HOW TO

MEASURE SOIL
HYDRAULIC
CONDUCTIVITY—
WHICH
METHOD IS
RIGHT FOR YOU?
 HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY—WHAT IT IS, HOW TO MEASURE IT, and the
pros and cons of common methods.

Hydraulic conductivity: Why you need it

Soil hydraulic conductivity, or the ability of a soil to transmit water, impacts almost every
soilPMapplication. It’s critical toSoil
3/1/22, 12:32 understanding the complete
hydraulic conductivity—What water
it is. How to measure balance
it | METER and is also
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used for estimating groundwater recharge through the vadose zone. Hydrologists need
conductivity for determining irrigation rates or to predict erosion or nutrient leaching. And it’s used
hydraulic conductivity values for modeling,
Food Geotechnical
and researchers
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use it to determine
Horticulture
soil health
Company ponds,
to determine landfill cover efficacy. engineers need it for
or to predict how water will flow through soil at different field sites. Agricultural decisions designing retention
roadbeds,
are based rainongardens, or any
hydraulic system designed
conductivity to capture
for determining runoff. And
irrigation rates it’s
oralso used toerosion
to predict
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or nutrient leaching. Andwater
it’s used to determine landfill cover efficacy. Geotechnical
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understand plant available in soilless substrates. Basically, if you want to predict how water
engineers need it for designing retention ponds, roadbeds, rain gardens, or any system
will move within your soil system, you need to understand hydraulic conductivity because it governs
designed to capture runoff. And it’s also used to understand plant available water in
water flow. How do you measure it? This article explores how to measure hydraulic conductivity,
soilless substrates. Basically, if you want to predict how water will move within your soil
what it is, and
system, youpros/cons of common hydraulic
need to understand methods. conductivity because it governs water flow. How
do you measure it? This article explores how to measure hydraulic conductivity, what it is,
and pros/cons of common methods.

What is soil hydraulic conductivity?

What is soil hydraulic conductivity?
In scientific terms, hydraulic conductivity is defined as the ability of a porous medium (soil for
instance) to transmit water under saturated or nearly saturated conditions. Equation 1 illustrates
In scientific terms, hydraulic conductivity is defined as the ability of a porous medium (soil
whatforthat
instance) i indicates
means.toIf transmit the water
water underflux (the amount
saturated of water
or nearly per unit
saturated area per unit
conditions. time), 1
Equation
that’s equal to K  (hydraulic conductivity) multiplied by the gradient in head  dh/dz .
illustrates what that means. If i indicates the water flux (the amount of water per unit area The head
gradient (or time),
per unit water that’s
potential gradient)
equal is the force
to K (hydraulic causing water
conductivity) to moveby
multiplied in the
soil. K is the in head
gradient
dh/dz. The head
proportionality factor between
gradient (or that
waterdriving forcegradient)
potential and the flux of water
is the in the soil.
force causing water to move in
soil. K is the proportionality factor between that driving force and the flux of water in the
soil.

Equation 1

Equation 1
The head (water potential) can be expanded into its two main components. hm is the matric
head (matric potential) and hg is the gravitational head (gravitational potential). In other
words, there are matric forces causing water to move through soil and also gravitational
forces.
The head (water potential) can be expanded into its two main components. hm is the matric head
(matric potential) and hg is the gravitational head (gravitational potential). In other words, there are
matric forces causing water to move through soil and also gravitational forces. 
3/1/22, 12:32 PM Soil hydraulic conductivity—What it is. How to measure it | METER Environment

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The gravitational gradient dhg/dz is equal to 1. Initially, when water is applied to soil, matric forces
draw water into the soil rapidly (see Figure 2 below). But if infiltration occurs for an extended time
Request aEquation
quote2 REQUEST A QUOTE
to where the soil is very wet, that matric head becomes 0. 
Equation 2
The gravitational gradient dhg /dz is equal to 1. Initially, when water is applied to soil,
matric forces draw water into the soil rapidly (see Figure 2 below). But if infiltration occurs
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for an extended time to where the soil is very wet, that matric head becomes 0. 2/34

Equation 3

Equation 3
So at extended times the infiltration rate is roughly equal to the hydraulic conductivity.
This gives a feeling for what soil hydraulic conductivity means. If water is applied for a long
time, the rate at which the water would infiltrate into soil would be approximately equal to
the hydraulic conductivity.
So at extended times the infiltration rate is roughly equal to the hydraulic conductivity. This gives a
feeling for what soil hydraulic conductivity means. If water is applied for a long time, the rate at
Factors that influence hydraulic conductivity
which the water would infiltrate into soil would be approximately equal to the hydraulic
conductivity. 

Hydraulic conductivity is dependent on factors such as soil texture, particle size

distribution, roughness, tortuosity, shape, and degree of interconnection of water-
conducting pores. If we were only taking into account soil texture, coarser textured soils
Factors that influence
would typically have higherhydraulic conductivity
hydraulic conductivities than fine-textured soils. However, soil
structure and pore structure can have a significant impact on a soil’s ability to transmit
Hydraulic conductivity is dependent on factors such as soil texture, particle size distribution,
water.
roughness, tortuosity, shape, and degree of interconnection of water-conducting pores. If we were
onlyA taking into account
structured soil texture,
soil typically containscoarser
large textured soilsstructureless
pores, while would typically have
soils higher
have hydraulic
smaller
conductivities
pores. Figurethan fine-textured
1 (below) soils.
illustrates However,
the soil between
difference structureaand
wellpore structure
structured can have
clayey a
soil and
significant
a poorlyimpact on a clayey
structured soil’s ability to transmit
soil and water.  of structure to hydraulic conductivity,
the importance
especially at or near saturation.
A structured soil typically contains large pores, while structureless soils have smaller pores. Figure
Biopores, root channels, or animal burrows increase saturated hydraulic conductivity if
1 (below) illustrates
they contain theIfdifference
water. they don’tbetween
fill with a well structured
water clayey
because they soil
don’t and a
reach poorly
the structured
surface, they
clayey soil and the importance of structure to hydraulic conductivity, especially at or
can decrease conductivity. Compaction or the density of the soil is another influencing near
saturation.
factor, as well as the water content or the water potential of the soil.

Biopores, root channels, or animal burrows increase saturated hydraulic conductivity if they
contain water. If they don’t fill with water because they don’t reach the surface, they can decrease
conductivity. Compaction or the density of the soil is another influencing factor, as well as the
water content or the water potential of the soil.
Hydraulic conductivity curves: important
3/1/22, 12:32 PM Soil hydraulic conductivity—What it is. How to measure it | METER Environment

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Hydraulic conductivity curves: important
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predictive tools
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Soil is either saturated or unsaturated, thus soil hydraulic conductivity is either designated
Soil is either saturated
Request or unsaturated, thus soil hydraulic conductivity is either
a quoteconductivity
saturated hydraulic (Ks /Kfs ) or unsaturated hydraulic conductivity (K(Ψ)).
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A QUOTE
designated saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks/Kfs) or unsaturated hydraulic conductivity
use lab instruments (KSAT and HYPROP) to create hydraulic conductivity curves that graph
(K(Ψ)). Researchers use lab instruments (KSAT and HYPROP) to create hydraulic
conductivity values for a particular soil at different levels of saturation/unsaturation. These curves
conductivity curves that graph conductivity values for a particular soil at different levels of
predict water flow in various soil types at different water potentials.
saturation/unsaturation. These curves predict water flow in various soil types at different
water potentials.

Figure 1. Hydraulic conductivity curves for three different soils. Values to the right of the vertical axis indicate saturated conductivity values.
Values
Figureto1.the left indicate
Hydraulic unsaturated curves
conductivity values. Note that the
for three vertical axis
different is aValues
soils. logarithmic axis.right
to the Thus of
differences are order
the vertical axisofindicate
magnitude
saturated
differences (factors of 10, not factors of 1 or 2).
conductivity values. Values to the left indicate unsaturated values. Note that the vertical axis is a logarithmic axis. Thus
differences are order of magnitude differences (factors of 10, not factors of 1 or 2).
Figure 1 shows soil hydraulic conductivity curves for three different soils. The vertical
axis is at 0 head (water potential). Values to the right indicate saturated conductivity
values. Values to the left indicate unsaturated values. The poorly structured clayey soil
(lower line)
Figure has asoil
1 shows saturated
hydraulic conductivity much
conductivity curves forlower
three than thesoils.
different sandy Thesoil. Thisaxis
vertical is because
is at 0
thehead
clayey soilpotential).
(water consistsValues
of small pores
to the right and the saturated
indicate flow paths are morevalues.
conductivity restricted.
ValuesBut,
to theifleft
that
indicate
clayey soilunsaturated
(dotted line) values.
had The
goodpoorly structured
structure (i.e.,clayey soil (loweraggregates
it contained line) has a saturated
with large pores
conductivity
between thosemuch lower than
aggregates the sandy
which soil. This
created betteris because the clayey
flow paths) thensoil
itsconsists of small
saturated pores
hydraulic
and the flowcould
conductivity paths bearehigher
more restricted.
than theBut, if that clayey
conductivity ofsoil
the(dotted
sand.line) had good structure (i.e.,
it contained aggregates with large pores between those aggregates which created better flow
On paths) then
the left its of
side saturated
Figurehydraulic
1, whereconductivity could be
the head (water higher than
potential) isthe conductivity
negative, of the
the soil sand. 
starts
to desaturate, and the pores empty. As the pores (especially the large pores) empty, the
hydraulic conductivity
On the left decreases
side of Figure dramatically.
1, where the So, the unsaturated
head (water potential) is negative, theconductivity
soil starts to is always
less, and in most cases, orders of magnitude less than it is when the soil is saturated.
desaturate, and the pores empty. As the pores (especially the large pores) empty, the hydraulic
conductivity decreases dramatically. So, the unsaturated conductivity is always less, and in most
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Notice that the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity for the poorly structured clayey soil
and the well structured clayey soil eventually meet. This is because at a certain point the
macropores stop contributing to the flow, and then flow occurs only in the mesopores
between the soil particles.
3/1/22, 12:32 PM Also note Soil that the unsaturated
hydraulic conductivity—What hydraulic
it is. How to measure it | METER Environment conductivity curve for
the structureless cases, sandy
orders ofsoil starts
magnitude out
less than
Food
it higher
is when thethan
Environment
the
soil is saturated.  clayey
Horticulture
soil, but
Company
as the soil dries, the
unsaturated hydraulic conductivity becomes lower than the clayey soils.
Notice that the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity for the poorly structured clayey soil and the well
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structured clayey soil eventually meet. This is because at a certain point the macropores
contributing to the flow, and then flow occurs only in the mesopores between the soil particles.
Also note that the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity curve for the structureless sandy soil starts
Field saturation is not saturation
out higher than the clayey soil, but as the soil dries, the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity
becomes lower than the clayey soils.

Saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks) is not the same as field saturated hydraulic
Field saturation is not saturation
conductivity (Kfs). This is because when saturated hydraulic conductivity is measured in
Saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks) is not the same as field saturated hydraulic conductivity (Kfs ).
the lab, soil cores can be brought to complete saturation. However, in the field, it’s difficult
This is because when saturated hydraulic conductivity is measured in the lab, soil cores can be
to bring the soilbrought
to complete saturation.
to complete saturation. However,Why? Typically
in the field, it’s difficult when infiltrating
to bring the soil to completefrom the top,
saturation. Why? Typically when infiltrating from the top, there is not a place for air to escape, so
there is not a place for air to escape, so the soil ends up with entrapped air (Figure 2).
the soil ends up with entrapped air (Figure 2).

Figure 2. As the soil adsorbs water, it creates a water film that clings to the soil particles. There are also pore spaces
filled with air. Under field conditions, it’s difficult to eliminate these air spaces. This air entrapment is why the percent
Figure 2. As
saturation willthe soilbe
seldom adsorbs
equal towater, it creates
the theoretical a water
saturation film that
maximum forclings to soil
any given the type.
soil particles. There are also
pore spaces filled with air. Under field conditions, it’s difficult to eliminate these air spaces. This air
entrapment is why the percent saturation will seldom be equal to the theoretical saturation maximum
for any given soil type.

This results in a not completely saturated situation, thus it is called field saturated hydraulic
conductivity (Kfs ). Kfs  is typically lower than Ks  due to the entrapped air slowing down water
This results in a not completely saturated situation, thus it is called field saturated
t
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hydraulic conductivity (Kfs). Kfs is typically lower than Ks due to the entrapped air slowing
down water movement.

How to measure hydraulic conductivity

Researchers measure both saturated and unsaturated soil hydraulic conductivity using
many different lab and field techniques. This article explores some of the most common
methods.
LAB
TECHNIQUES:
SATURATED
HYDRAULIC
CONDUCTIVITY
Flow cells (Ks): How they work
Flow cell measurements are typically made on soil cores brought to the lab. They measure
undisturbed or disturbed soil samples, but sample size is dependent on the flow cell
design. They can use either the constant or the falling head measurement technique.

Figure 3. Flow cell diagram

Figure 3 shows how a typical flow cell works (there are other designs). The soil core is
saturated before insertion into the flow cell. Water from a water source passes through
the top of the soil core, and the steady state flow rate is measured. That value is then
used to determine the infiltration rate. Corrections are made for both constant head and
falling head techniques to go from i (the infiltration rate) to a Ks value (representative of a
0 pressure head influence).
 Flow cell pros and cons

Advantages Disadvantages

Simple calculations Expansive soils are confined

No corrections for Values may differ

3-dimensional flow from field methods

Separate different horizons Requires additional

equipment to automate

Multiple samples can be Dedicated lab space

measured simultaneously

Relatively easy setup Small surface

Table 1. Flow cell pros and cons

Flow cell calculations are simple because water infiltrates through a known area that
eliminates three-dimensional (lateral) flow. Another advantage is that soil horizons can be
separated—you can sample from different soil layers to determine which horizon might be
a limiting factor.

Flow cells are easy to set up, but automating the device is more complex. It requires
dedicated lab space because of large automation equipment that needs to stay set up.
Another flow cell limitation is that when an expansive soil is wetted, it expands in the
confined soil core, which compresses the soil pores and changes the soil properties. This
may cause an underestimation of soil hydraulic conductivity. To overcome this problem,
sample when the soil is near saturation.

One issue with flow cells (and all lab techniques) is that lab values differ from field values.
A closed-off macropore in the field could be opened while taking a soil core. Since water
flows more easily through an open-ended pore, it’s possible to overestimate hydraulic
conductivity. In addition, a small soil core doesn’t account for spatial variability. Thus more
samples are needed to get an accurate field representation.
KSAT (Ks): How it works
METER’s KSAT is similar to the flow cell, except it simplifies and speeds up the
measurement because the automation is built into the device.

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Front view of the KSAT lab instrument that measures saturated hydraulic conductivity
Front view of the KSAT lab instrument that measures saturated hydraulic conductivity

It’s capable of doing both falling and constant head techniques. The KSAT uses a small soil core,
It’s capable of doing both falling
and it has and
a water column with aconstant head
burette to control the techniques.
water flow (Figure 4). The KSAT uses a small soil
core, and it has a water column with a burette to control the water flow (Figure 4).

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Figure 4. KSAT cross section

Water flows through the burette, enters the bottom of the sample, and outflows over
the top of the sample.The KSAT uses a pressure sensor which automatically measures
the pressure head from the water column. A computer takes readings from the pressure
transducer, and the software automates the calculations and corrects for water viscosity
changes at different temperatures. When using the falling head technique, the pressure
transducer measures the change in the water column, and the software calculates the
flow rate and the hydraulic conductivity of that sample.

Like flow cells, the KSAT’s limitations are due to a small surface area and that it’s a
confined sample. So use the same considerations when sampling for this device.

The big advantage of the KSAT is that everything is automated, which saves time, and
it doesn’t require much lab space. In addition, it can be combined with the HYPROP
to automatically generate points on both the saturated and unsaturated hydraulic
conductivity curve. Watch this video to see how.
FIELD
TECHNIQUES:
FIELD
SATURATED
HYDRAULIC
CONDUCTIVITY
Ring infiltrometers (Kfs)
3/1/22, 12:32 PM Soil hydraulic conductivity—What it is. How to measure it | METER Environment
 
Field techniques provide a better representation of what’s actually happening in the field.
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A ringRing
infiltrometer is a thin-walled open-ended cylinderHorticulture
inserted into the Company
soil to a specific
infiltrometers (K fs)
depth (typically around 5 cm) to measure field saturated hydraulic conductivity. Water
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infiltrates through the
Field techniques ring(s)
provide using
a better either theofconstant
representation or falling
what’s actually head in techniques.
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happening field. A ringThis is
A QUOTE
the
done manually, or the system can be automated which enables multiple measurements
infiltrometer is a thin-walled open-ended cylinder inserted into the soil to a specific depth at
(typically
the same around
time. There5 cm)
aretovarious
measurecylinder
field saturated hydraulic conductivity.
arrangements, including Water infiltrates
single ring andthrough
double
the ring(s) using
(or concentric) ringeither the constant or falling head techniques. This is done manually, or the system
infiltrometers.
can be automated which enables multiple measurements at the same time. There are various
cylinder arrangements, including single ring and double (or concentric) ring infiltrometers.

Single ring infiltrometer (Kfs)

Single ring infiltrometer (Kfs)
A single ring infiltrometer uses a single measuring cylinder (Figure 5), and water is
A singlethrough
infiltrated ring infiltrometer uses a using
the cylinder single measuring cylinder
the constant (Figure
head 5), and water
or falling headistechnique.
infiltrated When
through the cylinder using the constant head or falling head technique. When performing the
performing the constant head technique, a reservoir with a mariotte bubbler is commonly
constant head technique, a reservoir with a mariotte bubbler is commonly used to control the flow
used to control the flow and the water level inside of the ring. As water infiltrates through
and the water level inside of the ring. As water infiltrates through the ring, it will move horizontally
the ring, it will move horizontally as well as vertically into the soil, thus corrections must
as well as vertically into the soil, thus corrections must be made for three-dimensional flow.
be made for three-dimensional flow.

Figure 5. Single ring infiltrometer cross section

Figure 5. Single ring infiltrometer cross section

Diameters for single ring infiltrometers range from 10 to 50 cm. A larger ring diameter
means more area can be measured, enabling a better representation of spatial variability.
Diameters for single ring infiltrometers range from 10 to 50 cm. A larger ring diameter means more
area can be measured, enabling a better representation of spatial variability. 
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 3/1/22, 12:32 PM Soil hydraulic conductivity—What it is. How to measure it | METER Environment
Double ring infiltrometer (Kfs)
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Double
A double ringring infiltrometer
(or concentric
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ring)(Kinfiltrometer
fs) has a single measuring cylinder
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placed inside of a larger buffer cylinder. The buffer cylinder is intended to prevent
flow Adivergence
double ring (or concentric ring) infiltrometer has a single measuring cylinder placed inside of a
from the measuring cylinder to simplify the analysis. In theory, the
larger buffer cylinder. The buffer cylinder is intended to prevent flow divergence from the measuring
measuring cylinder only measures the vertical flow of water allowing no horizontal
cylinder to simplify the analysis. In theory, the measuring cylinder only measures the vertical flow
flow.ofThis
water allowinguses
method either flow.
no horizontal falling
Thisor constant
method headfalling
uses either techniques, and
or constant headthe same
techniques,
waterandlevel mustwater
the same be maintained in both cylinders
level must be maintained to gettothe
in both cylinders get same pressure
the same gradients,
pressure gradients,
which typically
which requires
typically requires aalot
lotofof water.
water.

FigureFigure 6. Double or concentric ring infiltrometer cross section

6. Double or concentric ring infiltrometer cross section

Ring
Ringinfiltrometer pros
infiltrometer pros and consand cons
The ring infiltrometer’s larger rings account for more spatial variability, so they represent field
The ring infiltrometer’s
conditions larger
better than lab rings account
instruments, for they’re
which means more more
spatial variability,
useful soHowever,
for modeling. they
represent field conditions
the measurement requires abetter than lab instruments,
lot of water—anywhere which
from 60 to 100 means
L of water perthey’re more
hour, assuming
usefulan for modeling.
infiltration rate ofHowever, the measurement
around 30 cm/hr requires
(a high conductivity a lot
soil could use of water—anywhere
300+ L /hr), which is
fromdifficult
60 to 100 L ofAnd
to haul. water per hour, assuming
the measurement an infiltration
is time consuming—two rate
to three of around
hours depending 30oncm/
the
hr (a ring
high conductivity soil could use 300+ L /hr), which is difficult to haul. And the
size. 
measurement is time consuming—two to three hours depending on the ring size.
Another issue is the need to estimate the soil macroscopic capillary length factor (referred to as
AnotherAlpha) issue
in order is the needfor
to correct tothree-dimensional
estimate the soil flow.macroscopic
There are tablescapillary to estimatelength factor
this Alpha
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(referred to as Alpha) in order to correct for three-dimensional flow. There are
tables to estimate this Alpha parameter, but if you’re wrong, it results in inaccurate
estimates of hydraulic conductivity.
And, often the buffer cylinder isn’t effective at stopping lateral flow. This was shown
in the literature through lab and modeling analysis. So calculations based on the
assumption that there’s only vertical flow may result in overestimations.

SATURO (KFS): How it works

METER’s SATURO automates the well-established dual head method, which
measures infiltration at two different pressure heads, streamlining the measurement
and avoiding potential human error.

Setting up SATURO infiltrometer

It ponds water on top of the soil, uses air pressure to create the two pressure heads,
and a pump automatically maintains the correct water levels. Its internal processor
automatically calculates field saturated hydraulic conductivity on board, eliminating
post-processing of data.

Figure 7. SATURO cross section

SATURO pros and cons

The SATURO combines automation and simplified data analysis together in one
system. It’s designed for one person to carry and set up, and because it automatically
maintains the correct water levels, it eliminates constant measuring and adjusting.

The measurement takes some time, but much less time than a ring infiltrometer,
and it operates unattended. You can run multiple instruments simultaneously, and
it avoids the need for estimating the Alpha factor, eliminating a common source of
error. It uses two 20-liter water bags but needs much less water than a double ring
infiltrometer because it doesn’t require a large outer ring.

In this webinar, Dr. Gaylon S. Campbell teaches the basics of hydraulic conductivity
and the science behind the SATURO automated dual-head infiltrometer.
Pressure infiltrometer (Kfs)
The pressure infiltrometer is similar to a single ring infiltrometer, except an
attachment to the top of the ring enables control of the pressure head applied over
the ring (Figure 8).

Figure 8. Pressure ring infiltrometer cross section

Users apply a single head for a certain amount of time, then switch to a higher
pressure head for a set interval, and then switch back to the lower head for a set
interval. This is repeated until a quasi-steady state infiltration rate is achieved for
both pressure heads. The infiltration rates at the different pressure heads can then
be used to estimate values such as the Alpha value or sorptivity.
Pressure infiltrometer pros and cons

Advantages Disadvantages

Measurement of (α) improves More complex measurement

analysis of Kfs apparatus

Can also be used to determine Multiple-head technique

sorptivity andmatric flux potential requires more time

Not automated—requires more

work

Table 2. Pressure infiltrometer pros and cons

This technique lets you do multiple head analysis, which enables you to make other
measurements such as sorptivity and matric flux potential. In addition, you can
measure the macroscopic capillary length factor (the Alpha value) versus estimating,
which removes a potential source of error when correcting for three-dimensional
flow.

But it’s a more complex measurement apparatus. It takes more automation,

especially to switch pressure heads. And it’s time consuming to reach a steady state
infiltration rate at both pressure heads.

Borehole permeameters (KFS)

There are several borehole permeameter designs (which is beyond the scope of this
article), but here we explore the basics.
 Figure 9. Borehole permeameter cross section

Borehole permeameters use a constant head method to avoid errors from checking
water height down a borehole. To use a borehole permeameter, a hole is augered to a
desired depth, the permeameter is mounted over the well, and the mariotte bubbler
is inserted to maintain a constant head inside the borehole. Then you calculate
the inflow, wait for steady state, and use those values to calculate the hydraulic
conductivity, after which you correct for three-dimensional flow. You can do single
and multiple head analysis by changing the water level and the pressure head inside
of the augured hole.
Permeameter pros and cons

Advantages Disadvantages

Measurement of (α) improves Small surface area

analysis of Kfs (only if using multiple
head analysis)

Analysis of different soil layers Long measurement times

Can be used to determine sorptivity Potential smearing and siltation

and matric flux potential

No visibility of measurement surface

Table 3. Borehole permeameter pros and cons

If you use the multiple ponded head analysis, a permeameter lets you to measure
Alpha, removing a potential source of error, and it can determine sorptivity and
matric flux potential. It’s also easier to measure different soil layers because you
only auger a small hole vs. ring infiltrometers, which require a large excavation.

Permeameters only measure a small surface area, so more measurements are

required to get a representation of the field. And measurement times are long,
especially when doing multiple head analysis.

Another issue is smearing and siltation inside the borehole (i.e., augering may smear
the surface as it cuts). This closes off pores and makes them unable to conduct
water, causing underestimations. Since there’s no visibility, it’s difficult to tell if
smearing or siltation have occured. However, there are approaches to decrease these
issues.
LAB
TECHNIQUES:
UNSATURATED
HYDRAULIC
CONDUCTIVITY
Flow cells (K(Ψ))
Flow cells are also used to measure unsaturated hydraulic conductivity (K(Ψ)),
but unlike with saturated hydraulic conductivity, the measurement requires
tensiometers (Figure 10).

Figure 10. Flow cell and tensiometer cross section

Water flows from a water source, through the sample, and out of the soil core. Two
tensiometers monitor the water potential, and the user controls the low to high flow
rate to allow the soil to transmit water in unsaturated conditions. A constant flow rate
is maintained until both tensiometers read the same water potential (soil suction).
These measurements and the flow rate are used to determine the unsaturated
hydraulic conductivity at that specific potential. To get the retention properties, the
user also measures the soil core water content. The steps are repeated to determine
different points along the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity curve.
Flow cell pros and cons

Advantages Disadvantages

Simultaneous water transmission Requires a method of maintaining a

and retention properties constant flow

Estimation of saturated and Complex operation

unsaturated flow parameters on
the same soil column

Table 4. Flow cell pros and cons

A flow cell lets you measure unsaturated hydraulic conductivity and retention
properties at the same time, enabling the generation of a partial soil moisture
release curve. Plus, you can measure both saturated and unsaturated flow
parameters on the same soil column.

However, this technique requires a pump to control and change flow rates, and the
operation is complicated. Flow cells also need space in the lab, and automation
requires complex instrumentation.

Evaporation method (K(Ψ))

The evaporation method was first introduced by Wind in 1968. It requires a soil core
with tensiometers inserted at different depths. The initially saturated core is open
at the top and closed at the bottom, only allowing evaporation from the surface.
This creates a matric potential gradient in the core. The mass of the soil core and
the gradient are measured as water evaporates over time, enabling calculation of
the matric flux potential or the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity. This technique
requires a constant evaporation rate to get simultaneous measurements of matric
head and water content, which enables both measurement of unsaturated hydraulic
conductivity and generation of the soil moisture release curve.
HYPROP (K(Ψ))
METER’s HYPROP is a lab instrument based on a simplified version of the Wind/
Schindler evaporation technique

HYPROP 2 creates soil moisture release curves

Inside of the HYPROP are two tensiometers at different heights inside of a soil core
which is only open at the surface (Figure 11). 

Figure 11. Cross section inside the HYPROP cylinder

The HYPROP sits on a balance and measures the mass of the soil core as it
evaporates over time. It generates both the soil retention properties and the
unsaturated hydraulic conductivity. The unsaturated hydraulic conductivity is
calculated using the inversion of the Darcy equation (Equation 4).

Equation 4

HYPROP pros and cons

Advantages Disadvantages

Simultaneous water transmission Unreliable K(Ψ) data near saturation

and retention properties

Automated measurement Learning curve

Excellent measurement resolution Only desorption characteristics

Table 5. HYPROP pros and cons

The advantage of the HYPROP versus a flow cell is a completely automated

measurement over the full moisture range. HYPROP saves time by automatically
generating the curve for unsaturated hydraulic conductivity while you do other
things. It provides simultaneous water transmission and retention properties with
high resolution (over 200 data points) except near saturation. Combine it with
the KSAT for the saturated end of the curve, and with the WP4C water potential
instrument (dry soils) to generate full soil moisture release curves. Learn more about
soil moisture release curves in this video.

The HYPROP does have a learning curve, but once you learn how to fill tensiometers,
it’s an easy setup. And once it’s set up, it’s completely automated. Note that HYPROP
only measures desorption (losing water) characteristics because it’s an evaporation
method, so there may be differences from adsorption (adding water) characteristics.
FIELD
TECHNIQUES:
UNSATURATED
HYDRAULIC
CONDUCTIVITY
Tension infiltrometers (K(Ψ))
Tension infiltrometers only measure unsaturated hydraulic conductivity. A porous
plate is placed on the soil (Figure 12), and the water is pulled out under suction that
is controlled by a tower containing a mariotte bubbler.

Figure 12. Tension infiltrometer cross section

It controls negative suction by inserting the bubble tube deeper into the water to
raise the energy required to pull air in to replace the water pulled through the device.
This technique allows analysis using either transient or steady state methods.

Transient method: measures the infiltration rate as it changes over time and
extrapolates to a steady state.

Steady state method: over time, an infiltration rate steady state is reached

A tension infiltrometer infiltrates water into the soil under imposed suctions, so you
can measure infiltration rates at different negative suctions to segregate pore sizes.
The higher the suction, the smaller the pores have to be to pull water out. It’s also a
three-dimensional infiltration technique so it requires three-dimensional analysis of
flow.
Tension infiltrometer pros and cons

Advantages Disadvantages

Controlled suction Steady-state methods are time

consuming

Larger disks account for more Requires estimation of soil properties to

spatial variability correct for three-dimensional flow

Estimation of sorptivity and

repellency

Table 6. Tension infiltrometer pros and cons

Tension infiltrometer advantages are that controlled suction enables measurement
of unsaturated hydraulic conductivity at a specific matric potential. Using a larger
disk will account for more spatial variability. However, this may not be critical
because large pores are the main source of spatial variability, and they drain at very
low suctions. Tension infiltrometers are also used to get an estimation of sorptivity
and repellency—useful for hydrophobicity studies in post forest fire situations.

Limitations are that steady-state methods are time consuming and, as with the
transient method, inaccuracies are possible (especially in a very dry soil with a
higher initial infiltration rate). So it’s a good idea to make multiple measurements.
This technique requires an estimation of Alpha to correct for three-dimensional
flow—a potential source of error. But overall, it’s a good field technique.

Hydraulic conductivity
measurement considerations
Don’t assume you can use the same soil hydraulic conductivity values for the same
soil type in a field. This is not true, especially with different land uses and landscape
positions. One researcher found drastic changes in hydraulic properties in the same
soil type. His site varied from native prairie, improved pasture, and conventional
tillage, and there was a strong change in landscape position across all three fields.

Figure 13. Hydraulic conductivity values for three different land uses and landscape positions in
the blacklands of Texas. Researchers made triplicate measurements of field saturated hydraulic
conductivity using double ring infiltrometers at each of the points.
Figure 13 shows the same trends in both pasture and prairie across the summit, the
backslope, and the footslope. There were higher soil hydraulic conductivity values
on the backslope, and the lowest values in the footslope. This was partially due to
the catina effect (changes in the soil hydraulic properties and chemical makeup of
the soil due to solute leaching from the summit and precipitation of solutes in the
footslope). Interestingly, this trend was not evident in the conventional tillage site,
likely due to the fact that this site was disturbed (regularly tilled).

Where should you measure?

How many measurements?
One strategy is to measure bulk EC across a field to get an estimate of the actual
spatial variability. With this information, you can make decisions about where to
make measurements and how many are needed to encompass the spatial variability
of the field. Figure 14 is an EC map of a field generated using and EM38 device to
measure bulk EC.

Figure 14. EC map showing variability in a Texas field

This map helped researchers separate the field into sections and decide where
to make measurements. In this case, the researchers chose to make triplicate
measurements of field saturated hydraulic conductivity at each of the chosen points
(white crosses).
Delve deeper into how to measure
hydraulic conductivity
1. Bouwer H. 1986. Intake rate: Cylinder infiltrometer. In Klute A., editor, Methods of
soil analysis: Part 1—Physical and Mineralogical Methods. 2nd ed. Madison (WI): ASA
and SSSA. 825−844. (Article link)

2. Dane JH and Topp GC, editors. 2002. Methods of soil analysis: Part 4—Physical
Methods. Madison (WI): Soil Science Society of America Inc. (link)

3. Daniel DE. 1989. In situ hydraulic conductivity tests for compacted clay. J. Geotech.
Eng. 115(9). (Article link)

4. Nimmo JR, Schmidt KM, Perkins KS, and Stock JD. 2009. Rapid measurement of
field saturated hydraulic conductivity for areal characterization. Vadose Zone J. 8(1):
142−149. (Article link)

5. Reynolds WD and Elrick DE. 1990. Ponded infiltration from a single ring: I. Analysis
of steady flow. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 54(5): 1233−1241. (Article link)

6. Swartzendruber D and Olson TC. 1961. Sand-model study of buffer effects in the
double-ring infiltrometer. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 25(1): 5−8. (Article link)

7. Swartzendruber D and Olson TC. 1961. Model study of the double ring infiltrometer
as affected by depth of wetting and particle size. Soil Sci. 92(4): 219−225. (Article
link)

Take our soil moisture master class

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soil water potential—and why you should measure them together. Plus, master the
basics of soil hydraulic conductivity.

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Learn more about measuring soil moisture. Download The researcher’s complete
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The researcher’s complete guide to water potential.
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