belt 8. Belt shifter, 9. A.C . mains to drive an A.C. motor 2 ' '-... -
21 and 24 to the bull gear 14 Loose pulley, 10. Fast pulley, II. Fast which is coupled with a D.C . Figure 8.4 Planer table drive
mounted on the shaft 13. The pulley, 12. Loose pulley, 13. Bull gear shaft, generator 3 and a D.C. exciter I on 1. Table
gear 14 meshes with a rack 15 14. Bullgear, 15. Rack, 16. Feed disc, 17. the same shaft. A D.C. variable speed
cut at the underside of the table Belt shifter lever, 18. Trip dog, 19. Table, reversible motor 4 is coupled with the planer table drive gearing and
/9 and the table will receive a 20, 21. Change gears, 22. Shaft, for pulleys, receives power from the D.C. generator 3. The field current for the
9, 10, 11 and 12, 23. Intermediate shaft, 24.
linear movement. Fig.8.4 generator and the reversible motor is supplied by the exciter /. To start the
Intermediate gear.
illustrates meshing of the machine, the motor generator set is started and the generator 3 supplies
bullgear with table rack. power to the reversible motor 4 which causes the table of the planer to
During cutting stroke, greater power and less speed is required. The move in a particular direction. At the end of the stroke a trip dog operates a
crossed belt giving a greater arc of contact on the pulleys I I and 4, is used switch 7, which reverses the field curreqt in the generator 3 so that the
to drive the table on the cutting stroke. The greater arc of contact of the polarity of the armature current in the reversible motor 4 is reversed, while
the motor field circuit Hydraulic drive : The mechanism for hydraulic drive of a shaper may be
continues to receive used in a planer with certain modifications. In a planing machine, the high
current from the exciter at 2 3 4 5 speed required during cutting and return stroke posses the main problem
the same polarity. This 6 and the pipe line becomes very much stressed duri'ng the time of reversal.
causes the motor 4 to rotate / Moreover a very long stroke is required in a planer. In some machines
in the opposite direction more than one cylinder is used to eliminate this difficulty. The principle of
causing the planer table to reciprocating movement is otherwise same as that of a shaper.
reverse. The speed during
cutting stroke may be made Feed mechanism : In a planer the feed is provided intermittently and at
slower than the return the end of the return stroke similar to a shaping machine. The feed of a
stroke by regulating the planer, both downfeed and crossfeed, is given by the tool. The crossfeed is
field current of the given while machining horizontal surface on a work mounted on the table.
generator · and the The tool which is clamped on the toolhead slides on the crossrail by a
reversible motor with the Figure 8.5 Quick return mechanism predetermined amount at the end of each return stroke of the table to give
help of resistances 5 and 8 of a planer by a reversible motor the necessary crossfeed. The down feed is applied while machining a
I. Exciter, 2. A. C. driving motor, 3. Generator.
placed in series with the vertical or angular surface by rotating the downfced screw of the toolhead.
4. Reversible motor, 5. Motor field resistance.
field circuits. The return 6. Motor field, 7. Reversing switch, 8. Both the down and crossfecd may be operated either by hand or power by
speed may be increased by Generator field. rotating two feed screws, 14 and 16
weakening the motor field shown in Fig.8.2, contained within
during return stroke. the crossrail. The power feed may be
applied by the following methods
There are two general methods of driving the table rack
1. By friction disc.
1. Through a train of gearing to the bull gear engaging the rack. 2. By electrical drive.
2. By a worm mounted on the motor spindle which meshes with
the rack at an angle. Feed mechanism by friction disc :
The major difference between the
Advantages of electrical drive : The electrical drive has certain feed mechanism of a shaper and a
distinct advantages over a belt driven planer. They are as follows planer is that in a shaper when the Figure 8.6 Sectional view of a
bull gear rotates through one
feed disc
1. There is very little chance of any accident as the net driving complete revolution, ttie ram holding 1. Block, 2. Bolt, 3. Projecting pin, 4.
arrangement is eliminated. the tool completes one forward Flange on shaft 5, 5. Shaft, 6. Leather
2. Large number of cutting speeds and return speeds are available. cutting stroke and. one return stoke, washer, 16. Feed disc, 15. Connecting
3. Control is quick and accurate. Push button controls the start, and by a ratchet and pawl rod.
stop and inching movement of the machine. mechanism half of the revolution of
4. Return speed can be greatly increased reducing idle time. the bull gear is used to impart feed movement. During the other half no
5. During the end of each stroke the table is brought to rest by feed movement is given. But in a planer as the length of stroke of the table
regenerative braking, the driving motor acting as generator is quite Jong, the bull gear will make a large number of revolutions in the
absorbing kinetic energy of the mechanical parts and returning forward cutting stroke and the same number of revolutions in the return
back some of the power to the mains. stroke. By friction feed disc, only part of the revolution of the bull gear is
PLANING MACHINES 337
the gear 11 will rotate through a
used to operate the feed gearing at the end of the return stroke, and during part of the revolution in one
the rest of the period, the feed mechanism remains inoperative. direction only during a complete
double stroke of the table and it
In Fig.8.3 the feed motion is transmitted from the soft 23 to the may be so arranged that the gear
feed disc 16. The sectional view of the feed disc is shown in Fig.8.6. The 11 will operate during the
feed disc consists of two parts having a cylindrical opening which encloses beginning of cutting stroke only.
the flange 4 connected to the shaft 5 which is the shaft 23 shown in Gear 11 may be made to' mesh
Fig.8.3. Leather washers 6 are placed between the flange 4 and disc with two sliding gears 5 and 8
openings and the bolts 2 are then tightened. A flexible connection is now mounted upon the two feed shafts
made between the shaft 5 and the feed disc 16 through leather washers 6. 4 and 7. 7 is the down feed shaft
Fig.8.7 illustrates the end view of the feed disc showing the driving and 4 is the crossfeed shaft
mechanism of the feed screws. A T-slot is cut radially on the face of the contained within the crossrail.
feed disc 16 within which a block 1 is fitted. By rotating the knurled knob \ Feed motion is imparted to the
18 the position of the block 1 with respect to the center may be changed. A I tool heads by rotating these feed
pin 3 connected to the driving disc 16 extends beyond the disc body. When shafts separately or together.
the shaft 5 or 23 starts rotating during forward cutting stroke, the motion is The direction of feed
transmitted to the disc 16 by the flange 4 shown in Fig. 8.6 and the disc /6 movement may be reversed by
starts rotating. The motion of the disc 16 is limited by the projecting pin 3 changing the position of double
hitting against a fixed pin /7 fitted upon the machine frame. Thus when pawl 10.
the disc 16 rotates through a part of the revolution, the flange 4 connected Amount of feed
to the shaft 5 6r 23 continues to rotate within the disc /6 slipping over the movement may be varied by
leather washers 6 throughout the cutting stroke. When the table is reversed shifting the position of block 1
and the shaft 5 starts rotating in the opposite direction the disc 16 rotates with respect to the centre. Feed is
through the same part of the revolution in the opposite direction due to the increased when the block is
pin 3 hitting against a second fixed pin mounted upon the machine frame. shifted away from the centre. The
Figure 8.7 Feed disc and
Thus when the planer table reciprocates, the disc 16 rotates through a part stroke length of the rack is
automatic feed mechanism
1. Block, 2. Threaded shaft, 3. Projecting
of the revolution in one direction at the beginning of cutting stroke and increased due to the greater throw
pin, 4. Cross feed shaft, 5. Gear on
again it rotates through the same part of the revolution in the opposite of eccentricity of the block 1 and crossft,ed shaft, 6. Saddle, 7. Down feed
direction at the beginning of return stroke. This rotary movement of the the two gears 8 and 5 ultimately shaft, 8. Gear on downfeed shaft, 9, 11.
disc 16 is transmitted to the rack 14 through the connecting rod I 5 and a rotate through a greater amount. Gears on shaft 12, 10. Double pawl, 12.
pinion mounted upon the shaft /2 which meshes 'with the rack receives Pinion shaft, 13. Guide, 14. Rack, 15.
rotary movement. Gears 9 and / / are mounted upon the shaft 12 in which Electrical feed movement : -Connecting rod, 16. Feed disc 17. Fixed
9 is keyed to the shaft 12 and I I is free. A double pawl JO is pinned on the Modern planers which are pin, 18. Knurled knob.
face of the gear 11 and any one end of the pawl may be pushed into the equipped with electrical drive use
tooth space of the gear 9. When the left hand end of the pawl is pushed a separate motor to operate the feed mechanism. The motor is energized
within the gear 9, the upward moyement of the rack 14 will cause the gear simultaneously with the table reversing mechanism and rotates through a
9 to rotate in the clockwise direction and the motion is communicated to definite part of revolution. The revolution of the motor may be half or one
the gear 11 through the pawl JO and gear 11 will rotate in the clockwise revolution only. At the appropriate time, the electrical control trips off the
direction. When the rack will be moving downward, the gear 9 will rotate supply of electrical current and the motor is stopped by dynamic braking.
in the anticlockwise direction and no motion will be transO?itted to the gea_s.
11 as the bevel edge of the pawl 10 will slip over the teeth of gear 9. Thus
8.6 WORK HOLDING DEVICES
A planer ,vise is much
A planer table is used to hold very large, heavy and intricate jobs, and in more robust in construction
many cases, large number of identical pieces together. Setting up of !he than a shaper vise as it is used
work on a planer table requires sufficient amount of skill. The following for holding comparatively
three points are very carefully considered to hold the work correctly on a larger sizes of work. The vise
planer table. may be plain or swivelled
base type. The work is
I. The work should be rigidly connected to the table so that it may clamped between tlic fixed
not be shifted out of its position while cutting activity and movable jaws. The
progresses. movable jaw is rigidly bolted
2. Proper clamping should be done all round the work, but undue to the base of the vise after the Figure 8.8 Clamping large work on a
clamping pressure should not be applied to cause distortion of work has been set. Most of the planer table
the work. The work may spring back when the clamps are workpieces are clamped I.Clamp
removed resulting inaccuracy in the machined surface. directly on the table by T 2
3. The work should be so held that the surface planed should ho/ts and· clamps. Different
remain in proper position with other surfaces. types of clamps are used for
different types of work.
The work may be held on a planing machine table by the following Fig.8.8 illustrates the method
methods: of clamping a large work on a
planing machine table.
1. By standard clamping. Stepblocks are used to lend Figure 8.9 Use of planer jack
2. By special fixtures. support to the other end of the I. Jack, 2. Work, 3. Angleplate, 4. Clamp, 5.
Fulcrum block.
clamp. Workpieces of
Standard clamping devices : The standard clamping devices are used for different heights may be
holding most of the work on a planer table. The devices are as follows supported by using different
steps of the step blocks. Angle
1. Heavy duty vises. plates are used for holding l
2. T-bolts and clamps. shaped work or job which
3. Stepblocks, clamps and T-bolts. cannot be conveniently held
4. Poppcts or stop pins and toe dogs. on a planer table directly.
5. Angle plates. Planer jacks are used for
6. Planer jacks. supporting the overhanging Figure 8.10 Use of V-block
7. Plancr centres. 1. Work, 2. Clamp, 3. V-block, 4. T-bolt
part of a work to prevent it
8. Stops. from bending. Fig.8.9
9. V-blocks. illustrates the use of a planer jack. Planer centres are u�ed for holding
work between two centres and cutting grooves and slots on the work.
Most of them have been described in Art.5.14 and Art.7.6. Indexing and gear cutting can also be d6nc by using the device. Stops are
However, the special features which arc useful in connection with the used to prevent the work from moving endwise or sideways under the
planing machine are described hereunder. thrust of the cut. Poppers and toe dogs are used for holding thin pieces of
work on a planer table. V-blocks illustrates in Fig.8.10 are used for holding
round work.
Special fixtures : Special fixtures are used for holding a large number of perpendicular to the planer table and the apron is swivelled in a direction
identical pieces of work on a planer table. Fixtures are specially designed so that the tool will swing clear out of the machined surface during the
for holding a particular type of a work. By using a fixture the seVing time return stroke. The downfeed is given by rotating the downfeed screw. The
may be reduced considerably compared to the individual setting of work tool setting is similar to that shown in Fig.7.20.
by conventional clamping devices. Fig.8.11 illustrates the use of a fixture.
}?s 7§, ),\ ;( c�

Planing angular
surface For
dovetail work,
cutting V-
L_ I grooves, etc. the
Figure 8.11 Use of a fixture tool head is
I. Tie rod nut, 2. Work, 3. Fixture, 4. Tie rod swivelled to the
required angle
8.7 PLANER OPERATIONS and the apron is
then further
Operations performed in a planer are similar to that of a shaper. The only swivelled away
difference is that a planer is specially designed for planing large work, from the work to
whereas a shaper can machine only small work. The common types of give relief to the
work machined in a planer are : the bases and tables of all kinds of tool cutting edge
machine tools, large structures, frames of different engines and identical during the return
pieces of work which may be small in size but large in number. The stroke. By rotat
common operations performed in planer are ing the downfeed
screw the tool is
1. Planing flat horizontal surfaces. fed at an angle to
2. Planing vertical surfaces. the planer table.
3. Planing at an angle and machining dovetails. The tool setting is Figure 8.12 Planing concave surface
similar to that 1. Toolhcad, 2. Bracket, 3. Radius arm 4. Vertical slide.
4. Planing cuived surfaces.
5. Planing slots and grooves. shown in Fig.7.21.
Planing horizontal surfaces : While machining horizontal surface, the Planing formed surface: Fig.8.12 illustrates a simple method of planing a
work is given a reciprocating movement along with the table and the tool concave surface with the aid of a special fixture consisting of a radius arm
is fed crosswise to complete the cut. Both the railheads may be used for 3 and a bracket 2. The bracket is connected to the cross member attached
simultaneous removal of the metal from two cutting edges. The work is to the two housings. One end of tho radius arm 3 is pivoted on the bracket
supported properly on the table; proper planning tool is selected; the depth and the other end to the vertical slide 4 of the toolhead. The downfeed
of cut, speed and feed are adjusted and the work is finished to the required screw of the toolhead is removed. While planing, the crossrail and the tool
dimension by taking roughing and finishing cuts. The tool setting is similar which causes the saddle to traverse the crossrail and the tool which is
to that shown in Fig.7.19. guided by the radius arm 3 planes a concave surface. The radius of
concave surface is dependent upon the length of the radius arm.
Planing vertical surface : The vertical surface of a work is planed by
adjusting the saddle horizontally along the crossrail until the tool is in a Planing slots or grooves : Slots or grooves are cut by using slotting tools.
position to give the required depth of cut. The vertical slide is adjusted The operation is similar to that of a shaper.

Feed : The feed in planing machine is
Q.
the distance the tool head travels at the
8.8 PLANER TOOLS beginning of each cutting stroke
{1
expressed in mm per double stroke.
The cutting tools used on planers are all single point cutting tools. They are
in general similar in shapes and tool angles to those used on a lathe and
Depth of cut : It is the thickness of
shaping machine. As a planer tool has to take up hea�y cut and co�rse feed
metal removed in one cut and is
[}' 1,
d�ring a long cutting stroke, the tools are made heavier and larger m cross
measured by the perpendicular distance
scction.
between the machined and nonmachined
Planer tools may be solid, forged type or bit type. Bits are made of
surface expressed in mm.
high speed steel, stellite or cemented carbide and they �ay be brazed, Figure 8.15 Square nose
_
welded or clamped on a mild steel shank. Cemented carbide tipped tools roughing tool for facing
8.10 MACHINING TIME
arc used for production work. A planer tool may also be classified as right
hand or left hand and roughing or finishing. The typical tools used in a
If the cutting speed, feed, length of
planer are :
cutting stroke, breadth of the job and
number of double strokes per minute for
1. Right hand round nosed roughing tool for cast iron (Fig.8.13).
a planer operation arc known, the
2. Right hand round nosed roughing tool for steel (Fig.8.14).
machining time required for one
3. Square nosed side-facing roughing tool for cast iron (Fig.8.15)
complete cut may be calculated by using
4. Gooseneck finishing tool for cast iron and steel (Fig.8.16). Figure 8.16 Goose neck
the formula given in Art.7.10.
5. Left hand dovetail end cutting roughing tool for cast iron finishing tool
The ratio of cutting time to return
(Fig.8.17).
time usually varies from 2:1 to 4:1.
The Table 8.1 gives the average
Round nose tool may be fed from
values of cutting speed, feed and depth
left to the right or vice versa. The tool has
of cut for different tool materials.
no side rake. Right hand round nosed
roughing tool is used for planning from
8.11 SHAPER VERSUS PLANER
right to the left. Square nosed roughing tool
is used for making sharp comers.
Shaper and planer are both reciprocating
Gooseneck tool is used to prevent the tool Figure 8.17 Left hand
machine tools and both of them are
cutting edge from digging into the work. Figure 8.13 Right hand dovetail end cutting tool
primarily intended to produce flat
Dovetail cutting tool is used for cutting round nose roughing tool
surface, but they differ very much in constr�ction, operation and use. The
sharp angles. for cast iro·n following are the main differences
U
8.9 CUITING SPEED, FEED AND DEPTH OF CUT
1. The relative movement between the tool and the work is
different in a shaper and a planer. In a planer, the work is
Cutting speed : As in a shaper, the cutting mounted on a table which reciprocates while the tool is held
speed of a planer is the rate at which the
_j_ rigid on the li'".chine frame and fed into the work. In a shaper,
ff'
metal is removed during the forward 8 the tool is held on a ram which reciprocates and the work which
cutting stroke. The formula (7.4) holds �· 20'
0-
I is mounted on the table remains stationary and provides the
good for a planer also. This is expressed in
feed.
m/min. Figure 8.14 Right hand
round nose roughing tool
for steel
2. Planers are machines capable of holding big jobs, whereas
shapers are intended for small jobs. The maximum size of work movement, he should not make any adjustment except setting table speed
that a standard shaper can accommodate is 900 mm cube (900 and cutting speeds. Further a planer processes quite large and heavy
mm x 900 mm x 900 mm) whereas a modem planer can workpieces. Handling large parts is difficult and often damaging unless
accommodate work as large as 3000 mm x 3000 mm x 18.25 m. suitable precautions are followed. Some of the other precautions are listed
3. In a planer, the tool is rigidly supported when the work moves hereunder.
on precision ways and maximum accuracy on the machine
surface is assured. In a shaper, due to the overhanging of the I. Protect the machine table from burrs and irregularities of the
ram during the cutting stroke, and the machine being not very workpieces. Leveling of machine tables should of the
robust, the accuracy cannot be expected upto the mark. maintained properly.
4. High rate of power consumption and overall rigidity in a planer 2. Use of crane in fixing the workpiece should be done carefully.
enables it to take deep cuts and apply heavy feed to rough finish The operator must attach a clamps and a sling before the part is
a job quickly. A planer can consume upto 150 h.p. whereas a picked up by the crane.
shaper can consume 15 to 20 h.p. 3. For the surfacing work the tool head is set vertically.
5. A planer is not suitable for machining relatively small, and Appropriate tests should be carried out for the same.
medium size work one or few at a time that a shaper can do, but 4. The depth of the cu and the feed rate are always dependent on
a planer is more economical and faster when large quantities are materials of tool and workpiece. It should not be set at a high
machined. A large number of jobs of Identical shapes car, be value just because the planner is a powerful machine tool.
machined in one setting on a planer table. 5. Safety clutch must be provided for feed and power rapid
6. Multiple tooling with double or four toolheads in a planer traverse, to provent breakage in the event the table should run
makes it possible to machine more that one surface together, against an obstruction.
thus reducing cutting time. 6. Use of vertical power rapid traverse for feeding the table should
7. Cutting and return speed of a planer are almost uniform never be allowed.
throughout the stroke. But in a shaping machine, particularly in
TABLE 8.1 CUTTING SPEED, FEED AND DEPTH OF CUT IN A
a crank driven shaper, the speed varies throughout the length of PLANER
the stroke.
8. In a planing machine, work setting requires much of skill and Work material Casi iron Casi· iron Slee/ Bronze Aluminium
takes a long time, whereas in a shaper the work may be clamped soft medium average
easily and quickly. v m.p.m. 15-27.5 11-21 9-23 38-46 46-61
9. Tools used in a planer are much more robust than that used in a
h.s.s s mm 0.8-3.1 0.8-3.1 0.8-3.1 0.8-2.4 0.8-2.4
shaper.
t mm 3-25 3-25 3-25 3-12 3-12
10. In modern planers wide range of cutting and return speeds are
available and they may be changed independently. v m.p.m. 27.5-48 23-38 14-32 m.t.s. m.t.s.
11. Planers are heavier, larger, and costlier machines compared to S1el/ite s mm 0.8-3.1 0.8-3.1 0.8·3.1 0.8-3.1 0.8-3.1
shapers. t mm 3-25 3-25 3-i5 3-25 3-25
.
Cemented v m.p.m. 42-77 33-62 36-82 m.t.s. m.t.s.
8.12 SAFETY ON THE PlANER Carbide s mm 0.8-1.6 0.8-1.6 0.8-1.6 0.8-1.6 0.8-1.6
t mm 1.5-19 1.5-19 1.5-19 1.5-19 1.5-19
Planer is a very powerful machine tool having a heavy fast moving table.
m.t.s. - maximum table speed.
Unless the operator is very careful in operating the machine he get caught
between the workpiece and machine parts. During machine table
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the fundamental difference between a planner and a shaper ?

9
List different types of planners.
2. How the size of a planer is specified ? Describe. SLOTTING MACHINES
3. List and describe in brief the main parts of a planer.
4. List various mechanism for table drive in shaper. Describe one with
simple sketch.
5. Wtiat are the various feed mechanism in a shaper ? Describe one in 9.1 INTRODUCTION
brief:
6. List the various work holding devices in planer indicating special The slotting machine falls under the category of reciprocating type of
features if any. machine tool similar to a shaper or a planer. It operates almost on the same
7. What types of operations can be performed efficiently by a planer? List principle as that of a shaper. The major difference between a slotter and
and explain. shaper is that in a slotter the ram holding the tool reciprocates in a vertical
8. Sketch various planer tool indicating applications. axis, whereas in a shaper the ram holding the tool reciprocates in a
9. List at least five differences between a planer and a shaper.
horizontal axis. A vertical shaper and a slotter are almost similar to each
other as regards to their construction, operation, and use. The only
difference being, in the case of a vertical shaper, the ram holding the tool
may also reciprocate at an angle to the horizontal table in addition to the
vertical stroke. The ram can be swivelled not more than 5 ° to the vertical.
The slotter is used for cutting grooves, keyways and slots of various
shapes, for making regular and irregular surfaces both internal and
external, for handling large and awkward workpieces, for cutting internal
or external gears and many other operations which cannot be conveniently
machined in any other machine tool described before. The slotting
machine was developed by Brunel in the year 1800 much earlier than a
shaper was invented.
9.2 TYPES OF SLOTTING MACHINE
There are mainly two classes of slottcr :
1. Puncher slotter 2. Precision slotter
Puncher slotter: The puncher slotter is a heavy, rigid machine designed

for removal of large amount of metal from large forging or castings. The
length of a puncher slotter is sufficiently large. It may be as long as 1800
to 2000 mm. The puncher slotter ram is usually driven by a spiral pinion
meshing with the rack teeth cut on the underside of the ram. The pinion is
driven by a variable speed reversible electric motor similar to that of a
planer. The feed is also controlled by electrical gears.
SLOTTING MACHINES 349
accurately finished to provide guideways for the cross-slide. These
Precision slotter : The precision slotter is a lighter machine and is guideways are perpendicular to the guideways on the base.
operated at high speeds. The machine is designed to take light cuts giving
accurate finish. Using special jigs, the machine can handle a number of
identical works on a production basis. The precision machines are also
used for general purpose work and are usually fitted with Whitworth quick 9
return mechanism.
12
9.3 SWITER SIZE
The size of a slotter like that of a shaper is specified by the maximum 13

length of stroke of the ram, expressed in mm. The size of a general
purpose or precision slotter usually ranges from 80 to 900 mm. To specify
a slotter correctly the diameter of the table in mm, amount of cross and 8
longitudinal travel of the table expressed in mm, number of speeds and
feeds available, h.p. of the motor, floor space required, etc. should also be
stated.
14
9.4 SWITING MACHINE PARTS
Fig.9.1 illustrates a slotting machine. The different parts of a slotting

machine are :
1. Base. 5. Rotating table. 16

2. Column. 6. Ram and toolhead assembly.
3. Saddle. 7. Ram drive mechanism.
4. Cross-slide. 8. Feed mechanism.
Base or bed : The base is rigidly built to take up all the cutting forces and
entire load of the machine. The top of the bed is accurately finished to
provide guideways on which the saddle is mounted. The guideways are
perpendicular lo the column face.
Figure 9.1 Slotting machine
Column : The column is the vertical member which is cast integral with 1. Base, 2. Feed gear, 3. Cross-slide, 4. Table, 5. Crossfeed handle, 6.
Longitudinal feed handle, 7. Circular feed handle, 8. Tool, 9. Ram, 10. Crank
the base and houses driving mechanism of the ram and feeding
mechanism. The front vertical face of the column is accurately finished for disc, 11. Lever for conterbalance weight, 12. Bull gear, 13. Cone pulley, 14.
providing ways on which the ram reciprocates. Column, 15. Feed shaft, 16. Pawl actuating crank.
Saddle : The saddle is mounted upon the guideways and may be moved Cross-slide : The cross-slide is mounted upon the guideways of the saddle
toward or away from the column either by power or manual control to and may be moved parallel to the face of the column. The movement of
supply longitudinal feed to the work. The top face of the saddle is the slide may be controlled either by hand or power to supply crossfeed.
Rotary table : The rotary table is a circular table which is mounted on the
top of the cross-slide. The table may be rotated by rotating a worm which driving plate 8 is transmitted to the disc 5 which is attached to the end of
_
mes�es with a worm gear connected to the underside of the table. The the shaft 6. A radial T-slot is cut on the face of the disc 5. The position of
rotat1 ?n of the table may be effected either by hand or power. In some the pin fitted within the T-slot may be altered with respect to the center of
machines the table is graduated in degrees that enables the table to be ,he disc 5 and then clamped at one end of the connecting rod. The other
rotated for indexing or dividing the periphery of a job in equal number of end of the connecting rod is attached to the ram I by a clamping bolt 2.
p�rts. T-slots are cut on the top face of the table for holding the work by the rotation of the disc 5 is converted into reciprocating movement of the
different clamping devices. The rotary table enables a circular or contoured ram by the connecting rod and the pin eccentrically mounted on the disc 5.
surface to be generated on the workpiece.
Ram and toolhead assembly : The ram is the reciprocating member of the
_
'.11achine mounted on the guideways of the column. It supports the tool at
its bo'.tom end on a toolhead. A slo! is cut on the body of the ram for
changing the position of stroke. In some machines, special type of
toolholders are provided to relieve the tool during its return stroke.
Ra � drive mechanism : A slotter removes metal during downward

cutting stroke only whereas during upward return stroke no metal is
removed. To reduce the idle return time, quick return mechanism is
incorporated i� the machine. The usual types of ram drive mechanisms are
8
1. Whitworth quick return mechanism.
2. Variable speed reversible motor drive mechanism.
3. Hydraulic drive mechanism.
Whitw�rth quick re turn mechanism : The Whitworth quick return

. .
m�c�an1sm is most widely used in a medium sized slotting machine for Figure 9.2 Whitworth quick return mechanism
driving the ram. The mechanism which has been explained in Art. 7.5 is
1. Ram, 2. Connecting rod clamping bolt, 3. Pivot, 4. Counter balance weight, 5.
slightly modified in the case of a slotter. As shown in Fig.9.2, the bullgear
Crank disc, 6. Driving shaft, 7. Bull gear, 8. Driving plate, 9. Fixed hub, 10.
7 l�cat�d at the back of the machine receives its motion from the pinion 11
. Crankpin with slide block, 11. Driving pinion.
which is driven by an electric motor. The gear 7 is mounted on a fixed pin
or hub 9 attached to the machine frame. The driving plate 8 is mounted on
The principle of quick return mechanism can be understood from
the sha ft 6 wh !ch passes through the fixed hub 9. The shaft 6 is placed
_ the line diagram shown in Fig. 9.3. A and B are the fixed centers of the
eccentrically with respect to the bullgear centre. A crank pin is mounted on
bull gear 7 and the driving plate 8 as shown in the Fig.9.2. The crank pin
the face of the bullgear which holds a slide block JO. The slide block JO is
and the slide block 4 rotate in a circular path at a constant speed, rotating
fitted within a radial slot provided at the innerside of the driving plate 8.
the plate 8 about B. This causes the driving disc 5 attached to the shaft 6 to
As the bullgear rotates, the crank pin and the slide block 10 rotate in a
rotate. The pin 3 on the disc rotates in a circular path about the fixed point
circular path, but owing to the eccentricity of the bullgear and the driving
_ B. The length of the ram is equal to twice the throw of eccentricity, which
plate 8, the slide block 10 rotates and slides within the slot of the driving
is equal to 2x3B. From the diagram 9.3 it is clear that when the block 4 is
plate imparting it and the shaft 6 rotary movement. The rotation of the
in the position C, the ram is at the maximum upward position of the stroke
and when it is at D, the maximum downward position of the ram has been
352 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY SLOTTING MACHINES 353
reached. Thus if the bullgear rotates in anti clockwise direction, when the The hydraulic drive is adapted in machines used in precision or
block 4 rotates through an angle CAD, the downward cutting stroke is tool-room work. In a hydraulic drive, the vibration is minimized resulting
perfonned, whereas when the block rotates through an angle DAC, the \ improved surface finish.
return stroke completed. As the block 4 rotates at a constant speed the
rotation of the crank pin through an angle CAD during the cutting stroke Feed mechanism : In a slotter, the feed is given by the table. A slotting
takes longer time than rotation through an angle DAC during the return machine table may have three types of feed movements
stroke. Thus the quick return motion is obtained. The cutting time and
return time is related by the fonnula : 1. Longitudinal 2. Cross 3. Circular
A If the table is fed perpendicular to the column toward or away from
Cutting time CAD
its face, the feed movement is termed as longitudinal.
Return time If the table is fed parallel to the face of the column the feed
A
DAC movement is tenned as cross.
If the table is rotated on a vertical axis, the feed movement is
The length of stroke of the 3 termed as circular.
ram can be varied by altering the Like a shaper or a planer, the feed movement of a slotter is
position of pin 3 with respect to the intermittent and supplied at the beginning of the cutting stroke. The feed
center B, i.e. the center of the disc movement may by supplied either by hand or power. The hand feed is
5. Further the position of the pin 3 supplied by rotating the individual feed screws.
with respect to the disc center, The power feed
greater will be the throw of ... mechanism is shown in Fig.9.4.
eccentricity and longer will be the A cam groove 1 is cut on the
stroke length. face of the bull gear in which a
The position of stroke of the roller 2 slides. As the bull gear
ram be adjusted by releasing the nut rotates, the roller attached to a
2 and then by altering the position Figure 9.3 Line diagram of lever 3 follows the contour of the
of the connecting rod clamping bolt Whitworth quick return cam groove and moves up and
within the slot provided on the mechanism down only during a very small
body of the ram. After setting the I. Ram, 2. Connecting rod, 3. Crankpin part of revolution of the bull
position, the nut is tightened again. on disc ··5", 4. Slide block and crankpin gear. The cam groove may be so
As the ram moves in a on driving plate, A. Bull gear centre cut that the movement of the
vertical axis, the weight of the ram B. Drivin� plate centre lever 3 will take place only at the
beginning of the cutting stroke. 7
is counterbalanced by a weight 4 attached to the back of the ram and is
pivoted at a point 3. This results even and jerk free movement of the ram Fig.9.5 shows the cam groove
cut on a bull gear. The rocking 8
in cutting and return stroke.
movement of the lever 3 is
transmitted to the ratchet and Figure 9.4 Power feed mechanism
Electrical and hydraulic drive : Large machines are driven by variable I. Cam groove on bull gear, 2. Roller,
voltage reversible motor. The drive is similar to that described in Art.7. 5. pawl mechanism 6 and 8-;so that
the ratcb.et 8 will move in one 3. Lever, 4. Feed adjustment pin,
direction only during this short 5. Connecting rod, 6. Pawl, 7. Pawl lever,
period of time. The ratchet wheel 8. Ratchet wheel.
\
surface parallel to the first machined surface can be completed without
disturbing the setting by simply rotating the table through 180 ° and
is mounted on a feed shaft which may be engaged with cross, longitudinal
or rotary feed screws individually or together to impart power feed \ adjusting the position of the saddle. A surface perpendicular to the first
machined surface may be completed by rotating the table by 90 ° and
movement to the table. adjusting the position of the saddle and crosslide.
9.5 WORK HOLDING DEVICES 1
Machining circular surfaces : The external and internal surface of a
cylinder can also be machined in a slotting machine. The work is placed
The work is held on a slotter centrally on the rotary table and packing pieces and clamps are to hold the
table by a vise, T-bolts and work securely on the table. The tool is set radially on the work and
clamps or by special fixtures. necessary adjustments of the machine and the tool are made. The saddle is
T-bolts and clamps are used clamped in its position and the machine is started. While machining, the
for holding most of the work
feeding is done by the rotary table feed screw which rotates the table
on the table. Before clamping,
through a small arc at the beginning of each cutting stroke.
pieces are placed below the
work so as to allow the tool to
Machining irregular surfaces or
complete the cut without
cams : The work is set on the
touching the table. Fixtures table and necessary adjustments
are used for holding repetitive Figure 9.5 Cam groove on bull gear of the tool and the machine are
work. 1. Cam groove, 2. Roller. made as detailed in other
operations. By combining cross,
9.6 SLOITER OPERATIONS
longitudinal and rotary feed
movements of the table any
The operations performed. in a slotter are contoured surface be
can Figure 9.6 Slotter tool angles
machined on a workpiece. a. Top rake angle, y. Front clearance angle.
1. Machining flat surface.
2. Machining cylindrical surface.
Machining grooves or keyways :
3. Machining irregular surface and cam machining. Internal and external grooves are cut very conveniently on a slotting
4. Machining slots, keyways and grooves. machine. A slotter is specially intended for cutting internal grooves which
are difficult to produce in other machines. External or internal gear teeth
Machining flat surfaces : The external and internal flat surfaces may be can also be machined in a slotter by cutting equally spaced grooves on the
generated on a workpiece easily in a slotting machine. The work to be periphery of the work. The indexing or dividing the periphery of the work
machined is supported on parallel strips so that the tqol will have clearance is done by the graduations on the rotary table.
with the table when it is at the extreme downward position of the stroke.
The work is then clamped properly on the table and the position and the
9.7 SLOITER TOOLS
length of stroke is adjusted. A clearance of 20 to 25 mm is left before the
beginning of cutting stroke, so that the feeding moveme9t may take place
A slotting machine tool differs widely from a shaper or a planer tool as t�e
during this ideal part of the stroke. The table is clamped to prevent any
tool in a slotter removes metal during its vertical cutting stroke. This
longitudinal or rotary travel and the cut is started from one end of the
changed cutting condition presents a lot of rli�ference in the tool shape. In
work. The crossfeed is supplied at the beginning of each cutting stroke and .
a lathe, shaper or a planer tool the cutting pressure acts perpendicular to
the work is completed by using a roughing and a finishing tool. While
the tool length, whereas in a slotter the pressure acts along the length of the
machining an internal surface, a hole is drilled in the work piece through
which the slotting tool may pass during the first cutting stroke. A second
(
tool. The rake and the clearance angle of a slotter tool apparently look
different from a lathe or a shaper tool as these angles are determined with
respect to a vertical plane rather than the horizontal. Fig.9.6 illustrates a
typical slotter tool with tool angles. Slotter tools are provided with top 10
rake, front clearance and side clearance, but no side rake is given. The
nose of the tool projects slightly beyond the shank to provide clearance. GRINDING MACHINES
The amount of rake angle given is similar to that of a shaper tool.
The slotter tools are robust in cross-section and are usually of
forged type; of course, bit type
tools fitted in heavy duty tool
10.1 INTRODUCTION
holders are also used. Fig.9.7
illustrates different slotter tools Grinding is metal cutting operation performed by means of a rotating
used in different operations. _
abrasive wheel that acts as a tool. This is used to finish workpieces which
Keyway cutting tools are thinner must show a high surface quality, accuracy of shape and dimension. The
at the cutting edges. Round nose 3• art of grinding goes back many centuries. Over 5,000 years ago the
tools are used for machining Egyptians abraded and polished building stones �o hairlin� fits for the
circular or contoured surfaces. -
pyramids. Columns and statues were shaped and fm,shed with a globular
Square nosed tools are used for stone which abraded the surface.
Figure 9.7 Slotter tools
machining flat surfaces. Mostly grinding is the finishing operation because it removes
comparatively little metal, 0.25 to 0.50mm in most opera�io�s a�d _ the
9.8 CUITING SPEED, FEED AND DEPTH OF CUT accuracy in dimensions is in the order of 0.000025 mm. Grmdmg 1s also
done to machine materials which are too hard for other machining methods
Similar to a shaper, the cuuing speed of a slotter is defined by the rate with that �se cutting tools.
which the metal is removed during downward cutting stroke and is Many different types of grinding machines ?ave now b�en
expressed in meters per minute. .
developed for handling· various kinds of work to which the gnndmg
Feed is the movement of the work per double stroke expressed in process is applicable.
mm.
Depth of cut is the perpendicular distance measured between the 10.2 KINDS OF GRINDING
machined surface and unmachined surface expressed in mm.
Grinding is done on surfaces of almost all conceivable shapes and
REVIEW QUESTIONS materials of all kinds. Grinding may be classified broadly into two groups
1. Describe various types of slotters in brief. How a slotter is specified ? 1. Rough or non-precision grinding.
2. Describe the main parts of a slotting machine. Describe at least three 2. Precision grinding.
of them.
3. Write about the various ram drive mechanisms of a slotter.
Rough grinding : The common forms of rough grinding are snagging
4. Describe with a line diagram of Whitworth quick return mechanism,
and off-hand grinding where the work is held in the operator's hand. The
used in slotter.
5. Describe various slotting tools and slotter operations. work is pressed hard against the wheel, or vice -versa. The accuracy and
6. Describe various feed movement in a slotting machine ? surface finish obtained are of secondary importance.
7. Describe in brief how you can_ machine circular surfaces in a slotting Snagging is done where a considerable amount of metal is removed
machine. without regard to the accuracy of the finished surface. Examples of snag
GRINDING MACHINES 359

grinding arc trimming the surface left by sprues and risers on castings,
grinding the parting line left on costings, removing flash on forgings, the
10.3 GRINDING MACHINES
excess metal on welds, cracks, and imperfections on alloy steel billets.
Grinding machines, according to the quality of surface finish, may be

Precision grinding : This is concerned with producing good surface finish
classified as
and high degree o(accuracy. The wheel or work both are guided in precise
paths.
I. Rough grinders.
Grinding, in accordance with the type of surface to be ground, is
2. Precision grinders.
classified as
Rough grinders : Rough grinders are those grinding machines whose
1. External cylindrical grinding. 3. Surface grinding. chief work is the removal of stock without any reference to the accuracy of
2. Internal cylindrical grinding . 4. Form grinding.
the results. They are mainly of the following types
External cylindrical grinding produces a straight or tapered surface

I. Floor stand and bench grinders.
on a workpiece. The workpiece must be rotated about its own axis between
2. Portable and flexible shaft grinders.
centres as it passes lengthwise across the face of a revolving grinding
3. Swing frame grinders.
wheel.
4. Abrasive belt grinders.
Precision grinders : Precision grinders are those that finish parts to a very
accurate dimensions.
According to the type of surface generated or work done they may

be classified as follows
1. Cylindrical grinders 3. Surface grinders

(a) Centre-type (Plain) (a) Reciprocating table
Figure IO.I Basic kinds of precision grinding (b) Centre-type (Universal) (i) Horizontal spindle
(c) Centreless (ii) Yerticle spindle
Internal cylindrical grinding produces internal cylindrical holes and 2. Internal grinders (b) Rotating table
tapers. The workpieces are chucked and precisely rotated about their own (a) Chucking (i) Horizontal spindle
axis. The grinding wheel or, in the case of small bore holes, the cylinder (i) Plain (ii) Vertical spindle
wheel rotates against the sense of rotation of the workpiece. (ii) Universal 4. Tool and cutter grinders
Surface grinding produces flat surface. The work may be ground by (b) Planetory (a) Universal
either the periphery or by the end face of the grinding wheel. The (c) Centreless (b) Special
workpiece is reciprocated at a constant speed below or on the end face of 5. Special grinding machines
the grinding wheel.
Form grinding is done with specially shaped grinding wheels that 10.4 FLOOR-STAND AND BENCH GRINDERS
grind the formed surfaces as in grinding gear teeth, threads, splined shafts,
holes, and spheres, etc. The simplest type of grinder is the fllor-stand grinder as shown in Fig.10.2.
The first three basic kinds of precision grinding are illustrated in A floor-stand grinder has a horizontal spindle with wheels usually
r
Fig.10.1. at both ends and is mounted on a base or pedestal. There is provision for
driving the wheel spindle by belt from motor at the rear, at 'floor level.
GRINDING IIACH..ES 361
360 ELEMENTS Of WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY
10.7 ABRASIVE BELT GRINDERS
Frequently the wheels are mounted directly on the motor shaft extensions,
in which case the motor is on the top of the stand. The use of abrasive belts is becoming more widespread in industry as the
A small size machine mounted on a bench is called bench grinder. technique of manufacturing the belts improves. A strip of abrasive cloth of
These machines are used for snagging and off-hand grinding of tools and the correct length and width is formed into an endless belt by cementing
miscellaneous parts. Polishing wheels may be run on these grinders. the ends together, and this is slipped over two drums, one of which is
driven at high speed. The smooth rear side of the cloth slides over a heavy
10.5 PORTABLE AND FLEXIBLE SHAFT GRINDERS metal plate t9 prevent it from "giving" when the work is pressed against it.
The plate or platen may be flat, or it may be shaped to suit the shape of the
The usual form of portable grinder resembles a portable or electric hand particular workpiece. Work may be applied, commonly by hand, against
drill with a grinding wheel mounted on the spindle as shown in Fig.10.2. the open belt, platen or shaped forms to reach various curves and flat
A similar machine type is the flexible shaft grinder. This has surfaces. Machines may be dry-belt, wet-belt, or combination type.
grinding wheel on the end of a long flexible shaft driven by a motor on a Abrasive-belt grinders are used for heavy stock removal or for light
relatively stationary stand. It can be easily moved about and may be used polishing work.
to the advantage in removing comparatively small amount of stock from
widely separated areas. 10.8 CYLINDRICAL CENTER-TYPE GRINDERS
Heavy tools of these kinds are used for roughing and snagging and
small ones for burring and die work. Centre-type cylindrical grinders are intended primarily for grinding plain
cylindrical parts, although they can also be used for grinding contoured
10.6 SWING FRAME GRINDERS cylinders, fillets, and even cams and crankshafts.
A swing frame grinder, Main features : The workpiec is usually held between dead centers and
shown in Fig.10.2, has a rotated by a dog and driver on the face plate as shown in Fig.10.1. The
horizontal frame about 2 Portable grinder work may also be rotated about its own axis in a chuck. There are four
to 3 m long suspended at movements involved in a cylindrical centre-type grinding: (1) the work
its center of gravity so as must revolve, (2) the wheel must revolve, (3) the work must pass the
to move freely within wheel, and (4) the wheel must pass the work. They are equipped with a
the area of operation. Stand grinder mechanism which enables the grinding wheel to be fed in automatically
The operator applies the towards the work for successive cuts. Hand feed is employed only in
wheel on one end of the adjusting the wheel or starting the cut. A provision is also made for
frame to the work. This varying the longitudinal movement of the work or the wheel, and the
is used for snagging rotating speed of the work to suit different conditions. The traverse of the
particularly for castings work past the wheel or vice versa, is controlled by dogs which cause the
that are too large for the table or wheel to reverse at the end of each stroke. An important feature of
operator to hold up lo some types of grinders is that the operation may be stopped automatically
Swing-frame gr:nder
the wheel. This machine when the workpiece has been finished to size. Hydraulic rather than
is moved around with a mechanical controls are preferred on grinding machines to cause
Figure 10.2 Rough grinding machines minimum vibration.
jib crane suspended from
1. Stand grinder, 2. Portable grinder, In machines of the cylindrical type, two distinct types of grinding
columns, or by mobile 3. Swing frame grinder.
units. operations are done. In the first, called traverse grinding, the work is
reciprocated as the wheel feeds to produce cylinders longer than the width
of the wheel face. In the second, called plunge grinding, the work rotates
in affixed position as the wheel feeds to produce cylinders of a length Base : The base or bed 7 is the main casting that rests on the floor
equal to or shorter than the width of the wheel. A plunge grinding is and supports the parts mounted on if. On the top of the base are precision
illustrated in Fig. 10.3. This has the important advantage that cylindrical horizontal ways set at right angles for the table to slide on. The base also
shapes can be produced as easily as straight cylinders in a single "plunge" houses the table-drive mechanism.
of the wheel simply by forming the periphery of the wheel. Tables: There are two tables-lower table 6 and upper table 5. The
The general range of lower table slides on ways on the bed provides traverse of the work past
work speeds for cylindrical the grinding wheel. It can be moved by hand or power within desired
grinding is from 20 to 30 limits.
s.m.p.m. (surface speed in The upper table that is pivoted at its center is mounted on the top of
meter per minute). In grinding the sliding table. It has T-slots for securing the headstock and tailstock and
cranks or other work that is out can be positioned along the table to suit the length of the work. The upper
of balance, lower surface speed table can be swivelled and clamped in position to provide adjustment for
is necessary. Plunge grinding
grinding straight or tapered work as desired. Setting for tapers upto ± 10 °
requires very low speed. can be made in this way. Steep tapers are ground by swivelling the wheel
Thread grinding requires work head.
speed as low as 1 to 3 s.m.p.m. Adjustable dogs are clamped in longitudinal slots and they are
Wheel speeds usually range Figure 10.3 Plunge grinding provided at the side of the lower or sliding table and are set up to reverse
from 1500 to 2000 s.m.p.m. the table at the ends of the stroke.
Traverse speeds should be in proportion to the width of the wheel Headstock: The headstock I supports the workpiece by means of
face and the finish desired. a dead center and drives it by means of a dog, or it may hold and drive the
The infeed, or depth of cut, at each reversal should be from 0.02� to workpiece in a chuck.
0.125 mm for roughing and from 0.0125 to 0.0625 mm for finishing. The Tai/stock : The tailstock 4 can be adjusted and clamped in various
longitudinal feed should be from Y4 to % of the width of the wheel's face, positions to accommodate different lengths of workpieces.
depending on the power and rigidity of the machine. Whee/head : The wheclhead 3 carries a grinding wheel 2 and tis
Some of the J driving motor is mounted on a slide at the top and rear of the base. The
most important centre wheelhead may be moved perpendicularly to the table ways, by hand or
type cylindrical grind power, to feed the wheel to the work.
ers are described below. Cross-feed : The grinding wheel is fed to the work by hand or
power as determined by the engagement of the cross-feed control lever.
Plain centre-type On plain grinding machines, the operation· may be stopped
grinders A plain automatically when the workpiece has been finished to size. In one method
grinding machine it uses an automatic caliper type gauging attachment to measure the
shown in Fig. l 0.4 is workpiece and stop the operation at the proper time.
essentially a lathe on
which a grinding wheel Universal centre-type grinders : Universal grinders are widely used in
has been substituted for Figure 10.4 Block diagram of a plain centre tool rooms for grinding tools, etc. A universal machine has the following
the single point tool. It type grinder additional features
consist of the following I. Headstock, 2. Grinding wheel, 3. Wheelhead,
parts 4. ailstock, 5. Upper table, 6. Lower table, 7. Base 1. The headstock spindle may be used alive or dead, so that the
work can be held and revolved by chuck as well as ground
between centres.
364 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY GRINDING MACHINES 365
2. The headstock can be swivelled. at an angle in a horizontal In thrpugh grinding, the work is passed completely through the
1
plane. space between the grinding wheel and regulating wheel, usually with
3. The wheelhead and slide can be swivelled and traversed at any guides at both ends. This method is used wben there are no shoulders or
angle. The wheelhead can also be arranged for internal grinding other forms to interfere with the passage of the work. It is useful for
by the addition of an auxiliary wheelhead to revolve small grinding long, slender shafts or bars
wheels at high speeds. The layer of metal removed by the grinding wheel in one pass
reduces the diameter of the workpiece by 0.02 to 03mm.
10.9 CENTRELESSS GRINDERS In infeed grinding, which is similar to plunge grinding or form
rr
grinding, the regulating wheel is drawn back so that workpieces may be
Centreless grinding is a placed on the work-rest blade. Then it is moved in to feed the work
f-�
method of grinding against the grinding wheel. This method is useful to grind shoulders, and
exterior cylindrical, formed surfaces.
tapered, and formed In endfeed grinding, used to produce taper, either the grinding
surfaces on workpieces wheel or regulating wheel or both are formed to a taper. The work is fed
that are not held and lengthwise between the wheels and is ground as it advances until it reaches
rotated on centres. The the end stop.
principal elements of an The advantages of centerless grinding are:
external centreless grinder
shown in Fig.10.5 are the Figure 10.5 External centreless grinding 1. As a true floating condition exists during the grinding process,
grinding wheel, regulating less metal needs to be removed.
1. Grinding wheel, 2. Work, 3. Regulating
or back up wheel, and the 2. The workpiece being supported throughout its entire length as
wheel, 4. Work-rest.
work rest. Both wheels are grinding takes place, there is no tendency for chatter or
rotated in the same direction. The work rest is located between the wheels. deflection of the work and small, fragile or slender workpieces
The work is placed upon the work rest, and the latter, together with the can be ground easily.
regulating wheel, is fed forward, forcing the work against the grinding 3. The process is continuous and adapted for production work.
wheel. 4. No centre holes, no chucking or mounting of the work on
The axial movement of the work past the grinding wheel is mandrels or other holding devices are required.
obtained by tilting the regulating wheel at a slight angle from horizontal. 5. The size of the work is easily cont.rolled.
An angular adjustment of O to 8 or 10 degrees is provided in the machine 6. A low order of skill is needed in the operation of the machine.
for this purpose. The actual feed (s) can calculated by the formula :
s = ndn sin a
where,s = feed in mm per minute.

n = revolution per minute.
d = diameter of regulating wheel in mm.
a = angle if inclination of wheel. B
Centreless grinding may be done in one of the three ways : (a) Figure 10.6 Centreless grinding operations
throughfeed, (b) infeed and (c) end feed. These are illustrated in Fig.10.6. (a). Through feed (G-grinding wheel, R-regulating wheel), (b). In feed, (c). Endfeed.
1. Guide, 2. Workpiece, 3. Endstop
366 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY Internal grinders of chucking type may· be classified as plain and
universal grinders.
Some disadvantages are In a plain internal grinder, the workhead can be swivelled to grind
a straight hole tapers upto 45 ° included angle. The wheel head is moved
1. In hollow work there is no certainty that the outside diameter into and away from the hole and can be cross fed into the work.
will be concentric with the inside diameter. In a universal grinder, which is basically the same as a plain
2. Work having multiple diameters is not easily handled. internal grinder, the workhead is mounted on a cross-slide as in the wheel
head, and can be swivelled through a 90 ° angle
10.10 INTERNAL GRINDERS
Planetory grinders : In a planetary grinder the workpiece is mounted on
Internal grinders are used to finish straight, tapered, or formed holes to the the reciprocating table and is not reveled. Instead, the grinding wheel is
correct size, shape, and finish. given rotary and planetary motions to grind cylindrical holes. Planetary
The depth of cut depends upon the diameter of the hole being grinding is usually limited to large and awkward workpieces that cannot be
ground and may very from 0.02 to 0.05 mm in roughing and from 0.002 to conveniently rotated by a chuck.
O.Ql mm in finishing operations. Most internal grinders are horizontal,
although there are a relatively few vertical ones in use. Centreless grinders : The external
There are three general types of internal grinders : (1) chucking, (2) centerless grinding principle is also
planetary, and (3) centreless. applied to internal grinding. In
internal centreless grinding, the
Chucking Grinders : In chucking grinders the workpiece is chucked and work is supported by three rolls.
rotated about its own axis to bring all parts of the bore or other surfaces to One is the regulating roll, and the
be ground in contact with the grinding wheel. This is illustrated in other is a pressure roll to hold the
Fig.10.1. Chucking grinders are best applied whenever the work itself can workpiece firmly against the support
be conveniently chucked and rotated. According to general construction and regulating rolls. This is
there arc three types of internal grinders illustrated in Fig.10.7. The grinding
wheel contacts the inside diameter
1. The wheel is rotated but has no longitudinal movement while of the workpiece directly opposite
the work is slowly rotated and traversed back and forth. In this the regulating roll, thus assuring a Figure 10.7 Internal centreless
type of machine, the work head is mounted on a longitudinal part of absolutely uniform thickness grinding
slide at the left end of the machine so that the workpiece may be and concentricity. The pressure roll 1. Pressure roll, 2. Work,
traversed past the grinding wheel, and the wheel head is is mounted to swing aside to permit 3. Regulating roll, 4. Support roll,
mounted on a cross-slide at the right end so that the wheel may loading and unloading. 5. Grinding wheel.
be fed for depth of cut.
2. The wheel is rotated and at the same time reciprocated back and
10.11 SURFACE GRINDERS
forth through the length of the hole. The work is rotated slowly
but has no lateral and cross movement. In this type of machine
Surface grinding machines are employed to finish plane or flat surfaces.
the design traverses the wheel head and cross feed the work.
They are also capable of grinding irregular, curved, convex, and concave
3. In another type, known as the internal and face grinder, the
surfaces.
grinder has two wheels side by side mounted on a horizontal
Conventional surface grinders may be divided into two classes
overhead bar. One has a small wheel to grind a hole, and the
One class has reciprocating tables for work ground along straight lines,
other has a large wheel for facing in the same set up and
while the other covers the machines with rotating work tables for
squaring with the hole.
continuous rapid grinding. Surface grinders may alw be classified side of the wheel, and cupped, cylindrical,-0r segmented wheels are used.
according to whether they have horizontal or vertical grinding wheel The area of contact may be large, and stoke can be removed rapidly. But a
spindles. So there may be four different types of surface grinders crisscross pattern of grinding scratches are left on the work surface.
1. Horizontal spindle reciprocating table. Horizontal spindle reciprocating table surface grinder : The block
2. Horizontal spindle rotary table. diagram of a straight wheel horizontal spindle reciprocating table surface
3. Vertical spindle reciprocating table. grinder is shown in Fig.10.9. It has the following major parts.
4. Vertical spindle rotary table. Base : The base 6 has a column I at the back for supporting the
wheelhead. The base also co�tains the drive mechanisms.
They are diagrammatically illustrated in Fig.10.8. Table : The table 3 is fitted to the saddle 5 on carefully machined
The majority of surface grinders are of the horizontal table type. In ways. It reciprocates along ways to provide the longitudinal feed. T-slots
the horizontal type of machine, grinding is normally done on the periphery are provided in the table surface for clamping workpieces directly on the
of the wheel. The area of contact is small, and the spee '<\is uniform over table or for clamping grinding fixtures or a magnetic chuck.
the grinding surface. Small grain wheels can be used, and the finest On some machines, the table can also be moved in or out from the
finishes obtained. In the vertical type, surface grinders apply the face or vertical column which supports the wheelhead. This movement is known
as crossfeed.
Whee/head : The wheelhead 2 is mounted on the column sec.ured
to the base. It has ways for the vertical slide which can be raised or
lowered with the grinding wheel only manually by rotating a hand wheel
to accommodate workpieces of different heights and to set the wheel for
depth of cut. Horizontal, crosswise movement of the wheel slide with the
wheel, actuated by hand or by hydraulic drive, accomplishes the cross feed
of the wheel. The grinding wheel 4 rotates at constant speed ; it is powered
by a special built- in motor.
J
6
Figure 10.9 Block diagram of a Figure 10.10 Block diagram of a

horizontal spindle surface grinder vertical spindle surface grinder
l. Column, 2. Wheelhead, 3. Table l. Column, 2. Wheelhead, 3. Wheel
Figure 10.8 Four types of surface grinders 4. Wheel, 5. Saddle, 6. Base. 4. Base, 5. Magnetic chuck,
A. Grinding wheel, B. grinding face, C. Wheel spindle, 6. Rotary table.
D. Workpiece, E. Work table.
3 70 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY GRINDING MACHINES 371
Operation : The workpiece reciprocates under the wheel, and the The first two are most commonly used for repetitive work by hand
wheel or the table feeds axially between passes to produce a fine flat operation or with simple fixtures. The third type is widely used for
surface. Wheel downfced determines depth of cut and final height of the production operations where parallel surfaces are ground simultaneously.
piece from the table to the wheel.
The amount of feed must only be equal to a few hundredth of a 10.12 TOOL AND CUTTER GRINDERS
millimetcre. For example, steel is rough ground with a depth of cut
between 0.02 and 0.05 mm and finish-ground with a depth of cut of 0.005 Tool and cutter grinders are used mainly to sharpen and recondition
to O.Ql mm. In the case of grey cast-iron the depth of cut in rough grinding multiple tooth cutters like reamers, milling cutters, drills, taps, hobs and
may be anything between 0.08 and 0.15 mm and in finish grinding other types of tools used in the shop. With various attachments they can
between 0.02 and 0.05 mm. also do light surface, cylindrical, and internal grinding to finish such items
as jig, fixture, die and gauge details and sharpen single point tools. They
Face grinders : This is one form of surface grinder which has a are classified according to the purpose of grinding, into two groups
reciprocating table and horizontal spindle. The horizontal spindle has its
wheel which cuts on the side rather than on the periphery. Either the wheel 1. Universal tool and cutter grinders.
moves past the work or the work moves past the wheel. The work is 2. Single-purpose tool and cutter grinders.
mounted on a horizontal table to present a vertical edge rather than the top J
to the face of wheel ; or the work is mounted on a angle plate or a fixture Universal tool and cutter
which has a vertical surface to which the work is affixed. This type of grinders arc particularly
machine is primarily intended to do large or long work. intended for sharpening of
miscellaneous cutters. 6
Vertkal spindle rotary-table grinder : The block diagram of a vertical Single-purpose grinders
spindle rotary table surface grinder is shown in Fig.10.10. The principal are used for grinding tools such
clements of this machine consists of a magnetic chuck which can be as drills, tool-bits, etc. in large J
moved under or away from the wheel for unloading and loading the work, production plants where large
and its slide which is mounted on horizontal bedways. The grinding amount of grinding work is
spindle is mounted vertically on the face of a column and rotates in a fixed necessary to keep production
position, feeding only along its axis. The rotary table travel beneath the tools in proper cutting
wheel as it rotates. This combination of table travel and table rotation condition. In addition, tools can
exposes the entire surface of the workpiece to the wheel and eliminates the be ground uniformly and with Figure 10.11 Block diagram of a
need for any lateral movement of the wheel. accurate cutting angles. A tool and cutter grinder
A rotary table surface grinder may carry a single large piece or a typical tool and cutter grinder is 1. & 3. Wheel 2. Wheelhead, 4. Base, 5.
number of pieces in one or more circles on its table. shown in Fig.10.11. Saddle, 6. Table, 7. Column.
Disc grinders : Disc grinders finish ·flat surfaces and remove stock rapidly Universal tool and cutter grinders : The universal tool and cutter
by grinding with the sides of disc wheels. The disc grinder produces only grinders made by different manufacturers vary more or less as to details,
ordinary tolerances but at high rates of production. but they are similar in their general arrangement and operate on the same
There arc three standard types of disc-grinding machines : general principle.
The grinder has the following principal parts.
1. Single horizon(al spindle.
2. Single vertical spindle. Base : The base 4 gives rigidity and stability to the machine. It is
3. Double horizontal spindle. heavy, rugged and box-type.
\
Saddle : The saddle 5 is mounted directly on the top of the base. It The tooth-rest may be arranged with the wheel rotating off the
moves on antifriction ball bearings on hardened ways. The column 7 cutting edge or with the wheel meeting the edge as in Fig.10.12. The first
supporting the wheelhead is mounted on the saddle and it can be moved up method is more commonly used. The advantage of the first method is that
and down and swivelled to either side. The saddle also provides the means the wheel tends to hold the tooth down on the rest and is, therefore, safer
for moving the work forward and backward. than the second method. But this method oroduces burrs which of course,
Table : The table 6 rests and moves on a top base which is mounted can be removed by grinding on an
over the saddle. The top of the base contains the gears and mechanism oilstone after the tool is ground by a
8-
which control the table movement. grinder. In the second method which
The work table is mounted on the sub-table which has T-slots for although gives a keener edge, free from
mounting the work and attachments used on the machines. The work table burrs, care should be taken to hold the
can be swivelled which enables the operator to grind tapers. tooth against the rest.
Headstock and tailstock : The headstock and tailstock are mounted Before the grinding is started, it is
on either side of the table similar to those on a cylindrical grinder. The necessary to set up the machine. A centre
workpiece is positioned between the centres and driven exactly as in a gauge is used for setting the centre of the Figure 10.12 Methods of
cylindrical grinder. head, the tailstock, and the tooth-rest in cutter grinding
Wheel head : The wheelhand. 2 is mounted on a column on the line with the centre of the wheel spindle. I. Tooth-rest.
back of the machine. It can be swivelled and positioned on the base for
varied setups. Clearance grinding : The clearance or relief in a cutting tool is that area
Grinding wheel : Three different types of grinding wheels arc removed from the teeth behind the cutting edges. Each edge must be sharp
extensively used in cutter grinding. These are and the clearance angle correct. Insufficient clearance will make the teeth
drag over the work and will result in friction and slow cutting. Excessive
1. The "straight'.' or disc-shaped wheel. clearance will lead to rapid tooth wear and produce chatter.
2. The cup type in either the straight or flaring form. The clearance angle is regulated, when grinding, by setting the
3. The dish type. grinding wheel centre above or below the centre of the cutter, or by
adjusting the tooth-rest below'°"ori above the centre, depending upon the
Drill grinders : A twist drill must be ground so that the lips have the same type of wheel used.
length and are at equal angles to the axis if the tool is to cut properly. This The most suitable clearance angle depends mainly on the type and
is difficult to do freehand but may be accomplished easily on a drill-point diameter of the cutter, and on the mate�ial it is to cut. Table 10.1 gives
grinder. values for clearance angles.
Cutter grinding an<l setting : When a fluted tooth is being ground it is 10.13 SPECIAL GRINDING MACHINES
supported on a tooth rest whilst the wheel passes over its edge. The tooth
rest can be mounted either on the machine table or on the wheelhead, Many grinding machines are produced to do highly specialized work.
depending on the cutter to be sharpened. When grinding a cylindrical Some of them are described below.
cutter having helical teeth, the tooth rest must remain in a fixed position
relative to the grinding wheel. The tooth being ground will then slide over Crankshaft grinders: Crankshaft grinding as shown in Fig.10.13 is really
the tooth rest. If the cutter is. traversed along its arbor, the tooth-rest may cylindrical grinding where the principle of plunge grinding has been
be fixed to the machine table, and stops should be used to prevent the adapted. These grinders are used for grinding crankshafts of automobile
cutter from sliding off the rest. If the table is traversed, the tooth rest must engines, aircraft engines, diesel engines, compressors, etc.
be attached to a stationary part of the grinder.
Piston grinders : The TABLE 10.1 CLEARANCE ANGLES FOR thread form. The wheel itself is shaped to the thread profile and the wheel
grinding of pistons of TEETH spindle is inclined to the helix angle of the thread. Thread grinding 1s
hir,h-speed internal illustrated in Fig.10.13.
combustion engines is Clearance
hasically cylindrical (a) Cutter
grinding but it deviates Upto 75 mm diameter 60_7°
slightly from plain Over75 mm diameter 4'!...5°
cylindrical grinding. End teeth of end mills 3°-5°
Many such pistons arc (b) Material
not ground truly Low carbon steel 5�!...7"
cuylindrical but slightly High carbon and alloy steel 3'!...5°
elliptical. Moreover, Cast cart>on and bronze 4'!...7" Figure 10.13 Thread grinding
they arc sometimes Brass and aluminium !0°-12 (a). Single wheel grinding, (b). Plunge cut grinding.
slighly tapered.
On a piston grinder, therefore, a mechanism is provided to Way grinders : These are large, heavy
automatically and synchrronously move the revolving piston alternately single-purpose machines intended
toward or away from the wheel, thus grinding an elliptical fo rm. At the proncipally to grind the various surfaces
same time the work moves progressively away from the wheel during its of the ways and beds of machines. The
longitudinal movernnet, thus grinding the desired taper. wheel is cup, ring, or segmented, mounted
on a vertical spindle which can be usually
Roll grinders: Roll grinders are much larger, heavier, and more rigid than tilted at an angle. All sorts of angles may
plain cylindrical grinders. They are built to grind the huge rolls used in be oroduced on this machine. Fig.10.14
basic processing of steel or aluminium sheet and strip, and differ from shows how ways of machines are ground.
Figure 10.14 Way grinding
conventional cyulindrical grinders only in their greater than normal
dimensional and load-carrying capacity. Tool-post grinders : Tool-post grinders, sometimes called lathe grinders,
are used for miscellaneous and small grinding work on a lathe. They arc
Cam grinders : A cam grinder is really a special form of cylindrcal held on the tool post and fed across the work, the longitudinal and cross
grinder and used to genrate cams. feed being used whenever necesary. A tool-post grinder is very commonly
The headstock and tailstock arc mounted on a base on the bed ways used for truing up of lathe centres.
so that they can oscillate about a centre below the work. The headstock
contains a shortened, hardened replica! of the finished camshaft. This 10.14 SIZES AND CAPACITIES OF GRINDERS
template rotates with the work and runs against a dixed roller which causes
the hcadctock to oscillate. The work which is mounted between centres Grinding machine size is specified according to the size of the largest
rotates at very slow speed and oscillates continuously, moving toward or workpiece that can be mounted on the machine.
away from the wheel to generate the cak shape. All movements in the The size of a cylindrical centre type grinder is usually designated
machine are automatic. by the diameter and length both expressed in mm of the largest workpiece
the machine can nominally cco·mmodate between centres. The diameter of
Thread grinders : Thread grinders which are used to generate threads the workpiece should not exceed one half of the nominal capacity of the
belong to cylindrical grinding machine family. They make it possible to machine.
coordinate the traversing of the workoiece with workpiece rotation by
means of a Icadscrew so that the grinding wheel follows a desired helix or
376 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY GRINDING MACHINES 3 77
The size of the an internal centre type grinder is specified by the together so that it is possible to hold very small pieces of flat work.
diameter of workpiece that can be swung and the maximum length of Nonferrous metals may be held on a magnetic chuck by clamping them in
stroke of wheel, all expressed in mm. suitable fixtures made of iron or steel by exhausting air from a vacuum
For all types· of surface grinders, particularly for a reciprocating chuck. All parts held on a magnetic chuck should be demagnetized after
grinder, the size is generally expressed in tenns of table area and the work is finished.
maximum height from table to wheel. The diameter of the chuck or table
usually specifies the size of a rotary surface grinder. In contrast to Equipment for contour grinding : They include wheel dressing and
culinder-type grinders the actual working capacity of surface grinders is attachments using master cams and templates for cam and shape grinding.
approximately equal to the nominal capacity.
The same general rules apply to tool and cutter grinders whenever Attachments to improve grinding results : They include wheel
applicable. In some cases, where the machines fo not make use of tables, reciprocating attachments for better finish, ultrasonic wheel cleaning
the size is specified by the maximum size of tool that can be sharpened or devices and electrolytic attachments to aid in grinding extremelv hard
dressed. materials.
10.15 WORK HOLDING DEVICES AND AITACHMENTS Measuring and sizing devices : They range from simple measuring
devices to continuous reading gauges which actually control the feeding of
The work holding devices and attachments cbver a wide range and include the machine.
the following
10.16 PRINCIPAL GRINDING OPERATIONS
1. Work holding and supporting devices.
2. Equipment for contour grinding. Principal operations which may be done on grinding machines include the
3. Attachments to improve grinding results. grinding of external �nd
4. Measuring and sizing devices. internal cylindrical grinding,
tapered and formed surfaces,
Work holding and supporting devices : Work holding and supporting gear teeth, threads and others
devices include : using appropriate wheels and
fixtures of each job.
1. Steady rests for cylindrical grinders. External and internal
2. Chucks and fixtures for other grinders. cylinder grindings have been
3. Magnetic chucks used particularly on surface grinders. explained in connection with
external and internal cylinder
Steady rests, chucks and fixtures have been described before in grinders.
connection with other machines. Only magnetic chucks used on grinders
are described here. Tapered surfaces : Tapered
Where possible the work is held on a magnetic chuck which is built surfaces are ground on Figure 10.15 Taper grinding
into or attached to the machine table. The two types of chucks used are the cylindrical grinding machines
permanent magnet type and those magnetized by means of direct current. as explained before by swiveliing : (1) the table to the taper angle of the
The direct current chucks, made in both rectangular and circular shapes, workpiece (2) the wheel head to the same angle as in Fig.10.15 or (3) the
have a pulling power. Only magnetic materials, such as iron and steel, will headstock with the workpiece clamped in a chuck. In the second method
actually hold in the chuck. The magnetic chuck holds the work by exerting longitudinal feed is obtained by the axial motion of the wheel.
a magnetic force on it. The magnetic poles of the chuck are placed close
GRINDING MACHINES 3 79
removed, but generally they have a higher rate of a wheel wear than the
Another method of grinding external taper surfaces is to true the wheels having a coarser grit.
face of the sheet to the required taper.
Internal tapered surfaces are ground on centreless machines by 10.18 ALWWANCE AND TOLERANCE FOR GRINDING
swivelling housing and the workpiece to the taper angle.
The amount of metal to be removed in grinding depends upon the
Formed surfaces : They arc finished on cylindrical and surface grinding character of the work and the type of the machine used. In cylindrical
machines. A typical formed surface grinding is the grinding of bed ways of grindi�g the minimum value is 0.15 mm, and it goes upto 05 to 0.8 mm.
complex cross-section. This is shown in Fig.10.14. Grinding of bed ways In internal grinding the amount of stock to be removed varies from 0.1 mm
may be done on Way grinders, a special fonn of surface grinders. for holes of 3 mm in diameter to 0.8 mm for holes 200 mm in diameter.
On centreless grinders, it may run upto 0.25 mm for rough grinding, and
Gear teeth : The teeth of gears are ground on gear grinding machines from 0.02 to 0.05 mm for finish grinding.
either by the generating process or by a forming process in which formed Fine finishes and tolerances less than 0.025 to 0.075 mm are more
wheels are used. The generating process illustrated in Fig.10.16. makes use easily obtained in grinding than by non-abrasive methods. Tolerances as
of two saucer-shaped grinding wheels, whereas in the formed-wheel small as 0.0025 mm are regularly obtained by commercial grinding. The
grinding of gear a special fixture is used. cost increases as the tolerances become smaller. Some grinding is done
with tolerances as small as 0.00050 mm.
Threaded surface : Thread grinding
is done on thread grinding machines 10.19 THE GRINDING WHEEL
with either single or multiple rib
wheels. In the grinding of external A grinding wheel is a multitooth cutter made up of many hard particles
thread with a multiple rib wheel the , known as abrasive which have been crushed to leave sharp edges which do
work is mounted between centers and .L the cutting. The abrasive grains are mixed with a suitable bond, which acts
as a matrix or holder when the wheel is in use. The wheel may consist of
is rotated at a definite speed. Grinding • .
Figure 10.16 Gear grmdmg one piece or of segments of abrasive blocks built up into a solid wheel.
with a single wheel has been
explained in thread grinders in Art.10.13 and illustrated in Fig.10.13. The abrasive wheel is usually mounted on some form of machine adapted
to a particular type of work.
10.17 WET AND DRY GRINDING
10.20 ABRASIVES
An ordinary wet grinding machine uses a coolant box, which spreads a
large amount of coolant (more often soda water coolant) over the work, An abrasive is a substance that is used for grinding and polishing
operations. It should be pure and have uniform physical properties of
wheel, face and sides. This dissipates the heat normally generated duririg
hardness, toughness, and resistance to fracture to be useful in
grinding. The temperature is about 2000CC:. Wet cutting, therefore,
manufacturing grinding wheels.
promotes long wheel life. The cut itself is of a high quality. Any burr
Abrasives may be classified in two principal groups :
which may be produced is light and easily removed or may be even
washed away in the cutting.
1. Natural.
Dry grinding produces two undesirable effects-discolouration and
2. Artificial or manufactured.
burring. Discolouration, which ·is an indication of excessive heat generated
in cutting, is particularly objectionable when machine operations arc to
Natural : The natural abrasives include sandstone or solid quartz, emery,
follow the cutting off. This is an indication of surface or skin hardening,
corundum, and diamond.
which in turn affects machinability. Burring cannot be entirely eliminated
in dry cutting. Wheels of finer grit produce a light burr, which is easily
Sandstone or solid quartz is one of the natural abrasive stones from

\
oxide, etc., mixed with ground coke and iron borings in a arc-type electric
which grindstones are shaped. The quartz cutting agent is relatively shaft fuma e.
that materials harder than quartz cannot be abraded or ground rapidlr, Aluminium oxide is tough and not easily fractured, so it is better
Emery is a natural aluminium oxide. It contains from 55 to 65 per adopted to grinding materials of high tensile strength, such as most steels,
cent alumina, the remainder consist of iron oxide and other impurities. carbon �teels, high speed steels, annealed malleable iron wrought iron,
Corundum is a natural aluminium oxide also. It contains from 75 to tough �ronzes. The wheels are denoted by 'A'. The names of
95 cent aluminium oxide; the remainder consists of impurities. manufa urers and their trade names are given below :
Both emery and corundum have a greater hardness a�d better
abrasive action than quartz. I Mllll.ll.lla.c.111,[ef Irll.d�JUllD.C Manufacturer I.tad.e..name
Diamonds of less than gem quality are crushed to produce' abrasive The Carbo ndum Co. Aloxitc Macklin Company Aluminium oxide
grains for making grinding wheels to grind cemented carbide toqls and to The Nonon Company Alundum Abrasive Company Borolon
make lapping compound.

As a result of the impurities in and lack of unifonnity of these 10.21 BONDS AND BONDING PROCESSES
natural abrasives, only a very a small percentage of grinding wheels are
produced from natural abrasives. A bond is an adhesive substance that is employed to hold abrasive grains
together in the fom1 of sharpening stones or grinding wheels. Bonding
Artificial : Artificial or manufactured abrasives include chiefly (a) silicon materials and processes are
carbide, and (b) aluminium oxide.
Silicon carbide (SiC) abrasive is manufactured from 56 parts of 1. Vitrified bond used for making verified grinding wheels.
silicon sand, 34 parts of powdered coke, 2 parts of salt, and 12 parts of saw 2. Silicate bond for making silicate wheels.
dust in a long, rectangular electric furnace of the resistance type that is 3. Shellac bond for making elastic wheels.
built up of loose brickwork. Sand furnishes silicon, coke furnishes carbon, 4. Resinoid bond used for making resinoid wheels.
sawdust makes the charge porous, salt helps to fuse it, and gases may 5. Rubber bond used for making vulcanized wheels.
escape through the open joints in the brickwork. The abrasive wheels are 6. Oxychloride bond for making oxychloride wheels.
denoted by 'S'.
There are two types of silicon carbide abrasives : green grit which These bonds may be used with either silicon carbide or aluminium
contains at least 97 per cent silicon carbide, and black grit which contains oxide.
at least 95 per cent silicon carbide. This fonn is harder but weaker than the
latter. Vitrified bonding process : Verified wheels are made by bonding clay
Silicon carbide follows the diamond in order of hardness, but it is melted to a glass like consistency with abrqsive grains. The clay and
· not as tough as aluminium oxide. It is used for grinding materials of low abrasive grains are thoroughly mixed together with sufficient water to
tensile strength such as cemented carbides, stone and ceramic materials, make the -mixture uniform. The fluid mixture is then poured into moulds
gray cast iron, brass, bronze, copper, aluminium, vulcanized rubber, etc. and allowed to dry. When it has dried to a point where it can be handled,
The names of the manufacturers, manufacturing silicon carbide grinding the material is cut trimmed to more perfect size and shape. It is then heated
wheels and the trade names are given below or burned in a kiln in much the same manner as brick or tile is burnt. When
the burning proceeds, the clay vitrifies ; that is, it fues and fonns a
Man.ld'a.dJtctr Irad.ullllll.C Manufacturer IraJlulJll.C porcelain, or glasslike substance that surrounds and connects the abrasive
The Carborundum Co. Carborundum Macklin Company Silicon Carbide grains. The high temperature employed in this process tends to anneal the
The Nonon Company Crystolon Abrasive Company Electrolon abrasives to some extent.
Aluminium oxide (A/203 ) manufactured by heating mineral bauxite, Vitrified bond gives a wheel good strength as well as porosity to
a hydrated aluminium oxide clay containing silica, iron oxide, titanium allow high stock removal with cool cutting. It is affected by heat, cold
water or acids. Disadvantages of vitrified bonded wheels are heir Rubber bonded wheels are more resilient, less heat resistant, and
sensitivity to impact and their low bending strength. About 75 per c t of ense th�n resinoid bonded wheels. They are used where good finish
the wheels now manufactured are made with this bond. A vitrified b nded is pri ry requisite. They are strong and tough enough to make extremely
wheel is denoted by the letter 'V '. thin wh els. A rubber bonded wheel is denoted by the letter 'R'.
Silicate bonding process : Silicate wheel are made by mixing Oxychl ride bonding process : This process consists of mixing abrasive
grains with silicate of soda or water glass. The mixture is pac d into grains ith oxide and chloride of magnesium. The mixing of bond and
moulds and allowed to dry. The moulded shapes are then bac ed in a abrasive s performed in the �ame way as for vitrified bonded wheel.
furnace at a temperature of 260'C for several days. O ychloride bonds are employed in making wheels and wheels
The silicate bond releases the abrasive grains more readily segments for use in disc-grinding operations. The bond ensures a cool
vitrified bond, the abrasive ,grains are not annealed as in the itrified cutting a tion. So grinding is best done dry. An oxychloride bonded wheel
process, and silicate whe �ls are waterproof. These characteristi s make is denote by the Jetter 'O'.
silicate wheels valuable for grinding edged tools and other operations
where heat must be held to a minimum with or without the 'aid of a 10.22 G.lIT, GRADE AND STRUCTURE OF WHEELS
coolant. A silicate bonded wheel is denoted by the letter 'S'.
Grits : The grain or grit number indicates in a general way the size of the
Shellac bonding process : Shellac bonded wheels are also known as abrasive grains used in making a wheel, or the size of the cutting teeth,
elastic bonded wheels. In this process, the abrasive and shellac are mixed since grinding is a true cutting operation. Grain size is denoted by a
in heated containers and then rolled or pressed in heated moulds. Later the number indicating the number of meshes per linear inch (25.4 mm) of the
shapes are backed a few hours at a temperature of approximately 1 SO'C. screen through which the grains pass when they are graded after crushing.
The elasticity of this bond is greater than in other types and it has The following list (Table 10.2) ranging from very coarse to very fine,
considerable stength. It is not intended for heavy duty. Shellac bond is cool includes all the ordinary grain sizes commonly used in the manufacture of
cutting on hardened steel and thin sections, and is used for finishing chilled grinding wheels
iron, cast iron and steel rolls, hardened steel cams and aluminum pistons, TABLE 10.2 COMMAN ABRASIVE GRAIN TYPE AND SIZE
and in very thin sections, for abrasive cutting of machines. A shellac
bonded wheel is denoted by the letter 'E'. Grain size or grit
Coarse 10 12 14 16 20 24
Resinoid bonding process : Resinoid wheels are produced by mixing Medium 30 36 46 54 60
abrasive grains wirh synthetic resins and other compounds. The mixture is Fine 80 100 120 150 180
placed in moulds and heated at about 200'C. At this temperature, the resin Viery fine 220 240 280 320 400 500 600
sets to hold the abrasive grains in wheel form.
Wheels bonded with synthetic resin, such as Bakelite and In case grinding wheels are manufactured from special grain
Redmanol, arc used for purposes which require a strong, free high speed combinations, the grinding wheel manufacturer may use an additional
wheel. They can remove stock very rapidly. They are useful for precision symbol appended to the standard grain size number.
grinding cams, and rolls requiring high finish. A resinoid bonded wheel is
denoted by the letter '8 '. Example: 36 - Normal standard.
36.5 - Special grain combination.
Rubber 'bonding process Rubber bonded wheels are prepared by The size of abrasive grain required in a grinding wheel depends on
mixing abrasive grains with pure rubber and sulphur. The mixture rolled the amount of material to be removed, the finish desired, and the hardness,
into sheets, and wheels are punched out of the sheets on a punch press. of the material being ground. In general, coarse wheels are used for fast
Following that, the wheels are vulcanized. removal of materials. Fine grained wheels are used for soft, ductile
oper tion. Soft, tough and ductile materials and heavy cuts require an
mater!als but generally a fine grain should be used to grind hard,
materials. open tructure, whereas hard and brittle materials and finishing cuts
a dense structure.
Grade : The term 'grade' as applied to a grinding wheel refe to the
tenacity or hardness with which the bond holds the cutting ints or HEEL SHAPES AND SIZES
abrasive grains in a place. It dose not refer to the hardness of the brasive
grain. The grade shall be indicated in all bonds and process by a letter of wheels are made in many different shapes and sizes to adapt
the English alphabet, A denoting the softest and Z the hardest g de. The use in different types of grinding machines and on different
term 'soft' or 'hard' refer to the resistance a bond offers to disrupti n of the work. They fall into the following broad groups : straight-side
grinding heels, cylinder wheels, cup wheels, and dish wheels.
�brasives. A wheel from which the abrasive grains can easily be islodged T c shapes of grinding wheels have been standardized so that those
is called soft, whereas one which holds the grains more secure! is called
hard. The grades arc denoted as (Table 10.3). common! use in production and tool room grinding may be designated by
a number or name or both. In addition, the sizes of wheels may be referred
TABLE 10.3 GRADE OF GRINDING WHEELS to a system of key letters so that their dimensional specifications may be
written easily. Standard grinding wheel shapes are shown in Fig.10.17.
Soft A B c D E F 0 H MJ,kf.,:,�,;,1,,,. .,1 IW','i�·'''at'\ldJ r·:.�t{ ..i t,e/jxm
TYPE NO. I-STRAIGHT TYPE N0.5-RECESSED
Medium I J K L M N 0 p ONE SIDE (stroighl)
Hard Q R s T u v w x y z liH!$';,,,,,,] I . ,:',:, -,,I EI,:}Vf>\\iJ ff;1r,.t:A�?E
I
TYPE NO. 7-RECESSEO TYPE N0.4-TAPERED
BOTH SIDES (stroiqhl)
f�1
The grade of the grinding wheel depends on the hardness of the
material being ground, the arc of the contact, the wheel and work speeds, '
,
and the condition of the grinding machine. Hard wheels are recommended (fj STANDARD SHAPES OF
TYPE NO. 2-CYLINOEF TYPE NO. 6-STRAIGHT GRINDING WHEEL FACES
for soft materials., and soft wheels for hard materials. CUP
Structure : Abrasive grains are not packed in the wheel but are
distributed through the bond. The relative spacing is referred to as the
structure and denoted by the number of cutting edges per unit area of TYPE NO. II-FLARING TYPE N0.13-SAUCER
wheel face as well as by number and size of void spaces between grains. CUP
u'
The primary purpose of structure is to provide chip clearance and it may be
open or dense. The structure commonly used is denoted by numbers as �
follows (Table 10.4)
SEGMENTED WHEEL TYPE NO. 12-0ISH MOUNTED POINTS
TABLE 10.4 STRUCTURE OF GRINDING WHEELS Figure 10.17 Standard grinding wheel shapes
Dense 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Straight wheels No. 1, 5, and 7 are the kind generally used for
Open 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 or higher cylindrical, ccntreless, and surface grinding operations. Wheels of this
form vary greatly in size, the diameter and width of face naturally
depending upon the class of work for which the wheel is used and the size
The structure of a grinding wheel depends on the hardness of the
and power of the grinding machine.
material being ground, the finish required, and the nature of the grinding
Tapered face straight wheel No. 4 is primarily
thread, gear teeth, etc.
Cylinder or wheel ring No. 2 is used for producing
flat surfac
grinding being don e with the end face of
the wheel.
Cup wheel No. 6 is used for grinding flat surfaces Abrasive Grain size Grade Structure Bond type Suffix
by travers ng the
work past the end or f ace of the wheel. Flarin
g cup wheel No.I J is used A 46 K 5 V 17
]
for grinding in tool room.
"]j
Coars• FIM Veryfln• To open
10 80 1211 9 Manufact�rer's
Dish wheel No. I 2 is also used for tool room work.
The thi ness of abraisive pe 12 100 240 10 abraisive type
the wheel permits it grind the surface at narrow places 14 120 280 II symbol
. Saucer w eel No. symbol lfi S4 150 320 12
13 is generally used for sharpening of circular or band (use op1io al) 20 IIO 180 400 13 (use optional)
saws. 24 500 6 14 V=Vitrified
The principal dimensions of a grinding wheel
are th outside MIO 15 B=Resinoid
diameter, bore diameter, and the width. A=Aluminiurn oxide 8 Etc
R=Rubber
Segmented wheels are used chiefly on vertical spindle, C=Silicon Carbide (use op1ional)
E=Shellac
ro ary, and
reciprocating-table surface grinders and way grinde D=Diamond S=Silicon
rs.
Grinding wheels of the straight wheel type can be O=Oxychloride
supplied with a Grade Solt Mtdlum Hard
l<1rge variety of face : flat, pointed, concave, conve GHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
x, etc. These faces are Scale {A D CD E F
used for grinding special contours and sharpenin g saws.
10.24 MOUNTED WHEELS Figure 10.18 Indian standard marking system
10.26 SELECTION OF GRINDING WHEELS

Mounted wheels arc small shaped wheels (50 mm dia and below) moun ted
securely and permanently to steel spindle or mandrel by cementing or
It is customary for grinding wheel manufacturers to provide, throug� t�eir
other means. Mounted wheels and points are shown in Fig.10.17.
published literature, information on the selection and use of g nndm g
Great care should be taken in using mounted wheels and points.
Pressure between wheel and work small at no time be so heavy that wheels, but it may not always be possible or convenient for users to take
any considerable springing of the spindle will result. It is particularly advantage of such consultative service. The need for ready to use general
important to observe this rule in connection with small wheels and points guide on grinding wheels has been _ keenly felt and the Indian Stan�ard
.
(IS:1249-1958) gives recommendations o� t�e general constd�rallons
where the end of the mandrel entering the wheel is of reduced diameter.
which should guide the selection of gnndm g wheels for different
10.25 STANDARD MARKING SYSTEM applications.
In selecting a grinding wheel there are four con stant factors and
The Indian standard marking system for grinding wheels ( IS: 551-1954) four variables given in Table 10.5
has been prepared with a view to establishing a uniform system of marking
of grinding wheels to designate their various characteristics, to give a TABLE 10.S GRINDING WHEEL SELECTION FACTORS
general indication of the hardness and grit size of any wheel as compared
Constant factors Variable factors
with another.
Each marking shall consist of six symbols, denoting the following I. Material to be ground I. Wheel speed
in succession as shown in Fig.10.18. 2. Amount of stock to be removed 2. Work speed
3. Area of contact 3. Condition of the machine
1. Abrasive type 3. Grade 5. Bond type
4. Type of grinding machine 4. Personal factor
2. Grain size 4. Structure 6. Man ufacturer's record
388 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY \ GRINDING MACHINES 389
1. The material to be ground : This influences the selection 3. Area of contact : Area of contact influences the selection of : (a) grit
abrasive, (b) grain size, (c) grade, (d) structure, and (e) bond. size, (b) grade, and (c) structure number.
\Fine grain and close grain spacing are useful where the area of
(a) Aluminium Oxide abrasive is recommended for mate ials of contact involved is small, and coarse grain and spacing are employed
h.gh ten �il� strength and silicon carbide for low tensile rength. where a large area of contact is concerned.
'
(b) Fme gram 1s used for hard and brittle materials and coa e grain 4. Type of grinding machine : Type of grinding machine detennines to
for soft ductile metals. an extent the grade of the wheel. Heavy rigidly constructed machines take
(c) Hard wheel is used for soft materials and soft wheel for hard softer wheels than the lighter more flexible types. The combination of
materials. speeds and feeds on some precision machines may affect the grade of
wheel desirable for best results.
As general guide the grit and grade ranges given in ble 10.6 (i) Wheel speed : The wheel speed influences the selection of
would be suitable for the class of work shown against each. I grade and bond. The higher the wheel speed with relation to work speed,
the softer the wheel should be. Vitrified bond is usually specified for
(d) Generally, close spacing is required for hard and brittle speeds upto 2000 s.m.p.m. (or 6500 s.f.p.m.) and rubber, shellac or
materials and wide for soft and ductile. rcsinoid bonds for speed over 2000 s.m.p.m. (or 6500 s.f.p.m.).
(e) The class of work usually dictates the bond to be used. Bond The approximate wheel speeds for different types of grinding are
selection, of course, can be saf ely left to the manufacturers, if given in Table 10.7.
the class of work for which the wheel is required is clearly
stated. However, majority of wheels are manufactured with TABLE 10.7 RECOMMENDED WHEEL SPEED FOR DIFFERENT
vitrified bonds. TYPES OF GRINDING
TABLE 10.6 GRIT AND GRADE RANGES FOR VARIO US CLASSES OF Type of grinding Surface speed
WORK m/min ft/min
(a) Vitrified bonded wheels

Class of work Grit Grade Cylindrical 1500-2000 5000-6500
Fettling, snagging 12-30 Surface 1200-1500 4000-5000
Q-T
Tool grinding 30-80 600-1800 2000-6000
M-Q Internal
General rough work (off hand) 14-30 Tool and cutter 1500-2000 5000-6500
Q-S
Cylindrical 36--120 J-N Centrcless snagging 1500-1800 5000-6000
Centreless and crank shaft 46--80 J-N (b) Resinoid bonded wheels
Internal 46-60 2000-3000 6500-9500
H-N Snagging
Tool and cutter 46-60 1-M
(ii) Work speed : The work speed with relation to the wheel speed
Surface grinding (segments) 20-36 0-M
Surface grinding (cylinders or cups) 20-36 G-K determines the hardness of the wheel. The higher the work speed with
relation to the wheel speed, the harder the wheel should be. Variable work
Surface grinding (straight wheels) 46-60 H-K
speed are often provided on grinding machines to preserve the proper
2. Amount of stock to be removed : This involves accuracy and finish. relative surface speeds between the work and wheel as the wheel diameter
Coarse grain is used for fast cutting and fine grain for fine finish ; wide decreases because of wear.
spacing for rapid removal and close for fine finish ; resinoid, rubber, and Table 10.8 gives the surface speed of cylindrical works for different
shellac bond for high finish. materials to be ground.
•I
(iii) Condit.ion of the grinding machine : The condition,�f the

I GRINDING MACHINES
3. The hole of grinding wheels mostly is lined with lead. The lead
391
grinding machine has a bearing on the grade of the wheel to be selected. liner bushes should not project beyond the side of wheels.
Spindle loose in their bearings, and insecure or shaky foundations would 14. There must be a flange on each side of the wheel. The mounting
necessitate the use of harder wheels than would be the case if the machine flanges must be large enough to hold the wheel properly, at least
were in better operating condition. 1 the flange diameter must be equal to the half of the grinding
(iv) Personal factor : The skill of workman is another variable wheel diameter. Both the flanges should be of the same
factor which should be considered in selecting the wheel, as, for instance diameter, other-wise the wheel is under a bending stress which
on off-hand grinding, it can vary the 1 23 4 3 i 5 is liable to cause fracture.
grinding costs considerably on the same 5. The sides of the wheel and the flanges which clamp them should
work in the same factory. be flat and bear evenly all round.
6. All flanges must be relieved in the center so that the flanges
TABLE 10.8 WORK SPEED FOR contact the wheel only with the annular clamping area. If they
DIFFERENT MATERIALS are not properly relieved, the pressure of the flanges is
concentrated on the sides of the wheel near the hole, a condition
which should be avoided.
Work material Surface speed in m!min
7. Washers of compressible materials such as card board, leather,
Roughing cut Finishing cm rubber, etc. not ove� 1.5 mm thick should be fitted between the
Cast iron 60 120 wheel and its flanges. In this way any unevenness of the wheel
Aluminium 30 60 Figure 10.19 Mounting surface is balanced and a tight joint is obtained. The diameter of
Soft steel 9 15 the grinding wheel washers may be normally equal to the diameter of the flanges.
Hard steel 20 30 1. Spindle, 2. Flange, 8. The inner fixed flange should be keyed or othetwise fastened to
3. lntennediate layer, the spindle, whereas the outer flange should have an easy
4. Wheel, 5. Screwed-joint sliding fit on the spindle so that it can adjust itself slightly to
- give a uniform bearing on the wheel and the compressible
10.27 MOUNTING THE GRINDING WHEELS
washers.
Great care must taken in mounting the grinding wheels on the spindle 9. The nut should be tightened to hold the wheel firmly. Undue
tightness is unnecessary and undesirable as excessive clamping
?ecause of the high cutting speeds of the grinding wheel. Fig.10.19
strain is liable to damage the wheel.
illustrates mounting the grinding wheel. The following points are
10. The wheel guard should be placed and tightened before the
important in connection with mounting the wheel.
machine is started for work.
1. All wheels should be closely inspected just before mounting to
make sure that they have not been damaged in transit, storage, After mounting the wheel, the grinding machine is started. The
or otherwise. The wheel must first be subjected to the ringing grinding wheel should be allowed to idle for a period of about 10 to 15
test. For this purpose, the grinding wheel is put on an arbor minutes. Grinding wheels must be dressed and trued which are out of true,
before any work can be started.
while it is subjected to slight hammer blows. A clear, ringing,
vibrating sound must be heard. If a grinding wheel contains fine
cracks, discordant sound that fail to,vibrate will be emitted. This
10.28 GLAZING AND LOADING IN WHEELS
test is applicable to vitrified and silicate wheels. Shellac,
After us6, the wheel becomes dull or "glazed" Glazing of the wheel is a
resinoid or rubber loaded wheels will not ring distinctly.
condition in which the face or cutting edge takes a glass-like appearance.
2. The abrasive wheels should have an easy fit on their spindles or
That is, the cutting points of the abrasives have become dull and worn
locating spigots. They should not be forced on.
•I
down to the bond. Continued work with a wheel that glazes increases the Truing : Truing is the
smoothness of the wheel face and decreases its cutting capacity. Glazing process of changing the
takes place when a wheel is too hard or revolves at too fast a speed. The shape of the grinding wheel
remedy for glazing is to decrease the speed or to use a softer wheel. as it becomes worn from an
The wheel may also become "loaded". The cutting face of a loaded original shape, owing to the
wheel has particles of the metal being ground adhering to it, the openings 3
breaking away of the
or pores of the wheel face having been filled up with metal, thus abrasive and bond. Th,is is
preventing the wheel from cutting freely. Loading may be caused by done to make the wheel true Figure 10.20 Dressing a grinding wheel
grinding a soft material, or by using a wheel of too hard a bond and and concentric with the bore, I. Wheel, 2. Dresser, 3. Work rest.
running it too slowly. It may also be caused by taking cuts that are too or to change the face contour
deep and by not using the right cutting fluid. The remedy for loading is to for form grinding. Truing and dressing are done with the same tools, but
increase the speed of the wheel or use a softer wheel. not for the same purpose.
The only satisfactory method of truing a wheel is by the use of a
10.29 DRESSING AND TRUING GRINDING WHEELS diamond tool in a similar manner as explained before. In turning a wheel
with a diamond, the feed rate must not exceed 0.02 mm, otherwise grooves
Dressing removes loading and breaks away the glazed surface so that sharp may be cut into the wheel.
abrasive particles are again presented to the work. This is done with .
More popular is form-truing with a crushing roll. In this, a roll,
various type of dressers. A common type of wheel dresser, known as the shaped to the desired profile, is forced against the revolving w�cel,
star-dresser, is illustrated in Fig.10.20. It consists of a number of a crushing the corresponding shape into it. Rolls may be of two types : idler
hardened steel wheels with points on their periphery. The dresser is held in which the wheel drives the roll ; and power driven, in which a small
against the face of the revolving wheel and moved across the face to dress motor drives the roll which, in turn, rotates the wheel by frictional contact.
the hole surface. This type of dresser is used to dress coarse-grain abrasive Wheels trued by crushing cut faster and run cooler than those trued
wheels used for rough snagging work. with a diamond. Crushing produces a wheel with many sharp pointed
Another type of wheel dresser consists of a steel tube filled with a grains, while diamond truing tends to produce many grains with flat
bonded abrasive. The end of the tube is held against the wheel and moved surfaces.
across the face. The grade of abrasive in the dresser may vary for different
types of dressing operations.
10.30 BALANCING GRINDING WHEELS
Abrasive wheel dressers operating at high speeds are frequently
used to dress other wheels. They arc used to dress wheels where a fair If wheels become out of balance through wear and cannot be balanced by
degree of finish is desired on the work. truing or dressing, they should be removed from the machine and
For precision and high finish grinding, small industrial diamonds, discarded. Wheels should be tested for balance occasionally and re
� nown in th� trade as bort, arc used. The diamond or group of diamonds balanced if necessary.
is mo �nted m a holder. The diamond should be kept pointed, since only
Wheels that are out of balance not only produce poor work but may
the point can be used for cutting. This is done by the holder down at a 150
put undue strains on the machine. Small wheels may be balanced by
angle and using a new surface each time the wheel is dressed. A good
milling a short recess on the inside of the flanges and filling with lead.
supply of coolant should be used when dressing with a diamond as
Large wheels should be placed on a balancing stand and balanced by
overh �ating can cause t�e diamond to fracture or drop out of its setting.
moving weights around a recessed flange. Now-a-days, grinding wheel
Very light cuts only may be taken with diamond tools.
mounts are provided with devices to enable balancing to be done whilst the
wheel is running and between grinding operations.
I
GRINDING MACHINE 395
10.31 DIAMOND WHEELS
10.33 FEED
� i a�ond wheels are '.11ade with three different types
of bond s : resinoid,
v1tnf1ed, and metallic. Each has The feed (s) in cylindrical grind ing in the longitudinai' movement of the
. particular applications, with some
o� erlappmg. In ord er to c
onserve diamonds, wheels
workpiece p er revolution. It is expressed in mm per revolution of the
l arger than 25 mm in workpiec e. Longitudinal feed is usually from 0.6 to 0.9 of th e face width of
diameter are _ produced with a bonded diam
ond fayer at the culling surface. the wheel for rough gr inding and from 0.4 to 0.6 of the face width for
A!I diamond wheel s operate at greater effic
iency when used wet. finish grinding.
Dia_� ond wheels can be cleaned with a
. lump of pumice or a stick of The longitudinal feed (S1 ) of the work per revolution should be less
f1ne soft silicon carbide. A d iamond
_ wheel should not be dressed with a than the face width of the wheel an d depen d s on wh ether rough or finish
d iamond tool.
grinding is being performed.
Only. hard materials should be ground
. on diamond wheels. Soft The feed is plunge-cut grinding (Sp) is in a radial direction and the
matenals ten� to l_cad the wheel quickly.
Carbide and ce ramic cutting tools operation is d one in one pass. In this case, the face width is equal to the
arc ground with diamond wheels fo r the
finish g rind of the carbide tip. length of the work to be ground.
10.32 CUTTING SPEED AND WO
RK SPEED 10.34 DEPTH OF CUT
The Cutting speed (v) is the relati
speed) _and th e workpiece. It ve speed of the wheel v (periph The depth of cut (!) is the thickness of the layer of m etal removed in one
eral
. _ is expressed in m per sec. w{tll pass. It is expressed in mm. The depth of cut is taken in a range from 0.005
app rox1mat1on, 1t ma y be consid sufficient
ered that to 0.04 mm. Fig. 10.21 shows the operation and depth of cut.
trDO)nO)
v = vO) = m/mm.
l,OOO Grinding Wheel Bond
where Dw _is the diam et er of grin

ding wh eel in mm and n is the
the wheel m r.p.s ' w speed o f
The work speed vp is expressed in m/m
in and is determined by the
Cd'
formula : = ---..:P_m/min. A : Positive rake angle B: Negative rake angle
x
T,,,t sy
a·Clearance angle, P·Wedge angle, y·Rake angle
Contact between working and grinding wheel Cutting geometry for one cutting grit
wher�, C is the coefficient which depen
ds on the type of grinding and the
matenal to be ground,
Figure 10.21 Grinding operation showing depth of cut
T = �s the wheel life in min. between dressings, 10.35 MACHINING TIME IN GRINDING
= is the work diameter in min, I
= is the d epth of cut, Machining time for cylindrical grinding is detennined from the formula
S = is the feed per work revolution in mm per
revolution ,
z, Y, x, andm are exponents which ar e det
from handwork data. The speed in r.p.m
e rmined, together with c,
. of the work is determined from
T.u J:J_K min.
S;np
I I
1,000v p where, L is the length of the longitudinal travel in mm.
th e formula : llp =
is the number of pass,
is longitudinal fe ed in mm per r evolution.
is the speed of the workpiece in r.p.m.,
K is a coefficient depending on the specified grade of accw-acy and

class of smface finish (for rough grinding K = I to 1.2, for finish grinding
K= 1.3 to 1.7).
For plunge-cut cylindrical grinding: 11
a
Tm --K min.
scnp
where, a is the grinding allowance in each slide in mm. MILLING MACHINES
Sc is the cross-feed in nm1 per revolution.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
II.I INTRODUCTION
1. Outline various grinding processes.
2. Why precision grinding is important? Describe the types of precision A milling machine is a machine tool that removes metal as the work is fed
grinding.
against a rotating multipoint cutter. The cutter rotates at a high speed and
3. List various grinding machine types.
4. What is the function of grinding machine? How this function if similar or because of the multiple cutting edges it removes metal at a very fast rate.
dissimilar with other machine tools? The machine can also hold one or more number of cutters at a time. This is
5. What is meant by a 'universal' grinder? How does it differ from a plain why a milling machine finds wide application in production work. T?i� is
grinder? superior to other machines as regards accuracy and better surface fm1sh,
6. Name three important parts of a universal grinder and give a brief and is designed for machining a variety of tool room work.
description of them. State their function as well. The first milling machine came into existence in about 1770 and
7. What are the important features of floor stand and bench grinding?
was of French origin. The milling cutter was first developed by Jacques de
8. Briefly describe the main features of cylindrical centre-type grinders.
9. What is centreless grinding? Describe centreless grinding operations. Vaucanson in the year 1782. The first successful plain milling machine
10. Briefly describe the advantages of centreless grinding? was designed by Eli Whitney in the year 1818. Joseph R Brown a member
11. What is the main features of a planetary grinder? Where it is used? of Brown and Sharpe Company invented the first universal milli�g
12. Describe various types of surface grinders with simple sketches. machine in the year 1861.
13. What are the specialty to tool and cutter grinders? Describe in brief.
14. Name few of the special grinding machines, indicating their
applications.
11.2 TYPES OF MILLING MACHINE
15. How the size of a grinder is indicated?
16. Describe various grinding operations. The milling machine may be classified in several form covering a wide
17. Distinguish between wet and dry grinding proc�sses. range of work and capacities, but the choice of any particular machine _is
18. Outline the nature and characteristics of abrasives used in grinding determined primarily by the nature of the work to be u,.dertaken both m
wheels. relation to the size and operation to be performed. The usual classifications
19. What is the function of bonds in grinding wheel? Indicate bonding according to the general design of the milling machiue are
materials and name their corresponding grinding wheel.
20. Describe grit, grade and structure of a grinding wheel.
21. Sketch various and sizes of grinding wheel used in manufacturing. 1. Column and knee type.
Indicate their uses. (a) Hand milling machine.
22. How a grinding wheel is marked (coded)? Describe Indian standard (b) Plain milling machine.
marking system. (c) Universal milling machine.
23. How a grinding wheel is selected? Outline various factors that influence (d) Omniversal milling machine.
its selection. (e) Vertical milling machine.
24. Why a grinding wheel is to be balanced? Explain.
398 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY MILLING MACHINES 399
2. Manufacturing of fixed bed type. Head Q.tilling machine : The simplest of all types of milling machine is
(a) Simplex milling machine. the hand miller in which the feeding movement of the table is supplied by
(b) Duplex milling machine. hand control. The cutter is mounted on a horizontal arbor and is rotated by
(c) Triplex milling machine. power, The machine is relatively smaller in size than that of other types
3. Planer type. and is particularly suitable for light and simple milling operations such as
4. Special type. machining slots, grooves and keyways.
(a) Rotary table milling machine.
(b) Drum milling machine. Plain milling machine : The plain milling machines are much more rigid
(c) Planetary milling machine. and sturdy than hand millers for accommodating heavy workpieces. The
(d) Panto�raph, profiling & tracer controlled milling machine. milling machine table may be fed by hand or power against a rotating
_
cutter mounted on a horizontal arbor. A plain milling machine, having
Column and knee type : For general shopwork the most commonly used horizontal spindle, is also called horizontal spindle milling machine. In a
is the column and knee type where the table is mounted on the knee plain milling machine, the table may be fed in a longitudinal, cross or
casting which in turn is mounted on the vertical slides of the main column. vertical directions. The feed is longitudinal when the table 1s moved at
The knee is vertically adjustable on the column so that the table can be right angles to the spindle, it is cross when th(! table is moved parallel to
moved up and down to accommodate work of various heights. The column the spindle, and the feed is vertical when the table is adjusted in the
and knee type milling machines are classified according to the various vertical plane.
methods of supplying power to the table, different movements of the table
and different axis of rotation of the main spindle. Fig.11.1 illustrates a Universal milling machine : A universal milling machine is so named
column and knee type milling machine. because it may be adapted to a very wide range of milling operations. A
universal milling machine can be distinguished from a plain milling
machine in that the table of a universal milling machine is mounted on a
circular swivelling base which has degree graduations, and the tale can be
swivelled to any angle upto 45 ° on either side of the normal position. The
table can be swivelled about a vertical axis' and set an angle other than
right angles to the spindle. Thus in a universal milling machine, in addition
to three movements as incorporated in a plain milling machine, the table
may have a fourth movement when it is fed at an angle to the milling
cutter. This additional feature enables it to perform helical milling
operation which cannot be done on a plain milling machine unless a spiral
milling attachment is used. The capacity of a universal milling machine is
considerably increased by the use of special attachments such as dividing
head or index head, vertical milling attachment, rotary attachment, slotting
attachment, etc. The machine can produce spur, spiral, bevel gears, twist
drills, reamers, milling cutters, etc. besides doing all conventional milling
operations. It may also be employed with advantage for any and every type
of operations that can be performed on a shaper or on a drill press. A
universal machine is, therefore, essentially a tool room machine designed
Figure 11.1 Column and knee type milling machine
1. Base, 2. Elevating screw, 3. Knee, 4. Knee elevating handle, 5. Crossfeed to produce a very accurate work.
handle, 6. Saddle, Table, 8. Front brace, 9. Arbor support, 10. Conepulley, 15.
Telescopic feed shaft.
Comparison between plain and universal milling : Manufacturing or fixed bed type
: The fixed bed type milling
1. The plain milling machine is provided with three table machines are comparatively large,
movements: longitudinal, cross and vertical, whereas a universal heavy, and rigid and differ
milling machine has a fourth movement of the table in addition radically from column and knee
to the above three. The table can be swivelled horizontally and type milling machines by the
can he fed at an angle to the milling machine spindle. construction of its table mounting.
2. The universal milling machine is provided with auxiliaries such The table is mounted directly on
as dividing head equipment, vertical milling attachment, rotary the ways of fixed bed. The table
table, etc. These extras and the special design of the machine movement is restricted to
itself make it possible to produce spur, spiral bevel gears, twist reciprocation at right angles to the
drills, reamers, milling cutters and all types of milling, drilling spindle axis with no provision for
and shaping operations. cross or vertical adjustment. The Figure 11.2 Vertical milling
3. The plain milling machine is more rigid and heavier in cutter mounted on the spindle head machine
construction th11n a universal machine of the same size, and is may be moved vertically on the 1. Base, 2. Saddle, 3. Table, 4. Spindle
intended for heavier milling operations. The plain type is column, and the spindle may be heed, 5. Column.
particularly adapted for manufacturing operations, whereas the adjusted horizontally to provide
universal machine is intended more for tool room work and for cross adjustment. The name simplex, duplex and triplex indicates that the
special machining operations. machine is provided with single, double and triple spindle heads
respectively. In a duplex machine, the spindle heads are arranged one on
Omniversal milling machine : In this machine, the table besides having each side of the table. In triplex type tht! third spindle is mounted on a
all the movements of a universal milling machine, can be tilted in a vertical cross rail. The usual feature of these machines is the automatic cycle of
plane by providing a, swivel arrangement at the knee. Also the entire knee operation for feedin_g the table, that is repeated in a regular sequence. The
assembly is mounted in such a way that it may be fed in a longitudinal feed cycle of the table includes the following: start, rapid approach, slow
direction horizontally. The additional swivelling arrangement of the table feed for cutting, rapid traverse to the next workpiece, quick return and
enables it to machine taper spiral grooves in reamers, bevel gears, etc. It is stop. This automatic control of the machine rnables it to be used with
essentially a tool room and experimental shop machine. advantage in repetitive type of work. Fig.11.3 Illustrates a bed type milling
machine.
Vertical milling machine : A vertical milling machine can be
distinguished from a horizontal milling machine by the position of its
spindle which is vertical or perpendicular to the work table. The machine
t
may be of plain or universal type and has all the movements of the table
for proper setting and feeding the work. The spindle head which is
clamped to the vertical column may be swivelled at an angle, pennitting
the milling cutter mounted on the spindle to work on angular surfaces. In
some machines, the spindle can also be adjusted up or down relative to the
work. The machine is adapted for ma.::hining grooves, slots, and flat
surfaces. The end mills and face milling cutters arc the usual tools
mounted on the spindle. The Fig.11.2 illustrates a vertical milling machine.
Figure 11.3 Bed type milling macbine Figure 11.4 Plano-miller
MILLING MACHINES 403
Planer type : The piano-miller, as it is called, is a massive machine built
up for heavy duty work, having spindle heads adjustable in vertical in Planetary milling machine : In a planetary milling machine, the
transverse directions. It resembles a planer and like a planing machine, it work is held stationary while the revolving cutter or cutters move in a
has a cross rail capable of being raised or lowered carrying the cutters their planetary path to finish a cylindrical surface on the work either internally
heads, and the saddles, all supported by rigid uprights. There may be a or externally or simultaneously. The machine is particularly adapted for
number of independent spindles carrying cutters on the rail as well as two milling internal or external threads of different pitches.
heads on the uprights. This arrangement of independently driving multiple Pantograph milling machine : A pantograph machine can
cutter spindles enables number of work surfaces to be machined duplicate a job by using a pantograph·mechanism which permits the size of
simultaneously, thereby obtaining great reduction in production time. The the workpiece reproduced to be smaller than, equal to or greater than the
essential difference between a planer and a piano-miller lies in the table size of a template or model used for the purpose. A pantograph is a
movement. In a planer, the table moves to give the cutting speed, but in a mechanism that is generally constructed of four bars or kinks which are
piano-milling machine the table movement gives the feed. Hence the table joined in the form of a parallelogram. Pantograph "machines are available
movement in a piano-milling machine is much slower than that of a in two dimensional or three dimensional models. Two dimensional
planing machine. Modern piano-millers are provided with high power pantographs are used for engraving letters or other designs, whereas three
driven spindles powered to the extent of 100 h.p. and the rate of metal dimensional models are employed for copying any shape and contour o(
removal is tremendous. The use of the machine is limited to production the workpiece. The tracing stylus is moved manually on the contour of the
work only and is considered ultimate in metal removing capacity. Fig.11.4 model to be duplicated and the milling cutter mounted on the spindle
illustrates a piano-miller. moves in a similar path on the workpiece. reproducing the shape of the
model.
Special type : Milling machines of non-conventional design have been Profiling machine : A profiling machine duplicates the full size of
developed to suit special purposes. The features that they have in common the template attached to the machine. This is practically a vertical milling
are the spindle for rotating the cutter and provision for moving the tool or machine of bed type in which the spindle can be adjusted vertically and
the work in different directions. The following special types of machines the cutter head horizontally across the table. The movement of the cutter is
of interest are described below regulated by a hardened guide pin. The pin is held against and follows the
Rotary table machine : The construction of the machine is a outline or profile of a template mounted on the table at the side of the job.
modification to a vertical milling machine and is adapted for machining The longitudinal movement of the table and crosswise movement of the
flat surfaces at production rate. The face milling cutters are mounted on cutter head follow the movements of the guide pin on the template.
two or,more vertical spindles and a number of workpieces are clamped on Tracer controlled milling machine : The tracer controlled milling
the horizontal surface of a circular table which rotates about a vertical axis. machine reproduces irregular or complex shapes of dies, moulds. etc. by
The cutters may be set at different heights relative to the work so tharwhcn synchronized movements of the cutter and tracing element. The feeding
one of the cutter is roughing the pieces, the other is finishing them. A motion of the machine is controlled automatically by means of a stylus that
continuous loading and unloading of workpieces may be carried out by the scans a profiled template or a contoured model which is to be reproduced.
operator while the milling is in progress. The movement of the stylus energizes an oil relay system which in turn
Drum milling machine : The drum milling machine is similar to a operates the main hydraulic system for the table. This arrangement is
rotary table milling machine in that its work-supporting table, which is termed as servomechanism.
called a drum, Rotates in a horizontal axis. The face milling cutters
mounted on three or four spindle heads rotate in a horizontal axis and 11.3 PRINCIPAL PARTS
remove metal from workpieces supported on both the faces of the drum.
The finished machined parts are removed after one complete turn of the The principal parts of a column and knee type milling machine illustrated
drum, and then the new ones are clamped to it. in Fig.11.1 arc:
404 ELEMENTSOF�WORKSHOPTECHNOLOGY MILLING MACHINES 405
Base: The base of the machine is a grey iron casting accurately machined Spindle : The spindle of the machine is located in the upper part of the
on its top and bottom surface and serves as a foundation member for all the column and receives power from the motor through belts, gears, clutches
other parts which rest upon it. It carries the column at its one end. In some and transmit it to the arbor. The front end of the spindle just projects from
machines, the base is hollow and serves as a reservoir for cutting fluid. the column face and is provided with a tapered hole into which various
cutting tools and arbors may be inserted. The accuracy in metal machining
Column: The column is the main supporting frame mounted vertically on by the cutter depends primarily on the accuracy, strength, and rigidity of
the base. The column is box shaped, heavily ribbed inside and houses all the spindle.
the driving mechanisms for the spindle and table feed. The front vertical
face of the column is accurately machined and is provided with dovetail Arbor : An arbor may be considered as an extension of the machine
guideways for supporting the knee. The top of the column is finished to spindle on which milling cutters are securely mounted and rotated, The
hold an overarm that extends outward at the front of the machine. arbors are made with taper shanks for proper alignment with the machine
spindles having taper holes at their nose. The taper shank of the arbor
Knee : The knee is a rigid grey iron casting that slides up and down on the conforms to the Morse taper or self release taper whose value is 7 : 24. The
vertical ways of the column face. The adjustment of height is effected by arbor may be supported at the farthest end from the overhanging arm or
an elevating screw mounted on the base that also supports the knee. The
may be of cantilever type which is called stub arbor. According to the
knee houses the feed mechanism of the table, and different controls to
Indian standard specification, arbors with Morse taper shanks are available
operate it. The top face of the knee forms a slidewa� for the saddle to
from 13 to 60 mm in diameter and arbors with self release type from 16 to
provide cross travel of the table.
100 mm in diameter. The stub arbors are available from 13 to 16 mm in
diameter. The arbor shanks are properly gripped against the spindle taper
Table : The table rests on ways on the saddle and travels longitudinally.
by a draw bolt J which extends throughout the length of the hollow spindle
The top of the table is accurately finished and T-slots are provided for
3. The threaded end of the draw bolt I is fastened to the tapped hole of the
clamping the work and other fixtures on it, A leadscrew under the table
arbor shank 5 and then the locknut 2 is tightened against the spindle. This
engages a nut on the saddle to move the table horizontally by hand or
causes the arbor shank to be pulled inside gripping it firmly against the
power. The longitudinal travel of the table may be limited by fixing trip
taper hole of the spindle. The spindle has also two keys 4 for imparting
dogs on the side of the table. In universal machines, the table may also be
positive drive to the arbor in addition to the friction developed in the taper
swivel led horizontally. For this purpose the table is mounted on a circular
surfaces. The ejection of the arbor is effected by unscrewing the locknut 2
base ' which in its turn is mounted on the saddle. The circular base is
graduated in degrees. 4 5
Overhanging arm : The overhanging arm that is mounted on the top of

the column extends beyond the column face and serves as a bearing
support for the other end of the arbor. The arm is adjustable so that the
bearing support may be provided nearest to the cutter. More than one 6
bearing support may be provided for the arbor.
Front brace : The front brace is an extra support that is fitted between the 9
knee and the overarm to ensure further rigidity to the arbor and the knee.
The front brace is slotted to allow for the adjustment of the height of the
knee relative to the overarm.
Figure 11.5 Arbor assembly
1. Draw bolt, 2. Locknut, 3. Spindle. 4. Key block, 5. Arbor, 6. Setscrew,
7. Spacing collars, 8. Cutter 9. Bearing bush.
meshes with gear 2 which is fastened to the table feed screw 1. Therefore,
longitudinal feed movement of the table is possible through gears 18, 25,
and then rapping the draw bolt I lightly. The cutter 8 is set at the required
24, 5, 3, and 2.
position of the arbor by spacing collars 7 or spacers of various lengths but
of equal diameter. The entire assembly of the milling cutter and the spacers
arc fastened to the arbor by a long key. The end spacer 9 on the arbor is
slightly larger in diameter and acts as a bearing bush for bearing support
which extends from the overarm. The whole set up is locked from the end
by the arbor nut. Fig.11.5 illustrates an arbor assembly the draw bolt
arrangement for locking the arbor with the spindle.
11.4 MILLING MACHINE MECHANISM
The milling machine mechanism is composed of spindle drive mechanism

and the table feed mechanism.
The spindle drive mechanism is incorporated in the column. All
modern machines are driven by individual motors housed within the
column, and the spindle receives power from a combination of gears and
clutch assembly. Multiple speed of the spindle may be obtained by altering
the gear ratio.
Fig.11.6 illustrates the power feed mechanism contained within the
knee A of the machine to enable the table C to have three different feed
movements, i.e. longitudinal, cross, and vertical. The power is transmitted
form the feed gear box H consisting of change gears to shaft 23 in the knee Figure 11.6 Milling machine power feed mechanism
A of the machine by a telescopic shaft I 1. Both ends of the shaft 11 are A. Knee, B. Saddle, C. Table, D. Clamp bed, E. Feed handwheel,
F. Bed, G. Column, H. Feed gear box.
provided with universal joint IO and /2. Telescopic shaft and universal
1. Longitudinal feed screw, 2, 3, 5, 19, 22, 24. Bevel gears, 4. Clutch operating
joints are necessary to allow vertical movement of the knee A, gear 14, lever, 6. Nut, 7. Crossfeeed screw, 8, 20, 21. Powerfeed clutch, 9. Saddle nut, 10,
attached to the jaw clutch 20, is keyed to the shaft 23 and drives gear 13 12. Universal joint, 11. Telescopic feed shaft, 13, 14, 18, 25. Gears, 15, Elevating
which is free to rotate on the extreme end of the cross f eed screw 7. Bevel screw, 23. Feed shaft.
gear 22 is free to rotate on shaft 23 and is in mesh with gear 19 fastened to
the evaluating screw 15. 16 serves as a nut for 15, and as a screw in nut 17. 11.5 SIZE OF MILLING MACHINE
15 and 16, therefore, serve as a telescopic screw combination and a vertical
movement of the knee is thus possible. As soon as the clutch 20 is engaged The size of the column and knee type milling machine is designated by the
with the clutch attached to the bevel gear 22 by means of a lever 4, 22 dimensions of the working surface of the table and its maximum length of
rotates and this being in mesh with gear 19 causes the elevating screw 15 longitudinal, cross and vertical travel of the table. The following are the
to rotate in 16 giving a vertical movement of the knee. Like-wise, when the typical size of a horizontal knee type milling machine :
clutch 21, which is keyed to the cross feed screw 7, is engaged with the
clutch attached to gear 13, power comes to the screw 7 through gears 14 Table length x width= 1100 mm x 310 mm.
and 13. This causes the screw 7 to rotate in nut 6 of the clamp bed giving a
crossfeed movement of the clamp bed D and saddle B. Power traverse : longitudinal x cross x vertical
Gear 18 is fastened to shaft 23, and meshes with gear 25 which is = 650 mm x 235 mm x 420 mm.
fastened to the bevel gear 24. Again 24 meshes with gear 5 attached to a
vertical shaft which carries at its upper end another bevel gear 3. Gear 31
In addition to the 'above dimensions, number of spindle speed, Vises : Vises are the most common appliances for holding work on milling
number of feed, spindle nose taper, power available, net weight and the machine table due to its quick loading and unloading arrangement. There
floor space required, etc. should also be stated in order to specify the are mainly three types of vises commonly used in milling machines. They
machine fully. are plain vise, swivel vise, and tool makers universal vise.
4 5 1
11.6 WORK HOLDING DEVICES J
Plain vise : The plain
vise bolted directly on the
It is necessary that the work should be properly and securely held on the milling machine table is the
milling machine table for effective machining operations. The following most common type of machine
are the usual method of holding work on the table. vise used for plain milling
operations. The vise may be
T-bolts and clamps : Bulky workpieces of 1 fastened to the table with the
irregular shapes are clamped directly on the jaws set either parallel or at right
milling machine table by using T-bolts and Figure 11.9 Swivel vise
angles to the table T-slots. Work 1. Circular base, 2. Fixedjaw,3,4. Jaw
clamps. Different designs of clamps are used is clamped between the fixed plates, 5. Movable jaw, 6. Screw, 7. Square
for different patterns of work. Different types and movable jaw and for shank, 8. Guides, 9. Gib.
of clamps are described in Art.5.14. holding workpieces of irregular
shape special jaws are sometimes used. Fig.11.8 shows a plain vise.
Angle plates: When work surfaces are to be Swivel vise : The swivel vise is used to mill an angular surface in
milled at right angles to another face, angle Figure 11.7 Tilting type relation to a straight surface without removing the work from the vise. In
plates are used for supporting the work. The angle plate construction, it may be considered as a plain vise which is mounted on a
angle plate is bolted on the table and the I. Degree graduation, circular base graduated in degrees. The base is clamped on the table by
workpiece is supported on its face by bolts 2. Clamping bolt means of T-slots. Fig.11.9 shows a swivel vise.
and clamps. A tilting type angle plate in Tool maker universal
which one face can be adjusted relative to the another tor milling at a vise : The universal vise can be
required angle is also sometimes used. A tilting type angle plate is shown swivelled in a horizontal plane
in Fig.11.7. similar to a swivel vise and can
also be tilted in any vertical
V-blocks: The V-blocks are used for holding shafts on milling machine position for angular cuts. The
table in which keyways, slots 4 5 vise not being rigid in
and flats are to be milled. construction is used mainly in
The blocks are clamped on tool room work. Fig.11.10
the machine table by straps shows a universal vise.
and bolts. V-blocks are
provided with a tongue at its Special fixtures : The fixtures
base which fits into the T are special devices designed to
slot of the table and prevents hold work for specific
the block from any sideways operations more efficiently Figure 11.10 Universal vise
Figure 11.8 Plain vise
movements. This has been I. Base, 2. Fixed jaw, 3, 4. Jaw plates, than standard work holding I. Base, 2. Fixed jaw, 3, 4. Jaw plates,
shown in Fig.5.14. 5. Movable jaw, 6. Screw, 7. Square shank, devices. Fixtures are specially 5. Movable jaw, 6. Screw, 7. Square shank, 8.
8. Guides, 9. Gib. useful when large numbers of Guides, 9. Gib, 10. Handle.
410 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TEC.HNOLOGY
Bolted cutters : The face milling
identical parts are being produced. By using fixtures loading, locating, 5
cutters of larger diameter having
clamping and unloading time is greatly minimized. no shank are bolted directly on
the nose of the spindle. For this
11.7 CUTTER HOLDING DEVICES purpose four bolt holes are
provided on the body of the
There are several methods of supporting and rotating milling cutters with spindle. This arrangement of
the machine spindle depending on the different designs of the cutters. The Figure 11.13 Spring collet
holding cutter ensures utmost
following are the different devices for holding and rotating cutters. 1. Threaded end for draw bolt, 2. Spring
rigidity. Fig.11.14 illustrates collet body, 3. Nut, 4. Adapter, 5. Endmill
a face milling cutter bolted
Arbors : The cutters have a bore at the centre are moµnted and keyed on a on the spindle. The face
short shaft called arbor which is connected with the milling machine milling cutter can also be
spindle by a draw bolt and driving keys. The complete assembly of an mounted on the spindle by a
arbor with the holding and rotating arrangement has been shown in face milling arbor or a quick
Fig.11.5 and described in Art.11.3. change adapter.
Collets : A milling machine collet is a form of sleeve bushing for reducing Screwed on cutters : The
the �ize of the taper hole at the nose of the milling machine spindle so that small cutters having threaded
an arbor or a milling cutter having a holes at the centre are
smaller shank than the spindle taper screwed on the threaded nose Figure 11.14 Bolted cutter
can be fitted into it. Fig.11.11 of an arbor which is mounted 1. Spindle, 2. Column face, 3. Spindle nose,
illustrates a milling machine collet. on the spindle in the usual 4. Facing milling cutter, 5. Cutter body,
manner. The cutter threads 6. Clamping bolts.
Adapter : An adapter is a form of may be right hand or left
collet used on milling machine having hand depending on the
standardized spindle end. Cutters
\, '
-_�_-_.----..__!_,
Figure 11.11 Milling machine direction of rotation of the
having shanks are usually mounted on
collet cutter so that the cutter may c(..__
,--
!'
adapters. An adapter can be connected not come off the arbor during
with the spindle by a draw bolt or it the cut. Fig.11.15 shows a
may be directly bolted to it. Fig.11.12 screwed on cutter. Figure 11.15 Screwed on cutter
illustrates a milling machine adapter. t. Threaded arbor, 2. Cutter.
11.8 MILLING MACHINE ATTACHMENTS
Spring collets : Straight shank cutters
arc usually held on a special adapter The attachments are standard or special auxiliary devices intended to be
called "spring collet" or "spring fastened to or joined with one or more components of the milling machine
Figure 11.12 Milling machine
chuck". The nose end of the adapter is adapter for the purpose of augmenting the range, versatility, productivity or
tapered and threaded for a small accuracy of operation. Some classes of milling machine attachments are
distance and also split by three equally spaced slots. The cutter shank is used for positioning and driving the cutter by altering the cutter axis �nd
introduced in the cylindrical hole provided at the end of the adapter and speed, whereas other classes are used for positioning, holding and feedmg
then the nut is tightened. This causes the split jaws of the adapter to spring
inside, and grip the shank firmly. Fig.11.13 shows a spring collet.
the work along a specified geometric path. The following are the different swivelled in a vertical or horizontal plane. While using on a plain milling
attachments used on standard column and knee type milling machine. machine, the cutter mounted on the attachment may be swivelled to the
required helix angle for cutting a spiral similar to the swivelling of the
Vertical milling attachment : A vertical milling attachment can convert a table of a universal milling machine. The attachment is used in a universal
horizontal milling machine into a vertical machine by orienting the cutting milling machine for cutting spiral grooves having a helix angle of more
spindle axis from horizontal to vertical for performing specific operations. than 45 °, which is the maximum limit of swivelling the table.
The attachment consists of a right angle gear box which is attached to the
nose of the horizontal milling machine spindle by bolting it on the column Rack milling attachment: A rack milling attachment is bolted to the face
face. The speed of the vertical spindle is same as that of the machine of the column and is used for cutting rack teeth on a job mounted on the
spindle. The attachment with the spindle can also be swivelled at any angle table. The attachment consisting of a gear train enables the spindle axis to
other than at right angles to the table for machining angular surfaces. be oriented at right angles to the machine spindle in a horizontal plane.
The successive rack teeth are cut by using a rack indexing attachment. The
Universal milling attachment : The attachment is similar to the vertical slanted rack teeth or a skew rack may be machined where the table may be
milling attachment but it has an added arrangement for swivelling the swivelled to the required )lei ix angle.
spindle about two mutually perpendicular axes. This feature of the
attachment permits the cutting spindle axis to swivel at practically any Circular milling aitachment : A circular milling attachment or a rotary
angle and machine any compound angular surface of the work. The table is a special work holding device which is bolted on the top of the
attachment is supported by the angular surface of the work. The machine table,. It provides rotary motion to the workpiece in addition to the
attachment is supported by the overarm and operates at either the same longitudinal, cross and vertical movements of the table. The attachment
speed or at higher speed than the machine spindle. consists,-of a circular table having T-slots mounted on a graduated base.
The circular table may be rotated by hand, and in special cases by power
High speed milling attachment : The attachment consists of a gearing by. linking the rotary table driving mechanism with the machine
arrangement enclosed within its casting to increase the regular spindle leadscrew. The driving mechanism of a/circular milling attachment
speeds by four to six times. This is for operating smaller diameter of consists of a vertical shaft which keye910 a woi;m ge�r fit�ed with the
milling cutters efficiently and at the proper cutting speed. The attachment circular table. A horizontal worm mesJ>es with the worm 'gear and imparts
is bolted to the face of the column and enables the cutters to be operated at rotary movement to the table when ;pe worm is rotated. The surface of any
speeds beyond the scope of the machine. profile of' a workpiece can be /generated by combining three or four
movements of the table and rotary movement of the attachment. In some of
Slotting attachment : A slotting attachment converts the rotary motion of the circular milling attachments an index plate is provided on the
the spindle into the reciprocating motion of the ram by means of an horizon,tal worm shaft for milling equally spaced slots or grooves on the
eccentric or crank housed within !'he attachment. Thus a milling machine periphery of a workpiece.
can be converted into a slotter by accepting a single point slotter tool at the
bottom end of the ram and is conveniently used for cutting internal or Dividing head attac�e1Jt : a dividing head attachment is also a special
external keyways, splines, etc. The attachment is bolted on the face of the work holding deyite w,hrch is bolt.ea on the machine table. The work may
column and can also be swivelled at an angle of machining angular be mounted. on a cp,uck fitted on the dividing head spindle or may be
surfaces. The length of stroke of the ram can also be adjusted. supported between a live and a dead centre. The dead centre is mountP-d
on a footstock as in a lathe tailstock that is bolted on the machine table
Universal spiral milling attachment : The universal spiral milling after correctly aligning its spindle axis with the dividing head spindle. The
attachment may be used in a plain milling machine or in a universal attachn1ent is principally used for dividing the periphery of a •-vorkpiece in
milling machine for cutting a spiral groove on a cylindrical workpiece. The l!qual number of divisions for machining equally space..� slots or grooves.
attachment is bolted on the face of the column and its spindle head may be The worm and worm gear driving mechanism of the attachment can be
linked wit� the table leadscrew for cutting equally spaced helical grooves
on the penphery of a cylindrical workpiece. The actual construction and Tipped solid cutter : A tipped solid cutter is similar to a solid cutter,
operation of a dividing head has been described in Art.12.6. expect that the cutter teeth are made of cemented carbide or stellite tips
which are brazed on the tool shanks of an ordinary tool steel cutter body to
11.9 MILLING CUITERS reduce the cost of the cutter.
Th � mil!ing cutter are revolving tools having one or several cutting edges Inserted teeth cutter: In large milling cutters, the teeth or blades are
of 1�entrcal form equally spaced on the circumference of the cutter. The inserted or secured in a body of less expensive materials. The blades are
c.;uttm� elements are called teeth which intennittently engages the usually held in the cutter body by mechanical means. The arrangement
workpiece and remove material by relative movement of the workpiece reduces the cost of the cutter and enables economy in maintenance, as a
_ .
and cutter. Milling cutters may be classified as : single tooth if broken can be readily replaced:
1. According to the constructional features of the cutte
r: Profile relieved cutter : In this category of milling cutters, a relief to the
{a) Solid cutter. cutting edges is provided by grinding a narrow land at t�ek of the
{b) Tipped solid cutter. cutting edges. The profile relieved cutters genera!eJlat, curved or irregular
(c) Inserted teeth cutter. surfaces.
2. According to the relief characteristics of the cutte
r teeth :
(a) Profile relieved cutter Form relieved cutter : In this category of milling cutters a curved relief is
(b) Form relieved cutter provided at the back of the cutting edges. The cutters are sharpened by
3. According to the methods of mounting the cutte grinding the faces of tl:Je teeth. The fonn relieved cu•�ers are mainly used
r
(a) Arbor type cutter. for generating formed or contoured surfaces.
(b) Shank type cutter.
(c) Facing type cutter. Arbor type cutter : The arbor type c�tter are prqwide� :,vith a ce�tral hole
4. According to the direction of rotation of the cutte having a keyway for mounting them directly on tlte milling machine arbor.
r:
(a) Right hand rotational cutter. Milling cutters hav'ing tapered or threaded holes are also available. They
(b) Left hand rotational cutter. '
are mounted on arbors of different designs. !
5. According to the direction of helix of the cutter
teeth S�ank type cutter : The $hank type cutters are provided with straight or
(a) Parallel or straight teeth cutter. tapered shank integral with the cutter body. The straight or tapered shanks
(b) Right hand helical cutter. are inserted into the spindle nose and ar� clamped to it either by friction or
(c) Left hand helical cutter. hy a draw bolt.
(d) Alternate helical teeth cutter.
6. According to purpose or use of the cutter: Facing type cutter : The facing type �utters are either bolted or attached
(a) Standard milling cutter. directly to the spindle nose, or secured on the face of a short arbor called
(b) Special milling cutter. stud arbor. The facing type cutters are mainly used to produced flat
surfaces.
Solid cutter : A solid �utter has teeth integral with the cutter body. The
cutters are of smaller diameter and width and made of one piece material Right hand -cutter : A milling cutter is designated as a right hand cutter
usually of high speed steel. which rota,es in a anticlockwise direction when viewed from the end of
t�e spindle. Fig.11 J<>(a) shows a right hand cutter.
Left hand cutter : A milling cutter is designated as a left hand cutter

which rotates in a clockwise direction when viewed from the end of the
.
11.10 STANDARD MILLING CUTTER
spindle. Fig.l I .16(b) shows a left hand cutter. There are many different types of standard milling cutters. They are
classified below
Parallel or straight teeth cutter : The parallel or straight teeth cutters
have their teeth straight or parallel to the axis of rotation of the cutter. The 1. Plain milling cutter.
helix angle of parallel teeth cutters are equal to zero. (a) Light duty plain milling cutter.
(b) Heavy duty plain milling cutter.
Right hand helical (c) Helical plain milling cutter.
teeth cutter : These 2. Side milling cutter.
c ]��
cutters have their teeth (a) Plain side milling cutter.
cut at an angle to the (b) Staggered teeth side milling cutter.
axis of rotation of the
cutter. The cutters may
� C:: (a)
(c)
(d)
Half side milling cutter.
Interlocking side milling cutter.
be distinguished by 3. Metal slitting saw.
(a) Plain metal slitting saw.
� c::: C�]�l(b)
viewing it from one of
its end faces, when the b
( ) Staggered teeth metal slitting saw.
helical groove or flute 4. Angle milling cutter.
will be found to lead (a) Single angle milling cutter.
from !eft to right hand Figure 11.16 Right hand and left hand cutter b
( ) Double angle milling cutter.
direction of the cutter 5. End mill.
(a). Right hand cutter, (b). Left hand cutter.
body. (a) Taper shank end mill.
(b) Straight shank end mill.
Left hand helical teeth cutter : These cutters have their teeth cut at an (c) Shell end mill.
6. · T-slot milling cutter.
angle to the axis of rotation of the cutter. The cutter may be distinguished
7. Woodruff key slot milling cutter.
by viewing it from one of its end faces, when the helical groove or flute
8. Fly cutter.
will be found to lead from right to left hand direction of the cutter body.
9. Formed cutter.
Alternate helical teeth cutter : In some cutters the alternate teeth are (a) Convex milling cutter.
(b) Concave milling cutter.
provided with right and left hand helical angles.
(c) Corner rounding milling cutter.
Standard milling cutter : These cutters are conventional type of milling (d) Gear cutter
(e) Thread milling cutter.
cutters whose dimensions such as cutter diameter and width, diameter of
1O. Tap and reamer cutter.
centre hole, width and depth of keyways, etc. are standardized.
Plain milling cutter : The plain milling cutters are cylindrical in shape
Special milling cutter : Special milling cutters are designed to perform and have teeth on the circumferential surface only. The cutters are
special operati"ons which may be the combination of several standard intended for the production of flat surfaces parallel t� the axis of rotation
operations. The cutters may have standard or non-standard dimensions. _
of the spindle. The cutter teeth may be straight or heltcal according to the
_ _ _
size of the cutter. Fig.11.17 illustrates a straight teeth plain m1lltng cutter.
Very wide plain milling cutters are termed as slahbing cutter. These
Side milling cutter : The side milling cutters have teeth on its periphery
and also on one or both of its sides. The side milling cutters are intended
cutters have nicked teeth. The nicks
are uniformly distributed on the for removing metals from the side of a work. Fig.11.19 illustrates a side
entire periphery of the cutter. The milling cutter. The side milling cutters are available from 50 to 200 mm in
object of the nicks is to break the diameter and the width of the cutter ranges from 5 to 32 mm. The different
chips and enable the cutter to take a types of side milling cutters are described below
coarse feed. The plain milling cutters /
are available in diameters from 16 to

Plain side milling cutter : The plain side milling cutters have
straight circumferential teeth and have side teeth on both of its sides. Two
160 mm and the width of the cutters
or more such cutters may be mounted on the arbor and different faces of
range from 20 to 160 mm. Fig.11.18
Figure 11.17 Straight teeth plain the workpiece may be machined simultaneously.
illustrates a helical plain milling
milling cutter Staggered teeth side milling cutter : The staggered teeth side
cutter. The different varieties of
plain milling cutters are described below milling cutters have alternate
teeth with opposite helix angle.
Light duty plain milling cutter: The light duty plain milling cutters This design of the cutter teeth
have face width less than 20 mm and are made with straight teeth parallel increases the chip space to a
to the axis. The wider cutters are made with helical teeth, with helix angle great extent. The cutter is suitable
of Jes[; than 25 °. These are relatively fine tooth cutters. for milling deep, narrow slots or
key ways on workpieces.
Heavy duty plain
milling cutter : The heavy Fig.11.20 illustrates a staggered
duty plain milling cutters are teeth side milling cutter.
Half side milling cutter : Figure 11.20 Staggered teeth side
wider cutters and are used for
heavy duty work. The helix The half side milling cutters have milling cutter
angle of the teeth ranges from straight or helical teeth on its
25 to 45 °. The cutters have circumferential surface and on one of its sides only. The peripheral teeth
do the actual cutting, whereas the side teeth size and finish the work. While
fewer teeth on the periphery
straddle milling, when two half side milling cutters are mounted on the
and that increases chip space Figure 11.18 Helical plain milling cutter
arbor at a fixed distance apart to mill the two end faces of the work
permitting them to take
simultaneously, the cutter are chosen with one having right hand helical
deeper cuts. They arc also
teeth and the other having left hand helix to counter-balance the end thrust
sometimes called coarse tooth milling cutters.
on the arbor.
Helical plain milling cutter: The helical plain milling cutt"crs have
Interlocking side milling cutter : The interlocking side milling
further coarse pitch and the
cutters are formed out of two half side milling cutters or two staggered
helix angle of the teeth ranges
teeth side milling cutters which are made to interlock to form one unit. The
from 45 ° to 60 °. The cutter is
teeth of the two cutters may be plain or of alternate helix, The paths of the
useful in profile milling work
teeth overlap when the cutters are used for milling wider slots of accurate
due to its smooth cucting
width. The width of tJte cutter may be varied by inserting spacers of
action and is adapted for
suitable thickness between the two halves of the cutter. This feature
taking light cuts on soft sJ,e'C1
enables the cutter to maintain an accurate width even after repeated
or brass and whe�e wid>
,, sharpening. The width of the cutter ranges from 10 to 32 mm with a
surfaces are to be maintained.
possible adjustment to the maximum of 4 mm. The cutters are available in
FJgute 11.19 Sfde ttiilling

, cutter
.
.
diameters ranging from 50 to 200 mm. Fig.11.21 illustrates an interlocked 65 °, 70 °, 75 °, 80 ° and 85 ° are
side milling cutter. available with diameter of 50 mm
and width of 12 mm. There are
Metal slitting saw : another set of cutters having the
The metal slitting same range of included angle, but
saws resemble a the diameter of the cutters is 63
plain milling cutter mm and width 28 mm. There is a
or a side milling third set of cutters having included
cutter in appearance angle of 78 °, 75 ° and 80 ° degrees,
but they are of very all having 63 mm in diameter and I<igure 11.23 Single angle milling
small width. The 28 mm in width. cutter
cutters are used for Double angle milling cutter
parting-off operation : The double angle milling cutters illustrated in Fig.11.24 have Y-shaped
or for slotting. Figure 11.21 Interlocked side milling cutter
teeth with both conical
Fig.11.22 illustrates D. Nominal diameter,d 1 . Boss diameter,
surfaces at an angle to their
a metal slitting saw. d. Bore diameter, b . Cutter width
end faces. The angle of
The different types of metal slitting saws are described below teeth may not be
.
P/ai� metal slitting saw : The plain metal slitting saws ar.e symmetrical with respect to
. thinner
m construction and the width of the a plain a right angles to the
cutter is limited to 5 mm. The sides cutter axis. The
of the cutter is relieved in order thal unsymmetrical double
the side faces may not rub against �ngle cutters are available
the work. in diameters of 50, 63, 80,
Staggered teeth metpl and 100 mm and their
slitting saw : The staggered teeth width varies from 12 to 36
metal slitting saws resembfu a mm. The cutters are
staggered teeth side milling �utt(}r, available in different Figure 11.24 Double angle milling cutter
but the width of the cutte{ 'IS' LinJit-ed' included angles of 55 °, 60 °, 0. Diameterofcutter,d. Diameterof bore,
lo 6.5 to 7 mm. Tbe Pllter i�usd for 65 °, 70 °, 75 °, 80 °, 85 °, 90 °, b . Width, C. Di mension, Ct, P. angles.
heavy sawing in steel. Figure 11.22 Mital slitting ;aw and 100 ° degrees. The
equal angle cutters are available in diameters from 56 to 100 mm having
Angle milling cutler : The angle milling c1<111ers are matle as s)ngle or width ranging from 10 to 28 mm. The included angle of the cutter may be
dou?le angle cullers and are used to mac;h)nc angles other than 900 ,, The 450, 600 or 90 °. The double angle milling cutters are mainly used for
cutt1J)s e<lges arc forl)lcd a1 t\-w conical �uija�e around tbe periphery of 1'he cutting spiral grooves on a piece of blank.
,
cutte-r. fhe dfflerent typea of gJ1gle ¥i11.i,ng cutt'ers are descril}cd below.
End mill : The end mills have cutting teeth on the end as well as on the
Sin �le� �11gle milling cutter : The single angle milling cutters periphery of the cutter. The peripheral teeth may be straight or helical �nd
. .
' IIIBstrnt.cd in F1g.11.23 have teeth on the conical or angular face of the the helix may be right hand or left hand. The end mills are used for h�ht
c..itfer and also on the large flat side. The -angle of-the cutter is designated milling operations like cutting slots, machining accurate holes, producing
_
by the included angle between the conical face and the large flat face of narrow flat surfaces and for profile milling operations. Various typ,�s of
the cutter. The cutters having different included angles of 300, 450, 600.
end teeth on end mills are shown in MILLING MACHINES 423

Fig.11.25. The different types of end
mills· are described below : teeth may be straight
Taper shank 'en'd mill : The or helical and may
taper shank end mills have a tapered be left or right
shank or extension on one end for handed. Face
;Ji:
mounting and driving the cutters. The milling operations
Four-flute
cutters may be double fluted or are usually
multiple fluted. The taper shank end performed with
mills are available from 10 to 63 mm in these cutters. The
diameter and may have tanged end or diameter of cutters
tapped end for mounting on the arbor. ranges from 40 to
The taper shanks conform to the Morse 160 mm and width
taper No.5. Fig.11.26 illustrates a taper from 32 to 50 mm. Figure 11.28 Shell end mill
shank end mill. / Fig.11.28 illustrates D. Diameter of cutter, d. Diameter of bore , b. Width,
shell end mill. d 1, d2, d3• Diameters, b 1, b2• Widths.
Straight shank end mill : The
straight shank mills have round shanks T-slot milling cutter : The T-slot
for mounting and driving the cutters milling cutters are special form of
The cutter teeth may be straight or Figure 11.25 Types of end teeth end mills for producing T-slots.
helical. The diameter of the cutter ranges from 2 to 63 mm. Fig.11.27 Fig.11.29 illustrates a T-slot and
illustrates a straight shank end mill. dovetails slot milling cutter. The
teeth are provided on the periphery
as well as on both sides of the
-E=E·- cutter.
Woodruff key slot milling cutter: Figure 11.29 Slot milling cutters
The woodruff key slot milling A. T-slot milling cutter, B. Dovetail
Figure 11.26 Taper shank end mill cutters are small standard cutters slot milling cutter.
similar in construction to a thin
small diameter plain milling
cutter, intended for the
production of woodruff key
slots. The cutter is provided
Figure 11.27 Straight shank end mill With a shank and may have
straight or staggered teeth.
Shell end mill: The shell end mills are larger and heavier end mills
provided with a central hole for mounting the cutter on a short arbor. This Fly cutter : The fly cutters arc
design of the cutter gives economy in tool material as the cutters having simplest form of cutters and arc 4
different diameters may be interchanged on a single shank. The cutting mainly used in experimental
edges are provided at the end and around the periphery of the cutter. the shops or in tool room works.
The cutter consists of a single Figure ll.30'Fly cutter
point cutting tool attached to 1. Clamping screw, 2. Tool, 3. Arbor
the end of an arbor. The ranges from 1.5 to 20 mm. Fig.11.33 illustrates a comer rounding milling
cutting edge may be formed cutter.
to reproduce contoured Gear cutter: The gear cutters illustrated in Fig.11.34 have formed
surface. The cutter may be cutting edges which reproduce the shape of the curler teeth on the gear
considered as an emergency blank. The shape of the cutter teeth may be involute or cycloida according
tool when the standard to the gear tooth profile. The cutter tooth profile should be differently
cutters are not available. A shaped for each pitch of the gear and also for
fly cutter is illustrated in each change in number of teeth on the gear
Fig .11.30. which it is going to cut. But in practice a
Figure 11.31 Convex milling cutter compromise is effected by using one cutter to
Formed cutter : The formed cover a range of gear sizes. Thus for cutting
cutters have irregular profiles gear teeth of involute profile, 8 numbers of
on the cutting edges in order cutter are required to cut from a pinion of 12
to generate an irregular out teeth to a rack and for cycloidal tooth profile
line of the work. The differ 24 cutters are used for cutting different
ent types of standard formed numbers of gear teeth. A list of cutters with
cutters are described below. the number of teeth they are intended to cut Figure 11.34 Gear cutter
Convex milling cutter : is given in Table 11.1.
Figure 11.32 Concave milling cutter
The convex milling cutters
TABLE I I.I CUTTER FOR INVOLUTE AND CYCLOIDAL GEAR
have teeth curved outwards TEETH
on the circumferential surface
to form the contour of a
lnvofllle gear Cycloidal gear
semicircle. The cutter pro
Cutter No. No. ofteelh cut Cutter No. No. of teeth cut Cutter No. No. of teeth cul
duces a concave semicircular
surface on a workpiece. The No. I 135 teeth to a No. A 12 teeth No. M 27 to 29 teeth
diameter of the cutter ranges rake
from 50 to 125 mm and the No. 2 55 to 134 teeth No.B 13 teeth No. N 30to 33 teeth
Figure 11.33 Corner rounding milling No. 3 35 to 54 teeth No.C 14 teeth No.O 34 to 37 teeth
radius of the semicircle var
cutter No. 4 26 to 34 teeth No. D 15 teeth No. P 38 to 42 teeth
ies from 1.6 to 20 mm. No. 5 21 to 25 teeth No. E 16 teeth No.Q 43 to 49 tccth
Fig.11.31 illustrates a convex milling cutter. No. 6 17 to 20teeth No.F 17 teeth No. R 50to 59 teeth
Concave milling cutter : The concave milling cutters have teeth No. 7 14 to 16 teeth No. G 18 teeth No. S 60 to 74 teeth
No. 8 12 to 13 teeth No. H 19 teeth No. T 75 to 99 teeth
curved inwards on the circumferential surface to form the contour of a No. I 20teeth No.U I 00to 149 teeth
semicircle. The concave milling cutters produce a convex semicircular No. J 21 to 22 No. V 150to 249 teeth
surface on a workpiece. The diameter of the cutter ranges from 56 to 11O No. K 23 to 24 No. W 250or more
No. L 25 to 26 No. X Cuts a rack
�m and the radius of the semicircle varies from 1.5 to 20 mm. Fig.11.32
illustrates a concave milling cutter.
Corner rounding milling cutter : The corner rounding milling Thread milling cutter : The thread milling cutters are designed to
cutters have teeth curved inwards on the circumferential surface to form mill threads of specific form and size on a workpiece. Generally, worms
the contour of a quarter circle. The cutter produces a convex surface and acme threads are produced by thread milling cutters . The cutters may
having a contour of a quarter circle. The cutters are used for cutting a have parallel or taper shanks. The· parallel shank thread milling cutters
.
radius on the corners or edges of the work. The diameter of the cutter
$ -�--·=3
Fillet : The curved surface at the bottom of gash which joins the
face of one tooth to the back of the tooth immediate l y ahead.
Gash : The chip cutTINC. (DC.(
Figure 11.35 Parallel shank thread milling cutter space between the back of
one tooth and the face of
� --?-_ ___..._�_:: _- _-: ��- : �T·

the next tooth. UCONOAAY C.l.0,AAHC(
ANGU
Land : The part of
the back of tooth adjacent
� � •,..........� to the cutting edge which
Figure 11.36 Taper shank thread milling cutter is relieved to avoid
interference between the
illustrated in Fig.11.35 arc available in surface being machined
diameters ranging from 8 to 20 mm and the and the cutter.
l ength of the threaded portion varies from 8 to
Lead : The axia l
advance of the hel ix of
33 mm. The pitch of the thread corresponds to
the cutting edge in one
the diameter of the cutter. The taper shank
complete revolution of
thread milling cutters illustrated in Fig.11.36 OUl �10l OIAM[T[.A
the cutter.
arc avai lable in diameters ranging from 16 to Figure U.38 Elements of plain milling
Outside diameter
25 mm and the length of threaded portion cutter
Figure 11.37 Tap and The diameter of the circle
varies from 16 to 40 mm.
reamer cutter passing through the peripheral cutting edge.
Tap and reamer cutter : The tap and reamer A. Tap culler, and B. Root diameter : The diameter of the circle passing through the
Reamer cutter. bottom of the fi l let.
cutters arc special type double angle cutters
intended for producing grooves or flutes in taps or reamers. The
point end Cutter angles : Similar to a single point cutting tool, the ':"ill ing cutt�r
of the tooth is rounded and the tooth profile corresponds to
the type of teeth are also provided with rake, clearance and other cutting angl es in
groove that it is going to make. A tap and reamer cutter is
illustrated in order to remove metal efficient l y. The fo l lowing are the different cutter
Fig.11.37.
angles.
. .
Relief angle: The ang l e in a plane perpendicular to the axis, wh'.ch
11.11 ELEMENTS OF A PLAIN MILLING CUITER
is the angle between the land of a tooth and the tangent to the outside
diameter of cutter at the cutting edge of that tooth.
The principa l parts and angles of a plain milling cutter illustrated in
Primary clearance angle : The angle formed by the back of �he
Fig.11.38 arc described below
tooth with a l ine drawn tangent to the periphery of the cutter at the cutting
edge.
Body of cutter : The part of the cutter l eft after exclusion of the
Secondary clearance angle : The angle formed by the s�condary
teeth and the portion to which the teeth are attached.
clearance surface of the tooth with a line drawn tangent to the penphery of
Cutting edge : The edge formed by the intersection of the face and
the cutter at the cutting edge.
the circular land or the surface left by the provision of primary clearance.
Rake angle (Radial) : The angl e measured in the diametral plane
Face : The portion of the gash adjacent to the cutting edge on
between the face of the tooth and a radial line passing through the tooth
which the chip impinges as it is cut from the work.
cutting edge. The rake angles which may be positive, negative or zero are
illustrated in Fig.11.39(a), (b) and (c).
Zero rake: If the radial line and tooth face coincide in the diameter 11.12 ELEl\jENTS OF A SIDE MILLING CUTTER
plane, the rake angle is zero.
Positive rake : If the tooth face is titled, so that the face and the The principal parts and angles of a
tooth body are on the same side of the radial line, then the rake angle side milling cutter are illustrated in
contained by the radial line and the tooth Fig.11.42. The definitions of t-4-J
. '
face is positive. different tooth elements as described
Negative rake : If the tooth face is in Art 11.11 are applied to .side
titled, so that the face and the tooth body milling cutters also. The cutting
are on the opposite side of the radial line, edges on the periphery are called
then the rake angle contained by the radial peripheral cutting edges and those
line and the tooth face is negative. on the face of the cutter are called
Axial rake angle (!or helical face cutting edges. The side milling
teeth) : The angle between the line of cutters have relief angles, clearance
Figure 11..39(a) Milling peripheral cutting edge and the axis of the angles, and rake angles on the
cutter having positive rake cutter when looking radially at the point periphery as well as on the face of Figure 11.41 Elements of side
1. Positive rake angle of intersection. the cutters. milling cutter
Lip angle : The included angle 1. Cutting edge, 2. Secondary
between the land and the face of the tooth, 11.13 ELEMENTS IF A FACE face clearance angle, 3. Primary
or alternatively the angle between the MILLING CUTTER face clearance angle, 4. Width of
tangent to the back at the cutting edge and cutter, 5. Primary peripheral
the face of the tooth. The principal parts and angles of a clearance angle, 6. Secondary
Helix angle : The cutting edge face milling cutter are illustrated in peripheral clearance angle, 7.
angle which a helical cutting edge makes Fig.11.42. The definitions of Radial rake angle
with a plane containing the axis of a different tooth elements as described
cylindrical cutter. Fig.11.40 illustrates the in Art 11.11 are applied to face
I
Figure ll..39(b) Milling helix angle of a helical cutter. milling cutters also. The '..../
particular terms related to the 2 I
cutter having zero rake I
face milling cutter are descried

J Cutting edge
-==�'---.:.-Land below.
Peripheral cutting edge

: The part of the cutting edge of
the blade which is on the
periphery of the cutter.
Face cutting edge : The
part of the cutting edge of the 8
blade which is on the face of Figure ll.42 Elements of a face milling
Figure ll..39(c) Milling the cutter. cutter
cutter having negative rake Peripheral relief angle : I. Axial rake angle, 2. Lip angle, 3. Face
1. Negative rake angle Figure 11.40 Helix angle of helical cutter The angle between the relieved clearance angle, 4. Face relief angle, 5.
flank of the tooth or blade and a Peripheral clearance angle, 6. Peripheral relief
angle, 7. Lip angle, 8. Radial rake angle
2. Excessive helix angle of the cutter may cause the chips to be
tangent to the periphery in a diametral plane passing through the cutting carried over within the flutes, pulling them back into the next
edge. cut. This results in breaking or chipping of the cutting edge.
Peripheral clearance angle : The angle between the cleared flank
function of the relief angl� is to
of the blade and a tange nt to the periphery in a diametral plane passing Relief and clearance angle : The chief
the work surface. Th� w1�th �f
through the cutting edge. pre ve nt interference between the land and
ing, and in orde r to mamtam this
Face relief angle : The angle between the land or relieve d flank of the land incre ases after repe ated resharpen
provide primary clearance angl�.
the tooth immediately back of the cutting edge and cutter face . width, the back of the tooth is ground to
a secondary clearnnce angle is
Face clearance angle : The angle between cleared flank of the When the land become s too wide, of
e f angle varies �ith the typ�
tooth back of relieved surface and the cutter face. incorporated for proper relief. The reli atenals.
ef angle s f or different �
Radial rake : The angle in the face plane between the blade face material being milled. Table 11.2 gives reli
eter of th cutte rs has also direc t influence on the rehef an� le.
and a radial line or plane passing through the cutter axis and blade nose. The diam e
r relief angles. The cutters having
Axial rake : The angle between the face of the blade and a line The smaller diameter cutters have large
with increased relief angl es by 25
passing through the nose parallel to the cutter axis. diameter le ss than 75 mm are provided
to 50 per cent than larger cutters. . . .
wear with high .heat will.
11.14 INFLUENCE OF TOOTH ANGLES ON CUTTER J f th e relief angle is insufficient, excessive
uce chatter on the workpiece.
PERFORMANCE result. Too much of relief angle will prod
TABLE 11.2 RELIEF ANGLES
Helix angles : The wider milling cutters are made with helical teeth due to Rake angles : Metals are generally FOR MILLING CUTTERS
the following advantages. cut more efficiently with a positive
rake angle than with a negative one Material Relief angles,
1. The helical cutters operate with smoothness than a non helical while using h.s.s. cutters. The degrees
one. It is due to the fact that if the cutter tee th are made paral lel cutting forc e is reduce d by 3-5
Mild steel
to the axis, they strike the work simultaneously across the entire increasing rake angle. The tool life Cast iron 4-7
width. This results in hammering action by the too l on the work is taken into account while givin g 10-12
Brass and bronze
in a regular frequency, and ultimately results in chattering of the suitable rake angle. The tool life is Aluminum alloys 10-12
entire set up. This causes a poorer surface finish and shorter tool taken into account whi le giving Magn esium alloys 10-12
life. A cutter having helical teeth engages with the work suitable rake angle to a cutter. The
are desctibed in Art 3.43.
progressively and the cutting action is continuous. This various facors which govern the rake angle
eliminates chatte ring and smoothens the cutting action.
2. The he lix angle also reduces power consumption. The chattering ERENT TOOL MAT ERIALS
TABLE 11.3 RAKE ANGLES FOR DIFF
effect causes fluctuation in power input, and this may reach
higher values than that is obtained in smooth cutting action. High speed steel Cast alloy Cemented carbide
Material
Radial rake, degrees Radial rake, degrees
Radial rake, degrees
The cutter having helix angle ranging from 25 ° to 45 ° are efficient 3-6
10-15 6--8
in metal machining. Excessive amount of helix angle introduces several Soft cast iron
3-6 0(-5)
Mild steel 10-15
unfavorable factors. They are as follows : 10 3-6 0-3
Hard cast iron 10-20
20-35 10-15
Aluminum alloys 15-25
1. Excessive helix angle of the cutter causes tre mendous e nd thrust Magnesium alloys 20-35 15-25
5 3
to act upon the spindle be arings and on the table guideways. If Brass and Bronze 10
the machine is not properly designed, this may cause deflection
in machine parts causing inaccuracy on the work surface.
While using cemented carbide tipped tool, it is customary to use 6. The high cutting speed with which the negative rake cutters are
negative rake angles. operated prevents built-up edge to be formed on the nose of the
The average rake angles used in milling cutters for different tool cutter. This improves surface finish and prevents craters to be
materials are given in Table 11.3. formed on the cutting edges, thereby increasing the tool life.
Negative rake milling : The cemented carbide tipped negative rake The negative rake milling can
milling cutters are used for high rate of production. The usual value of only be performed after satisfying
negative rake is 10 °. While negative rake milling, no coolant is used. The the following conditions
excessive heat generated due to high cutting speed of the cutter is used
with advantage to reduce the cutting pressure on the workpiece. The 1. The machine should be
advantages of negative rake milling are manifold. They are described operated at a very high
below. speed.
2. There should be sufficient Figure 11.43 Graph showing
1. The cutting action of negative rake milling cutters tend to force supply of power.
the carbide tips solidly against the cutter body exerting relationship between speed
3. There should not be any and cutting force
compressive load on the tips that they can withstand easily due fluctuation of speed. In
to high compressive strength of the material. heavy machines, even fly-wheels should be fitted with the
2. The cutting edge of the carbide tips is also greatly strengthened spindle to reduce the fluctuation.
when a negative rake is provided. The increased lip angle, more 4. The machine, the tool and the work, and the tool holding
than 90 °, permits the tool to withstand greater cutting load. devices should be sufficiently rigid.
3. The initial point of contact between the tip and the work is made 5. The cutting edges should be properly ground.
to pass at a greater distance from the tooth nose, when a
negative rake cutter used. This protects the edge of the tooth and 11.15 SHARPENING MILLING CUTIERS
permits interrupted cutting, as the shock load is made to pass
through a stronger section of the cutter �ody. A milling cutter should be properly and correctly ground for achieving
4. The cutting force required to drive a negative rake milling cutter
better surface finish, greater rate of production and longer tool life. The
decreases as the cutting speed is increased to a very high value.
relief angle is provided by grinding the cutter in a straight or cup type
At high cutting speed, with negative rake cutters, the chips are
grinding wheel. The cutter center and the wheel center arc placed slightly
heated to such a stage that they become comparatively soft and
offset to give the required relief.
flow out easily on the tooth face, reducing cutting pressure. In
Formed cutters are sharpened only on the face of the tooth. The
positive rake milling, the cutting force increases with the speed.
grinding wheel is set radially with the cutter axis a�d all the teeth are
A comparative study of the relation between cutting force and _
ground by the same amount. The peripheral surface ts n�t t�uched as ,t
speed for positive and negative rake milling is shown _
may alter the shape of the cutter. A hevel or dish type gnndrng wheel ts
graphically in Fig.11.43.
used for sharpening formed cutters.
5. The negative rake milling cutters operating at high cutting speed
The face milling cutters are grounded in special cutter grinders. The
and feed produce an excellent finished surface similar to a
inserted blade cutters may be grounded by removing he individual tooth
ground or burnished surface. While negative rake milling, the
from the cutter body and then grinding them separately. The cutter teeth
work surface becomes so much heated due to severe rubbing
may be held in special fixtures and the whole lot may be ground to the
action between the cutter and the work that it almost approaches
required angle.
the melting point of the metal, and this results in smoothening
of the rough surface.
terminat!!S. As the chip thickness per tooth is not unifonn, the cutting in
11.16 MILLING CUTIER MATERIAL
upmilling increases from zero to the maximum value per tooth movement
of the cutter. The cutting force is directed upwards and this tends to lift the
The milling cutters may be made of high speed steel, super high speed
work from the fixtures. In upmilling, due to the typical nature of the cut,
steel, non-ferrous cast alloys or cemented carbide tipped. The high speed
difficulty is experienced in pouring coolant just on the cutting edge fron1
steel cutters are the most widely used cutters in general shop work. the
where the chip begins. As the cutter progresses, the chip accumulate at the
cutters are successfully used for plain milling or slotting operations where
cutting zone, and may be carried over with the cutter spoiling the work
the chip thickness is small. The cast alloys or cemented carbide tips are
surface. The surface milled by upmilling appears to he slightly wavy as the
used as inserted blades or the tips are brazed on the tool steel shanks. The
cutter teeth do not begin their cut as soon as they touch the work surface.
cast non-ferrous alloys are used for machining cast iron, malleable iron,
The teeth slide through a minute distance at the beginning and then the cut
cast and forged steel, stainless steel and the alloy steel. The cemented
is started. The upmilling process, being safer, is still commonly used
carbide tipped cutters are used wherever high rate of production is desired.
inspite of having so many disadvantages.
The c�tter performance is excellent when using this cutter in face milling
operation. The cutters are used for machining all the different types of
metal and nonmetallic materials. The cemented carbide cutters are
unsuitable for deep end milling, deep narrow slotting and complicated
operations.
11.17 FUNDAMENTALS OF THE MILLING PROCESSES

3
The various milling processes perfonned by the different milling cutters
may be grouped under two separate headings : peripheral milling and face
milling. The cutting action of milling cutters to perfonn the above (a) (b)
processes are desired below. Figure 1L44 Upmilling and downmilling
(a) Downmilling (b) Upmilling
Peri��eral milling: The peripheral milling is the operations perfonned by I. Direction of work feed, 2. Chip, 3. Machined surface, 4. Direction of rotation. 5.
Start of cut, 6. Work surface, 7. Depth of cut, 8. Feed per tooth.
a milling cutter to produce a machined surface parallel to the axis of
rotation of the cutter. In peripheral milling the cutting force is not unifonn
Downmilling: The downmilling, which is also called climb milling, is the
throughout the length of the cut by each tooth. Due to this reason, a shock
process of removing metal by a cutter which is rotated in the same
is developed in the driving mechanism of the machine that leads to
d( rection of travel of the workpiece. The downmilling is illustrated in
vibration. The quality of surface generated and the shape of chip fonned is
dependent upon the rotation of the cutter relative to the direction of feed :ig.11.44(a( The thickness of the chip is maximum when the tooth begins
its cut and it reduces to the minimum when the cut terminates. The cutter
movement of the work. According to the relative movement between the
to�th sta�s removing metal immediately on reaching the worksurfacc.
tool �nd the work, the peripheral milling is classified under two headings .
. w1tho�t sliding, �s it �an apply a sufficient bite on the work . The cutting
upmtlling and down milling. The cutting processes involved in up-milling _
force rn down milling is also varial;,le throughout the cut, it is maximum
and down are described below.
when the tooth begins its cut and it reduces to the minimum when the tooth
l�ave� the work. In downmilling, the fixture design becomes easier ll.'> the
Upmilling : The upmilling, which is also called conventional milling, is
d1rect1on of the_ cuttin g force is such t�at it tends to seat the work firmly in
t�e p�ocesses of removing metal by a cutter which is rotated against the _
d1rect1on of travel of the workpiece. The upmilling operation is illustrated �he "".ork holdmg
_ devices. The chips are also disposed off i;asily and do not
mte �cre with the cutting. The coolants can be poured directly at the
in Fig.11.44(b). The thickness of the chip in upmilling is minimum at the
cutting zone where the cutting force is maximum. This results in improved
beginning of the cut and it reaches to the maximum when the cut
surface finish and diminishes the heat generated. The down milling peripheral cutting edges are used to remove metal, the direction of rotation
operation having so many advantages cannot be used on old machines due and the direction of helix should be opposite to each other.
to the backlash error that may be present between the feed screw of the
table and the nut. The backlash error causes the work to be pulled below 11.18 MILLING MACHINE OPERATIONS
the cutter when the cut begins and leaves the work free when the cut is
terminated. The same action is repeated as soon as the next tooth engages The following are the different operations performed in a milling machine:
the work. This results in vibration to be set up in the workpiece and
damages the work surface considerably. The down milling should only be 1. Plain milling. 9. End milling.
performed on rigid machines provided with backlash eliminator. 2. Face milling. 10. Saw milling.
3. Side milling. 11 . Milling key ways, grooves and slots.
Face milling : The face milling is the operation performed by a milling 4. Straddle milling. 12. Gear cutting.
cutter to produce a flat machine surface perpendicular to the axis of 5. Angular milling. 13. Helical milling.
rotation of the cutter. The peripheral cutting edges of the cutter do the 6. Gang milling. 14. Cam milling.
actual cutting, whereas the face cutting edges finish up the work surface by 7. Form milling. 15. Thread milling.
removing a very small amount of material. A face milling operation is 8. Profile milling.
illustrated in Fig.11.45. In face milling oper�tion both the up and down
milling may be considered to be performed simultaneously on the work Plain milling : The plain milling is the
surface. When the cutter rotates through half of the revolution, the operation of productioh of a plain, flat,
direction of movement of the cutter tooth is opposite to the direction of horizontal surface parallel to the axis of
feed and the condition reverses when the cutter rotates through other half rotation of a plain milling cutter. The
nf the revolution. The thickness of the chir, is minimum at the beginning operation is also callcu slab milling. To
and at the end of the cut, and it is perform the operation, the work and the
maximum when the work passes cutter are securecl properly on the
through the centre line of the machine. The depth of cut is adjusted by
cutter. The surface generated in rotating the vertical feed screw of the
face milling is characterized by the table and the machine is started after
tooth circular marks of the cutter. selecting proper speed and feed. The plain figure 11.46 Plain milling
The length of the face cutting milling operation is illustrated tn operation
edges should be greater than the Fig.11.46.
amount of feed as the function of 2
these cutting edges is to smoothen Face milling : The face milling operation
Figure 11.45 Fundamentals of face
the circular marks left by is performed by a face milling cutter
milling operation
peripheral cutting edges. rotated about an axis perpendicular to the
I. Feed, 2. Tooth path.
work surface. The operation is carried in a
End milling : The end milling may be considered as the combination of plain milling machine, and the cutter is
peripheral and face milling operation. The cutter has teeth both on the end mounted on a stub arbor to produce a flat
face and on the periphery. The cutting characteristics may be of peripheral surface. The depth of cut is adjusted by
or face milling type according to the particular cutter surface used. When rotating the cross feed screw of the table. Figure 11.47 Face milling
the end cutting edges are only used to remove metal, the direction of The face milling operation is illustrated in operation
rotation and the direction of helix of the cutter should be same. When the Fig.11.47.
Side milling : The side milling is 8. If instead of using straddle milling, a single side milling cutter is
the operation of production of a flat used, the work will have to be rotated through one sixth of a
vertical surface on the side of a revolution for six number of times to finish six faces of the
oD o
workpiece by using side milling work. This is illustrated in Fig.11.50.
cutter. The depth of cut is adjusted
by rotating the vertical feed screw Angular milling : The angular
OoO
of the table. The side milling milling is the operation of produc
operation is illustrated in Fig.11.48. tion of an angular surface on a
Figure 11.48 Side milling workpiece other than at right angles
Straddle milling : The straddle is operation to the axis of the milling machine
6 0
the operation of production of flat spindle. The angular groove may be
0
vertical surfaces on both sides of a workpiece by using two side milling single or double angle and may be
cutters mounted on the same arbor. The distance between the two cutters is of varying included angle according
Do
correctly adjusted by using suitable spacing collars. The straddle milling is to the type and shape of the angular
very commonly used to produce square or hexagonal surfaces. A typical cutter used. One simple example of
straddle milling operation is illustrated in Fig.11.49. angular milling is the production of
V-blocks. The angular milling
Milling hexagonal bolt head : One operation is illustrated in Fig.11.51.
Figure 11.SO Milling hexagonal
of the common examples of side bolt by single side milling cutter
milling or straddle milling is the Gang milling: The gang milling is
operation of milling hexagonal bolt the operation of machining several surfaces of a workpiece simultaneously
heads. The procedure adapted to by feeding the table against a number of cutters having same or different
mill a hexagonal bolt head, diameters mounted on the arbor of the machine. The method saves m'Jch
illustrated in Fig.11.49, is described .of machining time and is widely used in repetitive work. The cutting speed
Figure 11.49 Milling hexagonal
below: of a gang of cutters is calculated from the cutter of the largest diameter.
bolt by straddle milling
The gang milling operation is illustrated in Fig.11.52.
1. The width across the flat of the bolt head is first determined.
2. Two half side milling cutters are mounted on the arbor and the
distance between them is correctly adjusted equal to the width
across the flat of the bolt head by using suitable spacing collars.
3. A universal dividing head is mounted on the table with its
spindle swivelled to the vertical position.
4. The workpiece is mounted at the nose of the dividing head
spindle by the help of a suitable chuck.
5. The workpiece is centred below the cutter and the first cut is
taken.
6. The workpiece is rotated through one sixth of a revolution by
using the indexing mechanism and then the second cut is taken.
7. The workpiece is turned again by one sixth of a revolution and
the third cut is taken. This finishes the work and the hexagonal
!wit head is produced. Figure 11.Sl Angular milling operation Figure 11.52 Gang milling
perfonned for complete parting-off operation. The cutter and the
�orm milling : The form milling is the operation of production of workpiece are set in a manner so that the cutter is directly placed over one
lffegular contours by using form cutter. The irregular contour may be of the T-slots of the table. Fig.11.56 illustrates an end milling operation.
convex, concave, or of any other shape. After machining, the formed 1
_
�urface 1s checked by a template gauge. The cutting speed for form milling
is 20% to 30% less than that of the plain milling. The form milling 2
operation is illustrated in Fig.11.53.
4
6
7
Figure 11.54 Profile milling

1. Table, 2. Work, 3. Endmill,
Figure 11.56 Saw milling
4. Power connection between tool Figure 11.57 T-slot milling
Figure 11.53 Form milling operation
and tracer, 5. Contoured profile, operation
I. Fonned cutter, 2. Work 6.'Tracer, 7. Master die. 1. Saw, 2. work.
Milling keyways, grooves and slots : 1. T-slot cutter, 2. Work.
The operation of production of keyways, grooves and slots of varying
Pro�le milling: The profile milling is the operation of reproduction of an shapes and sizes can be performed in a milling machine by using a plain
o�tlme of a template or complex shape of a master die on a workpiece. milling cutter, a metal slitting saw, an end mill or by a side milling cutter.
Different cutters may be used for profile milling. An end mill is one of the The open slots can be cut by a plain milling cutter, a metal slitting saw, or
most widely used milling cutter in profile milling work. Fig.11.54 by a side milling cutter. The closed slots are produced by using endmills.
illustrates profile milling. A dovetail slot or a T-slot is manufactured by using special type of cutters
designed to give the required shape on the
End milling : The end milling is the
workpiece., The T-slot is produced by first
operation of production of a flat surface
milling a plain slot on the workpiece and then
which may be vertical, hor;zontal or at an
the shank of the T-slot milling cutter is
angle in reference to the table surface. The
introduced through the first machined slot.
cutter used is an end mill. The end milling
The second slot is cut at right angles to the
cutters are also used for production of slots,
first slot by feeding the work past the cutter.
grooves or kcyways. A vertical milling
Fig.11.57 illustrates a T-slot milling
machine is most suitable for end milling
operation.
operation. Fig.11.55 illustrates an end
An woodruff key is produced by using
milling operation.
a woodruff key slot cutter. Standard keyways
Saw milling : The saw milling is the
Figure I 1.55 End milling are cut on shafts by using side milling cutters
operation of production of a narrow slots or Figure 11.58 Keyway
operation or end mills. The cutter is exactly at the centre
grooves on a workpiece by using a saw milling operation
I. End mill line of the workpiece and then the cut is taken.
milling cutter. The saw milling can also be
Fig.11.58 illustrates the operation of cutting keyway by a side milling
cutter.
442 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TEt:HNOLOGY . MILLING MACHINES 443
Gear cutting : The gear cutting operation is performed in a milling axis is gradually reduced. This causes the radius of the cam to be
machine by using a form relieved cutter. The cutter may be cylindrical shortened, and produces a spiral lobe with a lead which is same as that for
type or end mill type. The cutter profile corresponds exactly with the tooth which the machine is geared. The perpendicular setting of the dividing
space of the gear. head spindle is shown in Fig.11.60.
Equally spaced gear
teeth are cut on a gear
blank by holding the
work on a universal
dividing head· and then --- - --+�+-
indexing it. The gear
cutting operation
performed in a milling
machine is described in
Chapter XII. The gear
cutting operation by a 1-
formed cutter is
illustrated in Fig.11.59. Figure 11.59 Gear cutting operation
Figure 11.60 Cam milling-perpendicular and parallel setting
A. Perpendicular setting of dividing head, B, Horizonta, setting of dividing head.
Helical milling : The helical milling is the operation of production of 1. Direction of feed, 2. Direction of spindle rotation.
helical flutes or grooves around the periphery of a cylindrical or conical
workpiece. The operation is performed by swivelling the table to the ·
In the second case, the setting of the dividing head spindle aq�J'the
required helix angle and then by rotating and feeding the work against cutter axis is made horizontal and parallel to each other. If the cam, Jhic?
rotary cutting edges of a milling cutter. The usual examples of work is mounted at the end of the dividing head spindle, is now rotated and fed
performed by helical milling operations are : the production of helical against H,e cutter, the centre distance between the two spindle axis will
milling cutters, helical gears, cutting helical grooves or flutes on a drill remain 1rnaltered. This would resu'It in the milling of a circle and the lead
blank or a reamer. The helical milling operation has been described in Art. of the spiral would be zero.
12.9. The horizontal setting of the
dividing head is shown in
Cam milling : The cam milling is the operation of production of cams in a Fig.11.60.
milling machine by the use of a universal dividing head and a vertical It follows from the
milling attachment. The cam blank is mounted at the end of the dividing above two conditions that if
head spindle and an end mill is held in the vertical milling attachment. The the dividing head spindle or
axis of the cam blank and the end mill spindle should always remain the cam axis is set at any
parallel to each other when set for cam milling. The dividing head is 2
angle between zero to ninety
geared to the table feed screw so that the cam is rotated about its axis while degrees, the amount of lead
it is fed against the end mill. The axis of the cam can be set from zero to given to the cam will change
ninety degrees in reference to the surface of the table for obtaining from zero to the maximum Figure 11.61 Cam milling-angular
different rise of the cam. lead for which the machine setting
In the first case, when the dividing head spindle or the cam axis is is geared. The angular I . Tabte leadscrew, 2. Change gear, 3. Dividing
set perpendicular to the table, as the table advances and the blank is turned, setting of the dividing head head, 4. Cam, 5. End mill, 6. Vertical head.
the centre distance between the dividing head spindle axis and the cutter spindle is shown in Fig.11.61.
\
co�leted in one cut by setting lhe cutter to the full depth of the thread and
Thus with one set of change gears only, the production of cams
then feecting it' along the entire length of the workpiece.
having different leads are possible by simply setting the dividing head
When the thread is cut by a multiple thread milling cutter, the cutter
spindle to the required angle.
axis and\the work spindle are set parallel to each other after adjusting the
In Fig.11.62, A, B, Care three sides of a right angled triangle that
depth of cul equal to the full depth of the thread. The thread is completed
represents vectorially the three movements of the cam and the table. The
by simply feeding the revolving cutter longitudinally through a distance
side C represents the distance moved by the table per revolution of the
equal to the pitch length of the thread while the work is rotated through
cam. The side A represents the movement of the cam axis towards the
one complete revolution. Fig.11.63 illustrates the thread milling operation.
rnltcr per revolution. This distance is known as cam rise or lead of the
cam. The side B represents the dista�ce moved by the cam along the axis 11.19 CUTTING SPEED, FEED AND DEPTH OF CUT
of the cutter. The angle () is the inclination of the dividing head for a given
cam rise or lead of the cam. The required angle of inclination may be Cutting speed : The speed of milling cutter is its peripheral linear speed
calculated from the formula given below. This is derived from the right resulting from rotation. It is expressed in .meters per minute. The cutting
angled triangle ABC. speed can be derived from the formula:
Cam rise per rev. Lead of the cam A

Sin 8 = ------ = = 11. 1 1tdn
11.2
Lead of the table Lead of the table c v = -- metres per mm
1000
where,
Thread milling : The thread milling v = the cutting speed in m per min
is the operation of production of d = the diameter of the cutter in mm.
threads by using a single or multiple n = the cutter speed in r.p.m.
thread milling cutter. The operation
is performed in special thread milling The different factors which govern the cutting speed of a material
machines to produce accurate threads are described in Art. 2.17. The spindle speed of a machine 'is selected to
in small or large quantities. The give the desired peripheral speed of the cutter. The average values of
operation requires three driving cutting speed for different materials are given in Table 11.4.
motions in the machine : 01,e for the
cutter, one for the work and the third Feed : The feed in a milling machine is defined as the rate with which the
for the lpngitudinal movement of the Figure 11.62 Vector diagram workpiece advances under ihe cutter. The feed is expressed in a milling
·-
for cam milling machine by the following three different methods.
cutter. Feed per tooth (Sz) : Th.:: feed per tooth is defined by the distance
When the the work advances in the time between engagement by the two successive
operation is performed teeth. It is expressed in millimeters per tooth of the cutter.
by a single thread milling Feed per cutter revolution (Srev) : The feed per cutter revolution is
� cutter, the cutter head is
�I_: b I the distance the work advances in the time when the cutter turns through
swivelled to the exact one complete revolution. It is expressed in millimeters per revolution of
Figure 11.63 Thread milling operation helix angle of the thread. the cutter.
(a). External thread milling operation- The cutter is rotated on
Feed per minute (Sm) : The feed per minute is defined by the
!. Work, 2. Thread milling cutter the spindle and the work
distance the work advances in one minute. It is expressed in millimeters
(b). Internal thread milling operation- is �evolved slowly about
!. Thread milling culler, 2. Work. per minute.
its axis. The thread is
of te�th on their
The coarse teeth cutter having lesser number
ining. The following are the
The feed per tooth, the feed per cutter revolution, and the fi ed per periph ry are efficient in metal mach
minute are related by the formula which is given below. advanta es of a coarse teeth cutter.
sm =nxs,.,,. =sz xZxn 11.3 1 � Greater chip space may be provided. . .

by increasing
where, 2. Gutter tooth cross-section may be increased there
Z = number of teeth in the c.utter its strength.
the cutter.
and n = the cutter speed in r.p.m. 3. Greater amount of rake angle can be provided on
The average values of feed are given in Table 11.4. 4. Less power is required to drive the cutter.
the tooth and the
5. Less sliding friction is produced between
TABLE 11.4 AVERAGE CUTTING SPEED AND FEED OF DIFFERENT work. This reduces the development of heat.
as the number of
MATERIALS 6. Longer life of the cutter may be obtained
regrinds can be increased.
Work material Face milling Peripheral milling
E
Tool steel h.s.s. Tool steel h.s.s 11.21 CALCULATION OF MACHINING TIM
Cutting, Feed Cutting Feed Cutting Feed Cutting Feed
tion can be calculated
The time required to mill a surface for any opera
speed mm/min speed mm/min speed mm/min speed mm/min
Mild steel 7.2-18 150-15 24-42 300-3Q 7.2-18 50-10 18-36 80-15 from the formula
37 kg/mm2 L 11.5
Gr�Y. cast iron 6-15 250-15 18-36 250-25 6-15 60-20 15-30 100-30 T=----
s, xlxn
tes .
Mild steel 7.2-15 150-15 18-36 250-25 7.2-15 40-10 15-30 70-15 where, T = the time required to complete the cut in minu .
to comp lete the cut JO mm.
L = the length of the table travel
50 flglmm 2
Bronze or 18-36 200-20 42-72 300-30 18-36 100-20 36-60 180-30
brass sl = the feed per tooth in mm.
Cutting speed is in m/min z = the number of teeth in the cutter.
n = the r.p.m. of the cutter.
Depth of cut : The depth of cut in milling is the thickness of the material
removed in one pass of the work under the cutter. It is the perpendicular In Fig.11.64 the
distance measured between the original and final surface of the workpiece, length of the table
and is expressed in mm. travel 'L' is composed
11.20 NUMBER OF CUTTER TEETH

of two parts : the length
of the work "C" and the ______...... .,,,,
approach length "A" is
The number of teeth on a milling cutter should be properly designed for the distance through
effective machining operation. Knowing the speed and feed to which the which the cutter must
cutter will be subjected while in operation, the number of cutter teeth can be moved before the
be derived from the Formula 11.3. The number of cutter teeth is calculated full depth of cut is
from the equation reached. Figure 11.64 Approach length for plain
milling cutter
11.4
448 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY MllLING MAC.HINES 449
Approach length for plain milling cutter : The approach "A" or a SAFETY MEASURES IN MILLING
plain milling cutter can be calculated from the equation
Milling machine operators must be extremely careful in running this
A2 ".'(f) 2 -(If-st machine ool. The following safe-working practices must be followed.
1. am to operate controls before operating the machine.

or A=JB(D-8)
11.6 2. V<;orkpiece must be rigidly held on the worktable.
where,A = the approach in mm. 3. Do not change spindle speed when the machine is running.
B = the depth of the cut in mm. 4. Do not remove or tighten the milling machine arbor nut with
D = the diameter of the cutter in mm. power on.
5. Keep hands and body away from the revolving cutter.
Approach length for face milling cutter : Referring to the 6. Do not measure work while the cutter is cutting or revolving
.· near the workpiece.
Fig.11.65 the approach length for a face milling cutter can be calculated
7. Do not remove guards while the machine is operating.
from the equation :
8. Remove chips wing a suitable brush. Do not remove chips
when the machine is running.
A = lf-c 11.7 9. When removing milling cutter use a rag over the sharp cutting
where,A = the approach length in mm. edges.
= the diameter of the cutter 10. Wear snugly fitting clothing.
c
B
=
=
Jett -(1) 2 11. Do not lean on the machine when it is running.
the width of the work REVIEW QUESTIONS
Putting the value of "C" in the equation 11.7 1. Classify milling machines and list them accordingly. How milling differs
from turning in lathe ?
2 2 2. Compare between plain and universal milling machine.
A = If- J(1r) -(1) 3.
4.
Differentiate between factory · production milling and tool room milling.
Name and explain the three different table feeds.
A = t<DJD -8 2 )
2
11.8
5. Name and describe the principal parts of a milling machine.
6. How the size of a milling machine is specified ?
7. Name various work holding and cutter holding devices in milling. Also
indicate their use.
8. Describe various milling machine attachments in brief.
9. Classify milling cutters. State material and features of each.
10. What are the different standard milling cutter ? Describe suitability of
each cutter.
11. Describe elements of plain milling cutter with a neat sketch.
12. Identify influence of tooth angles on cutter performance.
13. State in brief the effect of relief angle of milling cutter in metal
machining.
14. Discuss how cutting force changes with variation of speed and rake
Figure 11.65 Approach length for face milling cutter angle of a milling cutter.
15. Is a slotting cutter a plain milling cutter ? Explain your answer briefly.
----------------------�
450 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOG
Y
\ 12
\
16. Could a side mill be used effeciently
for cutting on one side only ? G1·ve
reasons
��·
17. What are. the general characteris
:�a: are the rea�ons that you can
tics of an end mill ?
not use end mill �s a drill?
are the differences bet ween sing
. m,·11� le angle and dou le angle
rng cutter ? GEAR CUITING
20. �escri�e vari�u.s milling proc
ess
:; . ,st vanou� mllhn machine ope es with neat sketches.
� � rations, describing one in rief
. o w gear rs cut -�1th the help
. of a form relieved cutter ? Describe.
23. What ,s cam mrlhng ? Wha
t attachments are specifically requ
perform it? Describe the process ired to 12.1 GEAR CUITING METHODS
.
24. What are the advantages of
a coarse teeth cutter?
25 · What do you understand b
a h I
Toothed gears are indispensable elements in mechanical transmission of
face milling operations ? Disc�s�� t:f�� :f a milling cutter for
ea c power, and their accurate production necessitated the development of
ingenious tools and processes. Gears may be manufactured by casting,
stamping, machining or by powder metallurgical processes. Out of all such
processes, the most common and accurate method of production of gears is
by machining. The different methods of production of gears by machining
operations are described below.
1 . Formed culler method

(a) By a formed disc cutter in a milling machine.
(b) By a formed endmill in a milling machine.
(c) By a formed single point tool in a shaping or planing
machine.
(d) By a formed cutter in a "shear speed" gear shaper.
(e) By a formed cutter in a broaching machine.
2. Template method in a gear cutting machine:

3. Generating method :
(a) By a rack tooth cutter in a gear cutting machine.
(b) By a pinion cutter in a gear cutting machine.
(c) By a hob cutter in a gear cutting machine.
(d) By a bevel gear generator.
12.2 FORMED CUTIER METHOD
The formed cutter method of production of gear uses a single point cutting
tool or a milling cutter having the same form of cutting edge as the space
between the teeth being cut. The form cutting method is only used where a
very small number of gears are to be manufactured and where too much of
a.ccuracy is not demanded. The method uses simple and cheap tools in
.t52 ELEMr:NTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNCLOG�
GEAR CUTTING 453
conventional machines and the set up required is also I
simple. The i ed 3. To select the correct number of cutter for the required number
method possesses certain inherent disadvantages. These
are de ribed , of teeth on the gear.
below:
4. To determine the proper speed of the cutter, feed of the table,
1. The gear tomh accuracy is very poor. and the depth of cut.
2. The production capacity is very low, due to I astage 5. To set the cutter and the work and to perform the actual
in operation.
machining time for indexing, withdrawing, and advancing
the
cutter or the work after machining each tooth space.
Fig.11.55 illustrates spur gear cutting operation by a formed disc
cutter.
12.3 GEAR CUTIING BY FORMED DISC CUTIER
12.S SPUR GEAR PROPORTIONS
The method of gear cutting by a formed disc cutter involves the mounting
of a gear blank at the end of a dividing head spindle fitted on the table of a The first step in machining a spur gear is to determine the important gear
horizontal, column and knee type milling machine and then feeding the tooth dimensions. The tip or outside diameter should be known to prepare
work past a rotating, formed, peripheral type of cutter mounted on the the gear blank diameter. The tooth depth is necessary to calculate for
horizontal arbor of the machine. The plane of rotation of the cutter is radial setting the depth of cut of the cutter. From the module and the number of
with respect to the blank. After one tooth space is formed, the next surface teeth on the gear, the pitch circle diameter can be calculated, and from the
of the gear blank is brought under the cutter by rotating the dividing head chordal thickness the size of the gear tooth can be checked. The standard
spindle by a predetermined amount by indexing. The tooth profile of the proportions adapted by the Indian standard system and t�e A merican
formed cutter should correspond to 'the tooth space of the gear that again .
standard system of the elements of an involute spur gear are g1v en m Table
depends upon the module of the gear. Theoretically, there should be a _ .
12.1 and 12.2. The definitions of gear tooth elements are descnbed m Art.
different shaped cutter for each number of teeth of gears of the same 1.16.
module, as the tooth profile of the involute gears changes with the number
of teeth on the gear. In practice, a set of 8 cutters are used to cut all gears TABLE 12.1 SPUR GEAR TEETH PROPORTIONS IN INDIAN
having teeth ranging from 12 to a rack. This is a compromise with the STANDARD SYSTEM IN TERMS OF MODULE (m) AND NUMBER OF
theoretical value. For this reason, the gear tooth profile produced by a TEETH (z)
formed disc cutter is not perfectly accurate. The set of cutters used for
cutting different numbers of gear teeth is shown in Table 11.1. A spur, Name of the tooth Symbol Gear tooth proportions
helical or a bevel gear can be cut in a milling machine by using a formed element (Pressure angle 20'?
disc cutter. Pitch diameter d' Zm
' m
12.4 FUNDAMENTALS OF SPUR GEAR MILLING BY A Addendum h.
Dedendum 1.25 m
FORMED DISC CUTIER h,
Working depth 2ha 2m
Tooth depth h 2.25m
The cutting of spur gear in a milling machine involves the following
Outside diameter d'+2h. m(z+2)
procedure:
Tooth thickness s 15708m
Clearance ht -h. 0.25m
1. To determine the important dimensions and proportions of the
gear tooth element. Radius of fillet r 0.4 m to 0.45 m
2. To control the spacing of the gear teeth accurately on the
periphery of the gear blank. The recommended series of mt,dules adapted by the Indian standard
system are 1, 1.25, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16 and 20. The modules
45-t ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP
n=r.1.n1n1 nr.v
1.125, 13�5, 1.75, 2.25, 2.75, 3.5, 45,
1
5.5, 7, 9, 11, 14 and 18 are of

second choice. The recommended series of diame ,:
trical pitches aret20, 16,
I GEAR CUTTING
Plain or simple dividing head : The plain dividing head comprises of a

-155
12, 10, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2 f,
2, 1 f,
1 { and ,1. The spur gear elements are
cylindrical spindle housed in a frame, and a base bolted to the machine
table. The index crank is connected to the tail-end of the spindle directly,
shown in Fig. 1.16. and the crank and the spindle rotate as one unit. The index plate is
mounted on the spindle and rotates with it. The spindle may be rotated
TABLE 12.2 SPUR GEAR TEETH PROPORTIONS IN AMERfCAN through the desired angle and then clamped by inserting the clamping
STANDARD SYSTEM IN TERMS OF DIAMETRAL PITCH (DP) AND lever pin into any one of the equally spaced holes or slots cut on the
NUMBER OF TEETH (N) periphery of the index plate. The work is mounted at the nose end of the
spindle by a chuck or may be supported between the two centres. The live
Name of the tooth Symbol
element
Gear tooth proportions centre is fitted at the nose of the spindle and the dead centre is held by the
(Pressure angle 20'? tailstock. The tailstock is a separate assembly which is bolted to the
Pitch diameter PD machine table after aligning its spindle axis with the dividing head spindle.
.1L .1L
DP DP This type of dividing head is 1
Addendum s :..--.-::::=.=,
..L .M used for handling large number
DP DP
Dcdendum S+f of workpieces, which require a
.ill1. ..L very small number of divisions
DP DP
Working depth D
-'--
DP
.ll.
on the periphery.
DP
l .>oth depth D+f
kill ..L6.. Universal dividing head : The
DP PP
Outside diameter PD+2S universal dividing head shown
N+2
DP
Kill in Fig.12.1 is the most common
DP
Tooth thickness
15708 )5708 type of indexing arrangement
DP DP used in workshops. As the 4
Clearance
0.)57
DP
..91. name implies, this type of
DP
Radius of fillet index head can be used to
15/
111 execute all forms of indexing.
A universal dividing head is
12.6 INDEXING AND DIVIDING HEADS used for the following purposes Figure 12.1 Universal dividing head
I. Swivelling block, 2. Live centre, 3. Index
crank, 4. Index plate.
!he indexing is the operation of dividing the periphery of a piece of work
into any number o� equal parts. In cutting spur gear, equal spacing of teet.h 1. For setting the work in vertical, horizontal or in inclined
on the gear blank 1s performed by indexing. The indexing operations can positions, relative to the table surface.
al� be adapted for producing hexagonal and square headed bolts, cutting 2. For turning the workpiece periodically through a given angle to
sphne� on shafts, �uting drills, taps and reamers and many other jobs, all impart indexing movemenf.
_
requmng the periphery of the workpiece to be divided equally and 3. For imparting a continuous rotary motion to the workpiece for
accurately. Indexing is accomplished by using a special attachment known milling helical grooves.
as �ividin � head �r i�dex hea"d. The dividing heads are of three types : (1)
-
P!a�n or simple d1v1dmg head, (2) Universal dividing head and (3) Optical The important parts of a universal dividing head are the worm and
.
d1v1dmg head. worm gear, index plate, sector arm, change gears and the spindle. The
working mechanism of a universal dividing head is shown in Fig.12.2. The
main spindle 5 housed on two accurate be.irings carries a worm gear 4 is
J
456 ELEMENTS OF WORKS
HOP n=r.�Nl)I_OG;
mounted on a shaft JO at the other

wonn gear 4 has 40 teeth and the
of the crank 13 will rotate the spi
or on e u:" o f the cran
end of which a crank 13 is fitted'.
wonn 6 is single threaded. Thus 40
n dle 5 th rough o ne com
plete revo
t
The
u
.
lutio
ms
n
I GEAR CUTTING 457
The dividii,g head '-pindl� 5 is.provided with a taper ho le at the

nose for accommodating a live centre. The nose is threaded on the outside
/ k 13 will cause the spin dle 5 to for moun ting a chuck or a faceplate. The work 8 may be supported
be rotated by 1/40 of
� �:: �:�� n. I� o rder to t�rn the crank 13 a fraction of a revolution, an between the two cen tres 9 or on a chuck.
o
n 12 i used. An in dex plate is a circular The spindle 5 is supported on a swivelling block which en ables the
numb! of � disc having a different
. equa I y spaced holes arranged in concentric spin dle to be tilted through any an gle from 5 ° below horizontal to 10 °
plate 12 is screwed on a sleeve circles. The index
which is loosely mounted on the beyond vertical, and then clamped at that position. The angular setting of
wonn the dividin g head is effected by using a graduated scale fitted to the body
4 of the dividing head. This is illustrated i n Fig.12.1.
3 7 8 The dividing head spindle may be connected with the table feed
screw through a train of gearing to impart a continuous rotary motion to
the workpiece for helical milling.
Optical dividing head : The optical dividing heads are used for precise'
9
an gular indexing during machinin g, and for checking the accuracy of
various angular surfaces.
The mechanism comprises a wo rm gear which is keyed to the
spindle an d may be rotated by a worm. A circular glass scale graduated ir,
1 ° division is rigidly mounted on the worm wheel. Any movemen t of the
1 spindle effected by rotating the worm is read off by means of a microscope
�=
fitted on the dividing head body. The reading on the circular glass scale is
projected through prisms on the screen of the micr oscope eyepiece. The
Q-t:��12 eyepiece has a scale having 60 divisions and each division is equivalent to
13
1' movement of the circular scale. Thus with this arrangement, a precise
14
Figure 12.2 Working e h indexing movemen t can be made.
. of a univ�rsal dividing head
1,2 Change gears, 3. S pindle st: �
8. Work, 9, Dead centre, 10 Wor gear, 5. �pmdle, 6. Wonn, 7. Carrier, 12.7 INDEXING METHODS
. :,, �haft ' 11. Lock�m, 12. Index
crank, 14. Spring loaded pin' 15 • plate, 13. Index
M't1 re gears, 16 Dn
ven shaft.
. There are several different methods of indexing. The choice of any method
sha�t JO. Normally, the index plat depends upon the n umber of division s required and the type of dividing
e 12 remain s
stationary by a lock pin I I con head used. The following are the different methods o f in dexin g
nected with the
frame. A spring loaded pin
14 fixed to the
crank 13 fits into the holes 1. Direct or rapid indexing
in the index plate
12. ff the �in 14 is moved from on e 2. Plain or simple indexing
hole to the 3.
n ext hole tn a 18 hole Compound indexing
circle of the t' n dex p I ate,
the spin· dle 5 will revolve 1 /40x 4. Differential indexing
1 /18 :: 1 !720
of a turn. Th: s�ctor arms sho 5. Angular in dexing
wn in Fig. l 2.3 Figure 12.3 Sector arm
are used to elrmtnate the n ece
ssity of counting
holes on the index plate each
time the index crank is m oved Direct Indexing : Direct indexing, often called rapid indexing, is used
. when a large number of identical pieces are indexed by very small
1ivisions. The operation may be performed in both plain an d un iversal
.f58 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY GEAR CUTTING 459
dividing h ead. When using a universal head, the wonn and wonn wheel To facilitate inde�ing to fractions of a tum, index plates are used to cover
_
are first disengaged. This is done in a manner similar to that used in the practically all numbers.
back�ear of a lat �e by turning a handle which operates an eccentric Index plates with circles of holes patented by the Brown and Sharp
bushing. The rt:qu1red number of divisions on the work is obtained by manufacturing company are as follows:
m�ans of the rapid index plate generally fitted to the front end of the
spmdl� nose. �h� plate has t�enty-four equally spaced holes, into any one Plate No. 1-15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20
.
of �h1�h a s�nng loaded pm is pushed to lock the spindle with the frame. Plate No. 2- 21, 23, 27, 29, 31, 33
While mdexmg, the pin is first taken out and then the spindle is rotated by Plate No. 3-37, 39, 41, 43, 47, 49
h �nd, and after the �equired position is reached it is again locked by the
pm. When the plate is turned through the required part of a revolution the These plates have also been accepted as standard index plates by
dividing head spindle and the work are also turned through the same 'part the Indian machine tool manufacturers.
o� the
_ revolution _. With a rapid index plate having 24 holes it is possible to With the three index plates supplied, simple indexing can be used
d1v1de the work mto equal divisions of 2, 3, 4, 6,8, 12 and 24 parts which for all divisions upto 50, even numbers upto 100, except 96, and many
are all factors of 24. others.
Rule for direct indexing : To find the index movement, divide the The index plate used on Cincinnati and Parkinson dividing heads is
total number of holes in the direct index plate by the number of divisions of larger diameter than the Brown and Sharp index plates. The different
. series of holes are provided on each side of the plate. The numbers of holes
required on the work. In this case, when the direct index plate has 24 holes,
the formula for indexing is given below : in each side of the plate are as follows
No. of holes to be moved = First side 24,25,28,30,34,37,38,39,41,42,43

12.1
Second side - 46,47 ,49,51,53,54,57,58,59,62,66
Where, N = number of divisions required Rule for simple indexing : To find the index crank movement, divide 40
by the number of divisions required on the work.
�xam�le l �.1 : Find out the index movement required to mill a hexagonal bolt by The formula for index crank movement is given below :
direct mdcxmg. The rapid index plate has 24 holes.
40 12.2
No. of holes to be moved= ..&! Index crank movement =
6 =4 N
After machining one side of the bolt the index plate will have· to be Where, N= number of divisions required.
moved by 4 holes for 5 number of times to machine the remaining faces
If the index crank movement deduced from the formula 12.2 is a
of the bolt.
whole number, the index crank should be rotated through a complete
number of turns equal to the derived whole number. If the index crank
�imple Indexing: The simple indexing, sometimes called plain indexing,
movement deduced from the equation 12.2 is a whole number and a
�s more accurate and suitable for numbers beyond the range of rapid fraction, the numerator and the denominator of the fraction after
indexing. Here, the dividing head spindle is moved by turning the index
crank 13, shown in Fig. 12.2. As the shaft JO carrying the crank has a simplifying are multiplied by a suitable common number whic� will �ake
_ the denominator of the fraction equal to the number of holes m the mdex
smgle threaded worm 6 which meshes with the worm gear 4 having 40
teeth, 40 turns of the crank 13 are necessary to rotate the index head plate circle. The new numerator now stands for the number of hole� to be
spindle 5 through one revolution. In other words, one complete tum or' the moved by the index crank in the hole circle derived from the denominator,
index crank 13 will cause the wonn wheel 4 to make 1/40 of a revolution. in addition to the complete turns of the index crank.
-460 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY
GEAR CUTTING -46 I
Example 12.2 : Set the dividing head to mill 30 teeth on a spur wheel I. Resolve into factors the number of divisions required.
blank. 2. Choose at randorri hole circles.
3. Subtract the hole number of one circle from the other.
Index crank movement 4. Factor the difference.
5. Place the factors of the divisions required and the factors of the
Thus for indexing, one complete· tum and 7 holes in 21 hole circle difference above a horizontal line.
of the index plate will have to be moved by the index crank. 6. Next factor the number of turns of the crank required for one
revolution of the spindle (40), and also factor the hole circles
Com pound Indexing : The indexing method is called compound due to chosen.
the two separate movements of the index crank in two different hole circles 7. Place these three new factors below the horizontal line.
?f on� index �late to obtain a crank movement not obtainable by plain 8. Cancel the common factors above and below the line. If all the
mdexmg. 1:'he mdex plate is normally held stationary by a lock pin which factors above the line can be cancelled by those placed below,
engages with one of the hole circles of the index plate from the back. then the two circles chosen can be used for indexing. If the
While i ndexing, first the crank pin is rotated through a required number of factors above the line cannot be completely cancelled then two
_
spaces m o�e of the hole circle of the index plate and then the crank pin is other hole circles should be chosen for trial calculation.
engaged with the plate. This first movement is performed similar to the 9. The factors whic:1 will remain uncancelled below the line,
plain _indexing. The second index movement is now performed by should be multiplied to obtain the spaces in the hole circle to be
�emovmg the rear lock pin and then rotating the plate together with the moved by the two indexing movements.
mdex crank forwa '.d or backward through the calculated number of spaces
?f an?ther hole circle, and then the lock pin is engaged. The effective Example: 12.3: Index 69 divisions by compound indexing.
mdexmg movement will be the summation of the two movements. The
method of finding the index crank movement being a complicated one is 40
Using the formula 12.3,
seldom used now a days. 69
Rule for compound indexing : The rule for compound indexing is

To determine the value of n" N i , n2 and N2 , the above mentioned
given by the formula
procedure is followed in step by step.
40
= 12.3 I. 69 23x3 6. 40
N 2. Index circles 23
where, N = the number of divisions required. 23 and 33 are chosen 33 3x 11
N, = the hole circle used by the crank pin. 3. 33-23 = 10
N2 = the hole circle used by the lock pin. 7. & 8. 69
n1 = the hole spaces moved by the crank pin in N 1 hole 4. 10 2x5 10
circle. 5. 69 23x3 40
n2 = the hole spaces moved by the plate and the crank pin in 10 2x5 23
N2 hole circle. 33
As all the factors can be
Procedure for determining the index circles : cancelled above the horizontal line, the hole circles 23 and 33 can be used
for indexing.
Procedure I : The following procedure should be adapted for Thus N 1 = 23 and N2 = 33
compound indexing a number which can be easily factorised.
9. 2x2xJ\= 44
GEAR CUTTING �63
44 is the num ber of hole s
paces to be moved for indexin
fonnula 12.3 can bow be resolv g. The
ed as : upon the gearing 2. Thus the differential movement of the crank 1 1
relative to the plate 12 is obt ained. The total movement of the crank is
:
..U.. = .ti. - .ti. - 1 equal to its movement rel ative to the plate plu s the movement of the pl�t e.
69 ll - 1 ll ..U.. .LL
=
23 33 - 23 33 23 - 33 The movement of the index pl ate 12 may be added or subtracted accordmg
T�us for index! ng 6? division to the direction of rotation of the plate.
, t�e index crank should be mo Differential in dexing h eads are generally furni shed with change
21 holes m 23 ole circle in ved by
� forward direction and then th
c'."3nk together is moved by e pl a te an d th e gears as follows: 24, 24, 28, 32, 40, 44, 48, 56, 64, 72, 86, 1�. �ith t�ese
. 11 holes in 33 hole circle in
d1rect1on. th e b ac kward change gears and three sets of standard index plates (B & S), 11 1s poss ible
to index any number from 1 to 382. Special g ears having 46, 47, 52, 58,
Procedure II: For co mpound 68, 70, 76, and 84 teeth may also b e furnished for numbers from 383 to
. indexing a number which canno 1008 divisions. The differ ential method of indexing is employed wh en the
facton sed_ and for many other t be
. numbers, the actual
Ork is given evera
index movement of th e problem cannot be worked by plain indexing. .
'; � l. !i es greater tha n the act u
finally the required d1v1s1o?1 al spacing required, and Rule for differential indexing : The followmg are the different
ns are obtained on the work.
rules for det ermining g ear ratio, ind exing movement of the crank and the
Differe� tial i ndexi ng : The i number of idlers required.
ndexing method is
th e required division is obtained called differential becau se ( A-N )x40
by a combination of two mov 1 . Gear ratio = -'----'-- 12.4
ements A
1. The movement of the i where,
nde x cran k s imila
indexing. r to th e simple A = the selected number which can be indexed by plain
2. :he simultaneous moveme indexing and the numbe·r is approximately equal to N.
nt of the index plate
1s turned. , when the cran k N = the req uired number of divisions to be indexed.
The r�tati n or differential mot 2. I n the gearing ratio so calculated, the num er ators of th e fraction
. � ion of the index plate may take
in the �ame direction as the cra place indic ate the driving gears on the index h ead spindle and th e
nk or opposite to it as
result 1 that th e actual mov may be required. The denominators indicate the driv en gears on the index plate.
� _ ement of the crank at every
auto matically increas ed or dec indexing is 40
reased giving the required index 3. Index crank movement = 12.5
of the spindle For this reason
: , the diff erential indexing may
move ment
be considered
A
as an auto m t1c method of perfo where A is the select ed nu mber.
� nning compound indexing.
I n Fi�.12.2 while differential The index crank will have to be moved by an amou nt given in th e
. indexing,' the lock pin 11
disengaged with the index pl a is formula 12.5 for N number of times for co mplet e division of th e work .
te 12 which is screwed to a sl
g ear 15 is fastened to the othe eeve. A mitre
r end of the sleeve. The index
sl�eve and th e mitre g ear 15 ar piate 12 the 4. The index cral)k and the index plate should move in th e sa� e
e free to rotate on the worm s
mitre g ear 15 mesh es with an h a ft 10. 'The
other mit re gear 15 on shaft 16. direction or opposite to each other depending on the typ e of gearing
of th e spindle 5 bolds a stud Th e tailend
r atio and the selected n umbe r A chosen.
3. The change gears 2 may be mo
between the stud 3 and shaft unt ed
16. The gear on the spindle 5 is driv
and the ear and the ing g ear If (A - N) is positive the index plat e must rotate in the same
? gea � on the shaft 16 is the driv
en gear. Th e change
g ear train 2 may ?e simple direction as the crank and if (A - N) is negativ e the index plate must rotate
or compound. Now with thi
s geari ng
�rrange menl, a� lhe in dex c rank 13 is turned, rota in a direction oppo site to that of the crank.
index plate 12 1s slowly rotate ting the spindle 5, th e
d in one direction or the other To achieve these conditions , the number of idle gears used depends
, depending
upon the following factors
-t6-t ELEMENTS O(WORKSHOP TfCHNOL8GY GEAR CUTTING 465
seconds then it
(a) If th� gear train is simple and (A - N) is positive, only one idle by dividing the angle by 540. If the angle is expressed in
r If the result is a whnle number, the
gear 1s used. should be divided by a numbe 32400.
(b) !f the gear train is compound and (A - N) is positive, no idle gear rotated though the full number of calcula ted turns. If
index crank should be
number and a fraction , the part of the revolut ion of the
1s used. the result is whole
in the similar
(c) If the gear train is simple and (A - N) is negative, two idle gears crank is determined by using the index plate hole circles
al divisio n cannot
are used. manner as described under plain indexing. If the fraction
g chart should be consult ed
(d) If the gear train is compound and (A - N) is negative, only one be solved by plain indexing, an angular indexin
idle gear is used. to obtain the index crank movement.
Rule for angular indexing : To find the index crank movement,
if it expressed in
Example 12.4 : Index 83 divisions. divide the angle by 9 if it is expressed in degrees, by 540
it is express ed in second s. The formula for
minutes, and by 32,400 if
First of all, find out whether the number can be indexed by plain inde»ing is given below.
. . Angular displacement of work, in deg.
mdexmg or not.
Index crank movement =
. . . . 40 40 9
lndex cran k movement m p I am Indexmg= - = -
N 83 Angular displacement of work, in minute
Since, there is no 8� hole circle, the number cannot be indexed by =
. . . _ 540
plain mdexmg. Therefore, 11 1s a case of differential indexing.
Using the formula 12.4, assume A = 86, a number almost equal to
Angular displacement of work, in second
83 and can be indexed by plain indexing.
40
32,400
1. Gear ratio= (A-N)x = (86-83)x 86 40 = 3xi2. = 72 xi2. 12.6
A 86 24 86
2. Therefore, Drivers = 72, 40 Example 12.S :. Index an angle 19 ° 40'

and Driven = 24, 86 19 ° 40'= (19 x 60) + 40 = 1180'
3. Index crank movement=� = �
Index crank movement = �,� r-;
and 5 holes
For complete indexing, the index crank will have to be moved by The index crank should be moved two complete turns
20 holes in 43 hole circle for 83 times. of 27 hole circle.
4. As (A - N) is positive and the gearing ratio is compound, no idle
gear is required. 12.8 SPUR GEAR MILLING OPERATION
Angular indexing : The angular indexing is the process of dividing the The actual cutting of spur gear is done after determining the gear tooth
periphery of a work in angular measurements and not by the number of proportions, selecting the type of indexing to be performed, and finding
divisions. The indexing method is similar to the plain indexing. There are the correct number of form cutter from Table 11.1. The speed and feed of
360 degrees in a circle, and when the index crank is rotated by 40 number the machine is next set. The speed should be slightly lower than the plain
of revolutions, the spindle rotates through one complete revolution or by milling operation and the feed should be normal. The dividing head and
360 degrees. therefore, one complete tum of the crank will cause the the tailstock are next bolted on the table after setting their axis exactly
perpendicular to the machine spindle. The cutter is next mounted on t�e
spindle and the work to rotate through � = 9 degrees. Thus in order to
arbor and it is then centered accurately with the dividing head spindle axis
tum a work through a desired angle, the number of turns of the index crank .
by adjusting the position of the table. The alignment of the cutter with the
required can be determined by the number 9. If the angular displacement is work axis is checked by raising the table when the centre line of the cutter
expressed in minutes then the turns of the index crank may be calculated
GEAR CUTTING
�66 ELE,MEi'HS OF WuRKSHOP TECHNOLOGY
explained as the process of producing helical grooves on the periphery of a

must touch the centre point of the tailstock. This assures the radial setting
work. This is done by mounting the work at the end of the dividing head
of the cutter relative to the gear blank. The gear blank is next mounted
spindle and then connecting the worm spindle with the table feed screw
between the two centres by a mandrel and is connected with the dividing
through a train of gearing, so that when the table with the work is fed
head spindle by a carrier and a catchplate. The proper index plate is next
longitudinally past the cutter, the work also rotates through a calculated
bolted on the dividing head and the positions of the crank pin and the
amount to produce a helical groove of a given lead. The rotary speed of the
sector arms are adjusted. For a smaller size of gear blank, the depth of cut
work and the feed of the table determine the amount of lead of the helix
is given equal to the full depth of the gear tooth. For this purpose, the table
being cut. The helical milling operation is performed for producing helical
is raised till the cutter just touches the periphery of the gear blank. The
milling cutters, cutting. flutes on drills or reamers and for milling helical
micrometer dial of the vertical feed screw is set to zero in this position.
geafs. The following procedure must be adopted to mill helical gears.
The table is next raised to give the required depth of cut by turning the dial
through the calculated number of divisions. The machine is started and the
1. Determination of the gear tooth proportions.
f'.!ed is applied to finish the first tooth space of the gear. After the end of
the cut, the table is brought back to the starting position and then the blank 2. Making arrangement for indexing.
is indexed for the next tooth space . The operation is repeated till all the 3. Selection of table gear train.
gear teeth are cut. 4. Selection of cutter and setting of the table.
5. Determination of speed, feed, and depth of cut.
Example 12.6 : Calculate all machining particulars for cutting a spur gear of 3
module and 54 teeth with proper index plate hole r:ircle and sector. Gear tooth proportions : The definitions of
spur gear elements described in Chapter I also
1. Determination of gear blank and other particulars : hold good for a helical gear. The definitions of
certain additional elements related to the gears
(a) Blank diameter = m(Z + 2) = 3 (54 + 2) :::; 168 mm. are given below Figure 12.4 Helix
(b) Tooth depth = 2.25 m = 2.25 x 3 = 6.75 1 . Lead of the helix
(c) Cutter pitch =3m Helix : On a cylinder of revolution this
404 is a curve whose tangents are inclined al a -�
2. lndexing : Index crank movement = o = ZO
= constant angle to the axis of the cylinder.
54 27
ii
N I I
The index crank will be moved by 20 holes in 27 hole circle for 54 Fig.12.4 shows a helix. I \
times. Lead : The distance between two I
I
I
\
3. Selection of cutter : Using the Table 11 . 1 , the gear cutter No. 3. consecutive intersection of a helix by a straight I I
generator of the cylinder on which ii lies.

I \
is chosen J I
Fig.12.4 shows the lead of a helix. I
I
\
I
4. Selection of cutting speed,feed and depth of cut : The speed and Helix angle : The acute angle between I
feed of the machine is determined after considering various machining the tangent to a helix and the straight generator T
. .
conditions. The depth of cut is set to 6.75 mm, which is the tooth depth of of the cylinder on which it lies. The formula for
the gear. the helix angle is given below. (See Fig.12.5)
12.9 FUNDAMENTALS OF HELICAL GEAR MILLING BY A rtD

tan�= 12.7
FORM DISC CUTTER /
where P = the helix angle
The helical gears shown in Fig.US are cut in a universal milling machine D = the diameter of the work
Figure 12.5 Helix angle
by helical milling operation. The principle of helical milling can be I = the lead of the helix p. Helix angle, D . Diameter,
I. Lead of the helix
-l68 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY GEAR CuTTING J69
The proportions of a helical gear in terms of normal diametral pitch

For, and normal module are given in Table 12.3.
helical gear D = the pitch circle
diameter. TABLE 12.3 HELICAL GEAR PROPORTIONS IN TERMS OF NORMAL
For, DIAMETRAL PITCH AND NORMAL MODULE
helical flute D = the mean
Tooth proportions in terms Tooth proportions in terms of
diameter. Name of tooth element of Normal diametral pitch Normal module. (mJ. (10"
Normal circular pilch

(DP,.) (14 ! ·Pr. angle) Pr. angle)
Addendum 1 m.
The length of the arc between
similar faces of adjacent teeth DP,.
measured on the pitch cylinder in Oedendum 1.157 t .25m.
a plane perpendicular to the teeth.
DP,,
The normal pitch is shown in Figure 12.6 Normal circular Tooth depth 2.157 2.25 m.
Fig.12.6. The normal circular pitch
pitch can be calculated fro(,11 the �- Helix angle, CP. Circular pitch
DP,.
formula: I. Nonna! circular pitch (CP.). Normal tooth thickness 1.15708 1.5708m.
DP,.
Normal circular pitch Circular pitch 7t 7tXm11
nx cos P
= CPII = CPcosA. = _ _ _ _ -'- 12.8 DP,,CosP Cosl3
... DP Diametral pitch
All gear calculations are based upon normal pitch and not upon the DP,,CosP Cosl3
circular pitch measured in the plane of rotation. Normal pitch of a helical m,,
gear changes with the helix angle. Pitch diameter n Zxm,,
=Zm
DP,,CosP Cosl3
Normal diametral pilch : The quotient of the number 7t by the Out side diameter PD+ 2S lm + 2m,.
normal pitch. The formula for the normal diametral pitch is:
DP N Methods of indexing : In helical milling, only direct and simple methods

Normal diametral pitch = DP=�= = 12.9 of indexing are performed to divide the periphery of a work.
" CP,, cos P PDcosP
The differential method of indexing cannot be employed in
(See Table 12.2 for symbols).
connection with the helical milling. Because with this system of indexing
the worm shaft of the index head must be geared to the spindle. But as the
Normal module : It is the quotient of the normal pitch by the 7t. worm shaft is already geared with the table feed screw, there is no
The formula for normal module is
provision for duplicate connection. So the differential method of indexing
cannot be used
CP,, CosP d'><cos P
Normal module = mII = -- = -- = = m cosA.
7t DP z ... 12.10
Change gear calculations : During helical milling, the workpiece must
rotate through one complete revolution by the time the. table moves
(See Table 12.1 for symbols) through a distance equal to the lead of the helix. This is done by a selected
-t70 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY GEAR CUTTING
train of gearing connected between the table lead screw and the dividing
head wonn shaft. No. of turns of driven shaft
The gearing arrangement for helical milling is shown in Fig.12.7. A =
No. of turns of lead screw
trainof gearing is connected between the leadscrew 2 and the shaft 11. The
gear on the lead screw 2 is the driver and the gear on the shaft 11 is the
Driver 40T1
---=--
driven gear. When the leadscrew 2 of the table is rotated within the nut 3, 12.11
the motion is transmitted through the change gears I to the two mitre
Driven T1
gears 10 mounted on the shaft ll and on the sleeve. The index plate 9 is The number 40 x T1 is called the lead of the machine.
screwed on the other end of the sleeve, and the crank pin is kept engaged
into any one of the holes on the index plate. While helical milling, the lock In British or America manufactured milling machines, the pitch of the
pin at the back of the plate is removed. Motion is thus communicated from leadscrew or T1 is equal to finch.
the mitre gears JO to the worm shaft through the index plate 9 as the index Lead of the machine in British unit = 40 x T1 = 40 x ± =10 inch.
plate and the crank becomes one unit, causing the worm 7 and the worm
gear 8 to rotate. As the worm gear 8 has 40 teeth and the worm 7 is single The usual value of the leadscrew pitch in metric unit is 6 mm.
threaded, 40 turns of the worm 7 or the driven shaft I J are required to tum Lead of the machine in metric unit = 40 x 6 = 240 mm.
the worm gear 8 and the work through one complete revolution. The The formula 12.11 can be rewritten in the form:
change gears J between the lead screw 2 and the shaft 1 I can be so
arranged that when the shaft JI will rotate through 40 number of Driver Lead of the machine
= 12.12
revolutions, the leadscrew 2 will rotate by that number of revolutions Driven Lead of the work
which will cause the leadscrew 2 to move axially within the nut 3 equal to
the lead of the helix being cut. Thus when the table holding the work is Gear on the lead screw is the driver gear and the gear on the worm
fed, equal to the lead of the helix being cut, the work is rotated by one shaft is the driven gear.
complete revolution. This is the guiding principle for determining the The change gears employed for differential indexing can be used
formula for change gears. The formula is derived below. for helical milling also.
Let
T1 = pitch of the leadscrew in mm. Selection of helical milling
T2 = Lead of the helix to be milled in mm. cutter: The tooth profile of a
helical milling cutter should
Then, the number of turns of leadscrew required to remove the tablt; correspond to the tooth form
through T2 mm ( the lead of the helix) across the normal. As the
tooth form of a helical gear
= .!2.
7j across the normal changes
By the time the table moves T2 mm the work should turn by J with the helix angle, a cutter
revolution. which is used to produce a
spur gear of same number of
No. of turns of work teeth as the helical gear will
Figure 12.7 Gearing arrangement for
No. of turns of lead screw not serve the purpose. The
helical milling
modified formula for 1. Change gears, 2. Table leadscrew, 3. Nut, 4.
By the time the work turns by 1 revolution, the worm shaft or the selecting the helical milling Helix angle, 5. Direction of table feed, 6.
driven shaft I I turns by 40 revolutions. cutter is: Direction of spindle rotation, 7. Wonn, 8.
Wonn gear, 9. Index plate, 10. mitre gears, 11.
Driven shaft.
GEAR CUTTING.· 47.,
4 72 ELEMEtffS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY
lock pin for the index plate is removed. The cuter is next made to touch the
peripheral surface of tht; work and the required depth of cut is given. The
Z'=-z3 12.13 speed and feed of the machine will be similar as that of spur gear milling .
. cos 13
The actual milling of helical tooth spaces is practically the same as if they
are parallel to the axis, due to the angular setting of the work. The machine
where Z' = the number of teeth for which the cutter is selected. is next started and the first tooth space is milled in one or two cuts. At the
Z = the number of teeth in the helical gear. end of each cut, the table is brought back to the starting position. After the
13 = helix angle. first tooth space is finished, the index pin is withdrawn from the index
plate, which causes the worm shaft to be disengaged with the table feed
gearing. Indexing is' performed in the usual way and the crank pin is
snapped in position. The second cut is taken, and the operation is repeated
until all the teeth on the gear are finished.
Example 12.7 : Calculate all machining particulars for milling a

helical gear having 48 teeth, helix angle of 45 ° and a module of 6 mm.
Figure 12.S(a) Effect of not 1. Determination of gear blank and other particulars:
Figure 12.8(b) Effect of swivelling
swivelling the table the table to the helix angle = m(�+2) = 6(�+2)
(a) Blank diameter
1. Helix angle cosl3 cos45
= 419.2 mm.
Table setting : While helical milling, the table of the universal milling (b) To<>th depth = 2.25m = 1350mm.
machine must be swivelled to the required helix angle of the work. This is (c) Cutter pitch = 6m.
necessary to produce the groove or the tooth space conforming to the
cutter tooth profile. Fig.12.8(a) and 12.8(b) shows the effect of swivelling 2. Indexing:
and not swivelling the table to the required helix angle. It is seen that when 40 40 5x3 15
-=-=--=-
Index crank movement =
the table is swivelled, a groove of correct width and proper contour as that N 48 6x3 18
of the cutter is produced. The helix angle of the work is calculated from
the formula 12.7. Index crank will be moved by 15 holes in 18 hole circle for 48 times.
Helical gear milling operation : The helical gear milling operation is 3. Selection of table gear train:
taken in hand after preparing the gear blank to the required size and
calculating the necessary tooth dimensions. The work is next mounted on a (a) Assuming pitch of the leadscrew of the machine equal to 6 mm.
mandrel and supported between the centres of the dividing head and the the lead of the machine
tailstock. The spindle of the dividing head and the tailstock are aligned so
that they may be perpendicular to the machine spindle. The proper cutter is = 40 x r. = 40 x 6 = 240 mm.
chosen after necessary calculations and it is mounted on the arbor. The (b) The lead of the helix is calculated from the formula 12.7.
cutter is next centered directly above the axis of the work in this position
of the table following the procedure described under spur gear milling 1t =1txZS8= 1tx288=
tanl3=1tD or I = D 905.8mm.
operation in Art.12.8. The required helix angle is calculated and the table I tan 13 tan 45° 1
is swivelled to the correct position. The proper index plate is mounted on
the dividing head and the crank pin is pushed into the hole of the required
hole circle. The sector arm is set for the correct number of spaces and the
f
. i-t ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY
GEAR CUTTING 475
The value of lead I is corrected and taken as 900 mm to suit to the

I. Determining gear tooth proportions.
available gear train. This will alter the helix angle very slightly. 2. Making arrangement for indexing.
The change gears are calculated from the equation 12.12. 3. Setting the gear bfank at the cutting angle.
Driver 4. Calculating offset.
Lead of the machine 40 x T1 240 4
---------x- 4 I
= -------- = 5. Selecting proper cutter.
Driven Lead of the work T2 900 15 5 3 6. Determining speed, feed and depth of cut.
32 24 Bevel gear proportions : The bevel gear elements have been shown in
= -x-
40 72 Fig.1.20. The different gear tooth proportions and the related formulae are
given in Table 12.4 and 12.5.
The gears 32, 24 are the driver gears and 40, 72 driven gears.
4. Selection of cutter: Using the formula 12.13 TABLE 12.4 BEVEL GEAR TOOTH PROPORTIONS IN TERMS OF
DIAMETRAL PITCH AND MODULE
Z =
Z'= -- 48
3 3
= 1355 or 136 Name of elements In terms of (DP) In term o[module (m)
cos � cos 45°
Symbol Proportions Symbol Proport ions
( 14l pr. angle)
0 ( 20° pr.
The selection of cutter is based on 136 teeth. Therefore, from the ang e
Table 11.1, No. 1 gear cutter will be used. Addendum (large end) s h, m
DP
5. Setting the table : 1.157
Dedendum (large end) S+f -- hr 1.25 m
DP
°
The table must be swivelled to the helix angle of 45 .
Tooth depth D+f 2.157 2.25 m
h
DP
12.10 FUNDAMENTALS OF BEVEL GEAR MILLING BY FORM
DISCCUITER Tooth thickness 1.15708 1.5708 m
DP
In a milling machine, it is impossible to cut correctly formed bevel gear 1t
teeth by a formed cutter, because the cross-section of bevel gear teeth is Circular pitch CP DP p nm
not uniform throughout its length. The cross-section diminishes from the N
large end to the small end of the gear. Thus if a cutter is chosen for DP
Pitch diameter PD d' Zm
producing tooth space of any one side of the gear it will not be correct for
the other side. The tapering cross-section of the tooth profile of a bevel PD x DP
gear can be generated by using special devices in a milling machine. The Number of teeth z d'
tooth curves so formed arc theoretically incorrect, and for this reason m
accurate bevel gears are always manufactured by generating processes.
The bevel gears are cut in a milling machine for occasional purposes only. Indexing arrangement : For cutting a bevel gear in a milling machine the
l)le following are the different procedures adopted for milling a bevel work must be supported at the end of the dividing head spindle by means
gear. of a mandrel. The simple and direct methods of indexing are most
commonly used.
476 ELEMEIITS OF WORKSli')P TECHNOLJuY GEAR CUTTING �77
TABLE 12.5 BEVEJ, GEAR ANGULAR DIMENSIONS AND OTIIER between the mating teeth results after the gear is completed. To get
FORMUIAE
1 uniform clearance, a second formula is also used, which is given below.
™·
Name of tooth elements Symbol Formula Cutting angle = Pitch cone angle - AJdendum angle 12.15
Face width b b = 0.15 to 033 R The setting of the gear blank is shown in Fig.12.9.
Addendum (small end) R-b
--xhu Calculating omet : The taper;ng
R tooth space of a bevel gear cannot
\__-ip!.�--��
be formed by applying only one
Tooth thickness (small end) R-b
---xs radial cut on the gear blank. To
R develop a variable cross-section of
the tooth space, the blank is set
Cone distance R R = 0.5 d' cosec O' over from the radial position
relative to the cutter ceptre line, in
Addendum angle e. hu one direction and then on the other
tan 0 u =-
R by a small amount, and then two
additional cuts are taken at the two
Dedendum angle flanks of the tooth space generated Figure 12.9 Setting of bevel gear
by the central gashing cut. When blank to the root angle
the blank is shifted out of the centre , 1. Root angle, 2. Mandrel,
Tip angle (face angle) line, in one direction by moving the 3. Dividing head.
table, the blank is rotated · simultaneously about its axis in the other
Pitch angle o' 0.5d'
sinO'=-
direction by rotating the index crank. The angular movement of the blank
maintains radial position of the tooth flank. After one flank is finished, the
R
table is shifted in the other direction of the radial line, and then the blank is
Root angle ( cutting angle) rotated opposite to this movement. The offsetting and rotating movements
of the blank is shown in Fig.1i10. Thus three cuts are given to finish a
tooth space. The movement of the table out of the radial line, termed as
offset, and the angular movement of the blank can be calculated from the
Setting the gear blank: The bevel gear is cut after swivelling the dividing formulae given below
head spindle to the required cutting angle or root angle of the gear. This 0
enables the root line of the tooth to remain parallel with the top of the table R-b . 90
Offset for the first flank = Rxsm ( ) 12.16
as the work is fed past the cutter. The root angle can be determined from 2
the formula given below.
First angular movement of the blank = 12.17
Root angle (Or) = pitch cone angle (0) - Dedendum angle (0,) 12.14
0
R-b . 180
.Offset for the second flank ( )
=RXSIOZ 12.18
When the dividing head spindle is set to the root angle after
calculating the value from the equation 12.14, a tapering clearance
-t 78 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY GEAR CllTTiNG !79
c:0r
swivelled to the required cutting angle and the proper index plate is
crewed on thP. sleeve. The amount of the offset required and the cutter
Second angular movement of the blank = 12.19 ize are determined after necessary calculations. The cutter is mounted on
(from first offset position) e arbor and is set radially with the gear blank. After adjusting the speed
a d feed of the machine that will be similar to that of spur gear cutting, the
d pth of cut is adjusted from the large end of the gear. The machine is
st rted and the central gashing cut is given. The table is next brought back
to the starting position and the first offset is applied by rotating the cross
slide screw through the required number of dial divisions. The blank is
next rotated by the given amount in the opposite direction by rotating the
index crank. The second cut is taken in this position of the blank. After the
second cut, the procedure is repeated for applying the second offset, and
the third cut is taken to machine the other side of the tooth flank. This
finishes the first tooth space. The radial setting of the gear hlank and the
original position of the crank pin are restored and the blank is next indexed
in the usual way for cutting the next tooth space. The process is repeated
until all the teeth on the gear are finished. The small end of the gear is to
be filed at the end of the cut to bring it the correct size.
Example 12.8: Calculate all machining particulars for milling a bevel gear of 16
leelh, 30 ° pitch angle and of 3 module. Face width of the gear is 12 mm.
Figure 12.10 Offsetting and rotating movement of the blank
(a). Machining of the first !lank, (b). Machining of the second flank 1. Determination of gear blank and other particulars :
I. Angular movement, 2. Table movement or offset movement
Selection of cutter : The bevel gear formed cutters are slightl (a) Blank diameter = m(Z+2 cos0')
y thinner °
than the spur gear cutters. There are 8 cutters in a set and the 3 (16+2Cos30 )
range of teeth
for each cutter is similar to the spur gear cutter. The bevel = 53.2 mm.
gear cutter
cannot be selected directly from the number of teeth on the
gear, because (b) Tooth depth = 2.25 m = 6.75 mm.
the shape of the tooth profile of a bevel gear not only change
s with the (c) Cutter pitch = 3m.
number of the teeth on the gear, but also with the pitch angle. (d) Face angle = pitch cone angle + addendum angle
The bevel
gear cutter can be selected from the formula, which is given below
:
ea !!E..
,.,, z tan
R
=
= coso' 12.20
L., 12
h0 = m = 3; and R = -=48mm.
where, Z' = the number of teeth for which the cutter is selected 025
Z= the number of teeth on the bevel gear
o'= pitch angle <;O tan 8" = -� =OD625
48
and e., = 3°24'
Bevel gear milling o�eration : The bevel gear milling operation is
_
performed after preparing the blank to the required size. The machining :. face angle= 30 ° + 3 °24'= 33°24'
d�t�s are calculated and the blank is fastened to the nose end of the
.
d1v1ding head spindle by a mandrel. The dividing head spindle is next
480 ELEMENT�_OF WORKSHOP TECHNOL
OGY GEAR CUTTING 481
(e) Inclination of large end = 90°_ 300 12.11 GEAR CUITING BY A FORMED END MILL
= 600
(t) Depth of cut = tooth depth x Cos 9
1 The end mills having cutting edges fonned to correspond to the tooth
h, 12� 125x3 space of a gear employed to cut a spur, helical or a herringbone gear in a
tan0/ =-=--.- =-=0.0781
R milling machine. The end mills are used to cut gears of large module from
R 48
20 mm and larger where ordinary disc type cutters are unsuitable due to
so 8, = 4'28'
excessive cutting pressure required. The cutting process described under
:. depth of cut = 6.75 x cos 4'28' disc cutter, also holds good for an end-mill. Fig. 12.1 l(b) shows the gear
= 6.73 mm
2. Indexing : cutting operation by an end-mill.
o
Index crank movement= 4 = 4 = ..!. = �
2
o2 = 2 .!Q 12.12 GEAR CUTTING BY A FORMED SINGLE POINT TOOL
. N 16 2 2 x 10 20
The index rank will be moved by two
. � full turns and 10 holes in 20 A single point cutting
hole circle for 16 tJmes.
tool having cutting
3. Gea blank setting : The gear blan edges formed to
� k is set by swivelling the dividing correspond to the tooth
head spindle to the root angle=25'!3
2' space of a gear is
The blank can also be set to the mod
. ified cutting angle employed to cut a spur
Cutting angle= o'-0 = 30°-3°24'=2603
3 6' or a bevel gear in a
4. Offset calculation : shaping or a planing
0 0 machine by using the
(a) Offset for first flank - R-b
- - · 90 48-12 90
-xsm (-) =-Sin (- shaper centre described
R )
Z � 16 in Art.7.6. The work is
= 0.75 Sin 5'!38' = 0.75 x 0.0982
mounted between the
=0.0736 mm.
two centres and the
0
tool or the work is Figure 12.11 Gear cutting by a formed tool
(b) First angular movement = ( 90)
16
= 5'!38' reciprocated to (a). Gear culling by a formed single point tool.
(b). Gear cutting by an end mill
(c) Second offset movement measured produce the required
from the first
profile of the tooth
R-b . 180 0 48-12 0
R xsm( ) =
Z
�Sin(
180
) 16 = 0.1462
space. The blank is indexed by the shaper centre. Fig.12. 1 l(a) shows the
gear cutting operation by a fonned tool.
0
(d) Second angular movement = (180) =
12.13 GEAR CUTTING BY SHEAR SPEED PROCESS
S. Selection of cutter:
16
11°15'mm
The shear speed process involves the production of all the teeth on a gear
Z 16
Z' = --:- = - = 185 simultaneously by a ring of fonned blades arranged on the periphery of the
coso'
cos 30
0
gear blan"'. Each blade having formed cutting edges cuts one tooth space,
Z' = the number of teeth for which and the number of blades on the cutter equals the number of tooth spaces
the cutter number is chosen
� Therefore, the cutter number= 6.
on the gear. The work is mounted on the ram of a shear speed gear shaper
and is reciprocated against the fixed blaties of the cutter. There is an
automatic arrangement for radial adjustment of the blades, so that the
-'82 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY
· / GEAR :;UTTING 483
blades are retracted during the time of return stroke to provide relief to the 12.17 RACK CUTTER GENERATING PROCESS
cutting edges. The depth of cuts are also adjusted by the radial movement
of the blades. The shear speed process is the quickest method of producing The rack cutter generating process is also called gear shaping process. In
external and internal spur gears, splines, toothed clutches, ratchet wheels, this method, illustrated in Fig.12.12(a), the generating cutter has the form
etc. of a basic rack for the gear to be generated. The cutting action is similar to
a shaping machine. The cutter reciprocates rapidly and removes metal only
12.14 BROACHING GEAR TEETH _
during the cutting stroke. n.e blank is rotated slowly but uniformly about
its axis and between each cutting stroke of the cutter, the cutter advances
A broaching tool having formed cutting edges is employed for producing along i;s length at a speed equal to the rolling speed of the mating pitch
internal gears of accurate shapes on a broaching machine. Very small lines. When the cutter and the blank have rolled a distance equal to o�e
internal gears are cut in one operation by a broaching tool having a number pitch of the blank, the motion of the blank is arrested, the cutter is
of cutting edges equal to the number of teeth on the gear. When large gears withdrawn from the blank to give relief to the cutting edges, and the cutter
are to be machined, the rotary table holding the gear blank is indexed by is returned to its starting position. The blank is next indexed and the next
one tooth after each stroke of the broach. At the end of each cutting stroke, cut is started following the same procedure. The helical gears are cut by
the work is shifted slightly off the centre to provide relief to the cutting swivelling the cutter slide to the required helix angle. The cutter now
edges during the return stroke of the broach. The broaching operation is reciprocates in a path set by the helix angle while the rotary movement of
described in Art.15.7. the blank is continued. The following are the advantages of rack cutter
generating process
12.lS TEMPLET GEAR CUTTING PROCESS
1. A single cutter of any given pitch can cut gears of any number of
The temple! gear cutting process involves the production of a gear. tooth teeth having the same pitch.
profile by a single point cutting tool which is reciprocated and made to 2. The tooth profile generated is most accurate than any other method.
follow a guided path by a temple! whose profile corresponds to the shape 3. The rate of production is higher than that of the formed cutter
of the gear tooth being cut. After one tooth is finished, the blank is indexed
method.
by the usual manner. The temple! method is employed for producing very
large spur gear teeth and for cutting accurate bevel gears. 12.18 PINION CUTTER GENERATING PROCESS
12.16 GENERATING METHODS The pinion cutter generating process, illustrated in Fig.12.12(b), is
fundamentally the same as the rack cuter process, a�d instead o� using a
The generating methods of gear production enable to cut mathematically rack cutter it uses a pinion to generate the tooth profile. The cutting cycle
correct tooth profiles by means of relative motions between the cutters and is commenced after the cutter is fed radially into the gear blank equal to
the gear blanks. The principle of generating process is based on the fact _
the depth of tooth required. The cutter is then given reciprocating cutting
that any two involute gears of the same module will mesh together. If out
motion parallel to its axis similar to the rack cutter, and the c�tter and the
of two mating gears one is used as a cutter and is made to reciprocate or _
blank are made to rotate slowly about their axis at speeds which are equal
fed continuously along the entire width of the gear blank, while still
at the mating pitch surfaces. This rolling movement between the blan� �nd
rotating as a mating gear, so that the pitch surface of the cutter rolls
the cuter is continued until all the teeth on the blank are cut. The pinion
wit�out slipping on the pitch surface of the gear, an accurate tooth profile
cutter in a gear shaping machine may be reciprocated either in �h� vertical
can be generated. As the principle of generating gears is based upon or in the horizontal axis. The following are the advantages of pinion cutter
involute system, cycloidal gears cannot be produced by this method . The
generating process.
gcars may be generated by a rack cutter, pinion cutter or a hob.
GEAR CUTTING �85
a
1 . A single cutter can be used for cutting all spur gear of identical
In hobbing spur
pitch as that of the cutter.
gears, the hob is s�t with its
2. Internal gears can be generated by pinion cutter process.
teeth parallel to the axis of ,....,...,..,.__i..--.,,...,,.,....
3. The rate of production of gears is higher , because the cutting action
the gear blank, and the hob !L-L.<0'-"f�-......,.
is continuous.
-
and gear blank rotate in a
4. The mechanism of the machine is simple than rack cutter process.
relationship that indexes l-, r-,;-,:,-z...-7'!
...-,
the gear blank in time with

the advancing lead of the
thread on the hob. At .the
same time, the hob is fed
slowly across the face of
the gear blank to finish the Figure 12.13 Gear hobbing
teeth. In hobbing helical t. Hob, 2. Gear blank.
gears, the axis of the hob is
set over an angle to produce the proper helix, and rotation of the gear
blank and hob relative to each other must be accelerated or retarded to .•/
produce helical teeth. Worm gears may be cut with the axis of the hob set
at right angles to the gear and the hob is fed tangentially as the gear rotates.
_ _
Hobs are made to any desired gear tooth form or pitch but will
Figure 12.12 Gear generating process
generate only that form or pitch. Any number of t�eth may be ho �bed with
(a) Rack cutter generating process. (b) Pinion cutter generating process.
a given hob, the number of teeth being determined by the ratio of the
12.19 GEAR HOBBING revolutions of the hob to the revolutions of the gear blank.
Hobbing is a process of gener;iting a gear by means of a cutter, called a Hobbing machines : Hobbing is done on single-purpose hobbing
.
hob, that revolves and cuts like a milling cutter. A hob may be briefly machine . So far as design is concerned, there are two basic types:
described as a fluted steel worm, equipped with proper clearance for horizontal work spindles, and vertical work spindles. At present, the
cutting action. Flutes are cut across the threads, forming rack-shaped vertical type is more widely used. Multiple spindle machines are used
cutting teeth. The threads may be right or left-hand, and the flutes may be when the production requirements are high .
straight or helical. A hob may have one, two or more threads. Single thread The hob spindle has two adjustments. First the tool head 1s mounted
(or start) hobs are generally used, although where a high degree of on a swivel base so that the axis of the hob spindle may be set at an angle
accuracy is desired on gears of coarse pitch, a roughing cut is taken with to the axis of the work spindle. The angle depends on the helix angle of the
double or triple-thread hobs and the finishing cut with a single-thread hob. hob and the kind of gear being cut. And second, the hob spindle may be
A single-thread hob cuts but one 'tooth, whereas double thread hob cuts adjusted axially as a means of distributing wear on th� tools.
.
two teeth concurrently. A high rate of production is secured on hobbing machines because
In gear hobbing, the gear blank is first moved in toward.the rotating the cutting action is continuous in one direction. Gear hobbers generally
hob until the proper depth is reached. The action is the same as if the gears produce spur and helical gears as well as splines and chain sprockets. They
were meshing with a rack. As soon as the proper depth is reached, the hob cannot produce unsymmetrical shapes, and because of the rotary �utter, �he
.
cutter is fed across the face of the gear until the teeth are complete,. both hobber cannot cut as close to a shoulder as a machine us111g a reciprocating
gear and cutter rotating during the entire process. Gear hobbing is shown tool.
in Fig.12.13.
13
-t86 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY
12.20 BEVEL GEAR GENERATING PROCESS
Th e fun damentals of bevel gear

generating process involves the
PRESS AND PRESS WORK
rolling of a b evel gear blank on a
crown wheel. The crown wheel is
a b evel g ear having pitch cone
angle of 180 °. The teeth of the 13.1 INTRODUCTION
crown wheel. are straight and
ra dial an d are provided on the flat Th e press is a metal forming machin e tool designed to s�ape or cut metal
face of the g ear. ln the bevel g ear by applying mechanical force or pressure. The metal 1s forme d t the
�
generating process, the crown desired shape without removal of chips. Th e presses are exclusively
wheel may be considered as a rack inten ded for mass production work and they represent the fastest and most
cutter. In practice, however, only efficient way to form a sheet metal into finished products.
one tooth on the crown wheel acts Figurel2.14 A bevel-gear in mesh
as a cutting tool and the relative with a crown gear 13.2 TYPES OF PRESSES
movement b etween the tool and
the work is such that it res embles the rolling action of the blank on th e Th e classification of different types of presses are giv en below
crown whe el.
1. Classification based on source of power :
REVIEW QUESTIONS (a) Hand press or ball press or fly press
(b) Power press
1. What are the different methods of production of gears? 2. Classification base d on design of frame :
2. Describe how a gear can be produced using a formed disc cutter. (a) Gap (d) Hom
3. What is indexing ? How and why it is performed for gear (b) Inclinable (e) Straight sid e
manufacturing? (c) A djustable (f) Pillar
4. What are the different methods of indexing? Describe one briefly.
5. Compute the index movement required to mill a square bolt by direct Fly press or ball press : The fly pr ess or ball press is the most simple �f
indexing. The rapid index plate has 24 holes. (6) all pr esses an d is operated by hand . The working detail of the fly press in
6. Set the dividing head to mill 25 teeth. ( ) shown in fig.13.1. The frame 2 of the machine is a rigid 'C' Shaped
1 fo
7. What is compound indexing ? Write the procedure of determining the casting which is subjecte d to the severe thrust exerted by a
.
�':11
3. The
index circles. typical shape of the fram e leaves the front open which facilitates the
8. Describe briefly the production of helical gears by milling. feeding of the sh eet metal below the ram from th: side of the ma�hine. The
9. What is differential indexing? _
screw 4 of the press operates in a nut 9 which 1s incorporated in the top
10. Calculate all machining particulars for cutting a spur gear of 4 module en d of the frame 2. The two heavy cast iron balls 7 ar e mounted at the two
and 60 teeth with proper index plate hole circle and sector.
end s of the arm 6 which is bolted to the screw 4 so that when the handle 8
11. What is gear shaping ? Describe in brief.
is turned it causes the scre w 4 to rotate within the nut 9. Attached to the
12. What is gear hobbing?
13 . Write short notes on : low er en d of the screw 4 is the ram 3, which moves up and down in slides
(a) Broaching method to generate internal teeth. JO provided at the extension of the frame . The connecting arrangement
(b) Gear cutting by template.
PRESS AND PRESS WORK 489
between the screw 4 and the ram 3 is such that when the screw is rotated,
the ram only slides up and down within he the guide JO . The punch I I 8. The fly wheel 5 mounted at the end of the crank shaft 4 stores up the
energy for maintaining a con stant downward spe�d of the ram when the
and the die I constitute the press tool, the punch being the upper member
sheet metal is pressed betw een the punch and the die .
is fixed to the lower end of the ram and the die which is the lower member
of the press tool is fixed on a plate on the table , known as bolster. The
s heet metal to be formed is placed between the punch and the die. The
press is operated by a sharp, partial revolution of the arm 6 by pulling the
handle 8 and the kinetic energy is stored upon the two heavy balls 7
mounted on the arm 6. As the ram 3 is fo rced downward, the resistance
offered by the plate against deformation is overcome by the tremendous
thrust exerted by the punch I I on the plate at the expense of the stored up 6
energy and the material is form ed to the des ired shape . The stroke length
of the ram 3 is adjusted by a collar 5 which is clamped at any re quired 7
po sition on the screw 4. As the screw descends, the arres tor 5 bears against
the frame of the press and prevents further downward movement of the
ram. A properly designed fly press can be used on a small scale to perform
all operations done in a 7
6
power press .
Power press The

constructional feature of a
pow er press is almost Figure 13 .2 Power press
similar to the hand pr ess the 1. Ram 2. ·Ram guide, 3. Pitman, 4. Crankshaft, 5. Flywheel, 6. Punch, 7. Die,
only difference being, the 8. Bolster plate, 9. Base, 10. Frame.
ram instead of driven by
hand is driven by power. Gap press : The gap press illustrate in Fig.13.3(a) h�s a gap like opening
The power press may be in the frame for feeding the sheet metal from one s ide of the press . The
designated as mechanical or frame is integral with the base and provides a rigid construction.
hydraulic according to the .-.----..i.........J..........
_-1-_
Inclined press : The inclined press illustrated in Fig.13.3(b) is th� �ost
type of wo rking mechanism Figure 13.1 Fly press
used to tran smit power to I. Die, 2. Frame, 3. Ram, 4. Screw, 5. Arrestor, common type of press used in industry. T-he identifying characten sllc of
the ram. In a mechanical 6. Arm, 7. Cast iron balls, 8. Handle, 9. Nut, JO. the inclined press is its ability to tilt back on its ba se, permitting the scrap
press, the rotary motion Guide, 11. Punch
obtained from an electric
motor is converted into reciprocating movement of the ram by using
different mechanical devices. In a hydraulic press, the fluid under high
pressure is pumped on one side of the piston and then on the other in a
hydraulic cylinder to derive the reciprocating movement. Fig.13.2
illustrat es a power press driven by crank and connecting road mechanism.
The working of the press is similar to that of a hand press. The punch 6 is {a)
fitted on the end of the ram I and the die 7 is attached on the bolster plate Figure 13.3 Types of press
(a). Gap press, (b). Inclined press, (c). Adjustable bed press
-------'----- --- -- --
490 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY PRESS AND PRESS WORK 491
1. Base 6. Crank shaft or eccentric or

o
� finished products to be discharged from he die by gravity without the
aid of any typ e of handling mechanism. The press is not so rigid as a gap 2. Frame other driving mechanism
_ _ 3. Bolst er plate 7. Flywheel
press owing to its construction.
4. Ram or slide 8. Clutch
Adjustable be� press : The adjustable bed press illustrate d in Fig.13.3 5. Pitman 9. Brake
(c)
has he m echanical arrangement for raising or lowering th e table On
. . w hIC
· h
the d1e is ft
t ted. Th'is enabl es the setting of different sizes of work and dies Base : The base is th e supporting member of the press and provides
_ arrangem ent for tilting and clamping the frame in an inclined pr ess.
on the machine. The press is not so rigid as the
other types.
Horn �ress : Th� horn pr ess illustrated in Fig.13.4(a) has a cylindrical Frame : All presses except the straight side type have "C" shaped frame to
take up th e ve rtical thrust of the ram.
horn like proJ. ect1on from th e machine frame, which serves as the die
support. �h� horns may be interchang ed for the different sizes of w ork.
Bolster plate : Th e b olster plate is a flat plate fitt ed on the base for
The press 1s int end ed for cylindrical workpieces.
supporting the die block and oth er accessories of the press.
Ram : The ram is th e reciprocating member of the press, that slides within
the press an d guides and supports the punch at its bottom end.
Pitman : The pitman is the connecting rod in a crank or eccentric driven

press. The position of strok e of the ram can be chang ed by altering the
l ength of the connecting rod.
(a) (b) (c)
Crank, eccentric or other driving mechanism : The rotary movement of
Figure 13.4 Types of press
(a). Hom press, (b). Straight side press, (c). Pillar press. the motor is c onvert ed into the reciprocating mov ement o f the ram by
crank and connecting ro d, ecc entric an d connecting rod, or many other
Straight side ��ess: The straight side press illustrated in Fig.13.4(b) has mechanisms which are described in Art.13.4.
.
�wo vertical ng1d frames mounted on two sides of the bas e which are
mt ende d for abso rbing sev ere l oad ex erted by the ram. The machine is Fly wheel: Th e fly whe el is mounted at the end of the driving shaft and is
_ co nnect ed to it through a clutch. The energy is stored up in the flywheel
suitable for heavy work, but d ue to the presence of side fram es th e sheet
me tal cannot be fed from th e side. during idle pe riods and it is expended to maintain the constant speed of the
r am wh en the punch is pr essed int o the work. Th e fly wheel is directly
Pill �r press: Th e pillar press illustrated in Fig.13.4(c) is a hydraulic press coupl ed with the e l ectric motor.
_
having four pillars mounted on the base. Th e pillars suppo rt and guide th e
ram. Clutch : The clutch is used for connecting and disconn ecting the driving
shaft with the fly wheel when it is necessary to start or stop the movement
13.3 POWER PRESS PARTS of th e ram.
The diff erent narts of a power press illustrated in Fig.13.2 ar e d escribed Brakes : The brak es ar e used to stop th e movement of the driving shaft
imm ediat ely aft er it is disconnected from the fly wheel.
below:
t drive are used fo r squeezing or
POWER PRESS DRIVING MECHANISM The presses fitted w ith knuckle join
13.4 s the var!ation �f ram displ acement
coining operation. Fig. l 3.6(c) show
there 1s considerable dwell at the
The following are the different driving mechanisms for. imparting with crank rotation. It can he seen that
reciprocating movement to the rarri. end of the stroke.
1. Crank and connecting rod drive.

2. Eccentric drive.
3. Knuckle joint drive.
4. Cam drive.
5. Toggled lever drive.
6. Screw drive.
7. Rack and pinion drive.
8. Hydraulic drive.
Figure 13.6(c)
1 Variation of ram
displacement
Figure 13.6(a) Figure 13.6(b)
Cam drive Knuckle joint drive Toggled drive
I. Cam, 2. Ram. I. Knuckle joint, 2. Ram drive
Dwell The toggl e
1 illustrated in Fig.13.7(a) is
mainl y used in drawing
operations for holdin_g the
blank.
Screw drive : The
screw drive illustrated in
2 2 Fig.13.7(b) is operated by
a f riction disc which
imparts an uniform
accele rating movement to
f!ran� and connect
. �ng rod : The crank and connecting rod the ram in the downward
mechamsm illustrated in F1g.13.5(a) is the simplest and most common stroke. The screw driven
Figure 13.7(a) Figure 13.7(b)
method of driving the ram. For multiple propose die, a double crank may
. Screw drive presses have longer stroke
be u�ed. F1g.13.5(c) shows the variation of ram displacement with crank Toggle drive on.
, 2. Ram. length and gentler acti
rotation. I. Toggle lever, 2. Ram. I. Friction disc
Eccentric drive : The eccentric drive mechanism illustrated in and pinion drive illustrate
d in
Fig.13.5(b) is used in presses for shorter length of stroke o'f the ram. The Rack and pinion drive : The rack th am.
ry long stroke length to _ �
r
working is similar to a crank and connecting rod mechanism. Fig.1 3.8(a ) is used for imparting a ve illustrate d in F1g 13 .8(b) is
auli c driv e, :
cam drive: The cam drive illustrated in Fig.13.6(a) is used to give Hydraulic drive: The hyd r
d fo r forming, � raw
e pres sure at a slow spee
.
a specific type of movement to the ram. The ram remains idle for some used fo r applying a very larg d on one side of
high p ressu�e is pumpe
period at the bottom of the stroke. ing operations, etc.. The oil under _
atin g mov ement to the
imp art reciproc
Knuckle joint drive : The knuckle joint drive illustrates in the piston and then on the other to
. ram.
Ftg.13.6(b) has a high mechanica l advantage near the bottom of the stroke.
13.S PRESS SIZE

The punches and dies are generally made of high speed steel. Die
with the working surface made of stellite or cemented carbide are mostly
The size of a press is
used in production presses.
designated by its
maximum capacity of 3
applying load on a
piece of a blank, and it ,... -
--
is expressed in tonnes,
2 2
The mechanical presses
are built having
A
•.:-J
B 2
c 2
capacities ranging from 2
5 to 4,000 tonnes. The
3
specially designated
hydraulic presses may Figure 13.S(a) Rack Figure 13.8(b)
have the capacity as and pinion drive Hydraulic drive y y
large as 50,000 tonnes. I. Rack, 2. Ram. I. Cylinder, 2. Ram
• ••
The bed area, which is I II
t, 11•.J
an importa�t dimension, must be stated along with the press size. The D 2 F
_
capacity I size of a press depends on the following factors. 2 2
1 . Dimensional size :
(a) enough space to accept the tool.
(b) length of stroke of the punch.
(c) openings to push the sheet in.
2. Force required to. enable the stroke.
3. Speed of the machine.
4. Tolerances that should be maintained for a specific number of
Figure 13.9 Methods of securing punch holders
component - production.
1. Punch plate, 2. Punch, 3. Set screw, 4. Grub screw, 5. Dowel pin, 6. Set screw.
13.6 PRESS TOOLS
13.7 METHODS OF PUNCHES SUPPORT
The general nomenclature of tools used in presses are called dies and
The punches are usually held in steel punch plates of the punch holder
punches. The term die is also sometimes used to denote the entire press
which is again clamped to the lower end of the ram. The various methods
tool including a punch.
of securing punches in punch plates are illustrated in Fig.13.9.
� punch is tha� part of the press tool which enters into he cavity
.
formed in the die section. The punch is usually the upper member of the View A : The punch is forced in the punch plate and the top end of
press tool which is mounted on the lower end of the ram and slides with it. the punch is flattened to fit in the countersunk recess.
A die is that part of the press tool which has an opening or cavity to ·
. View B : The punch is clamped in the punch plate by a set screw
rec�1ve the punch. The die is usually the lower member of the press tool and is located by a slot cut in the punch plate.
_
which is clamped on the bolster plate fitted on the table and remains
stationary.
496 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY JIGS AND FIXTURES 529
View C : The shank end of the punch is forced in the punch plate 14.19 SAFETY DEVICES
and then the top end of the punch is flattened to fit in the countersunk
recess. The jigs and fixtures are designed to assure full safety to the operator. All
View D: The punch is secured to the plate by grubscrews. sharp edges should be rounded and all revolving parts should be guarded
View E : The flange end of the punch is secured to the plate by against any possibility of injury.
means of set screws.
View F : The punch is secured to the plate of set screw and is 14.20 JIG BASE, BODY OR FRAME CONSTRUCTION
located by a dowel pin.
View G : The punch is introduced through the back of the plate and The body of the jigs and fixtures are manufactured by any one of the
fits into the recess. It is then clamped to the plate by set screws. following methods
View H: The punch is secured by a set screw and is located by, two
1. Machining. 3. Casting.
dowel pins.
2. Forging and then 4. Fabricating.
View I: The flange end of the punch is secured to the plate by set
achining. 5. Welding.
screws from the punch end.
13.8 METHODS OF DIE SUPPORT Machining jig : Small jigs of simple design are manufactured from steel
or cast iron blocks by machining.
The die is usually held in the die holder which is again clamped to the
Fol"ged jig : When the jigs of simple design are _ to be ma�ufa�tured in
bolster plate mounted on the table. The different methods of securing die
large numbers, they are forged and finally machmed to bnng 1t to the
blocks to the die holders are illustrated in Fig.13.10.
required size
View A : The die block is secured to the die holder by four set
Cast jig: The jigs made of grey iron casting are most wide� y used. Non
screws (only) and is located by dowels.
metallic materials like Masonic or plastic are also sometimes used to
View B : The die block is secured by set screws from the bottom of reduce the weight. The following are the advantages of cast jigs :
the holder.
View C : The die block is secured by an wedge which is clamped to 1. Cast iron absorbs vibration.
the die holder by set screws. 2. A large number of jigs can be manufacture from one _ pattern.
2 3. Intricate and complicated jigs are manufacture with ease by
casting.
Fabricated jig: The fabricated jigs are manufactured by assembling steel

.
plate, angle-irons, channel-irons, etc. to the required shape and conn� ctmg
.... .,•
••
,J' "
ti
II II
,. !l J,.,
them together by screws. The following are the advantages of fabncated
jigs:
(b) (c)
5
4 1. The jig can be built up quickly.
2. The standard jig parts can be used.
3. The jig parts can be dismantled and stored up for separate use.
Figure 13.10 Methods of securing die blocks
I. Die holder, 2. Die block, 3. Wedge, 4. Set screw. 5. dowel.
JIGS AND FIXTURES 531
Welded jig : The welded jigs are manufactured by welding the plates of
5
other components to the required size. The welded jigs are cheep, quickly
manufactured and lighter than the other types.
14.21 JIGS AND FIXTURE TYPES
The quality, type, and complexity of jigs and fixtures used depend so l ely
Figure 14.29 Channeljig Figure 14.30 Diameterjig
on th� type of work to be machined and the scale of production required. A 1. Work, 6. V-block, 7. Clamping plate
1. Work, 3. Drill bush, 4. Channel,
few simple type dri l l jigs are described below : 8. Drill bush, 9, Clamping bolt.
5. Knurled knob.
1. Template jig. 5. Leaf jig. Diameter jig : The diameter jig is illustrated in Fig.14.30 is used to dill
2. Plate jig. 6. Ring jig. radial holes on a cyl indrical or spherical workpieces. The work 1 is p l aced
3. Channe l jig. 7. Box jig. on the fixed V-block 6 and then clamped by the clamping plate 7 which
4. Diameter jig.
Te�plate jig : The template jig is the simplest of all types. A plate 2
havmg holes at the desired positions serves as template which is fixed on
the component 1 to be drilled. The drill 21 is guided through these holes of
the temp l ate 2 and the required hol es are drilled on the workpiece at the
-�1
relative positions with each other as on the template. A template jig is
jllustrated in Fig.14.27.
Figure 14.31 Leafjig Figure 14.32 Ringjig
I. Work, 3. Drill bush, JO, Buttons, 1. Work, 3. Drill bush, 15, Nut,
I• •r
Plate jig : A plate jig is an
11. Hinge pin, 12 Set screw, 13. Leaf, 16. Jig plate, 17. Cl amping bolt.
improvement of the template jig by
14. Leaf clamping screw.
incorporating dri II bushes on the
template. The plate jigs are empl oyed a l so locates the work. The tool is
to dri l l holes on large parts guided through the drill bush 8 which
maintaining accurate spacing with is said radially with the work.
each other. A plate jig is illustrated in
Fig.14.28. Leaf jig : The leaf jig illustrated in
Figure 14.27 Templatejig Fig.14.31 has a leaf or a plate 13
I. Work, 2. Template, 21. Drill.
Channel jig : The channel jig hinged on the body at 11 and the leaf
illustrated in Fig.14.29 is a simple may be swung open or closed on ihe 18
type of jig having channel like cross 3 work for loading or unloading
section. The component 1 is fitted 2 proposes. The work I is located by
within the channel 4 and is located the button JO and is clamped by set
and c l amped by rotating the knurled screws 12. The drill bush 3 guides the
knob 5. The tool is guided through the tool.
dril l bush 3. Figure 14.28 Platejig Figure 14.33 Box jig
1. Work, 2. Template, 3. Drill bush. Ring jig : The ring jig illustrated in 1. Work, 3. Drill bush, 18, Buttons,
Fig.14.32 is employer to drill holes 19. Cam handle, 20. Cam.
on circular flanged parts. The work is securely clamped on the drill body
and the holes are drilled bf the tool through drill bushes.
Box jig : The box jig illustrated in Fig.14.33 is of box like construction
15
within which the components is located the buttons 18. The work J is
clamped by rotating the cam handle which also locates it. The drill bush 3
guides the tool. The jigs are generally employed to drill a number of holes BROACHING AND SAWING
on a component-from different angles.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
15.1 INTRODUCTION
1. Outline the uses of jigs and fixtures in improving productivity. Also
pinpoint the advantages of employing jigs and fixtures in mass Broaching is a method of removing metal by pushing or pulling a cutting
production work. tool called a broach which cuts in fixed path. The tool may be pulled or
2. Define jigs and fixtures. Differentiate them.
pushed through the surfaces to be finished. Surfaces finished by broaching
3. Outline the principles of jigs and fixtures design.
4. What is meant by location ? Illustrate the principle of location. may be flat or contoured and may be either internal or external. Broaching
5. Describe various methods of locating works with neat sketches. is generally limited to the removal of about 6 mm of stock or less.
6. What operational factors must be considered to ensure efficient The term broaching may have derived from an ancient Roman word
clamping of workpieces on jigs and fixtures. braces, which meant an object having projecting teeth. The operation. itself
7. What are the different types of clamps used with jigs and fixtures ? dates only to the 1850's when broaching tools, then called "drifts" were
Briefly describe any two. hammered in blacksmith shops through the work or pushed through with
8. Why power devices are used in clamping ? What are the an arbor press.
disadvantages in hand clamping ?
9. Name a few drilling jigs useful for production work. Sketch them neatly.
15.2 BROACHES
10. List the manufacturing methods for producing jigs and fixtures.
A broach is a multiple-edges cutting tool that has successively higher

cutting edges along the length of the tool.
Types of Broaches Broaches may be classified in various ways,

according to
'
1 . Type of operation: internal or external.
2. Method of operation : push or pull.
3. Type of construction: solid, built-up, inserted tooth, progressive
cut, rotor cut, double jump, or overlapping tooth.
4. Function : surface, keyway, round hole, splint, spiral,
burnishing, etc.
Broaching of inside surfaces is called internal or hole broaching

and of outside surfaces, external or surface broaching. Internal broaching
tools are designed to enlarge and cut various contours in holes already
534 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY BROACING AND SAWING 535
made by drilling, punching, casting, forging, etc. External surface Rotor cut broaches are used for removing large amounts of material
_
broac �ing competes with milling, planing, shaping, shaping, and similar in holes in forgings or castings where a primary cutting operation is not
op �rat '.ons. It offers � combina�ion of a high degree of accuracy and desired. Teeth are staggered around the periphery at different sections so as
. _
excell �nt surface finish, combined with high output rate and low to shear the work and allow chip clearance. This would be an ideal tool to
downtime. use for making a square hole from a ro und cast one.
A push broach (Fig.15.1) is one that is designed to be pushed A burnishing broach makes a glazed or finished surface in a steel,
through the workpiece by special press or a push b ro aching matching.
cast iron or nonferrous hole. Burnishing teeth are round and do not cut but
Because of the tendency to bend under compressive loads, the push broach
compress and rub the surface metal. The amount of stock left for
must be sho11 and stocky, which means fewer teeth burnishing should not exceed 0.025 mm.
are in the broach and, less material can be removed
for each pass of the tool. Holes are machined by push
Broach elements Ordinary cut
broaches only for sizing. In a pullbroach (Fig.15.2),
broaches for machining previously
the tool is entirely in tension and long slender
drilled or bored holes consist of the
broaches are possible, having a large number of teeth,
following elements (Fig. 15.2) :
consequently more stock can be removed for each
pass. Pull end : This is designed to
When a broach is made in one piece, it is
permit engagement of the broach with
called a solid broach. Internal broaches are usually of
the broaching machine through the use of
the solid type. Broaches are sometimes built up of a puller head.
several sections, and sometimes made up of a series Front pilot : This centres the
of teeth inserted in a block of steel. Surface broache1.
broach in the hole before the teeth begin
are usually of the built up or inserted tooth , pe.
to cut.
Progr�ssive cut broaches (Fig.15.3) have teeth,,. ·,.,art Roughing and semijinish teeth
of which are of the same height along the broach but They remove most of the stock in the
have different widths. In progressive cut broaching, hole.
metal is removed in thick layers by each tooth from Finishing teeth : They are for
only part of the work-surface. The last teeth of a sizing the hole and must have the shape
progressive cut broach remove a thin layer over the required of the finished hole.
entire profile of the work surface as in ordinary cut Figure 15.3 Progressive
Rear pilot and follower rest : cut surface broaching
broaching. They support the broach after the last
tooth leaves the hole.
The form of broach teeth reveals features like those of other cutting
Follow rcsr
l
tools. Fig.15.4 shows an enlarged tooth from the terms and angles
Pull end Rear pilot
indicated as follows
Land : The top
Roughing teeth-t,,,-4,o,-,.....i
Finishing teeth portion of a tooth is
Fron1 pilot called the land and in
Semi-finishing teeth
most cases ground to
•
Shank length Cutting teeth
give a slight
Figure 15.l Figure 15.2 Internal pull broach elements clearance.
Push broach Figure 15.4 Enlarged tooth form on broach
BROACING AND SAWING 537
shapes can be broached by surface broaching, but the tools must
Back off or clearance angle : This corresponds to the relief angle be specially designed for each job.
of a single point tool. This is 1.5 ° to 2 ° for both cast iron and steel. Finish 4. Continuous broaching : The work is moved continuously and
teeth have a smaller angle ranging from Oto 1.5 °. the broach is held stationary. The path of movement may be
Rake or hook angle or face angle : This corresponds to the rake either straight horizontal or circular. This method is very
angle on a lathe tool. The rake angle varies according to the material being suitable for broaching a number of similar works at a time.
cut, and in general, increases as the ductility increases. Values of this angle
for most steels range from 12 to! 5 °. 15.4 BROACHING MACHINES
Pitch.: The linear distance from the cutting edge of one tooth to the
corresponding edge on the next tooth is called the pitch t and differs for Broaching machines are probably the simplest of all machine tools. They
cutting (roughing and semifinish) and finishing·teeth. For the cutting teeth, consist of a work holding fixture, a broaching tool, a drive mechanism, and
the pitch is selected in accordance with the length I of the hole being a suitable supporting frame. Although the component parts are few, several
broached ( t = 1.25'1! to 1.5..// ). On an average, the pitch of finishing teeth variations in design are possible. There are two principal types of machin�s
is usually equal to one half of the cutting teeth pitch. The pitch should vary : horizontal and vertical. In addition to these standard types, there are
by 0.2 to 0.3 mm after several teeth. special and continuously operating machines. Both horizontal and vertical
The height of the roughing and semifinish teeth gradually increases types have one or more rams depending on production requirement. Dual
from the shank to the finishing teeth. This increment, called the cut per ram models are arranged so that when one ram is on the cutting stroke, the
tooth, depends on the material being machined and the hole size. The cut other is on the return stroke ; and the return stroke is performed quickly to
per tooth is usually taken from O.QI to 0.2 mm. gairr time, which is used to unload and load the machine.
Broaching machines usually pull or push the broach through, or
Broach material : Most broaches are made from 18-4-1 tungsten past a workpiece that is held in a fixture. On some machines, however, the
chromium vanadium steel ground after hardening. Carbide b roaches are workpiece is moved past a broach that is fixed in its position. Most
used extensively in the broaching of cast iron in the automotive field. They broaching machines are hydraulically operated to secure a smooth,
arc also used for surface broaches, for high production and for finishing uniform cutting action.
broaches.
Horizontal broaching machines : Nearly all horizontal machines :ire of
15.3 �ROACHING METHODS the pull type. They may be ,used for either internal or external broaching,
although internal work is the most common. A horizontal broaching
Broaching, according to the method of operation, may be classified as machine shown in Fig. 15 .5 consists of a bed or a base a little more than
follows: twice the length of the broaching stroke, a broach pilot and the drive
mechanism for pulling the broach.
1 . Pull broaching : The work is held stationary and the broach is Horizontal broaching
1
pulled through the work. Broaches are usually long and are held machines are used pri
in a special head. Pull broaching is used mostly for internal mnrily for broaching
b roaching but it can do some surface broaching. 1< w:1y·;, ,.pli:te:-., <ilol'>,
2. Push broaching : The work is held stationary and the broach is round holes, anJ otl;r. r
pushed through the work. Hand and hydraulic arbor presses arc internal shapes or con
popular for push broaching, This method is used mostly for 3 tours. They have the
sizing holes and cutting keyways. disadvantage of taking
3. Surface broaching : Either the work or the broaching tool more floor space than do
Figure 15.5 Horizontal braoching machine
moves across the other. This method has rapidly become an the vertical machines.
1. Pulling head, 2. Braoch, 3. Work fixture.
important means of surface finishing. Many irregular or intricate
ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY BROACING AND SAWING 539
538
However, long broaches and heavy workpieces are easily handled. In the horiwntal continuous broaching machines the workpieces
travel as they arc carried by an endless chain. The workpieces are loaded
Vertical broaching machines : The into work holding fixtures mounted on the continuously moving ·Chain.
vertical types may be obtained in either During the operation, the broach is stationary as before. Such machines arc
push or pull type. The push type is the 2 used for broaching small parts.
most popular. A vertical broaching
J
machine is shown in Fig.15.6. Vertical 155 BROACHING MACHINE SIZES
machines are employed in multiple
operations, since they are convenient to The size of a broaching machi�c is specified mainly by the.length of stroke
pass work from one machine to another, in mm and the force in tonnes that can be applied to the broach. Thus a
. and they are more likely to be found doing 1000-10 machine has a lOOOmm stroke with a 10 tonne nominal broach
surface operations. Of the three models 3� driving force. Other important parameters for specifying a broaching
available, pull up, pull down, and push machine arc broaching speed, return speed and machine horse power.
down, the pull up type is most popular. Table 15 .1 shows the specifications of different broaching machines.
Vertical machines require an
operator platform or a pit and are TABLE 15.1 SPECIFICATIONS OF BROACHING MACHINES
economical of floor space than the Figure 15.6 Block diagram
Srroke Driving Breaching Re111m
horizontal type. of a vertical broaching force speed speed Molorh.p.
Modern vertical broaches are machine
"/)1pe (111111)
(101111e) {mpm) (mpm)
offered with both hydraulic and electro I. Column, 2. Braoch, 3. Fixture 750 12 8.0 15.5 15
Broaching press
mechanical drives. But hydraulic drives and table, 4. Work, 5. Base. 1300 10 8.0 15.0 15
Horizontal pull press
are the most common because they cost Ve nical pull· up press 900 10 10.0 20.0 15
less. A vertical hydraulic broaching Vcnical surface prc,s l:!00 10 8.0 15.0 15
machine is illustrated in Fig. 15.7.
Source Manufacturing Process and Materials for Engineers. l.a,Hcn.:c E. Doyel.
Prentice llall. Inc.
Surface broaching machine : Surface
broaching machines have their broaching
tools attached to a ram or rams forced in a
straight path along guideways past the
workpiece. On some machines the ram
moves horizontally, on others vc11ically.
When two rams are used, the machine is
called a duplex broach. Figure 15.7 The hydraulic
circuit for a vertical J
Continuous broaching machines : For 2
mass production of small parts, the highly productive continuous (b)
(a)
broaching method is used on rotary or horizontal continuous-broaching Figure 15.8 Continuous broaching machines
machines. They are illustrated in Fig. 15.8. (a). Rotary .:ontinuous broaching machine
In the rotary continuous broaching machines, the workpiece is I. Workpiece. 2. Rotary table, 3. Broach
loaded on the table which rotates continuously. During the operation the (b). Horizontal continuous broaching machine
broach is stationary. I. Broach. 2. Workpiece, 3. Endless chain
BROACING AND SAWING
15.6 BROACHING FIXTURES
The teeth of a gear or splint may be broached alt ogether or one or a
few at a time. A comp aratively simple broach can be made to cut one or a
Fixt�res are most important in broaching operations. They are used few tooth spaces, After o ne pass, the gear blank is indexed, and �ore of its
partrcularl� for two reasons : first, because of the high pressures used and .
teeth a.re cut. Succes sive passes are made until all the teeth dre f1m shed.
be�ause of the manner in which the cutting is done ; second, broaching
.
bemg essential a mass -production operation, fixtures speed up the 15.8 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF BROACHING
.
operation and help to keep it accurate.
Broaching fixtures perform one or more of the following functions : Broaching has been adopted for mass production work because of the
following outstanding features and advantages
1. Move the work into and out of cutting position.
2. Hold the work rigidly so that it will not deflect. I. Rate of production is very high. With properly applied
3. Guide the b roach in rel ation to the work. broaches, fixtures, and m achines, more pieces can be tu rned out
4. Locate the work in correct position. per ho ur by broaching than by any other means,
5. Index or feed the work between cuts. 2. Little skill is required to p erform a broaching oper ation. In most
cases the o perator merely loads and unloads the workpiece.
15.7 BROACHING OPERATION
3. High accuracy and a high class of surf ace finish is possible. A
B roaching is applied for machining tolerance of :t 0.0075 mm and a surface finish of about 0.8
various in ternal and external surface micr ons (I micr on = 0.001mm) can be easily obtained in
for round or irregular shaped hole s
s from 6 to 100 mm in broaching.
external flat and contoured surfa di ameter , fo;
ces. Certain types of s urfaces 4. Both roughing and finishing cuts �re completed in one pass of
exa mple, splint ho!cs, arc machi ed for
� at the present time only the to o l.
. .
due to the exceptional 1fficult 1cs . by b roa�hing
� m machining such surfac es by othe 5. The process can be used for either internal or external surface
r� ethods. A number of. important b r
roaching opera tions are finishing.
Frg. 15.9. illustrated in
6. Any form that can be reproduced on a broaching can be
Mos t broaching operations are com
pleted in one pass , but some are machined.
arranged for repeated c uts to simplify
the design of the b roach. 7. Cutting fluid may be readily applied where it is most effec tive
because a broach tends to draw the fluid into the cut.
Certain reasons, however, limit the application of the broaching

process . They arc
Broaching a key in a hole
with a keyway broach Broaching hole wirh a round back 1. High tool cost. A broach usually docs only one job and is
expensive to make and sharpen.
2. Very large workpieces cannot be broached.
3. The surfaces to be broached cannot have an obstruction.
4. Broaching cannot be used for the remova l of a large amount of
Surface broaching with 8 stock.
contour broach Broaching a spline hole with�
5. Parts to be broached mu st be cap able of being rigidly supported
spline broach
and must be 3bJ e to withstand the force s that set up during
cutting.
Figure 15.9 Broaching operations
BROACING AND SAWING 543
Circular saws : Circular saws are cut by means of a revolving disc. The
15.9 SAWING disc may have large teeth or almost no teeth. Machines of this type are
divided into three classification as given before.
S awing is �ne of the mo st impo rt ant cutting off operations perfo rmed in a The cold saw has a circular bl ade with inserted teeth for cutting
manufactunng pl�nt. Metal sawing is chiefly concerned with cutting bar small or large bars to length. It cuts very rapidly because of the large
stock to a con:ement length or size for machining. d iameter bl a des, but it runs at relatively slow speed and is very powerful.
In sawing, the individual teeth o f the saw "track" through the o k The cut ma de is very smoo th and accurate. Coolants may or may not be
. used with this type o f saw. Aver age thickness of the cut is 6 mm. A cold
I� ea �h tooth deepening the cut ma de by the preceding tooth i: t�;
d1rect10? of feed. Either the saw or the work may be fed a d b saw can be equipped with automatic bar,feeding mechanisms. The stock is
controlling the �irection of feed, either straight or curved cut ;a� b� held in a vise capable of handling one or a number of parts at the same
prod�ced. The width o f the cut is appro ximately equal to the width o f the time.
saw itself. Friction discs are circular bla des having almost no teeth. They
o perate at high speeds and generate heat. The heat of frictio n so ftens the
15.10 SA WING MACHINES metal of the wo rkpiece in contact with the disc, and the soft metal is
rubbed aw ay. Friction sawing is fast but leaves a heavier burr and a less
accurate surface th an cutt ing too th does.
Sa-:ving machi?es may be classified by the motion used for the cutting
a ctio n.
Accordingly, the various types of power sawing machines are listed. Abrasive discs, as the name impl ies, are thin flexible grinding
belo w: wheels. Thin res iono id or rubber bonded wheels rot ating at high speeds are
generally used. The cutting actio n is fast and accurate but this abrasive
1. Reciprocating sa w. disc cutting is not a true sawing technique.
(a) Horizontal sa wing machine. (b) Vertical sawing ma chine.
2. Circular saw. Band saws : In a band saw, a continu ous sa w blade or band runs o ver the
(a) Cold saw. rims of two wheels, one o f which drives the saw at the desired cutting
(b) Frictio n disk.
speed. The work is mounted on the table between the two wheels. In
(c) Abrasive disk.
contrast to the reciprocating action o f the hacksaw which is idle o n the
3. Band sa w.
return stroke, the band saw is never idle. This continuo us cutting action
(a) Conto ur band saw. (b) Friction blade.
makes the band sa w mo re productive. They are mainly divided into two
cl assifications as given before.
Reciprocating saw : Reciprocating saws are represented by power hack
The contour band saw is the most versatile of all types o f sawing
saws. A power hack saw consists of a saw frame, a means for reciprocating machines in application. The wo rk m ay be fed in any direction on the
the sa w and frame,_ a work t able and vise, a supporting ba se, and a source
table, and the direction of feed is readily controlled and changed while.
of power In operat,?n, the machine drives a bl ade back and forth through
_. cutting is in process to produce any desired outline. These machines are
a workpiece, pressing down on the cutting stroke and releasing the
widely used for making dies o r other p arts with a contour internal shape.
pressure o_n the ret�rn. The do wnfeed force on the bla de may be obtained A friction band saw operates on the same principle a s the friction
from gravity o r springs �egul�ted by a ratchet mechanism, a positive feed circul ar saw. The dull blade produces great friction and the kerf o f the
screw or fr?m a hydraulic dnve. The simplest type o f feed is the gravity teeth remo ves small, softened pa rticles of the wo rk.
.
feed, in which the sa w bla de is forced into the work by the weight of the
�aw and frame. � hydr aulic o r mechanical arrangement is also 15.11 SELECTING A BLADE FOR SAWING MACHINE
.
m�o rp or ated for hftmg the b'lade on the return stroke. M any are .crank
dnven ; the la rge ones o ften are hydraulically driven. Blade materials include standard carbon steel. high speed steel and
The stock to be cut is held between the clamping sa ws. Several bimetallic high speed steel. There are three tooth sets that can be used ;
.
pieces o f bar stock can be cl amped together and cut at the same time. Bo th
square and angular cuts can be made.
544 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLO
GY
raker, alternate and wavy Fig.15.1

0 shows these toothe sets There
are
�:�:. forms also. Fig.15.11 shows three tooth fo rm s ; standard, skip and
16
SURFACE FINISHING PROCESSES
I
16.l INTRODUCTION
In a manufacturing plant, a product may be shaped, turned, milled or

drilled, and left in that condition as being satisfactory for use. However, If
(a) (b)
a better finish is desired, for looks, for accuracy, for wearing qualities, or
(c)
(c) for any other reasons, one of the microfinishes that include lapping,
honing, superfinishing, polishing, buffing, may be employed. In some
Figure 15.10 Saw tooth pattern
Figure 15.11 Saw tooth forms cases other operations are done only to get durable finishes.
(a) Raker, (b) Altema1e, (c) Wavy.
(a) Standard, (b) Skip, (c) Hook.
REVIEW QUESTIONS 16.2 LAPPING
1. What is broaching ? H ow bro Lapping is an abrading process that is used to produce geometrically true
aches are classified ? List vario
br o aches. us surfaces, correct minor surface imperfections, improve dimensional
2. . Sketch different elements of a broa accuracy, or provide a very close fit between two contact surfaces. Very
ch and describe them brief!
3. :::�:.re the materials of broaches thin layers of metal (0.005 to 0.01 mm) are removed in lapping and it is,
? Sketch a typical tooth sh�pe of a
therefore, evident that lapping is unab\c to correct substantial errors in the
4. N m_e di�erent broaching machine form and sizes of surfaces. It is, however, low efficiency process and is
� s. Sketch block diagram of any one
an I dentify parts. Describe the mac
. hine in brie f. used only when specified accuracy and surface finish cannot be obtained
5. Describe a surface broaching mac
hine. hy other methods.
6. How do you specity a broaching mac
hine size ? Explain. Abrasive powders (nours) such as emery, corundum, iron oxide,
7. �hat are the functions of broaching fixtures ?
8. List a�vantages an limitations of broa chromium oxide, etc., mixed with oil or special pastes with some carrier
ching. are used in lapping. Most lapping is done by means of lapping shoes or
9. What �s sawing ? List different type
s of sawing machines
10. D escribe a band saw. quills, called laps, that arc rubbed against the work. The face of a lap
11. Differentiate between a reciprocating becomes "charged" with abrasive pa,ticles. Charging a lap means to
saw and a band saw
12. �ow does a power hacksaw operate embed the abrasive grains into its surface. Laps may be made of almost
and what are its adv�ntages and
d rsadvantages ? any material soft enough to receive and retain the abrasive grains. They are
made of soft cast iron, brass, copper, lead or soft steel. The method of
charging a lap depends upon the shape of lap. When the lap is once
charged, it should be used without applying more abrasive until it ceases to
cut. Laps may be operated by hand or machine, the motion being rotary or
reciprocating. Cylindrical work may be lapped by rotating the work in
lathe or drill press and reciprocating the lap over the work in an ever-
SURFACE FltlSHING PROCESS 547
changing path. Small flat surfaces may be lapped by holding the work
tool may be transmitted equally to all sides. Coolants are essential to the
against a rotati�g disc, or the work may be moved by hand in an irregular
operation of • this process to flush away small chips and to keep
path over a stationary faceplate lap. In equalizing lapping the work and lap
_ temperatures uniform.
mutually mprove each others surface as they slide on each other.
Honing is done on general purpose machines, such as the lathe, drill
There are three important types of lapping machines. The vertical
press, and portable drills, as an expedient. But more economical results can
axis lapf!ing m�chine laps flat or round surfaces between two opposed laps I
be obtained by honing machines for production work. There are two
on �ert1cal spmdl�s. The centreless lapping machine is designed for
general types of honing machines : Horizontal and vertical. A ·honing
contmuous production of round parts such as piston pins, bearing races and
machine rotates and reciprocates the hone inside holes being finished. The
cups, valve t�pp�ts and shafts. The centreless lapping machine operates on
two motions produce round and straight holes that have a very fine surface
the s�me prmc1pl � as centreless grinding. The abrasive belt lapping I
finish of random scratches. Vertical honing machines are probably more
machme laps beanngs and cam surfaces by means of abrasive coated
common . Horizontal honing machines are often used for guns and large
clothes.
bores.
16.3 HONING
16.4 SUPERFINISHING
Honing is grinding or a abrading process mostly for finishing round holes Superfinshing is an operation using bonded abrasive stones in a particular
by means of bonded abrasive stones, called hones. Honing is therefore a way to produce an extremely high quality of surface finish in conjunction
cutting operation and has been used to remove as much as 3 mm of stock
with an almost complete absence of defects in the surface layer. A very
but ·is normally confined to amounts less than 0.25 mm. So honing is
thin layer of metal (0.005 to 0.02 mm) is removed in superfinishing. This
pri mari(y us�d to correct some out of roundness, taper, tool marks, and
. operation may be applied for external and internal surfaces of parts made
axial d1stort1on. Honing stones are made from common abrasive and
of steel, cast iron and non-ferrous alloys, which have been previously
?onding materials, often impregnated with sulphur, resin, or wax to ground or precision turned. It is most frequently used to obtain very fine
1mpr ?ve �utting acti�n and lengthen tool life. Materials honed range from
. surface finish.
piastres, silver, alumm1um, brass, and cast iron to hard steel and cemented
In superfinishing, a very fine grit (grain size 400 to 600) abrasive
carbides. This method is mostly used for finishing automobile crankshaft stick is retained in a suitable holder and applied to the surface of the
journals. workpiece with a light spring pressure. The stick is given a feeding and
When honing is done manually the tool oscillating motion, and the workpiece is rotated or reciprocated according
is rotated, and the workpiece is passed back and to the requirements of the shape being superfinished, In this process, the
forth over the tool. For precision honing, the work rotation'al speed is low (2 to 20 m/min.) the longitudinal feed ranges
tool is given a slow reciprocating motion as it from 0.1 to 0.15 mm per workpiece revolution, the abrasive stick oscillates
rotates. Honing stones may be loosely held in
rapidly in short strokes (2 to 5mm) with a frequency from 500 to 1,800
holders, cemented into metal shells which are
strokes per minute and the springs hold the stick against the work with a
clamped into holders, cemented directly in
holders, or cast into plastic tabs which are held
in holders. Some stones are spaced at regular
intervals around the holder, while others are
interlocking so that they present a continuous
surface to the bore. A typical honing toolhead
is shown in Fig.16.1. The honing tool may be so
Figure 16.1 Honing made that a floating action between the work
tool-head for holes and tool prevails and any pressure exerted in the
1. Stones, 2. Guides Figure 16.2 Schematic diagram of shaft superfinishing
548 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY SURFACE FINISHING PROCESS 549
force from 2 to 10 kg. A special lubricant, usually a mixture of kerosene 16.7 POWER BRUSHING
and oil, is used to obtain a high quality of surface finish, A schematic
diagram of shaft superfinishing is shown in Fig.16.2. High speed revolving brushes can be used to remove burrs, fins, sharp
Special general-purpose machine tools are available for edges or minute surface defects from manufactured components. Tough
superfinishing. Other types of ordinary machines, in particular, lathes, are fibre wheels, wire bristle and Tampico are utilized to produce power
sometimes employed for this purpose. Single purpose machine tools for brushes. These materials are flexible and can conform to irregular surfaces.
example, for finishing crankshaft journals, camshafts, etc. are also used.
16.8 TUMBLING
16.5 POLISHING
Tumbling, often, is the least expensive process for removing rust and scale
Polishing is a surface finishing operation performed by a polishing wheel from metal parts. Parts configuration and size are the primary limitations
for the purpose of removing appreciable metal to take out scratches, tool of the process. Tumbling in dry abrasives (deburring compounds) is
marks, pits and other defects from rough surfaces. In polishing, usually effective for removing rust and scale from small parts of simple shape.
accuracy of size and shape of the finished surface is not important, but However, parts of compkx shape, with deep recess and other irregularities,
sometimes tolerances of 0.025 mm or less can be obtained in machine cannot be descaled uniformly by tumbling. It may require several hours of
polishing. Polishing wheels are made of leather, papers, canvas, felt, or tumbling, if the method is used. The addition of descaling compounds
wool. The abrasive grains are set up with glue or thermosetting resins on instead of deburring compounds will often decrease the tumbling time by
the face of the wheel, and the work is held against it and rotated to give the 75 per cent.
desired finish. Polishing may follow any of the machining methods except The operation is accomplished by placing workpieces in a drum or
�.oning, lapping, or superfinishing. Commonly several steps are necessary, barrel, together with stars, jacks, slugs, or abrasive materials. The abrasive
first to remove the defects and lhen to put the desired polish on the surface. materials can be sand, granite chips, slag, or aluminium oxide pellets. In
The polishing method is very similar to grinding, and the work may operation, the barrel is rotated, and the movement of the workpieces and
be pressed by hand to wheels mounted on floor stand grinders. For the accompanying slugs or abrasive material against each other produces
production many kind of machines have been built to bring the coated by friction a fine cutting action which remove the fins, flashes, and scale
abrasive in contact with lhc workpiece. They may be broadly classified in from the products.
two groups : the endless-belt machines and the coated abrasive wheels.
16.9 PICKLING AND OXIDIZING
16.6 BUFFING
Pickling refers to the removal of surface oxides and scale from metals by
Buffing is used to give a much higher, lustrous, reflective finish that acid solutions. Common pickling solutions contain sulphuric or
cannot be obtained by polishing. The buffing process consists in applying hydrochloric acids and water and sometimes inhibitors which have been
a very fine abrasive with a rotating wheel. Buffing wheels are made of felts developed to reduce the harmful action of the acid fumes on plant
pressed and glued layers of duck or other cloth, and also of le�ther. The equipment. Nitric and hydroflouric acids are used for some applications. In
abrasive is mixed with a binder and is applied either on the buffing wheel pickling, the parts must be perfectly cleaned before they arc immersed in
or on the work. The buffing wheel rotates with a high peripheral speed acid solution. After pickling, the parts must be rinsed and completely
upto 40 m/sec. The abrasive may consist of iron oxide, chromium oxide, neutralized by an alkaline rinse, otherwise any trace of acid will corrode
emery, etc. T�e binder is a paste consisting of wax mixed with grease, the material and harm paint or other subsequent coating.
_
paraffme and kerosene, or turpentine and other liquids. Pickling is commonly done on rolled shapes, wires, sheets, heat
treated steel parts, wrought and cast aluminum parts. In some applications,
such as on aluminium, pickling is called oxidizing.
SURFACE FINISHING PROCESS 551
Zinc dipping, or hot galvanizing, is widely used on steel as an
16.10 ELECTROPI.ATING effective protection against corrosion. The parts are first cleaned and fixed
in solution of zinc chloride and hydrochloric acid.
Electroplating is the most popular means of applying metallic coatings on
the su�aces �f metals and sometimes on non-metals. This is done for 16.12 METAL SPRAYING
protection against corrosio? or agai�st �ear and abrasion, for appearance,
to re-work worn parts by increase m size, to make pieces easy to solder Metal spraying is basically intended to confer some physical property on a
and to stop off areas o� steel parts from being carburized during heat surface. The appearance of poor surfaces on castings can be improved by
treatn_ient. Co�mon platmg metals are chromium, nickel, copper, zinc, metal :spraying. Sprayed metal can be d ecorative, like aluminum or bronze
cad�1um and tm. The more precious metals-silver, gold, platinum, and on cast iron. Some can even be coloured.
rhodium are also applied by plating. Metal spraying is done by melting a metal in an oxy-gas flame and
Surfaces to be plated must be buffed smooth to eliminate scratches blowing it from the nozzle of a spray gun. In most guns the metal in the
and unevenness. The work is then cleaned in suitable cleaning solutions to form of wire is fed by powered rollers to the flame, but some guns use
remove all g�ease, dirt, buffing compound, etc. After rinsing, the part is powder or granulated metal. The process uses compressed air to atomize
ready for plating. fully the molten metal or oxides and project them against a prepared
The four essential elements surface where they arc embedded, assuring good mechanical adhesions.
of a plating process are the cathode, This is illustrated in Fig.16.4. The surface must be roughened first and be
anode, electrolyte, and direct free of dirt, _oil and grease. The compressed air helps cool the work parts,
current. They are shown in Fig.16.3. so that the coatings may be applied successively not only to metals but also
The current leaves the anode, which I
to glass, wood, asbestos, and certain plastics.
is a bar of plating metal, and A metal spray gun may be directed by hand or mounted on a
migrates through the electrolyte machine.
(water solution of salts of the metal
to be applied) to the cathode, or part
to be plated. As the ions arc 4
deposited on the cathode, they give 3
up their charge and are deposited as
metal on the cathode. Parts to be Figure 16.3 Electroplating �======-----
plated should be designed with I. Plating tank, 2. D.C.source, 3. g§��
generous fillets and radii instead of Workpiece, 4. Solution, 5. Anode
sharp corners, since current (plating)
�" lo,,..... ------<
concentrations occur at sharp points,
resulting in excessive deposits. Figure 16.4 Metal spraying
5. Atomized spray,
I. Oxy-fucl gas, 2. Compressed air, 3. Flame, 4. Workpiece,
16.11 HOT DIPPING: GALVANIZING 6. Melting, 7. Wire.
A pr�tective coating may be applied on metal pieces by dipping them into 16.13 METALLISATION
�ertain molte� metals namety·zinc, tin, or an alloy of lead and tin. Dipping
is an economic�) way of putting on a heavy and enduring coating. Metallisation is an interesting application of the oxy-acetylene flame. This
To obtain an even coating on small objects such as nuts, bolts, pins technique essentially consists in laying deposits which vary both in nature
_
and washers, the Objects are centrifuged, after being taken from the molten and in thickness, on to the widest variety of parts.
bath, until the coating is hard.
The principle is as follows : the material to be deposited is melted
17
in a flame and subsequently pulverized and sprayed in fine droplets on to
the part to be co�ted. The equipment used is a gun. It comprises a special
torch, coupled with a compressed air pulverizing device and a system of
feeding the product.
Any product can be sprayed : metal, ceramics, plastics, on to any
metal, and under certain conditions on to many non-metallic supports
wood, plaster, plastics, etc. Metallised surfaces laid in a thin layer of from
ERECTING AND TESTING MACHINE TOOLS
40 to 200 microns (zinc and aluminium) provide a much stronger and
.
longer lastrng protection against corrosion than any other more or less
composite film. 17.1 INTRODUCTION
REVIEW QUESTIONS The accuracy in the form and relationship of machine tool elements have a
great bearing on the accuracy and finish of the workpiece. Machine tools
1. Explain why surface finishirig is an important manufacturing process are, therefore, subjected to a rigid test during all stages of manufacture. The
.
2. Briefly explain the process of lapping. test covers the grade of accuracy of the machine tool itself, and whenever
3. What is honing? How and why it is performed? feasible, also its working accuracy.
4. What is superfinishing? Before proceeding to test a machine tool, the machine should be
5. Write �hort notes: (a) Polishing, (b) Buffing, (c) Electroplating. fixed upon suitable foundations on which it will later have to work and
6. What is pickling ? Why it is considered as a surface finishing
leveJed in accordance with the instruction of the manufacturer. It will be
process?
7. Explain how metal spraying is done? logical, therefore, to start from the location, and foundation of machines.
8. Briefly explain : (a) Galvanizing (b) Metallisation.
Figure 17 .1 Arrangement of several machines

1. Working place of the turner, 2. Position of the lathes with respect to each other.
17.2 LOCATION
At first the space required by a properly functioning machine must be

determined. In this connection it should be noted that work tables at
machines normally must be conveniently accessible from all sides for the
operator. For example, when selecting the location of a radial drilling
machine, the operating range of the swivelling arm must be taken into
consideration. Fig.17. I shows a typical arrangement of several machines.
17.3 FOUNDATIONS
The foundation plays a most important part in testing machine tools. It

carries and supports the weight of the machine, aligns the machine, and
554 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY ERECTING AND TESTING MACHINE TOOLS 555
what is most important, it absorbs vibration produced by the unbalanced results the wedges should be examined to ensure that each one is tight and
forces created by the reciprocating and rotating masses of the machine then the machine should be left to settle down for a day or two. After this
elements. But if the foundation is not properly made, i.e., if the foundation time a further check for level should be made, and if this is acceptable the
is made too light and is not extended to a sufficient depth, this will cause a machine may be grouted in. The grouting is carried out by pourung a
continuous source of trouble. creamy mixture of almost pure cement so that it fills up all the voids
For machines, where vibration occurs, a concrete foundation must between the base and the concrete and provides a large area of support. In a
be prepared. To enable this to be laid out the manufacturers generally few days the grouted will be ha(d, when the wedges may be removed and
prepare and issue a foundation plan. The plan shows the profile and size of the concrete at the edges of the base made good. The machine base is then
· the necessary concrete preparation and gives particulars as to recesses tightly screwed to the foundation bolts as shown in Fig.17.4. After
necessary to accommodate projections and holding-down bolts, etc. The tightening the nuts, the correct position of the machine must once more be
foundation can be set down before the machine is delivered and will be checked by means of the spirit leveL
ready for occupation as soon as it arrives.
The depth of the concrete foundation will depend on the weight of
the machine, the amount of vibration involved and the character of the
subsoil. The safe load vary from about 5,000 kg/m2 for alluvial soil or wet
clay to about 20,000 kg/m2 for gravel, coarse sand, or dry clay. If the soil is
marshy, it will not support even 5,000 kg/m2• In that case, the base of the
foundation will be required to form a mat or raft and concrete base should
be reinforced with steel. For most machine tools, according to the weight
and the subsoil, depth of concrete varying from 225 to 1200 mm should be Figure 17 .2 Checking a lathe for Figure 17.3 Wedges are
sufficient. horizontal position by means of a driven into the gap
spirit level between base and
17.4 ERECTION floor to align the machine
17.5 TESTING
After the foundation has been made, the machine may be placed in position
for levelling and aligning. Before setting the foundation, a foundation bolt The precision test cover the manufacturing accuracy of the machine tool
should be passed through each of the holding down holes in the base of the itself and whenever feasible, also its working accuracy. The test carried out
machine and allowed to remain loose with a nut on the end of the bolt. It to know the grade of manufacturing accuracy of the machine is known as
should be noted that concrete normally requires a time of three to four days alignment test and the working
to set; for this time, a machine cannot be erected on it. Concrete needs more accuracy as performance test. �
than 20 days to reach its full hardness. The cceptance test includes the --
Now comes the job of Levelling. The machine is carefully put on the and the ;?. 4
alignment test -�'-�,·,�·�i
J:
�. �it,:r,�: ,· /' �:': �r�;-. ,�
...
1 .
?L:
foundation bolts in the floor. Then the machine must be properly aligned. pe rformance test. , . ·/�,,·::•.;-:;:, .:�'.·],,·-.:-'·'·
:". '·:
Gr6utmg,;!l.•. "
-;rtJ-·r ti -�?/. :titfJtiJ·.-:
f�ig:�;t:I�: :;t];;;i� f!{;1)1.:;,}\l}jf

This means that the whole machine must be in a perfectly horizontal fn general, the tests
position. Spirit levels are used to check the position. should be carried out at the
�ft{J I
'li:� . .:,<;. 'i(ri:�.•.;l,�;.\a.},.
The first thing to do is to check the actual position of the machine.
For this purpose, a spirit level ·is applied to certain measuring areas, in both
longitudinal and cross direction, for example to the bed if lathes (Fig.17.2),
to the work table of milling and grinding machines. If these measuring 1
surfaces are out of the horizontal, wedges must be driven into the gap under stand at the manufacturer's Figure 17.4 Machine base and
the machine bed as shown in Fig.17.3. When the tests show satisfactory works. Also, at the foundation bolt after grouting
ERECTING AND TESTING MACHINE TOOLS 557
The Geometrical checks cover the manufacturing accuracy of the

manufacturer's plant, skilled men are available together with the necessary machine, whilst the practical tests check the accuracy of the finished
equipment, which is only obtainable with difficulty outside the testing components. Both measurements are practical and both form part of o�e
department. .
indivisible whole. Neither the user nor the manufacturer can dispense with
Primarily, the degree of the manufacturing accuracy of the machine either of these tests.
tool itself is to be tested, i.e. the accuracy with which machine has been
assembled. This is measured when the machine is idle and free of any load. 17.6 PRACTICAL TEST
The reason for giving prominence to the manufacturing accuracy of the
machine in the test procedure lies in the fact that it covers the whole Practical tests should be carried out on pieces, the making of which does
machine and can be carried out unambiguously and without difficulty. The not require operation other than those for which the machine has been built.
cutting test can only be carried out for random sizes and conditions, for Practical tests to ascertain the precision of a machine tool should be the
otherwise the time necessary for their execution and their costs would be finishing operations for which the machine has been designed.
prohibitive. The number of workpieces or, as the case may be, the number of
The degree of working accuracy of the machine, besides depending cuts to be made on a given workpiece, should be such as to make it
on the machine itself, is also influenced by the following factors possible to determine the average precision of working. If necessary, wear
on the cutting tool used should be taken into account.
1. The type of cutting tool and its condition (rake angles, hardness. Checking of workpieces used in practical tests should be done by
etc.) measuring instruments selected for the kind of measurement to be made
2. The cutting speed, feed and depth of cut. and the degree of accuracy required.
3. The material to be machined
4. The shape, size and rigidity of the job. 17.7 GEOMETRICALCHECKS
5. The tool holder.
6. The clamping equipment. Geometrical checks include checking of the following
7. The skill of the operator.
1. Straightness.
It is therefore, not in every cases practicable to guarantee the 2. Flatness.
obtainable degree of working accuracy. In the majority of the cases, 3. Parallelism, equidistant and coincidence.
working limits to be attained with the machine in operation are specified at 4. Rectilinear movements.
the end of the test charts. 5. Rotations.
Testing the accuracy of machine tools is done by geometrical checks
and practical tests. Straightness : The following geometrical checks for straightness should be
Geometrical check means the checking of dimen::;ions of forms and conducted:
positions of components as well as the checking of their displacement
relative to one another. They comprise all the operations which affect the (a) Straightness of a line in two planes. A line is deemed to be
components of the machine (the surface flatness, coincidence and straight over a given length when the variati_on of the distance of its points
intersection of axes, parallelism and perpendicularity of straight lines to from two planes perpendicular to each other and parallel to the general
straight lines, of flat surfaces to flat surfaces or of each to the other). They direction of the line remains below a given value for each plane.
concern only sizes, forms, position and relative movements which may (b) Straightness of components. The conditions for the straightness
affect the accuracy of working of the machine. of a component are the same as those for a line. For this purpose, � he
Practical test means the machining of test pieces appropriate to the straightness of components relates particularly to sideways of machine
fundamental purposes for which the machine has been designed, and tools.
having predetermined limits and tolerances.
558 ELEMENTSOFWOR�SHOPTECHNOLOGY
ERECTING AND TESTING MACHINE TOOLS 559
(c) Straight line motion. In the straight line motion of a component,
the trajectory of a point on that component is parallel to a reference line perpendicular to the axis between which the points of the surface are
parallel to the general direction of the motion. moving during the rotation.
Flatness : A surface is deemed to be flat within a given range of 17.8 MEASURING EQUIPMENT FOR TESTING
measurement when the variation of the perpendicular distance of its points
from a geometrical plane parallel to the general trajectory of the plane to be In the machine tool industry, there are three categories of measuring
tested remains below a given a value. equipment which differ mainly in the accuracy to which they are made in
order to fulfill the following functions :
Parallelism, equidistance and coincidence :
Category A: Reference standards for use in standard rooms.
Parallelism : This includes checking of the following: Category B: Measuring equipment for inspection purposes.
(a) Parallelism of lines and planes. Category C: Measuring equipment for use during manufacture.
(b) Parallel motion. The term "parallel motion" refers to the
The equipment types of c
ilf��=��§=t
position of the trajectory of a moving part of the machine in . ross-shde DTI attach ed to
relation to a plane (support or slideways), a straight line (axis; category B are used for testing saddle
intersection of planes) and a trajectory of a point on another machine tools. Different
moving component of the machine. elementary testing equipment that
Equidistance : This relates to the distance between the axis and a are most frequently used in
reference plane . engineering workshops are : dial
Coincidence or alignment : Here it refers only to two axes merged gauges, mandrels, straight edges, Saddle Bed
in each other or where one axis extends beyond the other. squares, measuring cylinders, and
spirit levels. Testing of machine Figure 17.5 Testing the parallelism
Squareness : This includes the following tool parts of large dimensions often of slide-ways of a lathe
requires the use of special
(a) Squareness of straight lines and planes. device for convenience and
DTI attached
speed. Headstock Spindle
(b) Checking of perpendicularity of motion. to saddle
Rotation : The following geometrical checks for rotation should be Dial gauges : The dial gauge
conducted: has been described in Vol-I.
(a) Run out. The graduations must be clear
(i) Out of round. and normally need be finer than
(ii) Eccentricity. 0.01 mm (0.0004 in). Finer
(iii) Radial throw of an axis at a given point. graduations which are required Bed Mandrel Saddle
(iv) Run out of a component in a given section. in special cases should only be
(b) Periodical axial slip. This is the smallest value of possible used if the measuring accuracy Figure 17.6 Testing the spindle axis of a
of instruments justifies it. In lathe
movement, along the axis, of a rotating part, measured at rest at each of the
several positions around its axis. such cases graduations down to 1 µ (0.00004 in) may be used. The dial
(c) Camming. Camming is the defect of a plane surface which, gauge must be fixed to robust and stiff bases and bars in order to avoid
when rotating around an axis, does not remain in a plane perpendicular to displacements due to shock or vibration. Fig.17.5 shows the testing of
this axis. Camming is given by the distance separating the two planrs parallelism of the slideways with saddle of an engine lathe. Fig .17.6 shows
the testing of the spindle axix for parallism with the lathe bed.
560 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY ERECTING ANO TESTING MACHINE TOOLS 561
Test mandrels : The most widely used inspection tool during manufacture 1 Oµ per metre, . and Level positioned for
and acceptance tests of new machine tools, and the repair of old ones, is the sensitivity of 30 to 50 mm, Coi, d;oal est;n
test mandrel. A test mandrel represents, within given limits, the axis which that is, when the length of
it is desired to check, either for out-of-true running or for position in a division is from 2 to 2.5 �
�
relation to other elements of the machine tool. mm, and apparent i
Two types of test, mandrel used are minimum sensitivity of 10
seconds of arc, the bubble
1 . Mandrels with a cylindrical measuring surface and a taper shank shall move through at least Level positioned
which can be inserted into the taper bore of the main spindle. one division for a change for transverse testing
2. Cylindrical mandrels which can be held between centres. of angle not greater than Figure 17 .7 Testing of level of a radial drill
0.05 mm per m. Fig.17.7 machine table
Test mandrels have a conical shank for inserting in the socket of the shows the testing of level
machine to be tested, and a cylindrical body which is used as a reference of the table of a radial drilling machine both longitudinally and
surface for measurements. Mandrels are made of hardened steel left either transversely.
unplated or plated with hard chromium.
The distance between the marks at the two ends of the cylindrical 17.9 MAGNITUDE AND DIRECTION OF TOLERANCES
part represents the measuring length of the mandrel. This length may be 75,
150, 200, 300, or 500 mm. Tolerance on a dimension is the algebraic difference between the upper and
lower deviations (maximum and minimum limit). This is fully explained in
Straightedges and squares : Straightedges of cast iron or steel should be Vol-I.
heavy, well-ribbed and free of inll.:rnal stresses. Their bearing surfaces
should be as wide as possible. Thl: error at the top of a standard square In the test chart, the tolerances are given in three different ways, viz :
should be less than :t O.Ql mm (:t 0.0004 in), of a precision square less than
'± 0.005 mm (± 0.0002 in ). A master square which would serve for 1. As plus or minus tolerances (example: :t 0.03mm per 1,000mm).
checking squares in normal use is best made as a hardened steel cylinder, 2. As tolerances without signs (example: 0.03mm per 1,000mm).
ground all over with the faces accurately square to the cylindrical surface. 3. As unilateral tolerances (example: 0 10 0.03mm per 1,000mm).
Master squares made of box sections are also useful.
With plus or minus tolerances, the permissible error is allowed to
Spirit levels : Levels shall be fitted with a micrometer screw or with occur in either direction within the specified reference length. The total
graduation lines on the tube. In the first case, the changes in slope shall be range of error is, therefore, double the specified tolerance.
read on the division of the micrometer and, in the second case, they shall be Tolerances without signs include the total range of error measures
read directly or the graduation lines of the tube. on the reference length, no matter in which direction the error appears.
The sensitivity s of a level shall be the displacement of a bubble (or With unilareral rolerances, the specified limits cover the total range
the micrometric device) for a tilt of 1 mm in 1 m, or for 200 seconds of of error across the total reference length, the direction of error being of
arc. This sensitivity shall be equal to one thousandth of its radius of great importance and always stated in the text of the respective test chart.
curvature expressed in metres. The constant of a level, or apparent
sensitivity n, shall be the change in the tilt, expressed in mm per m (or in 17 .10 TEST CHARTS
seconds of arc), which produces a displacement of the bubble by one
division. The test chart is prepared to provide a convenient basis for the preparation
If A. is the length in mm of one division of the scale, then A.= n .x s. of proforma for preparing test certificates. A short text in the chart
For testing machine tools, levels should have an accuracy of 5 to describes each test, the chart being arranged in such a manner that at first
the manufacturing accuracy of the machine is tested, and then the accuracy
of its performance. Each test is further explained by a sketch in which the
18
method of measurement is also indicated.
In a test chart, usually seven columns are drawn to incorporate
seven items, such as serial No., test item, figure (sketch), measuring KINEMATIC DESIGN OF MACHINE TOOLS
instruments used, permissible error in mm, actual error in mm, and
instructions for testing.
REVIEW QUESTIONS 18.1 FUNDAMENTALS
1. Explain why foundation of a machine tool is considered as a very "A metal cutting machine tool is a device in which energy is expended in
important task in machine shop. deformation of material for shaping, sizing or processing a product by
2. What is the procedure for erecting a lathe once foundation is
removing the excess material in the way of chips". Fig.18.1 schematically
complete?
3. How a machine is tested ? Briefly describe. shows the basic principle involved in the above definition.
4. How the measuring instruments I gauges are used in testing machine
tools? What types of testings are conducted ? To fulfill the purpose of a machine tool, i.e., to generate forms and
5. Describe the use of spirit level and dial gauge in testing. finished surfaces, an interference area is to be created by the relative path
6. What do you understand by geometric tests ? What are the checks ? of motion between the . Workpiece
7. Outline the types of straightness tests conducted on machine tools. cutter and workpiece.
Depending on the nature
of generated surface, Source of Machine &.
choice of drive and
Energy Tool ,o=
cutter are to be· made.
Thus every machine tool
is required to perform
one or more of the
Cutting tool
following kinematics
functions: Figure 18.1 Basic principle of machine tool
1 . To transfer motion from the input to the output spindle.

2. To transform motion from the rotation to translation or
reciprocation and vice-versa.
Such transference or transformation of motions are obtained by a

chain of higher or lower pairs comprising "the drive" of machine tools.
The action of a metal cutting tool is based on the relative movement
between the cutting edge and the surface to be cut. The relative motion of
the workpiece past the cutting edge is "cutting speed" while the motion
bringing in new uncut surface8 for machining is feed motion (Fig.18.2).
KINEMATIC DESIGN OF MACHINE TOOLS 565
1tDN
v = m/min.
1,000
where, V = allowable cutting speed in m/min.

·v
D = diameter of rotating element (job in lathe, and drill in drilling
machine) in mm.
N = r.p.m. of rotating element. Input Input
Hence, for
s variation in V and D, a
number of output
s
speeds (N0) are re
Figure 18.2(a) Cutting speed Figure 18.2 (b) Cutting speed quired.
and feed in lathe work and feed in drilling Such variable
output speeds can be ,.._. N4
D : diameter of work, D : diamerer of drill.
V : cutting speed, S : feed V : cutting speed, S : feed obtained either by (a) (b)
stepped or stepless Figure 18.4 Stepped and stepless drive
In mechanical drives for providing rotational movement of the drives (Fig.18.4a & b). (a) : stepped output, (b) : stepless output
spindles (carrying workpiece in lathes of carrying cutter in drilling, milling Thus the one
or grinding machines), a number of output speeds are necessary. purpose of drive would be to deliver stepped or stepless output spindle
The reasons for such output speed steps are speeds between two selected limits from an input source (Fig.18.5)
The next problem is how to design the spindle speeds at output
(a) For constant power utilisation, during the variation of torque requiring the fixation of:
demand, number of output steps might be necessary.
(b) It is known (i) Limit speeds, i.e.,
greatest r.p.m. (Nr,) and
21tNT NT least r.p.m. (N1).
Energy input = kW = kW (ii) A suitable manner of
60x75xl·36 974
If energy input is constant, then : layout, which may be
either in Arithmetic Output
r.p.m.
progression or m
Geometric progression Figure 18.S Stepped or stepless
or in LOgarithmic output between two limits
Thus for constant power Input Power
utilisation, a number of output Torque T1 constant progression.
speeds are necessary (Fig.18.3). at speed N; with no (iii) The number of stages (w) and subdivision in every stage (P) for
(b) Further, for constant obtaining required number (Z) output steps.
losses Output
desired tool life,
depending on job-tool 18.2 FIXATION OF LIMIT SPEEDS
Figure 18.3 Number of output
material pairing, cutting speed for constant power utilisation
and The limit speeds depends on
conditions
environment an allowable cutting speed is to be chosen. Thus
(i) Process capability of a given machine tool.
(ii) Size of machine.
(iii) Spectrum of tool-work pair covered. If the speed
spectrum is constructed as
in Fig.18.6, it is seen that
For a given cutting speed, N = 318( �) speed-loss becomes a
function of diamete: and is
V axm larger at lower speeds. It is
Now,N is the greatest when : N K = 318(--. ) or Test line
Dmm further seen that there is
considerable crowding of
speeds at higher speeds. To
N is the least when get around these
difficulties, output spindle D(mm)
steps are often laid out in
Hence,the range of limit speeds is given by Geometrical progression, Figure 18.6 Speed spQlr_dll, in
_ NK
R N ---
N,
-( )lD
V max
--
max -
---)- R V· R D
where: Arithmatic progressiott
Vmin Dmin
N& = N, . cp"-1
where,RN = Range Q!_spmdle speeds,
Rv = Velocii,.hpge where, cp = common ratio
Ro = Diameter range
TABLE 18.1 STANDARD VALUES OF RANGE (RN ) The speed spectrum shown in Fig.18.7 for Geometric progression
shows that speed-loss is constant at all diameters and there is less crowding
Machine
at higher speeds. Further, it has been proved that with speeds laid out in
Centre Lathe 4()-{iO
Compromise Lathe 80--100
Geometrical progression, the cost of machine can be optimum. Often, the
Automatic Lathe 8--10 speeds in machine tools are laid in Geometric progression.
Milling machine 30-50
Drilling machine 20--30
Shaping machine 10 18.4 ON THE NUMBER OF OUTPUT STEPS (Z)
Grinding machine 1-10
18.3 ON THE MANNER OF LAYOUT The output steps are often obtained by cluster of gears comprising of 1, 2
or 3 gears or by pulley blocks of 2, 3 or 4 pulleys. Thus the number of
The output speeds can be laid out in Arithm.etic progression when output steps (Z) is a function of the numerals 2 and 3 ,which can be shown
as:
where, Z= number of output steps
a = common difference
z =
where m 1 and m 2 are indices ranging from Oto a'ny integer.
Hence, a=---
Z-1 The standard values of Z are,
2,3,4,6,8,9, 12,16,18,24,32,64,etc.
'.

18.6 INTER-REIATION BETWEEN Z, .AND RN
For a standard Geometrical progression series,
or
N =
___..!_ z-t
NK = N, .(p'--1 41
N1
or log (RN ) = (Z-1) log
log(R N .cj>)
</J
or z
logcj>
=
For standard values of Z, and </), often adjustments are necessary for RN ,
as shown in the semi-log plot of Fig.18.9.
D(mm)
Fieure 18.7 Speed spectrum in Geometric proeression
m times
l 1
t n times r ..
a,---------a2--- --- --2a, ---- -----10a 2- - - - - ---etc.
Fieure 18.8 Series for determinine standard value of<')

Figure 18.9 Semi-log plot
18.5 STANDARD VALUES OF COMMON RATIO(')
18.7 SOME CONSIDERATIONS FOR DESIGNING THE SPEED
Often for various requirement, a series is to be chosen such that after m STRUCTURE
number of terms each figure is doubled and after n number of terms
another figure becomes IO times as shown in Fig.18.8. Most of the usual ray diagram for speed structure are unilateral
(Fig.18.10A) or skewed (Fig.18.108)
Hence: While designing the best ray diagram, the following considerations
must be made:
and
therefore, (i) Least number of shafts, levers and gears.
(ii) Maximum stage range is governed by the restriction
Solving this equation, the standard values of </J are R N � q> x � 8
(iii) Maximum gear ratio should be such that : G.R. � 6 to 8
(iv) Minimum teeth in a gear is to be kept to for 17 for 20 °
pressure angle.
q> I = Vi_ = lzy'jo
4>2 !i. = Vw
= 1
(v) Sum of shaft diameters of all stages should be minimum.
$3 = ifi. = �
2
«!>� = l:{'i_ = 4iflo

A
B
Shaft-I
N1
19
l
p1 = 3
f�0
Shaft-II
NUMERICAL CONTROL OF MACHINE TOOLS
L·'/,,
p 2= 2
Shaft-III
q,o
I
q,O
19.1 INTRODUCTION
I
ipJ
NL= .!ti. M
c.
M
q,3
M
I / Numerical control has been developed out of the need for higher
productivity, lower cost and more precise manufacturing. This is the latest
�s _fil Ni=Ng NL
�4 �3 2
t � machine tools control system since the industrial revolution and can be
considered as the most sophisticated form of automation for controlling
Figure 18.10 Ray diagram for speed structure machine tools, equipment or processes.
A: 2-stagc 6-speed (3x2) unilateral ray diagram, B: 2-stage 6-speed (3x2) In NC system, operation instructions are inputed to the machine as
unilateral skewed ray diagram. numbers which are suitably coded for storing on tapes. These instructions
are then automatically caJTied out in the machine tool in predetermined
REVIEW QUESTIONS sequence with pre-set or self-adjusted speed, feed, etc., without human
intervention. Avoidance of human interventi.on, omission of conventional
1. What are the kinematic functions a machine tool must perform? tooling and fixturing an quick-change capability of NC system are the
2. Explain why a number of output speeds are necessary in any machine primary factors considered to decide the level of acceptance of NC
tool. How .these variable speeds are obtained? machine tools for a pat1icular job. Other maintainable advantages
3. What do you understand by stepped and stepless drive? identified of NC machine tools over conventional machine tools with
4. automation are : (i) optimization of cutting tool life and quality of jobs, (ii)
�n wh�t basis output spindle speeds laid out in geometric progression
is considered better over output spindle speeds laid out in arithmetic possibility of making parts which are impossible in conventional
progression. machining systems, and (iii) quick and more accurate inspection and
5. What are the factors on which limit speeds are fixed ? What is the detection of error in design and fabrication.
range of ratios of _max speed with minimum speed for an engine lathe
? Show and explain the speed spectrum in arithmetic progression. 19.2 NC AND ITS COMPONENTS
6. Show and explain the speed spectrum in arithmetic progression.
7. What is a ray diagram? Where it is used? Nwnerical control is a technique of liUtomatically operating a productive
8. Describe_ how standard value of common ratio is fixed for geometric facility, based on a code of letters, numbers and special characters. The
progression. complete set of coded instructions; responsible for executing an operation
(or a set of operations) is called a part program. This program is translated
into electrical signals to drive various motors to operate the riiachjne to
cany out the required operations. The components of a traditional NC
machine is shown in Fig.19.1. The components are described in the
following paragraphs.
1. Program of instructions : The program of instruction, often called pa11

program is the detailed set of directions for producing a component by the
572 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY NUMERICAL CONTROL OF MACHINE TOOLS 573
NC m�chine. Each line of instruction is a mixture of alphabetic codes and changes, cutting fluid applications etc.. Geometric data consists infonnation
_
num�nc data and 1s p�nche� in a input media (usually paper t ape) in a about tool motions, tool length, tool radius, tool compensation etc.. As the
�pec1fie_d fonnat. The mput 1s read by a tape reader which transfers the machine is to shape complex sw-faces at a constant feed rate, signals must be
mstruct1on5-. t? a machine controller to operate the machine slides and to given to various slides and spindles so that the individual motions can be
generate spe'cific surfaces on the job. integrated to produce the required shape which can be represented by
complex cw-ve or simple lines. The interpolator breaks down these curves
into small individual increments for each conn·olled motion of the machine
tool. Conti·oller also interfaces various machine units like drive motors,
n·ansducers and other control functions of the machine tools.
Program NC Prooram
optimization Input
Or
Operating panel
Program instructions
sent to NC machine
Machine tool
Tape reader
NC machine
& controller Interface for
coolant on/off Switching
tool selection instruction
storage
Figure 19.J Coh1ponents ora traditional NC system spindle speed
etc.
Technological Tool length and
�- :ape punch : Usually _
it is a paper tape of I" width. Paper-mylar, data to tool radius
<1lummnun mylar or plastics a re also i1sed as tape materials. Paper tapes are machine tools compensation
cheap and popular but cannot last long. It is tteated to resist oil and water.
Myla'.· tapes are cxperisive but durable. Mylar tapes are still used by
Data from
mach �nc manufactu�·crs to store �nformations as executive tapes. Punching measurement
�1achm (flcxo wnters) of vanous types arc used to key in program devices Positional
_ � Measurement
mst'. uct,_ons to tapes. P!·esently tapes are prepared by micro-computers by
.
kcymg 111 the mfon!1a�1on from the nianuscript. Once the entire program
has been cnt�red, 1t 1s checked and conected if needed, and then the Geometric data L_______::=:=::::::=::::._J
to servo systems
computer activates the tape punching unit to produce rhe tape. The
computer ca,� also generate the program print-out through its printer. Tape Figure 19.2 NC controller
fo1111ats arc discussed in section 19.12.
3. Tape reader : A tape reader reac,ls the hole pattern on the tape and 5. NC machine : NC machine responds to the electrical signals from the
convcits the patters to a co1_Tesponding electrical signal. Pig.19.16 shows controller. Accordingly the machine executes various slide motions and
.
the function of a tape reader 111 decoding the tape information. spindle rotations to manufacture a part. Any NC machine can be
�-,Ma .chine contro!lcr : Controller rt:ccives the electrical signals from tape considered as a general purpose machine tool fitted with drive motors and
1eade1 or an opcratmg panel andleauses NC machine to respond. Fig.19.2 other auxilia1y fw1ctions of the machine. It consists as usual the work table,
_
shows the func tion of a NC controller. spindle and other hardwares as a general purpose machine contains.
It contains a decoder/encoder, an interpolator and facilities to execute Transducers are fitted to feed back data on the positions of the slideways,
..
aux1l1a1y functions which are machine dependent. The decoder/encoder for the r.p.m. of the spindle and for the amount of cut on the job. NC
_
rccc,vcs the data and stores them in two separate memo1y locations. One for machine tools range from single spindle drilling machine to complex
th�· rart geomctiy data and the other for the process data. Process data machines having multiple motions, tool changers, high capacity tool
111c!udcs switching functions for adjusting feed rates, spindle speeds, tool magazines and multi-axis control.
NUMERICAL CONTROL OF MACHINE TOOLS 575

deviation is accepted here. Point-to-point positioning systems accept open
loop control system. lh close loop system along with the components of
19.3 POSITION �D MOTION CONTROL IN NC MACHINE
open loop system a feed back unit is added into the electrical circuit. A
OPEN AND CLOSED LOOP
large varieties of feed back sensors are available for comparing the actual
table movement with the desired table movement. For an error the
I
A group of devices, electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic are used to control
corrective signal is fed back to the driving motor (usually a D.C servo
the position of machine tool slides and spindle r.p.m. The most common
motor) which makes necessary adjustment to compensate the deviation. In
are the open loop and closed loop systems.
close loop NC systems, the accuracy is very high and one electrical pulse
Open loop system is a control system that has no means of
will cause machine table to slideabout 0.0025 mm. Special motors called
comparin� the output with the input for control purposes (no feed back).
servos are utilized in closed loop system. Motor types include, A.C, D.C
I.1(
The workmg of open loop system in NC is described below.
and hydraulic servos. Hydraulic servos are particularly used for large NC
The information stored in tape is decoded by the tape reader. Tape
machines as they are powerful. The speed of A.C orp.c servo is variable
reader stores the information till the machine is ready to receive it. Tape
and depends upon the current passing through it. For contouring NC
reader converts the information into electrical pulses or signals which are
system, close loop servo controls are preferred �or this obvious reason.
sen! to control unit. Control unit in tum energises the driving control unit
Fig.19.4 shows a closed loop system.
which actuates D.C motors to perform the desired function, indicated in
the tape by program instructions. Driving motors (stepping motor for open
.If,
loop system� rotates proportionally with the number of electrical pulses Machine table
_
rt��erved by rt from the servo control unit. A precision lead screw coupled
with the motor rotates, causing the machine table to slide. t------4 Transducer
....-------, 0
Commanded ___, !Comparison unit jo-.---'
Translator Machine table I 0
position
rn rn
Actual position dis�
1IJ Lll
Figure 19.3 Open loop system
j
Figure 19.4 Closed loop system
The pitch of the lead screw determines how much the table will
move for one turn of motor. Each pulse of electrical signal rotates the
19.4 MEASURING SYSTEMS FOR CONTROL
motor by a fraction of revolution called stepping angle. For example if the
lead screw is having 10 tpi and 100 number of electrical pulse rotates the
motor by one revolution then a pulse will cause the machine table to move The measuring systems used for numerical control machine tools are, in
effect, position transducer. Many kinds of transducers are available.
bY �
1ox100 or 0.025 mm. Thus by controlling the number of pulse, the
Electric scales, electro-optical scales, magnetic scales, synchors, shaft
position of the machine table can be controlled. The motor controller sends digitizers, resolvers, laser tyres, linear or rotatory transducers, and many
back signals indicating the motors have completed the motion. (The feed other types are used on numerical control.
qack, howe�er is not used to check how close the actual machine Just as there is much that is common to all numerical control
movement comes to exact movement programmed.) However in load systems,. all of the aforesaid devices have characteristics that can be
condition,
_ ih� stepper motor may have loss of one or more pulse, thus the categorized. Transducers may be analogue or digital.
_
desrr�d p�srt1on of ta �le and
_ actual position of table may not be same. This r
_ _
srtuatton rs depicted rn Frg.19.3 as a open loop system; no correction for
difficult, as any digital control contains an analogue component and vice

Analogue �ontrol : This is the term used to refer to a quantity which versa. The input to NC systems is always digital, as the dimensions that are
_
resemble s, in ce rtain respects, another quantity. A slide rule is an analogue taken from the drawings are given in numbers, which is a digital form. On
_
devic e, where the value of 4 on th e scale might be 150 mm away from the the other hand, the output of NC system is always analogue, as the slidec;
zero mark on the scale. Th erefore 4 can be said to be analogous to f 50. In of the machine tools move in a continuous and smooth form. Therefore,
analogue control devices, an electrical unit such as voltage might be each one of the system typ es contains an analogue and digital information
rel at e� to the P?sition of the table (and henc e th e work) relative the cutter unit. The conversion of one from the other is carried out in a converter as
.
ax is, in mm, 1.e. IO volts, for example, could indicate 250 mm of illustrated in Fig. 19.5 and Fig.19.6. However, the type of control, digital or
I
movements of t�e table. Analogue signals are continuous, modulated by analogue, is called by th e type of information appearing at the control loop
c::vents to provide the message, and proportional to the continuous /
inputs. Whenever a sequence of pulses is applied - the control is digital,
movement of the table, rotation of the spindle, or movement of the spindle. and if the input is continuously variable - the control is analogue.
They sense ��d �ons �antly monitor variations in l evels of voltage. The i
accurate pos1t1oning 1s achieved wh en the continuous input voltage is
'.11atched to . the tran �ducer output voltage. Analogue control systems are
ideal for point-to-point positioning system. Digital information Digital to analogue
converter
Digital information 1----+1 Control Slide
Feed back ---i Slide
Converter to digital ---1 Fe d back

e
Figure 19.6 Analogue control in servo-system
Fieure J 9.5 Dieital control in servo-svstem 19.S NC MACHINE-AXIS OF MOTION
Digit�! control : In digital control, the amount of movement of the work The location of a NC tool at any point of time is controlled by Cartesian
table is me asured in discrete (separate) quantities. This is usually in the co-ordinate system. The system is composed of three directional lines,
fo� of a vol!age pulse wh ere each pulse represents a basic length. Typical mutually inters ecting at 90° with each other. The three axes are known as
basic length is 0.0 I mm. A telephone dial taps out digital signal. In this X,Y and Z axes. The manufacturers generally define the X,Y and Z
control, el ectrical pulses equivalent to the dimensional information are direction of movement of slides. Present standards of machine axes are
gcner�ted and use d to drive th e servo. The transducer in tum produces established by Electronic Industries Association (EIA). The se are ;
ele tncal puls es as th table moves and is compared with th e input signal.
� � _
Th1s may be accomplished by counting the number of pulses needed for a I. Primary machine axis of movement follow right hand rule
_ (Re fer Fig. I 9.7(a))
given oveme�t or by matching the pulses to the input signal. These
_ .
quantllies, or d1g1ts a �e count ed at very high speeds. Therefore, digital 2. Spindle movement is taken along Z axis.
icular to
f�e�back � syste s are 1de.al for continuous path control. Theoretically, the 3. Movement along the X-axis is the largest travel perpend
th Y-axis is short r compa r ed to Z
digital system is of a finite accuracy, while th e analogue information can Z axis. Movement along e e
accept any valu� e. movement

(Refer
Both digital and analogue controls are used in NC systems of 4. Rotary motion directly follow right-hand rule
. _
machine tools. To decide the control type may sometimes be a little Fig. 19.7(b))
NUMERICAL CONTROL Of MACHlfE TOOLS 579
5. Rotation about an axis parallel to X axis is A, about an axis
parallel to Y axis is B, and about an axis parallel to Z axis is C. may move at the same rate for both X and Y axis simultaneously. Tool
6. U, V, W axes are parallel to X, Y, and Z axes (Refer Fig. t 9.8). movement from point 2 to point 3 in Fig.19.9 is an example. The point to
Axis point NC machines are the simplest and least expensive and are commonly
!
In NC +Z direction employed in drilling, boring, hole punching and some limited machining.
machine tools, each +Y
-A, Some point to point machines are equipped with milling capabilities also.
axis of motion is -8,
equipped with a 2. Straight • cut NC : In straight cut Workpiece
separate driving -c
NC, the tool moves parallel to one of
device which +X the major axis at a desired rate suitable
replaces the hand for machining. It is quite appropriate Cutting tool
wheel. for milling workpieces of rectangular
(a) (b) configuration. However in this process
Figure 19.7 Right hand rule Starting point
x
no angular cuts on the workpiece is
,z
19.6 CLASSIFICATION OF NC SYSTEM possible. Any NC machine tool Figure 19.10 Straight cut
capable of straight cut movement can control in NC
There are three types of motion perform point-to-point operation also.
control of tools in NC systems. Fig.19.10 shows the system.
They are listed hereunder in
increasing level of sophistication. 3. Contouring system : In contouring, or continuous-path system the tool
follows the desired shape since the commands are far more descriptive
1. Point-to-point. than for the point-to-point system. The movement of the tool is precisely
2. Straight - cut. controlled at all times, in all planes. All axes of motion might move
3. Contouring. Figure 19.8 NC machine axis of simultaneously, each one at a different speed, while this speed may be
motion changed even withi� the path between two given points Thus, the
1. Point-to-point (PTP) system : displacement along one of the motions becomes a function of the
Point-to-point system y displacement on the other, i.e. x is some function of y, designated x = f(y).
or positioning system In contouring machines, the path of the cutting tool and its feed establish
refers to operations Point 3 the desired contour of the part
that require fast and at the same time the feed
movement to a point also affects the surface finish. Y
followed by a Fig.19.11 shows the contouring
Point 2
manufacturing op- control in NC.
eration at that point. Contouring NC
NC drill machine is Starting point x machines have a complex
an example of PTP circuitry which can feed and
Figure 19.9 Pomt to point control i,a NC
system. read information of the tool on a
Through PTP control the drill spindle is positioned at a particular nearly instantaneous basis �nd
location on the workpiece. The drilling operation is performed and tool is they are normally programmed
moved to the next location for the operation. The process continues till all with the help of computers. This x
the operations are completed. The tool moves parallel to one axes or it system is commonly used on Figure 10.11 Contouring control in
milling foachines. NC
19.7 TOOL POSITIONING MODES Incremental system : An incremental system is one in which the
reference point to the next instruction is the end point of the preceding
Two types of programming modes, the abtolute system and incremental operation. Each dimensional data is applied to the system as a distance
system, are used in NC to locate tool positions. Most control system on increment, measured from the preceding point at which the axis of motion
machine tools built today are capable of handling with incremental, was present. Notice that. in the previous example in drilling two holes, the
absolute or mixed. second movement would now be to in X direction and O for Y direction.
Tool Absolute Incremental The incremental systems are not often used for controlling point-to
Absolute system : An ab�olute position
x y x y point machine tools. But incremental controls are generally cheaper to
system is one in which all moving build.
A 10 10 10 10
commands are referred to one One drawback of incremental systems is that if one incremental
B 20 10 10 0
reference point, which is the origin, movement is in error, all other subsequent movements become erroneous.
c 30 15 10 5
and is called zero point. All position Figure 19.12 shows the example of the two systems.
commands are given as absolute distance from that zero point. For
example, suppose that two holes have to be drilled in the part shown in 19.8 NC PART PROGRAMMING
Fig.19.12. Their distances, as measured from the origin along the X-axis,
are 10 and 20 mm respectively ; Y distances are same and equal to 10 mm Part programming for NC comprises of the collection of all data required
for both .. The command for the second move would be to move by 20 mm to produce the part, the calculation of a tool path along which the machine
in X direction and 15 mm in Y direction. The zero point may be defined as operation will be performed, and the arrangement of those given and
the point outside the workpiece, or at a corner of the part. If a mounting calculated data in a standard format, which could be converted to an
fixture is used, it could be a point on the fixture or on the machine table. acceptable form for a particular machine control unit (MCU).
The zero point may be either a floating or fixed point. A zero
floating point allows the operator, by pushing a button, to select arbitrarily There are three types of programming techniques. They are
the zero reference point at any point within the limits of the machine tool
table. 1. Manual part programming
As a matter of fact, absolute system may be subdivided into a pure 2. Compoter - assisted part programming
absolute and absolute programming system. By the term pure absolute 3. Manual data input
both programmed dimensions and feedback signals are referred to a single
point. 19.9 MANUAL PART PROGRAMMING
It is estimated that considerably more than 90 per cent of point-to
point NC machines use absolute programming. In manual part programming, the data required for machining a part is
y y written in a standard format on a special manuscript. The manuscript is a
planning chart or list of instructions which describes the operations
necessary to produce the part. The manuscript is typed with a Flexo-writer
where typing causes the typed paper and the punched tape to be prepared
simultaneously.
The manual programming is generally used for parts to be
produced on a point-to-point machine, since in this case tool path
calculations are simple. When the complete program is typed , all the
(0,0) 10 20 30 x (0,0) 10 20 30 x instructions in the form of codes are checked for accuracy. This tape can
Part origin (a) Part origin (b} be utilized to produce parts on the NC machine. Each set of instruction
Figure 19.12 Example of part dimensioning codes is called a NC block. A block is a complete line of information to
(a) absolute mode, (b) Incremental mode

The X,Y , Z codes indicate the conv entional co-ordinates . In four -
and higher axes machine�, additional codes (A, B ,C) may be used to
the NC machine. It is composed of one word or an arrangement of words. , W, codes �re axe� p�rallel to X,Y ,Z axes.
i ndicate angular positions. U V
Blocks may vary in length (i.e.. they may contain variable number of
l,J ,K codes are used for circul ar inte rpolations to md1cate the centre of the
words). Characters are used to form words. Program words are composed
circ ular arc to be followed.(Refer Table 19 .1 ) . .
of two main parts : an address followed by a number. Words are used to
Feed rate (F-code) indicates the rate at which the �p10dle mov�s
describe such important information as machine motions and dimensions
along a programming axis. In English system.th� feed.rate 1s expres�ed 10
in program. The block is marked by an end of block (eob) character which
inches per minute and in the metric system 1t 1 s m1l hmeters per mmute .
makes the data entry facility to start a new block. The eob character is
The feed rate is a modal code and thus unless a new F-code replaces the
automatically generated when the programmer enters a carriage return at
old one, it remains in effect in the subsequent b�o.ck. For example F10
computer, tape preparation machine or manual data entry.
indicates a feed rate of 0.001 in/min. F 1 0. spec1f1es a feed rate of 1 0
The NC machine acts upon each block of instructions sequentially.
in/min. .
The content of a typical block will have more than on e instruction code.
Spindle speed (S-code) specifies the spindl_e �peed �r.p.m).at w h1ch
The explanation of words and code types are as follows.
the spindle rotates. A numerical value upto four d1g1t maximum 1 s ente'.
ed
fo l lowing the add ress S. For e xamp l e S1 5 00 denotes that NC m �ch1 �e

Sequence number (N-code) identities the block. It increases and thus rema10s 10
s pindle is set at 1 500 r.p.m. The S-code is modal
sequentially through the program. r
effect for all subsequent blocks unless a new S-code is ent_ered. Howeve
Preparatory function (G-code) informs the controller what types of
MOS (spindle off command) canc�l s the �ode pu� bef�re it.
motion or action is to be carried out. The mode of movement is indicated
Tool number (T-code) indicates which tool is bemg used. .
by th e num erical value following the G address. In ge neral a G-code is
Miscellaneous Junction (M-code) executes various NC machm e
typed at the beginning of the block after N-code so that it can set the are
functions not related to dimensional or axial movement. �-codes
control for a particular mode when acting on the other words in the same first cat gory co sists of those
classified in two broad categories. The e n
block or all other subsequent block including the block in which it
which execute with the start of motion described in a bloc�. The sec�
nd
contains. G-codes thus may be modal or nonmodal. For modal type , G ex cut with th compl t10n of motion
category consists of those which e e e e
eode sp ecification will remain in effect for all subs equent block unless
describe d in the block. Appendix lists the G-codes and M-codes.
replaced by another modal G-code. For nonmodal type, G-code
specification will only affect the block in which it contains. An example of s
Arrangement of addresses in a block : The order of putting the wor�
G-code is G02 which indicates that the next motion will be circular may vary. G nerally s qu nc numb (� -cod e� ts
( addresses) in a block e e e e er
interpolation in a clockwise direction. G02 is modal type. Co-ordinate
put in the first and G-code the next. The following sequence is a typ
ical
data (X,Y,Z. . . . codes) are dimension words and they specify the co
example.
ordinates for th e tool to move. All machine tools have sliding and rotary 1 � 15
1 � 2 � 3 � 4 �5 �6 �7 � 8 � 9 � 10 � 1 1� 12 � � 4
13
motions. For example the single spindle NC drilling machine has three .. U .. (V . .W . . A . . B .. C) .. P .
N.. G .. X ..Y .. Z .. 1..L. K
linear motion types; two horizontal table mov ements in X and Y direction
and one tool moveme nt in Z dir ection. For correct machining it is very
important that thes e motions are defined accurately. Fig.19.11 shows the � 16 � 17 � 8 � 19 � 20 � 21 � 2 2
way, address and informations are stored in dimension words. Q .. R .. F .. S . . T .. M . . H
.
N0030 090 GOO X-3.2 Y-4.2 S l OOO N _ Sequence number, indicates the sequence number of _the �lock .
on m which a
G _ Preparatory function, specifies the mode of operati
Word Word �� command is to be executed.
Figure 19.13 Way of machine axis addressing

584 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNO
LOGY
TABLE 19·1 MOTION SPE
CIFICATION
Address Information stored subprogram becomes a powerful time saving device and can be separately
X Y Z Dimension developed and debugged. The subprogram is identified by a letter P
X,Y.Z Linear axes
I J K words, designate followed by a number ranging from one to four digit, in the main program.
U V W I the amount A.B.C. Rotary axes
The corresponding subprogram stored in the MCU's memory along with
A B C of axis movement u.v.w Axes parallel to X, Y,Z axes
the main program is identified with the same number followed by 'O' in
p Q R I.J.K z
Axes used a auxiliary to axis EIA format or':' in ISO format.
R,Q Axes used as an auxiliary to z
axis The s yntax of sub program is shown in Fig.19.14
O XXXX r program number
Table 19. I ind_icates the specificati Block, I
ons of dimension words.
F - Feed rate, designates the
relative speed of the cutt1'ng
respect to the work. tool with Block n
S - Spindle fu ction, designates M 99 r last statement of subprogram
� the spindle speed in r.p.m.
T - Tool function designates the _ __.....;..__r Main program
number of the tool to be used
:��:�d s ates a machin
_
�indle ::�;t:::�:�t �� :�� e function such as
area of working by subprogram
HD '�'?'
A ux1T
-of repet1t
input function, specifies the tool
length offset number
num
, b er 1on s of a fixed cycle etc.
Example 19.1
=-=�..,_C_
_ Tool moves to X.5Y.5
Fieure 19.14 Example of a main proeram usin2 a sin2le subpro2ram
For example, repetitive work of machining slots as shown in

N0020 GOOX.SY.5 Fig.19.15 can be performed using a subprogram.
Sequence
number Move tool rapid speed Canned cycle : It is a pre set sequence of events that is executed by
issuing a single command. For example G84 code will initiate tapping
N0030 G90GOJZ -AF IO autocycle. GS I to G89 are reserved for canned cycle. G80 is u sed to
cancel the canned cycle.
Absolute positioning Tool moves to
Do loop: In any part program, do loops are - -------
N0040 X4.0 u sed to perform any machining operations
L
Slot I Slot 2
repetitively. For example in multiple turning,
Tool moves to absolute the same statements can be repeated a number
X4.0 at feed rate of Jo of times using do loop.
N0050 c=)s1ot 3
Y3.5
Workpiece
Decoding of block in a tape reader : ._________.......
LTool moves to absolute Machine tools cannot understand commands
Y 3.5 at feed rate of IO given in the block. Tape readers read the
Figure 19.15 Part
drawing to illustrate
Subprogram I subroutine : A blocks and decodes the information of1 the
subprogram or a subroutine is a the use of subproeram
program meant for perfonning se arate blocks (containing G.M. and other codes) and
a specific machine task. The sub s end it to MCU. Fig.19.16 show s how the tape reader decodes the tape and
pr!gram
send s the information to the storage areas.
LS
NUMERICAL CONTROL OF MACHINE TOO 587
mming
Common NC machining progra
.,___-4 Sequence
Address Routing number
decoder fill and
hold Preparation ADAPT Ul'JJAPT
function APT
X stores
Y stores
Numeric SPLIT ACTION COMPACT II

---- decoder NU FORM
(Machine dependent)
Figure 19.16 Decoding of block in a tape reader mmin2 lan2ua2es
Fi2ure 19.17 Common NC pro2ra
19.10 COMPUTER AIDED NC LANGUAGE
. defines geometric points and
definition
Pa rt definition (Geon�etry) : part Part
t the size and shape of the part.
In computer-aided part programming, much of the tedious computational surfaces on a part which represen prim itiv e
. the _component shape into its
work needed in manual programming is performed by the computer definition involves breaking . APT are POINT' LINE
m
processor. In this programming type the programmer prepares the set of geometric. elements. Tl.1e ::,oeometrtc types CYL.
ERN . ERE, GCONIC, TAB
, SPH
instructions in high level computer language. The high level computer CIRCLE, PLANE, VECTOR, PAT
ment is
languages use simple English words which can be converted to machine The oeneral format for geometric state
t:,
tool level program with the help of processors. Most of the programming
language systems have been developed to perform computational work for <Symbol> oeometric type I modifiers
t:,
tool movements accurately and thus the part programming becomes less
ways. �or example a point
time consuming and accurate .
pom t . APT can define a point in a �umber of
ten
Apart from manual N<;: part programming, a number of NC
. .
at co-ordinate location x, - 5, Y =7, and z = 0 can be writ
programming languages are available for NC/CNC/DNC systems. (Fig. J 9.19(a))
Fig.19.17 shows some of the common NC programming languages. APT, PT\ POINT/5, 7, 0
a very useful language is described briefly in the subsequent paragraphs. t
lines (LIN I and LIN2) then the poin
If a point is the intersection of two
APT: Automatic Programming of Tools (AP1) is initially developed by a can be defined as
group at MIT's at the Electronics Systems Laboratory. It has the largest
vocabulary (more than 300 English words) of the general processing POINT I JNTOF, LIN\, L1N2 (Fig.19. I 9(b))
PT2
languages. Many of the modem processors and computer aided design
2 points can be generated with
packages have an APT-like processor that can accept cutter location (CL) A linear pattern of equidistant (n - )
data directly from data base. Fig.19.18 shows the basic computer-aided the beginning point and end point.
NC Program preparation.
The APT organization contains (1) Part definition, (2) Machining
plan and (3) Machining specifications.
< Symbol> PATTERN I LINEAR, < start>, < end>, < n >
Part program
PATA = PATTERN I LINEAR, PIO, PIS, 16
Using this command 15 more points will be generated between points PIO
and PIS
Arithmatic
Computations
Line : APT can define a line in a number of ways. The general syntax of
Geometric
LINE is
Symbol> LINE I < Parametric string>
LINE I PTI, PT2 Fig.19.20(a)
<
L2 LINE I PT3, PERPTO, LI Fig. l 9.20(b)

Example LI
Example
Technological processor
Line L2 passes through point PT3 and is perpendicular (PERPTO) to line
Technological computations
LI.
RIGHT y
Example
LINE I { TANTO, C1
LEFT
RIGHT
c,
{ TANTO, C2
Post processor
Machine data
NC tape or LEFT
direct link Program listing L4=LINE/LEFT, TANTO.
Tooling sheet CL, LEFT, TANTO, C2
to machine "--------------1•X
Materials sheet
(c)
y 1
Figure 19.18 Basic computer • aided NC Program preparation y
Source : Fundamentals of Machining and Machine Tools, Geoffrey Boothroyed and Knight \/
W.A., Marcel Dekker, Inc
�3
y
PTl
7t----- LIN2 PTt
"--------x ._______..... x
(a) (b)
Fi2ure 19.20 (a). (b). (c) Line definition examples
The general syntax of PLANE is:

Planes:
Symbol> =
• X
PLANE I< Parametric string>
(a) 5
(b) x
Planes are surfaces of infinite area. An example is shown in Fig.19.21
<
F"igure 19.19 Point definition examples
590 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOG
Y
Examples NUMERICAL CONTROL OF MACHINE TOOLS 591

PL 16 = PLANE I PT3, PT4,
PT6
PL 20 = PLANE/PT6, PARLEL For contouring machining APT recognized three types of surfaces:
, PT16
Circle : The general syntax of circ I. Drive surface against which the edge of the tool moves (the
le is : actual part edge being cut by milling tool)
PL16
< Symbol> = CIRCLE I< Par 2. Part surface on which the end of the tool rides
ametric string> 3. Check surface to which the current tool motion stops.
An example is depicted in For positioning the cutting tool with respect to the surfaces, a GO surface
J J
Fig.19.22.
command is needed. The syntax is
Figure 19.21 Plane definition
Machining plan : example
There are three categories as
. discussed ,·n Sect1'on 19.5. The
commandsin APT for point to point machining three GO I [��ST DRIVE SURF ACE, [��ST PART SURFACE,
_
FROM I< Point location> are :
GOTO I< Point location>
GODLTA I< Co-ordinate increme
nt> ;�ST
[ , CHECK SURFACE
@
Fig.19.23 illustrates ON
the drawing TANTO
corresponding )
program is shown , TANTO modifiers are used only in conjunction with a check
along with the surface. The three possibilities of ending location of tool movement are
Pl
figure. shown in Fig.19.24.
C2= CIRCLE/CENTRE, Pt
"------..::::::- TANTO, LI cs cs cs
Figure 19.22 Example for circle
FROM/PO P0(0.4, 0.1)
GOTO/Pl
GODLTA/0,0,-0.7
TO ON PAST
GODLTA/0,0, + 0.7 DS = drive surface CS== check surface
GOTO/P2 Fi2ure 19.24 Use of TO, ON, and PAST modifiers
T
GODLTA/0,0,-0.7
�- - - 2=0.0
Jt_ �� t�p- - - - �
+Z Machining specifications : This organization contains (!) Post processor
0· ' I I I I
· statement and (2) Auxiliary statement.
1
-------------
I I I
GODLTA/0,0, + 0.7 I I I
I
I
GOTO/PO Tooltip movement = 0.7 Post processor statement : Post processor uses the English-like
statement to generate the data required to instruct the .CNC machine. Post
Figure 19.23 APT example processor directly accept the staiement without getting it processed by tape
.592 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY
reader unit. They are used to specify speeds, feed, and other features to
electrical contact to .be made ; ON, or the absence of a hole in the tape
actuate the machine. Some of the common post processor statement are
docs not allow electrical contact to be made ; OFF. Therefore, a hole ean
COOLNT I, END, FEDRAT /, MACHIN I RAPID, SPINDL/,TURRET
represent 1, and no hole can repres�nt ?·
Hence, a tape can be used to
transmit any required set of numbers in binary form.
When using 2 as the base,the values of the powers of 2 are as follows ..
Auxiliary statements : These statements are the miscellaneous statements
used to identify the part, tool, tolerances etc.
2 ° = 1,i = 2,2 = 4,i = 8,etc.
2 3
. .
Any decimal number can be represented in binary. This is explained m
Some of them are, CLPRNT, INTOL I, CUTTER I, FINI, OUTTOL I, Table 19.2.
PARTNO etc.
TABLE 19.2 BINARY EQUIVALENT OF DECIMAL NUMBERS
For example : CUTTER/0.800 specifies the cutter diameter equal to 0.800
inch. Thus the tool path must be offset from the part outline by 0.400 inch. Decimal number Binary number Derivation
0 I (Ox2')
19.II MANUAL DATA INPUT I 1 (lx2")
2 IO (1x2')+(0x2")
(lx2 )+(1x2")
1
It is a procedun: in which the part programmer directly keys in the 3 II
4 100 (1 xz )+(0x2 1 )+(Ox2')
2
program into the MCU of the machine tool. Most of the modern CNC
5 101 (1xz2)+(0x2')+(1x2')
machine is having this facility. This facility helps the programmer to 6 110 (1x2 )+(1 x2 )+(0x2")
2 1
change any existing program before the machine operations. However, the 7 111 (1xz )+(1x2')+(1x2")
2
main limitation is that the data entry time is high and thus this on-line 8 !000 (1 xz3)+(0xz 2)+(0x2 1)+(9x2 ')
system may be useful for small change in the main program and for testing 9 1001 (1xz3 )+(0xz2)+(0x2 1 )+(0x2 ")
of machine parameters.
Each numerical in a binary number is referred to as a bit or binary
19.12 PREPARATION OF PROCESSING INSTRUCTIONS d'g't The binary number 101 [=(5)w] is a 3-bit number. Comp�ters are
r�t:d by the number of bi;s that can be stored in their memory sec�1�ns and
In numerical control machine tools, the full instructions and informations, the capacity of bit-storage is directly related to the computer prcc1s10n and
hoth dimensional and managerial, are keyed in to the control of the ability to handle complex operations.
. ,
machine in a suitable code expressed by different numbers expressed in O The number of the bits in a binary system is t.arge compared to �hat
and 1 only. Various coding systems use in different ways to represent or in decimal system, such as (16)w requires five bits (1�000), (3�) 10 requires
indicate the same instructions. six bits (100000) and so on. Therefore, it becomes inconvenient to read
.
and express very large numbers in binary system. To overcome th1
�
The binary system : In conventional decimal system of numbering, inconvenience, a binary coded decimal (b.c.d.) is used, w�ere eac
.
altogether 10 digits are used to express any number. Base is 10, smallest decimal digit is separately converted into the binary code instead of
digit is O and the highest digit is 9. But to make it convenient to convert converting the whole decimal number into binary number; a�d a block of
.
the numbers representing informations, into electric pulses for the four binary digit is used to represent each character m a decimal number.
controller and computer, a suitable system of numbering called binary For example,
code has been evolved; In this binary system, smallest digit is 0, highest
digit is 1 and the base is 2, so that any binary number can never have more Decimal Binary Decimal - binary
than two types of digits, i.e. 0 and 1 . Either a hole on a tape allows 69 = 10001 101 = 0110 1001
569 = 0101,0110, 1001
Other often usable codes are ternary code, octal code, and Gray The pulses picked up by the photocell scanning head are decoded
code (Cyclic or Reflected Binary code ) which are rearrangements of the and fed back in the system. The feed-back signal indicates the actual slide
binary digits to represent decimal numbers. Though Gray code has a few position, which is compared with the signal corresponding to the desired
advantages over ordinary binary system, it has no mathematical basis. In slide position.
this code, only one binary digit is required to change when the equivalent
decimal number increases or decreases by unity. The Gray code is shown Punched tape : The informations and instructions are coded in a suitable
in Table 19.2 where this characteristic will be observed. It is found from system and then stored in punch cards or tapes. Generally, five-hole or
the examples that in Gray code only the first digit is changed and thus eight-hole tapes made of paper, terylene
ambiguous signals are avoided during the change-over period. 8 Binary counting
laminates, mylar papers, vinyl or similar
-�� j2
4
plastics are used to store the codes in hole
TABLE 19.3 COMPARISON OF CODES and no-hole forms. The tape is prepared
!
on a punching machine called 'flexo 1=1
Decimal Natural binary Gray code Binary decimal writer'. The most commonly used 2=2
1 0001 0001 0000 0001 punched tape is 25 mm (1 inch) wide, S 3=2+1
2 0010 0011 0000 0010
3 0011 0010 track, i.e. eight punched holes can be 4=4
0000 0011
I
4 0100 01 JO 0000 0100 accommodated in one line across the 5=4+1
10 1010 1111 0001 0000 width of the tape. Besides the eight 6=4+2
11 1011 1110 0001 0001 channels, there is one channel of smaller 7=4+2+1
12 1100 1010 0001 0010 8=8
holes running the whole length of the tape
9=8+1
for the sprocket. This ensures positive 0 = Track 6
Digitizer or encoder : The planning of a binary code digitizer or drive for the tape. These holes are termed �
encoder to convert analogue quantity into numerical during control is
� 2'
feed or transport holes and are different
illustrated Fig.19.25. The disc �as transparent /opaque segments for use 54,
from other code holes. 6
with photoelectric cell scanning head. The segments are coded in Tracks or levels
The EIA (Electronic Industries
concentric tracks,. If the tracks are 'straightened out', i.e. developed, the
Association) format was widely used in
relationship of the segments to the binary code of holes punched in tape :l<'igure 19.26 Coding for
earlier NC machines. In more recent
can be recognized-dark areas correspond to the no' hole condition in numbers (Small dots are
years, the ISO (International Standard
punched tape. sprocket feed holes)
Organization) format, illustrated in
The disc is mounted on the
Fig.19.26, has gained wide acceptance. Format means the presentation that
rotating shaft of the machine tool,
a particular numerical control system understands and acts upon it.
usually at the free end. A fixed
In the binary-coded decimal system tracks or channels 1, 2, 3 and 4
source of light is provided on the
are used to represent the powers of 2. Thus track 1 is the number 1, track 2
side of the disc and a photoelectric
is the number 2, track 3 is number 4, and track 4 is the number 8 from
cell on one other side of the disc.
2 ° = 1, 2 1 = 2, 22 = 4, 23 = 8 '
As the disc rotates, light is
These tracks are also used to record commands for feed and speed,
periodical)y permitted to fa]) on the
etc.. The binary coding for numbers is illustrated in Fig.19 .26 to show how
photoelectric cell through a lens or
easily numbers can be read from a punched tape.
radial slit placed in between· them,
According to standard specifications, the total number of holes
and the tracks are illuminated to
across the width of the tape must be odd parity. When the numeric code is
allow the photocell· to be activated
Figure 19.25 Plan of a digitizer even, a hole is punched in track 5. This is called 'parity check'. For
by the pulses of light energy.
example, when the number 6 is punched, holes should appear in tracks 2
and 3. A hole is also punched in track 5 to achieve an odd number of holes EIA CODE ISO CODE
in that row (see Fig.19 .27). Parity check will signal an error if a ragged or Character 8 7 e 5 4 • 3 2 1 Chanic:ter' 8 7 e 5 4 • 3 2
torn hole appear, or if there has been a coding error by the punch, such as 0 0 • 0 0 0
0
an even number of holes for any character. It is really a safety device to 1 • 0 1 0 0 0
• 0
2 • 0 2 0 0 0
0
..
0
help reduce the chance for error. 0 • 0 0 3 0 0
• 0
• 0 4 0 0 0
•
.
Track 6 is reserved for zero commands. Track 7 and 8 are 4 0 0
5 0 • 0 0 5 0 0
miscellaneous tracks for items such as tape start, coolant on and off, • 0 0 6 0 0 0 0
.•
6 0 0 0 0 0 0
7 0
machine start and tape return. Track 8 is termed as EOB or End of Block 7
•
0 0 0
8 0 0 0 0 •
and it represents end of t�e operation. It is punched at every line of
8 0
0 9 0 0 0 • 0
9 0 0 0
A 0
0
•
.
punched information. The first four tracks for numeric characters in the a 0 0 0
.
b 0 0 • 0 B
c
0
0 0
two formats, EIA and ISO formats, are identical but differences occur in c • 0 0
0 0
•
.•
0 0 0 0
D 0
other tracks as seen from Fig.19.26. Another difference lies in the choice d 0 0 0 0 0
e 0 0 0 • 0 0 E
F
0 0
• 0 0
of track for the parity hole. Track number 5 is used in the EIA format and 0 0
0 0
•
.
f 0 0 0 0 0 0
.
G 0
track number 8 in the ISO format. In the ISO system, even parity is g 0 0 0 0 0
H 0 •
h 0 0 0 • 0
0 •
employed, a hole being included in track 8 when it is required to bring the 0 0 0 0 0 I 0 0
0
0
J 0 0 0
holes in the row to an even number.
k 0 •
0 0 0 0 0
K 0
0 •
0 0 0 0
L 0 0
0 •
0 0 0
19.13 NC/CNC/DNC SYSTEM • 0 c., M 0
0 •
0 0
.
m 0 0 0 0
• 0 0 N 0
0 • p c
n 0
• 0 .,>
E 0 0 0
•
0
.
0 0 0
p 0 0
In the original NC systems the physical components are hard-wired i.e. p 0 0
•
0 0 0 0
E a 0 0 0 • 0
the circuitry and components can perform their respective functions only q 0 0 0
.,c.. R 0 0 0 • 0
and are not flexible to adopt changes. In CNC system the physical
r 0 0
• 0
0
"' s 0 0 •
•
0 0
""'
I- T
.•.
s 0 0
0 0 0 0
components are software units. In soft-wired units the loaded program in t 0 0 0
0 u 0 0 • 0 0
u 0 0 0 i:: v • 0 0
..
0 0
computer makes the control unit operate to suit the need of machinist. The v 0 0 0 0
w • 0 0 0
-�... x
0 0 0
0 •
w 0 0 0
MCU, the heart of the NC system underwent a great development with the •
.
0 0 0
0 0 0
.
x 0 0 0
introduction of very large scale integrated circuits. The new features not y 0 0 0 • i5 y
z
0 0 0
0
z • 0
0 0 0
.
0 0
..
available in pre - 1970 hardwired control units are : Del 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Del 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
NUL
Blan I< BS 0 0
BS 0 0 0 0
0
1. Cathode-ray tube which is capable to simulate cutting Tab 0 0 0 • 0 0 HT
LF/ML 0 • 0
parameters and show the positions of machine table and cutting CR/EOB 0 • CR 0 0 • 0 0
SP 0
SP
tool before t�e part is actually loaded on machine tool. Actual ER 0 • 0 0
0 0
•
cutting position 01ay also be shown when the part is being (2-4-5 0 0 • 0 % 0 0
0 •
0
(2-4-7� 0 0 • 0 ( 0
0 • 0
machined. The entire program also can be listed in the screen. ) 0 0
+ •
.
0 0 0 0
• + 0 0 0
2. Provisions of absolute and incremental programming which are 0 0 • 0 0
• 0
0
•
.
0 0 0 0 0
incorporated by 090 (absolute) and G91 (incremental) codes. 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 • 0 0
3. Provision of inch or metric data input through 070 (inch) and & 0 • 0 0
& 0
0
0 • 0 0
071 (metric) address. 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 • 0
4. Adaptable to both EIA or ASCII tape formats. ( - Begining of statement.

2-4-5 - Begining of statement.
s·.• Availability of manual data input (MDI) to incorporate changes ) - End of statement.
2-4-7 - End of statement.
'in. part programming as well as editing program I data can be Figure 19.27 Code sets for punched tape:
made available as and when necessary. (a) EIA format, (b) ISO format
6. Advanced interpolation methods like helical and cubic make it DNC system : Direct numerical control makes use of a large (mainframe)
more versatile. In previous available NC systems only linear, computer to manipulate operations of a number of NC machines.
curricular and parabolic interpolators are available. Development of local area networking with high processing power of
7. Point-to-point and continuous-path positioning are both computer system facilitated the development of DNC system.
available in CNC system.
8. Cutter diameter and length compensation calculations are Difference between CNC and DNC system : The difference between
incorporated. CNC and DNC system are
9. Provision of high volume program and data storage area for
whereas DNC
future storage and use are incorporated with hard disks. 1. CNC computers control only one machine
one machi ne using local
10. Use of canned or fixed cycle programming to reduce computers manipulate more than
complexity in programming. networking.
ne whereas
11. Incorporation of provision of subroutine/subprogramming and 2. CNC computer is an integrated part of the machi
distan ce from the machi ne.
macros. DNC computer is located at a
higher proces sing power than CNC
12. Capability to create axes inversion (mirror image) to produce 3. DNC computers are having
right or left hand or left hand part from the same program. computers (micro processors).
ation flow to a
13. Digitizing to make a part programming directly from the 4. DNC software considers management of inform
nes apart from transfe rring machining
existing part. group of machi
instructions.
CNC denotes a numerical control system that uses a dedicated shown in
micro processes as' an integrated part in its MCU to execute the basic NC The main components of CNC and DNC system are
control function. Fig.19.29.
Punched tape
A program can be loaded in MCU and for this reason dependency Central
on the tape reader is eliminated. Motion interpolation is transferred to
Manual data
MCU with its soft-wired control capability. Fig.19.28 shows the CNC Manual input
control unit features.
CNC Control unil features
CRT screen Absolute or Inch or metric EIA or ASCII standard CNC CNC CNC
incremental Machine Machine Machine
Manual data Point-to-pointor continuous

input path positioning MCU
Machine tool
(a) (b)
system
Cutter diameter Canned (fixed) Figure 19.29 The main components of (a) CNC and (b) DNC
and length cycle Macros and subroutines
compensation
19.14 NC M�CHINES
Axis inversion Digitizing Diagnostics

I I
Figure 19.28 CNC control unit features
Management data l. Single spindle drilling machine : It is the most simple numerically
controlled machine. Most drilling machines are programmed on three axes
: X axis controls the table movement to the right and left of the column, Y
magazine. A tool magazine can be of different types. However, most
axis controls the table movement towards or away from the �olumn and Z
common type is the chain type tool magazine containing 30 to 60 tools.
axis controls the up and down movement of the spindle.
Tool changing follows similar pattern as given in the following
��quence:
2. Lathe: Lathe is the most productive machine tool to manufacture round
parts. Lathes arc programmed on two axes : X axis controls the cross
motion of the cutting tool and Z axis controls the carriage travel towards 'TABLE 19.4 SPECIFICATIONS OF A TYPICAL HORIZONTAL
'- MACHINING CENTRE
and away from the head stock.
MC /000
\Spindle
3. Milling machine : Milling machine has been accepted as one of the Drive.motor (411% ED) kW 32
most versatile machine tools used in manufacturing industry. Milling eed rpm 20-3600
tr
machines are programmed on three axes : X axis controls the table ax spindle torqve Nm 1150
tool shank taper (DIN 69871) ASO
movement left or right, Y axis controls the table movement towards and Front bearing dia mm 100
away from the column and Z axis controls the vertical movement of the Traverse
knee or spindle. Table (X-axis) mm 1600
Spindle (Y-axis) mm 1250
Column (Z-axis) mm 1100
4. Turning centres : Turning centres are more accurate and productive Axis drive
than engine lathes and has a higher spindle rate. The turret is of disc type Feed rate mm/min 1-10000
and can accommodate 12 tools and as such can produce a wide range of Rapid traverse X,Y/Z m/min 15
Index table (NC rotary table)
components without tool change. Programming is for two axes : X axis for Pallet table size mmxmm 1000x1000
movement of cross slide and Z axis for saddle movement towards or away Load capacity kg 2000
from headstock. Turning centres with increased capacity tool changers are Max.job swing mm 1600
also making a strong appearance in modern production shapes. Index increments deg I (0.001)
Automatic tool changer
No of tools 60 (72)
S. Machining centres : Machining centres are of two types ; horizontal Max tool dia mm 120
and vertical spindle types. They are operated on three axes. Max tool dia with adjacent pockets empty mm 315
Max tool length mm 550
Horizontal machining centre has X axis control for table movement Max tool weight kg 25 (35)
left or right, Y axis control for the vertical movement of the spindle and Z Accuracy
axis control for the horizontal movement of the spindle. Specifications of a Positioning accuracy as per VDI/DGQ 3441 mm O.D15
machine is furnished in table 19 .4. Installation data
Machine weight kg 24500
Vertical machining centre has X axis control for table movement Total connected load kVA 60
left or right, Y axis control for the t�ble movement towards or away from (Valuts givtn braclctts art optional/ta(J,rts)
the column and Z axis control for the 'vertical movement of the spindle.
Manufacturer : Bharat Fritz Werner limited.
Machining centres are capable of a variety of machining operations.
For this reason a variety of tools are required in a machining centre. Thus a 1. Tool in spindle is oriented in position.
machining centre to be efficient must have automatic tool changing, work 2. Tool in magazine is ready.
part positioning and pallet shuttling apart from other CNC functions. 3. Gripping fingers of tool changer gripped both the tools (new
Most of the m·achining centres have automatic tool changers in tools from tool magazine and old tool from the spindle).
angled double gripping form with retractable gripping fingers for 4. Tools are removed by gripper arm.
simultaneous insertion and removal of tools in the spindle and tool 5. Charge over procedure effected by gripper arm swinging
through 180 °.
6. New tool is inserted in

Vertical the spindle and old tool
•i>lndle
goes to tool magazine.
New 1001
fd rool 7. Gripping fingers are
l retracted.
8. Tool magazine starts
rotating to make the
next required available
at the tool change
position.
Tool carousel
Fig.19.30 shows a sirople

8. Wire cutting EDM machine :
automatic tool changer. Stop 3
Fig.19 .31 shows a pallet Wire cutting EDM machines utilize a

New tool
changing mechanism. very thin wire (0.02 mm to 0.3 mm)
made of brass or molybdenum as an
6. CNC cylindrical electrode. The wire is stretched
grinding machine : In
/
between two rollers and the part is
CNC cylindrical grinrling eroded by spark from the wire. Thus
machine, control is on the wire cuts the part like a band saw
Old tool longitudinal traverse of Pallet 1 to the required profile. CNC is used to
Figure 19.30 A simple automatic tool table (Z-axis) and wheel Figure 19.31 A pallet changing control horizontal table movement.
changing mechanism head traverse (X - axis). mechanism Here wire is the tool and workpiece
The machine can be moves in X and Y axis
employed and programmed for external plunge grinding, traverse simultaneously. Auxiliary co-ordinate table for top wire guide block
grinding, taper grinding and profile grinding. All these can be done in one provides movement in U and V axes. The system is having wire drive
set up if required. The machine is suitable for external grinding of low system. Dielectric fluid used is deionised water. Fig.19.32 shows the
and medium batch size. The machine contains wheel head spindle, wheel principle of a wire cutting EDM.
head slide workhead, tailstock and table along with its drive system.
�N�C-i-�=;:::::==f��;--i
7. CNC Trainers : Presently many machine tool manufacturers are Shaft

encoder
supplying CNC trainers to industries and training centres where operators, X-axis
technicians, programmers and engineers can be trained on CNC working
through these trainers. These are small, low cost machines with low power
requirement and can be easily installed in class rooms. These trainers have NC tape Keyboard
alphanumeric key board for MDI programming, G code, absolute I reader
incremental programming, inch/metric programming, F-code availability,
position presets, linear/circular interpolation and other facilities. CNC train
master lathe and CNC train master machining centres are two popular EDM power
supply Workpiece
CNC trainer types Q
Figure 19.32 Principle of wire cutting EDM
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define Numerical Control. State the advantages

machine tools over conventional machine tools.
of numerical control 20
2. What are the important components of a NC
systems ? Describe.
3. Expl�in point - to - point positioning contr
ol system and straight - cut
_ _
pos1t1onmg system. NON-TRADITIONAL MACHINING
4. What is meant in NC coding by character,
word, block ?
5. How do you classify NC systems ? Expla
in.
6. What are the tool positioning modes in NC
programming ? Identify the
advantages and disadvantages of them.
7. If you are to drill 3 holes (A, 8, and C) 20.1 INTRODUCTION
_ of equal diameter in a plate,
show the differe nce of part dimensioning in absolute and incre
sy�tems.1:h� c ntre of holes are; a(3,5) 8(15, mental From some time QaSt engineering industries have witnessed a rapid growth
� 20), C(20,20).
8. Write the h��tat1on of Manual part progr in the development of harder and difficult-to-machine materials such as
. � amming. In what type of NC
machines, 1t 1s applicable ? In NC machine hastalloy, nitralloy, waspalloy, nimonics, carbides, stainless steel, heat
how the machine axes are
addressed ? Explain with a neat diagram. resisting steels, and many other high-strength-temperature-resistant
9. Define X, Y, and Z axes on a NC drill mach (HSTR) alloys. These materials find wide application in aerospace, nuclear
ine.
10. Where might rotational axes be used ?
Explain. engineering, and other industries owing to their high strength-to-weight
11. Define F-code, S-code and M-code of
_ ent NC manual part programming. ratio, hardness, and heat-resisting qualities. For such materials the
12. How differ codes are written in a block ? Explain.
13. What is the function of a subprogram ? conventional edged tool machining, in spite of recent technological
What is a canned cycle ? Do advancement, is highly uneconomical and the degree of accuracy and
loop?
14. What are the features of APT ? Why it surface finish attainable arc poor. Besides, machining of these materials
is accepted as one of the most
efficient part programming language. into complex shapes is difficult, time-consuming and sometimes
15. Name of the common NC machining progr impossible.
amming languages.
16. Explain In which situations MDI Is preferred
? Considering the seriousness of the problem, Merchant in 1960's
17. What do you understand by post proce emphasized the need for the development of newer concepts in metal
ssor statement and auxiliary
statements ? machining. Consequently, non-traditional machining processes have
18. Explain the working of a digitizer.
19. Differentiate between NC, CNC, and DNC emerged to overcome these difficulties. These processes are non
systems. traditional or unconventional in the sense that they do not employ a
20. Explain how the NC instructions are punc
hed in tapes. Describe EIA or conventional or traditional tool for metal removal, instead, they directly
ISO format in brief.
21. Describe any two NC machines briefly. utilize some form of energy for metal machining.
20.2 CLASSIFICATION OF THE MACHINING PROCESSES
Non-traditional machining process�s can be classified into various groups

according to type of fundamental machining they employ, namely,
mechanical, electrical, chemical, electro-chemical, thermo-electric, etc.
The classification of the machining processes, based upon the type of
energy used, the mechanism of metal removal in the process, the source of
the immediate energy required for material removal, and the medium for
transfer of those energies, etc. is shown in Table 20.1 and listed as
follows:
\\ NON-TRADITIONAL MACHINING 607
TABLE 20.1 CLASSIFICATION OF NON-TRADITIONAL MACHINING 1. Physical parameters.

PROCESSES 2. Properties of the work material and the shape to be machined.
3. Process capability or machining characteristics.
Type of energy Basic mechanism Transfer media Energy source Processes 4. Economic consideration.
of metal removal
The non-traditional machining processes have relatively good
Mechanical Erosion shear High velocity Pneumatic/hyd AJM, USM application to cover all metals and alloys. This is in contrast to the
particles. raulic pressure Conv. machining conventional machining processes which vary in their application,
Physical contact Cutting tool depending upon the strength and hardness of the material. However,
Chemical Chemical Reactive Corrosive CHM materials applications of the various methods are summarized in Table
20.2.
ablation environment agent
Electro· Ion Electrolyte High current ECM,ECG TABLE 20.2 MATERIAL APPLICATION OF NON-TRADITIONAL
chemical displacement MACHINING
Thermo-electric Fusion Hot gases Ionized IBM
Process Aluminium Steel Super Titanium Refrac Ceramics Plastic Glass
Vaporization Electron material High PAM
alloy -rories
Radiation Voltage EBM EDM
Amplified LBM USM p F p F G G F G
light AJM F F G F G G F G
ECM F G G F F N N N
1 . Mechanical CHM G G F F p p p F
(a) Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM) EDM F G G G G N N N
(b) Ultrasonic Machining (USM) EBM F F F F G G F F
2. Chemical G F F
LBM F F F F p
(a) Chemical Machining (CHM)
PAM G G G F p N p N
3. Electro-Chemical
(a) Electro-Chemical Matching (ECM) G = Good, F = Fajr, P = Poor, N = Not applicable.
(b) Electro-Chemical Grinding (ECG) The applications of the non-traditional machining processes are also
4. Thermo-electric. influenced by the workpiece shape and size to be produced, viz. holes,
(a) Ion-Beam Machining (IBM) through holes, surfacing, through cutting, and special applications.
(b) Plasma Arc Machining (PAM) The process capability or machining characteristics can be analyzed
(c) Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) with respect to
(d) Electron-Beam Machining (EDM)
(e) Laser-Beam Machining (LBM) 1. Metal removal rate obtained.
2. Tolerance mai�ined.
Process selection : In order to make use of the non-traditional machining 3. Surface finish obtained
processes efficiently, it i· s necessary that the exact nature of the machining 4. Depth of surface damage.
problem must be known. The points which should be looked into before 5. Power required for machining.
_the selection of these processes are
\
Table 20.3 shows the process capabilities of different processes.

The economics of the various processes are analyzed by
I \ NON-TRADITIONAL MACHINING
the abrasive particles and is then ·passed into a connecting hose. This
abrasive and gas mixture emerge from a small nozzle mounted on a fixture
609
considering at high velocity ranging from 150 to 300 m/min. The abrasive powder feed
A
rate is controlled by the amplitude of vibration of the mixing chamber.
1. Capital cost. pressure regulator controls the gas flow and pressure. To control the size
2. Tooling cost. and shape of the cut either the workpiece or the nozzle is moved by cams,
3. Consumed power cost. pantographs or other suitable mechanisms. The carrier gas should be
4. Metal removal rate efficiency. cheap, non-toxic and easily available. Air and nitrogen are two of the most
5. Wear of tooling. widely used gas in AJM.
@lJ(::]
The abrasives ge,,erally Compressor
TABLE 20.3 PROCESS CAPABILITIES employed are aluminium
oxide, silicon carbide, glass A;, ;,1"
0 D
Process MRR, Tolerance, Surface finish Depth of surface Power (walls) powder or specially prepared
sodium bicarbonate. The 5 MPa
mm 3/min micron micron CLA damage (micron)
average particle sizes vary
USM 300 75 0.2-05 25 2,400
from 10 to 50 microns. Larger
AJM 0.8 50 0.5-1.2 2.5 250 Convergent-divergent
sizes are used for rapid
r==ta��
inlet nozzle
EC'M 15,000 50 0.1-25 5 100,000 removal rate while smaller
Abrasive---" Mixing chamber
CHM 15 so 0.5-25 5 sizes are used for good SU rface powder '-v' -
EDM 800 15 0.2-1.2 125 2,700 finish and precision work. In Convergent exit
addition to the above nozzle
EBM 1.6 25 0.5-25 250 150(Averagc)
abrasives, dolomite (calcium
200 (peak) magnesium carbonate) of 200
LBM 0.1 25 0.5-1.2 125 2 (Average) grit size is found suitable for
2000 (peak) light cleaning and etching.
PAM 75.0 125 Rough 500 50,000 Glass beeds of diameter 0.30
to 0.60 mm arc light polishing Figure 20.1 Abrasive jet machining
Conventional 50,000 50 0.5-5 25 3,000
and deburring.
machining Since nozzles are subjected to a great degree of abrasion wear, they
are made of hard materials such as tungsten carbide or synthetic sapphire
20.3 ABRASIVE JET MACHINING (AJM) (ceramic) to reduce the wear rate. Nozzles made of tungsten carbide have
an average life of 10 to 20 hours while nozzles of sapphire last for about
The fundamental principle of Abrasive jet machining involves the use of a 300 hour of operation when used with 27µ abrasive powder. The gases
high-speed stream of abrasive particles carried by a high pressure gas or air used are nitrogen, carbon dioxide or clean air.
on the work surface through a nozzle. The metal removal occurs due to The metal removal rate depends upon the diameter of nozzle,
erosion caused by the abrasive particles impacting the work surface at high composition of abrasive-gas mixture, jet pressure, hardness of abrasive
speed. With repeated impacts, small bits of material get loosened and a particles and that of work material, particle size, velocity of jet and
fresh surface is exposed to the jet. distance of workpiece from the jet. A typical material removal rate for
3
Fig.20.1 shows a schematic diagram of working of the process. The abrasive jet machining is 16 mm /min in cutting glass. Fig.20.2 shows the
2
filtered gas, supplied under a pressure of 2 to 8 kgf/cm to the mixing effect of abrasive jet pressure and grain size on the material removal rate.
chamber containing the abrasive powder and vibrating at 50 Hz entrains
I
Accuracy : With close control of the various parameters a dimensional

I \
20.4 ULTRASONIC MACHINING (USM)

NON-TRADITIONAl MACHINING 611
tolerance of :t 0.05 mm can be obtained. On nonnal production work an

.
accuracy o f :!: 0.1 mm is easily held. The term ultrasonic is used to describe a vibratory wave of frequency
above that of the upper frequency limit of the human ear, i.e., generally
Applications The above 16 kHz. The devke for converting any type of energy into
process finds application ultrasonic waves is ultrasonic transducer. This electrical energy is
in cutting slots, thin Grain size : 20 micron converted into mechanical vibrations, and for this piezo-electric effect in
0.8
sections, contouring, Work material : Glass natural or synthetic crystals or magne-tostriction effect exhibited by some
drilling, for producing � 0.6 metals is utilized. 'Magne-tostriction' means a change in the dimension
Abrasive grain
shallow crevices, occurring in ferromagnetic materials subjected to an alternating magnetic
E 0.4 · SiC Abrasive grain
deburring, and for � field.
producing intricate � 0.2. In ultrasonic machining, a tool vibrating longitudinally at 20 to 30
shapes in hard and
brittle materials. ft is
� o.o �' kHz with amplitude between 0.01 to 0.06 mm is pressed on to the work
surface with a light force. As the tool vibrates with a specific frequency, an
,_71 oo=---:-20�0=--300 .J. --.J..
4 --00
00 .J. 5 •
often used for cleaning abrasive slurry, usually a mixture of abrasive grains and water of definite
Pressure (Kg/mm')
and polishing of plastics, proportion (20-30 per cent ), is made to flow under pressure through the
nylon and teflon tool-workpiece interface. The impact force arising out of the vibration of
components, frosting of Figure 20.2 Effect of jet pressure for AJM the tool end and the flow of slurry through the work-tool interface actually
the interior surface of causes thousands of microscopic grains to remove the work material by
the �lass tubes, etching abrasion. The tool has the same shape as the cavity to be machined. The
of markings on glass cylinders, etc. method is chiefly employed to machine hard and brittle materials (which
arc either electrically conducting or non-conducting). Analysis of the
Advantages : The advantages of AJM are mechanism of material removal by USM process indicates that it may
sometimes be called Ultrasonic grinding (USG).
1. Abilit� to cut intricate hole shapes in materials of any hardness The ultrasonic machining operation is shown schematically in
and brittleness. Fig.20.3. The electronic oscillator and amplifier, also known as the
2. Ability to cut fragile and heat-sensitive materials without generator, converts the available electrical energy of low frequency to high
damage �s no heat is generated due to the passing of gas or air frequency power of the order of 20 kHz which is supplied to the
3. Low capital cost. transducer. The transducer operates by magnetostriction. The high
frcquency power supply activates the stack of the magnetostrictive
Disadvantages : The disadvantages of the process lie in the following : material which produces longitudinal vibratory motion of the tool. The
amplitude of this vibration is inadequate for cutting purposes. This is,
1. �a!erial removal rate is slow and its application is theretore therefore, transmitted to th-e penetrating tool through a mechanical
limited. focusing device which provides .an intense vibration of the desired
2. �he machining accuracy is poor and the nozzle wear rate IS amplitude at the tool end. The mechanical focusing device is sometimes
high. called a velocity transformer. This is virtually a tapered shank or so called
3. Add(ti?�al clea�in� of the work surface may occur as there is a 'horn', its upper end being rigidly clamped or brazed to the lower face of
poss1b1hty of sticking abrasive grains in softer materials. the magnetostrictive material, and its lower end is provided with means
for securing the tool. All these parts, including the tool made of low
�a te� jet machining is another variation where a high pressure jet carbon or stainless steel to the shape of the aesired cavity, act as one elastic
of water is directed on a surface to remove material. body transmitting the vibrations to the tip of the tool.
The commonly used

I
Magnetostrictive
ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY 613
Fig.20.4 shows the effect of v.arious cutting parameters.

.,�
abrasives are : aluminium
material
oxide (alumina), boron
carbide, silicon carbide, Leads from oscillaror
and diamond dust. Boron is �nd amplifier
£
the most expensive !!
I!
£
I! I!
l ·' . f/
i?
l
abrasive material and is
best suited to cutting of
tungsten carbide, tool steel Refridgeration
t:1 L �
Frequency
system Tool holder .. C Amplitude
and gems. Silicon finds Grain size Slurry concentration
most application. For

cutting glass and ceramics,
alumina is found as the Figure 20.4 Effect of cutting parameters in USM
best. The abrasive slurry is Workpiece
circulated to the work-tool Accuracy : The maximum speed of penetration in soft and brittle
interface by pumping. A materials such as soft ceramics are of the order of 20 mm/min, but for hard
refrigerated cooling system and tough materials, the penetration rate is lower. Dimensional accuracy
is used to cool the abrasive upto ± 0.005 mm is possible and surface finishes down to an R. value of
slurry lo a temperature of 5 0.1-0.125µ can be obtained. A minimum corner radius of 0.10 mm is
to 6 ° C. A good method is Figure 20.3 Schematic diagram of
ultrasonic machining possible in finish machining. The range of sizes of USM machines varies
to keep the slurry in a bath from a light portable type having an input of about 20W to heavy
in the �utting zone. The liquid to produce abrasive slurry should have the machines taking an input of upto 2kW.
following characteristics
Application : The simplicity of the process makes it economical for a
1. Good wetting characteristic. wide range of applications such as
2. Low viscosity.
3. High thennal conductivity. 1. Introducing round holes and holes of any shape for which a tool
4. Anti corrosive property. can be made. The range of obtainable shapes can be increased
5. Approximately having equal density with abrasive. by moving the workpiece during cutting.
6. Low cost. 2. In perfonning/machining operations likes drilling, grinding,
I profiling and milling operations on all materials both
The size of abrasive varies between 200 and 2000 grit. Coarse conducting and non-conducting.
grad �s ar � goo � for roug�ing, wher�as finer grades, say 1000 grit, are used 3. In machining glass, ceramic, tungsten and other hard carbides,
. _
for frn1shrng. Fresh abrasives cut better and the slurry therefore be replaced gem, stones such as synihetic ruby.
periodically. 4. In cutting threads in components made of hard metals and alloys
by approximately rotating and translating either the workpiece
Cutting rate : Cutting rate by using USM varies on certain factors. These or the tool.
are: 5. In making tungsten carbide and diamond wire drawing dies and
1. Grain size of abrasive. 4. Amplitude of vibration. dies for forging and extrusion processes.
2. Abrasive materials. 5. Frequency. 6. Enabling a dentist to drill a hole of any shape on teeth without
3. Concentration of slurry. creating any pain.
NON-TRADITIONAL MACHINING 615
Limitations of the process : The major limitation of the process is its
20-Ci CHEMICAL MACHINING (CH�)
comparatively low metal cutting rates. The maximum metal removal rate is
3
3 mm /s and the power consumption is high. The depth of cylindrical holes
Chemical machining is the stock removal process for the production of
is presently limited to 2.5 times the diameter of the tool. Wear of the tool
desired shapes and dimensions through sel�ctive or overall �emoval of
increases the angle of hole, while sharp comers become rounded. This .
material by controlled chemical attack with acids or alkalis (etc�ant
implies that tool replacement is essential in the production of accurate
solution). The metal is gradually transformed into metallic salt by chem1�al
blind holes. Also, the process is limited, in its present form to machine on
reaction and is ultimately removed in this form. Are� s from whe:e material
surfaces of comparatively small size.
is not to be removed are protected by an etchant resistant material, kno�n
The tool material employed in USM should be tough and ductile.
as · maskant' or 'resist'. Nearly all the materials, from metals to ceramics,
The difficulties with very ductile metals like Aluminium can be traced due
can be chemically machined.
to its short tool life. This difficulty can be eliminated by using low carbon . .
The component to be machined is first cleaned in trichlorethylene
steel and stainless steel as tool materials. Experimental verification has
vapour-or in a solution of mild alkaline solution at 80 to 90_° C, followed
shown that Metal Removal Rate decreases with the ratio of workpiece
by washing in clean water. One of the roughest methods ts to c�at the
hardness and tool hardness. Thus if the workpiece hardness increases, it is
component all over by spraying or dipping. �his remove� dust and 011 The
expected that the tool hardness is also increased. The choice of tool metal : _
cleaning ensures a good adhesion of the coating or masking ag�nt which IS
is one of the most important decision making for optimization of metal
applied to protect the portions which are not to be machmed. Af�er
removing and tool cost. The mass length of the tool also pose difficulty as _
cleaning the component is dried and coated with the maskan� material
the tool materials absorbs much of the ultrasonic energy, reducing the _
which must be cut and peel, photoresist or screen-prmt, type. Finally, the
efficiency. Longer tool causes overstressing. The grains size and abrasive
metal is removed by etching.
slurry also of the correct dimension. It has been observed that if grain size
The process can be suitably applied to different t�pes of operah?ns
is more or less than the amplitude of the vibration, machining rate
such as milling, blanking, and engraving. The different chemical
decreases. Choosing a grain for finish machining should not overlap with
machining processes can thus be classified as :
the specified grains of rough machining while cutting deep holes special
techniques arc needed for supplying the slurry through the tool holder else
1. Chemical milling. 3. Chemical engraving.
accumulation of grain particles, inside the hole will abstract further
2. Chemical blanking.
machining. Forced circulation, mixing alternatively higher and lower sized
grains, suctioning are some of the many effective methods followed to
Chemical machining for some special purposes can als� be
remove this deep hole machining problem. _
accomplished by using a jet of reactive gas, e.g., chlorine on the machm1_ng
zone. This is known as Gaseous Chemical Machining or Hot Chlorine
Recent development : Recently a new development in ultrasonic
Machining, and can be employed for deburring of metal parts.
machining has taken place in which a tool impregnated with diamond dust
is used and no slurry is used. The to�I is oscillated at ultrasonic frequencies
Chemical milling : Chemical milling, sometimes called Chemilling or
as well as rotated. If it is not possible to rotate the tool the workpiece may
contour machining or etching is used mainly to produce shapes by
be rotated.
selective or overall removal of metal parts from relatively large su�ace
This innovation has removed some of the drawbacks of
areas. The main purpose is to achieve shallow but complex proftles,
conventional process in drilling deep holes. For instance the hole _
reduction in weight by removing unwanted material from the surface as m
dimensions can be kept within ± 0.125 mm. Holes upto 75 mm, depth have
the skin of an aircraft.
been drilled in ceramics without any fall in the rate of machining as is
Chemical mill:ng entails four steps :
experienced in the conventional process.
1. Cleaning. 3. Etching.
2. Masking. 4. De-masking
NON·TRADITIONAL MACHINING 617
The co'.11ponents are thoroughly cleaned and degreased by Chemical blanking : Chemical blankin g, chem-blanking, photoforming,
. .
1mmers1on in trichloreth ylen e vapour or some alternative chemical cleaner photofabrication or photoetchin g is a variation of chemical milling. In this
followed by washi ng in clean water. The component is then coated with a process, the metal is totally removed from certain areas by chemical
cut and peel maskant by brushi ng, dipping or spraying (upto 0.2 mm). This action. The process is used ch iefly on their sheets and foils. Almost any
.
�an �e a. suJtab(e fluid with a. neoprene base or some alternative plastics metal can be worked by this process, however, it is not recommended for
solution 1mperv1ous to the action of th e etching agent (permitting etching material thinner than 2 mm.
depths �pto 10 mm). When this has dried, by mild heating or otherwise, The workpiece is clean ed, degrea sed and pickled by acid or alkalis.
the desired shape to be processed on the work material is cut on the The deaned metal is dried and photoresist material is applied to the
maskant wifh a scribe k nife and the unmachined portions of the maskant workpiece by dipping, wh irl coating or sprayin g. It is then dried and cured.
are P e�led away· Usually, a template is used to portray the desired The techn ique of photography has been suitably employed to produce
.
'.11achrning shape wit�in tolera nce. The parts are then dipped completely etchant resistant images in photoresist materials. This type of maskant is
into a ta nk of c�em1cals wh ich will dissolve (etch) away the exposed sensitive to light of a particular frequen cy, usually ultraviolet light, and not
metal. After etch mg to th e required depth, and washing to remove all to room light. This surface is now exposed to the light through the
traces o� the etchan t, the en �ire maski ng is stripped from the component negative, i.e., a photographic plate of the required design, just as in
nd the1r surfaces are anodized or treated with a temporary protective developing pictures. After exposure, the image is developed. The
�
a �ent as n ecessary. Table 20.4 sh ows typical masking materials for un exposed portion s are dissolved out durin g the developin g process
different metals. exposing the bare metal. The treated metal is next put into a machine
which sprays it with a chemic al etchant, or it may be dipped in to the
TABLE 20.4 MASKANT MATERIALS
FOR DIFFERE NT METALS solution. Th e etching solution may be hydrofluoric acid (for titanium), or
one of several other chemicals. After 1 to 15 min, the unwanted metal has
Mera/ Ercha111 Temperarure 'C Maska111s been eaten away, and t he finished part is ready for immediate rising to
Aluminium Alkaline remove the etcha nt. The cutti ng action is illustrated in Fig.20.5.
90 Acrylonitrile rubber, butyl rubber,
neoprene rubber Pri nted circuit cards, other engraving operations and blanking of
Ferrous metals Acid in tricate designs can be suitably made by chemical blanki ng by usin g
54 Polyvinyl chloride, polyethelene
butyl rubber photoresist maskants.
Magnesium Acid < 38 Polymers The advantages of this process can be summarized as follows
Titanium Acid 20 · 35 Translucent chlorinated polymers
Beryllium Acid 20 · 54 1. Very thin material (0.005 mm) can be suitably etched.
Vinyl, neoprene, butyl based
materials 2. High accuracy of the order of± O.Dl 5 mm can be maintained.
Nickel Acid 3. High production rate can be met by using automatic
45 • 50 Neoprene
photographic technique.
With optimum time, temperature and solution control, accuracies of
Application of CHM : Chemical machining has been applied successfully
the range of :!: 0.0! mm can be achieved on relatively shallow depths of
. _ in a great n umber of usages where the depth of material removal is critical
cut. The surface fin ish obtained may be around 5 microns. Aluminium
to a few micron s, and the tolerances are close. The surface finish obtained
alloys show better surface fi nish of the order of 1.6 microns. The metal
i n the process is in the range 0.5 to 2 microns. Besides, it removes metal
re°lov� I rate o� an alumi nium components is reported to be about 140
from a portion or the entire surface of formed or irregularly shaped parts
c m /'.11rn . The size ?f the workpiece tha t can be treated is limited only by
. such as forgings, castings, extrusio ns or formed wrought stock. One of the
the size of the tank i n which the component is dipped for etching.
major application s of chemical machining is in the manufacture of burr
free, intricate stampings.
618 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY NON·TRADITIONAL MACHINING 619
..
Unprotected .
Advantages of CHM The RCSISt electrolyte that completes the electrical circuit between the anode and
advantages of CHM are ; cathode. Metal is then removed from the workpiece through electrical
1. Components are produced

., action, and the cathode (tool) shape is reproduced on the workpiece. The
electrolyte bath is pumped at high pressure through the gap between the
burr-free. workpiece and tool and must be circulated at a rate sufficiently high to
2. Several components can be conduct current between them and to carry heat. The electrolysis process
produced simultaneously. that takes places al the cathode liberates hydroxyl ions (negatively
3. The process does not Ill charged) and free hydrogen. The hydroxyl ions combine with the metal
distort the machined ions of the anode to form insoluble metal hydroxides and the material is
components. thus removed from the anode. This process continues and the cathode
4. Most difficult-to-machine (tool) reproduces its shape in the workpiece (anode). The tool does not
-
materials can be processed. contact the workpiece producing no direct friction and, therefore, does not
5. High surface finishing is CJ wear and no heat build-up occurs.
--
possible. Figure 20.6 shows a typical set-up of electro-chemical machining.
�
The electric current is of the order of 50 to 40,000 A at 5 to 30 V O.C for a
Disadvantages of CHM the current density of 20 to 300 A/cm2, across a gap of 0.05 to 0.7 mm
disadvantages of CHM are ; between the tool and the
dl
workpiece. The electrolyte
a�
Constant
.;::.. ,......._,,____ H2
��==�:.i;;:.E*'
1 . Metal removal rate is slow. __.,. flows through this gap at a u tool feed
2. Metal thicker than 2 mm velocity of 30 to 60 mis � ===::::l!II 11
'
can not be usually forced by an inlet pressure O
machined. �, of about 20 kgf/cm .
2
:! t
3. Higher operator skill is Suspended solids are
required. removed from the
4. Corrosive etchant damages electrolytes by setting,
the equipment. centrifuging, or filtering, s
and the filtered electrolyte
20.6 ELECTRO-CHEMICAL is recirculated for use.
MACHINING (ECM)
Figure 20.5 Chemical blanking The electrolysis process
Elect�o:cherriical machining is one of the newest and most useful In the electrolytic circuit
machmmg process of metal removal by the controlled dissolution of the shown in Fig.20.6 the Figure 20.6 Scheme of electro-chemical
anode of an electrolytic cell. The process is particularly suited to metal and electron-flow is from, the
machining
alloy� �hich are difficult or impossible to machine by mechanical workpiece, through the
machmmg processes. This is based on Michael Farnday's classical laws of power supply to the tool. Many chemical reactions occur at the cathode,
electrolysis, requiring basica!ly t�e two-electrodes, an electrolytes, a gap the anode, and in the electrolyte.
. At the cathode the following reactions are possible :
and a source of D.C power of suff1c1ent capacity.
In l�e actual process, the cathode is tool-shaped, more or Jess like
.
the mmor image of the finished workpiece. The workpiece is connected to 1 . M + + e - � M (M denotes any metal)
the �ositi�e supply. The tool or cathode, connected to the negative
2. 2H + +2e- � H 2 (Hydrogen evolution)
termmal, ts advanced towards the anode (workpiece) through the
The following reactions occur at the anode with a halogen electrolyte : 1. It carries the current between the tool and the workpiece.
2. It removes products of machining and other insoluble products
1. M � M + +e- (Metal dissolution) from the cutting region.
3. It dissipates heat produced in the operation.
2. 2H 2 0 � 0 2 +4H +4e-(Oxygen evolution)
+
3. 2cr � C/ 2 +2e- (Halogen gas evolution) The essential characteristics of electrolyte includes :
It has been established that the metal dissolution reaction is ma.in or 1. Good electrical conductivity.
the only reaction that occurs. As an example, let the machining of iron in 2. Non-toxicity and chemical stability.
an NaCl electrolyte can be considered. 3. Non-corrosive property.
4. Low viscosity and high specific heat.
Fe� Fe ++ +2e- The most commonly used electrolyte is the solution of sodium
NaCI � Na + +Cr chloride in concentration varying from 0.1 to 0.25 kg/litre of water. An
advantage of using sodium chloride solution is that its electrical
2H 2 0+2e � 2(0H)- + H 2 i
conductivity is fairly constant from PH value Oto 13. It is inexpensive and
Fe ++ +2(0H)- � Fe(OH)z non-poisonous. However, the disadvantage is that it is corrosive and it
Fe(OH) 2 +Air� Fe(OH) J !sludge produces a large amount of sludge. The suspension of a large amount of
sludge makes the electrolyte more viscous though the conductivity of the
2Fe+4H 20+02 � 2Fe(OH) ) +H2
solution is little changed. Consequently, greater power is required to make
it flow through the thin gap.
At the anode, the reaction products are FeC1 2, Fe(OH)2, FeCl(OH), Table 20.5 shows characteristics and applications of various
Fe(OH)3 which form a layer. Thus, it is seen how iron is removed by electrolytes.
electrolytic action. It is interesting to note that the salt is not being The electrolyte in flowing through the machining gap creates a thin
consumed and the metal is being machined at the expense of electrical boundary layer of slowly moving fluid next to the anode. Ions of work
energy and a little of water. The electrolyte acts only as a carrier of current. material leaving the metal surface must traverse this slowly moving
From this it can further be seen that current of 1000 A would dissolve iron boundary layer primarily by a process of diffusion. The rate at which ion
at the rate of about 15 g/min, and generate hydrogen at the rate of about can move through the boundary layer influences the rate of metal removal.
3
300 cm /min. The ideal electrolyte would provide a uniformly thin boundary layer over
the entire surface of the workpiece, irrespective of pressure and fluid
Elements of ECM : Important elements of ECM are : velocity variations.
High velocity flow (30-60 mis) over the electrode surface is one of
1. Electrolyte. 3. Anode workpiece. the key factors in ECM. This is necessary in order to prevent crowding of
2. Cathode tool. 4. D.C power supply. hydrogen gas and debris of machining. If this is not fulfilled, bubbles of
hydrogen gas will fill the machining gap and machining will stop in that
Electrolytes : The common electrolytes used are sodium chloride, sodium area. It also flushes the metallic particles suspended in the electrolyte,
nitrate potassium chloride, sodium hydroxide, sodium fluoride, sulfuric leading to local heating or arcing, and ultimately damage of the tooling and
acid and sodium chlorate. These solutions on reaction produce an insoluble the workpiece.
compound in the form of sludge. The main functions of an electrolyte in
ECM are:
TABLE 20.S ELECTROLYTE SOLUTIONS: CHARACTERISTICS AND Tool material for ECM : The general requirements on the tool material in
APPLICATIONS ECM are:
Concentration
1. It should ;:,e conductor of electricity.
Type (weight %in Application Characteristics
aqueous so/111ion) 2. It should be rigid enough to take up the load due to fluid
Neutral Salts Alloyed and Inexpensive, non- pressure.
Common salt (NaCl) 5-20 unalloyed steel poisonous, pitting, 3. It should be chemically inert to the electrolyte.
corrosive moderate m.r. 4. It should be easily machinable to make it in the desired shape.
r.
Sodium chlorate (NaCI0 3) 20-45 Steel High m.r.r., inflamable Copper, brass, titanium, copper-tungsten and stainless steels are
Sodium nitrite (NaN02) up to 12 Copper alloys Poisonous, moderate to most commonly used electrode material when the electrolyte is made of
lowm.r.r. salts of sodium or potassium. Where the electrolyte has the tendency to
Add up to Nickel, Highly corrosive,
chromium, poisonous anodize the tool as in the case of sulfuric acid, titanium has been found to
Sulphuric acid (H2S0 4)
cobalt alloys be most suitable. Table 20.6 shows the properties of some of the tool
Alkalies up to 10 Tungsten and Corrosive materials. The other materials which can be used as tool materials are
Sodium hydrate (NaOH) molybdenum aluminium, graphite, bronze, platinum and tungsten carbide. The cavity or
hole that is made, exactly reproduces the tool shape. Thus the accuracy of
the tool shape directly affects the workpiece accuracy. Electrofonning and
The permissible electrolyte flow velocity, U, in case of rectangular
cold-forging are two methods of tool - shaping.
electrode is given by
TABLE 20.6 ECM TOOL MATERIALS PROPERTIES (COMPARATIVE

vi, INDEX)
u =
2
m/s (20.1)
4.1R7rh p,C,(0 8 -0 0)
Properties Material
where, v = voltage applied, V Copper Brass Stainless steel Copper-tungsten
I = length of the electrode, m Electrical resistivity 1.00 4.00 53.00 8.00
r = specific resistance, ohm-m 2.20
Stiffness 1.60 1.00 1.90
h = gap length, m
Machinability 6.00 8.00 2.50 1.80
Pc =
3
density of electrolyte, kg/m
Thermal conductivity 25.00 7.50 1.00 10.00
Cc = specific heat of electrolyte, cal/kg K
9o = ambient temperature, K
Metal removal rate : The overall machining rate is governed by
Ba = boiling temperature of electrolyte, K
Faraday's Laws of Electrolysis whicb state (1) that the amount of chemical
The quantity of electrolyte q, flowing per unit time, through the gap change produced by current, i.e., the amount of any substance deposited or
is given as by : dissolved is proportional to the quantity of electricity that is passed
through the electrolyte, and 2) that the amount of metal from an electrode
q = Ubh 20.2
or deposited on to an electrode by flow of the same quantity of electricity,
e.g., one Faraday is equal"to one gram equivalent weight of the metal.
where,U = flow velocity
The quantitative unit of electricity called Faraday which is the
b = width of rectangular anode or workpiece.
amount of electricity that reduces one gram - equivalent weight of a
h = gap length, m
624 PRESS ANO PRESS WORK 497
suhstance at the cathode and oxidises one gram equivalent weight of a 13.9 DIE ACCESSORIES
suhstancc at the anode.
The die accessories are used in conjunction with the dies and punches for
systematic operation, correct location, and removal of finished products.
1 faraday = 6.02 x 1023 e- = 96500 Coulombs
The following are the different die accessories.
Combining these two laws,
1. Stops. 4. Knockouts.
W Elt 2. Pilots. 5. Pressure pads.
= 20.3
3. Strippers.
where, Wis the mass of ions dissolved in kg ion, Ethe equivalent weight
of a substance dissolved or deposited and is equal to atomic weight
Stops : The stops are used for correct spacing of the sheet metal as it is fed
(NJ/valency (n), t, the time in sec, and Fis equal to Faraday constant or below the punch to give the greatest output in given length of the plate.
96,500 coulombs or 26.8 amp-hr.
[5
The common types of stops are described below
Assuming that all the current flowing through the electrolytic cell is
Button stop : The button
�-2i3
used in the desired metal remova l process, i.e., 100% current efficiency, in 1
stop illustrated in Fig.13.11 is the
the steady state flow condition, the rate of metal removal, expressed in simp l est of the designs. A small
terms of the height of the removed layer, will be given by pin or a button 2 is fixed to the
die block 4 at a measured _ � _
20.4 distance from the punch axis.

MRR=�mis 4
Apt After the end of each cut, the
where, A is the machined area in m2 , and p the density of the workpiece in plate 3 is lifted ·and pushed aside
kg/m3. till the edge of the next slot bears Figure 13.11 Button stop
Using equation (20.3), equation (20.4) can be written as against the button 2. This makes t. Punch, 2. Button, 3. Plate, 4. Die block.
the accurate spacing. The button
stop is used in hand presses and
2
MRR == _§!}__ = ..Q_ 20.5 in slow acting power presses.
FApt FAp Lever stop : The l ever 3
stop illustrated in Fig.13.12, is 4
£J c operated by the machine. As the
Hence, MRR=--m/s 20.6 .5
punch 1 descends, the pin 2
Fp
where,Jc = current density =I/A attached to the ram pushes the
for I square unit area. lever 3 which lifts the lever stop, Figure 13.12 Lever stop
leaving the blank 4 free. The I. Punch, 2.Pin, 3. Lever, 4. Plate,
Also, MRR = E._ m3 / s 20.7 plate is pushed aside 5. Die block
Fp immediately when the punch 1 starts moving in the upward strokes, and in
The feed rate of electrode(!) is given by the next instant the lever 3 is released from pin pressure that causes the
20.8 stop to engage with the work making an accurate spacing.
f = .Y.._ x �m / s
Ps h Fp
where, V is the machining voltage (volt), Ps the specific resistance of Pilots : T�e pi lot illustrated in Fig.13.13 enables the correct location of the
blank when it is fed by mechanical means. The pilot enters into the
electrolyte in ohm-m, and h the tool-work gap in m.
498 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY Pressure pad : The pressure

pad illustrated in Fig.13.16 is
previously pierced hole and moves an extremely valuable
the blank to the correct position to be accessory in drawing
finally spaced by the stops. The operation. As the· punch 1
pilots are fitted to the punch holders. moves downward, the
pressure pad which is a plate 2
Strippers : The main function of the actuated by spring tension 2,
stripper is to strip or discard the bears against the metal 3
workpiece from the punch or the die 3
being drawn out on the die
after the end of the cutting or face 4 with sufficient
forming operations. Fig.13.14 Figure 13.13 Pilot pressure. This results in
illustrates a stripper attached to the ironing of the metal as it
punch holder. The stripper plate 3 is plastically flows between the
connected to the holder by means of punch and the die, and
two helical springs 2. The punch 1 eliminates wrinkling in the /
5
passes through a hole in the stripper process of being drawn out to
3. When the punch descends to cut or 2 Figure 13.16 Pressure pad
the shape required. A spring
form a materials placed on the die I. Punch, 2. Helical spring, 3. Blank, 4. Die,
plunger 5 acting from the 5. Pressure pad.
block, the stripper plate 3 bears bottom of the plate serves the
against the blank and holds it down same function as a pressure pad by maintaining a flat bottom surface of the
by the spring pressure. In the upward cup.
stroke of the punch, the blank is
stripped off from the punch cutting Figure 13.14 Stripper 13.10 TYPES OF DIES AND OPERATIONS
edge and prevents it from being lifted 1. Punch, 2. Helical spring,
along with the punch by the stripper 1 The dies are classified according to the types of operations performed by
plate. them and according to their specific construction. The classification of dies
2
and their functions arc given below
Knockout : The knockout is also a
type of stripper which forces the cut t. Classification based on operations per/ormed :
blank out of the die. Fig.13 .15
illustrates a knockout fitted on an (i) Shearing: (a ) Piercing.
inverted blanking die. As the die 3 (b) Punching.
holder 2 descents, the plate 4 is 4
5 (c ) Perforating.
sheared and the blank rests on the (d) Blanking.
knockout plate 5. The position of the (e) Cutting off.
knockout plate is depressed due to (f) Parting.
the spring compression. As the ( g) Notching.
plunger moves in the upward stroke, Figure 13.15 Knockout
(h) Slitting.
the knockout plate 5 ejects the blank I. Stripper, 2. Die holder, 3. Die, 4.
Plate, 5. Knockout plate, 6. Punch. (i) Lancing.
4 out of the cutting edges.
difference between the punching
and the piercing is that in the stressed between the fixed and movable blade. When the ultimate strength
case of punching a cylindrical of the material is exceeded, the plate is sheared off. The cutting edges of
hole is produced, whereas in the the upper and the lower blades are not aligned in the same plane. They are
case of piercing the hole slightly off centered relative to each other to provide clearance.
produced may be of any other
shape. The size of the hole is Parting : The parting is the operation of cutting a sheet metal in two parts.
determined by the size of the 1 Unlike cutting off operation, some quality of scrap is removed to severe
punch and the clearance is the workpiece in two parts. The parting off operation is illustrated in
allowed on the die. The punch Fig.13.22.
and the die setup is illustrated in
Fig.13.18. Notching : The notching is the operation of removal of the desired shape
from the edge of a plate. The e,peration is illustrated in Fig.13.20(d). The
Figure 13.18 Punch and die set up
Perforating : The perforating is punch and the die set up is similar to the piercing or punching operation.
for piercing, punching and blanking
the operation of production of a I. Stop, 2. Plate, 3. Punch , 4. Stripper
number of holes evenly spaced plate, 5. Die. Slitting : The slitting is the operation
in a regular pattern on a sheet of cutting a sheet metal in a straight
metal. The perforating operation is illustrated in Fig.13.22(b). The punch line along the length. The slitting
and the die set up is similar to the piercing and punching operation. operation is shown in Fig. I 3.20(e). 5
Blanking : The blanking is the operation of cutting of flat sheet to the

desired shape. The metal punched out is the required product and the plate
with the hole left on the die goes as waste. While blanking the size of the
[D[ZJD
(a) (b) (c)
�±sq
blank is governed by the
size of the die and the
clearance is left on the
punch. Fig.13 .19 illustrates (d) (c) (!)
the difference between 2 Figure 13.21 Punch and die
1 Figure 13.20 Cutting operations
punching and blanking. set up for cutting off operation.
Figure 13.19 Punching and blanking (a), (b), (c). Cutting off, (d). Notching, I. Plate, 2. Hold down spring,
The punch and die set up I. Blanks, 2. Punches. (e). Slitting. (I). Lancing. 3. Ram, 4. Upper blade, 5. Stop,
for blanking is identical to
6. Lower blade.
that illustrated in Fig.13.18.
Lancing : The lancing is the
[[]
00000
operation of cutting a sheet metal 0000 0
Cutting off : The cutting off is th"e operation of severing a piece from a 0000 O
through part of its length and ttien
sheet of metal or a bar with a cut along a single line. The cutting off
bending the cut portion. The (a) (b)
ope�tio� illustrnted in Fig.13.20(a) (b) (c) can be performed along a
operation is illustrated in Figure 13.22 Cutting operation
�tra1ght Im� or _a curve. The set up required for the cutting off operation is Fig. I 3.20(t).
illustrated m Fig.13.21. The workpiece is sheared between the .two blade. (a). Parting off. (b). Perforating
The lower blade 6 is fixed to the machine frame and the upper blade 4
Bending operation The bending operation is illustrated in Fig.13.23.
moves up and �own with the ram 3. As the upper blade 4 descends, the
While bending, the metal is stressed in both tension and compression at the
hold down spnngs 2 keeps the plate I in position, while the metal is
two sides of the neutral axis beyond the elastic limit but below the ultimate
PRESS AND PRESS WORK sos
strength of the material. As the metal is loaded beyond the e!astic limit, Plunging : The plunging is the operation of bending a sheet metal to the
some amount of plastic deformation takes place and when load ts removed, desired shape for accommodating
the metal retains the bent shape given by the die. There is, of course, some r2
a screw or a rod through the
amount of elastic recovery of the metal when the load is removed, plunged hole. The plate is first
resulting in a slight decrease in the 3
pierced at the required position
bent angle. The effect is known as and then the plunging punch is 4
spring back. To correct the effect of pressed in the hole. This causes the
spring back, the metal is bent 5
displacement of the metal in the
through a greater angle so that when die cavity and the shape of the
the load is removed, the component plunged hole depends on the shape
will spring back to the desired angle. of the punch. The plunging
The different bending operations are Fie:ure 13.23 Bendine: operation operation is illustrated in
described below Figure 13.25 Curling
Fig.13.27.
1. Pressure pad 2. Punch, 3. Wire, 4.
Angle bending The angle Work, 5. Plunger, 6. Die.
Drawing operation : The drawing
bending is the operation of bending a
is the operation of production of
sheet metal to the sharp angle. The punch
cup shaped parts from flat sheet
and the die is shaped to the desired angle.
metal blanks by bending and
The punch and the die is shaped to the
plastic flow of the metal. The
desired angle, taking into consideration
drawing operation is illustrated in
the effect of spring back. The angle
Fig.13.28. The blank is placed on
bending operation is illustrated in Figure t 3.24 Angle bending
the die and while the punch
Fig.13.24. I. Punch. 2. Plate. 3. Die. descends, the pressure pad 2 holds Figure 13.26 Forming
the blank 1 firmly on the die. As I. Punch, 2. Plate, 3. Die.
Curling: The curling is the operation of forming the edges of a component
the punch descends further, the
into a roll or a curl by bending the sheet metal in order to strengthen the blank is pushed in the cavity of the
edges and to provide smoothness to its surface. The curling operation is
die and the metal is made to flow
illustrated in Fig.13.25. As the punch 2 descends into the die 6, the metal
plastically while it is drawn over
roll into a curl in the radiused cavity of the punch. The curling of the edges
---:
the edges of the hole to form the
are made over an wire 3 to add strength to the edges. The plunger 5 in the
sides of the cup. The pressure
die block 6 acts as a pressure pad and lifts the work when the punch 2 irons out the wrinkles developed
starts moving in the upward stroke.1 The pressure pad I titted in the punch while drawing. The clearance
2 ejects the component out of the punch cavity at the end of the stroke. between the punch and the die is.
greater than while shearing. The
Forming : The forming is the operation of bending a sheet of metal along
size of a blank required to flow out Figure 13.27 Plunging
a curved axis. The metal is confined between the punch and the die and is
a cup can be calculated from the I. Plunged hole, 2. Punch,
stressed in compression and tension beyond the elastic limit. The shape of
formula given below 3. Plate, 4. Die.
the component is governed by the shape of the punch and the die.
Fig.13.26 illustrates the forming operation. The knock out plates are
essential in forming operations as the components are pressed on the die D = 13.1
walls while forming.
506 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY 507
PRESS AND PRESS WORK
where, D = the diameter of the blank

on the sheet metal to be straight
d the diameter of the cup
ened, and the projections on the
h = the height of the cup
tool exert tremendous pressure on
the plate to remove all the residual
Cupping : The cupping of the operation of
bending stress present in the plate.
• • • • • • • •
D
production of a cup shaped component by u..au....;�._____.....,._,.......,.�
drawing operation.
The distortion and the surface ir • • • • • • • •
regularities are thus removed, while • • • • • • • • l'-,.,.2
Squeezing operation : The squeezing
the pin points on the tool make a • • • • • • • •
series of indentations on the plate
operation is the most severe of all cold press
surface due to squeezing of metal.
operation. Tremendous amount of pressure Figure 13.28 Drawing Figure 13.30 Planishing operation
The punch and the die set up for
is required to squeeze a metal which is operation 1. Planishing tool, 2. Sheet metal.
flattening in illustrated in
made to flow in a cold state within 1. Blank, 2. Pressure pad. Fig.13.31.
the cavity of the die and the punch
to allain the desired shape. For
Simple die : In a simple die, only
this reason the squeezing
one operation is performed at each
operation is performed in a
stroke of the ram. All the dies
hydraulic press. The different
which are described before are
squeezing operations are
simple dies.
described below :
Coining : The coining is the

operation of production of coins,
medals or other ornamental parts
by squeezing operation. Fig.13.29 Figure 13.29 Coining
illustrates the coining operation. I. Punch, 2. Die holder, 3. Die,
the metal having good plastically 4. Blank.
and of proper size is placed within the punch and the die and a tremendous
pressure is applied on the blank from both ends. Under severe compressive
loads, the metal flows in the cold state and fills up the cavity of the punch
and the die. The component thus produced gets a sharp impression on its
two sides, corresponding to the engravings on the punch and the die.
Embossing : The embossing is ihe operation of giving impressions of

figures, letiers or designs on sheet metal parts. The punch, or the die, or
station and the correct
) 0 0 °
both of them may have the engravings which are marked on the sheet
metal by squeezing and plastic flow of the metal.
spacing is obtained by the
stop I. In the second @
cutting stroke of the ram, Figure 13.32 Progressive punching and
Flattening or planishing : The flattening or planishing is the operation of
the pilot 3 enters into the blanking die.
straightening a sheet metal which is a curved one. The operation is
pierced hole and correctly J. Stop, 2. Sheet metal, 3. Pilot, 4. �lanking p�nch,
illustrated in Fig.13.30. The pin pointed planishing tool is made to descend 5. Ram, 6. Piercing punch, 7. Stnpper, 8. Die.
locates it. while the
blanking punch 4 descends and shears the plate to form a washer. By the a blanking punch and houses a drawing
time the blanking operations is performed, the hole for the next washer is punch 1 at its centre. As the punch
also pierced at the first station. Thus although two strokes are required to descend, the metal 3 is first sheared and
complete a washer, each piece of washer is discharged on every strokes of the required size of the blank is obtained.
the ram due to the continuity on operation. The inner punch 1 now descends and
draws out the metal, while the blanking
punch 2 serves as a pressure pad. The
drawn out cup is ejected at the end of the
strike.
Rubber die : In a rubber die, the rubber is

used as a medium of applying pressure on
the sheet metal blanks. There are mainly
two different processes of operating the
rubber die. They are described below :
Guerin process : The Guerin process is

employed for performing light drawing,
forming or blanking operations by
Figure 13.33 Compound die utilizing only one half of the die, whereas
I. Lower die, 2. Stripper plate, 3. Piercing punch, 4. Blanking die, 5. Sheet metal, thr other half is supplied by the rubber,
6. Knockout plate, 7. Washer, 8. Waste. which acts as a universal die. The
fundamental; principle of this process is
Compound die : In a compound die two or more cutting operations are that when the rubber is totally confined
accomplished at one station of the press in every stroke of the ram. and is compressed it acts like a fluid and
Fig.13.33 illustrates a compound blanking and piercing die. The blanking transmits equal pressure in all directions. Figure 13.34 Combination
die 4 and the piercing punch 3 are bolted to the ram. The spring loaded The forming operation by Guerin process
die
stripper plate 2 is housed within the blanking die 4. The lower die body I is illustrated in Fig.13.35. The sheet metal I. Drawing punch, 2. Blanking
has cutting edges both on its outward and inward surfaces. The outside blanks 3 to be formed are placed on the punch, 3. Sheet metal, 4. Die
cutting edges serve as a punch for the blanking operation, and the inside forming blocks 4. A flat, thick rubber pad black.
cutting edges operate as a die for the piercing punch. The sheet metal 5 is I surrounded by a strong metal frame 2 is
placed on the lower the block, and as the ram descends, the plate is first bolted to the ram. As the ram descends, the rubber retaining frame 2
blanked, and then pierced by the successive die sets. At end of the confines the rubber pad I within the forming block support, and the force
operation, the stripper plate 2 fitted on the upper die block 4 discharges the exerted by the ram is transmitted by the rubber pad evenly on the metal
washer 7, and the knockout plate 6 fitted on the lower die block I ejects blanks from all directions, causing them to be pressed against the forming
the blank. blocks 4. The pressure exerted by the rubber on the blanks ranges from 70
2
to 140 kg/cm . A number of formed articles are obtained by this process
Combination die : In a combination die, both cutting and noncutting without the use of conventional upper die. The process is advantageous
operations are accomplished at one station of the press in every stroke of due to cheap tooling layout.
the ram. Fig.13.34 illustrates a combination blanking and drawing die
5howing different stages of the operation. The upper die block 2 serves as
510 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TEC·. ,OLOGY
13.11 PRESS GUARDS
Press guards are provided to minimize accidents particularly when · the

press is in operation. The guards can be designed either by the press
manufacturer or the company utilizing it. Press guards can be of four
types.
J. Enclosed tools, not needing a fonned guards. This method is

ideal for small manual presses and fly presses. The die is
enclosed by a top plate fonn which the punch never withdraws.
Thus the finger is never caught in between the die and punch.
Figure 13.35 Guerin process However this method can be applied only in blanking and
I. Rubber pad, 2. Punch frame, 3. Blank, 4. Forming block.
piercing.
.
2. Fixed guard in the fonn of wire grills. The operators can view
Marf�rm process : The marfonn process is practised in deep drawing
the work without making any physical contact with the tooling.
operations. Fig.13.36 illustrates the Marform process. The punch 4 is
3. Interlocking guards. These guards if kept in the usual position
bolted on the press table and a confined rubber pad I is mount"'d at the end
the tool can operate. If the guard is removed the operator
of the ram. A blank holding ring 3, which serves as a pressure pad, is made
cannot operate the machine.
to pass through the punch 4 and is retained in position by springs or by
4. Photoelectric guards. In it a banK of infra-red transmitters
hydraulic pre�sure. The force exerted by the blank holder 3 is opposite to
project horizontal beams of light. A set of sensors are placed on
that of the ram pressure. The blank 2 is placed upon the punch 4 and the
the access side. If the infra-red beams are broken a <;ontrol
holding ring 3. As the ram descends, the rubber I exerts pressure on the
circuit instantly stops the motion of the press.
blank 2 from all directions, causing it to be drawn over the punch. The
blank holder 3 exerts pressure from the opposite direction on the blank,
Accidents arc traced out in many occasions when the person
Controlling plastics flow of the material and avoiding wrinklings. In the
involved purposefully overrides the guard system in order to check the tool
Fig.13.36 the blank holder 3 is shown in the extreme bottom position,
position more closely. Thus the need of following safety rule in always
when the blank 2 is fully draw.n. The blank holder springs arc not shown desirable.
in the figure. The pressure required in Marform process ranges from 300 to
2
550 kg/cm REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is a press ? Where it is used ?

2. Classify presses. Describe one in brief.
3. What is a gap press ? Why it is so called ?
4. Name various parts of a power press and describe them in brief.
5. Describe a fly press with the help of a neat diagram.
6. Name various power press driving mechanisms.
7. How a press size is designated ? What are the factors that influence
the press size ?
a. What are the punches are secured in punch plates ? Sketch them
neatly.
Figure 13.36 Marform process 9. Sketch and label parts to show methods of securing die blocks.
I. Rubber pad, 2. Blank, 3. Blank holding ring, 4. Punch. 1 o. Name various die accessories. Describe one using neat sketch.
11 . What is a knockout?
12. Why punch and die clearances are provided ? Explain with figures.
14
13. Explain the following operations with neat sketches :
(a) Blanking (e) Lancing
(b ) Piercing (f) Punching
(c) Parting (g) Forming JIGS AND FIXTURES
(d) Drawing (h) Coining
14. What is the difference between embossing and coining?
15. Describe the operations of:
(a) Progressive die i4.l INTRODUCTION
( b) Compound die
(c) Combination die
16. What is Marform process? Explain. State its advantages. The jigs and fixtures are the economical means to produce repetitive type
of work by incorporating special work holding and tool guiding devices.
The following are the advantages of employing jigs and fixtures in mass
production work.
1. It eliminates the marking out, measuring, and other setting

methods before machining.
2. It increases the machining accuracy, because the workpiece is
automatically located and the tool is guided without making any
manual adjustment.
3. It enables production of identical parts which are
• interchangeable. This facilitates the assembly operation.
4. It increases the production capacity by enabling a number of
workpieces to be machined in the single set up, and in some
cases a number of tools may be made to operate simultaneously.
The handling time is also greatly reduced due to quick setting
and locating of the work. The speed, feed and depth of cut for
machining can be increased due to high clamping rigidity of jigs
and fixtures.
5. It reduces the operator's labour and consequent fatigue as the
handling operations are minimized and simplified.
6. It reaches semi-skilled operator to perform the operations as the
setting operations of the tool and the work are mechanized. This
saves labour cost.
7. It reduces the expenditure on the .quality control of the finished
products
8. It reduces the overall cost of machining by fully or partly
automatising the processes.
The definition of jigs and fixtures are given below

Jig : A jig may be defined as a device which holds and locates a
workpiece and guides and controls one or more cutting tools. The holding 6. Study of the power devices for operating the clamping
of the work and guiding of the tools are such that they are located in true elements.
positions relative to each other. In construction, a jig comprises a plate, 7. Study of the clearance required between the jig and the
structure, or box made of metal or in some cases of non-metal having component.
provisions for holding the components in identical positions one after the 8. Study of the indexing devices.
other, and then guiding the to()I in correct position on the work in 9. Study of the tool guiding and cutter setting elements.
accordance with the drawing, specification, or operation layout. 10. Study of the fool-proofing arrangement.
11. Study of the ejecting devices.
Fixture : A fixture may be defined as a device which holds and locates a 12. Study of the swarf removal arrangement.
workpiece during an inspection or for a manufacturing operation. The
13. Study of the rigidity and vibration problem.
fixture does not guide the tool. In construction, the fixtures comprise
14. Study of the table fixing arrangement.
different standard or specially designed workholding devices, which arc
15. Study of the safety devices.
clamped on the machine table to hold the work in position. The tools arc
16. Study of the methods of manufacture of the jig base, body or
set at the required position on the work by using gauges or by manual
frame.
adjustment. The following are the fundamental differences between a
fixture with a jig.
14.3 COMPONENT
1. A fixture holds and position the work but does not guide the
The actual component or the workpiece should be procured and studied for
tool, whereas a jig holds, locates and as well as guides the tool.
deciding the sequence of operations to be performed and evaluating the
2. The fixtures are generally heavier in construction and are bolted
other designing details of the jigs or the fixtures. One of the work surface
rigidly on the machine table, whereas the jigs arc made lighter
is machined to act as the datum surface from which all other measurements
for quicker handling, and clamping with the table is often
arc taken.
unnecessary.
3. The fixtures are employed for holding work in milling,
14.4 THE MACHINE
grinding, planing, or turning operations, whereas the jigs are
used for holding the work and guiding the tool particularly in
The proper selection of the machine is essential to ena�le it t� perform
drilling, reaming or taping operations.
operations required on the work. The knowledge of the important
.
particulars like the machine capacity, size of the table, maximum length of
14.2 PRINCIPLES OF JIGS AND FIXTURES DESIGN
travel of the tool or the work for feed movement, power input and other
details of the machine must be available before commencing the design
The successful designing of a jig or a fixture depends upon the analysis of
work.
several factors which must be carefully studied before the actual work is
taken in hand. The following are the essential factors which must be
considered in designing a jig or a fixture 14.5 WCATION
The location refers to the establishment of a desired relationship between

1. Study of the component.
2. Study of the type and capacity of the machine. the workpiece and the jig or fixture. Correct location influence� the
accµracy of the finished products. The jigs and the fixtures are s� designed
3. Study of the locating elements.
4. that all possible movements of the component must be restn�ted. The
Study of the loading and unloading arrangement.
5. Study of the clamping arrangement. determination of the locating points and clamping of the workpiece serve
to restrict the movements of the component in any direction, while setting
it at the correct position relative to the jig. The locating points are
determined by first finding out the possible degrees of freedom of the Six point location of a three
workpiece, which are then restrained by suitable arrangements which serve legged object : The principle
as locators. The principle of determining locating points are descried of locating a three legged
below. object is illustrated in Fig.14.3
(a). The object is resting on
Principle of locations: As illustrated in Fig.14.1, a rectangular block is three pointed legs on a flat
free to move along the axis AB, CD &nd EF. The body can also rotate surface. It is thus prevented
about these axis, and thus the total degrees of freedom of a body along from moving along CD and
which it can move is six. In order to locate the block correctly within a jig, restrained from rotating along
all these six movements must be restrained by arranging suitable locating EF and AB and axis. The AB,
points and then clamping the block in position . The principles of CD and EF refers to the axis as
determining locating points of certain typical objects are described below. illustrated in Fig.14.1. In the
Fig.14.3(b), the front legs are
Six point location of a rectan made ball ended and are made
gular block : It is assumed that to rest on a V- groove. The
the block in the Fig.14.1 is spherical balls make a perfect
made to rest on several points mating surface with the V. The
on the jig body as shown in object is now restrained to
Fig.14.2. The bottom of the move along AB and is
block is supported against three
points, the rear face of the
block bears against two points
c
and the side of the block rests
against a single points, all pro-
jecting from the jig body. It Figure 14.1 Six degree freedom of a
will be now clear that the rectangular block
downward movement of the block along CD is restrained by three support
ing points, which have the capability of supporting even a rough casting.
The movement along EF and AB axis are restrained by the double and the
single points respectively. The rotary movements of the block about AB,
CD and EF axis are also restrained by the bottom, back and side pins. The
six points thus serve to locate a block correctly while restraining all its ""---'.....,
movements. The lo Figure 14.3 Six point location of a Figure 14.4 L-Ocat_ion of a
cating points for an three legged object cylinder on a V-block
uneven object can be
-t4't.... -�t- f;:..
'"Ti
1.-
- ....\...
i determined by differ
I prevented from rotation about CD. In the Fig.14.3(c), the rear leg also
Iol Ill I •1 ent arrangements, but made ball ended and is made to rest on a separate Y-groove set at right
I I the guiding principle angles to the first one. The body is now perfectly restrained against any
remains the same. directional movement and is correctly located on the base plate.
Figure 14.2 Six point location of a
rectangular block
Cylindrical locator : The cylindrical locator illustrated in Fig.14.6 is
Location of a cylinder on a V-block : The analysis of the principle of employed for locating components having drilled holes. The cylindrical
location of a cylinder mounted on a V-block is illustrated in Fig.14.4. The locator fitted on the jig body is inserted in the drilled hole of the
cylinder is restrained from any movement along CD and EF, and is component to locate it in position. The face of the jig body around the
prevented from rotation about the axis CD and EF. The body is free to locator is undercut to provide space for swarf clearance. When two holes
move along AB and can also rotate about the axis AB. The free movements on the component serve to locate it, one of the button head is flattened to
of the work are shown by dotted arrows. In order to locate the completely, compensate for any slight inaccuracy in the center distance between the
certain other locating arrangements must be incorporated in addition to the two drilled holes in the component.
V-block.
I
14.6 METHODS OF LOCATION 6
7
There are many different methods of locating a work. The locating
arrangement required for a particular work is selected after studying the 1
type of work, type of operation, degree of accuracy required, number of
articles to be manufactured and many other factors. The different locating
methods are described below.
Flat locator : The type locators illustrated in Fig.14.5 are employed for
locating flat machined faces of the component. In Fig.14.5(a) the Figure 14.6 Cylindrical locator Figure 14.7 Conical locator
I. Work, 4. Cylindrical locator. 1. Work, 5. Template, 6. Drill
. component is bearing directly on the machined face of the jig body. An bush, 7. Conical locator.
undercut is provided at the bottom for swarf clearance. The flat headed
button type locators, fitted on the jig body, are illustrated in Fig.14.5(b)
is used for
and (c). The button type locators arc superior in action than plain flat Conical locator : The conical locator illustrated in Fig.14.7
is superior to
locators. The positioning of the button illustrated in (b) is bette, locating workpieces having drilled holes. The conical locator
n in the
arrangement than in (c) due to its capacity to take end load and for having a pin locator due to its capacity to accommodate a slight variatio
accurac y of the
provision of swarf clearance. The bulton in (c) may be bent due to the enc hole diameter of the component without affecting the
pressure. location.
Jack pin locator : The jack pin locator illustrated in Fig.14.8 is employed
for supporting rough workpiece from the bottom, while loc� ti� g i�. The
height of the pins are adjustable to accommodate the vanat1on m the
.
surface texture of several components, which are rough and unmachmed.
Drill bush locator : The drill bush locator illustrated in Fig.14.9 is

employed for locating cylindrical workpieces. The bush has conical
__
opening for locating purpose and is some times screwed on the Jtg body
(a) adjustment of height of the work. The drill bush also serves the purpose of
(b) (c)
guiding the tool.
Figure 14.S Flat locators

(a). Location by jig body, (b). Location by button , (c). Location by button,
1. Work, 2. Undercut, 3. Button.
threaded spindle contacts a slot

at the underside of the V-block
3, and the movement of the
screw is communicated to the V
block through this flange.
6
Outside pin locators : The
outside pin locator illustrated in
Fig.14.12 is used to locate a
work having odd, irregular
profiles. The pins or the buttons
Figure 14.8 Jack pin locator are arranged on the jig body,
Figure 14.9 Drill bush locator following a contour
I. Boll head lype, 2. Knurled knob type 3. Jig body, 4. Drill bush locator, Figure 14.12 Outside pin locator
5. Drill, 6. Work, 7. Drill bush. corresponding to the outside
1. Pin, 2. Work.
profile of the work.
Fixed V-locator: The fixed V-locator, illustrated in Fig.14.10 is used to
locate workpieces having circular or semicircular profiles. After setting the 14.7 LOADING AND UNLOADING
work, the Y-block is clamped on the jig body by screws and positioned by
dowels. The Y-groovc is made slightly tapered for clamping purposes . The The design of the jig and the fixture should be such so as to enable the
standard included angle of the Y-block is 90 ° degrees. operator to fix up and remove the components with ease, before and after
machining without exerting unnecessary effort and spending undue idle
4 time for these purposes. The manner of loading and unloading should be
quick, simple and positive.
.---------4·,
,,
I I
I:, I 14.8 CLAMPING
/ �2
F----fl-1-
The clamps serve the purpose of holding workpieces securely on the jigs
or fixtures against the cutting forces. In order to achieve the most efficient
clamping, the following operational factors must be considered.
1. The clamping pressure should be exerted on the solid

supporting part of the work to prevent distortion.
Figure 14.10 Fixed V-locater Figure 14.11 Sliding V-locator 2. The clamping pressure should be kept low. It should be
I. Work, 2. Fixed V-block. 1. Work, 2. Jig body, 3. Sliding sufficient to hold the wo.rk against the cutting pressure.
V-block, 4. Knurled knob. 3. The movement of the clamp for loading and unloading
purposes should be kept limited.
Sliding V-location : The sliding Y-locator, illustrated in Fig.14.11, is 4. The clamp should be positively guided to facilitate loading
used in connection with fixed Y-locators for locating workpieces having action.
circular or semicircular profiles. The work is quickly located by adjusting 5. The design should be such so as to enable the clamp to be
the position of the sliding Y-block 3 within its body 2, by rotating the completely lifted out of the work, while unloading.
knurled knob 4 of the threaded spindle. A circular flange integral with the 6. The clamp should be simple and fool- proof.
3. Large effort is required to clamp a work.
7. The clamp should be sufficiently robust to prevent bending. 4. Indentation marks are left on the edges of the work by the
8. 1_he clamping should be effected by operating a lever, a pointed ends of the screws.
knurled or a fluted nut. The hexagonal headed nuts or bolts
should be avoided as for as practicable to eliminate the use of Flat clamp : The flat lamp illustrated in Fig.14.14 supports the work by
spanners. If it becomes essential to use hexagonal nuts, only the clamp face, which is pressed against the work by tightening the nut.
one size spanner should be used throughout. There are several types of flat clamps.
9. The clamps should be case-hardened to prevent wear of the
clamping faces. Pivoted clamp: The pivoted clamp illustrated in Fig.14.15 eliminates the
10. The clamp should be so arranged on the work to perform as use of spanner for clamping purposes. The work I can be gripped quickly
many operations as possible in one setting. by .rotating the screw 5, which actuates a pivoted clamp 4 on the face of
11. The clamping parts should be designed to make it non the work. The springs illustrated in Fig.14.16 guide the clamp of the same
detachable from the jig. type in horizontal position when the work is unloaded.
14.9 TYPES OF CLAMPS

5
The following are the different types of clamps, which are commonly used
5
with jigs and fixtures.
1. Screw clamp. 6. Swing-plate clamp.

2. Flat clamp. 7. Double acting clamp.
3. Pivoted clamp. 8. Wedge clamp.
4. Equalizing clamp. 9. Cam clamp. Figure 14.15 Pivoted clamp Figure 14.16 Pivoted clamp
5. Latch clamp. I. Work, 4. Strap, 5. Screw. 4. Strap, 5. Screw.
Screw clamp : The Equalizing clamp : The equalizing clamp, illustrated in Fig.14.17, is
screw clamp, employed to exert equal pressure on the two faces of the worlc by the two
illustrated in legs 7 of the clamp. When the screw 8 is rotated, the two legs of the clamp
Fig.14.13, is used to press against the work by same amount exerting equal pressure on its two
grip the work on its clamping surfaces.
edges. This type of
clamping ar
rangement enables
the top surface of
the work to be
Figure 14.13 Screw Figure 14.14 Flat
machined without
clamp clamp
any difficulty. I. Work, 2. Screw. 4. Strap.
Though the
clamping method is quite simple, it possesses the following defects.
Figure 14.17 Equalizing clamp Figure 14.18 Latch clamp
1. Longer time is required for clamping or unclamping the work. 6. Clamp, 7. Leg, 8. Screw. 1. Work, 4. Pivot, 10. Latch
11. Leafsprjng, 12. Leaf, 13. Jig body.
2. The clamping force changes from the component to component.
Latch clamping: The latch clamp, illustrated in Fig.14.18, is employed clamp is not recommended where vibration is present, because it may
to clamp a work by a latch and a pivoted leaf. As shown in the figure the slacken the clamp. The clamp is operated by simply actuating the handle 7
leaf /2 is closed on the work I and is kept in position by the latch JO. The up or down which locks or unlocks the strap 6 with the work.
work I is gripped by the spring 11 fitted on the faxe of the leaf J 2. To
unload the work, the tailcnd of the latch JO is 14.10 POWER DEVICES FOR CLAMPING
pushed by hand that causes the leaf to be swung
open, releasing the work. The loading and (J/_ @ O) The jig and fixture clamps are operated hand or power. Hand clamping is
unloading arrangement is quick, but the ------- employed in small components where the clamping pressure required is
Figure 14.19 Swing
clamping pressure is not very high device limited. The following are the disadvantages of hand clamping.
plate clamp
Swing plate clamp : The swing plate clamps 1. The clamping pressure is variable from one component to the
arc employed for quick .loading and unloading other.
purposes for light jobs. A swing plate is 2. The operator's fatigue is inevitable.
illustrated in Fig.14.19. The clamp is operated 3. The clamping pressure is limited to a small value.
by swinging the plate in position and locking it 4. The time required for clamping is great.
by turning screw which passes through its
centre. The power-driven clamps are operated either by pneumatic or
hydraulic power. The power driven clamps are quick acting, controllable,
Figure 14.20 Double
Double acting clamp : The double acting reliable, and operated without least fatigue to the operator. The power
acting clamp clamps exert clamping pressure and are employed for gripping heavy
clamp, illustrated in Fig.14.20. is employed to I. Work, 14. Clamp.
grip the work by rotating the central screw, workpieces.
which actuates the two clamps placed at the two sides of the work to
operate simultaneously. Sufficient gripping pressure is applied by these 14.11 CLEARANCE IN A JIG AND FIXTURE
clamps.
It is necessary to leave
W edge clamp: The wedge clamp, illustrated in Fig.14.21, is employed to sufficient clearance between
_
grip the work 1 by the wedge block 3, which is made to slide by rotating the jig body and the
the screw 4. The wedge block grips the work against the fixed button 2 component to accommodate
fitted on the other end of the jig body. variable sizes of work which
are manufactured either by
casting or forging .
14.12 INDEXING
ARRANGEMENT
The indexing arrangement Figure 14.23 Indexing arrangement in

incorporated in a jig to enable jigs
Figure 14.21 Wedge clamp Figure 14.22 Cam clamp operations to be performed on 1. Spring loaded plunger, 2. Lever, 3.
I. Work, 2. Button, 3. Wedge, 4. Screw. 5. Helical spring, 6. Strap, the periphery of work at Indexing plate, 4. lndexplate spindle, 5. Jig
7. Carn handle.
Cam clamp: The cam clamp, illustrated in Fig.14.22, is extensively used different angular positions by body
in jig and fixture work due to its rapid and convenient action. This type of turning and setting the work
at the position. Fig.14.23 illustrates an indexing arrangement. The work is
mounted on the index plate spindle 4 and is kept in position by the spring Slip bush : The slip bush, illustrated in Fig.14.25, is commonly used in
loaded lever 2. After the fist operation is complete, the lever 2 is pushed conjunction with a liner bush to guide the tool. The slip bushes having
aside and then the index plate 3 with the work is turned to the required variable bore diameters are fitted on a liner bush to receive two or more
angular position. The plate with the work is located in position by the lever tools through the same hole of the jig body. The slip bush is presented
which engages with the desired slot of the index plate. from rotation by friction with the liner bush. The slip bushes are available
from the lowest range to 48 mm of bore diameter.
14.13 TOOL GUIDING AND CUITER SETTING ARRANGEMENT Liner bush The liner bush,
illustrated in Fig.14.26, fits
'f'hc cutter i, set relative to the work in a fixture by adjusting the machine permanently into jig plate and receives
or by using the cutter setting block. The tools are guided in jigs by drill the slip bush. The liner bush can also
bushes which are fitted on the jig plates. There are different types of jig guide a tool independently. The I
j
bushes : fixed bush, slip bush, liner bush, renewable bush, and screw or bushes are available from the lowest
clamp bush. range to 63 mni of bore diameter.
Fixed bush : The fixed bush, illustrated in Fig.14.24, fits directly into the Renewable bush : These type of
jig plate and is used to guide the tool. The bush can guide only one tool bushes are replaced after the wear due
and the life of the jig and the life of the bush is estimated to be same. The to usage. A retaining screw is removed
fixed bushes are available from the lowest range to 63 mm of bore and the worn -out bush is taken out. A Figure 14.26 Liner bush
diameter and the length of the bush ranges from 6 to 36 mm. new bush of the same dimension is d 1 . Bore dia, d2 • Outside dia,
replaced and the retaining screw is I. Overall length.
tightened.
Screw bush : These type or bushes arc also of renewable type. They are
\ replaced as and when they are worn -out. These contain threads on their
outer diameter and can be easily removed and replaced.
14.14 FOOL-PROOFING
UNDERCUT ON
DIAMETER ANO The fool-proofing means designing of jig and fixture with such devices so
J/ FACE
as to make it impossible for an operator to insert a component into a jig or
a fixture in any position other than the correct one. The arrangement
..
't.
prevents the accidental error of the operator from spoiling the work. The
fool proofing is accomplished by using fouling pegs, cross frames, pins or
abutments arranged within the jig, and they do not interfere with the
Figure 14.24 Fixed bush Figure 14.25 Slip bush correct location of the work.
d 1• Bore dia, d2• Outside dia, d 1• Bore dia, d2• Outside dia,
d3 • Flange dia, 1 • Overall length, d3 • Flange dia, d4. Overall length,
1
1 2, Length, I. Undercut. 14.15 EJECTION

1 2. Length.
The jigs and fixtures are designed to eject heavy workpieces mechanically
when it is used unclamped. This saves time and labour of the operator. The
ejection of components are accomplished by wedges, spring loaded or can
actuated plungers. The current efficiency is given by
14.16 SWARF REMOVAL Actual metal removed/amp-min

��-:-:-�� -;--X100% 20.9
=
Theoretical metal removal/amp-min
The jigs and fixtures must be designed to have arrangement for swarf
removal as the accumulation of swarf under the jig base or on the table can Table 20.7 shows the material removal rates for various metals.
deform the work on clamping, affect the accuracy of location, and cause
wastage in time if the swarf is removed by hand after each cut. The TABLE 20.7 ECM METAL REMOVAL RATES
removal of chips from jigs and fixtures can be accomplished by the
following methods. 3
Density (g/cm ) Removal rate (cm3/min)
Material
1. By the designing the shape of the jig parts to enable the chips to Aluminium 2.7 1.9
fall out by gravity. Cobalt 8.9 1.9
2. By making holes in the jig body for swarf removal. Copper 8.9 3.9
3. By undercutting the corners to clear the work. Iron 7.8 2.1
4. By using raised supports or buttons for location. Lead 11.3 5.0
Molybdenum 10.1 1.8

5. By applying air blast at the cutting edges of the tool.
Nickel 8.9 1.9
6. By applying air suction at the cutting edges.
7. By using fixed wipers on the fixture. Titanium 45 1.9
Tungsten 19.3 0.8

8. By maintaining marginal clearance between the jig body and the
Uranium 19.0 1.8
component.
Zirconium 6.5 1.9
14.17 RIGIDITY AND VIBRATION •Source: G.Benedict, Nontraditional manufacturing Processes, Marcel Dekker, NY, 1987.
The jigs and fixtures should be made as rigid as possible to take up the Example 20.1 : Calculate the machining rate and the electrode feed rat� when i� on
cutting load without any deformation. Bulky jigs made of cast iron are is electro-chemical machined using copper electrode and sodium chlonde �olullon
(specific resistant =5.0 ohm-cm). The power supply data of the ECM machine used
capable of damping vibration.
were:
14.18 TABLE FIXING ARRANGEMENT = 18V de
Supply voltage
Current = 5000 A
The jigs are attached on the machine table by projecting lugs and the
fixtures are clamped by bolts. When the jigs are required to be moved on A 'tool-work' gap of 0.5 cm (constant) may be assumed.
its bottom surface, four small raised portions are made to act as supports. The current efficient Tl can be taken as 100 per cent with sodium
These projections are called jig feet. The jig feet shou Id be designed to chloride electrolyte.
allow the centre of gravity of the component and the jig to lie between the
For iron (anode), atomic weight, N = 56
feet to impart its stability.
valency, n = 2 .
3
density, p = 7.87 g/cm
The electrode area is given by 2.54 x 2.54 cm. The initial gap (h)
EI 3 for electrolyte to pass is equal to 0.0254 cm.
According to Eq. (20.7), MRR=-m /s
Fp
1 56 1 (a) Calculate the permissible fluid flow velocity if the maximum
MRR =--x-x-x5000 permissible temperature of electrolyte is the boiling point
96,500 2 7B7
= 3.67 x 10-5 x 5000 (95'C). The ambient temperature is 35<c and the applied
voltage has been 12 V.
= 0.1835 cm3/s (b) Calculate also the maximum metal removal rate if the
permissible current density has been 160 amp/cm •
2
= 1.835 x 10-7 m3/s
(J.E., India: "New technology", Dr. A. Bhattacharyya)
Electrode feed rate, According to Eq. (20. 1), Flow velocity,
f =-V-x..£ v 1
u = ---------
2
P., xh Fp 2
4.187rh p e Ce (0 8 -0 0 )
_ 18x3.67x10-5 As given in the problem,
f- cm Is
5 x0.05 (12) 2 x254
V=-----..:..-..:._ _______
4.187 x3x (OD254) 2 x1x0.997(95-35)
= 1.58 mm/min.
= 765 cm/s = 459 m/min.
Example 20.2 : In a certain electro-chemical dissolution process of iron a metal
1
removal rate of 3 cm 3(min was desired. Determine the amount of current required
for the process, assuming According to Eq. (20.6), metal remove rate is given by
Atomic weight of iron, N = 56 g MRR = El<

Fp
valency, n = 2
As given in the problem,
Density of iron, p = 7.8 g/?m3
According to Eq. (20.7), MRR = EI cm3 Is 28x160
Fp MRR = = 0.0059 cm/s = 3.44 mm/min.
96,500 x7.86
or, = 56x I
3
1,609 x 2 x 7.8 Accuracy of ECM : There are a number of factors which govern the
where, F = 1,609 amp-min. accuracy of the parts produced by ECM. The major ones are:
Therefore, 3x 1609 x7.8
1 =1344.6 amp. 1. Machining voltage. 3. Temperature of electrolyte.
= 28
Example �0.3 : During electro-chemical machining of iron with a copper 2. Feed rate of electrode (tool). 4. Concentration of electrolyte.
_
tool w��kmg tn a saturated solution of NaCl in water, the following
properties of the electrolyte are observed : Under ideal conditions with properly designed tooling ECM is
capable of holding tolerances of the order of ± 0.02 mm and less. In
Specific heat = 0.997 cal/g'C general, tolerance can be maintained on a production basis in the region of
Density = 1 g/cm3 ± 0.02 to 0.04 mm. As a general rule, the more complex the shape of the
Specific resistance = 3 ohm-cm work, the more difficulties to hold tight tolerances. ECM results in
628 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY NON-TRADITIONAL MACHINING 629
internal radii greater than 0.2 mm and external radii of the order of 0.05 grinding action and by the electro-chemical process. Hence, in the true
mm. Ta �er is of the order of 0.010 mm for 10 mm depth and the side sense, it may be called 'mechanically assisted electro-chemical
overcut 1s about 0.1 to 0.2 mm. Surface finish in ECM is of the order of machining'.
0.2 to 0.8 micron (CLA) depending on the work material and the
In ECG, the metal bonded grinding wheel impregnated with a non
electrolyte used, and no burrs or sharp edges are left on the workpiece.
conductive abrasive is made the cathode and the workpiece the anode as in
ECM. The electrolyte, which is usually sodium nitrate, sodium chloride,
Application '. �he main applications of ECM process are in machining of
sodium nitrite, potassium nitrite, with a concentration of 0.150 to 0300
hard-heat-re �1�tmg alloys, for cutting cavities in forging dies, for drilling
kg/litre of water, is passed through nozzle in the machining zone in order
holes, machmmg of complex external shapes like that of turbine blades,
to complete the electrical
aerospace components, machining of t�ngsten carbide and that of nozzles
bridge be.tween the anode
in alloy steels. Almost any conducting material can be machined by this
and the cathode. The work o.c.
method.
and wheel do not makt
contact with each other
Advantages : The advantages of the ECM process can be enumerated as
because they are k.ept apart
follows:
1. The metal removal rate by this process is quite high for high by the insulating abrasive
particles which protrude
strength-temperature-resistant (HSTR) materials compared to
from the face of the grinding Figure 20.7 Electro-chemical grinding
conventional machining processes.
wheel. A constant gap of
2. Residual stress is low ; depth of work-hardened layer is lower
0.025 mm is maintained into which a stream of electrolyte is directed. The
by one-hundredth compared to turning compressive stress is
electrolyte is carried past the work surface at high speed by the rotary
absent.
action of the grinding wheel. With the rotation of the grinding wheel,
3. It can machine configurations which are beyond the capability
metal is removed from the workpiece by the simultaneous electrolytic and
of conventional machining processes.
4. Surface finish is in the order of 0.2 to 0.8 microns. abrasive action. Actually, abrasive grains on the surface of the wheel serve
5. Tool wear is nearly absent. to act as a paddle wh.ich pick up the electrolyte and cause a pressure to a
6. Extremely thin metal sheets ca.} be easily worked without build-up at the work area. The phenomenon of metal removal is illustraterf
in Fig. 20.7.
distortion.
The wheel
Disadvantages : The ECM process suffers from a number of and work condi
disadvantages. tions are shown in
Fig. 20.8. The elec
Wheel = cathode
1. The specific power consumption in this process is nearly 100 trolyte is entrapped
times more than in turning or milling steel. in small cavities of
semiconductive /•�..:A:��c-'>-d'- Semi conductive oxide layer
2. Nonconducting materials can not be machined. (absorbs electrolyte)
3. Corrosion and rust of ECM machine can be a hazard. But oxide between
preventive measures can help in this regard. projecting noncon
ductive abrasives
Agathon Matchless Machines ltd.
20.7 ELECTRO-CHEMICAL GRINDING forming electro
lytic cell. When
Elect�olyte grinding is a modification of both the grinding and electro these cells come in Figure 20.8 The wheel and work condition in
chemical machining. In this process, machining is affected both by the contact with the electro-chemical grinding
work the current
and practically no wheel wear is found. Besides, higher metal removal

flows the wheel to the work and this l::Jds to the electrochemical decom
rates are possible, particularly upon hard materials.
position of work. The short circuiting between the wheel and work is pre
vented due to point contact made by abrasion in order to make the surface The major disadvantage is the cost of the ECG system. The metal
3
more receptive. removal rates are comparatively low being of the order of 15 mm /s and
It can be seen that the process is similar to conventional grinding in power consumption is high.
that an abrasive grinding wheel is used, and the work is fed against the
rotating wheel. In fact, 10 per cent of the work metal is removed by 20.8 ELECTRIC DISCHARGE MACHINING
abrasive cutting, and 90 per cent by electrolytic action.
The grinding wheels used are of conventional shape and structure Electric discharge machining, also known as spark erosion, electro-erosion
Metal bond, diamond grit wheels are used for grinding tungsten carbide or spark machining is a process of metal removal based on the principle of
tips. Carbon bond wheels are used upon the hard alloy steels such as the erosion of metals by an interrupted electric spark discharge between the
stainless steels. Wheel wear is negligible because the greatest part of the electrode tool (usually cathode) and the work (anode).
cutting action is electrolytic, and little dressing of grinding wheel is Fundamentally, the electric erosion effect is understood by the
necessary. breakdown of electrode material accompanying any form of electric
The wheel, with its spindle and bearings, must be insulated discharge. The discharge is usually through a gas, liquid or in some cases
electrically from the machine frame and supplied with current through slip through solids. A necessary condition for producing a discharge is
rings. The machine is similar in design to surfce grinder or tool and cutter ionization of the dielectric, i.e., splitting up of its molecules into ions and
grinder, and the equipment includes a tank, filter and pump for the supply electi;ons.
of electrolyte, and a power unit for delivering a heavy D.C current. The Fig.20.9 illustrates the schematic layout of the electric discharge
current applied is in the range of 50 to 3000 A at 4 to 1 O V (250 A/cm\ machining system. The main components are the electric power supply, the
dielec.,·ic medium, the workpiece and the tool, and a servocontrol.
Accuracy: Because there is very little abrasive action, ECG grinding does
not leave fine scratches whic� may impair the finish and leave stress
raisers. Tolerances of about :t 0.02 are held on rather complex grinding
operations. For closer tolerances, the proportion bf material removed by
abrasive should be increased. The surface finish is held in the range of 0.2
to 0.4 micron on carbide and 0.4 to 0.8 micron on steel. Sharp corners are
difficult to obtain and a minimum radius of 02 mm can not be avoided
unless a final pass without electrolytic action is used.
DC
pulse
gene·
Application of ECG : Any material which is electrically conductive may rator
be ground by the electrolytic process, but its most useful application is
concerned with hardened steel, cemented carbides, and similar materials.
This is mainly applied to resharpening and reconditioning of carbide tools Table
and other materials that are difficult to grind. As the grinding pressure is
low, it is possible to grind and cut thin sections and thin-wall tubing of Figure 20.9 Basic scheme of elec,tric discharge machining
'difficulf materials without distortion or burr.
The workpiece and the tool are electrically connected to a D.C
Advantages and disadvantages : The greatest advantages are that all electric power supply. The workpiece is connected to the positive terminal 1
work is completely free of burrs ; no heat is generated, so no heat cracks or of the electric source, so that it becomes the anode. The tool is the cathode.
distortions are developed; and very little pressure is exerted on the work, A gap, known as the 'spark gap' in the ranges of 0.005 to 0.05 mm is
The introduction of pulse generators has overcome the drawbacks
of relaxation generators. Pulse generators are available, fitted with
maintained between the workpiece and the tool, and suitable dielectric
slurry, which is non conductor of electricity is forced through this gap at transistorized pulse-generator circuits in which reverse pulses are
, eliminated. These generators consist of electronic switching units which let
pressure of 2 kgf/cm- or less. When' a suitable voltage in the range of 50 to
450 V is applied, the dielectric breaks down and electrons are emitted from the current pass periodically. Modern pulse generators possess the means
the cathode and the gap is ionized. In fact, a small ionized fluid column is of accurate control over discharge duration, pause time and the current.
formed owing to formation of an avalanche of electrons in the spark gap These factors determine the overcut and hence the accuracy and surface
where the proc;ess of ionizational collision takes place. When more finish. The tool wear is also greatly reduced. While for finding work high
frequency and low-amperage settings are used, in roughing work low
�lectrons collect in the gap the resistance drops causing electric spark to frequency discharges with high amperage are applied.
Jump between the workpiece surface and the tool. Each electric discharge
or sp�rk causes a focused stream of electrons to move with a very high
velocity and acceleration from the cathode towards the anode and Overcut : The shape of the area of the cavity produced in the workpiece
ultimately creates compression shock waves on both the electrode su,rface should theoretically be the same as that of the tool. This, however, is not
particularly at high spots on the workpiece surface, which are closest to th; exactly true because of the overcut. Overcut is the distance, the spark will
tool. The generation of compression shock waves develops a local rise in penetrate the workpiece from the tool and remove metal from the
temperature. The whole sequence of operation occurs within a few workpiece. Theoretically, it is slightly larger than the gap between the end
microseconds. However, the temperature of spot hit by the electrons i.s of of the tool and the workpiece. The overcut is generally 0.025 to 0.2 mm,
the order of 10,000'C. This temperature is sufficient to melt a part of the on all surfaces. Overcut causes internal comers on the workpiece to have
metals. The forces of electric and magnetic fields caused by the spark fillets with radii equal to the overcut. Another effect of overcut is to cause
produce a tensile force and tear off particles of molten and softened metal the radius of the cavity in the workpiece slightly larger than the
from this spot in the workpiece. A part of the metal may vaporize and fill corresponding radius of the tool nose and also to cause the radius of
up the gap. The metal is thus removed in this way from the workpiece. The projection on the workpiece to be slightly lesser than the radius of the
electric and magnetic fields on the heated metal cause a compressive force cavity of the tool.
to act on the cathodic tool so th<;1t metal removal from the tool is at a This overcut · is a
slower rate than that from the workpiece. Hence, the workpiece is function of the _voltage of
connected to the positive te·rminal and tool to the negative terminal. the spark. The overcut in Current,[
The current density in the discharge of channel is of the order of creases with higher current
10,000 A/cm2 ; the power density, of the order of 500 MW/cm 2 . and decreases with higher
Electrohydraulic servo control is usually preferred. The servo gets frequency. Fig.20.10
its input signal from the difference between a selected reference voltage shows the relationships.
and the actual voltage across the gap. The signal is amplified and the tool,
as it wears a little, is advanced by hydraulic control. A short circuit across The electrode (tool) : The
Current
the gap causes the servo to reverse the motion of the tool until the corrlc:t shape of the tool will be --+
Frequency
gap is established. basically the same as that
of the product desired
Spark generator : The spark generating circuit may be one of the except that an allowance is Figure 20.10 Variation of overcut with
following types : (1) relaxation, or (2) pulse-generator. made for side clearance current and frequency
The spark generator supplies current to a condenser, the discharge and overcut. For broaching small holes solid rods may be used but for
from which produces the spark. The workpiece alternatively becomes a larger ones, hollow tools are preferred. Dielectric may then be pumped
positive electrode (anode) or negative electrode (cathode) respectively. On through hollow tool. If an object is having a geometrical shape or is having
each reversal of polarity the tool is eroded mire than the workpiece. Hence, symmetry about some axis, a tool equal to only a part of the object will
the tool wear is greater with this type of arrangement.
634 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY NON-TRADITIONAL MACHINING 635
be :;ufficient for complete machining the object. Such segmented tools are 1. Remain electrically nonconducting until the required break
specially useful for machining complex shapes that do not require close down voltage has been reached.
accuracy. It may sometimes be convenient to use a series of simpler tool 2. Breakdown electrically in the shortest possible time once the
rather than a complex single tool, to produce a particular cavity. breakdown voltage has been reached.
The material used for the tool influences the tool wear and the side 3. Rapidly quench the spark or deionize the spark or spark gap
clearance and hence, in turn, it has considerable influence on the rate of after the discharges have occurred.
metal removal, finish obtained, and the production rate. The electrode 4. Provide an effective
materials generally used can be classified as metallic materials (copper cooling medium.
etc.}, non-metallic materials (graphite), and combination of metallic and 5. Be capable of
non-metallic materials (copper graphite). Copper, yellow brass, zinc, 'carrying away the
graphite and some other materials are used for tools. Low wearing tools swarf particles, in (a) Workpiece
t
include silver-tungsten, copper-tungsten, and metallized graphite. For suspension away
commercial applications, copper is best suited for fine machining, from the working
aluminium is used for die-sinking, and cast iron for rough machining. One gap.
of the advantages of EDM is due to the fact that a tool made of a material 6. Have a good degree
softer than the workpiece material and which is a good conductor of of fluidity.
electricity can be used to machine a material of any hardness. 7. Be cheap and easily
The wear of the tool in the EDM process due to electron available.
bombardment is inevitable. The tool wear rates determine the machining
accuracy, tool movement, and the tool consumption. The tool wear is a Light hydocarbon oils (b) Workpiece
function of the rate of metal removal, material of the workpiece, current seem to satisfy these
setting, machining area, gap between the tool and the workpiece and the requirements best of al!. The
polarity of the tool. It has been found that the higher the tool material common dielectrics used are
melting point, the less the tool wear. Wear is best defined as : kerosene, paraffin, transformer
oil tryethylene gly1..Jl (with
Volume of work material removed
Wear ratio = water 40 % by volume) or their
Volume of electrode consumed mixture and certain aqueous
solutions. Water, being an
This is often simplified to electrical conductor, gives a
Depth of cut
Wear ratio = metal removal rate of only (c)
Decrease in usable length of electrode about 40 per cent of that
obtained when using paraffin as
The wear ratio for carbon electrodes is upto I 00 : I. Other wear a dielectric.
ratios (for cutting steel) are copper,·2 : I; brass, I : I; and copper tungsten,
8 : I. Thus, a piece of copper cutting 25mm deep into steel will wear 12.5 The dielectric should be
mm. These ratios are approximate and will vary considerably depending filtered before reuse so that chip
upon the situation. contamination of the fluid will Figure 20.11 Flushing system in EDM
not affect machining accuracy. (a) Pressure flushing, (b) Suction flushing,
Dielectric fluids : The essential requirements of a dielectric fluid to be The dielectric fluid must (c) Side flushing
used in EDM process are that they should: circulate freely between the tool and workpiece. Flushing of eroded
particle in correct manner makes the machining system efficient. Pressure
flushing, suction flushing and side flushing are the three methods 3. Thread cutting.
employed for the same. Fig.20.11 shows the three methods. 4. Helical profile milling.
5. Rotary forming.
Metal removal rate (MRR) : The metal removal rate is generally 6. Curved hole drilling.
described as the volume of metal removed per uni� time. The machining
rate during roughi� of steel with a graphite electrode and 50A generator Delicate workpiece like copper parts for fitting into the vacuum
is apout 400 mm /min and with a 400A generator it is about 4800 tuhcs can be produced by this method. The workpiece in this case is fragile
mm /min. For precision machining with low pmperage and high frequency to withstand the cutting tool load during conventional machining.
.
the matenal removal rate is as low as 2 mm /min. It is, therefore, evident
that the MRR is proportional to the working current value. Advantages : Extremely high popularity of the EDM process is due to the
The material being cut will affect the MRR. Experiments indicate following advantages
that the MRR varies inversely as the melting point of the metal. The
approximate value is I. The process can be applied to all electrically conducting metals
MRR=
2.4
20.10 and alloys irrespective of their melting points, hardness,
1. 2�
(melting point, 0C) toughness or brittleness.
Thus EDM will cut aluminium much faster than steel. 2. Any complicated shape that can be made on the tool can be
reproduces on the workpiece.
Accuracy : Tolerance value of± 0.05 mm could be easily achieved by 3. Highly complicated shapes can be made by fabricating the tool
EDM in normal production. However, by close control of the several with split sectioned shapes, by welding, brazing or by applying
variables a tolerance of ± 0. 003 mm could be achieved. A typical taper quick setting conductive epoxy adhesives.
value is about 0.005 to 0. 05 mm per I 00 mm depth. The taper effect 4. Time of machining is less than conventional machining
decreases substantially to.zero after about 75 mm penetration. An overcut processes.
of 5 to IOO micron is produced, depending upon finishing or roughing. The 5. EDM can be employed for extremely hardenc::d workpiece.
best surface finish that can be economically achieved on steel is 0.4 Hence, the distortion of the workpiece arising out of the heat
micron. In 'no wear' machining, using graphite electrode a surface finish treatment process can be eliminated.
within 3.2 micron can be achieved. 6. No mechanical stress is present in the process. It is due to the
the
fact that the physical contact between the tool and
Application of EDM : The electrical discharge machining is used for the workpiece is eliminated. Thus, fragile and slende r workp laces
manufacture of tools having complicated profiles and a number of other can be machined without distortion.
components. The decision to use EDM process for either of these broad 7. Cratering type of surface finish automatically creates
applications is usually based on one or more of the basic characteristics accommodation for lubricants causing the die life to improve.
for
inherent in the process. 8. Hard and corrosion resistant surfaces, essentially needed
The EDM provides economic advantage for making stamping tools, die making , can be devel�ped.
wire drawing and extrusion dies, header dies, forging dies, intricate mould
cavities, etc. It has been extremely used for machining of exotic materials Disadvantages : The following disadvantages of the process limit its
used in aerospace industries, refractory metals, hard carbides, and application
hardenable steels.
le at
Typical EDM spplications include. 1. Profile machining of complex contours is not possib
required tolerances.
I. Fine cutting with thread shaped electrode (wire - cutting EDM). 2. Machining times are too long.
2. Drilling of micro - holes.
3. Machining heats the two-thirds of the velocity of light by applying 50 to 150 kV at the anode,
workpiece considerably and this speed is maintained till they strike the workpiece. Due to the
and hence causes change pattern of the electrostatic field produced by the grid cup, the electrons are
in surface and focused and made to flow in the form of a converging beam through a hole
metallurgical properties. in the anode. A magnetic deflection coil is used to make the electron beam
4. Excessive tool wear. circular having a cross-sectional diameter of 0.01 to 0.02 mm and deflect it
5. High specific power anywhere. A built-in microscope with a viagnification of 40 on the
consumption. workpiec:e enables the operator to accurately locate the beam impact and
observe the actual machining ope.ration.
Fig.20.12 shows the basic
features of a wire-cutting EDM. A
brief outline of the wire-cutting Vacuum chamber, J0...5 mm
of Hg
EDM is given in section 19.13 Figure 20.12 Basic features of Cathode(·)
wire - cutting EDM electron emitting
20.9 ELECTRON-BEAM MACHINING (EBM) hot tungsten
filament
Electron-beam machining is the metal removal process by a high velocity Anode(+) Electron gun
focus�d stream of electrons which heats, melts and vapourizes the work
mat�nal at the point of bombardment. The production of free electrons is Beam di (Ccted
obtained from thermo-electronic cathodes wherein metal are heated to the Electron streilm
electromagnetically
temperature at which the electrons acquire sufficient speed for escaping to Local heating, melting,
the space around the cathode. The acceleration of the electrons is carried and vaporizing
by an electric fieId :"'hile the f?cusing and concentration are done by
. Workpiece
�ontrolled magnetic fields. The kinetic energy of a beam of free electrons
is transformed into heat energy as a result of the interaction of the
electrons with the workpiece material. EBM is, therefore, a thermo-electric
process.
ig.20.13 shows the principle of operation of electron-beam
. � Figua·c 20.13 Electron-beam machining
ma �hmrng. A beam of electrons is emitted from the electron gun which is
basically a triode consisting of As the beam impacts on the workpiece surface the kinetic energy of
high velocity electrons is immediately converted into the thermal energy
1. � cathode which is a hot tungsten filament (2500CC) emitting and it vaporized the material at the spot of its impact. The power density
.
high negative potential electrons. being very high (about I .5 billion ·w/cn/) it takes a few microseconds to
2. A grid cup, negatively based with respect to the filament. melt and vaporize the material on impact. The process is carried out in
3. An anode which is heats at ground potential, and through which repeated pulses of short duration. The pulse frequency may range from 1
the high velocity electrons pass. to 16,000 Hz and duration may range from 4 to 64,000 micro-seconds.
The application of the above principle is also found in electron
The gun is supplied with electric current from a high voltage D.C beam drilling in which an organic or synthetic backing material is
sourc�. The flow of electrons is controlled by the negative bias applied to sandwitched on the other side of the component. The beam rapidly
the grid cup. The electrons passing through the anode are accelerated to penetrates the workpiece, vapourizing it and reaches the backing material
L
which in tum vapourizes rapidly with an explosive release of vapou r at where /h = beam current, amp.
high p ressure. The high vapour pressure of the backing material expel ls the
original metal vapour generated at the initial stage, making a clean hole. The electron beam pressure
Accuracy : Typical tolerances are about 10 per cent of slot width or hole
diameter. Taper of about 4 ° included angle is present in slots and holes and
F,, = 034 x I 1, JE: dyne/cm
2
20.13
this limits the depth-.to-width ratio. The depth-to diameter ratio can reach
20 : 1 with multiple pulses. Heat affected zones of up to 0.03 mm deep The thermal velocity acquired by an electron,
have been observed. The stock removal rate is generally in the region of
3
1.5 mm /s with a penetration rate of about 0.25 mm/s or faster.
20.14
Application of EBM : Some typical applications of the process arc 23
where k = Boltzman's constant = 1.38 x 10- J/1(/atom
1. To drill fine gas orifices, less than 0.002 mm, in space nuclear e = temperature raised through electron bombardment, K
reactors, turbine blades for supersonic aero-engines. Mu = mass of one atom of the workpiece, kg
2. To produce mete ring holes in injector nozzles in diesel engines,
etc. Example 20.4 : In an electric beam machine, calculate : (a) the velocity of the
3. To scribe thin films. electron impingement, (b) power of the electron beam, (c) electron beam pressure,
and (d) thermal velocity acquired.
4. To remove small broken taps from holes.
5. To remove small broken taps from holes. Given: Voltage of the electric field = 2.0 x 10
5
v
-S
Beam current = 2.5 x 10 A
Advantages and limitations : EBM is an excellent method for micro 3 2
finishing. It can drill holes or cut slots which otherwise cannot be made. It Current density = 2 x 10- A/cm
is possible to cut any known material, metal o r nonmetal that can exist in = 3,600K
Vapo rization temptation
vacuum. Besides, the re is no cutting tool pressure or wear. As a result, 0-28
distortion-free machining having precise dimensions can be achieved. Mass of the electron =9.lxl g
The biggest disadvantage is the high equipment cost and
5
employment of high skill operator. Besides, only small cuts are possible. = 2.7 x 10 km/s
Further, requirement of vacuum restricts the size of specimens that can be
machined. -:::SW
Analysis ofEBM: The velocity of electron impingement, = 0.30 dynes/cm2
"'., = 600/i: km/s 20.11 5

( d) v" = = 0.104 x 10 m/s
9.1x 10-28
where Es = voltage of the electric field, volt.
20.10 LASER BEAM MACHINING (LBM)
The power of electron beam,
Laser is an electromagnetic radiation. It produces monochromatic light
which is in the form of an almost collimated beam that can be focused
20.12
optically on to ve1y small sports of less than 0. 002 mm dia. The word
'laser' stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Rad iation. However, in the presence of light of the appropriate frequency
The principle of laser can be explained as follows : Let us consider stimulated emission will occur in the upper energy level when the atoms
that the atoms of a medium (for example, a ruby c1ystal rod) are at ground will begin to emit and chain reaction will occur by causing more to emit
state. When a quantum of energy from a light source is made to fall on this and the whole avalanche would dump down together. This is called lasing
medium, it causes absorption of radiation by the atoms of the medium. action.
This results in electron of the atoms of the medium to jump to the upper A basic laser circuit, illustrated in Fig.20.14, consists of tlu·ee parts :
energy level. The atoms in the upper energy level are then said to be in an ( J) a pair of mirrors, (2) a source of energy, and (3) an optical amplifier.
excited state. The atom in an excited state immediately begins to drop This amplifier is popularly called the laser. To these baste parts must be
spontaneously to the metastable (intermed iate) state. From the metastable add ed a control system and a cooling system.
state the atom emits photon at random before it falls to the original energy The most important part of the laser apparatus is the lase: �1ystal.
level. This radiation of photons is known as spontaneous emission which is The commonly used laser c1ystal is a man made ruby cons1stmg of
extremely rapid . aluminium oxide into which 0.05 per cent chromium has been introduced.
Another is calcium fluoride crystals doped with neodymium (Ca+F2 +Nd ).
1 Surface or metal 2. Absorption and 3. Welding metal is 4 Welding metal The c1ystal rods are usually round and the end surfaces are made reflecti�e
is welded due to vapourisation of flared, forming
thermal conduction welding surface. a key hole.
spouts lrom
key hole. by mirrors. The laser material needs a source of energy called a ptunp. Th�s
may be a flash lamp filled with xenon, argon, o�· �-ypton gas. The lam� is
.
placed close to the amplifier of crystal rod ms1d� a highly reflectmg
cylinder which directs the light from the i1ash lamp 111to the rod s� that as
much energy as possible can be absorbed by the laser material. The
chromium atqms in the iuby are thus excited to high energy levels. The
excited atom1•emits energy (photons) when they return to the normal state.
1n this way ve1y high energy is obtained in sh01:t �ulses. The r uby rod
.
becomes Jess efficient at higher temperatures, 1t 1s thus contmuously
cooled with water, air or liquid nitrogen.
Intensity
TMrmal conduction welding
Drilling In operation, the workpiece to be cut is placed on the aluminiw:1
Low work table (which is resistant to being cut be laser beam). The laser head 1s
High
trnverscd over the workpiece and an operator visually inspects the cut
Laser beam absorption and welding mechanism on metal while manually adjusting the control panel. The actual prolilc is obtained
Enclosure. with reflective
LASER - solid or
from a linked mechanism, made to cop)' the master drawing or actual
inner surface gas fill.:d profile, placed on a near-by bench.
Prizrn or Partially r<lflecting The [ac:;er in short pulses, has a power output of nearly IO kW /cm2
r.:11.:cting mirror mirror
of the beam cross-section. By focusing a laser beam on a spot 11100 of a
square mm in size, the beam can be concentrated in a �hort flash to po,:cr
, .
Output__.. density of I 00,00 kW/cm· and an ene1;gy of several Joules lastmg �01 a
minute fraction of a second. For machining, powerful short pulses of say
100 Joules energy are required. The laser can, therefore, provide enough
Flash tube heat of melt and vaporize any of the known materials.
Power source and
timing circuits o---- The mechanism by which a laser beam removes material from the
surface being worked involves a combination of melting and evaporation
process. However, with some materials, mechanism is purely of
Cooling coils
evaporation.
Figure 20.14 A basic LASER circuit Machining rate : Laser can be used for cu.ting as well as for drilling. The
material rem?val rate in LBM is comparatively low and is of the order of
As given in the problem,
the 4000 mm /hr. The cutting is found from the following relationship
vs 0.785 x (1.3) 2 x 0. 1 x 10-2 cm 3 = 0. 00 l cni 3
Cutting rate (mnvmin), C=k _!__ 4.2 x 0. 001x8[0.11(1808- 293)+ 0.11(3000-1808) + 67 +1630)
EAt 1 20.15
0.7
where, p = laser power incident on surface w 95.8 J
E = . .
vaponzat10n
'
energy of material, W/nun 2 Now, if a short pulse of10- 5 sec duration is used, the power required,
A ar� of laser beam at focal point, nm1 2
1, = thickness of material, 111111 95.8
k = constan� chara teristic of the mate P.., W.
� rial and the 10- 5
conve1:s10n efficiency of laser energy
to the material' 9 5. 8 xl0 5
1ru11/mm. The power density is, pm
A 0.785 x(0.13) 2
The app1:oxima�e energy, E needed to
.· Ion
. . raise a volume of metal to its =
vapo11za1 pomt 1s given by 7221 x 105 WI c11i 2
Cp(Om -Bo)+C.'.,(Os -Om)+ l,,, +L Accuracy : The laser is best used for cutting as well as for drilling. In
E = Pg vg " . order to achieve the best possible results in drilling, it is imperative that the
! 20.16
7/ p material be located within a tolerance of ±0.2 nm1 of focal point. Accuracy
where, Ps = density of material, kg/1113 in profile cutting with nwnerical control or photoelectric tracer is about ±
Vg = volume to be evaporate, m
3 0.1 mm.
Cr = specific heat cal/kg K,
0.11 = melting point, K Application of LBM : Laser machining process is at present foLmd to be
�J = boiling point, K
suitable only in exceptional cases like machining very small holes and
cutting complex profiles in thin, hard materials like ceramics. It is also
Oo = ambient temperature, K
used in partial cutting or engraving. Other applications include sheet metal
L"' = latent heat of fusion, cal/kg
trinm1ing, blanking and resistor trinuning. Though LBM is not a mass
Lv= latent heat of vaporization cal/kg
material removal process, it is possible to use this process in mass micro
77r = efficiency of the process machining production.
Example 20.S : Calculaiethee1 · Off-the-shelf laser systems arc now available with NC controls and
a n 1.3 mm di .a hoe c1kgI.,;,�1 d o
l i n a l mmtl�c
p cr
t w . dcn�Hy requri ed for laser drl l ng
i i are being used for applications ranging from cigarette paper cutting to
i J.Jl,a e. G 1ven.
drilling microholes in turbine engine blades. Scattered laser light from
Den sityof i on
r laser equipment damages the cornea and optic nerves of the eye and for
8 g/cm3
Specifci heat of i ro n 0. l Jcalg this reason protective materials are absolutely necessary when working
/ K
Melti ng poi ntof ri on around laser equipment.
1808 K
Boiling poi nt of i on
r 3000K
Ambient temper ature Advantages : Any solid material which can be melted without
20°C decomposition can be cut with the laser beam. Other major advantages of
Latentheat of fusion 67 calg / the laser beam machining include the following
Latent heat of v a por ization 1630 cal/g
Efficiencyof la sing proe c ss 70% 1. There is no direct contact between the tool and the workpiece.
2. machining of any material including nonmetal is possible.
temperature upto 30,000'{:;. The plasma jet melts the workpiece material
3. Drilling and cutting of areas not readily accessible are possible. and the high velocity gas stream effectively blows the molten metal away.
4. Heat affected zone is small because of the collimated beam. The depth of heat affected zone depends on the work material, its
5. Extremely small holes can be machined.
thickness and cutting speed. On a workpiece of 25 mm thickness the heat
6. There is no tool wear.
affected zone is about 4 mm and it is less at high cutting speeds. Table
7. Soft materials like rubber and plastics can be machined.
20.8 shows the typical variatiop of machining parameters of PAM.
3
Typical flow rate of tlte"gas is 2 to 11 m /hr. Direct current, rated at
Limitations : One of the main limitations of the laser is that it cannot be
about 400 Y and 200kW out put is normally required. Arc current ranges
used to cut metals t�at have high heat conductivity or high reflectivity, between 150 and 1000 A for a cutting rate of 250 to 1700 mm/min. The
e.g., Al, Cu, and their alloys, Irl addition, the process has the following
gas flow is delivered to the nozzle at pressure up to 1.4 MPa.
disadvantages
Accuracy : This is a roughing operation to an accuracy of about 1.5 mm
with corresponding surface finish. Accuracy on the width of slots and
1. Its overall efficiency is extremely low (10 to 15 per cent).
diameter of holes is ordinarily from :t 0.8 mm on 6 to 30 mm thick plates,
2. The process is limited to thin sheets.
and :t 3.0 mm on 100 to 150 mm thick plates.
3. It has very low material removal rate.
4. The machined holes are not round and straight.
Applications of PAM : This is chiefly used to cut stainless steel and
5. The laser system is quite troublesome since the life of the flash
aluminum alloys. Profile cutting of metals, particularly of these metals and
lamp is short.
alloys, has been the most prominent commercial application of PAM.
6. Cost is high.
PAM has been used successfully in turning and milling of materials which
7. Output energy from LASER is difficult to control precisely.
are hard and difficult to machine.
20.11 PLASMA ARC MACHINING (PAM)
Advantages and limitations : The principal advantage of this process is
that it is almost equally effective on any metal, regardless of its hardness of
When a flowing gas is heated to a sufficiently high temperature to become
refractory nature. There being no contact between the tool and workpiece,
partially ionized, it is known as 'plasma'. This is virtually a mixture of free
only a simply supported workpiece structure is enough.
electrons, positively charged ions and neutral atoms.
Plasma arc machining is a material removal process in which the
material is removed by dir�cting a high velocity jet of high temperature
(11,000 to 30,000 °C) ionized gas on the workpiece.
Power
The principle of plasma arc machining is shown in Fig.20.15. In a
supply
plasma torch' known as the gun or plasmatron, a volume of gas such as H2,
.
N2, 02, etc. is µassed through a small chamber in which a high frequency
spark (arc) is maintained between the tungsten electrode (cathode) and the
copper nozzle (anode), both of which arc water cooled. In certain torches
an inert gas-flow surface rounding the main flame is provided to shield the
g�s from atmosphere. The high velocity electrons generated by arc collide Electron cm ission
with the gas molecules and produce dissociation of diatomic molecules of
the gas resulting in ionization of the atoms and causing large amounts of Melting due lo direct electron
Workpiece bombardmenl plus convective
thermal energy to be liberated. The plasma forming gas is forced through a heat of plasma
nozzle duct of the torch in such a manner as to stabilize the arc. Much of
the heating of the gas takes place in the constricted region of the nozzle Figure 20.15 Plasma arc machining
duct resulting into relatively high exit gas velocity and very high core
NON-TRADITIONAL MACHINING 6-t9
The main disadvantages of this process are the metallurgical change
of the surface. Safety precautions are necessary for the operator and those Applications of IBM : It is applied mostly in micro-machining (etching)
in near-by areas. This adds additional cost. of electronic components like computer parts, figuring optical surfaces and
for the precision fabrication of fine wire dies in refractory materials.
20.12 ION BEAM MACHINING Typical materials that can be etched include glass, alumina, quartz, crystal,
silica, agates, porcelains, cermets and numerous metals and oxides.
Ion - beam machining or etching is generally a surface finishing process in Ion beams can also be used to deposit materials such as platinum,
which the material removal takes place by spullering of ions. tungsten and silicon oxide insulators on other material substrate. In these
The process is different from electric discharge, electron beam, applications, the beam parameters and gas Oow are optimised for the most
laser and plasma arc machining in that the process does not depend on efficient equilibrium condition between the cracking of the precursor gases
heating of the workpiece to the point of evaporation. and the milling action of the beam. Fig.20.16 shows the schematic diagram
of a ion beam machining process.
TABLE20.8 VARIATION OF CUTIING SPEED OF PAM WITH ARC
CURRENT Liquid metal ion source
Material Thickness (mm) Arc current (A) C1111111g sffeed

(mm/mill) Separator
Stainless steel 75 800 380
130 1000 150
-
Aluminium 75 900 760
180 1000 180
Gallium ion beam
Brass 13 400 1780
Titanium 13 400 2300
Lens1-
Source: Fundamentals of machining and machine tools, Boothroyd G. and W.A.Knight,
-
Mcrcel Dekker, Inc.
This sputter etching mechanism is very simple. It consists in
bombarding the work with accelerated ions which collide with the surface
atoms of the work. Each bombarding ions, as a result of collisions, Objective lens -
/\
dislodges surface layer. Detector ..<:d��s injector

It consists of an electron gun discharging free electrons into a ..i:·:-:.:::=--····
chamber filled with argons gas. The gas is then ionized by electrons. The Sample
top of the chamber is known as ion-beam generating apparatus. At the

other end, the workpiece is fixed to a table which can be oscillated and Figure 20.16 Ion beam machining process
rotated so that different points on the work surface can be subjected to ion
bearn.
Advantages and disadvantages : Ion-beam has many advantages which
includes:
Accuracy : Practical etching rates vary up to 2000 A (2x10 .4) per min. 1. The process is almost universal.
The accuracy of the etching process is considerably high mainly due to the 2. No chemical reagents or etching are required.
small amount of material removal. Tolerances in the vicinity of± 50 A (± 3. There is· no undercutting as with other chemical etching
-6
50 x 10 "') are possible. process.
4. Etching rates are easily controlled.
However, the process has many disadvantages which are as follows :

21
1. It is relatively expensive.
2. Etching rates are slow.
3. Although virtually no heat is generated there is little possibility
of some thermal or radiation damage. TRANSFER MACHINING
REvmw QUESTIONS
1. How would you classify the non-traditional machining processes? 21.1 INTRODUCTION
Explain. State the specific features of these processes.
2. Explain ultrasonic machining processes. Specify some of its process The widespread increase in the quantity of production requiring a
characteristics. multiplicity of operation such as, milling, facing, boring, drilling, etc., has
3. List the common materials used for USM tools. led to the development of a method of manufacture known as transfer
4. List the common abrasive powders used in USM. machine. A transfer machine consists of several machining heads, or units
5. What is chemical milling? How it is done? fastened together by conveying units, the whole constituting one large
6. Explain the purpose of masking in chemical milling.
7. In what cases is·chemical milling advantageous, and when not? automatic installation. In short, a transfer device is a combination of
8. What are the materials commonly used for making a tool in ECM? individual machine tools sequentially arranged and integrated with inter
9. Explain the principle of ECM. List its advantages. Is there any limitation locked controls and a transferring device to form an automatic machine.
on the type of material that can be machined by ECM? List ECM The term transfer refers to the transfer of the job from machining station to
applications. the next as it proceeds through the machining processes involved.
10. Describe the operation of electro chemical grinding (ECG) with th� help Components are loaded at one end and completed workpieces leave the
of a heat sketch? What are the differences between ECG and
transfer line at the other end.
conventional grinding?
11. Briefly describe the principle of electro-discharge machining (EDM) Application of transfer machining leads to increase in productivity,
process. What are the advantages and disadvantages? and reduces the number of machine tools and floor space by 30 to 50 per
12. Explain the function of di-electric fluid in EDM. Name the common di cent. Transfer machining also leads to better quality and reduced
electric fluids used in EDM. manufacturing cost. On the other hand, initial cost of such devices is very
13. What is overcut in EDM? high. It also requires better quality blanks and skilled personnel. Prominent
14. Explain how electron beam machining (EBM) process is carried out. among industries using transfer machining is the car and vehicle industry,
What are the limitations?
where large-scale production of cylinder blocks and heads, gearbox, etc.,
15. What is LASER? Explain how LASER is utilized on machining
materials. Differentiate LBM and EBM. justifies the capital outlay associated with this form of manufacture.
16. Explain the principle of plasma arc machining (PAM). What are the
..J
various types of PAM. 21.2 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSFER MACHINES
There are three chief arrangements for transfer machining. These are the
(1) in-line machine, (2) rotary indexing table machine, and the (3) drum
machine.
In-line transfer machine : This consists of a straight central bed into the
/ '
sides of which the machining heads are dowelled and bolted at convenient
fixed pitch. A plan view of the arrangement is shown in Fig.21.1. The
652 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER MACHINING 653
central bed could be built up along a straight line of any length. If the floor automatic safety devices so that if one is not functioning correctly no one
space does not permit to accommodate a very long straight bed, the bed will function.
could be built up to some other configuration, such as U, L, or a square The number of stations employed is limited only by the efficiency
shape instead of a straight line. The parts to be machined are conveyed of the total machine, the power and accuracy of the drive mechanism and
along a track on the bed either with or without the use of a holding fixture, structural considerations. Usually the in-line transfer devices are selected
called pallet. In the pallet system, after the operations are completed, the when the number of station exceeds 24.
pallets are returned back to the starting point by the use of a conveyor
placed either over, under or around the transfer machine. The work may be Rotary indexing table machine : Where the space does not allow work to
loaded manually or automatically on to the machine, and it is transferred be conveyed in straight line, it may be more convenient to transfer the
from station to station while being clamped in pallets or holding fixtures. work around a circular line. This principle leads to the use of a rotary
In other words the work is clamped in a holding fixture and is moved system in which the workpieces are located on a circular table and are
throughout the entire operation on the same fixture. The work can be indexed around each successive machining station which are spaced as in
presented to the machining head in any desired position by using turntables line transfer machine. The plan view of a rotary arrangement is given in
or turn-over devices at the appropriate points on the bed. Fig.21.2.
The pallet type transfer machine is more accurate than the plain The main and central feature
type due to the fact that pallets can be built with very close tolerances. The of the rotary machine is the circular
work once clamped will not be removed from the very good along the table top supported on high-quality 3
whole process. bearing system at its centre for
In plain type rotating about a vertical axis, with
transfer machines, the driving arrangements for its
work moves in an 2 indexing, and accurate locations that
undamped condition from ensure the alignments between the
station to station. At the cutting stat.ions and their respective
A workpieces. There is also
machine stations, fixed or
disappearing type dowel
',-�-,-,---,r-T�-r-.-�-.-,.---,.....J arrangement for supporting the rim Figure 21.2 Rotary indexing
locaters and hydraulically of the table against the force of the table transfer machine
actuated fixed clamps hold machining operations to prevent I, 3. Matching stations, 2. Loading and
the work. In other words, Figure 21.1 In line transfer machine deflection and also to eliminate unloading stations.
the fixtures are fixed and A. Unloading end, 8. Loading end, I. Machining vibration and chatter.
only the workpiece moves head, 2. Central bed. Much of what was said about in-line transfer machines regarding
throughout the stations. The plain types are used when the workpieces are machining heads, workpiece location, swarf and coolant control, etc. is
held in identical positions at each machining station and when il is not true here, but rotary transfer machine will usually be smaller in size. This
necessary to change over from on� part to another frequently. Also they is because there must be a limit to the size of a table which can be held and
are used for workpieces of rather regular shape. In both pallet and plain rotated in a central base that will be sufficiently rigid to maintain the load
type transfer machines, the cutting tools may be presented to the work at and accuracy required.
any desired position or angle and they can go back to their initial position For the maximum number of machining stations of which it is
immediately after the machining operation, such as drilling, tapping, capable, say eight, a rotary machine is simpler than a line transfer machine
reaming, etc. are completed. An automatic lubricating system releases the of comparable capacity. The round table with its central pivot and indexing
required quantity of lubricant to the moving parts at pre-set time intervals. arrangements can be replaced easily, whereas it is difficult to replace the
Provisions for removing large �uantities of swarf and supplying coolants built-up central bed of the line machine with its complicated pallet and
are all made mostly automatipally. Besides, there is arrangement for transfer system. On the rotary machine, one fixture for each station and a
654 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER MACHINING 655
spare or extra for loading and unloading station are sufficient. 1. Bed (transfer track)
Rotary transfer lines may be successfully installed for the complete 2. Machining head
automatic assembly of a product where no metal removal is involved. 3. Transfer mechanism
Instead of machining heads radially disposed around the table, there are
presses for peening over rivets, nut running heads for assembling nuts to Bed : This constitutes the fundamental unit in the construction of the
screws, electric brazing heads for assembly, etc. machine. The bed may be a single unit of cast or fabricated construction.
But with longer machines it may be built up of several such units. The hed
Drum machine : This type of transfer machine is similar in conception �ut is generally straight although in some cases it may be made of a U, square,
different in configuration to the rotary table type as described above. In the circular, curved forward or backward or of any other shape to suit
drum method, the work fixture are fastened to the outside surface or particular condition. The upper surface of the bed has sideways for guiding
periphery of a drum rather similar to a big wheel. The table which is and supporting the workpieces or holding fixtures (pallet) upon which the
replaced by the drum is mounted upon trunions such that the drum rotates workpiece is clamped and located. There is also arrangement for
about a horizontal axis. transferring the workpiece along to each of the machining heads that are
This arrangement enables the mounted on one or both sides of the bed. The arrangement includes chain
workpieces to rr.ove or transfer conveyor, a longitudinal sliding shaft, and a 'walking beam'. The upper
around a circular path to work position of the bed also incorporated means for clamping and locating. the
stations radially positioned around workpiece at each station before cutting begins. Generally, roll-overs are
the path at equal distances. This also provided on the bed for rotating the workpieces through 90 or 180°
method has the limitation that most during their passage through the line from station to station, if required.
of the machining must be done For fully automatic installation, use for pneumatically operated shuttle may
horizontally from the sides as, be made for transferring the work from one position to another.
except for two or three stations, it is Underneath the bed there is a conveyor for carrying away the swarf
difficult to arraQge for a radial and channel for receiving the cutting lubricants. Also below the surface of
(vertical) approach to the the bed and through the side extensions opposite the machine stations
workpieces. means arc provided to return the empty fixtures back along the machine to
2
In Fig.21.3, it is seen that the the loading point after unloading.
lower station rerr,dins always idle as Besides, there are other various basic units attached to the bed for
it is practically impossible to the purpose of accommodating the machining units.
arrange a machining head to operate
in the limited space under the drum. Machining heads : The machining heads are often made up of unit cutting
However, much of what was said in heads, such as drilling, milling, etc., the spindles of which are usually
rotary table machine is true of drum driven from a self-contained motor. This is carried on an intermediate base
machine except that this type of Figure 21.3 Drum transfer slideways on its upper surface, and the lower, flat base of this is bolted to
machine has limited working machine the flat surface of the wing base or column of the structural unit. This
capacity because of the limited 1. Loading and unloading stations, 2., intermediate base of the cutting unit incorporates feeding arrangements to
space available in the system. 4. Machining station, 3. Idle station. move the cutting unit forward on its slides for the purpose of traversing the
cut. The heads can be mechanically or hydraulically traversed along the
21.3 MAIN PARTS OF A TRANSFER MACHINE slideways while the cutting tools work upon the component. Using
mechanical means, a cam or Ieadscrew can provide the medium thro�gh
The parts which constitute a transfer machine are : which the head is transversed. On modem machines the electrically
controlled, hydraulically operated unit head is preferred.
TRANSFER MACHINING 657
The provision of feed units and machining head for rotary

1. Rotating bar mechanism.
machines follows the same general principles as that have been described
in connection with the line transfer machines. 2. Rack and pinion.
3. Ratchet and Pawl.
4. Geneva mechanism.
Transfer mechanism : The transferring of the workpieces accurately from
station to station can be done in many different ways. In the case of rotary 2
and drum transfer machines it is a function of the indexing mechanism. On
in -line machines various mechanical devices have been used.
The most common types of mechanical devices include :
1. Pawl type.
2 . Walking beam.
3. Rotary transfer mechanism.
5J
Pawl type : This is a very simple and inexpensive type of transfer Figure 21.4 Pawl type transfer mechanism •
mechanism in which the workpieces move from one machining station to J. Pivoted finger, 2. Transfer bar, 3. Bar support, 5. Guide rails, 6. Work (part)
the next . A single transfer, either round or rectangular in cross-section, has
a series of pivoted fingers or pawls attached, to it. These fingers are either The rotating bar has fingers attached to it and it rotates by the use of
spring loaded or weighted so as to latch against the rear end of the a hydraulic cylinder the bar. This rotating bar with fingers are used for
workpieces as shown in Fig.21.4. Thus a forward stroke of the bar transfer parts with narrow sections. It has the advantage that the p�rt can b� tra�ped
the parts. The fingers rotate upward and slide along the upper surface of to avoid overtravel. Rack and pinion is a simple mechanism and 1s widely
the parts during the return stroke causing the bar to move in the backward used to index a circular table at various angular positions and
direction. The pawl type mechanism is suitable for parts or workpieces corresponding to workstation locations. However it is not suitable whe�e
having good sliding surfaces. high speed is required. Ratchet and pawl mecha�ism is unreliable and ts
.
prone to jam occasionally. The Geneva mechamsm uses a contm�ously
Walking beam : This type of transfer mechanism provides positive rotating driver to index the table. Fig.21.6 shows the Geneva mechamsm.
movement of parts from station to station without sliding. It is, therefore,
used to move workpieces of soft metals which would be subjected to too
much wear if they arc allowed to slide along guideways or rails on the
surface of the bed.
In this type of mechanism two cylinders are used. One raises and
lowers the transfer bar and wo.rkpieces while the other reciprocates the bar.
This is schematically shown in Fig.21.5. When the cylinder B lifts the
transfer bar and the workpieces, the ·cylinder A retracts pulling the transfer
bar that slides on the wheels attached to the end of the cylinder rod. The
cylinder P then goes down lowering the transfer bar and leaving the
workpieces in an advanced position. At this time, cylinder A advances
returning the transfer bar to its original position.
Figure 21.5 Walking beam transfer mechanism
·Rotary transfer mechanism : The type of transfer mechanism is used A, B. Cylinders, 1. Work or part, 2. transfer bars, 3. Fixed rails, 4. Wheels
where parts are to be trapped. The mechanism used generally include:
TRANSFER MACHINING 659
Control and disposal of swarf: A huge amount of swarf is produced due
Besides the to the high rate of production. Therefore, some means must be provided
Driver Table spindle
mechanical devices for regular removal of the swarf while the machine is in operation. To
described above, there are reomve swarf from the machine a conveyor system is used. It is a common
hydraulic and pneumatic practice to provide a gap in the ways so that swarf falls into the conveyor
arrangements for placed below the bed and the sliding ways remain clean. Since conveyor
transferring the work from system alone does not take care of the clogging problems on the work
station to station. The itself, the chips are removed from the work by a blowing system using
advantage of hydraulic compressed air. However, to direct the chips to fall in the conveyor, the
Driven member
power is that it lends itself bed is provided with sides which slope inward like a hopper.
to automatic control, and
operate not only transfer Figure 21.6 Geneva mechanism Sequence of operation : This is initially determined from the machining
devices but loading devices, machining heads, clamping devices, etc. requirements for which the machine is designed and arranged. The various
operations that may be performed by transfer machining include drilling,
21.4. AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT tapping, reaming, counter-boring, milling, etc. Their synchronization is
important. Therefore, all the components must be moved to the next
The parts or units so far been described constitute the back bone of a machining station simultaneously, location and clamping of the work must
transfer machine. To equip it for work many additional equipment are be done automatically as soon as the work comes to a machining head ; the
incorporated in it. The chief of these include head must come to descend and begins to cut as soon as it comes in contact
with the work. In fact, no operation must start until the lob is indexed and
Electrical control system : It initiates and controls the movement of the clamped, and the comp<?nent must not be released until the tool have
work along the bed, and clamp, unclamp and locate the work at each completed their cut and withdrawn.
machining station. It also controls driving and feeding of the cutting heads
and the depth of cutting. It provides facilities on the console for regulating 21.5 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
the cycle of events, and gives information of what is taking place with the
visual signals and as to when a fault occurs with the aid of danger signals. The chief advantages in favour of its use include the following
It is, therefore, by the sophistication of electrical control that advancement
in the methods of production is made possible by transfer machining. I. Greater output is obtained in comparatively lesser lost.
2. Heavy components and components of extremely awkward size
Work holding devices : In the pallet system, the job in its fixture is and shape can be handled.
supported on a pallet which slides on the bed sideways. In the non-pallet 3. Large number of operators are not required.
system, the work slides directly on the bed. In some cases, particularly 4. Considerable floor shape is saved by closed grouping of
when the work is regular in design and possesses a flat surface, means are mal:hines.
available to provide a suitable fixture with provision for clamping and 5. The life of cutting toll may be considerably enhanced. This
locating the work at machining station. In the pallet system a conveyor is reduces cost of replacement and time for resetting.
also used for the pallet to come back from the unloading to the loading 6. Greater accuracy is obtained as the work is clamped in fixture
station. throughout .
A common locating method is to use holes in the underside of the 7. Lesser time is required for a complete production because the
component or its supporting agent and arrange for plungers to draw the machine is fully automatic.
component into the exact position for registering in these holes. Clamping
is usually operated by compressed air or hydraulically, and locating by
suitable means.
22
The disadvantages which limit the use of this machine include :
I. Initial cost is very high .

2. Electrical control system is very complex .
3. A brca� down of one machine means stoppage of the whole l ine PROCESS PLANNINGS AND COST EVALUATlON
4. Limited only to high production jobs .
5. Reshuffl ing and overhauling cost is very high 22.l INTRODUCTION
REVIEW QUESTIONS Process planning is the procedw-e used to develop a detailed list of
manufactw-ing operations required for the production of a part or a product.
1. What is a transfer machine ? List its advantages in high volume It is the linkage between product design and product manufacturing.
manufacturing. Process planning establish'es an efficient sequence of operations, select
2. What are the classifications of transfer machines ? proper equipment and tooling, and specifies their operations in such a
3. Describe the structure and operations of an in-line transfer machine. manner that the product will meet all requirements stipulated in the
4. What is the difference in construction of drum type transfer machine specification. At the same time, the process will be performed at minimum
with rotary indexing table transfer machine ? cost and maximum productivity.(Please refer Fig. 22.1)
5. Describe the main parts of a transfer machine. Basically there are two ways process plans can be generated. They
6. Describe a machinical device that transfer workpieces in a transfer are:
machine.
Outline advantages and disadvantages of using transfer machine in I. Manual Process Planning and
7.
manufacturing. 2. Computer-Aided Processes Planning
22.2 REQUIREMENTS FOR PROCESS PLANNING
A reasonably good process plan must satisfy the following requirements :

I. A brief description of the job to be manufactw-ed which clearly and
comprehensively defines its service function.
2. Specifications and standards that stipulate the service function.
3. Working drawings of the job with complete specification.
4. Drawing of the blank.
5. Data on the quantity of parts to be manufactw-ed in a period.
6. Total quantity of spare parts required for each unit.
7. Equipment data that includes specifications and capacity data of
machine tools, and other available equipment, the data concerning the
arrangement and loading of equipment in the shop.
8. Conditions under which production engineering and manufacturing
are to be organized and accomplished, i.e., whether a new or existing
plants, available equipment in the plant, possibility of obtaining new
equipment, etc.
9. Location of the plant.
10. Availability of manpower to staff the plant.
22
The disadvantages which limit the use of this machine include
1. Initial cost is very high .

2. Electrical control system is very complex .
3. A brc4 down of one machine means stoppage of the whole line PROCESS PLANNINGS AND COST EVALUATION
4. Limited only to high production jobs .
5. Reshuffling and overhauling cost is very high 22.1 INTRODUCTION
REVIEW QUESTIONS Process planning is the procedirre used to develop a detailed list of
manufacturing operations required· for the production of a part or a product.
1. What is a transfer machine ? List its advantages in high volume It is the linkage between product design and product manufacturing.
manufacturing. Process planning establishes an efficient sequence of operations, select
2. What are the classifications of transfer machines ? proper equipment and tooling, and specifies their operations in such a
3. Describe the structure and operations of an in-line transfer machine. manner that the product will meet all requirements stipulated in the
4. What is the difference in construction of drum type transfer machine specification. At the same time, the process will be perfo1111ed at minimum
with rotary indexing table transfer machine ? cost and maximum productivity.(Please refer Fig. 22.1)
5. Describe the main parts of a transfer machine. Basically there are two ways process plans can be generated. They
6. Describe a machinical device that transfer workpieces in a transfer are:
machine. I. Manual Process Planning and
7. Outline advantages and disadvantages of using transfer machine in
manufacturing. 2. Computer-Aided Processes Planning
22.2 REQUIREMENTS FOR PROCESS PLANNING
A reasonably good process plan must satisfy the following requirements :

l. A brief description of the job to be manufactured which clearly and
comprehensively defines its service function.
2. Specifications and standards that stipulate the service function.
3. Working drawings of the job with complete specification.
4. Drawing of the blank.
5. Data on the quantity of parts to be manufactured in a period.
6. Total quantity of spare pa1ts required for each unit.
7. Equipment data that includes specifications and capacity data of
machine tools, and other available equipment, the data concerning the
arrangement and loading of equipment in the shop.
8. Conditions under which production engineering and manufactW"ing
are to be organized and accomplished, i.e., whether a new or existing
plants, available equipment in the plant, possibility of obtaining new
equipment, etc.
9. Location of the plant.
l 0. Availability of manpower to staff the plant.
662 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY PROCESS PLANNINGS AND COST EVALUATION 663
11. Date of starting the work and date of delivery. Jt is wo1thwhile to mention that process planning is a dynamic
process, and the planners are required to analyze the production procedure
22.3 STEPS IN PROCESS PLANING to simplify the processing taking into account of the technological changes
in manufactming.
The pw·pose of process planning is to dete1mine and describe the hes! Some of the aforesaid steps in process planning which require
process needed to produce a part. In order to accomplish these objectives, ftUther explanation are stated below in a greater detail.
the following steps may be followed :
I. To become acquainted with the service function of the part. Manufacturing specifications The chief document in which
2. To study and critically analyse the manufacturing speci Iications and manufacturing specifications are listed is the detail drawing. The drawing
various standards, e.g., accuracy, output, efficiency, etc., that dclinc specifies
the service function. I. Dimensions and machilling accuracy with permissible deviation from
3. To become acquainted with the annual output of the product the proper geometrical form.
4. To study and critically analyse the working drawings to sec whether it 2. Accuracy in the coordination of vari.ous surface with pennissible
is feasible in all respect to produce the pait, and to reveal and correct deviation.
any mistakes in the drawings. 3. Places subject to 11eat treatment and type of heat treatment required.
5. To determine what parts to be manufactured and what parts to be 4. Surface quality.
purchased with their complete identification and required quantity. 5. Machining method required to obtain the specified surface finish if
6. To prepare a list of raw materials of right quality and quantity to be necessary.
pw·chased from outside giving their shape, size and special property. 6. Places of protective coating with the type and thickness of this coating.
7. To select the most economical process for obtaining the blanks, and to 7. Locating place for measurement of dimensions on finished part.
determine the quantities to be produced for the purpose of costing. 8. Special inspection procedw·e, such as x-rays, hydraulic tests, when
8. To determine the most economical process for manufacturing the parts required.
keeping in view the cw-rent production commitments, delivery date,
quantity to be produced, and the quality standard. Lastly the specifications should be coordinated with the machining
9. To determine the best sequence of operation to be perfonned on each process and inspection to the maximum possible extent. If required, slight
part in a particular process. change or alterations may be made to make the planning successful.
I 0. To select the machine tools that will perform the operations with
IDL0
required accuracies.
11. To select any other accessories and equipment like jigs, fixtures, dies,
1
The conversion of engineering design
gauges, etc., that may be required to give higher production rate.

1
12. To lay out the equipment and workplaces, calculate machine loads and
dJ�, ,�I
make necessa1y corrections in the process.
1
0 ..
13. To revise the process to correct all mistakes and shortcomings that .····------------------···------------------'\.
were discovered when the process was realized in actual production.
14. To determine the stages of inspection, inspection procedure and limit i ' i
gauges required for different stages of manufacture to inspect j .. •• j
accurately and at a faster rate. '•••••nn•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• '
�-�--
15. To detennine the set-up time and standard time for each operation and
fix up the rate of payments. \.,--------------------------------·-··--
. --··.
16. To detem1ine the kind of labour for successful execution of the job.
To manufacturing instructions
17. To detennine the estimated cost of the product to see whether or not Figure 22.1 Process planning system
that will complete in the sales market.
PROCESS PLANNINGS AND COST EVALUATION 665
the present condition of the machine is guide to the process planner in

Determination of the blank : Process planning actual l y starts with the making his choice of the proper machines.
selection of blanks. The bl ank size and specifications of th e finished part
are inten-elated and they dete1mine the general outline of the machining and 22.4 PLANNING THE OPERATIONS SEQUENCE
finishing operations.
The accuracy of the blank, which depends on its method of Det�rm�ning the best sequence of operations is an important
step in the
manufacture, and the specifications for the finished machine part dete1mine reahzat10n of a product that is designed for production. Both produc
t cost
the general outline of the machining process and its subdivisions into and product quality are closely related to operation sequence. A
different
roughing, semifinishing, and finishing operations. sequence of operations pcrfonned will result in different operational
times
Selection of machine tools : The selection of machine tools is larg el y different transportation time to the work centre, different tooling
in view of
determined by the choice of the method or process of machining a part. In different locating and clamping surfaces.
other words, principles which gov ern machining processes should be the If a new plant is set up for a product, the process planner has much
basis of sel ection of machine tools. Even though it is difficult to formulate m�re freedom in detennining the sequence of operation that may
be best
a definite rule for selecting the machin e tool for any type of machining, the Slllted for the purpose. In the case of an existing plant the
operation
following factors must be considered in sel ecting a machine tool for a sequence for a new product is to be detennined on the basis of
avail able
particular operation equipment and loading condition of the equipment. In the latter
case the
process planner must be provided with the following information:
I. Size, shape and material of the workpiece.
2. Accuracy and surfac e finish required. l. List of availabl e machines.
3. Required output and production capacity of the machine tool. 2. List of available general purpose tooling.
4. Pow er of the machine tool to know whether it is sufficient for 3. Capability of equipment.
performing the operation or not. 4. Machine load charts.
5. Performance of the operation to know whether it is economical or not. 5. Standard data.
6. Ease and convenience in operating the machine tool
However, in any case, there are certain fundamental principles
Availability charts : The availability chart is a list of machine tools .
which must be followed in planning the optimum operation sequence.
arranged according to their classes (i.e., classified list) e.g., engine lathes, These are:
turret lathes, automatics and the l ike, giving their identification and model 1. First the datum surfaces should be selected with due attention. The
number, location, general condition, too ling available, cutting sp eeds and
feeds, etc. I Iowever, in the case of new machine tool s, cutting speeds and sel ection of datum influences all subsequent machining operations and
feeds are obtained from catalogue avail able with them. This availabil ity inspections. A surface which is to remain wunachined should be
chart is necessity in se l ecting machine tools for a new product in an selected as the first setting-up datum surface only in the case of first
existing plant. machining operation. In the subsequent operations only machined
Machine load charts shows which machine is remaining idl e and which surfaces may serve as setting-up datum.
2. Surfaces, whose machining will not reduce the rigidity of the work to
one is loaded. Accordingly, the process planner will select the particular
machine tool which may be used to perfonn the machining operation. any appreciable extent, should be machined earlier in the sequence.
3. Int al operations are perfonned in advance of external operations.
Process planner is not so much concerned with machine load chart as the ��
production planner is. This is not a rule that need always to be observed. The principal reason
Capability charts : The capability cha1t may be defined as a chart which for performing internal operations. This is not a rule need always be
shows the ability of a machine tool of doing the work, The capability chart ?bserve�. The principal reason for perfonning internal operations early
shows how much of its rated capacity a machine tool can perform its 1s that mtemal surfaces are less likel y to be damaged in material
function satisfactorily. A machine tool, like any other machine, do not handl ing and subsequent processes so their sw-faces can be completed
remain in the same condition as purchased due to wear and tear in use, and more early in sequence. Another reason is that internal surfaces
they l oose their accuracy in the long run. The capabil ity chart which shows
frequently provide a better means of holding the work and thus help manufacturing cost. Therefore, modem trend is lo mechani;,.c the
ensure conccntricity between inside and outside diameters. handling system wherever practicable.
4. The operation in the sequence should begin with removing the largest 11. Waiting of materials in the stores as well as in process should be
layer of metal. Removing thick layers by heavy cuts will reveal internal avoided as far as possible as it involves different cost parameters
defects in the raw materials (usually castings or forgings) much more associated with them. As far as possible they are therefore located
readily than light cuts. The workpiece is also relieved of internal adjacent to point of use for minimum cost involved.
stresses which eliminate the danger of Wdrping in subsequent
operations. The large cutting and clamping forces that may be The operation sequence is not rigid. It varies from product to
associated with heavy cul affect the accuracy of finished surfaces of product and even in the same product. There is always some scope for
another part of lhe same workpiece and call for those machines which improvement and it should be continuously reviewed for developing better
are intended for roughing operations. Furthermore, heavy cuts methods, increasing productivity and reducing costs.
involving coarse or rough finishes are usually faster with lcss
expensive'Workmen than fine finishes. 22.5 PROCESS PLANNING SHEET
5. Operations, in which an increased number of rejects is lo be expected
due to revealing of defects as stated above, should be performed as Process planning sheet is a detail record where all information relating to
near as possible to the beginning of the machine sequence. It is always different operations needed to manufacture a pa11 arc listed in tabular fo1111.
advantageous lo find out that work is being performed on the defective This is also known as analysis sheet, instruction sheet, operation sheet or
material as soon as possible with the least investment in secondary process design sheet. An example of a process sheet is given in Table 22.1.
processes. The description of the operations and their clements indicated in the
6. finishing operations should be performed at the end of the operation process sheet should give extremely concise but · comprehensive
sequence to reduce clanger of damaging finished surfaces, of changing infom1ation on what is to be done and why. The data. should clearly
their dimensions and coordination in reference to other surfaces or the indicate how and with what the job is to be clone and, if possible, the time
part. expenditure it will require.
7. Roughing and finishing operations should be done on separate The form of such sheets may vary for different production
machines so that accuracy of machines intended for finishing is not conditions. The character of a process sheet will depend mainly on the
disturbed by heavy loads in roughing works. scale of production and the degree of importance of the produ<;t being
8. Inspection stages should be inlTOduccd (a) al"lcr roughing, (b) before manufactured. Furthermore, different types of sheets arc used in
operations which arc to be perfonned in other shops and departments, manufacturing concepts which are already in operation and in organizations
(c) before laborious and important operation (for example, before designing new plants.
preparing datum surfaces) and after them, and (d) alter the last Jn the majority of cases, however, the following information are
machining operation, listed in process sheets
9. The sequence of machining operations should be coordinated with heat
I. Information concerning the workpiece which includes name, drawing,
treating operations which arc of vital importance in the manufacture or
and service function, if possible.
machine part. Deformation of the workplace after heat treatment will
2. Information concerning the blank which includes material, size of
require an increase in the machining allowances for subsequent
stock when used as a blank, character etc.
operations for necessary correction in the geometric form of the part
3. Descriptions and numbers of operations and those of their elements.
by machining.
4. Information concerning the manufacturing equipment such as machine
10. Material handling is a necessity of any productive activity since it
tools, auxiliary equipment, attachments and accessories, etc.
applies to the movement of raw materials, pa11s in process, finished
5. Data on jigs, fixtures and tools such as description, sizes or code
goods, packing mate1ials, and disposal of scraps. Thus operations
numbers.
sequence and material handling are closely linked. This is a lucrative
6. Elements of standard time such as setting time, handling time and
area for possible cost reduction and takes a big slice of the
machining time, etc. In planning manufacturing processes for machining operations

7. Job rating of the worker for each operation. frequently operation sketches are drawn for various operation as shown in
Fig.22.2. The surfaces that are to be machined are indicated on the sketch
Table 22.1 A Simplified Route Sheet together with dimensions giving tolerance desired.
XYZ ROUTING Product Page
COPMANY SHEET no. of 22.6 AN EXAMPLE OF OPERATION SEQUENCE
Part no.
Table 22.2 Operation sequence and process sheet for a bush bearing
Part
name Par/ name : Bush bearing Material : M.S. bar
Number Drawing No. : Fig 22.2(a) Size : 20 mm dia.
Material Blank of part Lot size (available stock size)
per unit SI. Sequence ofoperation Mic shop Tools, gauges, etc. Time analysis
Op. no. Number Equipment Jig or Tool Gauge Standard Remarks No.
of fixture hours Turret Lathe
oocration *I. Face end 2 mm deep Position I Bar ending tool Time for set up,
(Rear slide) handling, machin
2. Feed out bar to stop Position 2 Bar stop ing, tear down for
3. Stop for drilling Position 3 Centre drill each operation, and
4. Drill hole IO 111111 4>, and rough Position 4 drill. IQ 1111114>, lost time allowance
tum to 16.5 mm 4> x 36 mm (standard size), for entire operation
rough turning tool are all recorded.
5. Finish tum to 16.10 mm 4>, bore Position 5 Finish turning tool,
11.5 4>x36 mm and chamfer 0.3 chamfering tool, an
Planner Approved x 45° boring tool.
6. Rough ream 11. 8 mm 4> x 36 Position 6 Reaming tool
Date Date nun (rough)
7. Finish ream 12.0 mm 4> x 36 Position 7 Reaming tool
Issue no Issue nun (finish)
date 8. Cut off to 31 mm length Position 8 Parting off tool
Alteration no. Aooroved Date 9. Chamfer other end 0.3 x 45° Upright drill Chamfering drill
I0. Drill oil hole Upright drill Drill 2nun
(standard size)
11. Cut oil grooves Special rn/c Groove cutter
12. Grind to 161111114> Cy! indrical Finish grinding
grinder wheel
13. Inspect Inspection Limit gauges
de tt.
• ln machining bush bearings from bar stock, the location datum surfaces being the external
surface and faced end which bears against a stop, the facing is first done.
22. 7 DISADVANTAGES OF MANUAL PROCESS PLANNING
Manual process planning (MPP) has many disadvantages. They are

(a) (b) 1. MPPs are largely subjective.
2. The quality of process plan is directly related to the skill and
Figure 22.2 Typical turret layout for a bush bearing experience of the planner.
3. Incorporation of process changes is extremely difficult.
670
4.
Technological changes or changes of batch sizes requires the change in

I \ PROCESS PLANNINGS AND COST EVALUATION
22.8.1 Variant Method : Variant process planning explores the

671
process plan. MPPs are slow to respond. similarities among components (parts) and searches through a data base to
5. It is di!ficult to check if the process plan is consistent and optimized. retrieve the standard process plan for the part family in which the
_ component belongs. The plan is them retrieved and modified to create a
When 1t is not optimised it will specify excessive tooling and material
_ suitable plan for the new part.
requirement.
6. It is tiresome to search manually the process plans of similar parts In the variant approach, the process plan is generated in two
fr om the large amount of documentation of the company. operational stages. They are
1. Preparatory stage and 2. Production stage.
22.8 COMPUTER AIDED PROCESS PLANNING
In the preparatory stage the existing components are coded,
classified and grouped into part families. The classification and coding
�ompute1:-Aided Process Planning (CAPP) has become the most critical
hnk to integrated CAD/CAM systems. CAPP is the application of offers a relative easy way to identify similarity among parts. Part families
-comp�ters to assist the human process planner to execute the process can thereafter be formed by clustering together similar parts. Various
_ codification schemes are established; MICLASS, DCLASS, OPITZ, CODE
planrung fun �tion. CAPP not also reduces the time and effort required to
prepare consistent process plans, but only creates an automated interface are some of the classification schemes. After part families are formed, each
between �omputer-Aided Design (CAD) and Computer-Aided family is assigned a standard plan. A standard plan consists of a set of
Manufactui:111g (CAM) to achieve complete integration withi11 the machining processes, which represents the common set of processes to
manufacturmg system. make the parts. The reader may read the concept of Group Technology
The input of this process is a CAD-model of the workpiece to be (GT) in chapter 23 as a reference for the part family formation.
created �d the result of this process is a detailed process plan from which In the production stage the incoming component is coded based on
the workpiece can be created/manufactured. its geometric feature or the processing requirements. The same codification
A complete CAPP system would include' scheme used in the preparatory stage, is also utilised here. The resultant
code is them used as a basis on which the part is assigned to a part family.
1. Design input. If the coding system is efficiently utilised, the part should be similar to the
2. Material selection. other parts belonging to its family. A process plan for the new part can be
3. Process selection and sequencing. obtained by modifying the standard (of the part family in which new part
4. Machine and tool selection. belongs) plan retrieved from the data base.
5. Intermediate surface determination.
6. Fixture selection. 22.8.2 Generative Method : Generative Computer-Aided Process
7. Machining parameter selection. Planning (GCAPP) synthesizes manufacturing information in order to
8. Cost/time estimation. create a process plan for a new component (part). Decision logics and
9. Plan preparation. optimisation methods are encoded in the system itself resulting in minimum
10. NC tape image generation. or no human interaction in process planning.
A generative system produces a complete process plan from the
engineering drawing or a CAD file.
Two basic approaches to automated process planning are The three areas of a GCAPP systems are2
1. Variant, and 1. Component definition in terms of CAD file. It contains part features
2. Gc.nerative and part specification.
Wang Hsu-Pin and Li Jian-Kang, 1991, Computer-Aided Process Planning,

2
Chryssolouris G, 1992, fyianufact'uririg' Systems, Theory and Practice, Springer
Elsevier, Amsterdam. Verlag, NY
�672
2.
Identification, capture and representation of the knowledge of the

\ PROCESS PLANNINGS AND COST EVALUATION 673
and is usually calculated by multiplying the time required for an operation

process planner. This takes into consideration the reasoning of the by labour rate. Thus, the time to set up and perform an operation must be
decisions made by the process planner about process selection, estimated to find out its labour cost.
sequencing etc. Indirect costs are the costs of those factors which can only be indirectly
3. Compatibility of planner's logic attributed to the manufacture of a specific product. They are sometimes
In GCAPP, design specifications are entered in the system. The called overheads or on costs. Overhead costs are commonly calculated by
decision logic recognizes stock material and machining features of the part. multiplying the operation time by an overhead rate. Such a rate is obtained
It further determines optimal sequences of operations along with the by dividing the total indirect costs applicable to a manufacturing unit for a
optimal fixture types and locations. period of time (say a month or week) by the total number of hours of direct
labour in the same period.
Disadvantages of GCAPP : The following disadvantages are observed in Capital costs are one-time costs or nornecurring costs which include
the GCAPP systems. depreciable facilities such as plant, building or manufacturing equipment
and tools, and non-depreciated capital costs, such as land. Capital costs are
detennined by distributing the major machine and tool costs on an hourly
1. Limited use till to date. The required information (such as tolerances) basis or among the piece produced.
are not usually available in the CAD model. The total cost of a product is the direct cost of manufacturing the
2. A lot of knowledge must be added to the system to make it capable of product plus any indirect costs attributed to the manufacturing of the
handling all the different types of parts that are fed. product.
3. Because of the great degree of complexity of the algorithms and In order for the process engineer to use cost data as a tool to help
enormous calculation effort, some systems specialize in developing analyse manufacturing problem, costs may be more conveniently grouped
plans for specific types of geometries. A few systems go as far as as fixed costs and variable costs.
checking the manufacturability of a part and suggesting changes in the
..
Fixed costs include preparation costs such as of tooling ,setting up,
design, if necessary. etc., and also the interest and depreciation costs which are independent of
the quanti� of the product manufactured.
22.9 COST EVALUATION Variable costs are those costs which vary as the quantity of product
made varies. This includes the direct labour and material costs, and also
A process design is not complete until one have a good idea of the cost that part of the indirect costs wh,ich will vary as production varies.
required to manufacture the product. Generally the lowest- cost design will The total cost of a product can also be seen to be fixed cost plus
be successful in a free market place. So an understanding of the elements variable cost.
that make up the cost is vital. Cost structure : The elements of cost can be combined to give the
Elements of costs : The constitutions of a product or cost elements can following types of cost:
broadly be grouped into (I) recurring costs or manufacturing cost or
operating costs and (2) non-recurring costs. They may again be classified 1. Prime cost. Prime cost or direct cost is given as :
as direct costs, indirect costs while capital costs come under non-recurring Prime cost = Direct material + Direct labour+ direct expenses.
costs. They may again be classified as direct costs, indirect costs, and 2. Factory cost. Factory cost or works cost is given as:
capital costs. Recurring costs include all direct and indirect costs while Factory cost = Prime cost+ Factory expenses.
capital costs come under non-requiring costs. 3. Manufacturing cost. This is given as:
Direct costs are the costs of those factors which can be directly Manufacturing cost = Factory cost+ Administrative expenses.
attributed to the manufacturing of a specific product. These include costs of 4. Total cost: Total cost is given as:
material and labow·. Material cost is the cost of that material which goes Total cost = Manufacturing cost+ Selling and distributing expenses.
into finished product and includes all wastes which has been has been cut 5. Selling price. Selling price is given as :
away from the original stock. labour cost varies fonn machine to machine Selling price = Total cost+ Profit.
I
22.10 STANDARD COSTS
In cost accounting actual or recorded costs or standard or predetennined

costs are used. The nomenclature actual cost is misleading. Usually
I \ PROCESS PLANNINGS AND COST EVALUATION
the machine is working or the tools are cutting.

- .
675
4· Tear down 'time : This is the time required to remove the tools from tne
machine and to clean the tools and the machine after the last part of the
average labour rates are used rather then the actual ones and arbitra1y lot or batch is machined. This occurs on1y once m· a lo t.
allocations are made for use of capital equipment and for general and 5 Down or lost time : This is the unavoidable tim� lost by the operator
administrative costs. Also actual costs are compiled long after the job in · due to breakdowns, waiting for the tools and matenals.
completed. This approach is chiefly aimed at financial accountability than Th time to perform an operation also includes time for personal
cost control. needs tim: to change and resharpen tools, etc. which are take� to be _about
Standard costs are based on the proposition thnt there is ce11ain 20 pe� cent of the sum of all other times. Be�ides, there are mspect10n or
amount of material in a part and a given amount of labour goes into the checkin times which vary from instrument to mstrument. .
iach operation on a particular type of machine tool 1� d1v1ded mt� a
part's manufactw·e. In a given period of time costs tend to vaiy around . . .
some average cost per unit or per hour. Through the use of standard costs, number of smalI elements. These elements can be standardized, measui ed
guesswork is reduced and a standard that measures performance is .
and then recorded. This is mostly done under Tin1e and 1:1oti�n stud�
established. Each part and assembly has a standard cost card on which is .
Standard data is also available for various times. -�achmmg tlme �1
recorded the standard material, labour, and overhead costs, and the total . \ �
calculated with the help of formulae for each machinmg operation w ic
cost. takes into account the feeds, speeds, depth of cut and tool travel plus tooI
The system of standard costs consists of two parts : (I) a base approach.
standard and (2) a cwTent standard. The base standard is determined .
infrequently, e.g., once a year, and the current standard represents the later Machining time : All machining times can be calculated with the basic
cost. The difference between the two is the cost variance. formula:
L
22.11 ESTIMATING LABOUR COSTS Sm
where T,,, Cutting time in minutes.
All direct and in direct costs excluding labour costs are determined by the L Total tool travel in mm.
accounts department of the plant. Process planners are mostly concerned Sm Feed of tool in nun/min.
with labow· costs which are directly related to the process or
manufacturing. However, the total time required by workers to perform an It has already been stated that the total tool travel includes approach
operation may be divided into following classes distance and over travel.
Now Sm S, x n
where S, feed/revolution of work or cutter
1. Set-up time : This is the time required to set up elements to prepare for
lOOOx v
the operation. The elements include: time to study the blue print or to and n r.p.m. of work or cutter
do any paper work, time to get tools from tool-room, time to install the 1td
tools on the machine. Set-up time is performed usually once for each lot where v Cutting speed in metre/min of work or cutter.
of parts. If 20 min are required for a set-up time must be charged and d diameter in mm of work or cutter
against each piece. The time for each or the elements is taken from L
Therefore, Tm
standard tables usually available with the estimators. s xn
2. Ma11 or ha11dling time : This is the time the operator spends loading
Calculation of machini�g time for each operation and their feed,
and unloading the work, manipulating the machine and tools, and
speed and depth of cut have been given in each chapter or they may be
making measurements during each of the operation.
available in hand books.
3. Mac/tine time : This is the time during each cycle of the operation that
\
22.12 METHODS OF COSTING 23

The method used to develop cos t evalua tion. f;� II mto three categories:
methods engineering, cost b}' analogy, a nd stat1st1ca l ana lysis of historical CAD, CAM AND CIM
data.
.
In the methods engineering a 1. ach.' that is_ usually followed, th e
f ��
sepa ra te elements of work are identi i l eat detai l. and summed i_ nto the
t�tal cost per p art. A typical, but sim lifie exa1�ple , ts the product10n of a 23.1 INTRODUCTION
J .
simp le fitting from a steel forging. T is is shown m Table 22.3. ny aspects of our life. The
e productivity in ma
Computer is a tool to increas lassified into ( I )
ng utilized currently can be c
TABLE 22.3 ESTIMATING COST OF A PART areas where computers are bei (3} Engineering
Scientific applications and
Business applications, (2) �d ed Design
lications include Computer
applications. Engineering app
Opera/1011s Material Labour Overhead Total
Co mputer Aided
Steel forging 37.00 37.00 ed manufacturing (CAM).
(CAD) and Computer Aid CAM.
Set up on million m/c 0. 20 0.80 1.00 at attaches CAD and
Process Planning is the glue th omput r h ardwa re a nd softwar
e to
Mill edges 0.65 2.60 3.25 tion of
CAD is the direct integra
c e
elling, eng ineering ana lys is
Set up on drill press 0.35 1.56 I 91
exe cute de sign, des
ign retrieval, ge ometric mod
Drill & holes 0.90 4.05 4.95
and automatic drafting. software to carryout
Clean and paint 0.30 0.90 1.20 er hardware and
CAM is th e use of comput part. The most
37.00 2.40 9.91 Rs. 49.31
tu l manufa turi ng planni ng and production of the
ac a c
Material cost, 75 per cent : direct labour, 5 per cent '. overhead , .....,o per cent important elements of CAM
are
a mming techniques.
REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. CNC manufacturing and progr
s applications.
2. Computer - controlled robotic
tem s (FMS).
1. Why process plan ning is c onsidered e ssential in any manufacturing 3. Flexible manufacturing sys
tion (CA I) techniques .
indu_stry ? Explain. 4. Computer - aided inspec
2. O�thne t.he steps in process planning . 5. Co�.e;=11ided testin g.
3.
��f�y �1scuss the requireme nt of pr oce ss planning . . anagement
4. a ypes of data and inf ormati on are required to plan a nufacturing (CIM) is a m
m anufacturing pr ocess ?
Com� - Integrated Ma th fun tions of design
s and co-ordinates all e c
What d o y ou understand by m uf cturing
. philosophy which rationalize ma nufa cturing
5.
i � . speci:rcations ? Explain . ma nuf a tuftn g usi ng computer, commu
nication and
6. What are the fact ors on wh c�� ach1ne to ol is selected in carry ing and c
out an operati on ? tec hnologies. tion, raw
. starting from product defini
7. Hnw the operations sequence i s de te m nef ? Why d o you feel that CIM considers all functions t. Thus it takes
� � patching of the final produc
one set of machine sequen ce m ay be e er ha n another ?
material acquisitions to the dis
What types of information a c ss planner m ay need to fix the D and CAM.
into account all functions of CA
8.
�
operation s sequence for manuf��u� m � a pr oduct ?
9. What is a process sheet ? What i s it s utility. ? Why it is a must for
pl�nning of production. 23.2 COMPUTER SYSTEM
.
10. "".hat are the di sadvantag es of manual pro�ess planning? Discuss .
er system consists
of various functional
11. f
Discuss in brief the methods o ? �m puter-a1ded process planning? A simple digital comput are termed as har
dware.
12. What is standard cost ?· Where I t is useful ? Expla m · . components. The
various physical components
13. H ow labour c ost is estim ated ?. Als o out.m ,· e the break - up of total
m achine ti me of manufacturi ng a comp onent .
I \
•
CAD, CAM AND CIM 679
p-·-�----------"
Softwares consisting of programs and instructions are used to control th e
working of a computer.
Memory unit Auxiliary memory
Hardware : Fig.23. l shows the schematic diagram of a digital computer
system. Thes e components are input devices, output devices, arithmetic and
logical unit (ALU), main memory unit, auxiliary memory unit and control
unit. Control unit Output device
Input device
Input devices : Input de vices are used to enter data or information

into a computer. Keyboard , magnetic disk drives, tape drives are some of
the input devices used in computers. Arithmetic/
Output 1/evices : Output de vices are used to let information out of a Logic unit
computer. Video display unit of a computer, mass storage devices (disk (ALU)
drives, etc.), printers, plotters and scanners are some of the output devices.
Arithmetic and logic11/ unit (ALU) : ALU consists of a single and
exhaustive electronic circuit capable of performing any desired arithmetic Figure 23.1 Sch�matic diagram �f� digital computer system
or logical operation. The design of such circuit is based on the concept of
e specially developed
binary algebra. In binary system 'O's and 'l's can represent any number. Lallgttages : Computers understand som .
unic�te with outs1d.e �orld.
Control 1111it : The internal control mechanism of a computer co languages for them so that they may co�
d1v1ded m two categones . low
ordinates and synchronizes all the activities of the comput er system and as These computer languages again can be
such this unit can be called as supervisor in a computer system. This unit level languages and high level languages.
uages known as machine
monitors the feeding of data in and out of the system. lt checks also if the Low level languages : Low lev el lang
r syst em. This category bear�
data is correctly transmitted from one component to the other components language is understood by compute .
Engl ish word s. A smgle_ compute1
of the system. The ALU and control unit together is termed as central very little r esemblance with
fact the �articular CP�
processing u11it (CPU) of the computers. understands not all machine languages. In_
h machine language it
M11i11 memory unit : Main memory unit stores the coded program chip used in a computer determines whic
e used by IBM _personal
instructions and the data in binary form. Main memory unit also holds accepts. For example the machine lan�uag
language used 111 Apple
intermediat e results and the answers before they are printed or transferred computer is not same with the machine
ber systems and as such
to output devices. computer. The machine languages are num
har to use. It takes hundr�ds of
A11x.ili11ry memory : Auxiliary me mory also known as secondmy these are very difficult to -learn and d
uctio ns to p rform even for a simple
111emo1:v is use d in computers. To store the information which is not lines on machine language instr
e
currently needed. The auxiliary storage of a computer usually has a much progra1mning job.
larger capacity than the main memory. This auxiliary memory can not
es are gen eral �urp�se
communicate with any other units of the comput er directly but can be High level languages : High level languag
es. They ar� English like
accessed through the main memory unit. The cost of storing information in application oriented programming languag
of Enghsh language.
the secondary memory is much lower and data remains intact even if the and contain some familiar phrases and terms
wi h the help of a system
auxiliary memory is not operative. However the time to access the They are translated to machine language �
e of the high level languages are
information in auxiliary memory is much higher. program known as compiler. Som
PAS CAL , C tc.
BASIC, FORTRAN, ALGOL,
e
Software : Computer software includes languages, operating syste m, utility

software, and application software.
....
I
I
Operating sys�em : pe ating syste CAD, CAM AND CIM 681

? � m consists of a set of system
prog�am that 0Jlect1vely simplify
� the operation of a computer mo
effic1ently. MaJor us er - benefits of st The benefits of CAD are given hereunder:
an efficient operating sys tem include
the fac1. hty .
to carry out relatively complex ta
. sks by typing in compute
keyboard s 1mp l� one or two command words. Var r l. Faster rate of producing drawings.
systems are vatlable.
ious popular operating 2. Greater accuracy of drawings.
� MS-DOS used in 1BM Personal Com
popular Unix s also becoming puter i s very 3. Neater drawing.
: popular for computer having high
processmg power. er 4. No repetition of drawings .
· ty pro grams : A utility program is writ 5. Special draughting techniques not available in conventional
. £.!
tili
routme Jobs that allow the operator ten to accomplish draughting.
. (a) to use his computer to communicat
with other system n d (b) to check e 6. Quicker design calculations and analysis with a given input or
� if various components of the compute
syste
� ar� operatmg properly or not. Some diagnostic utili r change in input.
ev�n 1dent1fy which chip in the com ty prog ram s 7. Integration of design with other disciplines.
puter hardware needs to be replaced
a sick computer. in
"!-Pplication programs : An application prog The CAD computers can be of various types. They are classified
. ram is a set of into four types : micro, mini, main frames and super computers. Micros are
instructions that is designed to . .
perform specified desired task.
progran�s, educational programs, Game presently - used personal computers . Workstations, a form of mm1-
. business system programs are
apphcat,on program. These prog all computers, mostly used for CAD work, are more powerful and reliable than
rams can be written in hi<>h leve
languages or in machine languages. 0 l micros. Mainframes are multi-user, having many hard discs and are very
fast machines. There are many CAD packages. , Among them AutoCAD
23.3 COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN (from Auto Desk, In c) is widely used as a design and drafting package
implemented on PC and mini-computers. Core/draw is another u�eful, easy
Go?d engin cring design is the to draw software package. High level languages used for science and
. � foundation of product reliability
ma111ta1. 11ab1l'.ty. Functional considerations during design must take
and engineerin g applications are also capable to represent drawings in a limited
account, we1gl t, s t1 cng!h, thermal into way.
� : properties, kinematics, and dynami
Not only funct1onaltty of a product cs .
is considered, the economics of usin
the product also should be address g 23.4 INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES FOR GAD-WORK
ed to. CAD takes into accou n t all
parameters lo make a design s uccess the
ful.
In the present usage CAD mea Various input devices are required to facilitate CAD work. They include
. . ns a design process using Light pen, Joystick, mouse, trackball, tablet, keyboard etc. Two of the input
soph1st1cated computer
. graphic s , back ed up with computer software
packages to �1d analysi� and cos ting associated with devices are described in brief hereunder.
can be effectively used m the five pha the design work. CAD
s es of the des ig n proce
ss es : Light pen contains a photo-detector at its tip and detects the light
I. emitted from the screen. Through a timing circuit it can determine the X-Y
Geometric modelling.
s creen co-ordinates. A light pen can be utilized as a drawing pen directly
2. Engineering analysis. on the screen. However it is not much used presently.
3. Des ign review Mouse is a small hand-operated device, which is moved over a flat
4. Evaluation. s urface. When it moves the distance traveled is inputed to computer system
5. in terms of X, Y co-ordinates, which i s the relative, positional information.

Automated drafting and presentation
. Mechanical and optical are the two variations of mouse type. A cable
connects the mouse with the computer and is known as tail.
l
ation
ically a volume oriented repr�sent
2. Solid modelling: This is bas crea te 3-D geornetnc mod els.
roach to
. .
There are various output devices. They are cathode ray tube (CRT), scheme using a 'building block' app
liquid crystal display (LCD), laser printers, inkjet printers, dot- matrix Many methods exist. They are:
printers, and plotters.
Cathode ray tube (CRT) or visual display unit (VDU) is the most I. Pure primitive instancing (PP!).
n (SOE).
comm�n display u11it. The sensitivity is expressed in pixels. A high 2. Spatial occupancy enu meratio
.
resolut1on screen will have l OOOx I 000 to 2000x3000 pixels, and can be 3. Cell decomposition (CD).
use� for �AD-work. A liquid crystal display unit uses an organic liquid, 4. Sweeping (S).
G).
havmg a high degree of modular order to change the polarization of light. 5. Constructive solid geometry (CS
(BR EP) .
�aser p�inters use electrostatic fields to transfer toner to the paper. 6. Boundary representation
The umt contams a rotating drum which is coated with selenium based NUFACTURING (CAM)
photosensitive material. Light (LASER) falling on the drum changes 23 6 COMPUTER - AIDED MA
electrostatic charge over the drums. As the drum passes through the toner They are :
.
reservoir, the charged areas attract toner powder. Through a toner CAM can be divided in two parts.
transferring mechanism the toner is subsequently transferred to the paper
and a hot fusing roller melts the toner at 260°C and fixes the toner on I. Manufacturing planning.
paper. Presently the laser printers are having 600x600 dpi resolutions. 2. Manufacturing control.
Dot matrix printers are impact printers using movable needle to planning contains
form the dot marks. I !ere each character is divided in a matrix of dots and CAM application of manufacturing
each time, the needles print one ve11ical line of dots for a character and
then the print head is moved horizontally for the next column of the I. Cost estimation.
.
character till the complete character is printed. The cycle is repeated till a 2. Computer - aided process planning
3. Computerized machinabilit y data syst �ms.
complete line is printed. The paper position is initialized to the next line. par t pro gram mm g.
4. Computer assisted NC .
Pen plotters are used mainly to produce drawings. There are three duc tion and inve ntor y plannmg.
.
mputs to the plotters; an X-coordinate, an Y-coordinate and a pen 5. Computer aided pro
variable. The pen variable makes the pen to touch the paper to draw or ng control include
keep it in a non-drawing position. Sophisticated plotters may have multiple CAM applications of manufacturi
pens for color plotting. The sensitivity is around 0. J 2 mm.
I. Shop floor control.
23.5 GEOMETRIC MODELLING 2. Quality control and testing
ing.
3. Shop floor information process
A �eom�tric modelling system supports the creation, storage and sta11ed with the development of
ma111pulat1on of the description of the geometry of physical objects. There Historically the work in this field was. the
plex components. The next step
are different geometric representation schemes. They are broadly classified NC machines for producing com kno wn as com put er-a 1ded
mming tool,
as : (I) Wireframe model and (2) solid models. development of high level progra of coo rdin ate calc ulat
.
ions and
the tasks
part programming like APT where syst em
to generate the necessary control
I. Wireframe model: In this model the user enters 3-D vertices of a tape preparation were automated
component. Joining the vertices creates a 3-D object called wire frame. codes for machining. ot
another landmark for CAM . . Rob
This representation contains only points and line. A wireframe drawing Use of robot in manufacturing is e and man ipul ate
device, designed to .mo:'
of a solid object is not often clear. is a programmable, multifunction
ized in many CAM appltcat1ons.
materials, parts, tools etc. util
ISO as an
Benefits of CAM can be listed as given hereunder: Industrial Robot: An industrial roboe is officially defined by lator
reprogra mmabl e, multipu rpose manipu
automaJically controlled,
e in three or more axes. The field of industr ial robotic s may be
I. Higher production rate with lower work force. programmabl
systems for
more practically defined as the study, design and use of robot
2. Less likelihood of human error. definition relying on the prior definiti on of robot)
manufacturing (a top-level
3. Increase in manufacturing efficiency. applica tions of industrial robots include weldin g, painting, ironing,
Typical
4. Repeat�bifity of production processes via storage of data. t inspect ion, and testing , all
assembly, pick and place, palletizing, produc terms
5. Analysis of deficiency to take con·ect measures. nce, speed, and precisi on. The followi ng
accomplished with high endura
6. Better production control. are to be understood for knowing the topic:
Flex _ibl� Manufacturing System (FMS): FMS is another important CAM Articulated robot its work
An articulated robot is one which uses rotary joints to access
application. FMS system is characterized by the following components: arrang ed in a ·'chain ". so that one joint
space. Usually the joints are
supports anothe r f' i.J rther in the chain.
l. Two or more work stations with computer controlled machine
tool (normally machining centre) SCARA robot Robot Arm or
The SCARA acronym stands for Selective Compliant Assembly
2. �n automated materials handling system for moving the work ated Robot Ann. In genera l, traditio nal SCARA's are
Selective Compliant A1ticul
m-process (WIP). within their work
4-axis robot arms, i.e., they can move to any X-Y-Z coordinate (Theta
3. Mech�nism for transferring WIP between the machine tools and which is the wrist rotate
. envelope. There is a fourth axis of motion
materials handling system. comm on types of indust rial robots .
Z).. Figure 23.3 shows some
4. Storage by an automated storage and retrieval system (AS/RS)
of WIP and tooling. Cartesian coordinate robot
three principal
5. Central computer control of the entire process. A Cartesian coordinate robot is an industrial. robot whose
straight line rather than
axes of control are linear (i.e. they move in a
rotate) and are at right angles to each other.
In F�S, the term flexibility means that the machine is able to
process a variety of components without having to adjust machine set-ups Coatinuous path
y every poinl
_
or tool changing. A control scheme whereby the inputs or commands specif
by the coord inated
�p�fication characteristics of FMS relative to other system are along a desired path of motion. The path is controlled
motion of Lhe manipulator joinls .
shown m F,g.23.2.
Degrees of freedom (DOF) rs can move.
The number of independent motions in which Lhe end effecto
ulator .
Stand-alone defined by the number of axes or motion of the manip
NC machine Gripper
end of the last
A device for grasping· or holding, attached to the f ee
r
Flexibility and Flexible manufa-
link; also called the robot's hand or end-ef fector .
variety of parts cturing system manipulator
Payload
d by the robot
Transfer line I The maximum payload is the amount or weight carrie
ed speed while maint aining rated precis ion. Nominal
manipulator at reduc
Low Medium High
Production volume
; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_robot
Figure 23.2 Production volume versus manufacturing system
payload is measured at maximum speed while maintaining rated precisio
n. testing for optimization can be carried out subsequent!�. Recent
Tht>�e ratings arc highly dependent on the size and shape of the
payload.
Reach developments in computer graphics and simulation have �rov1ded more
The maximum horizontal distance from the center or the robot ba�c tools to the electronic prototyping. It is now very much feasible to take the
to the
end of its wrist. 3-D model data and produce the product as a virtual prototype inst�ad o'. a
Accuracy real one and testing may be conducted to analyze geomet1y, funct10 nality
The difference between the point that'a robot is trying to achieve and .
the and manufacturebility of the designed products. Recent advances m the
actual resultant position. information technology may give the feeling of testing the prototype of real
Repeatability world by any persons by providing him head sets and �ata glo�es so that he
.
The ability of a system or mechanism to repeat the same motion or achieve may have a feeling of actual experiencing the product m virtual worl�. The
the same points when presented with the same control signals. The cycle-to user may thus gauge how the product will perform and behave m an

cyclc error ofa system when trying to perform a specific task intended environment. The procedure contains the followiDg steps.
I. Product representation and model generation

2. Human computer interaction.
3. Manufacturing simulation to see the performance evaluation of
the product
23.7 COMPUTER- INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING (CIM)
The CIM concept accounts

(b) (c) (d) for all of the firm's operations
hgurc lJ.J l·our rn111111011 rohots: (a) polar (b) cylintlri l·al (l') jointed related to production
arm ,and (d) SCA RA functions. An integrated
central computer assists,
Virtual manufacturing system: Virtual manufaduring is n key wnecpt that augments and automates all
summarizes computerized manufacturing activities dealing with models and the business operations.
simulations instead of oqjeets and their operations in the real world. Virtual Fig.23.4 shows the scope of
manufacturing supports assessment of manufacturability of a new design und
CJM.
provides accurate estimates for processing times. cycle time� and costs as well as
p,-_,.,uct quality. Major business
function and positions of each
Virtual prototyping: Virtual prototyping is a method that helps to visualize function along with
and test C/\ I) models on a computer before they are- physically created. Thus interrelationships are shown
before actually producing the product consumers reaction can suitably be in Fig.23.5
understood about the designed product. The <lcsign can subsequently be Figure 23.4 Scope of Cl M
modified or amended. The timctionality of the product also can be
appropriately judged by fixing a fow measurable parameters Simulation study Potential benefits of CIM are:
can be conducted on its performance. Many pre-production activities like
design visulalisation, product runctionality c:hccking, modification in design I I. Improved customer service 5. Increase productivity.
2. Improved quality. 6. Lower in WIP inventory.
3. Reduce inventory level. 7. High through-put.
4. Lower total costs.
CAD, CAM ANO CIM 689
Bill of Materials (BOM) : BOM is an input file that gives the listing of all
raw materials and parts, necessary to manufacture one unit of a �roduct.
Sales and
BOM also defines identification code of items, and the level of hierarchy
marketing
Purchasing 1------M of the product structure. A typical bill of material record contains the
following data:
AS/RS
Engineering Manufacturing I. Project code, which identifies end items with the project where it
Production
design engineering planning is used.
2. Item code , which identifies the product.
CAD CAE CAPP. GT. BOM MRP.BOM FMS CAT 3. Item description.
BOM GT
4. Unit of measurement.
5. Quantity, the number of components used for one unit of the end
Legends: product.
AS/RS: Automated storage I retrieval !>ystem.
BOM Bill of materials. Group Technology (GT) : Group technology is an important technique_ in
CAD Computer - aided design. the planning of manufacture that allows t�e advantages of ?roduct lme
.
CAE Computer - aided engineering. organization to be obtained in what otherwise would be Jobbmg_ or batch
CAPP Computer - aided processing planning. manufacture. This technique identifies the sameness of parts, equipment or
CAT Computer - aided testing. processes. Machines are grouped according to the routing required for a
GT Group technology. family of parts rather than by their functions.
.
MRP Materials requirement planning. By using this technique, production planning and control functions
are also simplified as the group of machines can be treate� as ?n� work
Figure 23.5 Major elements of manufacturing and scope of CIM centre, thereby decreasing the number of work centres and simphfymg the
routing of parts. Waiting time is reduced significantly and work centre
Materi�ls Requirement Planning (MRP): Material requirement planning utilization in improved.
(MR P) is a computer based inventory and production schedule system that Group technology offers its greatest' benefits when it is extended to
. all phases of production and production preparation including drafting and
considers all that go into completing an order for large job shop situations
wh�re many products are manufactured in periodic lots via several part programming for NC machine.
processing steps. In fact MRP can be described as' a subsystem of The generally accepted benefits of group technology are
manufacturing planning and control system where concept of dependent
part demand is utilized. 1. Reduction in setting up times and cost.
Materials requirement planning usually harnesses the computer to 2. Reduction in material handling costs.
perform thousands if simple calculations in transforming a master schedule 3. Reduction in inventory cost and thus reduction oflot size.
of end products into parts requirement and is based on the fact that most 4. Reduction in throughput time.
manufactured products are made by some hierarchical structure of 5. Reduction in work-in-progress.
subassemblies and component parts. T-hese subassemblies may be further 6. Reduction in planning cost and simplifying the documentation
broken down into their end component parts. Thus the number of and administration ofthe process planning function.
component parts of a particular type depends on the number of end
products required to be manufactured. This technique, along with· good general management p�a�tices,
_
therefore, has a large contribution towards improving product1v1ty m
general and reducing inventory cost in particular.
1
Agile Manufacturing 1 : Agile manufacturing is an 'emerging concept in
industry that aims at achieving responsiveness and flexibility of producing
any component according to the market needs at the quickest possible time.
24
It is the science of a business system that integrates management,
technology and workforce in a most cost effective manner. Agile
manufacturing is a system characterized by its ability to allow rapid
response to continuously changing customers requirements and market
needs. It must be accomplished without compromising quality or increasing
the cost. Any firm cannot be fat and agile at the same time. Before a firm RAPID PROTOTYPING
can get agile, it has to get lean in all aspects such as lean product
development, lean manufacturing, lean vendor arrangements, lean staff etc.
A lean organization has the benefit of speed; reduction in approval
cycles and the decision maker is closer to the fact finder, resulting the faster
and usually better decisions. Any organization that has nor mastered lean
24.1 INTRODUCTION
manufacturing should not expect to have too much success in pursuing
Rapid prototyping (RP) is the most common name given to a host of related
agility. technologies that are used to fabricate physical objects directly from CAD
data sources. These methods are unique in that they add and bond materials
REVIEW QUESTIONS in layers to form objects. Such systems are also known by the names of
additive fabrication, three dimensional printing, solid free,form fabrication
1. Define CAD, CAM and CIM. Why they are considered as important in (SFF) and layered mam1facturing. Today's additive technologies offer
manufacturing ? advantages in many applications compared to classical subtractive
2. Outline the relationships among CAD, CAM and CIM. fabrication methods such as milling or turning.
3. Describe in brief the function of a digital computer with the help of a
block diagram. The capabilities of Rapid prototyping techniques can be listed as shown
4. Outline the scope of hardware and software of computer systems. below:
5. Name a few input - output devices of CAD system. Describe two input I. Substantially reduce product development time, through rapid creation of
and two output devices.
30 models.
6. List the phases of CAD process.
7. List the benefits of CAD. 2. Improve communication (visualization) within multidisciplinary design
8. What do you understand by geometric modelling ? Classify and teams.
describe the types. 3. Address issues of increased flexibility & small batch Sil.CS, while remaining
9. Outline benefits of CAM applications. competitive (rapid manufacture).
10. State the characteristics of FMS. 24.2 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF RAPID PROTOTYPING
I I. Write short notes on: (1) MRP, (2) BOM, (3) GT, (4) Rapid prototyping.
The Basic Process
Although several rapid prototyping techniques exist, all employ the same
basic live-step process. Figure 24. l shows the conceptual representation or a
RP technique. The steps arc listed hereunder:
I. Create a CAD model of the design
2. Convert the CAD model to STL format
3. Slice the STL file into thin cross-sectional layers
4. Construct the model through layer by layer
I Surcnder Kumar, Agile Manufacturing Technology for Rural, Small and Medium 5. Clean and finish the model
Scale Industries, Proceedings: National Conference on "Manufacturing Challenges
in 21" Century", Jan, 2000.
A-4 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY INDEX
Abrasive, 379 work holding devices,284

G CODES FOR MILLING OPERATIONS Abrasive jet machining, 608 jig,293
Adapters,410 precision,293
Geode Function Mode All gear drive, 95 vertical, 288
GOO Rapid positioning (traverse tool movement) Modal Angleplates, I 17,244 operations, 291
GOl Linear interpretation (tool movement at feed rate) Modal Apron,103 parts, 290
G02 Circular interpolation clockwise (CW) Modal
G03 Circular interpolation counterclockwise (CCW) Modal mechanism, 109 standard, 289
G04 Programmed dwell Nonmodal APT programming, 587 tools, 293
G09 Exact stop Non modal Arbor, 410 turret lathe,289
GlO Offset value for tool length Non modal
Gl7 Plane selection X, Y Modal Attachment. taper,,136 work holding devices,291
G18 Plane selection X, Z Modal Auxiliary slide, 191 Boxtool,207
019 Plane selection Y, Z Modal Axle,4 Brakes,491
G20 Input data in inches Modal
021 Input data in metric (mm) Modal Brazing,159
G22 Programmed safety zone (no tool entry) Modal Backgea1·, 93 furnace, 160
023 Tool entry of programmed safety zone Modal Barfeeding mechanism,193 induction, 160
028 Return to reference point Nonmodal
029 Return from reference point Nonmodal Bearings, 7 torch,160
030 Return to second, third, and fourth reference point Nonmodal Bed,234,363,404 Broaches, 533
033 Thread cutting autocycle Modal burnishing,535
G40 Cancel cutter diameter compensation
i3clt drive, type of, 8
Modal
G41 Cutter diameter compensation left Modal Bc!ti11g, 13 elements, 535
042 Cutter diameter compensation right Modal Bevel gear, 28 inserted, 534
043 Tool length compensation (positive direction) Modal progressive cut, 534
044 Tool length compensation (negative direction)
milling fundamentals, 474
Modal
045 Tool offset increase Nonmodal milling operations, 478 pull,534
046 Tool offset decrease Nonmodal nomenclature, 28 push,534
047 Tool offset double increase Nonmodal
048 proponions, 475 rotor kut,535
Tool offset double decrease Nonmodal
0-19 Cancel tool length compensation Modal Bolster plate,491 solid,534
G.:rn �ling off Modal Bonding processes,381 types,533
G51 �ling on Modal
G65 Bonds,381 Broaching,533
Call user macro (one-time call) Nonmodal
()66 Call user macro (repeat call) Modal Boring, 154, 251 continuous,537
067 Cancel 066 function Modal bars, 285 external, 533
073 Peck drilling autocycle Modal
074 fixtures, 287 fixtures, 540
Counter lapping autocycle Modal
076 Fine boring autocycle Modal head,287 gear teeth, 482
080 Cancel any fixed cycles Modal taper,155 hole, 533
081 Drilling autocycle Modal
U82 Countcrboring autocycle tools, 288 horizontal machine, 537
Modal
083 Peck drilling autocycle Modal Boring machine, 279 internal,533
084 Tapping autocycle machines, 537
085 Boring autocycle (return to reference level at feed)
Modal horizontal,279
Modal material, 537
086 Boring autocycle (return to reference level at rapid) Modal
floor types, 281
087 Back boring autocycle Modal mechanism,283 methods of, 536
088 Boring cycle (manual return to reference level) operations, 540
089 Boring cycle (dwell, then return to reference at feed)
Modal multiple head, 282
Modal pull,536
090 Absolute programming mode Modal
oper�tions, 284
091 Incremental programming mode Modal parts of, 282 push, 536
092 Zero offset (programming of temporary zero point) surface,536
094
Nonmodal planer types, 281
Per minute feed programming Modal
G95 Per revolution feed programming table types, 279 vertical machines,538
Modal
098 Return to initial point in autocycle Modal tool mountings, 285 Buffing,548
099 Return to R plane in autocycle Modal
1-2 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY
INDEX 1-3
Capstan and turret lathe, 183 universal, 114
difference, 187 Clamps, squeezing,506
mechanism, 191 adjustable step,242 mechanics of,38
oblique,37 coining,506
bar-feeding, 193 finger,242 embossing, 506
turret indexing, 192 goose neck,241 orthogonal, 42
power required in,45 flattening,506
operations, 217 plain slot, 241
work done in,45 planishing,506
parts,188 U-clamp,241
tool holding devices, 198 Cutting speed,59,66, 177,275 Dies,58
Clapper,block, 301
342,395,356,321 Die support methods, �96
tooling layout,219 box,301
tools,210 Cutting tool, 158 Die types, 499
Clearance angle, 165
types,185 front, 166 classification,158 Direct speed,92
workholding devices, 194 side,166 materials, 71 Dividing head,
Carriage, 94 Closed loop system, 574 nomenclature,53 attachment, 413
Carriage, 113 CNC tramer, 602 types of,36 optical, 457
Catch plates,113 Clutches,22 plain, 455
Ceramics, 74 Collets, 410 Depth of cut, 66, 179, 276, 323, simple,455
Chain drive, 21 Common ratio, 568 343,356,395 universal,455
Chamfering,139 Compound rest,100 Dial gauges. 548 Down milling, 435
Change gears, 101 setting,135 Die accessories,497 Drift, 245
Chasers, 213 Counterbore,155,271 clearance,501 Drill, 254
circular, 215 Computer, angles, 261
combination,508
radial, 214 systems,677 centre,257
compound, 508
tangential, 214 language,679 chuck,247
Chasing dial, 145 follow. 507
Computer-aided design, 681 column,239
Chemical blanking, 617 progressive,507
Computer-aided manufacturing, 684 core, 257
Chemical machining,615 Computer-aided process planning, 670 rubber, 509
Guerin process, 509 designation, 263
Chemical milling, 615 generative method, 671 flat, 254
Chip,breakers, 52 variant method, 671 Marform process, 510
simple, 507 material, 263
built up,51 Countersinking,252 nomenclature,258
continuous,51 Countersinks, 271 Die operations,499
bending,503 oil tube,257
discontinuous, 51 Cost evaluation,672
formation,38 Coupling,5 angle,504 size,262
segmental,51 Criterion of wear, 64 curling,504 spade,254
thickness ratio,40 Cross rails, 300, 330 forming,504 straight fluted, 256
types of, 51 Cross slide, 99, 190, 349 plunging, 503 twist,256
Chisel, flat, 57 Cutter head, 287 drawing,503 Drill head, 240
Chucks,113 Cutters,bolted, 411 cupping,591'6 assembly, 235
air, 116 screwed on,411 shearing,500 J Drilling,153,250
collet, 116 Cutting fluids, 76 blanking,502 force system,48
combination, 115 properties, 77 cutting force,502 power,46
counterboring, 155 purpose, 76 cutting off,503 torque,46
drill, 117 theory of, 79 lancing,503 Drilling machine, 227
hydraulic, 116 types of, 77 automatic, 233
notching,503
independent, 114 Cutting, forces, 42 box section, 230
parting,503
magnetic, 115 oblique, 47 deep hole, 233
self centering,114 pe rforating,502
friction in,60 feed mechanism, 238
piercing,501
punching,501 gang, 232
slitting,503 multiple spindle, 232
INDEX 1-5
drill.372 sizes of,385
operation, 250 Floating holder, 249 truing, 392
face, 370
parts of,234 Fly cutter,286 Grooving,151
flexible shaft, 360
pillar, 229 Follower rest,122 Grouting,555
floor stand, 359
portable, 228 Forces,measurement of,49 Group technology,687
internal, 366
radial,230 Fonning, 152 piston,374
plain, 231 Foundations, 553 Hack saw blade, 57
plain, 362
semi universal, 232 Friction drive,23 Half nut mechanism, 110
planetary, 367
universal, 232 Front brace,404 Headstock,90
portable,360
round section,229 all geared,95
precision,356
sensitive, 228 Galvanizing, 550 belt driven, 92
roll,374
size of, 233 Gear cone mechanism, I 07 motor driven,95
rough, 356
spindle drive mechanism, 240 Gear cutting,442 size of, 375 preoptive,190
tool holding devices, 244 Gear cutting methods, 451 surface, 367 preselcctive,190
types of,227 broaching, 482 spindle, 90
swing frame, 360
upright, 229 fonncd cutter, 451 Helical gear,27
thread, 374
work holding devices. 240 fom1ed disc cutter, 452 milling fundamentals,466
tolerance for, 379
Drill jigs, 244 fom1cd end mill, 481 milling operations. 46
tool and cutter,371
Drill vise,2-12 fom1ed tool,481 tooth proportions, 466
universal,371
Drivers, method, I shear speed,481 Hexagonal bolt,
tool post, 375
Driving dog. !09 templet, 482 production of,220
univer...al, 363
Gear,drive,24 way, 375 High speed steels, 72
Eccentric drive, 492 bevel,28 wet and dry, 378 Hold down,306
Economic of machining, 79 helical,27 Grinding. 158, 357 Hobbing machine,485
Edge angle, end cutting, 167 spiral,28 cutter, 372 Holder, adjustable, 199
Electric discharge machining,631 spur,25 end feel,365 balanced, 208
Electro-chemical grinding,628 womi,30 external cylindrical, 358 bar ending,210
Electro-chemical machining,618 Gear generating methods,482 fonn, 358 boring bar,203
Electron beam machining 638 hobbing,484 combination tool, 200
infeed, 365
Electroplating,550 pinion cutter,483 internal cylindrical, 358 die, 205
Endmills, 421 rack cutter,483 non-releasing,205
machines, 359
Encoders, Gear milling, bevel, 478 releasing,206
operations,377
helical,466 precision, 358 self opening, 206
Face plates, 117 spur,451 solid,205
rough, 356
Facing,149 Geometric modelling, 683 drill, 202
surface, 358
Facing head,281 Geometrical check, 557 fonn tool, 204
throughfeed,365
Feed,59,66, 178,276,322, Grinders,357 knee tool,202
wheel, 379
343,356,395 abrasive belt,361 knurling tool,203
Grinding wheels, 379
Feed mechanism,104,238,335,353 allowance for, 379 multiple cutter, 199
balancing, 393
Feed rod,108 bench,359 dressing,392 offset cutter, 200
File,58 cam, 374 plane angle cutter, 199
glazing in,391
Filing,151 centreless, 361 recessing tool,204
loading in, 391
Finish turning,125 chucking, 366 roller steady,209
mounting, 390
Fixture, 198,338,408, 514 crank shaft, 373 slide tool,201
selection of, 387
Flat chisel, 57 cylindrical,36 I straight cutter, 199
shapes of, 385
Flexible manufacturing system, 685 disc,370
..,,
I ·6 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY INDEX 1-7
tap,205 swing, 524 turret,85 torque,47

V -steady, 209 wedge,524 types,83 Milling cutters, 414
Hollow mill,211 Jig design,principles of, 514 Lead screw, 108 alternate helical teeth, 416
Honing, 546 Jig location,methods of,515 Leveling,554 angle,420
Horizontal boring machine,279 conical,519 Limit s[peed, 565 arbor types,415
Housings, 290,329 cylindrical, 519 Lip angle, 167 elements of face,429
drill bush,519 Live centre, 90 elements of plain, 426
Index driving plate, 148 fixed V,520 Location, 516 elements of side,429
Indexing angular,464 tlat,518 Loose headstock, 98 facing type,415
compound,460 jack pin,519 Lubricants, 76 tly, 423
differential, 462 outside pin, 521 formed, 424
direct, 457 sliding-V,520 Machinabillty, 69 concave,424
gears, 148 Jig,types of,530 Machine tools, 35 convex,424
hcad,454 Journal,4 Machining centre, 600 comer rounding,424
methods,457 Kinematic design,564 Machining time, 179 gear,425
simple. 458 economics of,81 form relieved, 415
Influence of tooth angle,430 Knce,404 Mandrels,119 helical teeth,416
Input-output devices,682 Knockout,498 Marking system, 386 inserted tooth,415
Ion beam machining, 648 Knurling, 150 Measuring equipment, 559 left hand,416
· Metal spraying, 551 materials,434
Jig, 514 Lapping, 254, 545 Metalisation, 551 number of teeth,389
box,532 machines, 546 Metal slitting saw,420 parallel teeth, 416
cast,529 Laser beam machining,641 Milling, 157,397 plain milling, 417
channel, 530 Lathe, accessories of,111 angular, 439 profile relieved, 415
diameter,531 attachments, 11 I cam,442 right hand,415
fabricated, 529 automatic,86 end,436,440 helical teeth, 416
forged. 529 bed,88 face,436 shank typc,415
leaf, 531 belt driven,84 forces in, 48 sharpening,433
machined, 529 bench,84 form,440 side milling, 419
plate, 530 capstan,84 gang,439 solid, 414
ring,531 centre,84 grooves, 441 special, 416
template, 530 centres,112 helical,442 standard,4 I 7
welded,530 cutting tools,158 hexagonal bolt, 438 straight teeth,416
Jig boring machine,293 duplicating,85 keyway, 441 tap and reamer, 426
methods of location,294 engine,84 negative rake,432 thread,425
operations, 295 function, 83 operations, 437 tipped solid, 415
types,294 gap bed,84 peripheral,434 T-slot, 423
Jig clamps, geared head, 84 plain, 437 woodruff key slot, 423
cam,524 motor driven, 85 power,47 Milling machine,397
double acting, 524 operations, 112 profile,440 attachments,411
equalizing,523 parts, 88 saw,440 circular,413
flat, 523 size,86 side,438 dividing head, 413
latch, 524 speed, 84 slots, 441 high speed,412
pivoted, 523 T-lathe,85 straddle, 438 rack, 413
screw,522 tool room,84 thread,444 slotting, 412
universal,412
vertical,412
column and knee type, 398
cutter holding devices, 410
Overhanging arm,404
Overhead pilot bar,200
size of, 494

INDEX 1-9
1
Parallelism, 558 Saddle, 99, 190, 283, 301, 348
drum,402 straight size, 490
Parallels, 312 Safety,
fixed bed,401 tools, 494 milling, 449
Parting off,157
head,399 types of, 487 planer, 344
Part programming, 581 Pressure pad, 499
manufacturing, 401 Sawing, 542
manual, 581 PTP system, 17 machines, 542
mechanism,406 Pulleys, 17
computer-assisted 586 Saws, 542
omniversal,400 Pallet changer, 602 Punch clearance, 501 abrasive disc, 543
pantograph, 396 Pickling, 539 Punch support, methods. 495 band, 543
parts,403 circular. 543
Pilots,497 Rack and pinion, 30
plain, 399 cold, 543
Pitman,491 Radial drilling machine. 230
planer type, 402 friction discs, 543
Pivot,4 Rack, 31 power hack, 542
planetory, 403 Rake, 164
Planer jacks,339 reciprocating, 542
profiling,403 front, 164
centres, 339 Shafting, 4
rotary table,402 negative, 165 Shaper, 297
Planing machine, 325 positive, 164
size of. 407 centres, 315
divided table,327 side, 164 crank, 297
special type,402
double housing, 325 Ram, 350 draw type, 292
tracer controlled,403 mechanism. 350
edge, 326 geared, 298
types , 397 Rapid prototyping,
mechanism,331 horizontal, 298
universal, 399 stereolithography, 693 mechanism, 302
openside, 326 solid ground curing, 694
vertical,400 crank and slotted, 303
operations, 340 droplet deposition, 694
_ work holding devices,408 feed, 309
. parts, 328 LOM, 695 hydraulic, 307
M1lltng processes FDM,696
pit,326 whitworth, 306
fundamental� of 434 SLC,697
size of,327 operations, 315
Multiple turning head,200 Rapid tooling, 698
standard,325 parts of, 299
Reamer, 208, 263 plain, 299
Negative rake, 165 tools, 342 chucking, 264
types of,325 push type, 299
milling, 433 parallel, 264 size of, 302
workholding devices,338 rose, 264 standard, 299
Nose radius, 166 taper shank, 264
Plasma arc machining 646 tools, 319
Numerical control,571 machine bridge, 264
Polishing,151, 548 traveling head, 298
components, 571 machine jig, 265
Poppets,339 types of, 297
computer,596 nomenclature, 267 universal, 299
Press,487 parallel hand, 265
controller, 573 vertical, 298
adjustable bed, 490 shell, 266 workholding devices 311
direct, 596
ball, 487 socket, 266 Shear, plane, 38
measuring system, 575 taper pin, 267
_ guards,511 zone. 38
motion control in,574 Reaming, 154, 251 Side cutting edge angle, 166
f ly,487
classification,578 Rests, 121 Sleeve, 249
gap,489 follower, 122
straight cul,579 Sliding gear, 96
horn, 490 steady, 121
manual mechanism, 106
_ data input, 592 inclined, 489 Robot, industrial,685
machines, 599 Sliding key mechanism, 107
mechanism, 492 Rope drive, 125 Slotter, 348
parts of,490 Rough turning, 125 Precision, 348
Open-loop system, 574 Run out, 457
pillar,490
Output steps, 564
power,488
1-10 ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLCGY INDEX 1-11
puncher,347 chamfering, I 71 eccentric,138

size,348 Table,234,283,328,363,404 counterboring,176 finish, 125
Slotting machine,347 Table,rotary,348 external thread,171 rough, 125
mechanism,350 Tailstock,98 facing, I 73 shoulder, 126
electrical, 352 offset,132 failure, 63 straight,124
feed, 353 Tape punching,572
I
forged. 159 taper, 126
hydraulic, 352 Taper,126 forming,173 with a box root,217
whitworth,350 angle, 127 grooving, I 73
operations,354 attachments, 144 hand,.56 Ultrasonic machining, 611
pans,348 clements, 126 head, 30 I,330 Undercutting,156
tools,355 standards, 136 holders,162 Upmilling,434
types of,347 Taper boring,155 holding devices,198
Socket,247 Taper turning,126 internal thread,173 Variable speed transmission, 21,
Soft jaws,195 methods,131 left hand, 177 V-belt,16
Solid button dies,213 Tapping,156 life,62 V-block,244
Speed structure,558 attachments, 248 measuring, 68 Velocity, range, 565
Spindle, 4,235 Taps,58,271 materials,67 ratio,10 '
speeds,554,555 angle of,274 mechanically fastened,161 relationship,41
Spinning,152 collapsible,216 multipoint,55 Vertical boring machine,288
Spiral gear,28 drill size,253 paning off, 176 Vises,305,409,
Spraying,552 clements of,272 recessing,212 plain,306,409
Spring collcts,410 hand,272 right hand, 177 swivet,306,409
Spring winding, 152 machine,272 shoulder turning,171 tool maker's,409
Spur gear, 25,452 nomenclature of,272 signature,180 universal,306,409
fundamentals,25 solid, 216 solid, 161
milling, 465 Test chart,562 section of,161 Wear,64
operations,465 Thread,chaser,146 square thread,172 criterion of,64
proportions,453 indicator,145 turning,169,211 Wheels,diamond,394
Standard tapers,130 Thread cutting,139 finish,170 grade of,377
Brown and Sharp,130 external,217 rough,170 grit of,383
jarno, 130 internal,155 'types of, 169 marking system of, 386
metric, 130 left hand,146 undercutting, 176 mounted,386, 390
Morse,130 mechanism,110 Tool changer, 602 shapes,385
Steady rest,121 metric,142 Tooling,chart,223 structure of, 384
Step blocks, 243 multiples,147 layout,219 truing, 392
Stop pins, 313 operation,144 Tool post, 101 Wire-cutting EDM,603, 63P
Stops, 339 pick up methods of,146 Transfer machin,;s,651 Workstop,216
button,497 right hand,146 drnm, 654
lever,497 tapered,149 in-line,651
Straightedges, 549 Toe dogs,339,314 rotary,653
Straight turning,124 Tool,angles,163,168 main parts, 654
St rcss,shear plane,46 bit, 162 mechanism,'656
Strip,314 boring,174 Trepanning, 254
Strippers,498 box,207 Tumbler gear mechanism, 107
Superfinishing, 547 brazed tipped,159 Turning,124

Elements of Workshop Technology: U J I I I

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Elements of Workshop Technology: U J I I I

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ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY

VOL II : MACHINE TOOLS

T his revised and enlarged edition is aimed at meeting the current

ISBN: 81-85099-15-4 Rs. 200/-

SOME IMPORTANT BOOKS BY THE AUTHORS

MEDIA PROMOTERS & PUBLISHERS PVT. LTD.

Prentice-Hall, Inc., New York:

Brazed tipped tool 159; 40. Mechanically fastened l4p�ed

boring machine 288; 12. Vertical boring machine parts 290;

wheels 387; 27. Mounting the grinding wheels 390; 28.

19. Numerical control of machine tools

22. Process planning an cost evaluation 661-676 1.2 METHODS OF DRIVE

or group of machines as desired for that much of time as i�

5. Replacement of belts causes the power to shut down producing

Group drive : In this system a very powerful motor drives an overhead 11

to facilitate fixing wheel s or pulleys at any point, it is important that

a cutting tool or the work on 4,500

1333 x 3.142 x 220

Therefore, h.p. = Pv 1.5

sm ex It has been observed that a change of speed is obtained with flexible

Gears whose axes are parallel and whose teeth

Toothed gear may be classified according to the relation of the } xes

1.19 BEVEL GEAR

When two shafts, the axes of which inters(':ct, are to be connected by

Velocity rntio of worm and worm wheel : As in the case of other

effort applied to the driver x distance moved by the effort.

r.p.m. of worm shaft number of teeth in worm wheel h =�

The threads in worm or h.p.

threads in the worm shaft is

The worm wheel will revolve at a speed of 18 r.p.m.

1.23 POWER TRANSMITIED BY GEARING

Figure .1.24 Hydraulic system

1. Name the methods for driving machines in machine shops. Describe

External Internal Straight but Com plex Cutter axis

Figure 2.1 Metal working process

2.2 TYPES OF CUITING TOOLS Depth of cut

Figure 2.8 Cutting forces in conventional turning process

Figure 2.13 Force system in slab milling

2.11 MEASUREMENT OF FORCES

1. The discontinuous or segmental form.

Figure 2.19 Shearing action of a cold chisel

Fig.2.22. This is ;.. .

I. Tool-life between grinds. 2.21 CUTIING TOOL-MATERIALS

lubricant is desirable. With other machining processes, a cutting fluid

cost per Kr(idle time) + 1--+K 1 nDL V" l1tDV II

200 150 lOO JSO Lard oil

1. Differentiate between orthogonal and oblique cutting. What is the utility

3.4 THE SIZE OF A LATHE

The size of a lathe is expressed or specified by the following items and

1 . The height of the centres 0.

3.6 THEBED 3 .4 Lathe bed diagonal ribs

step cone pulley to the spindle to obtain direct speed a lock p in is

6. The drive may be isolated from the headstock spindle by

The disadvantages are :

3.8 TAILSTOCK OR LOOSE HEADSTOCK Figure 3.9 Tailstock

In order to mov·e the cross-slide, the feed screw is turned by rotating

1 . Single screw tool post 3. Open side tool post

Figure 3.10 Carriage

The disadvantage with this type of tool post is that adjustment to

Figure 3;14 Four way toolpost

3.10 FEED MECHANISM

Figure 3.20 Apron mechanism

3.11 THREAD CUTTING MECHANISM