Semester 5th MA

Course Code MTH-505

Course title Real Analysis
Credit hours 3(3-0)
Submitted to Madam Laila Latif
Department Mathematics
EUCLIDEAN
GEOMETRY
Presented by:
Name of students Roll #
Areeba Iqbal 01
Syeda Afifa Fatima 02
Maria Riaz 04
Afeefa Sajid 50
Faryal Gohar 35
Hafsa Nawaz 06
Aneesa Tanveer 34
Sania Abdul Qadir 33
Maryam Bi 53
Areeba Sabir 37
Khadija Yasin 38
Noor Fatima 36
Maria Javed 49
Zaima Perveen 54
Ayesha 55
Razia Batool 47
Mahnoor Anwar 52
Adan Ajmal 05
Tehseen Sharif 07
 EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY
Table of Contents:
 Introduction
 History
 Definition
 Fundamentals
 Examples
 Euclidean and Non- Euclidean geometry
 Properties
 Euclid’s Element
 Axioms
 Five Postulates

Introduction:
Euclidean geometry is better explained especially for the shapes of geometrical figures and planes. This
part of geometry was employed by the Greek mathematician Euclid, who has also described it in his
book, Elements. Therefore, this geometry is also called Euclid geometry.
In Euclid’s great work, the Elements, the only tools employed for geometrical constructions were the
ruler and the compass—a restriction retained in elementary Euclidean geometry to this day. The
modern version of Euclidean geometry is the theory of Euclidean (coordinate) spaces of
multiple dimensions, where distance is measured by a suitable generalization of the Pythagorean
theorem.

History:
The flawless construction of Pyramids by the Egyptians is an example of extensive use of geometrical
techniques used by the people back then. In India, the Sulba Sutras, textbooks on Geometry depict that
the Indian Vedic Period had a tradition of Geometry.
The development of geometry was taking place gradually, when Euclid, a teacher of mathematics, at
Alexandria in Egypt, collected most of these evolutions in geometry and compiled it into his famous
treatise, which he named ‘Elements’.

Definition:
Euclidean geometry is the study of geometrical shapes (plane and solid) and figures based on different
axioms and theorems. It is basically introduced for flat surfaces or plane surfaces. Geometry is derived
from the Greek words ‘geo’ which means earth and ‘ Metrein ’ which means ‘to measure’.

Fundamentals:
Euclid realized that a rigorous development of geometry must start with the foundations. Hence, he
began the Elements with some undefined terms, such as “a point is that which has no part” and “a line is
a length without breadth.” Proceeding from these terms, he defined further ideas such as angles, circles,
triangles, and various other polygons and figures. For example, an angle was defined as the inclination
of two straight lines, and a circle was a plane figure consisting of all points that have a fixed distance
(radius) from a given centre.

What is Euclidean Geometry?

Euclidean Geometry is considered an axiomatic system, where all the theorems are derived from a small
number of simple axioms. Since the term “Geometry” deals with things like points, lines, angles,
squares, triangles, and other shapes, Euclidean Geometry is also known as “plane geometry”. It deals
with the properties and relationships between all things .

Plane Geometry Solid Geometry

1. Congruence of triangles 1.Volume
2. Similarity of triangles
3. Areas 2.Regular solids
4. Pythagorean theorem
5. Circles
6. Regular polygons
7. Conic sections

Examples of Euclidean Geometry

The two common examples of Euclidean geometry are angles and circles. Angles are said as the inclination of
two straight lines. A circle is a plane figure, that has all the points at a constant distance (called the radius)
from the center.

Plane geometry
Congruence of triangles
Two triangles are said to be congruent if one can be exactly superimposed on the
other by a rigid motion, and the congruence theorems specify the conditions under
which this can occur. The first such theorem is the side-angle-side (SAS) theorem: If
two sides and the included angle of one triangle are equal to two sides and the
included angle of another triangle, the triangles are congruent. Following this, there
are corresponding angle-side-angle (ASA) and side-side-side (SSS) theorems.
The first very useful theorem derived from the axioms is the
basic symmetry property of isosceles triangles—i.e., that two sides of a triangle are
equal if and only if the angles opposite them are equal.

Similarity of triangles
Congruent figures have the same shape and size. Similar figures, on the other hand,
have the same shape but may differ in size. The fundamental theorem of
similarity states that a line segment splits two sides of a triangle into proportional
segments if and only if the segment is parallel to the triangle’s third side. The
similarity theorem may be reformulated as the AAA (angle-angle-angle) similarity
theorem: two triangles have their corresponding angles equal if and only if their
corresponding sides are proportional.

Areas
Just as a segment can be measured by comparing it with a unit segment, the area of
a polygon or other plane figure can be measured by comparing it with a unit square.
The common formulas for calculating areas reduce this kind of measurement to the
measurement of certain suitable lengths. The simplest case is a rectangle with
sides a and b, which has area ab.
By putting a triangle into an appropriate rectangle, one can show that the area of the
triangle is half the product of the length of one of its bases and its corresponding
height—bh/2.
Example: Prove that the area of a triangle = ½ base. height

Pythagorean theorem
For a triangle △ABC the Pythagorean theorem has two parts: (1) if ∠ACB is a right angle,
then a2 + b2 = c2; (2) if a2 + b2 = c2, then ∠ACB is a right angle. For an arbitrary triangle, the
Pythagorean theorem is generalized to the law of cosines: a2 + b2 = c2 − 2ab cos (∠ACB). When
∠ACB is 90 degrees, this reduces to the Pythagorean theorem because cos (90°) = 0.

Since Euclid, have found more than 300 distinct proofs of the Pythagorean
theorem.It remains one of the most important theorems in mathematics.
Circles
A chord AB is a segment in the interior of a circle connecting two points (A and B) on the
circumference. When a chord passes through the circle’s centre, it is a diameter, d. The
circumference of a circle is given by πd, or 2πr where r is the radius of the circle; the area of a
circle is πr2. In each case, π is the same constant (3.14159…).

A semicircle has its end points on a diameter of a circle. Thales proved that any angle inscribed
in a semicircle is a right angle; that is, for any point C on the semicircle with diameter AB,
∠ACB will always be 90. Another important theorem states that for any chord AB in a circle, the
angle subtended by any point on the same semi-arc of the circle will be invariant.

Regular polygons
A polygon is called regular if it has equal sides and angles. Thus, a regular triangle is an
equilateral triangle, and a regular quadrilateral is a square. A general problem since antiquity
has been the problem of constructing a regular n-gon, for different n, with only ruler and
compass.
Conic sections and geometric art
The most advanced part of plane Euclidean geometry is the theory of the conic
sections (the ellipse, the parabola, and the hyperbola).

Solid geometry
The most important difference between plane and solid Euclidean geometry is that human
beings can look at the plane “from above,” whereas three-dimensional space cannot be looked
at “from outside.” Consequently, intuitive insights are more difficult to obtain for solid
geometry than for plane geometry.

Some concepts, such as proportions and angles, remain unchanged from plane to solid
geometry. For other familiar concepts, there exist analogies—most noticeably, volume for area
and three-dimensional shapes for two-dimensional shapes (sphere for circle, tetrahedron for
triangle, box for rectangle). However, the theory of tetrahedra is not nearly as rich as it is for
triangles. Active research in higher-dimensional Euclidean geometry includes convexity
and sphere packings and their applications in cryptology and crystallography (see crystal:
Structure).
Volume
As explained above, in plane geometry the area of any polygon can be calculated by dissecting
it into triangles. A similar procedure is not possible for solids. In 1901 the German
mathematician Max Dehn showed that there exist a cube and a tetrahedron of equal volume
that cannot be dissected and rearranged into each other. This means that calculus must be
used to calculate volumes for even many simple solids such as pyramids.

Regular solids
Regular polyhedra are the solid analogies to regular polygons in the plane. Regular polygons are
defined as having equal (congruent) sides and angles. In analogy, a solid is called regular if its
faces are congruent regular polygons and its polyhedral angles (angles at which the faces meet)
are congruent. This concept has been generalized to higher-dimensional (coordinate) Euclidean
spaces.
Whereas in the plane there exist (in theory) infinitely many regular polygons, in three-
dimensional space there exist exactly five regular polyhedra. These are known as the Platonic
solids: the tetrahedron, or pyramid, with 4 triangular faces; the cube, with 6 square faces; the
octahedron, with 8 equilateral triangular faces; the dodecahedron, with 12 pentagonal faces;
and the icosahedron, with 20 equilateral triangular faces.

In four-dimensional space there exist exactly six regular polytopes, five of them
generalizations from three-dimensional space. In any space of more than
four dimensions, there exist exactly three regular polytopes—the generalizations of
the tetrahedron, the cube, and the octahedron.

Calculating areas and volumes

The table presents mathematical formulas for calculating the areas of various plane figures and
the volumes of various solid figures.
Euclidean and Non-Euclidean Geometry
Euclidean Geometry
In Euclidean geometry, for the given point and line,
there is exactly a single line that passes through the
given points in the same plane and it never
intersects.
Non-Euclidean Geometry
Non-Euclidean is different from Euclidean
geometry. The spherical geometry is an example of
non-Euclidean geometry because lines are not
straight here.

Properties of Euclidean Geometry

 It is the study of plane geometry and solid geometry
 It defined point, line and a plane
 A solid has shape, size, position, and can be moved from one place to another.
 The interior angles of a triangle add up to 180 degrees
 Two parallel lines never cross each other
  The shortest distance between two points is always a straight line.

Elements in Euclidean Geometry

In Euclidean geometry, Euclid’s Elements is a mathematical and geometrical work consisting of 13 books
written by ancient Greek mathematician Euclid in Alexandria, Ptolemaic Egypt. Further, the ‘Elements’
was divided into thirteen books that popularized geometry all over the world. As a whole, these
Elements is a collection of definitions, postulates (axioms), propositions (theorems and constructions),
and mathematical proofs of the propositions.
Book 1 to 4th and 6th discuss plane geometry. He gave five postulates for plane geometry known
as Euclid’s Postulates and the geometry is known as Euclidean geometry.

Euclidean Axioms
Here are the seven axioms which are given by Euclid for geometry.

1. Things which are equal to the same thing are equal to one another.
2. If equals are added to equals, the wholes are equal.
3. If equals are subtracted from equals, the remainders are equal.
4. Things which coincide with one another are equal to one another.
5. The whole is greater than the part.
6. Things which are double of the same things are equal to one another.
7. Things which are halves of the same things are equal to one another.

Euclid’s Five Postulates

Before discussing Postulates in Euclidean geometry, let us discuss a few terms as listed by Euclid in his
book 1 of the ‘Elements’. The postulated statements of these are:

1. Given two points, there is a straight line that joins them.

2. A straight line segment can be prolonged indefinitely.

3. A circle can be constructed when a point for its centre and a distance for its radius are given.

4. All right angles are equal.

5. If a straight line falling on two straight lines makes the interior angles on the same side less than
two right angles, the two straight lines, if produced indefinitely, will meet on that side on which the
angles are less than the two right angles.
Hilbert refined axioms (1) and (5) as follows:

1. For any two different points, (a) there exists a line containing these two points, and (b) this line is
unique.
5. For any line L and point p not on L, (a) there exists a line through p not meeting L, and (b) this line
is unique.

Euclid’s Postulate 1
“A straight line can be drawn from any one point to another point.”
This postulate states that at least one straight line passes through two distinct points but he did not
mention that there cannot be more than one such line. Although throughout his work he has assumed
there exists only a unique line passing through two points.

Euclid’s Postulate 2
“A straight line can be drawn from any one point to another point.”
This postulate states that at least one straight line passes through two distinct points but he did not
mention that there cannot be more than one such line. Although throughout his work he has assumed
there exists only a unique line passing through two points.

Euclid’s Postulate 3
“A circle can be drawn with any centre and any radius.”
Any circle can be drawn from the end or start point of a circle and the diameter of the circle will be the
length of the line segment.
Euclid’s Postulate 4
“All right angles are equal to one another.”
All the right angles (i.e. angles whose measure is 90°) are always congruent to each other i.e. they are
equal irrespective of the length of the sides or their orientations.

Euclid’s Postulate 5
“If a straight line falling on two other straight lines makes the interior angles on the same side of it taken
together less than two right angles, then the two straight lines, if produced indefinitely, meet on the
side on which the sum of angles is less than two right angles.”
The fifth axiom became known as the “parallel postulate,” since it provided a basis for the uniqueness
of parallel lines. The parallel postulate is fundamental for the proof of the theorem that the sum of the
angles of a triangle is always 180 degrees. A simple proof of this theorem was attributed to
the Pythagoreans.
 Geometry
1. Lines and angles
Ancient mathematicians introduced the concept of lines to represent straight objects which had
negligible width and depth. Considered as a breadth less length by Euclid, lines form the basis of
Euclidean geometry.

Lines

When two rays (part of a straight line) intersect each other in the same plane, they form an angle.
The point of intersection is called a vertex.

Definition of line

A line does not have any endpoints. It has an infinite length.

Definition of a Line Segment

A line segment is a segment of a line, or in other words, we can say that a line segment is a line
with two endpoints.

For example; The diagram shows a line L and one segment of this line is AB.
In a plane, there can be many lines or line segments. And, these lines can be divided into a few
types based on the relative positioning of a line with another line.

Types of lines

 Intersecting Lines
Two lines are intersecting lines if they meet each other at a common point.

For example, L 1 and L2 are intersecting lines in the below diagram:

 Parallel Lines
A pair of lines are parallel if they never intersect.
For example, L 1, L2, and L3 are parallel lines in the below diagram.
  Transversal Line
A transversal line cuts two or more lines at distinct points.
For example, Line L3 is the transversal line in the below diagram.

Angles
An angle is formed when two lines intersect each other. We represent an angle by the symbol ∠.
An angle involves two legs and one common vertex at which two lines meet. For example, ∠AOD is
formed when lines AB and CD intersect with each other. Also, ∠AOD is formed between the leg AO
and OD, so we include A, O, and D while naming the angle.

Measurement of an Angle
An angle can measure from zero (0) degrees to 360 degrees. Based on the measurement of an
angle, they are divided into four types:

1. Acute angle
2. Right angle
3. Obtuse angle
4. Reflex angle

Acute Angle
When the measurement of the angle is between 0 degrees and 90 degrees.

Right Angle

When the measurement of the angle is exactly 90 degree.

 If there is a right angle between two lines, then the two lines are said to be perpendicular to each

other.

Obtuse Angle
When the measurement of the angle is between 90 degrees and 180 degrees.
Reflex Angle
When the measurement of the angle is between 180 degrees and 360 degrees.

Angles formed between two intersecting lines

Vertically Opposite Angles

When two lines intersect each other, then 4 angles are formed.

 And, the angles that are opposite to each other at the intersection point are known as vertically
opposite angles.
 Vertically opposite angles are always equal.
Let us now discuss the angles formed when two lines are intersected by a third line i.e. a
transversal line.

Angles formed by a transversal line

When a transversal line intersects two lines, then eight angles are formed as shown.

Now, there are several special pairs of angles that are obtained from this diagram.

For example: If you notice (∠1, ∠3), (∠2, ∠4), (∠5, ∠7), and (∠6, ∠8) are all vertically opposite
angles.
Similarly, we get several other types of angles. Let us discuss them.

Other types of Angles

Interior and Exterior Angles

Interior angles are the ones that are present inside the region between two lines.

 And, exterior angles are the ones that are not present inside this region.
For example:

 ∠2, ∠3, ∠5, and ∠8 are interior angles.

 And, ∠1, ∠4, ∠6, and ∠7 are exterior angles.

Corresponding Angles

Two angles are said to be corresponding angles if they lie on the same side of the transversal line
such that:

 One angle is an interior angle, and

 Another is an exterior angle

For example:

(∠4, ∠8), (∠3, ∠7), (∠1, ∠5), and (∠2, ∠6) are 4 pairs of corresponding angles
Alternate interior angles

Two interior angles, present on the opposite side of a transversal line, are called alternate interior
angles.

For example:

 (∠2, ∠8) and (∠3, ∠5) are alternate interior angles.

Alternate exterior angles

Two exterior angles that are present on the opposite side of the transversal line are called
alternate exterior angles.

For example:

 (∠1, ∠7) and (∠4, ∠6) are alternate exterior angles.

Note: If a transversal line intersects two parallel lines, then the corresponding angles, alternate
interior angles, and alternate exterior angles are equal.
So, we have discussed all the type of angles.

Let us now learn about a few properties of angles.

Properties of Angles

Sum of angles on one side of a straight line

The sum of all the angles on one side of a straight line is always 180 degrees.

For example, the sum of ∠1, ∠2, and ∠3 is 180 degrees.

Sum of angles around a point

The sum of all the angles around a point is always 360 degrees.
For example, Sum of angles (∠1, ∠2, and ∠3) around point O is 360 degrees.

2. Quadrilateral
In Euclidean geometry, a quadrilateral is a four-sided 2D figure whose sum of internal angles is
360°. The word quadrilateral is derived from two Latin words ‘quadri’ and ‘latus’ meaning four and
side respectively. Therefore, identifying the properties of quadrilaterals is important when trying
to distinguish them from other polygons. So, what are the properties of quadrilaterals? There are
two properties of quadrilaterals:

 A quadrilateral should be closed shape with 4 sides

 All the internal angles of a quadrilateral sum up to 360°

In this article, you will get an idea about the 5 types of quadrilaterals (Rectangle, Square,
Parallelogram, Rhombus, and Trapezium) and get to know about the properties of quadrilaterals.

Here are the five types of quadrilaterals discussed in this article:

1. Rectangle
2. Square
3. Parallelogram
4. Rhombus
5. Trapezium
For more understanding, here is the link explaining the properties of quadrilaterals:
https://youtu.be/wx6LPIVyXK0

Properties of the quadrilaterals – An overview

The diagram given below shows a quadrilateral ABCD and the sum of its internal angles. All the
internal angles sum up to 360°. Thus, ∠A + ∠B + ∠C + ∠D = 360°
Properties of quadrilaterals Rectangle Square Parallelogram Rhombus Trapezium

All Sides are equal No Yes No Yes No

Opposite Sides are equal Yes Yes Yes Yes No

Opposite Sides are parallel Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

All angles are equal Yes Yes No No No

Opposite angles are equal Yes Yes Yes Yes No

Sum of two adjacent angles is 180 Yes Yes Yes Yes No

Bisect each other Yes Yes Yes Yes No

Bisect perpendicularly No Yes No Yes No

Let’s discuss each of these 5 quadrilaterals in detail:

Rectangle
A rectangle is a quadrilateral with four right angles. Thus, all the angles in a rectangle are equal
(360°/4 = 90°). Moreover, the opposite sides of a rectangle are parallel and equal, and diagonals
bisect each other.
Properties of rectangle
 All the angles of a rectangle are 90°

 Opposite sides of a rectangle are equal and Parallel

 Diagonals of a rectangle bisect each other

Rectangle formula – area and perimeter of a rectangle

If the length of the rectangle is L and breadth is B then,

1. Area of a rectangle = Length × Breadth or L × B

2. Perimeter of rectangle = 2 × (L + B)

Square
Square is a quadrilateral with four equal sides and angles. It’s also a regular quadrilateral as both
its sides and angles are equal. Just like a rectangle, a square has four angles of 90° each. It can also
be seen as a rectangle whose two adjacent sides are equal.

Here are the three properties of a Square:

 All the angles of a square are 90°

 All sides of a square are equal and parallel to each other

 Diagonals bisect each other perpendicularly

Square formula – area and perimeter of a square
If the side of a square is ‘a’ then,

1. Area of the square = a × a = a²

2. Perimeter of the square = 2 × (a + a) = 4a

Parallelogram
A parallelogram, as the name suggests, is a simple quadrilateral whose opposite sides are parallel.
Thus, it has two pairs of parallel sides. Moreover, the opposite angles in a parallelogram are equal
and their diagonals bisect each other.

Here are the four properties of a Parallelogram:

 Opposite angles are equal

 Opposite sides are equal and parallel

 Diagonals bisect each other

 Sum of any two adjacent angles is 180°

Parallelogram formulas – area and perimeter of a

parallelogram
If the length of a parallelogram is ‘l’, breadth is ‘b’ and height is ‘h’ then:
 1. Perimeter of parallelogram= 2 × (l + b)
2. Area of the parallelogram = l × h

Rhombus
A rhombus is a quadrilateral whose all four sides are equal in length and opposite sides are parallel
to each other. However, the angles are not equal to 90°. A rhombus with right angles would
become a square. Another name for rhombus is ‘diamond’ as it looks similar to the diamond suit in
playing cards.

Here are the four properties of a Rhombus:

 Opposite angles are equal

 All sides are equal and, opposite sides are parallel to each other

 Diagonals bisect each other perpendicularly

 Sum of any two adjacent angles is 180°

Rhombus formulas – area and perimeter of a rhombus

If the side of a rhombus is a then, perimeter of a rhombus = 4a
If the length of two diagonals of the rhombus is d1 and d2 then the area of a rhombus = ½ × d1 × d2

Trapezium
A trapezium (called Trapezoid in the US) is a quadrilateral that has only one pair of parallel sides.
The parallel sides are referred to as ‘bases’ and the other two sides are called ‘legs’ or lateral sides.

A trapezium is a quadrilateral in which the following one property:

  Only one pair of opposite sides are parallel to each other

Trapezium formulas – area and perimeter of a trapezium

If the height of a trapezium is ‘h’ (as shown in the above diagram) then:
1. Perimeter of the trapezium= Sum of lengths of all the sides = AB + BC + CD + DA
2. Area of the trapezium = ½ × (Sum of lengths of parallel sides) × h = ½ × (AB + CD) × h

Properties of Quadrilaterals – Summary

The below image also summarizes the properties of quadrilaterals

Important quadrilateral formulas

The below table summarizes the formulas on the area and perimeter of different types of
quadrilaterals:

Quadrilateral formulas Rectangle Square Parallelogram Rhombus Trapezium

Area l×b a² l×h ½ × d1 × d2 ½ × (Sum of parallel sides) × height

Perimeter 2 × (l + b) 4a 2 × (l + b) 4a Sum of all the sides

 3. Triangles
All polygons can be divided into triangles, or in other words, they are formed by combining two or
more triangles. Thus, understanding the basic properties of a triangle and its types is essential.

There are six types of triangles in total – Isosceles, Scalene, Equilaterial, Oblique, Acute, and Right.
Based on the classification according to internal angles, there are three types – Equilateral,
Isosceles, and Scalene. Whereas, the types of a triangle that are classified according to the length
of its side are Right, Acute, and Oblique. Here are the types of triangles:

Based on the Angle Based on the Sides

Acute Angled Triangle Equilateral Triangle

Oblique angled Triangle Scalene Triangle

Right Angle Triangle Isosceles Triangle

Here’s the link for more understanding;

https://youtu.be/J_IYLtYw3dc

What is a triangle?
As the name suggests, the triangle is a polygon that has three angles. So, when does a closed
figure has three angles?
When it has three line-segments joined end to end.

Thus, we can say that a triangle is a polygon, which has three sides, three angles, three vertices
and the sum of all three angles of any triangle equals 180°.

Properties of a triangle
The properties of a triangle are:

1. A triangle has three sides, three angles, and three vertices.

2. The sum of all internal angles of a triangle is always equal to 180 °. This is called the angle sum
property of a triangle.
3. The sum of the length of any two sides of a triangle is greater than the length of the third
side.
4. The side opposite to the largest angle of a triangle is the largest side.
 5. Any exterior angle of the triangle is equal to the sum of its interior opposite angles. This is
called the exterior angle property of a triangle.

Types of triangles
Triangles can be classified in 2 major ways:

 Classification according to internal angles (Right, Acute, Oblique)

 Classification according to the length of its sides (Equilateral, Isosceles, Scalene)

Let’s look into the six types of triangles in detail:

1. Acute Angled Triangle

2. Right-Angled Triangle
3. Oblique Angled Triangle
4. Scalene Angled Triangle
5. Isosceles Angled Triangle
6. Equilateral Angled triangle
Acute Angle Triangle

A triangle that has all three angles less than 90° is an acute angle triangle.
 So, all the angles of an acute angle triangle are called acute angles

Given below is an example of an acute angle triangle.

Right-Angle Triangle

A triangle that has one angle that measures exactly 90° is a right-angle triangle.
 The other two angles of a right-angle triangle are acute angles.

 The side opposite to the right angle is the largest side of the triangle and is called the
hypotenuse.
In a right-angled triangle, the sum of squares of the perpendicular sides is equal to the square of
the hypotenuse.

For e.g. considering the above right-angled triangle ACB, we can say:

(AC)^2 + (CB)^2 = (AB)^2

This is known as Pythagoras theorem

Vice versa, we can say that if a triangle satisfies the Pythagoras condition, then it is a right-angled
triangle.
Obtuse/Oblique Angle Triangle
A triangle that has one angle that measures more than 90° is an obtuse angle triangle.
Given below is an example of an obtuse/oblique angle triangle.

Scalene triangle

A triangle that has all three sides of different lengths is a scalene triangle.
 Since all the three sides are of different lengths, the three angles will also be different.

Isosceles triangle

A triangle that has two sides of the same length and the third side of a different length is an
isosceles triangle.
 The angles opposite the equal sides measure the same.

Equilateral triangle
A triangle that has all three sides of the same length is an equilateral triangle.
 Since all the three sides are of the same length, all the three angles will also be equal.

 Each interior angle of an equilateral triangle = 60°

Special cases of Right Angled Triangles

Let’s also see a few special cases of a right-angled triangle

45-45-90 triangle
In this triangle,

 Two angles measure 45°, and the third angle is a right angle.

 The sides of this triangle will be in the ratio – 1: 1: √2 respectively.

 This is also called an isosceles right-angled triangle since two angles are equal.

30-60-90 triangle
In this triangle,

 This is a right-angled triangle, since one angle = 90°

 The angles of this triangle are in the ratio – 1: 2: 3, and

 The sides opposite to these angles will be in the ratio – 1: √3: 2 respectively
 This is a scalene right-angled triangle since all three angles are different.

Area of Triangle
 Area of any triangle = ½ * base * height

 Area of a right-angled triangle = ½ * product of the two perpendicular sides

Let us summarize some of the important properties of a triangle.

 The sum of all interior angles of any triangle is equal to 180°
 The sum of all exterior angles of any triangle is equal to 360°
 An exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of its two interior opposite angles

 The sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle is always greater than the length of the
third side
 Similarly, the difference between the lengths of any two sides of a triangle is always less than
the length of the third side
 The side opposite to the smallest interior angle is the shortest side and vice versa.
  Similarly, the side opposite to the largest interior angle is the longest side and vice versa.

 In the case of a right-angled triangle, this side is called the hypotenuse

 The height of a triangle is equal to the length of the perpendicular dropped from a vertex to its
opposite side, and this side is considered the base

4. Circles
Definition of a Circle
When a set of all points that are at a fixed distance from a fixed point are joined then the
geometrical figure obtained is called circle.

Let us now learn a bit about the terminology used in circles.

Terms related to Circles

Center
The fixed point in the circle is called the center.

 So, the set of points are at a fixed distance from the center of the circle.

Radius
Radius is the fixed distance between the center and the set of points. It is denoted by “R”.
Diameter
Diameter is a line segment, having boundary points of circles as the endpoints and passing through
the center.

 So, logically a diameter can be broken into two parts:

 One part from one boundary point of the circle to the center
 And, the other part from the center to another boundary point.
 Hence, Diameter = Twice the length of the radius or “D = 2R”
Circumference
It is the measure of the outside boundary of the circle.

So, the length of the circle or the perimeter of the circle is called Circumference.

Arc of a circle
The arc of a circle is a portion of the circumference.

From any two-points that lie on the boundary of the circle, two arcs can be created: A Minor and a
Major Arc.

 Minor arc: The shorter arc created by two points.

  Major Arc: The longer arc created by two points.

Sector of a circle:
A Sector is formed by joining the endpoints of an arc with the center.

 On joining the endpoints with the center, two sectors will be obtained: Minor and Major.

 By default, we only consider the Minor sector unless it is mentioned otherwise.

Semi-circle
A semi-circle is half part of the circle or,
 A semi-circle is obtained when a circle is divided into two equal parts.

Important Properties of Circle – Lines

Properties related to Lines in a Circle
Chord
A chord is a line segment whose endpoints lie on the boundary of the circle.

Properties of Chord
Perpendicular dropped from the center divides a chord into two equal parts.

Tangent
Tangent is a line that touches the circle at any point.
Properties of Tangent
Radius is always perpendicular to the tangent at the point where it touches the circle.

Important Properties of Circle – Related to Angles

Properties related to Angles in a circle

Inscribed Angle
An inscribed angle is the angle formed between two chords when they meet on the boundary of
the circle.
Properties of Inscribed Angles
1.Angles formed by the same arc on the circumference of the circle is always equal.

2.The angle in a semi-circle is always 90°.

Central Angle
A central angle is the angle formed when two-line segments meet such that one of the endpoints
of both the line segment is at the center and another is at the boundary of the circle.

Property of Central Angles

 An angle formed by an arc at the center is twice the inscribed angle formed by the same arc.
Important Circle Formulas: Area and Perimeter
The following are some mathematical formulae that will help you calculate the area and
perimeter/circumference of a circle.

Perimeter:
 Perimeter or the Circumference of the circle = 2 × π × R.

 Length of an Arc = (Central angle made by the arc/360°) × 2 × π × R.

Area:
 Area of the circle = π × R²

 Area of the sector = (Central angle made by the sector/360°) × π × R².

Summary of all the Properties of a Circle

Here is a summarized list of all the properties we have learned in the article up to this point.
 Important Properties

Chord Perpendicular dropped from the center divides the chord into two equal parts.

Lines in a
circle Tangent Radius is always perpendicular to the tangent at the point where it touches the circle.

1. Angles formed by the same arc on the circumference of the circle is always equal.
Inscribed Angle 2. The angle in a semi-circle is always 90.

Angles in a
circle Central Angle The angle formed by an arc at the center is twice the inscribed angle formed by the same arc.

Circumference of a circle 2 × π × R.

(Central angle made by the arc/360°) × 2 × π × R

Length of an arc

Area of a circle π × R²

Important
Formulae Area of a sector (Central angle made by the arc/360°) × π × R²

Thank you.