Version of December 10, 2015 Standard Model

2 Spacetime symmetries of the Lorentz

group
Recap of special relativity and Lorentz trans-
formations
• Space and time are homogeneous
• Space is isotropic
• The speed of light c is the same in all inertial frames

The Lorentz group consists of linear transformations ⇤

that leave the quantity (the norm)

x2 = xµ xµ

invariant.
Lorentz transformations have the form,

xµ ! x0µ = ⇤µ⌫ x⌫

and
1 ⌫
xµ ! x0µ = ⇤µ⌫ x⌫ = x⌫ ⇤ µ
.
where ⇤ 1 represents the inverse Lorentz transforma-
tion.
We will use the shorthand,

x0 = ⇤x, (x0)T = (⇤x)T = xT ⇤T ,

Version of December 10, 2015 Standard Model

with
1
⇤ ⌘ ⇤T
together with the metric g µ⌫ = gµ⌫ = G with,
0 1
1 0 0 0
B0 1 0 0 C
G=B @0 0
C.
1 0 A
0 0 0 1
Examples of Lorentz transformations include boosts, e.g.
between two frames S and S 0 moving with velocity v
along the z axis wrt S, then
0 1 0 1
0 0 cosh ⇠ 0 0 sinh ⇠
B 0 1 0 0 C B 0 1 0 0 C
⇤=@ B C ⌘@B C
0 0 1 0 A 0 0 1 0 A
0 0 sinh ⇠ 0 0 cosh ⇠
where
v 1
= , =p
c 1 2

and rotations, e.g. rotation of angle ✓ about the z-axis,

0 1
1 0 0 0
B 0 cos ✓ sin ✓ 0 C
⇤=B @ 0 sin ✓ cos ✓ 0 A
C

0 0 0 1
For LT’s, the norm is invariant, so that
x2 ! (x0)2 = (x0)T Gx0 = xT ⇤T G⇤x = xT Gx
Version of December 10, 2015 Standard Model

which is satisfied iff

⇤T G⇤ = G (1)
In component form,
⌫
xµxµ = x⌫ g⌫µxµ = ⇤⌫⇢x⇢g⌫µ⇤µ x = x⇢ ⇤T ⇢
g⌫µ⇤µ x
= x⇢ g ⇢ x
The Lorentz group splits into four components, accord-
ing to the solutions of Eq. (1),
1) ⇤ =
2) ⇤ = G
3) ⇤ =
4) ⇤ = G
These four elements form a subgroup of dimension 4 of
the Lorentz group.
The sign of ⇤00 determines two regions.
From Eq. (1), one sees that
1 = g00 = ⇤µ0⇤⌫0gµ⌫ = (⇤00)2 (⇤i 0)2
or
(⇤00)2 = 1 + (⇤i 0)2 1
so that ⇤00 1 or ⇤00  1.
Every Lorentz transformation maps timelike vectors (x2 >
0) into timelike vectors. These can be divided into those
Version of December 10, 2015 Standard Model

pointing forward in time (x0 > 0) and those pointing back-

ward (x0 < 0). An LT maps forward timelike vectors into
forward timelike vectors if ⇤00 > 0.
There are four classes of LTs
• Proper, orthochronous LT, L"+
det(⇤) = +1, ⇤00 1

• Improper, orthochronous LT, L"

det(⇤) = 1, ⇤00 1

• Improper, non-orthochronous LT, L#

det(⇤) = 1, ⇤00  1

• Proper, non-orthochronous LT, L#+

det(⇤) = +1, ⇤00  1

N.B. L"+ does not contain,

0 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
B 0 1 0 0C B0 1 0 0 C
T =B @ 0 0 1 0 A,
C P =B
@0 0
C
1 0 A
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
and one has,
L" = P L"+, L# = T L"+, L#+ = T P L"+.
There are two constant (i.e. Lorentz invariant) tensors.
Version of December 10, 2015 Standard Model

• g µ⌫
• ✏µ⌫⇢ = ± 1 if all indices are different
0 otherwise
This is an antisymmetric tensor and we define,
✏0123 = 1, ✏0132 = 1

"
Infinitesimal Lorentz transformations for L+
Consider an LT which differs from the identity by an in-
finitesimal amount,

⇤= + ✏M

where ✏M is a formal linear combination of generators,

P c
✏ i Mi .
What are the generators, M c?
If we impose Eq. (1), then

G = ( + ✏M )T G ( + ✏M )
= G + ✏(M T G + GM ) + O(✏2)
) M T G = GM
) (GM )T = GM since GT = G

so GM is antisymmetric. Write GM = g↵ M = M↵ so
that (GM )T = M ↵ and

M↵ = M ↵
Version of December 10, 2015 Standard Model

is the antisymmetric 4x4 matrix with 6 independent pa-

rameters (zero on leading diagonal, six upper off-diagonal
terms).
0 1
0 ✏1 ✏2 ✏3
B C
B ✏1 0 ✏4 ✏5 C
✏GM = B C
@ ✏2 ✏4 0 ✏6 A
✏3 ✏5 ✏6 0
0 1 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
B C B C B C
B 1 0 0 0C B 0 0 0 0C B 0 0 0 0C
= ✏1 B C + ✏2 B C + ✏3 B C
@ 0 0 0 0A @ 1 0 0 0A @ 0 0 0 0A
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
B C B C B C
B0 0 1 0C B0 0 0 1C B0 0 0 0C
+ ✏4 B C + ✏5 B C + ✏6 B C
@0 1 0 0A @0 0 0 0A @0 0 0 1A
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
gi
= ✏iGM

So the ✏GM matrix can be expanded as a linear combi-

nation of six generators. However, we are interested in
Version of December 10, 2015 Standard Model

ci so, since G
the generators M 1
= G, we have,
⇣ ⌘
c =
✏M i✏iG 1 gi
iGM
0 1 0 1 0 1
0 i 0 0 0 0 i 0 0 0 0 i
B C B C B C
Bi 0 0 0C B0 0 0 0C B0 0 0 0C
= i✏1 B C i✏2 B C i✏3 B C
@0 0 0 0A @i 0 0 0A @0 0 0 0A
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 i 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
B C B C B C
B0 0 i 0C B0 0 0 iC B0 0 0 0 C
i✏4 B C i✏5 B C i✏6 B C
@0 i 0 0A @0 0 0 0 A @0 0 0 iA
0 0 0 0 0 i 0 0 0 0 i 0

where the factors of i are inserted according to physics

conventions.
Conclusion: the six generators of the Lorentz group SO(3, 1)
are
i
g ci.
1
G iGM = M
Its also conventional to relabel them according to the
non-vanishing elements,
c1 ⌘ M
M c01, c2 ⌘ M
M c02, c3 ⌘ M
M c03,
c4 ⌘ M
M c12, c5 ⌘ M
M c13, c6 ⌘ M
M c23.

Note that these are 4x4 matrices, and the indices simply
label which matrix we are talking about. Nevertheless, it
is often useful to exploit this labelling.
The generators obey the commutation relations,
⇣ ⌘
c ,M
[M µ⌫ c ]=i g M
⇢ ⌫⇢ c +g M
µ µ c ⌫⇢ ⌫
g M cµ⇢ µ⇢
g M c⌫
.
Version of December 10, 2015 Standard Model

We can also rewrite the LT (according to physics con-

ventions) as
✓ ◆µ
i c⇢
x0µ = ⇤µ⌫ x⌫ = 1 ✏⇢ M x⌫
2 ⌫

where ✏⇢ is an antisymmetric tensor, and the factor 1/2

accounts for the 12 possibilities generated when ⇢, =
c⇢ = M
0, 1, 2, 3 and M c ⇢.
We can therefore write a finite LT as
✓ ◆
b = exp i c⇢
⇤ ✏⇢ M
2
It is straightforward to show that,
b⇢ = i (x⇢@
L x @⇢ )
c⇢ . We can write,
satisfies the same Lie algebra as M
c⇢ = L
M b⇢ + Sb⇢

where Sb⇢ also satisfies the same Lie algebra.

Interpretation:
Lb⇢ represents the orbital angular momentum of the sys-
tem (acts on the spatial dependence of the field) while
Sb⇢ acts on the internal symmetries (such as spin).
Version of December 10, 2015 Standard Model

Interpretation of the generators

cµ⌫ actually mean?
What do these generators M

Let us first consider the rotation group SO(3). The ro-

tation matrices for finite rotations can be written Ri(✓i).
such that, ⇣ ⌘
Ri(✓i) = exp b i ✓i .
iR
For infinitesimal rotations,

b @Ri(0)
Ri(✓i) ⇠ 1 iR i ✓ i ⌘ 1 + ✓i
@✓i
so that
bi = i @Ri(0)
R
@✓i
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
b @ BB 0 cos ✓3 sin ✓3 0CC
B0 0 i 0C
R3 = i =B C
@✓3 @ 0 sin ✓3 cos ✓3 0A @0 i 0 0A
0 0 0 1 ✓ 0 0 0 0
3 =0

Similarly,
0 1 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
B0 0 0 0 C B0 0 0 iC
b
R1 = B C, b
R2 = B C
@0 0 0 iA @0 0 0 0A
0 0 i 0 0 i 0 0
Version of December 10, 2015 Standard Model

The generators for the Lorentz boosts Bi(⇠i) can be writ-

ten in a similar manner,

Bi(⇠i) ⇠ 1 bi⇠i
iB

where
b @Bi(0)
Bi = i
@⇠i
0 1 0 1
cosh ⇠3 0 0 sinh ⇠3 0 0 0 i
b @ BB 0 1 0 0 C
C
B 0 0 0 0 C
B3 = i =B C
@⇠3 @ 0 0 1 0 A @ 0 0 0 0 A
sinh ⇠3 0 0 cosh ⇠3 ✓
i 0 0 0
3 =0

Similarly,
0 1 0 1
0 i 0 0 0 0 i 0
B i 0 0 0C B 0 0 0 0C
b
B1 = B C b
B2 = B C
@ 0 0 0 0 A, @ i 0 0 0A
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
The full algebra of the generators can be written as,
h i
Rbi , R
bj = i✏ijk R
bk
h i
Rbi , B
bj = i✏ijk B
bk
h i
Bbi, Bbj = i✏ijk Rbk

Note that:
bi form an SU (2) subgroup
1) R
Version of December 10, 2015 Standard Model

bi behave like vectors under rotations

2) B
3) Boosts do not form a subgroup
We can further identify the generators as
bi = ✏ijk M
R cjk
bi = M
B ci0

We can simplify the algebra by considering

1 ⇣ ⌘
b± b i ± iB
R bi
i =
2
such that,
⇥ ± ±⇤
bi , bj = i✏ijk b±
k
⇥ ± ⌥⇤
bi , bj = 0

i.e. the algebra splits into two independent SU (2) sub-

groups (isospin).
Conclusion: the theory of the irreps of L"+ boils down to
the theory of irreps of SU (2)
Recall that the unitary irreps of SU (2) are labelled by the
isospin ` and 3rd component of isospin m,

` = 0, 1/2, 1, 3/2, . . .

At fixed `, there are 2` + 1 possible values of m,

m= `, ` + 1, . . . , ` 1, `
Version of December 10, 2015 Standard Model

i.e. its dimension is 2` + 1. Example: ` = 1/2, m = ±1/2

isospin doublet.
Recall also that the tensor product of two irreps of isospin
`1 and `2 is expressed as a direct sum of irreps

`1 ⌦ `2 = `1 + `2 `1 + `2 1 ... |`1 `2 |

We can classify representations of SO(3, 1) according to

the SU (2) ⌦ SU (2) representations (`+, ` ) with dimen-
sion (degrees of freedom) given by (2`+ + 1) ⇥ (2` + 1)
Examples:
- (0, 0) one degree of freedom corresponding to scalars
- Weyl representation (1/2, 0) two degrees of freedom
corresponding to right handed massless fermions
- Weyl representation (0, 1/2) two degrees of freedom
corresponding to left handed massless fermions
- Dirac representation (1/2, 0) + (0, 1/2) four degrees of
freedom corresponding to massive fermions
- Defining representations (1/2, 1/2) four degrees of free-
dom corresponding to vector bosons.
Note that 1/2⌦1/2 = 1 0. i.e. a triplet (space compo-
nent) and singlet (time component) of the four-vector
- (1, 0) or (0, 1) three degrees of freedom, correspond-
ing to an antisymmetric tensor F µ⌫ that satisfies the
Version of December 10, 2015 Standard Model

self-dual (anti-self-dual) conditions

i
F µ⌫ = ± ✏µ⌫⇢ F⇢
2

Poincaré algebra
As well as being Lorentz invariant, the systems we are
studying are invariant under translations,
⇣ ⌘
xµ ! x0µ = xµ + ✏µ, x0µ = exp i✏⌫ Pb⌫ xµ

The generators of translations are the four-momenta. For

infinitesimal translations,

✏µ ⌘ ✏⌫ µ
⌫ = i✏⌫ Pb⌫ xµ

with
@
Pb⌫ = i ⌫
@x
which satisfy,
h i
Pbµ, Pb⌫ = 0.

The general symmetry of the Poincaré group is thus

- 6 lorentz boosts/rotations
- 4 translations
Version of December 10, 2015 Standard Model

corresponding to 10 independent parameters.

They do not commute with the generators of the Lorentz
Group,
h i ⇣ ⌘
Pbi, M
cjk = i gij Pbk gik Pbj .

The representations of the Poincaré Group are classi-

fied according to the values of the two Casimir operators
PµP µ and WµW µ.
The Pauli-Lubanski pseudovector Wµ is
1
Wµ = ✏µ⌫⇢ Pb⌫ M
c c⇢
2
cµ (obviously) vanishes on contraction with Pbµ. It also
W
satisfies,
h i
c , Pb = 0,
W µ ⌫
h i ⇣ ⌘
cµ⌫ , W
M c ⇢ = i g ⇢⌫ W
c µ g ⇢µW
c⌫ ,
h i
cµ, W
W c⌫ = i✏µ⌫⇢ W c ⇢Pb

Pb2 = @ 2 so any solution of the Dirac or Klein-Gordon

equation will produce an eigenvalue m2,

Pb2 = @2 ⌘ m2 .

We mentioned earlier that

c⇢ = L
M b⇢ + Sb⇢
Version of December 10, 2015 Standard Model

where Sb⇢ represents the internal (spin) symmetries. For

example,
b⇢ = i(x⇢@
L x @ ⇢)
b ⇢ i ⇢
S = + [ , ]
4
where h = 0, 1i for spin 0 and spin 1/2 fields respectively.
Using x⇢, Pb = ig ⇢ it is straightforward to show that
b⇢ drops out, so that the only contribution to W 2 comes
L
from the intrinsic spin, Sb⇢ .
There are two relevant options
• m2 > 0, W 2 = m2s(s + 1) with s = 0, 1/2, 1, . . . cor-
responding to massive particles characterised by the
four momentum and spin s with (2s + 1) degrees of
freedom,
sz = s, s + 1, . . . s 1, s

• m2 = 0, W 2 = 0 ) massless particle of spin s with two

degrees of freedom

Sz = ±s

(In this case P µ and W µ are proportional, and the con-

stant of proportionality is the helicity ±s).