n.

NATURE of social interaction

It is considered a field of study, also known as Microsociology, created

by Erving Goffman

Social interaction is a fundamental feature in life. That is, all individuals,

except those who decided to be monks or live truly as hermits,
obligatorily interact with others daily, virtual or physically.

According to the social order, an effective rule to make a society work

well is effective social interaction.

The interaction itself may involve a single person. Such interaction with
oneself occurs when someone analyzes a given idea or discusses with
himself the pros and cons of an important issue or decision.

Sociologists often use the concept of"social relationship"as a synonym

for social interaction.

Symbolic interaction is also used quite frequently, but this term denotes
interaction through human communication.

Social interaction manifests itself in many ways. One end is reflected by

a very intense interaction, while the opposite end consists of the"zero
degree of social interaction"or complete isolation.

Social interaction is the basis of the whole social order. Social group is
the product of social interaction. There is interaction among animals and
birds also. It is the real foundation of all social processes, structure,
social groups and functions. In sociology interaction is the gate of its
knowledge.

.Types of social interaction

Erving Goffman, the father of microsociology, distinguishes two main

types of interaction:

1- Interaction focused
It is the interaction between a group of people who have a common goal.
These people may have been familiar with each other in the past, or may
have become familiar in the first moment of their focused interaction.
An example of this is a group of young people studying together for a
final exam, a football team or attendees to a concert.

2- Interaction not focused

It does not include any common goal or familiarity, even during the
interaction process. In fact, people who interact may not be aware of
their interaction.

An example given by Goffman himself is the interaction between

pedestrians, who avoid disastrous collisions following traffic signs and
regulations.

The four categories of social interaction

According to Goffman, social interactions include a large number of
behaviors; so many, that in Sociology the interaction is generally divided
into four categories.

1- Exchange
Exchange is the most basic type of social interaction. Whenever people
interact, they make an effort to receive a reward or a return for their
actions. This reward reflects that an exchange has occurred.

Exchange is a social process by which social behavior is exchanged for

some kind of reward, for an equal or greater value.

The reward can be material (a paycheck on a job) or non-material

(a"thank you"from your co-worker). Exchange theorists argue that
rewarded behavior tends to be repeated.

However, when the costs of an interaction outweigh the rewards, it is

likely that people will end the relationship.

2- Competition
Competition is a process through which two or more people try to meet a
goal that only one can achieve.

Competition is a common feature of Western societies.Most sociologists

see competition as positive, as something that can motivate people to
achieve goals.

However, competition can also lead to psychological stress, lack of

cooperation in social relations, inequality and even conflict.
3- Cooperation
Cooperation is the process in which people work together to achieve
shared goals.

Cooperation is a social process that leads to action; no group can

complete its tasks or achieve its objectives without the cooperation of its
members.

Cooperation often works together with other forms of interaction, such as

competition. In a baseball game, for example, a team will work together
(cooperation) while trying to achieve a victory (a goal that only one team
can achieve).

4- Conflict
Probably the most obvious example of conflict is war, but conflict can
also be demonstrated in our daily interactions, such as legal disputes
and arguments about religion and politics.

Conflict can have its positive functions, such as strengthening group

loyalty by focusing attention on an external threat. It can also lead to
social change, putting problems at the forefront and forcing opposing
sides to seek solutions.

Roles and Personalities

Roles help us interact and help make social order possible, but they may even
shape our personalities. The idea here is that if we assume a new role, the
expectations of that role can change how we interact with others and even the
way we think about ourselves. In short, roles can change our personalities.

Role Problems

Roles help our interactions run smoothly and automatically and, for better or
worse, shape our personalities. But roles can also cause various kinds of
problems. One such problem is role conflict, which occurs when the roles of our
many statuses conflict with each other. For example, say you are a student and
also a parent. Your 3-year-old child gets sick. You now have a conflict between
your role as a parent and your role as a student. To perform your role as a
parent, you should stay home with your sick child. To perform your role as a
student, you should go to your classes and take the big exam that had been
scheduled weeks ago.
Emotions and Social Interaction

When we interact with others, certain emotions—feelings that begin with a

stimulus and that often involve psychological changes and a desire to engage in
specific actions—often come into play. To understand social interaction, it is
helpful to understand how these emotions emerge and how they affect and are
affected by social interaction.

Socialization and culture

are definitely linked in a sense that the former is a way to instruct

the latter. Socialization is in fact a set of means and modes which
enable an individual to learn the culture of a society he or she is part of.
Socialization and culture are dependent on each other.

Socialization and culture are definitely linked in a sense that the

former is a way to instruct the latter. Socialization is in fact a set of
means and modes which enable an individual to learn the culture of a
society he or she is parSocialization and culture are definitely linked in a
sense that the former is a way to instruct the latter. Socialization is in fact
a set of means and modes which enable an individual to learn the
culture of a society he or she is part of.

Socialization and culture are dependent on each other. When one says
that an individual is being socialized it does mean that that individual is
being made familiar with the cultural norms, values and customs of his
society.

Culture integration

Cultural Integration can be defined as a form of cultural exchange. It

happens when one person or group adapts to the practices and beliefs
of another group without sacrificing their own. When several cultures
integrate into one another, we call it a multicultural society.

Cultural integration can take place in various situations like workplaces,

marriages, and communities.

An example of this can be many of the restaurants in the United States –

they do not originate from there. Chinese immigrants introduced Chinese
food, and Mexican immigrants introduced Mexican food. Initially, United
States had animistic religious beliefs, but now they have all kinds of
beliefs.

The biggest advantage of this is that it promoted humanistic values and

improves productivity alongside profitability. It also creates a lot of talent
and exchanges ideas that are innovative.

there will always be problems when two opposing cultures collide.

For example, a Hindu believes a cow to be a holy animal, whereas
Muslims ceremoniously sacrifice goats or cows to celebrate Eid. This
can cause a lot of issues between the two cultures.

it can be a lot more complicated than that in real life. It can be

challenging to implement it, especially in the workplace. However, there
seem to be more advantages of integrating various cultures than
negatives. Especially in today’s world

cultural evolution,

also called sociocultural evolution, the development of one or

more cultures from simpler to more complex forms. In the 18th and 19th
centuries the subject was viewed as a unilinear phenomenon that
describes the evolution of human behaviour as a whole. It has since been
understood as a multilinear phenomenon that describes the evolution of
individual cultures or societies (or of given parts of a culture or society).

. Scholars began to propagate theories of multilinear cultural evolution

in the 1930s, and these neoevolutionist perspectives continue, in various
forms, to frame much of the research undertaken in physical
anthropology and archaeology, the branches of anthropology that focus
on change over time.

Cultural evaluation denotes the assessment of a culture’s performance

according to a potentially infinite range of rubrics. The term does not
denote inherently reliance upon perfectionist or good-based criteria
and may be grounded in deontological conditions of rights and justice.
It may often be associated with assessment across or between
cultures.
Description
The evaluation of cultures has a long, ubiquitous history in practice
and an embryonic presence as an academic pursuit. Humans have,
from the earliest of times, evaluated cultures, particularly those of
other groups.

Cultural Pluralism can be defined as an arrangement in a society

where multiple smaller cultures assimilate in mainstream society but also
maintain their cultural uniqueness without being homogenised by the
dominant culture.

The notion of cultural pluralism in the United States has its roots in
the transcendentalist movement, and was developed
by pragmatist philosophers such as Horace Kallen, William James,
and John Dewey. Randolph Bourne, a later theorist, provided one of the
most famous articulations of cultural pluralism through his 1916 essay,
"Trans-National America".
Kallen is widely credited as being the originator of the concept of cultural
pluralism.[6][7][8]  He coined the term cultural pluralism, itself, in 1924
through his Culture and Democracy in the United States.[10]
Cultural pluralism is a term used when smaller groups within a larger
society maintain their unique cultural identities, whereby their values and
practices are accepted by the dominant culture, provided such are
consistent with the laws and values of the wider society

. As a sociological term, the definition and description of cultural

pluralism has evolved. It has been described as not only a fact but a
societal goal.

Example

Stories and poems often reflect the cultural context of the time and place
in which they're created. On the other hand, literature can also play an
active and sometimes profound role in effecting cultural change.

Culture and personality

Early anthropologists who had made significant contribution to this field

culture and personality as interdependent and complementary to each other.
They tried to correlate the type of cultural patterns with the type of individual
personalities obtained in that society. They firmly believed that as a
consequence of continuous contact with a particular type of cultural pattern,
similar types of personalities emerge
 According to some anthropologists and sociologists personality is
the subjective aspect of culture. They look at personality and culture
as two sides of same coin. They had perceived that the development of
personality and the acquisition of culture are not different processes but
one and the same learning process.

Views of theorists

Most prominent  culture-and-personality theorists argued that

socialization practices directly shape  personality patterns.. The
study of culture and personality  examined how different
socialization practices resulted in different personality types.

Like the Functionalist schools Culture and Personality was one

of the reactions against 19th century social evolutionism and
diffusionism

According to some sociologists, the development of personality

and the acquisition of culture are not different processes, but
one and the same learning process. The studies carried out in
1937 by Linton, the social anthropologist, and Kardinar, the
psychoanalyst, demonstrate that each culture tends to create
and are supported by a “basic personality type”.
In their view, the basic personality type found among most of
the members of a particular society is the result of the culturally
similar early childhood experiences, and not of instincts or
inherent ‘drives’. The child is not born in a vacuum but in a
cultural context which affects his mental make-up, habits and
attitudes.

“Culture is the collective programming of the human mind that

distinguishes the members of one human group from those of another.
Culture in this sense is a system of collectively held values.” -- Geert
Hofstede

Linton, R. (1945). The Cultural Background of Personality. New York.

"A culture is a configuration of learned behaviors and results of behavior
whose component elements are shared and transmitted by the members
of a particular society" (p. 32).
Muslim League, original name All India Muslim League, political
group that led the movement calling for a separate Muslim nation to be
created at the time of the partition of INTRODUCTION
British India (1947)

 Anti partition agitation staged by Hindus made it clear to the Muslims that they must have
aseparate political Organization.In December,1906 Muslim Leaders from all over the SubContinent
assembled in Dacca to attend the all India Mohammadan to establish a central political

organization for Muslims called the “All India Muslim League” .The Muslim League was

established with the primary aim of the protecting the political rights of Indian Muslims
andpresenting their demands and problems before the British Government.

FOUNDATION OF MUSLIM LEAGUE

 The success of Simla Deputation made it imperative for the Muslims of the Sub Continent tohave
their own political organization .In 1906 ,the Muslims of India founded a political party of 

their own known as “All India Muslim League.”

CAUSES OF MUSLIM LEAGUE’S FOUNDATION

 The partition of Bengal by the British Government in 1905 greatly embittered the relationsbetween
Hindus and Muslims.The partition ensured a number of political benefits for the Muslimbut the
Hindus reacted towards the partitions of Bengal in a hostile and violent manner .Thismade it clear
that the Hindus were not willing to give Muslims their due share.This violentprotest of the Hindus
convinced the educated Muslims that they could be redeemed only if theycreated their own political
force and their own leadership.

AIMS OF MUSLIM LEAGUE

 The aims of Muslim league are given below:1.To safe guard and protect Muslims intrests and to
convey their demands to BritishGovernment.2.To create a feeling of respect and good will in Muslim
for the British Government.3.To promote brotherhood between the different nations of India.

ROLE OF MUSLIM LEAGUE

 The role played by All India Muslim League in the creation of Pakistan is summarized under:

1.Minto-Morley Reform Act -1909

The Muslims under the able leadership of the Muslim league now began to press for the
separateelectorate for th
e Muslims.The authorities accepted their demand in Act,called “The Minto

Morley Reform Act”,in 1909.

2.Lucknow Pack-1916 

 In November 1916,two committees of League and Congress met at Calcutta and drew anagreement
draft of political reform for India called

“Lucknow Pact”.Through this pact the

Congress recognized the separate status of Muslims

9.Gandhi Jinnah Talks-1944

Gandhi held talks with Jinnah to discuss about the future of India,but no fruitful results
came out of it because Gandhi did not accept Muslims as a separate nation.”
Louis Feisher wrote:
“The wall between Jinnah and Gandhi was the Two Nation Theory .”
11.General Elections-1945-1946
Elections for the central and provincial assemblies were held in 1945-1946 in which Muslim
League won 30 seats of central legislative meant for Muslims and 430 seats out of 495 in the
provincial legislative.Quiad-e-Azam said on this occassion:
“I have no doubt now in the acheivement of Pakistan.The Muslims of
India told the world what they want.No power of world can topple the
opinion of 10 crore Muslims of India.”

14.3rd June Plan -1947

Lord Mount Batten prepared the plan for tranference of power according to the wish of
people.He emphasized on the partition of the country and told that it was the only solution of
the Indian political deadlock.Both League and Congress accepted the plan.
CONCLUSION
Muslim League thus got its object and Pakistan was created on 14th August 1947.In short we
can say that the creation of Pakistan is the result of the ceaseless efforts of the Muslim
League and the great heroes which dedicated their lives for the creation of Pakistan.If there
were be no Muslim League the fate of the Muslims of the Sub Continent could not be
changed.

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