STUDY NOTES:

Calculus
Differentiation Basics:
𝑓(𝑥+ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
First principle → 𝑓'(𝑥) = lim ℎ
ℎ→0

𝑑
Derivative of kx → 𝑑𝑥
(𝑘𝑥) = 𝑘

𝑑
Derivative of k → 𝑑𝑥
(𝑘) = 0

𝑑 𝑛 𝑛−1
Derivative of xn → 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 ) = 𝑛𝑥

𝑑
Derivative of a constant multiple of a function → 𝑑𝑥
(𝑘𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑘𝑓'(𝑥)

𝑑
Derivative of sum of functions → 𝑑𝑥
(𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓'(𝑥) + 𝑔'(𝑥)

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
Chain rule → 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑢
× 𝑑𝑥

Differential Calculus (Exponential, Logarithmic & Trigonometry) rules:

𝑑 𝑛 𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 ) = 𝑛 𝑥

𝑑 𝑛 𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥
(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑛(𝑓(𝑥)) × 𝑓'(𝑥)

𝑑 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑒 = 𝑓'(𝑥)𝑒

𝑑 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑎 = 𝑓'(𝑥)𝑎 × 𝑙𝑛 𝑎

𝑑 𝑓'(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑙𝑛 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑑 𝑓'(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑙𝑜𝑔a𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) × 𝑙𝑛 𝑎

𝑑
𝑑𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓'(𝑥) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑑
𝑑𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑓(𝑥) = − 𝑓'(𝑥) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑 2
𝑑𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓'(𝑥)𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑑 2
𝑑𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑓(𝑥) = − 𝑓'(𝑥)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑑
𝑑𝑥
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓'(𝑥) 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑓(𝑥)𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑑
𝑑𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑓(𝑥) = − 𝑓'(𝑥) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑓(𝑥) 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑓(𝑥)

Statistics (correlation & regression)

Correlation Coefficient
Correlation coefficient is used to determine how closely related variables are in a linear relationship.
● −1 ≤ r ≤ 1 for all correlation coefficients
● 0 < r ≤ 1 for a scatter plot with positive direction, where 1 is perfect positive correlation
 ● −1 ≤ r < 0 for a scatter plot with negative direction, where −1 is perfect negative correlation
● r = 0 means no correlation

Interpolation → is using a model to make predictions about values lying within the range of the original
data set.

Extrapolation → is using a model to make predictions about values outside the range of
the original data set.

Variance → measures of how far the scores in a data set are from the mean of the data.
2
2 Σ(𝑥−𝑥)
Formula; σ = 𝑛

Standard deviation → another measure of spread, and is the square root of variance
2
Σ(𝑥−𝑥)
Formula; σ = 𝑛

The shape of a statistical distribution

Negatively skewed

Positively skewed

Symmetrical

Unimodal
(one peak)
 Bi-modal
(2 peaks)

Multimodal
(multiple peaks)

Trigonometric Functions
Symmetry properties of trigonometric ratios
The coordinate axes divide the circle into four quarters, called quadrants:
● First quadrant 0° < θ < 90°
● Second quadrant 90° < θ < 180°
○ cos (180° - θ ) = - a = - cos θ
○ sin (180° - θ) = b = sin θ
○ tan (180° - θ) = b/- a = - tan θ
● Third quadrant 180° < θ < 270°
○ cos (180° + 0) = - a = - cos θ
○ sin (180° + 0) = - b = - sin θ
○ tan (180° + 0) = - b/- a = tan 0
● Fourth quadrant 270° < θ < 360°
○ cos (360° - 0) = a = cos 0
○ sin (360° - 0) = - b = - sin 0
○ tan (360° - 0) = - b/a = - tan 0

Complementary angles: 0 and (90° - 0)

● sin (90° - 0) = a = cos 0
● tan (90° - 0) = a/b = cot 0
● cos (90° - 0) = b = sin 0
 ● sec (90° - 0) = 1/b = cosec 0
● cot (90° - 0) = b/a = tan 0
● cosec (90° - 0) = 1/a = sec 0

Negative angles: 0 < 0°

● cos(- 0) = a = cos 0
● sin (- 0) = - b = - sin 0
● tan (- 0) = - b/a = - tan 0

Trig Graphs:
Sine (sin), Cosine (cos) and Tangent (Tan)

Cosecant (cosec), Cotangent (cot), Secant (sec)

 Trig Exact Values

θ 0 30 45 60 90

Sin θ 0 1 1 3 1
2 2 2

Cos θ 1 3 1 1
0
2 2 2

Tan θ 0 1
1 3 Undefined
3

Trig transformations
Period as a horizontal dilation
● If a > 1, the function is compressed horizontally.
● If 0 < a < 1, the function is stretched horizontally.
● If a = −1, the function is reflected in the y-axis.

Phase as a horizontal translation

The phase of y = sin (x + b), y = cos (x + b) and y = tan (x + b) is b.
● If b > 0, the phase shift is to the left.
● If b < 0, the phase shift is to the right.

Function Amplitude Period Phase Centre

y = k sin[a(x + b)] + c k 2π
b c
𝑎
Shift left if b > 0 Shift up if c > 0
y = k cos[a(x + b)] + c k 2π
Shift right if b < 0 Shift down if c < 0
𝑎

y = k tan[a(x + b)] + c No amplitude π

𝑎

Trig Rules:
The Sine Rule:
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
Finding side → 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐵
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐶
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐶
Finding → 𝑎
= 𝑏
= 𝑐

The Cosine Rule:

2 2 2
Finding Sides → 𝑎 = 𝑏 + 𝑐 − 2𝑏𝑐 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝐴
2 2 2
𝑏 +𝑐 − 𝑎
Finding Angles → 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝐴 = 2𝑏𝑐
Area of triangle:
1
Area = 2
𝑏𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴
(requires measurements from 2 sides and an angle from the unknown side)

Trig identities:
𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ 1
𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ
𝑠𝑒𝑐 θ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ

1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ 1
𝑐𝑜𝑡 θ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 θ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ

Pythagorean identities: Reciprocal identities:

2 2 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ = 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛(θ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 θ

2 2 1
1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 θ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(θ) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 θ
2 2 1
1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 θ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 θ 𝑡𝑎𝑛(θ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 θ

Graph transformations
For the curve y = f(.):
y=f(x) + c translates the function vertically:
● up if c> 0
● down if c < 0
y= f(x+ b) translates the function horizontally:
● to the left if b > 0
● to the right if b <0
y= kf(x) dilates the function vertically with scale factor k:
● stretches if k > 1
● compresses if0 <k <1
● reflects the function in the x-axis if k =-1
1
y= f(ax) dilates the function horizontally with scale factor 𝑎
:
● compresses if a > 1
● stretches if 0 <0 < 1
● reflects the function in the y-axis if a = -1

Order of transformations:
For y = kf(a(x + b)) + c
1. do horizontal dilation (a), then horizontal translation (b)
2. do vertical dilation (k), then vertical translation (c)
Note → It makes no difference whether you start with horizontal or vertical transformations.

Other Trig Recap:

● Amplitude → height from the horizontal centre line to the peak or to the trough
● Period: Smallest interval for which the function repeats itself
● Phase: when a trig function is translated horizontally, the phase is the magnitude of the
translation

Applications of Differentiation
Sign of the derivative
● If f’(x) > 0, the graph of y = f(x) is increasing
● If f’(x) < 0, the graph of y = f(x) is decreasing
● If f’(x) = 0, the graph of y = f(x) has a stationary point

Sometimes a curve is monotonic increasing or decreasing

- A curve is monotonic increasing if f’(x) > 0 for all x
- A curve is monotonic decreasing if f’(x) < 0 for all x

Global Maximum and Global Minimum

Let A(a, f(a)) be a point on a curve y = f (x).
● The point A is a global or absolute maximum if
 ○ f (x) ≤ f(a), for all x in the domain.
● Similarly, A is a global or absolute minimum if
○ f (x) ≥ f(a), for all x in the domain.

Differentiating Variety of Functions

Second Derivatives

● f”(x) < 0, f(x) is concave down

● f”(x) > 0, f(x) is concave up
● f”(x) = , POSSIBLE Point of Inflection (POI)

Points of Inflection (POI)