Coherency Determination in Grid Connecte

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Welcome Message Technical Program
Organizing Committee Author’s Index
International Advisory/Liason Manuscripts

2010 IEEE International Conference on Power and Energy (PECon2010)., Nov 29 ‐ Dec 1, 2010, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

CONTENTS

CONTENTS .............................................................................................................................................................. i
MESSAGE FROM THE CONFERENCE CHAIR ............................................................................................... ii
ORGANIZING COMMITTEE ............................................................................................................................. iii
INTERNATIONAL ADVISORY/LIASON ......................................................................................................... iv
REVIEWERS ............................................................................................................................................................ v
TECHNICAL PROGRAM OVERVIEW ............................................................................................................. vi
TECHNICAL PROGRAM ................................................................................................................................... vii
Monday, November 29 ........................................................................................................................................ vii
Tuesday, November 30 ......................................................................................................................................... xi
Wednesday, December 1 ................................................................................................................................... xviii
AUTHOR INDEX ............................................................................................................................................... xxv
MANUSCRIPT .........................................................................................................................................................1
i


MESSAGE FROM THE CONFERENCE CHAIR
Bismillahirrohmannirrahim,
Assalamualaikum warohmatullahi wabarakatuh and Good Day,
Ladies and Gentlemen,
First and foremost, I would like to welcome all participants to the 2010 IEEE International Conference on Power and Energy
(PECon2010). PECon started its gear, back in 2003 as a national conference. The success continues in PECon2004 and
Pecon2005 as national conference. In 2006, PECon is upgraded into an international conference and managed to gather
participants from all over the world. With the success and experience we gathered in PECon2006 and PECon2008, we
eventually managed to organize it for the third time as an international event. PECon2010 is a platform for experts, scholars,
researchers and students to disseminate their research findings and discuss the current trends in power and energy.
This year, PECon managed to gather authors from 25 countries from all over the world such as Malaysia, Iran, Egypt, India,
Bangladesh, Canada, United Kingdom, UAE, USA, Czech Republic, Sweden, France, Germany, Singapore, Spain, South
Africa, Japan, Brazil, P.R. China, Iraq, Maldives, Pakistan, Australia and Korea. Papers have been categorized to 12 tracks
i.e. Computer and AI Applications in Power Engineering, Electrical Drives & Traction, Electrical Machines Design, High
Voltage Engineering, Next Generation Grid, Power Electronic Applications, Power Electronics & Converters, Power Quality,
Protection and Electromagnetic Compatibility, Power System Dynamic, Stability and Control, Power System Planning and
Operation, Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency and Transmission and Distribution. These tracks are subdivided into 40
small topics in the field of power and energy. You can notice that the accepted papers are highlighting new trends, techniques
and ideas in the field of power and energy which can be beneficial to the society. All papers have been peer reviewed by all
the international panel reviewers in ensuring the papers are of international standard.
Two keynote speakers have been scheduled to deliver speech on hot topics in Power and Energy. The two keynote
speakers are specifically invited to share their experience and knowledge so as it can be beneficial to all delegates. On behalf
of the organizing committee I would like to express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to all participants for coming down
to Kuala Lumpur to share and present your research findings. We are also indebted to all the international reviewers for
helping us in reviewing all the papers for ensuring high quality of all the accepted papers.
I would also like to extend my thanks to all the organizing committee for working very hard to make this conference as today
and record my personal apology for any shortcomings. Any recommendations and suggestions for improvement are very
much appreciated and most welcome.
I wish you a happy conference. For international delegates I wish you a pleasant stay in Malaysia.
Thank you.
Associate Professor Dr. Ismail Musirin

General Chair, PECon2010
ii


ORGANIZING COMMITTEE
General Chair:
Ismail Musirin (PES)
General Co Chair:
Mustafar Kamal Hamzah (PELS)
General Co Chair:
Abdul Halim Yatim (Past Chair)
Technical Chair:
Nik Rumzi (PELS)
Technical Chair:
Titik Khawa A. Rahman (PES)
Secretary:
Mohd Zainal Abidin Ab Kadir (PES)
Co Secretary:
Musse Mahamoud Ahmed (PES)
Registration Chair:
Noor Izzri Abd Wahab (PES)
Treasurer:
Yeoh Eng Chin (PES)
Co Treasurer:
Izham Zainal Abidin (PES)
Exhibition and Sponsorship:

Zahrul Faizi Hussein/ Michael Joseph (PES)
Local Arrangements:
Zuhaina Zakaria (PES)
Logistic:
M. Zain Abdullah (PES)
Publication:
Murtadha Othman (PES), Nawawi Seroji (PELS)
Tutorial and Keynote:

Gobi/ Zahrul Faizi Hussein/ Azah Mohamad (PELS/PES)
Publicity and Website:

Norazlan Hashim/Rahimi Baharom (PES/PELS)
iii


INTERNATIONAL ADVISORY/LIASON
Prof. Abdullah Ashuhaimi, MALAYSIA

Prof. Ahad Kazemi, IRAN
Prof. Akhtar Kalam, AUSTRALIA
Prof. Azah Mohamed, MALAYSIA
Prof. Farhad Rachidi, SWITZERLAND
Prof. G.B.Gharehpetian, IRAN
Prof. H. W. Ngan, HONG KONG
Prof. Harun Al-Rashid, USA
Prof. Hongbing Zhu, JAPAN
Prof. Hossein Askarian Abyaneh, IRAN
Prof. Hussein Ahmad, MALAYSIA
Prof. I. Erlich, GERMANY
Prof. K. L. Lo, UK
Prof. Khalid Mohd. Nor, MALAYSIA
Prof. M. A. Rahman, CANADA
Prof. Malik El-Buluk, USA
Prof. Masharu Ishii, JAPAN
Prof. Mohibullah Mohammad, INDIA
Prof. Nikos Mastorakis, GREECE
Prof. Norman Mariun, MALAYSIA
Prof. S. Mukhopadhyay, INDIA
Prof. Saifur Rahman, USA
Prof. Vernon Cooray, SWEDEN
Prof. Vladimir Rakov, USA
iv


REVIEWERS
Abd Kadir Mahamad Hosein Farzanehfard Mokhtar Ali

Abdul Halim Yatim Hossein Haroonabadi Mostafa Eidiani
Abdul Muhaimin Mahmud Hossein Khalilnezhad Mostafa Mousa
Abolfazl Jalilvand Hossein Torkaman Mudathir Akorede
Adel Mellit Hua Nong Ting Mustafar Kamal Hamzah
Agileswari K. Ramasamy Hussain Mohammed Dipu Kabir Mutasim Nour
Ahmad Rohani Hussain Shareef Nader Anani
Ahmad Shukri Fazil Rahman Iman Rahmati Nand Kishor
Ahmed AL-Masri Imre Lendak Navid Eghtedarpour
Ahmed Zobaa Intan Rahayu Ibrahim Negar Noroozi
Ali Bahramiazar Ismail Musirin Nik Rumzi Nik Idris
Ali Bidram Izham Z. Abidin Nobuhiro Harada
Ali Nadian Jaeho Choi Noor Izzri Abdul Wahab
Aliakbar Mohammadi Jawad Nagi Nor Rul Hasma Abdullah
Alireza Siadatan Jin-O Kim Nordin Saad
Amir Safdarian K Lakshmi Nursyarizal Mohd Nor
Anis Nordin K S Rao Omar Abdel-Rahim
Anton Satria Prabuwono Kamil Dimililer Omar Aliman
Arbab Kanagaraj Pillay Parashuram Karandikar
Arshin Rezazadeh Kartik Prasad Basu Parimal Acharjee
Asmarashid Ponniran Kaveh Abookazemi Pavel Vaclavek
Awang Jusoh Khairulmizam Samsudin Pekik Argo Dahono
Azah Mohamed M. Reza Safari Tirtashi Perumal Nallagownden
Azrul Mohd Ariffin Magnus Perninge Prakash Ray
Badrul Hisham Ahmad Mahdi Rezvanyvardom Prakornchai Phonrattanasak
Baharuddin Ismail Mahmoud Younis Qutaiba Ali
Bahisham Yunus Mahmoud-Reza Haghifam Raihana Mustafa
Bahram Najafisaadatpisheh Majid Delshad Rajesh Kumar Panakala
Behnam Mahamedi Mamdouh Abdel-Akher Ravikumar V
Bendaoud Abdelber Manoj Datta Renuga Verayiah
Chee-Kit Ho Markus Pfeifer Reza Noroozian
Cheng-Ta Chiang Masoud Aminian Reza Shariatinasab
Chenxi Lin Masoud Farhoodnea Rizal Mat Jusoh
Chinnusamy Muniraj Matthew Dunnigan Roozbeh Rajabi
Chitra Venugopal Mau Teng Au Saad Mekhilef
Chitti Babu B Md. Hasanuzzaman Sa'ed Abed
Cmr Prabhu Mehdi Bahrami Seyed Ali Mohammad Javadian
Dahaman Ishak Mehdi Saradarzadeh Seyed Mostafa Tabatabaei
Duduku V Viswacheda Mehrdad Eghlimi Shahrin Md. Ayob
Duy Huynh Mehrdad Rostami Shajith Ali
Ebrahim Afjei Misron Norhisam Shuangquan Liu
Ebrahim Babaei Mithun Bhaskar Siong Lee Koh
Ebrahim Babaei Mohamad Reza Banaei Soib Taib
Eduardo Pinheiro Mohamed El-Nemr Sophan Wahyudi Nawawi
Ehab El-Saadany Mohamed Shaaban Stella Morris
Ehsan Adib Mohammad Ali Rezaei Subhas Mukhopadhyay
Eng Chin Yeoh Mohammad Bayati poudeh Sumit Paudyal
Erwan Sulaiman Mohammad Divandari Syafii
Eyada Alanzi Mohammad Faridun Naim Tajuddin Syamsiah Mashohor
Fen Zhou Mohammad Mahdavi Syed Bahauddin Alam
Gevork B. Gharehpetian Mohammad Reza Amini Syed Khaleel Ahmed
Ghassem Mokhtari Mohammad Yazdani-Asrami Thanga Chelliah
Ghias Farivar Mohammad Zia Ur Rahman Titik Khawa Abdul Rahman
Gobbi Ramasamy MohammadReza Zolghadri Udai Jha
Hala Rslan Mohammed Yasen Vibhor Gupta
Hamed Hashemi Dezaki Mohd Herwan Sulaiman Wael Salah
Hamed Shakouri Mohd Iqbal Ridwan Wan Ismail Ibrahim
Hamidah Ibrahim Mohd Najib Mohd Hussain Woei-Luen Chen
Handy Ali Munir Mohd Rahmat Yap Keem Siah
Hanim Hussin Mohd Rezal Yu-Cheng Fan
Hassan Feshki Farahani Mohd Rizal Arshad Yun Seng Lim
Heresh Seyedi Mohd Rodhi Sahid Zuhaina Zakaria
Hew Wooi Ping Mohsen Gitizadeh
v


TECHNICAL PROGRAM OVERVIEW

Day 1
29 November 2010
0900 ‐ 0945 Welcoming Speech

0945 ‐ 1000 Coffee Break

1000 ‐ 1125 Keynote Address 1: Nuclear Energy

1130 ‐ 1300 Keynote Address 2: Planning for Smart Grid in TNB System

1300 ‐ 1415 Lunch Break

1415 ‐ 1600 Session 1A – Computer and AI Applications in Power Engineering 1

Session 1B – Power Electronics and Converters 1

Session 1C – Renewable Energy and Nuclear Generations

1600 ‐ 1615 Tea Break

1615 ‐ 1730 Session 1D – Power Electronic Applications 1
Session 1E – Power Quality, Protection and Electromagnetic Compatibility 1
Session 1F – Power System Dynamic, Stability and Control 1

Day 2
30 November 2010
0900 ‐ 1030 Session 2A – Power System Planning and Operation 1
Session 2B – Transmission and Distribution 1
Session 2C – Electrical Machines Design
1045 ‐ 1245 Session 2D – Computer and AI Applications in Power Engineering 2
Session 2E – High Voltage Engineering
Session 2F – Power System Dynamic, Stability and Control 2
1245 ‐ 1400 Lunch
1400 ‐ 1545 Session 2G – Electrical Drives & Traction
Session 2H – Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency 1
Session 2I – Power Electronic Applications 2
1545‐ 1600 Tea Break
1600 ‐ 1715 Session 2J – Power Quality, Protection and Electromagnetic Compatibility 2
Session 2K – Power System Dynamic, Stability and Control 3
Session 2L – Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency 2

Day 3
1 December 2010
0900 ‐ 1030 Session 3A – Power Quality, Protection and Electromagnetic Compatibility 3
Session 3B – Power Electronics & Converters 2
Session 3C – Transmission and Distribution 2
1045 ‐ 1245 Session 3D – Power System Planning and Operation 2
Session 3E – Power Electronics & Converters 3
Session 3F – Electrical Machines and Drives
1245 ‐ 1400 Lunch
1400 ‐ 1600 Session 3G – Power System Planning and Operation 3
Session 3H – Transmission and Distribution 3
Session 3I – Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency 3
1600 ‐ 1630 Tea Break and Adjourn

vi


TECHNICAL PROGRAM
Monday, November 29

K1 : Keynote Address 1
Title : Nuclear Energy
Speaker : Prof. Dato’ Dr. Noramly Muslim
Session Chair : Prof. Dr. Titik Khawa Abdul Rahman
Time : 10:00 AM ‐ 11:25 AM
Room : Bahamas

K2 : Keynote Address 2
Title : Planning for Smart Grid in TNB System
Speaker : En. Mohd. Yusof bin Rakob
General Manager (System Planning)
Tenaga Nasional Berhad
Session Chair : Prof. Dr. Khalid Mohd. Nor
Time : 11:30 AM ‐ 12:45 PM
Room : Bahamas

S1A: Session 1A ‐ Computer and AI Applications in Power Engineering 1
Session Chair : Assoc. Prof. Dr. Izham Zainal Abidin
Room: Bahamas 1
2:15 Optimal Placement of Distributed Generation Using Combination of PSO and Clonal Algorithm
Mostafa Sedighizadeh (Imam khomeini International university, Iran); Mostafa Fallahnejad (Shahid Beheshti University, Iran);
Mohamad Reza Alemi (Shahid Beheshti University, Iran); Mehrad Omidvaran (Shahid Beheshti University, Iran); Davood
Arzaghi‐Haris (Islamic Azad Universiy, Saveh Branch, Iran)
2:30 A Music Based Harmony Search (MBHS) Approach to Optimal Power Flow with Reactive Power Loss Optimization
Mithun M Bhaskar (National Institute of Technology, Warangal, India)
2:45 Real Power Transfer Allocation Via Continuous Genetic Algorithm‐Least Squares Support Vector Machine Technique
Mohd Wazir Mustafa (University of Technology Malaysia, Malaysia); Mohd Herwan Sulaiman (Universiti Malaysia Perlis,
Malaysia); Saiful Nizam Abd. Khalid (Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia); Hussain Shareef (University Kebangsaan
Malaysia, Maldives)
3:00 Thyristor Controlled Series Compensator Planning Using Evolutionary Programming for Transmission Loss
Minimization for System Under Contingencies
Nor Rul Hasma Abdullah (Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia); Ismail Musirin (Universiti Teknologi Mara, Shah Alam,
Malaysia); Muhammad Othman (Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia)
3:15 Artificial Neural Network‐based Forecast for Electricity Consumption in Malaysia
Mohd Syahmin Mohamed Othman (University of Technology MARA, Malaysia); Dalina Johari (University of Technology
MARA, Malaysia); Ismail Musirin (Universiti Teknologi Mara, Shah Alam, Malaysia); Titik Khawa Abdul Rahman (University
Teknologi Mara, Malaysia); Nik Fasdi Nik Ismail (Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM), Malaysia)
vii


3:30 Preprocessing of Acoustic Emission Signals From Partial Discharge in Oil‐pressboard Insulation System
Yasmin Hanum Md Thayoob (Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Malaysia); Zurita Zakaria (Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Malaysia);
Mohd Raffi Samsudin (TNB Reasearch, Malaysia); Prodipto S Ghosh (RUP Consultant, Canada); Min Lee Chai (Baker Atlas
(M) Sdn Bhd, Malaysia)
3:45 Cluster Validity Analysis for Electricity Load Profiling
Norhasnelly Anuar (Mara University of Technology, Malaysia); Zuhaina Zakaria (Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia)

S1B: Session 1B ‐ Power Electronics and Converters 1
Session Chair: Dr. Mohammad Nawawi Seroji
Room: Bahamas 2
2:15 Silent Discharge Ozonizer for Colour Removal of Treated Palm Oil Mill Effluent Using a Simple High Frequency
Resonant Power Converter
Zainal Salam (Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia); Mochammad Facta (Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia)
2:30 A New Interleaved ZCS PWM Boost Converter
Mahdi Rezvanyvardom (, Iran); Ehsan Adib (Isfahan University of Technology, Iran); Hosein Farzanehfard (Isfahan
University of Technology, Iran)
2:45 DVR Based Cascaded Multilevel Z‐Source Inverter
Mohamad Reza Banaei (Azarbaijan University of Tarbiat Moallem, Iran); Ali Reza Dehghanzadeh (Azarbaijan University of
Tarbiat Moallem, Iran)
3:00 A Bidirectional Zero Voltage Transition Converter with Coupled Inductors
Mohammad Reza Mohammadi (Isfahan University of Technology, Iran); Hosein Farzanehfard (Isfahan University of
Technology, Iran)
3:15 Buck‐Boost Interleaved Inverter for Grid Connected Photovoltaic System
Omar Abdel‐Rahim (Aswan ‐South Valley university, Egypt); Mohamed Orabi (APEARC, Aswan South Valley University,
Egypt); Mahrous Ahmed (APEARC, Aswan South Valley University, Egypt)
3:30 Renewable Energy Inverter Development Using dSPACE DS1104 Controller Board
Zamre Abd. Ghani (Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia); Ma Hannan (Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia);
Azah Mohamed (Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia)
3:45 ANFIS Based Field Oriented Control for Matrix Converter Fed Induction Motor
Chitra Venugopal (University of Kwazulu Natal, South Africa)

S1C: Session 1C – Renewable Energy and Nuclear Generations
Session Chair : Prof. Gevork B. Gharehpetian
Room: Copacobana
2:15 Analysis of Hybrid Photovoltaic and Wind Energies Connected to Unbalanced Distribution Systems
Karar Mahmoud (South Valley University, Egypt); Mamdouh Abdel‐Akher (South Valley University, Egypt)
2:30 Coherency Determination in Grid‐Connected Distributed Generation Based Hybrid System Under Islanding Scenarios
Prakash Ray (Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology, Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India); Somya Mohanty (MNIT
Allahabad, India); Nand Kishor (Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad, India); Harish Chandra Dubey
(Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology, India)

viii


2:45 Effect of the PV/FC Hybrid Power Generation System on Total Line Loss in Distribution Network
Yahya Kabiri Renani (Amirkabir University of Technology, Iran); Hossein Askarian Abyaneh (Amirkabir University of
Technology, Iran); Seyed Hossein Hesamedin Sadeghi (Amirkabir University of Technology, Iran); Ali Talebi (AmirKabir
University of Technology, Iran); Hamed Hashemi Dezaki (Amirkabir University of Technology, Iran); Hamed Nafisi
(Amirkabir University of Technology (Tehran Polytechnic), Iran)
3:00 Characteristic and Transient Analysis of Gen‐4 Nuclear Power Via Reactor Kinetics and Accelerator Model
Syed Bahauddin Alam (Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology (BUET), Bangladesh); Md. Nazmus Sakib (,
Bangladesh); MD. Rishad Ahmed (BUET, Bangladesh); Hussain Mohammed Dipu Kabir (Bangladesh University of
Engineering & Technology, Bangladesh); Khaled Redwan (BUET, Bangladesh); Md. Abdul Matin (Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology, Bangladesh)
3:15 EM Shielding, Dosimetry Control and Xe(135)‐Sm(149) Poisoning Effect for Nuclear Waste Treatment
Syed Bahauddin Alam (Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology (BUET), Bangladesh); Hussain Mohammed Dipu
Kabir (Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology, Bangladesh); Md. Nazmus Sakib (, Bangladesh); Celia Shahnaz
(BUET, Bangladesh); Shaikh Anowarul Fattah (BUET, Bangladesh)
3:30 Nuclear Waste Transmutation by Decay Energetics, Compton Imaging, Bremsstrahlung and Nuclei Dynamics
Kabir (Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology, Bangladesh); MD. Rishad Ahmed (BUET, Bangladesh); A B M
Rafi Sazzad (BUET, Bangladesh); Celia Shahnaz (BUET, Bangladesh); Shaikh Anowarul Fattah (BUET, Bangladesh)
3:45 Can Gen‐4 Nuclear Power and Reactor Technology Be Safe and Reliable Future Energy for Developing Countries ?
Kabir (Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology, Bangladesh); A B M Rafi Sazzad (BUET, Bangladesh); Khaled
Redwan (BUET, Bangladesh); Ishtiaque Aziz (BUET, Bangladesh); Imranul Kabir Chowdhury (American International
University‐Bangladesh (AIUB), Bangladesh); Md. Abdul Matin (Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology,
Bangladesh)

S1D: Session 1D – Power Electronic Applications 1
Session Chair: Prof. Dr. Zainal Salam
Room: Bahamas 1
4:15 Smart Charger for Sealed Lead Acid Batteries Based on Parallel Port PC Interfacing
Bilal Asaad Mubdir (College of Electrical & Electronics Techniques, Iraq); Rashid Ali Fayadh (College of Electrical & Electronic
Techniques, Iraq)
4:30 Harmonic Current Compensation by a Single‐Phase Shunt Active Power Filter Based on Least Compensation Current
Control Method
Mohammad Sadegh Golsorkhi (Amirkabir University of Technology, Iran); Hadi Binandeh (Amirkapir University Of
Technology(Tehran Polytechnic), Iran); Javad Shokrollahi Moghani (Amirkapir University Of Technology(Tehran
Polytechnic), Iran); Gevork B. Gharehpetian (Amirkabir University of Technology, Iran); Hossein Hosseinian (Amirkabie
4:45 Design of a Bridgeless PFC with Line‐Modulated Fixed Off‐Time Current Control and Zero‐Voltage Switching
Haghi (Sharif University of Technology, Iran); MohammadReza Zolghadri (Sharif University of Technology, Iran); Vahid
Nasirian (Asisstant, Iran); Negar Noroozi (Assistant, Iran)
5:00 Nine‐Level SHE‐PWM VSC Based STATCOM for VAR Compensation
Phee Jin (The University of Nottingham, Malaysia Campus, Malaysia); Mohamed Dahidah (The University of Nottingham,
Malaysia Campus, Malaysia); Christian Klumpner (The University of Nottingham, UK campus, United Kingdom)
ix


5:15 A High Efficiency Microcontroller‐Based Step‐up Push‐Pull DC‐DC Converter for PV Inverter
Sharulnizam Mohd Mukhtar (Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Malaysia)

S1E: Session 1E ‐ Power Quality, Protection and Electromagnetic Compatibility 1
Session Chair: Assoc. Prof. Md. Shah Majid
Room: Bahamas 2
4:15 A New Method for Determining Multiple Harmonic Source Locations in a Power Distribution System
Masoud Farhoodnea (Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia); Azah Mohamed (Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia,
Malaysia); Hussain Shareef (Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia)
4:30 Directional High‐Resistance Earth Fault Detector Based on Zero‐Sequence Components and Wavelet Transform
Amin Samanfar (Khoramabad Azad University, Iran); Behnam Mahamedi (Iran Grid Management Company, Iran)
4:45 Harmonics Mitigation and Power Factor Correction with a Modern Three‐phase Four‐Leg Shunt Active Power Filter
Izzeldin Idris Abdalla (Universiti Technologi PETRONAS, Malaysia); K S Rama Rao (Universiti Teknologi Petronas,
Malaysia); N. Perumal (Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia)
5:00 Risk Based Protective Devices Placement in Distribution Networks with DG
Seyed Ali Mohammad Javadian (Islamic Azad University‐Islamshahr Branch, Iran); Mahmoud‐Reza Haghifam (Tarbiat
Modares University, Iran)
5:15 New Wind Turbine Grounding System to Reduce Step & Touch Voltage
Hossein Kazemi Karegar (Shahid Beheshti University (SBU), Iran); Masoud Arabi (Post Gratuade , Iran)

S1F: Session 1F ‐ Power System Dynamic, Stability and Control 1
Session Chair: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Zuhaina Hj Zakaria
Room: Copacobana
4:15 Voltage Stability Analysis in Conversion of Double Three‐Phase to Six‐Phase Transmission Line
Reza Shariatinasab (Birjand University, Iran); Masoud Aliakbar Golkar (K. N. TOOSI University of Technology, Iran)
4:30 Design of Output Feedback Controller for PSS and TCSC by GA to Improve the Damping of Power System Oscillations
Abolfazl Jalilvand (Zanjan University, Iran); M. Reza Safari Tirtashi (Zanjan University, Iran)
4:45 Coordination of HVDC‐links to Increase Dynamic Stability Margins
Robert Eriksson (KTH, Sweden)
5:00 Exact and Efficient Approach in Static Assessment of Available Transfer Capability (ATC)
Mostafa Eidiani (Islamic Azad University ‐ Bojnourd Branch, Iran); Hossein Zeynal (University Technology of Malaysia
(UTM), Malaysia); Alimorad Khajeh Zadeh (Center Of Electrical Energy System, UTM University, Malaysia); Khalid
Mohamed Nor (Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia)
5:15 TCPS Controller Design Using Fuzzy Logic Controller for Power System Stability Enhancement
M. Reza Safari Tirtashi (Zanjan University, Iran); Kazem Mazlumi (Zanjan University, Iran); Ahmad Rohani (Zanjan
University, Iran)

x


Tuesday, November 30
S2A: Session 2A ‐ Power System Planning and Operation 1
Session Chair : Ir. Yeoh Eng Chin
Room: Bahamas 1
9:00 Analysis of Transfer Capability by Markov Chain Monte Carlo Simulation
Magnus Perninge (KTH, Sweden)
9:15 Economic Viability of Distributed Energy Resources Relative to Substation and Feeder Facilities Expansion
Mudathir Akorede (Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia); Hashim Hizam (UPM university, Malaysia); Ishak Aris (Universiti
Putra Malaysia, Malaysia); Mohd Zainal Abidin Ab Kadir (Universiti Putra malaysia, Malaysia); Edris Pouresmaeil
(Polytechnic University of Catalonia, Spain)
9:30 Reactive Power Allocation in Pool Based Power System Utilizing Proportional Sharing Method
Mohd Herwan Sulaiman (Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Malaysia); Mohd Wazir Mustafa (University of Technology Malaysia,
Malaysia); Omar Aliman (Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia)
9:45 An Intelligent Binary Particle Swarm Optimization for Unit Commitment Problem
Younes Pirhayati (Zanjan University, Iran); Kazem Mazlumi (Zanjan University, Iran)
10:00 Bacterial Foraging‐Based Solution for Optimal Capacitor Allocation in Distribution Systems
Seyed Mostafa Tabatabaei (Amirkabir University of Technology, Iran); Behrooz Vahidi (Amirkabir University of Technology,
Iran); Hossein Hosseinian (Amirkabie University of Technology, Iran); Seyed Mohammad Madani (Iut, Iran)
10:15 Clonal Selection Based Artificial Immune System to Solve the Unit Commitment Problem in Restructured Electricity
Sectors
K Lakshmi (K S Rangasamy College of Technology, Tiruchengode, India); S Vasantharathna (, India); Chinnusamy Muniraj
(Asst.Professor, India)

S2B: Session 2B ‐ Transmission and Distribution 1
Session Chair: Dr. Yasmin Hanum Md Thayoob
Room: Bahamas 2
9:00 Practical Mitigation of Voltage Sag in Distribution Networks by Combining Network Reconfiguration and DSTATCOM
Nesrallh Khelef (University of Kebanghsaan Malaysia, Malaysia); Azah Mohamed (Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia,
Malaysia); Hussain Shareef (University Kebangsaan Malaysia, Maldives)
9:15 Maximum Loss Reduction by an Improved Reconfiguration Method and Capacitor Placement
Vahid Farahani (Amirkabir University of Technology, Iran); Seyed Hossein Hesamedin Sadeghi (Amirkabir University of
Technology, Iran); Hossein Hosseinian (Amirkabie University of Technology, Iran); Kazem Mazlumi (Zanjan University, Iran);
Hossein Askarian Abyaneh (Amirkabir University of Technology, Iran)
9:30 Analysis of Wave Propagation in Time Domain Reflectometry Circuit Simulation Model
Yasmin Hanum Md Thayoob (Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Malaysia); Suhaila Sulaiman (Universiti Tenaga Nasional,
Malaysia); Azrul Mohd Ariffin (UNITEN, Malaysia)
9:45 Steady‐State Behavior of Distributed Energy Resources in Unbalance Radial Active Distribution Networks
Mohammad Hossein Ashourian (University Technologi Malaysia (UTM), Malaysia); Abdullah Asuhaimi Mohd Zin
(Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia); Ahmad Safawi b. Mokhtar (University Technologi Malaysia (UTM), Malaysia);
Zaniah bt Muda (University Technologi Malaysia (UTM), Malaysia)
xi


10:00 Impact of Static Load on Voltage Stability of an Unbalanced Distribution System
Sugunesan Gunalan (Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Malaysia); Agileswari K. Ramasamy (Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Malaysia);
Renuga Verayiah (Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Malaysia)
10:15 New Islanding Detection Technique for DG Using Discrete Wavelet Transform
Reza Shariatinasab (Birjand University, Iran)

S2C: Session 2C – Electrical Machines Design
Session Chair: Dr. Muhammad Murtadha Othman
Room: Copacobana
9:00 New Structure for High Speed and Variable Speed Wind Turbine Based Switched Reluctance Generator
Hossein Kazemi Karegar (Shahid Beheshti University (SBU), Iran); Masoome Yazdi (Post Gratuade , Iran); Alireza Siadatan
(Islamic Azad University, Iran)
9:15 FEA‐Based Design and Parameter Optimization Study of 6‐Slot 5‐Pole PMFSM with Field Excitation for Hybrid Electric
Vehicle
Erwan Sulaiman (University of Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Malaysia)
9:30 Analysis of Energy Savings for Rewinding and Replacement of Industrial Motor
Md. Hasanuzzaman (University of Malaya, Malaysia)
9:45 Static Eccentricity Fault Diagnosis in Switched Reluctance Motor
Hossein Torkaman (Shahid Beheshti University, Iran); Ebrahim Afjei (Shahid Beheshti University, Iran); Ali Nadian (Shahid
Beheshti University, Iran)
10:00 A New Double Layer Per Phase Configuration for Switched Reluctance Motor
Ebrahim Afjei (Shahid Beheshti University, Iran); Hossein Torkaman (Shahid Beheshti University, Iran); Babak
Mazloomnezhad (Shahid Beheshti University, Iran)
10:15 Linear Generator Models in Simulink Block
Shamsul Zulkifli (University of Liverpool, United Kingdom); Md Zarafi Ahmad (, Malaysia)

S2D: Computer and AI Applications in Power Engineering 2
Session Chair : Ir. M Zain Abdullah
Room: Bahamas 1
10:45 Intelligent Optimization Techniques for Optimal Power Flow Using Interline Power Flow Controller
K S Rama Rao (Universiti Teknologi Petronas, Malaysia); Khalid Haroun Mohamed Abdelgadir (Unversiti Teknologi
PETRONAS, Malaysia)
11:00 Modeling and Evaluation of the Power System Protection Using Petri Nets
Ahmad Ashouri (Zanjan University, Iran); Abolfazl Jalilvand (Zanjan University, Iran); Reza Noroozian (Zanjan University,
Iran); Amir Bagheri (Zanjan University, Iran)
11:15 Condition Monitoring of Electrical Supply Voltage Quality to Electrical Machines Using RBF Neural Network
Harapajan Singh (Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia); Manjeevan Seera (Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia); Ahmad
Puad Ismail (Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia)
xii


11:30 Data Transfer Rate, Central Processing Unit Usage and Read Access Memory Usage in Networked Control System Via
Industrial Ethernet
Handy Ali Munir (Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia); Nordin B Saad (Universiti Teknologi Petronas, Malaysia);
Syed Alwee Aljunid (Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Malaysia); Ahmad Mujahid Ahmad Zaidi (National Defence Unversity of
Malaysia, Malaysia); Mohd Zuki Yusoff (Universiti Teknologi Petronas, Malaysia); Asmarashid Ponniran (Universiti Tun
Hussein Onn Malaysia, Malaysia)
11:45 Distributed Interactive Power System Simulator Using Web Technology
Mamdouh Abdel‐Akher (South Valley University, Egypt); Mohamed K. El‐Nemr (Tanta University, Egypt); Wael Abdel‐Galil
(EtaSoft, Egypt)
12:00 Field Weakening in PMSM Model Based Predictive Control
Pavel Vaclavek (Brno University of Technology, Czech Republic); Petr Blaha (Brno University of Technology, Czech Republic)
12:15 Detection of Transformer Winding Axial Displacement Using Scattering Parameter and ANN
Maryam Akhavan Hejazi (Amirkabir university of Technology, Iran); Hasan Ali Alehoseini (Amirkabir University of
Technology, Iran); Gevork B. Gharehpetian (Amirkabir University of Technology, Iran)
12:30 Performance Comparison of MLP and RBF Neural Networks for Fault Location in Distribution Networks with DGs
Hadi Zayandehroodi (University Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Malaysia); Azah Mohamed (Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia,
Malaysia); Hussain Shareef (Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia); Marjan Mohammadjafari (University of malaya,
Malaysia)

S2E: High Voltage Engineering
Session Chair: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mohd Zainal Abidin Ab Kadir
Room: Bahamas 2
10:45 Condition Monitoring of Outdoor Polymeric Insulators Using Wavelets and ANFIS
Chinnusamy Muniraj (Asst.Professor, India); S Chandrasekar (, India)
11:00 Antennas Positioning for On‐line Monitoring of Transformer Winding Radial Deformation Using UWB Sensors
Javad Ebrahimi (Amirkabir University of Technology, Iran); Gevork B. Gharehpetian (Amirkabir University of Technology,
Iran); Hamidreza AminDavar (Amirkabir University of Technology (AUT), Iran); Maryam Akhavan Hejazi (Amirkabir
university of Technology, Iran)
11:15 Time‐to‐Thunder Method of Lightning Distance Determination
Wan Ismail Ibrahim (Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia); Zulkurnain Abdul Malek (UTM, Malaysia)
11:30 Limitation of Transmission Line Switching Overvoltages
Heresh Seyedi (University of Tabriz, Iran); Smko Golabi (University of Tabriz, Iran); Zaher Abam (University of Tabriz, Iran)
11:45 Detection of Transformer Winding Radial Deformations by Using UWB Pulses and DWT
Javad Ebrahimi (Amirkabir University of Technology, Iran); Gevork B. Gharehpetian (Amirkabir University of Technology,
Iran); Hamidreza AminDavar (Amirkabir University of Technology (AUT), Iran); Maryam Akhavan Hejazi (Amirkabir
university of Technology, Iran)
12:00 Transformer Winding Radial Deformation Detection Using Scattering Parameters
Hasan Ali Alehoseini (Amirkabir University of Technology, Iran); Maryam Akhavan Hejazi (Amirkabir university of
Technology, Iran); Gevork B. Gharehpetian (Amirkabir University of Technology, Iran)

xiii


12:15 Study of Impulse Voltage Distribution in Transformer Windings
Hendri Masdi (UPM, Malaysia); Norman Mariun (Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia); Azah Mohamed (Universiti
Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia); Noor Izzri Abdul Wahab (Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia)
12:30 Considering on Charge Density along Return Stroke Lightning Channel
Mehdi Izadi (University putra malaysia, Malaysia); Mohd Zainal Abidin Ab Kadir (Universiti Putra malaysia, Malaysia)

S2F: Power System Dynamic, Stability and Control 2
Session Chair: Prof. Dr. K. Rama Rao
Room: Copacobana
10:45 Voltage Stability Calculations in Power Transmission Lines: Indications and Allocations
Fahad A Althowibi (Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, UTM, Malaysia); Mohd Wazir Mustafa (University of Technology
Malaysia, Malaysia)
11:00 Line Voltage Stability Calculations in Power Systems
Malaysia, Malaysia)
11:15 An Analysis of Transient Stability Using Center‐of‐Inertia: Angle and Speed
Halimatun Hashim (Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Malaysia); Ridzuwan Zulkepali (Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Malaysia);
Yaʹakob R. Omar (Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Malaysia); Noraisma Ismail (Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Malaysia); Izham Z.
Abidin (Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Malaysia); Sallehhudin Yusof (Advanced Power Solution, Malaysia)
11:30 On‐line Voltage Collapse Indicator for Power Systems
Malaysia, Malaysia)
11:45 Under Frequency Load Shedding (UFLS): Principles And Implementation
Yaʹakob R. Omar (Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Malaysia); Izham Z. Abidin (Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Malaysia); Halimatun
Hashim (Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Malaysia)
12:00 Influence of Distributed Generations and Renewable Energy Resources Power Plant on Power System Transient
Stability
Mohd Zamri Che Wanik (Institute of Electrical Power System, University of Duisburg‐Essen, Germany); Istvan Erlich
(University of Duisburg‐Essen, Germany); Azah Mohamed (Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia); Azuki Abdul Salam
(University Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia)
12:15 Transient Stability Emergency Control of Power Systems Employing UFLS Combined with Generator Tripping Method
Noor Izzri Abdul Wahab (Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia); Azah Mohamed (Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia)
12:30 On Comparing the Performance of Voltage Source Converters Based D‐STATCOM for Voltage Sag Mitigation
Kanagaraj Pillay (Nathan Electrical, Malaysia); Mohamed Dahidah (The University of Nottingham, Malaysia Campus,
Malaysia); Norman Mariun (Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia)

xiv


S2G: Electrical Drives & Traction
Session Chair: Prof. Ir. Dr. Norman Mariun
Room: Bahamas 1
2:00 A Novel Sensorless Method for Rotor Position Detection in Bifilar SRM Drive
Alireza Kazemi (Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran); Majid Asgar (& Computer Engineering Shahid Beheshti
University, Iran); Ebrahim Afjei (Shahid Beheshti University, Iran); Alireza Siadatan (Islamic Azad University, Iran)
2:15 On‐line Parameter Estimation of an Induction Machine Using a Recursive Least‐Squares Algorithm with Multiple Time‐
Varying Forgetting Factors
Duy Huynh (Heriot‐Watt University, United Kingdom); Matthew Dunnigan (Heriot‐Watt University, United Kingdom);
Stephen Finney (University of Strathclyde, United Kingdom)
2:30 Energy Efficient Control of an Induction Machine Using a Chaos Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithm
Duy Huynh (Heriot‐Watt University, United Kingdom); Matthew Dunnigan (Heriot‐Watt University, United Kingdom);
Stephen Finney (University of Strathclyde, United Kingdom)
2:45 A Sector Advanced Technique to Improve Dynamic Response of a Direct Torque Controlled Induction Motor
Pvrl Narasimham (Gudlavalleru Engineering College, JNTU Kakinada, India); Avrs Sarma (, India); E Vargil Kumar
(Gudlavalleru Engineerng College, Gudlavalleru, India)
3:00 Implementation of Fuzzy Logic Controller for Permanent Magnet Brushless DC Motor Drives
Tan Chee Siong (Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Malaysia); Baharuddin Ismail (Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Malaysia); Siti Fatimah
Siraj (Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Malaysia); Mohammad Faridun Naim Tajuddin (Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Malaysia); Mohd
Fayzul Mohammed (Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Malaysia)
3:15 High Performance Induction Motor Drive Using Fuzzy Self‐Tuning Hybrid Fuzzy Controller
Ali Saghafinia (University of Malaya, Malaysia); Hew Wooi Ping (University Malaya, Malaysia)
3:30 Improved Performance of PMSM Speed Responses Using a Hybrid Fuzzy/ PI Controller
Kein Huat Chua (Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Malaysia); Yun Seng Lim (Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Malaysia);
Stella Morris (Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Malaysia); Jianhui Wong (Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Malaysia)

S2H: Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency 1
Session Chair: Dr. Mamdouh Abdel‐Akher
Room: Bahamas 2
2:00 Design of a Predictive Control Strategy for Integration of Stand‐Alone Wind/Diesel System
Behzad Sedaghat (Zanjan University, Iran); Abolfazl Jalilvand (Zanjan University, Iran); Reza Noroozian (Zanjan University,
Iran)
2:15 Investigating of Wind Turbines Affects on Recloser Operation in Distribution Networks
Hossein Kazemi Karegar (Shahid Beheshti University (SBU), Iran); Sadegh Saberi (Post graduated , Iran)
2:30 Optimal Size of Distributed Generation to Minimize Distribution Loss Using Dynamic Programming
Sumit Paudyal (University of Waterloo, Canada); Ehab F El‐Saadany (University of Waterloo, Canada); Lana R El Chaar
(Petroleum Institute, UAE); Lisa A Lamont (Petroleum Institute, UAE)
2:45 Simulation of PV Array Output Power for Modified PV Cell Model
Nand Kishor (Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad, India); Somya Mohanty (MNIT Allahabad, India);
Marcelo Villalva (University of Campinas, Brazil); E Ruppert (University of Campinas, Brazil)
xv


3:00 Proteus Based Simulation of a Charge Controller
Ahmad Shukri Fazil Rahman (UniMAP, Malaysia); Abdul Rahim Abdul Razak (UniMAP, Malaysia)
3:15 Grid‐Connected Photovoltaic Models for Three‐Phase Load Flow Analysis
Syafii (Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia)
3:30 Improving Power Loss Reduction Calculations for Distributed Generation Planning
Harout Manougian (University of Waterloo, Canada); Ehab F El‐Saadany (University of Waterloo, Canada); Lisa A Lamont
(Petroleum Institute, UAE); Lana R El Chaar (Petroleum Institute, UAE)

S2I: Power Electronic Applications 2
Session Chair: Dr. Yun Seng Lim
Room: Copacobana
2:00 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell Control Using a State Feedback Controller Based on LQR
Davood Arzaghi‐Haris (Islamic Azad Universiy, Saveh Branch, Iran); Mostafa Sedighizadeh (Imam khomeini International
university, Iran); Maryam Zolfaghari‐Nejad (Imam khomeini International university, Iran); Zeinab Tirkan (Imam khomeini
International university, Iran)
2:15 Material Based Characterization of Aqueous Metal Oxide Based Supercapacitors
Parashuram Karandikar (Pune University, India); Dhananjay Talange (Pune University, India)
2:30 Single‐Phase Grid‐Tie Inverter Control Using DQ Transform for Active and Reactive Load Power Compensation
Brent Crowhurst (University of Waterloo, Canada); Ehab F El‐Saadany (University of Waterloo, Canada); Lana R El Chaar
(Petroleum Institute, UAE); Lisa A Lamont (Petroleum Institute, UAE)
2:45 Steady State Investigation of Self Excited 3 Phase Induction Generator with Novel Leading VAR Controller and
Mitigation of Harmonics Using Active Power Filter
E Vargil Kumar (Gudlavalleru Engineerng College, Gudlavalleru, India); Pvrl Narasimham (Gudlavalleru Engineering
College, JNTU Kakinada, India); Avrs Sarma (, India)
3:00 A Single Stage SEPIC PFC Converter for LED Street Lighting Applications
Mokhtar Ali (APEARC, Aswan South Valley University, Egypt); Mohamed Orabi (APEARC, Aswan South Valley University,
Egypt); Mahrous Ahmed (APEARC, Aswan South Valley University, Egypt); Abdelali El‐Aroudi (Rovira i Virgili, Spain)
3:15 New Resonance Type Fault Current Limiter
Mehrdad Tarafdar Hagh (University of Tabriz, Iran); Mehdi Jafari (University of Tabriz, Iran); Seyed Behzad Naderi
(University of Tabriz, Iran)
3:30 Simple Sensorless Control Technique of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator Wind Turbine
Mahmoud Hussein (APEARC, Aswan South Valley University, Egypt); Mohamed Orabi (APEARC, Aswan South Valley
University, Egypt); Mahrous Ahmed (APEARC, Aswan South Valley University, Egypt); Mahmoud A. Sayed (South Valley
University, Egypt)

S2J: Power Quality, Protection and Electromagnetic Compatibility 2
Session Chair: Ir. N. Perumal
Room: Bahamas 1
4:00 A New Modeling Method for Reliability Evaluation of Thermal Power Plants
Farshad Khosravi (UTM, Malaysia); Naziha Ahmad Azli (Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia); Ebrahim Babaei
xvi


4:15 Harmonic and Neutral to Ground Voltage Reduction Using Isolation Transformer
Mohd Affandi Shafie (University Teknologi MARA, Malaysia)
4:30 Enhancement of Power System Quality Using Distributed Generation
Hitesh Mathur (BITS, Pilani, India)
4:45 New High Impedance Fault Detection
Alireza Siadatan (Islamic Azad University, Iran); Hossein Kazemi Karegar (Shahid Beheshti University (SBU), Iran); Vahid
Najmi (Sharif Univerty of Technologh, Iran)
5:00 Optimized Protective Devices Allocation in Electric Power Distribution Systems Based on the Current Conditions of the
Devices
Hamed Hashemi Dezaki (Amirkabir University of Technology, Iran); Hossein Askarian Abyaneh (Amirkabir University of
Technology, Iran); Yahya Kabiri Renani (Amirkabir University of Technology, Iran); Hamed Nafisi (Amirkabir University of
Technology (Tehran Polytechnic), Iran); Kazem Mazlumi (Zanjan University, Iran); Hamidreza Akbarfakhrabadi (Amirkabir

S2K: Power System Dynamic, Stability and Control 3
Session Chair: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Musse Mohamoud Ahmed
Room: Bahamas 2
4:00 Dynamic Modeling of Interline Power Flow Controller for Small Signal Stability
Alivelu Manga Parimi (Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia); Nirod C Sahoo (, Malaysia); Irraivan Elamvazuthi
(Universiti Teknologi Petronas, Malaysia); Nordin B Saad (Universiti Teknologi Petronas, Malaysia)
4:15 Optimization of Micro‐Turbine Generation Control System Using Genetic Algorithm
Seyed Morteza Alizadeh (Islamic Azad Universiy, Saveh Branch, Iran); Mostafa Sedighizadeh (Imam khomeini International
university, Iran); Davood Arzaghi‐Haris (Islamic Azad Universiy, Saveh Branch, Iran)
4:30 Dynamic Neural Network for AGC in Restructure Power System
Kamel Sabahi (Islamic Azad Universty‐ Mamaghan branch, Iran); Easa Narimani (Islamic Azad Universty‐ Mamaghan branch,
Iran); Ahmad Faramarzi (Islamic Azad Universty‐ ardabil branch, Iran)
4:45 Sizing and Locating Distributed Generations for Losses Minimization and Voltage Stability Improvement
Karar Mahmoud (South Valley University, Egypt); Mamdouh Abdel‐Akher (South Valley University, Egypt); Abdel Fatah Ali
(South Valley University, Egypt)
5:00 Compensating Capacitor Design for Improving Angle Stability of DGs in a Micro‐grid Using Trajectory Sensitivities
Approach
Ali Bidram (Isfahan University of Technology, Iran); Mohamad Esmail Hamedani Golshan (Isfahan university of Technology,
Iran); Ahmadreza Tabesh (Isfahan University of Technology, Iran)

S2L: Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency 2
Session Chair: Dr. Md. Pauzi Abdullah
Room: Copacobana
4:00 Optimum Design of High Efficiency Power Conditioning Wind Energy System
Mohamed Hilmy (APEARC, Aswan South Valley University, Egypt); Mohamed Orabi (APEARC, Aswan South Valley
University, Egypt); Mahrous Ahmed (APEARC, Aswan South Valley University, Egypt); Mahmoud A. Sayed (South Valley
University, Egypt); Mohamed K. El‐Nemr (Tanta University, Egypt)
xvii


4:15 New Method for Reconnection of Islanded Wind Turbines to Grid
Hossein Kazemi Karegar (Shahid Beheshti University (SBU), Iran); Alireza Nateghi (, Iran)
4:30 Development an Efficient Photovoltaic (PV) Configuration for Low Power Applications
Omar Abdel‐Rahim (Aswan ‐South Valley university, Egypt); Mohamed Orabi (APEARC, Aswan South Valley University,
Egypt); Mahrous Ahmed (APEARC, Aswan South Valley University, Egypt)
4:45 Evaluation of the Solar Hybrid System for Rural Schools in Sabah, Malaysia
Abdul Muhaimin Mahmud (Public Works , Malaysia)
5:00 Wind Power Integrated with Compressed Air Energy Storage
Ali Daneshi (Darya Pala Engineering Co., Iran); Nima Sadrmomtazi (Royal institute of Technology‐KTH, Sweden); Hossein
Daneshi (LCG Counsulting.Co, USA); Mojtaba Khederzadeh (PWUT, Iran)

Wednesday, December 1
S3A: Power Quality, Protection and Electromagnetic Compatibility 3
Session Chair: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ismail Musirin
Room: Bahamas 1
9:00 Hybrid SFS and Q‐f Islanding Detection Method for Inverter‐Based DG
Hesan Vahedi, Reza Noroozian (Zanjan University, Iran); Abolfazl Jalilvand (Zanjan University, Iran); Gevork B.
Gharehpetian (Amirkabir University of Technology, Iran)
9:15 Power Quality Problem Classification Based on Wavelet Transform and a Rule‐Based Method
Perumal Nallagownden (Universiti Teknologi Petronas, Malaysia); Heng Keow Chuah (University Technology Petronas,
Malaysia); K. Rama Rao (Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia)
9:30 Testing of Contactors Under Voltage Sag and Non‐sinusoidal Voltage Conditions
Surya Hardi (University Malaysia Perlis, Malaysia)
9:45 Investigation on Impact of Current Harmonic Contents on the Distribution Transformer Losses and Remaining Life
Mohammad Yazdani‐Asrami (Babol University of Technology, Iran); Mohammad Mirzaie (Babol University of Technology,
Iran); Amir Shayegani Akmal (University of Tehran, Iran)
10:00 Impact of Medium Power Inverter‐Based Residential Harmonic Loads and PFCs on Low Voltage Lines
Mau Teng Au (Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Malaysia); John Navamany (University Tenaga Nasional, Malaysia); Eng Chin
Yeoh (Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Malaysia)
10:15 Effect of Impedances Line Length to Voltage Sag Propagation
Rijalul Fahmi Mustapa (Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia); Noraliza Hamzah (Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia);
Zuhaina Zakaria (Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia); Md Salleh Serwan (APS, Malaysia)

S3B: Power Electronics & Converters 3
Session Chair : Ir. Harapajan Singh
Room: Bahamas 2
9:00 Robust Current Controller for PM Synchronous Motor
Petr Blaha (Brno University of Technology, Czech Republic); Pavel Vaclavek (Brno University of Technology, Czech Republic)
xviii


9:15 Application of Non‐superconducting Fault Current Limiter to Improve Transient Stability
Mehrdad Tarafdar Hagh (University of Tabriz, Iran); Mehdi Jafari (University of Tabriz, Iran); Seyed Behzad Naderi
9:30 Indirect Rotor Position Detection in a Field Assisted Switched ReluctanceMotor by Utilizing Aligned Resonant
Frequency
Ali Nadian (Shahid Beheshti University, Iran); Ebrahim Afjei (Shahid Beheshti University, Iran); Hossein Torkaman (Shahid
Beheshti University, Iran)
9:45 A Novel Low Cost Bipolar‐Starting and Unipolar‐Running Converter for Extended Torque ‐Speed Characteristics of
Spindle Motor
Pvrl Narasimham (Gudlavalleru Engineering College, JNTU Kakinada, India); Avrs Sarma (, India); E Vargil Kumar
(Gudlavalleru Engineerng College, Gudlavalleru, India)
10:00 Fuzzy Logic Controller on DC/DC Boost Converter
Nik Fasdi Nik Ismail (Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM), Malaysia); Dalina Johari (University of Technology MARA,
Malaysia); Rahimi Baharom (Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia); Ismail Musirin (Universiti Teknologi Mara, Shah Alam,
Malaysia)
10:15 A Novel Power Line Communication Controller Designed for Point‐of‐load Dc‐Dc Converters
Zhuochao Sun (Nanyang Technological University, Singapore); Liter Siek (Nanyang Technological University, Singapore)

S3C: Transmission and Distribution 2
Session Chair: Dr. Muhammad Murtadha Othman
Room: Copacobana
9:00 Control Action Based on Steady‐State Security Assessment Using an Artificial Neural Network
Ahmed AL‐Masri (University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia); Mohd Zainal Abidin Ab Kadir (Universiti Putra malaysia, Malaysia);
Hashim Hizam (UPM university, Malaysia); Norman Mariun (Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia); Sallehudin Yusof
(Advance Power Solution Sdn Bhd, Malaysia)
9:15 A Review on Optimal Placement Methods of Distribution Generation Sources
Kaveh Abookazemi (University of Technology Malaysia (UTM), Malaysia); Mohammad Yusri Hassan (University of
Technology Malaysia(UTM), Malaysia); Md Shah Majid (University of Technology Malaysia(UTM), Malaysia)
9:30 Three Phase Grid Connected Anti‐Islanding Controller Based on Distributed Generation Interconnection
Maher G.M. Abdolrasol (University of Malaya, Malaysia)
9:45 The Benefits of Looping a Radial Distribution System with a Power Flow Controller
Mehdi Saradarzadeh (University of Tehran, Iran); Shahrokh Farhangi (University of Tehran, Iran); Jean‐Luc Schanen
(Grenoble Electrical Engineering Laboratory, France); Pierre‐Olivier Jeannin (Grenoble Université, France); David Frey
(Grenoble University, France)
10:00 Transmission Loss Allocation in Power Systems Using Artificial Neural Network
Mahmoud‐Reza Haghifam (Tarbiat Modares University, Iran)
10:15 Electroluminescence as Pre‐breakdown Phenomenon in Polymers Used for Underground Cable Insulation
Nurhazwani Mat Tajudin (Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Malaysia); Azrul Mohd Ariffin (UNITEN, Malaysia)

xix


S3D: Power System Planning and Operation 3
Session Chair: Prof. Dr. Titik Khawa Abdul Rahman
Room: Bahamas 1
10:45 Transmission Pricing in Iran Electricity Market
Mostafa Modiri Delshad (Faculty Member, Iran); Iman Rahmati (Ministry of Energy, Iran); Mohamad Sadegh Ghazizadeh
(Power and Water University of Technology (PWUT), Iran)
11:00 Generation Reliability Assessment in Power Markets Using Game Theory and MCS
Hossein Haroonabadi (Islamic Azad University, Iran)
11:15 Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) System Configurations: Reliability Comparison
Mohd Rahmat (University of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia)
11:30 Transmission Losses Allocation in Deregulation Electricity Market
Anis Niza Ramani (Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Malaysia); Kyairul Azmi Baharin (Universiti Teknikal Malaysia
Melaka, Malaysia)
11:45 Market Based Criteria for Transmission Expansion Planning
Gholamreza Kamyab (Islamic Azad University, Iran); Mahmud Fotuhi‐Firuzabad (Sharif University of Technology, Iran);
Masoud Rashidi‐Nejad (Shahid Bahonar uneveristy, Kerman, Iran)
12:00 Sustainable Development Design of Electrical Systems ʺA Case Study of Asiaflex Productsʺ
Perumal Nallagownden (Universiti Teknologi Petronas, Malaysia)
12:15 Impacts of Grid‐Connected PV System on the Steady‐State Operation of a Malaysian Grid
Sam Koohi Kamali (University of Malaya, Malaysia)

S3E: Power Electronics & Converters 4
Session Chair: Dr. Mohammad Nawawi Seroji
Room: Bahamas 2
10:45 Extending the Operating Range of Cascaded H‐Bridge Based Multilevel Rectifier Under Unbalanced Load Conditions
Mohammad Ali Rezaei (University of Tehran, Iran); Shahrokh Farhangi (University of Tehran, Iran); Hossein Iman‐Eini
(University of Tehran, Iran)
11:00 Dual Motor Drives for PMSM Using Average Phase Current Technique
Jurifa Mat Lazi (Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Malaysia); Zulkifilie Ibrahim (Co‐supervisor, Malaysia); Raihana
Mustafa (Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Malaysia); Md Hairul Nizam Talib (, Malaysia)
11:15 An Isolated Bridgeless AC‐DC Converter with High Power Factor
Mohd Rodhi Sahid (Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia); Abdul Halim Yatim (Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia)
11:30 Implementation of Single Input Fuzzy Logic Controller for Boost DC to DC Power Converter
Fazel Taeed (Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia); Zainal Salam (Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia); Shahrin Md.
Ayob (Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia)
11:45 Analysis and Design of a High Efficiency Bidirectional DC‐DC Converter for Battery and Ultracapacitor Applications
Amin Mirzaei (Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia); Awang Jusoh (Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia); Zainal
Salam (Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia); Ehsan Adib (Isfahan University of Technology, Iran); Hosein Farzanehfard
(Isfahan University of Technology, Iran)
xx


12:00 Steady State Analysis of LCLC Resonant Converter with Capacitive Output Filter
Navid Shafiei (Islamic Azad university, Najafabad branch, Iran); Hosein Farzanehfard (Isfahan University of Technology,
Iran)
12:15 An Isolated Three‐Phase Soft‐Switched Buck Rectifier
Negar Noroozi (Assistant, Iran); MohammadReza Zolghadri (Sharif University of Technology, Iran); Haghi (Sharif University
of Technology, Iran)
12:30 A Switched Inductor Multilevel Boost Converter
Mostafa Mousa (APEARC, Aswan South Valley University, Egypt); Mohamed Orabi (APEARC, Aswan South Valley
University, Egypt); Mahrous Ahmed (APEARC, Aswan South Valley University, Egypt)

S3F: Electrical Machines and Drives
Session Chair: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Izham Zainal Abidin
Room: Copacobana
10:45 Evaluation of Fourier and Wavelet Analysis for Efficient Recognition of Broken Rotor Bar in Squirrel‐ cage Induction
Machine
Mohammad Rezazadeh Mehrjou (University Putra malaysia, Malaysia); Norman Mariun (Universiti Putra Malaysia,
Malaysia)
11:00 A New Rotor Position Detection Method Using Bifilar Windings and Resonant Circuit in SRM Drive
Alireza Kazemi (Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran); Majid Asgar (& Computer Engineering Shahid Beheshti
University, Iran); Ebrahim Afjei (Shahid Beheshti University, Iran); Alireza Siadatan (Islamic Azad University, Iran)
11:15 Optimizing the Magnetic Dimensions for Maximum Thrust in High Density Transverse Flux Linear Motor
Misron Norhisam (Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia); Mohammad Reza Zare (Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia);
Norman Mariun (Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia); Ishak Aris (Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia); Hiroyuki Wakiwaka
(Shinshu University, Japan); M. NIrei (Nagano National College of Technology, Japan)
11:30 Fuzzy Logic Based DTC for Speed Control of Matrix Converter Fed Induction Motor
Chitra Venugopal (University of Kwazulu Natal, South Africa)
11:45 Improved Speed Operation of Sensorless BLDC Motor Drives Using IIR Digital Filter
Maher Mohammed (University Sains Malaysia, Malaysia); Dahaman Ishak (Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia); Khaleel
Hammadi (Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia)
12:00 Dynamic Performance of Series‐Connected Wound Rotor Induction Motor
Essam Eddin Rashad (Tanta University, Egypt)
12:15 Stability of Variable Speed Series‐Connected Wound Rotor Induction Motor in Super‐Synchronous Mode
Essam Eddin Rashad (Tanta University, Egypt)
12:30 Intelligent Adaptive Control of Doubly Fed Induction Generator
Abolfazl Jalilvand (Zanjan University, Iran); Majid Bigonah Mikal (Zanjan University, Iran); Mohammad Naseh Hassanzadeh
(Islamic Azad University, Iran)

xxi


S3G: Power System Planning and Operation 4
Session Chair: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Musse Mohamoud Ahmed
Room: Bahamas 1
2:00 Multi‐Thread Security Constraint Economic Dispatch with Exact Loss Formulation
Alimorad Khajeh Zadeh (Center Of Electrical Energy System, UTM University, Malaysia); Khalid Mohamed Nor (Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia); Hossein Zeynal (University Technology of Malaysia (UTM), Malaysia)
2:15 A Proposed Genetic Algorithm to Optimize Service Restoration in Electrical Networks with Respect to the Probability
of Transformers Failure
Masoud Aminian (University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia); Ehsan Moazami (UPM, Malaysia); Maryam Mirzaei (UPM,
Malaysia); Mohd Zainal Abidin Ab Kadir (Universiti Putra malaysia, Malaysia)
2:30 Distributed Generation Site and Size Allocation Through a Techno Economical Multi‐objective Differential Evolution
Algorithm
Hosein A. Hejazi (mirkabir University of Technology, Iran); Maryam Akhavan Hejazi (Amirkabir university of Technology,
Iran); Gevork B. Gharehpetian (Amirkabir University of Technology, Iran); Mehrdad Abedi (Amirkabir University of
Technology, Iran)
2:45 Energy Efficiency Based Asset Management Infrastructures in Electrical Distribution System
Reza Dashti (Teharan university, Iran); Saeed Afsharnia (University of Tehran, Iran); Behnam Bayat (Repdc, Iran); Ali Barband
(Tehran regional province distribution system company, Iran); Vahid Khatami (University of Tehran, Iran)
3:00 Phase Shifter Transformers Optimum Allocation in Power Systems Using a Combinational Method
Mohsen Gitizadeh (Sihraz University of Technology, Iran); Hossein Khalilnezhad (Shiraz University of Technology, Iran)
3:15 Contingency Based Congestion Management and Cost Minimization Using Bee Colony Optimization Technique
M. A Rahim (Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia); Ismail Musirin (UiTM, Malaysia); Izham ZainalAbidin (UNITEN,
Malaysia); Muhammad Murtadha Othman (UiTM, Malaysia)
3:30 Assessment of Contribution‐based Congestion Cost Allocation Using AC and DC for Bilateral Market
Md Pauzi Abdullah (University Technology of Malaysia (UTM), Malaysia); Mohammad Yusri Hassan (University of
Technology Malaysia(UTM), Malaysia); Faridah Hussin (University Technology of Malaysia, Malaysia)
3:45 Operational Security Criterion of a Smart Grid
Mohamed Shaaban (Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia); Md Shah Majid (University of Technology Malaysia(UTM),
Malaysia)

S3H: Transmission and Distribution 3
Session Chair: Prof. Dr. Khalid Mohd. Nor
Room: Bahamas 2
2:00 Development Prospect of Smart Grid in India
Parimal Acharjee (National Institute of Technology Durgapur, India); Jagadeesh Gunda (National Institute of Technology
Durgapur, India)
2:15 A Retrofit Network Transaction Data Logger and Intrusion Detection System for Transmission and Distribution
Substations
Thomas H Morris (Mississippi State University, USA); Kalyan Pavurapu (Mississippi State University, USA)

xxii


2:30 Reliability and Availability Assessment of Transmission Overhead Line Protection System Using Reliability Block
Diagram
Mohd Iqbal Ridwan (TNB Research Sdn Bhd, Malaysia); Lee Yen Kerk (TNB, Malaysia); Bahisham Bt Yunus (UNITEN,
Malaysia); Aminuddin Musa (TNB, Malaysia)
2:45 Modelling of On‐line Monitoring of Transformer Winding Radial Deformation Using UWB Sensors
Ghassem Mokhtari (Amirkabir University of Technology, Iran); Gevork B. Gharehpetian (Amirkabir University of
Technology, Iran); Reza Faraji‐Dana (Center of Excellence on Applied Electromagnetic Systems, Iran); Maryam Akhavan
Hejazi (Amirkabir university of Technology, Iran)
3:00 Harmonic Analysis of Power Systems in Order to Network Conversion
Reza Shariatinasab (Birjand University, Iran)
3:15 Fault Location of HV Teed Feeder Based on Synchronized Voltage Measurement and Smooth Support Vector Machines
Eyada A Alanzi (University Tenaga Nasional, Malaysia); Mahmoud Younis (University Tenaga Nasional, Malaysia)
3:30 Evaluation of Surge Arrester Requirement for Overhead Transmission Line Using Electromagnetic Transient Program
Jeremy Ong (University Tenikal Malaysia Melaka, Malaysia); Junainah Sardi (Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Malaysia)
3:45 An Efficient Controller Design of Doubly Fed Induction Generator and Operating Analysis of Isolated Microgrid Under
Load Variations
Hamid Soleimani‐Bidgoli (University of Tehran, Iran); Saeed Afsharnia (University of Tehran, Iran); Mahmoud‐Reza
Haghifam (Tarbiat Modares University, Iran); Vahid Khatami (University of Tehran, Iran)

S3I: Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency 4
Session Chair: Assoc. Prof. Ir. Dr. Zahrul Faizi Hussein
Room: Copacobana
2:00 Moving Holidaysʹ Effects on the Malaysian Peak Daily Load
Fadhilah Abd. Razak (University Tenaga Nasional, Malaysia); Izham Z. Abidin (Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Malaysia);
Mahendran Shitan (Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia)
2:15 Maximum Power Point Tracking for Photovoltaic Arrays with Minimum Sensors
Milad Momayyezan (University of Tehran, Iran); Hossein Iman‐Eini (University of Tehran, Iran)
2:30 A Novel Analytical Solution for the PV‐Arrays Maximum Power Point Tracking Problem
Ghias Farivar (University of Tehran, Iran); Behzad Asaei (University of tehran, Iran); Mohammad Ali Rezaei (University of
Tehran, Iran)
2:45 Challenges in Meeting Increasing Power Demand of Developing Economies Without Damaging the Environment
Siong Lee Koh (Tunku Abdul Rahman University, Malaysia); Yun Seng Lim (Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Malaysia)
3:00 Photovoltaic Module Single Diode Model Parameters Extraction Based on Manufacturer Datasheet Parameters
Ghias Farivar (University of Tehran, Iran); Behzad Asaei (University of tehran, Iran)
3:15 Modeling and Simulation of Grid Connected Photovoltaic System for Malaysian Climate
Hasimah Rahman (Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia); Suresh Thanakodi (National Defence University of Malaysia,
Malaysia); Assc. Prof. Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan (University Technology Malaysia, Malaysia); Khalid Mohamed Nor
(Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia); Md Shah Majid (University of Technology Malaysia(UTM), Malaysia); Faridah
Hussin (University Technology of Malaysia, Malaysia)

xxiii


3:30 Dynamic Behavior of PEM Fuel Cell and Gas Turbine Power Plant in Autonomous Mode
Vahid Khatami (University of Tehran, Iran); Saeed Afsharnia (University of Tehran, Iran); Mahmoud‐Reza Haghifam (Tarbiat
Modares University, Iran); Hamid Soleimani‐Bidgoli (University of Tehran, Iran)
3:45 Design of Grid‐connected Photovoltaic System Using Evolutionary Programming
Shahril Irwan Sulaiman (Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia); Titik Khawa Abdul Rahman (University Teknologi Mara,
Malaysia); Ismail Musirin (Universiti Teknologi Mara, Shah Alam, Malaysia)

xxiv


AUTHOR INDEX
Session Session Session
AUTHOR AUTHOR AUTHOR
Code Code Code

A B M Rafi Sazzad S1C Alivelu Manga Parimi S2K Davood Arzaghi‐Haris S2I
S1C Amin Mirzaei S3E S2K
Abdel Fatah Ali S2K Amin Samanfar S1E S1A
Abdelali El‐Aroudi S2I Aminuddin Musa S3H Dhananjay Talange S2I
Abdul Halim Yatim S3E Amir Bagheri S2D Duy Huynh S2G
Abdul Muhaimin S2L Amir Shayegani Akmal S3A S2G
Mahmud Anis Niza Ramani S3D E Ruppert S2H
Abdul Rahim Abdul S2H Asmarashid Ponniran S2D E Vargil Kumar S2I
Razak Assc. Prof. Dr. S3I S3B
Abdullah Asuhaimi S2B Mohammad Yusri S2G
Mohd Zin Hassan Easa Narimani S2K
Abolfazl Jalilvand S1F Avrs Sarma S3B Ebrahim Afjei S2C
S3F S2G S2C
S2D S2I S3B
S2H Awang Jusoh S3E S3F
S3A Azah Mohamed S2F S2G
Agileswari K. S2B S1E Ebrahim Babaei S2J
Ramasamy S2D Edris Pouresmaeil S2A
Ahmad Ashouri S2D S2B Ehab El‐Saadany S2H
Ahmad Faramarzi S2K S2F S2I
Ahmad Mujahid Ahmad S2D S1B S2H
Zaidi S2E Ehsan Adib S1B
Ahmad Puad Ismail S2D Azrul Mohd Ariffin S3C S3E
Ahmad Rohani S1F S2B Ehsan Moazami S3G
Ahmad Safawi b. S2B Azuki Abdul Salam S2F Eng Chin Yeoh S3A
Mokhtar Babak Mazloomnezhad S2C Erwan Sulaiman S2C
Ahmad Shukri Fazil S2H Baharuddin Ismail S2G Essam Eddin Rashad S3F
Rahman Bahisham Yunus S3H S3F
Ahmadreza Tabesh S2K Behnam Bayat S3G Eyada Alanzi S3H
Ahmed AL‐Masri S3C Behnam Mahamedi S1E Fadhilah Abd. Razak S3I
Ali Barband S3G Behrooz Vahidi S2A Fahad Althowibi S2F
Ali Bidram S2K Behzad Asaei S3I S2F
Ali Daneshi S2L S3I S2F
Ali Nadian S3B Behzad Sedaghat S2H Faridah Hussin S3G
S2C Bilal Mubdir S1D S3I
Ali Reza Dehghanzadeh S1B Brent Crowhurst S2I Farshad Khosravi S2J
Ali Saghafinia S2G Celia Shahnaz S1C Fazel Taeed S3E
Ali Talebi S1C S1C Gevork B. Gharehpetian S2E
Alimorad Khajeh Zadeh S3G Chinnusamy Muniraj S2E S2E
S1F S2A S3H
Alireza Kazemi S3F Chitra Venugopal S1B S2E
S2G S3F S2D
Alireza Nateghi S2L Christian Klumpner S1D S3G
Alireza Siadatan S2J Dahaman Ishak S3F S3A
S2C Dalina Johari S1A S1D
S3F S3B Ghassem Mokhtari S3H
S2G David Frey S3C Ghias Farivar S3I
xxv


S3I S2H Karar Mahmoud S1C

Gholamreza Kamyab S3D S2L S2K
Hadi Binandeh S1D S2J Kaveh Abookazemi S3C
Hadi Zayandehroodi S2D Hossein Khalilnezhad S3G Kazem Mazlumi S2A
Haghi S3E Hossein Torkaman S2C S1F
S1D S2C S2B
Halimatun Hashim S2F S3B S2J
S2F Hossein Zeynal S1F Kein Huat Chua S2G
Hamed Hashemi Dezaki S2J S3G Khaled Redwan S1C
S1C Hussain Mohammed S1C S1C
Hamed Nafisi S2J Dipu Kabir Khaleel Hammadi S3F
S1C S1C Khalid Haroun S2D
Hamid Soleimani‐ S3H S1C Mohamed Abdelgadir
Bidgoli S1C Khalid Mohamed Nor S3G
S3I Hussain Shareef S1E S1F
Hamidreza S2J S2D S3I
Akbarfakhrabadi S2B Kyairul Azmi Baharin S3D
Hamidreza AminDavar S2E S1A Lana El Chaar S2H
S2E Iman Rahmati S3D S2I
Handy Ali Munir S2D Imranul Chowdhury S1C S2H
Harapajan Singh S2D Irraivan Elamvazuthi S2K Lee Yen Kerk S3H
Harish Dubey S1C Ishak Aris S2A Lisa Lamont S2H
Harout Manougian S2H S3F S2H
Hasan Ali Alehoseini S2E Ishtiaque Aziz S1C S2I
S2D Ismail Musirin S1A Liter Siek S3B
Hashim Hizam S2A S3G M. A Rahim S3G
S3C S1A M. NIrei S3F
Hasimah Rahman S3I S3I M. Reza Safari Tirtashi S1F
Hendri Masdi S2E S3B S1F
Heng Keow Chuah S3A Istvan Erlich S2F Ma Hannan S1B
Heresh Seyedi S2E Izham Z. Abidin S3I Magnus Perninge S2A
Hesan Vahedi S3A S2F Mahdi Rezvanyvardom S1B
Hew Wooi Ping S2G S2F Mahendran Shitan S3I
Hiroyuki Wakiwaka S3F S3G Maher Abdolrasol S3C
Hitesh Mathur S2J Izzeldin Idris Abdalla S1E Maher Mohammed S3F
Hosein A. Hejazi S3G Jagadeesh Gunda S3H Mahmoud Hussein S2I
Hosein Farzanehfard S1B Javad Ebrahimi S2E Mahmoud Sayed S2I
S3E S2E S2L
S1B Javad Shokrollahi S1D Mahmoud Younis S3H
S3E Moghani Mahmoud‐Reza S3C
Hossein Askarian S2J Jean‐Luc Schanen S3C Haghifam
Abyaneh Jeremy Ong S3H S1E
S1C Jianhui Wong S2G S3I
S2B John Navamany S3A S3H
Hossein Daneshi S2L Junainah Sardi S3H Mahmud Fotuhi‐ S3D
Hossein Haroonabadi S3D Jurifa Mat Lazi S3E Firuzabad
Hossein Hosseinian S2B K Lakshmi S2A Mahrous Ahmed S3E
S2A K S Rao S2D S1B
S1D S1E S2L
Hossein Iman‐Eini S3I K. Rama Rao S3A S2I
S3E Kalyan Pavurapu S3H S2I
Hossein Kazemi Karegar S2C Kamel Sabahi S2K S2L
S1E Kanagaraj Pillay S2F Majid Asgar S3F
xxvi


S2G Mithun Bhaskar S1A Mohd Wazir Mustafa S1A

Majid Bigonah Mikal S3F Mochammad Facta S1B S2F
Mamdouh Abdel‐Akher S2D Mohamad Esmail S2K S2F
S1C Hamedani Golshan S2F
S2K Mohamad Reza Alemi S1A S2A
Manjeevan Seera S2D Mohamad Reza Banaei S1B Mohd Zainal Abidin Ab S3C
Marcelo Villalva S2H Mohamad Sadegh S3D Kadir
Marjan S2D Ghazizadeh S2E
Mohammadjafari Mohamed Dahidah S2F S2A
Maryam Akhavan S2D S1D S3G
Hejazi Mohamed El‐Nemr S2D Mohd Zamri Che Wanik S2F
S2E S2L Mohd Zuki Yusoff S2D
S3G Mohamed Hilmy S2L Mohsen Gitizadeh S3G
S2E Mohamed Orabi S3E Mojtaba Khederzadeh S2L
S2E S1B Mokhtar Ali S2I
S3H S2L Mostafa Eidiani S1F
Maryam Mirzaei S3G S2I Mostafa Fallahnejad S1A
Maryam Zolfaghari‐ S2I S2I Mostafa Modiri Delshad S3D
Nejad S2L Mostafa Mousa S3E
Masoome Yazdi S2C Mohamed Shaaban S3G Mostafa Sedighizadeh S1A
Masoud Aliakbar S1F Mohammad Ali Rezaei S3E S2I
Golkar S3I S2K
Masoud Aminian S3G Mohammad Faridun S2G Mudathir Akorede S2A
Masoud Arabi S1E Naim Tajuddin Muhammad Murtadha S3G
Masoud Farhoodnea S1E Mohammad Golsorkhi S1D Othman
Masoud Rashidi‐Nejad S3D Mohammad Hossein S2B Muhammad Othman S1A
Matthew Dunnigan S2G Ashourian N. Perumal S1E
S2G Mohammad Mirzaie S3A Nand Kishor S2H
Mau Teng Au S3A Mohammad Naseh S3F S1C
Md Hairul Nizam Talib S3E Hassanzadeh Navid Shafiei S3E
Md Pauzi Abdullah S3G Mohammad Reza S1B Naziha Azli S2J
Md Salleh Serwan S3A Mohammadi Negar Noroozi S3E
Md Shah Majid S3I Mohammad Rezazadeh S3F S1D
S3G Mehrjou Nesrallh Khelef S2B
S3C Mohammad Yazdani‐ S3A Nik Fasdi Nik Ismail S3B
Md Zarafi Ahmad S2C Asrami S1A
Md. Abdul Matin S1C Mohammad Yusri S3C Nima Sadrmomtazi S2L
Md. Hasanuzzaman S2C Hassan Nirod Sahoo S2K
Md. Nazmus Sakib S1C S3G Noor Izzri Abdul S2F
S1C Mohammad Zare S3F Wahab
MD. Rishad Ahmed S1C MohammadReza S1D S2E
S1C Zolghadri Nor Rul Hasma S1A
Mehdi Izadi S2E S3E Abdullah
Mehdi Jafari S2I Mohd Affandi Shafie S2J Noraisma Ismail S2F
S3B Mohd Herwan Sulaiman S2A Noraliza Hamzah S3A
Mehdi Saradarzadeh S3C S1A Nordin Saad S2D
Mehrad Omidvaran S1A Mohd Iqbal Ridwan S3H S2K
Mehrdad Abedi S3G Mohd Mohammed S2G Norhasnelly Anuar S1A
Mehrdad Tarafdar Hagh S2I Mohd Raffi Samsudin S1A Norman Mariun S2E
S3B Mohd Rahmat S3D S3F
Milad Momayyezan S3I Mohd Rodhi Sahid S3E S2F
Min Lee Chai S1A Mohd Syahmin S1A S3F
Misron Norhisam S3F Mohamed Othman S3C
xxvii


Nurhazwani Mat S3C Saiful Nizam Abd. S1A Syed Bahauddin Alam S1C

Tajudin Khalid S1C
Omar Abdel‐Rahim S1B Sallehhudin Yusof S2F S1C
S2L Sallehudin Yusof S3C S1C
Omar Aliman S2A Sam Koohi Kamali S3D Tan Chee Siong S2G
Parashuram Karandikar S2I Seyed Ali Mohammad S1E Thomas Morris S3H
Parimal Acharjee S3H Javadian Titik Khawa Abdul
S3I
Pavel Vaclavek S2D Seyed Behzad Naderi S2I Rahman
S3B S3B S1A
Perumal Nallagownden S3D Seyed Hossein S2B Vahid Farahani S2B
S3A Hesamedin Sadeghi Vahid Khatami S3I
Petr Blaha S3B S1C S3H
S2D Seyed Mohammad S2A S3G
Phee Jin S1D Madani Vahid Najmi S2J
Pierre‐Olivier Jeannin S3C Seyed Morteza Alizadeh S2K Vahid Nasirian S1D
Prakash Ray S1C Seyed Mostafa S2A Wael Abdel‐Galil S2D
Prodipto Ghosh S1A Tabatabaei Wan Ismail Ibrahim S2E
Pvrl Narasimham S3B Shahril Irwan Sulaiman S3I Yaʹakob R. Omar S2F
S2G Shahrin Md. Ayob S3E S2F
S2I Shahrokh Farhangi S3C Yahya Kabiri Renani S1C
Rahimi Baharom S3B S3E S2J
Raihana Mustafa S3E Shaikh Anowarul Fattah S1C Yasmin Md Thayoob S2B
Rashid Fayadh S1D S1C S1A
Renuga Verayiah S2B Shamsul Zulkifli S2C Younes Pirhayati S2A
Reza Dashti S3G Sharulnizam Mohd S1D Yun Seng Lim S2G
Reza Faraji‐Dana S3H Mukhtar S3I
Reza Noroozian S3A Siong Lee Koh S3I Zaher Abam S2E
S2D Siti Fatimah Siraj S2G Zainal Salam S1B
S2H Smko Golabi S2E S3E
Reza Shariatinasab S1F Somya Mohanty S2H S3E
S2B S1C Zamre Abd. Ghani S1B
S3H Stella Morris S2G Zaniah bt Muda S2B
Ridzuwan Zulkepali S2F Stephen Finney S2G Zeinab Tirkan S2I
Rijalul Fahmi Mustapa S3A S2G Zhuochao Sun S3B
Robert Eriksson S1F Sugunesan Gunalan S2B Zuhaina Zakaria S1A
S Chandrasekar S2E Suhaila Sulaiman S2B S3A
S Vasantharathna S2A Sumit Paudyal S2H Zulkifilie Ibrahim S3E
Sadegh Saberi S2H Suresh Thanakodi S3I Zulkurnain Abdul
S2E
Saeed Afsharnia S3G Surya Hardi S3A Malek
S3I Syafii S2H Zurita Zakaria S1A
S3H Syed Alwee Aljunid S2D

xxviii

2010 IEEE International Conference on Power and Energy (PECon2010)., Nov 29 - Dec 1, 2010, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Optimal Placement of Distributed Generation Using

Combination of PSO and Clonal Algorithm
M. Sedighizadeh2, M. Fallahnejad1, M. R. Alemi1, M. Omidvaran1, D. Arzaghi-haris
1-Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran
2-Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Imam Khomeini International University, Qazvin, Iran
Abstract-The optimal placement of Distributed Generation • The liberalization of the electricity market contributes to
(DG) has attracted many researchers’ attention recently due to creating opportunities for new utilities in the power
its ability to obviate defects caused by improper installation of
DG units, such as rise in system losses, decline in power quality, generation sector;
voltage increase at the end of feeders and etc. This paper • DG offers greater values as it provides a flexible way to
presents a new advanced method for optimal allocation of DG in choose a wide range of combinations of cost and
distribution systems. In this study, the optimum location of DG reliability.
units is specified by introducing the power losses and voltage DG impacts different parameters of a power system,
profile as variables into the objective function. Particle Swarm
Optimization (PSO) and Clonal Selection Algorithm comprising voltage profile, line losses, short circuit current,
(CLONALG) are two methods which have been applied to amount of injected harmonic, and system reliability and
optimize different objective functions in previous studies. In this stability. These parameters have to be appropriately
paper, the Combination of Particle Swarm Optimization and investigated prior to installation of DG units. The problem of
Clonal Selection Algorithm (PCLONALG) is utilized as a allocating DG units to optimal places and also sizing of them
solving tool to acquire superior solutions. Considering the fitness
values sensitivity in PCLONALG process, it is necessary to is of higher priority amongst all issues which affect on the
apply load flow for decision making. Finally, the feasibility of mentioned parameters. However, installation of DG units in
the proposed technique is demonstrated for a typical non-optimal places may results in an increase in system
distribution network and is compared with the PSO and losses and a bad effect on voltage profile and other
CLONALG methods. The experimental results illustrate that parameters which may lead to a growth of costs, and
the PCLONALG method has a higher ability in comparison with
PSO and CLONALG, in terms of quality of solutions and consequently an opposite effect on what is expected.
number of iterations. The approach method has the preferences Selecting the best places for installation of DG units and their
of both previous methods. Via immunity operation, the diversity preferable sizes in large distribution systems is a complex
of the antibodies is maintained and; the speed of convergence is multimodal and combinatorial optimization problem. Thus,
ameliorated by operating particle swarm intelligence. using an optimization method which is capable of indicating
Index Terms--Distributed Generation, Optimal Placement, the best solution for a given distribution network, would help
PCLONALG Method, Power Losses, Voltage Profile system planning engineers [2], [3].
The optimal placement and sizing of DG units in
distribution networks have been vastly studied in order to
I. INTRODUCTION
achieve different targets. The intent may be the minimization
Distributed Generation (DG) is a kind of electricity of active losses of the feeders [4], [5], the minimization of
production which is on-site or close to the load center and is total network supply costs, which includes generators
interconnected to the distribution system. The plenitude of the operation and losses compensation [1], [6], the best utilization
advantages of DG justifies the planning of electric systems at of available generation capacity [7], THD reduction [8], and
presence of DG. Some important reasons for the increasingly improving voltage profile [9]. Many conventional
widespread use of DG could be summarized as follows [1]: optimization techniques such as gradient method, linear
• DG units are closer to customers. Therefore programming, dynamic programming, Genetic Algorithm
Transmission and Distribution (T&D) costs are reduced; (GA), Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) and Clonal
• The latest technology has made available plants with Selection Algorithm (CLONALG) have been employed to
high efficiency and extended ranging in capacity; attain the aforementioned goals. Nevertheless, due to
• It is easier to find sites for small generators; complexity of the problems, these methods may fail to find
• Natural gas as fuel in DG stations is easily accessible and the global optimal solution and also may converge in an
prices are more stable; unreasonable time [2], [3].
• Usually DG plants require shorter installation times and In this paper a new method of optimization algorithms is
the investment risk is not too high; proposed to minimize active losses of feeders and improve
• DG plants yield fairly good efficiencies especially in voltage profile. This technique, called PCLONALG, is
cogeneration and in combined cycles (larger plants); combination of PSO and CLONALG, which is applied to
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 1

satisfy defined conditions and eliminate the faults occurring neighbors’ flying experience, seeking a better position for
in previous methods. The outline of the paper is as follows: In itself.
section II, an introduction to the PCLONALG technique is In the PSO, each particle keeps track of its own best
presented. Problem formulation is performed in section III, position. The best position is associated with the best fitness.
and the proposed algorithm is discussed in section IV. In Furthermore, parallel with the acquiring best position of the
section V and VI, an applied example is studied and particles, the global best position is also retained. The
numerical results are presented, respectively. Finally, velocity vectors are updated according to recorded data which
conclusions come in section VII. is mentioned above. The particles change their positions
respect to their velocity vectors [2], [10]. More details of the
II. PCLONALG TECHNIQUE PSO method could be found in [11].
A. Basic principles of CLONALG C. PCLONALG

Clonal Selection Algorithm was put forward by Burnet in In the hybrid optimization algorithm, the improving idea of
1959. This mechanism explains how the immune system the particle swarm intelligence is embedded into the
reacts against antigens by generating antibodies and, how it immunity clone algorithm. The CLONALG can achieve more
enhances its capability of recognizing and eliminating accurate results than PSO in a haphazard way. However,
antigens. In this method, each candidate solution is there is a large redundancy in repeating its search for the
considered as an antibody, and its distance from global optimal solution, which significantly reduces the convergence
optimal solution is assumed as an antigen. The solution speed of this algorithm. Consequently, the PCLONALG
population consists of a finite number of antibodies and each gathers the ideas from the PSO and incorporates an
antibody represents a point in the search space. Every single improvement operator in the CLONALG to ameliorate this
antibody is appraised by the evaluation mechanism to procure method.
its affinity. After sorting based on affinity values and The proposed hybrid optimization algorithm is composed
undergoing immune operators, a new population is generated of four operators: improvement operator, cloning operator,
iteratively. hyper mutation operator and finally, receptor editing operator.
The CLONALG employs three immune operators, The improvement operator is inspired by the particle swarm
including cloning, hyper mutation, and receptor editing, to intelligence. More precisely, after determining affinity of
refresh the composition of populations. The cloning operation antibodies, a user defined number of best individuals is
refers to the act of producing copies of every individual in an selected. Before cloning these antibodies, they must be
antibody population proportional to its fitness with the reformed by the improvement operator. Based on the particle
antigen. That is to say, the higher the antigenic affinity, the swarm principles, the following (1) and (2) are applied to
higher the number of clones generated for each antibody. these antibodies:
During hyper mutation operation, the cloned population is
subjected to an affinity maturation process inversely 1 (1)
proportional to the antigenic affinity. The receptor editing ,
operation is the process of procreating a given number of new
antibodies randomly and replacing them with the antibodies 1 1 , (2)
with the lowest antigenic affinity. Receptor editing enables
the algorithm to escape from local optima on an affinity where cl and c2 are two positive learning factor constants,
landscape [10]. and are two uniformly distributed random numbers on the
B. Basic principles of PSO interval [0,1], pi(t) is the best position of ith particle, and pg(t)
Particle Swarm Optimization is one of the Evolutionary is the overall best position of the population. If the improved
Computation (EC) techniques which was primarily antibody is the offspring produced by the parents of the
introduced by Kennedy and Eberhart in 1995. The PSO previous generation, vi(t) will be set randomly on the interval
algorithm is an adaptive algorithm based on a social– [0,1], and pi(t) will be set to xi(t). After (2), the affinity value
psychological metaphor, that is, each individual in the swarm of the antibody may exceed the preset range, and it shall be
called particle is adapted by returning haphazardly toward reassigned the nearest reasonable value to it. In the cloning
previously successful regions in the search space and; is operation, the clones are the identical copies of their parents.
influenced by the successes of its topological neighbors. At the outset, the antibodies in the current population are
Initially, a population of particles which conceptually is sorted in an ascending order according to their affinities, for
similar to the antibodies in the CLONALG, is randomly minimizing objective function. Then, the sorted antibodies
generated. This initial population comprises finite members. are duplicated. The number of generated clones for each
The fitness of each particle is determined by the evaluation antibody is given by:
.
mechanism. Afterward, each particle relocates its position in , (3)
search space and updates its velocity according to its own and
2
where β is a multiplying factor, N is total number of and is defined as:
antibodies, round(.) is the operator that rounds its argument
toward the closest integer, and i is the position of the parent ∑
min , (8)
antibody. The clones thereafter undergo the hypermutation ∑ ,
operator, which is inversely proportional to the affinity value
of each clone based on (4) and (5): in which:
0,1 , (4) k: is the number of network lines,

Ri : is the ith branch resistance,
exp . , (5) Ii : is the current of ith branch,
Ii : is the current of ith branch without DG resource,
where c' is a mutated antibody of c, N(0,1) is a Gaussian
random variable of zero mean and standard deviation σ = 1, subject to:
ρ is a parameter that controls the decay of the inverse
exponential function, and f is the fitness of an individual 0.9 p.u. ≤ Vi ≤ 1.1 p.u. (9)
normalized in the interval [0,1]. A mutation is only accepted
if the c' is within its preset range, otherwise the nearest IV. PROPOSED ALGORITHM
reasonable value shall be reassigned to it as aforementioned.
In order to increase the diversity of the antibodies, receptor The flowchart of the proposed algorithm is illustrated in
editing operator is also employed. That is, a user defined Fig. 1.
number of new antibodies is randomly generated, and is
utilized to replace the same number of antibodies with the Start
lowest affinities [10], [12].
Input data of network
III. PROBLEM FORMULATION
In order to solve DG placement problem, the determination Initialize antibody production
of the optimal number, location and sizes of DG units which
must be installed in a network is vital. These data should Run load flow to calculate
maximize cost savings, subject to operating constraints. affinities
Because of the complexity of the problem, some simplifying
hypothesises are introduced [3]: Improve antibodies by
• The capacity of DG units shall be selected from specified particle swarm intelligence
capacity candidate;
Run load flow to calculate
• One DG could be allocated to one candidate position;
affinities
• The maximum number of installable DG units is given.
This paper specifically concentrates on minimization of
Clone antibodies
power losses and improvement of voltage profile. These
items should be composed with constraints to obtain a proper
objective function. The overall objective function, with Maturate clones
composing constraints and goals, is determined as following:
Run load flow to calculate
. . , (6) affinities
where and are weighting factors; and is defined as: Generate next population
∑ ,
min ∑
, (7) Antibody receptor editing
, ,
in which: No
Terminate?
n: is the number of network buses, Yes
Vi : is the voltage of ith bus,
Vi,ref : is the specified voltage for ith bus, End
Vi,noDG : is the voltage of ith bus without DG resource;
Fig. 1. The computation procedure
3
According to this flowchart, at the opening, data of buses TABLE II
BUS INFORMATION
and branches of the network is entered to the algorithm. Then,
PCLONALG algorithm as the core of this optimization Bus Number P (KW) Q (KVAR)
process is run and load flow algorithm is used wherever the
evaluation process is essential. These processes are 1 0 0
programmed by MATLAB software [2].
2 890 468
V. CASE STUDY 3 628 470

A test case is selected from a section of Tehran distribution
4 1112 764
network. The single line diagram of the network is illustrated
in Fig. 2. This is a MV feeder with 13 buses from 63/20 KV 5 636 378
Khoda-Bande-Loo substation. Table I and II provide the data
of lines and buses [2]. 6 474 344
7 1342 1078
8 920 292
9 766 498
10 662 480
11 690 186
12 1292 554
Fig. 2. Single line diagram of case study
13 1124 480
TABLE I
LINE INFORMATION
VI. NUMERICAL RESULTS
From To R (ohm) X (ohm)
Initially, a load flow is run for the test case. The base
condition of system voltage profile and power losses is
1 2 0.176 0.138
investigated. Mean voltage of buses is 0.9302 p.u. and sum of
2 3 0.176 0.138 power losses is 800 KW.
For installing DG units in the network, the available
3 4 0.045 0.035 capacities are 500, 1000, 1500 and 2000 KW, and the
maximum number of units is three.
4 5 0.089 0.069 To show the effect of installation of DG units on operating
parameters of the test system, one DG is installed in the first
5 6 0.045 0.035 step. The prepared program is run and specifies that the best
place and the best capacity of DG unit are bus 11 and 2000
5 7 0.116 0.091
KW, respectively. In this case, mean value of bus voltages is
0.9787 p.u. and amount of power losses is 524 KW. The
7 8 0.073 0.073
results clarify that installing a DG unit could significantly
8 9 0.074 0.058 improve voltage profile and reduce power losses.
In the next step, two DG units are considered for installing
8 10 0.093 0.093 in the network. In this case, connecting two DG units with
2000 KW capacity to the bus 9 and bus 10, is the best
7 11 0.063 0.050 solution of the problem. Once again, the mean value of bus
voltages rises and the sum of line losses drops. The Mean
11 12 0.068 0.053 voltage of buses and the sum of power losses reach to 0.9911
p.u. and 400 KW, respectively.
7 13 0.062 0.053
The solution of allocating three DG units to the network, is
installation of three units of 2000 KW in buses 8, 12, and 13.
4
The mean value of bus voltages climbs to 0.9973 p.u. and the The presented charts display the power of PCLONALG in
sum of active power losses reduces to 172 KW. converging in the primary iterations. This ability is attained
The convergence processes of the algorithm for allocating by several embedded maturation levels in the algorithm.
one, two and three DG units to the network are shown in Fig. In order to have a clear comparison, bus voltages in the
3, 4, and 5. base case and also after installation of DG units are illustrated
in Table III and Fig. 6. The outcomes represents that
installation of DG unit considerably improves the voltage
profile.
TABLE III
COMPARISON OF VOLTAGE PROFILES
Bus
Base Case 1 DG Unit 2 DG Units 3 DG Units
Number
1 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
2 0.9709 0.9885 0.9925 0.9954
3 0.9441 0.9796 0.9874 0.9932
4 0.9378 0.9778 0.9866 0.9931
5 0.9268 0.9759 0.9865 0.9944

Fig. 3. The process of convergence with one DG unit
6 0.9265 0.9755 0.9862 0.9941
7 0.9146 0.9755 0.9886 0.9982
8 0.9117 0.9728 0.9959 1.0000
9 0.9108 0.9719 1.0000 0.9991
10 0.9106 0.9717 1.0000 0.9989
11 0.9129 0.9800 0.9870 0.9988
12 0.9116 0.9788 0.9858 1.0000
13 0.9136 0.9746 0.9876 1.0000
Mean
0.9302 0.9787 0.9911 0.9973
Voltage
Fig. 4. The process of convergence with two DG units
Fig. 6. Voltage profile in the base case and after installation of DG units
Fig. 5. The process of convergence with three DG units
5
In Table IV, sum of line power losses in the base case and [9] Y. Alinejad-Beromi, M. Sedighizadeh, M.R. Bayat, and M.E.
Khodayar, “Using genetic algorithm for allocation to reduce losses and
after installation of DG units is presented. It is obvious that improve voltage profile,” Universities Power Engineering Conference
installation of DG units leads to reduction in total power UPEC, 2007, UK.
losses. [10] W. Qiaoling, W. Changhong, and X.Z. Gao, “A Hybrid optimization
algorithm based on clonal selection principle and particle swarm
TABLE IV intelligence,” Sixth International Conference on Intelligent Systems
COMPARISON OF POWER LOSSES Design and Applications, 2006.
[11] J. Kennedy and R. Eberhart, “Particle swarm optimization,” in Proc. of
Base Case 1 DG Unit 2 DG Units 3 DG Units the IEEE International Conference on Neural Networks, Australia, pp.
1942-1948, November-December 1995.
Power [12] L.N. de Castro and F.J. Von Zuben, “Learning and optimization using
Losses 800 524 400 172 the clonal selection principle,” IEEE Trans. on Evolutionary
Computation, pp. 239-251, June 2002.
(KW)
Reduction
of Power
- 276 124 228
Losses
(KW)
VII. CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, PCLONALG as a novel approach at the
cutting edge of optimization methods was implemented to
resolve DG allocation problem in the distribution networks.
The Khoda-Bande-Loo distribution test feeders of Tehran city
were analyzed and the outcomes of applying proposed
PCLONALG to the problem were presented. The experiments
indicated that this hybrid optimization algorithm improves the
accuracy of the solution and is considerably faster than other
techniques and, is capable of escaping from local minima and
finding the global one effectively. The numerical results
illustrated that PCLONALG reveals better characteristics in
comparison with PSO and CLONALG techniques in all trials,
particularly in terms of quality of solutions and number of
iterations.
REFERENCES
[1] G. Celli and F. Pilo, “Optimal distributed generation allocation in MV
distribution networks,” in Proc. 2001 IEEE PICA Conference, pp. 81-
86.
[2] Y. Alinejad-Beromi, M. Sedighizadeh, and M. Sadighi, “A particle
swarm optimization for sitting and sizing of Distributed Generation in
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losses,” 43rd International Universities Power Engineering Conference,
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[3] M.R. Aghaebrahimi, M. Amiri, S.H. Zahiri, “An immune-based
optimization method for distributed generation placement in order to
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[4] K. Nara, Y. Hayashi, K. Ikeda, and T. Ashizawa, “Application of tabu
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[6] W. El-Khattam, K. Bhattacharya, Y. Hegazy, and M.M.A. Salama,
“Optimal investment planning for distributed generation in a
competitive electricity market,” IEEE Trans. Power Systems, vol. 19,
pp. 1674-1684, August 2004.
[7] A. Keane and M. O'Malley, “Optimal allocation of embedded
generation on distribution networks,” IEEE Trans. Power Systems, vol.
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[8] X. Yu, X. Xiong, and Y. Wu, “A PSO-based approach to optimal
capacitor placement with harmonic distortion consideration,” Electric
Power Systems Research 71, 2004, pp. 27–33.
6
A Music Based Harmony Search (MBHS)

Approach to Optimal Power Flow with Reactive
Power Loss Optimization
Mithun Bhaskar M,* Srinivas Muthyala**and Sydulu Maheswarapu***
Dept. of Electrical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Warangal, INDIA.
E-mail: mithun.bm@ieee.org
Abstract—This paper presents a new optimization cost is discussed sans violations of obligatory boundaries
algorithm, Music Based Harmony Search (MBHS) applied using a new optimization method; Music Based Harmony
to the Optimal Power flow (OPF) problem with line Search algorithm.
constraints for minimizing the Fuel costs together with
Generator Reactive power losses. The proposed method is
This paper is organized into six sections. Section II
compared with other optimization techniques like Simple offers a deep view on the works available on Music
Genetic Algorithm (SGA), Adaptive Genetic Algorithm Based Harmony Search and Reactive Power optimized
(AGA) and Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) to prove its power flow. Section III describes the principles and
supremacy. The algorithm is tested on a standard IEEE 30 modeling of Music Based Harmony Search Algorithm.
bus test bed and numerous analyses viz., the effect on taps; Section IV narrates the generalized problem formulation.
shunt reactors etc., with different MBHS parameters are
demonstrated. It is found that MBHS offers a
Section V reports the Simulation, Test systems and
computationally faster (75.83 times) and robust solution for Implementation issues together with comparison with
OPF problem. other techniques like GA, PSO etc. Section VI concludes
the paper by analyzing the results.
Keywords—Music Based Harmony Search, Bio-mimicked
algorithms, Optimal Power Flow, Reactive Power II. STATE OF ART
Minimization, Genetic Algorithm, Optimization techniques.
Several researchers have worked on the optimization
I. INTRODUCTION problems using MBHS and a brief abridgment of all
applications can be found in Zong Woo Geem et al. [1].
C ONSTANTLY depleting Natural energy reserves,
increasing demands and soaring prices have stressed
the requirement of Energy conservation now. Global
Much recent application of MBHS has been to Civil
Engineering, general mathematical problems like Sudoku,
hydrologic calibration and ecological conservation. A
Warming has led to the inevitable requisite of cleaner new improved variant of HS was exposed in [2], where a
energy, reduced emissions and necessity of maintaining variable HMCR, PAR, NI were determined from
minimal Losses. Expanding areas of Power system, previously used values from Harmony Search
liberalization, increasing dependency and greater applications and objective function evaluation from other
prerequisite of system security and reliability has made algorithms. Later developments include Ensemble
the Optimal Power Flow an inevitable part of the Power Memory Consideration by Gleem et al. (2006), where a
System research. group of musicians are considered together with the
Reactive Power is a non-usable ingredient of the power collective relation between the variables. Further works
and the transmission of lesser reactive power adds to the on Harmony search are found on ‘Ensemble Considering’
economy of the Genco’s and consumers. But, reactive where a group of musicians are considered together with
power cannot be completely shunned as it is essential for the collective relation between the variables by same
the formation of magnetic field and for the maintenance authors.
of the constant voltage profile in the system. Capacitors Dandachi et al. (1995) put forward a new reactive
and Shunt reactance are placed in the system to maintain power pricing strategy as part of extension of the SC-OPF
the adequate reactive power, and are placed very near to package of the National Grid Company, which was based
the consumption point. To be in the correct sense, on Sequential Linear Programming. A decoupled
Reactive power is produced by the loads than the approached was made by utilizing the tap transformers
generators and reactive power in excess affects the for Security Constrained OPF for reactive power pricing
transfer capacity of the power lines and heating of motors and a feasibility study was conducted on a 713 bus
whereas and inadequate quantity leads to the higher typical NCC base system. Chebboet al. [3] demonstrated
losses, lower voltage profile and higher risk of outages. CARD based on Iterative Fully Coupled Active and
Every generator is vowed to supply the minimum amount Reactive dispatch solution for Reactive power OPF which
of reactive power to the system. was based on sparse dual revised simplex linear
Here in this paper, a new approach towards programming method for Maximization of Reactive
optimization off reactive power together with generation Power Reserve Margins. Lee et al.(1997) developed a
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 7

Contingency Constrained Optimal Reactive Dispatch Adjustment Rate (PAR) and Harmony Memory
(ACCORD) algorithm which was based on Voltage/VAr Consideration Rate (HMCR).
management algorithm of Alsac et al., (1990). E.
Lobatoet al. [4] proposed a Mixed Integer Linear IV. HARMONY OPERATORS
Programming based approach in OPF for minimizing Improvisation [6] of the HMM is done using the
transmission losses and generator reactive outputs. The Memory Consideration, Pitch Adjustment and Random
authors has represented the objective function by a set of Generation of New Harmony memory matrix.
tangent cuts, and linearized in each iterations.Pudjiantoet
A. Random Playing: This section mimics the
al. (2002) demonstrated a direct reactive OPF, where the
musician’s behavior of playing random notes with octave
conventional decoupling is replaced by the constrained
ratio 1:2 or 2:3,generating harmony in improvisation.
reactive implicit coupling (CRIC), which is found to Random Pitches increases the search space and gives
improve the optimization, during heavy loading. A linear wider options to explore the solution thus prevent from
Programming and Primal dual Interior point based getting trapped in local minima. Random notes are
approaches are found there. Another appreciable work on generated satisfying the boundary range of pitches.
Reactive Power Optimization can be found in [5] by
Hazra et al. (2007). B. Memory Considering: In memory considering a
value of the variable is selected in between the
III. MUSIC BASED HARMONY SEARCH
permissible limits of the variable and the available
variable value. The same process is followed for another
Music Based Harmony Search was first projected by other variables in the string.
Zong Wong Geem et al. (2001) and was inspired by the
natural music performance and from the Musicians C. Harmony Memory Consideration Rate: HMCR
improvisation techniques; where each musician searches represents the probability of selecting a variable from the
for the best harmony of pleasing composition with the HM matrix. The strings which analogize to “notes” are
notes and constantly improvises it by using various directly selected in improvisation process from the
techniques to create a enjoyable melody. The Artificial Harmony Memory depending on the HMCR. The (1-
music harmonization seeks the gradual alteration of pitch, HMCR) count of probability is selected from Memory
which in turn affects the population, adaptively, for Consideration and remaining from HM depending on
obtaining the perfect harmony of the objective. The terms HMCR rate.
related to MBHS are briefly described below:
1
A. Musical Instrument (Variable) and Harmony
where is the first variable of the Note consisting
Matrix:
Variables are the components of the solution vector , , …………………
which analogizes to the keys in a music instrument. The
combined string of variables analogizes to chromosome D. Pitch Range and Pitch Adjusting Rate (PAR):
as in Genetic Algorithm. The harmony memory can be Pitch Range refers to the value boundaries of each
represented as decision variable which need to be bounded for the safe
… … … … .. operation. The wider the PR, better the results but on the
cost of computation time. PAR refers to the probability
… … … … ..
that any variable in the HM to undergo changes, which
… … … … .. resemble to the mutation process in the conventional
where, is a ‘n’th variable and a ‘m’ size harmony Genetic Algorithm, but unlike to GA, the MBHS uses
memory and a probable solution to a variable of the complete HM to do the mutation instead of using
objective. The complete [ , … … … … .. ] is the two chromosome for crossover or single chromosome in
solution vector. Harmony Memory Matrix (HMM) mutating. Every ‘note’ which gets generated from the
comprises of plausible solution matrix, where each row Memory Considering will get tested for pitch adjustment
represents a complete solution vector of the size of according the PAR. Its being found that low PAR with a
Harmony solution size. narrow bandwidth slows down the convergence and high
B. Aesthetics and Practice: PAR with large bandwidth can cause the solution to
scatter [6].
Aesthetics resembles to the pleasant music, which the
musician struggles to achieve by improvisation. Herein, ,
artificial music based harmony search, aesthetics refers to , 1
the Objective function, which needs to be optimized. If tested ‘yes’, each variable in the Note undergoes,
Every Practice (Iteration) session counts to one cycle of , where ‘r’ is a random number
improvisation, where each of the Harmony Search generated between (0, 1) and is the first variable of
operators (HSO) are put into action which ends up in the the Note consisting of
updating the Experience Memory Matrix (EMM). The , , ………………… and ‘BW’ is the
other acronyms formed this paper are Number of difference between the upper and lower boundaries.
Iterations (NI), Harmony Memory Matrix (HMM), Pitch
8
V. ALGORITHM obtained from the fuel cost curves of the generator,
STEP 1: Initialize the Parameters, Acquire the system normally obtained by curve fitting techniques.
data B. Reactive Power Optimization Problem
STEP 2: Initialize Harmony Memory Size (HMS), Reactive Power Optimization is meanderingly the
Harmony Memory Considering Rate (HMCR), Pitch
minimization of total losses for the complete system,
Adjusting Rate (PAR) and Number of Improvisations
subject to the operational and security conditions of the
(NI).
system [7]
STEP 3: Generate the Harmony Memory randomly in
, ∑ ie.,
uniform distribution
= ∑ ∑ 2 …… (3)
where j = 1, 2, 3 to Memory Size and ‘r’ is a random
number in between 0 and 1. where ‘x’ is the continuous variables and ‘u’ is the
STEP 4: New Memory improvisation is made using the discontinuous variables. ‘NB’ is the number of buses,
MBH operators. ‘ is the conductance between the bus ‘i’ and ‘j’, &
STEP 5:If R (0, 1) < HMCR, then go for Memory are voltage magnitudes at bus ‘i’ and ‘j’, & are the
consideration, else if tested positive for PAR, go for Pitch
voltage angles at bus ‘i’ and ‘j’.
Adjustment, Else go for random generation.
STEP 6: Evaluate the fitness and select if it is better than C. Equality Constraints
the worse solution of HM, accept, else go for Step 4. Frugality of the power system cannot be at the cost of
STEP 7: Evaluate the Aesthetics. crucial charges like, power generated should be able to
STEP 8: The stopping criterion is checked by supply the maximum load and the various losses in
convergence of maximum allowable improvisations. transmitting. These constraints are together termed as
equality constraints and typically the power flow equation
VI. OPTIMAL POWER FLOW PROBLEM needs to be satisfied,
A. Conventional Generation cost minimization 0 ∑ cos sin … .. (4)
function
0 ∑ sin cos …. (5)
The conventional fuel cost minimization objective can
be represented as below. Here the main constraint is the where, i =1 to n, and ‘n’ is the number of buses in the
minimization of the generation cost by allocating the system. PGiand QGi are active and reactive power
generator capacities in the finest economic mode, generations at bus-i, Ploadi and Qloadi are corresponding
collectively satisfying the power flow, security active and reactive load demands.
constraints, thermal and stability constraints of the
system. A Fast Decoupled Power Flow approach is used D. Inequality Constraints
in this paper. The inequality constraints selected are: Generator bus
∑ ……………… (1) upper voltage limits and lower voltage limits (Vimin≤ Vi≤
where Vimax) at every bus. Active power limits at generator
FT = Total cost of generation ($/hr) buses (Pgimin≤ Pgi ≤Pgimax), Reactive Power limits at
n = Number of generators generator buses, Bus injections (Qgimin≤ Qgi ≤Qgimax)
Pi = Real power generation of ith generator limits, Tap changing limits, Maximum loadability and
Fi =Fuel cost function of ith generator size of capacitors are considered under Inequality
Respecting, constraints.
, 0 {Equality constraints}
VII. IMPLEMENTATION AND RESULTS
, 0 {Inequality constraints}
where ‘u’ is the set of controllable quantities, which can The proposed algorithm; Music Based Harmony
be adjusted by the operator like Generator Active Power Search algorithm is implemented in C2D 2.1 GHz system
output, Generator voltage, Transformer settings and on Matlab platform. It is tested for its healthiness on a
Capacitor settings. ‘x’ is the set of state quantities like standard IEEE 30 test bed consisting of 6 Generators, 42
voltage magnitude at load bus and Slack bus power and branches, 2 shunt reactors, 12 control variables, 6 discrete
reactive power at each generator & Line Flows. The Fuel variables, 4 tap-changing transformers together with a
cost minimization with cost coefficients can be total load of 283.4 MW. The parameters used for the
represented as, simulation is as follows: HMS = 60, HMCR = 0.90, PAR
= 0.50, NI = 1000. The cost coefficients are included in
$/Hr …….. (2) the Table 1.
TABLE I
COST COEFFICIENTS FOR IEEE 30 BUS SYSTEM
where Ngis the number of generators including the slack
Cost Coefficients Real Power
bus. Pgiis the generated active power at bus i. Ai, Biand Generator
Ciare the quadratic constants for ithgenerator, which is A B C Min Max
1 0 2.00 37.5 50 200
9
2 0 1.75 175 20 80
5 0 1.00 625 15 50
8 0 3.25 83 10 35
11 0 3.00 250 10 30
13 0 3.00 250 12 40 20
TABLE II 15
COMPARISON WITH OTHER ALGOR
RITHMS
Control Base ALGOR RITHM
10
Variables Case SGA AGA PSO MBHS
Slack Bus - 175.99 175.8 176.5 173.72 60
PG2 (MW) 80.0 49.34 48.96 48.83 47.04 5
40
PG5 50.0 21.93 22.01 21.13 23.40
PG8 20.0 22.96 21.35 20.27 25.34 0 20
PG11 20.0 12.78 10.96 12.37 10.67 0 5 10 15
5 0
20
PG13 20.0 12.10 12.0 12.80 12.36 25
VG1(pu) 1.0 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05

Figure 1.Illustrative surface of thhe HM and variables (pu)
VG2 1.0 1.01 1.06 1.044 0.96
VG5 1.0 1.09 0.99 1.043 1.055
1
VG8 1.0 1.04 0.972 1.0 1.01 30 2 3
291.1
VG11 1.0 1.08 1.02 1.02 0.98 28 1.05 4
VG13 1.0 1.02 1.01 1.01 1.05 27 5
26 1 6
Tap6,9(pu) 1.0 0.96 1.02 0.9 0.9 0.95 UPPER
25 7
Tap6,10 1.0 1.05 0.92 1.1 1.04 0.9
24 8
Tap4,12 1.0 1.012 0.95 1.0 1.05 0.85 MHBS
23 9
Tap27, 28 1.0 1.02 1.03 1.025 1.03
22 10 LOWER
Shunt10(pu) 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.02 0.03
21 11
Shunt12 0.00 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.05 20 12
Shunt15 0.00 0.02 0.05 0.05 0.02 19 13
18 17 15 14
4
Shunt17 0.00 0.01 0.05 0.03 0.03
16
Shunt20 0.00 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.04
Shunt21 0.00 0.04 0.01 0.04 0.05 Figure 2. Voltage Profilee of IEEE 30 system
Shunt23 0.00 0.02 0.05 0.03 0.6
Shunt24 0.00 0.05 0.05 0.02 0.6 0.06
Shunt29 0.00 0.04 0.04 0.01 0.04
0.05
SGA
TABLE III
CASE: 1. OPTIMIZATION OF FUELL COST
0.04
AGA
SGA PSO AG
GA MBHS 0.03
Average PSO
0.910 0.431 0.5530 0.012 0.02
Time (s) DE
Losses 0.01
9.60 9.59 9..44 9.15
(MW) 0
MBHS
Fuel Cost
802.88 802.6 8022.76 802.85 S10 S12 S15 S17 S20 S21
S S23 S24 S29
($/MW)
TABLE IV Figure 3. Comparison of shunt vaalues using diverse algorithms

CASE: 2. OPTIMIZATION OF REACTIVE PO
OWER LOSSES
SGA PSO AG
GA MBHS It’s found from the above ressults that the Music Based
Average Harmony Search offers a betterr, robust and faster solution
1.260 1.640 1.520 0.023
Time (s) (99.31%, 75.83 times) to thhe Optimal Power Flow
Losses problem and offers higher saavings when compared to
6.58 6.83 6.67 6.77
(MW) classical methods like PSO andd GA. The details of other
Fuel Cost algorithms can be found in liiteratures by same author.
973.49 967.2 967.97 955.22
($/MW) Table 1 gives the details of Coost Coefficients used in the
problem, Table II reports and compares the variables of
the problem with differentt algorithms and gives
information, Table III and IVV compares the MBHS for
generation cost minimization and reactive power losses
optimization. Fig. 1 illustrates the typical harmony
memory surface of MBHS, whhere all the variables used
10
in the problems are displayed. Fig. 2 exemplifies the
voltage profile and Fig. 3 demonstrates the shunt values
using all the algorithms which are used for the
comparison. Fig. 3 ascertains the impact of the new
algorithm on the variable. It’s found that Music Based
Harmony Search is a highly encouraging solution for
Optimal Power Flow Problem.
VIII. CONCLUSION
This paper has put forward a new approach to Optimal
Power Flow problem using a new bio-mimicked
algorithm - Music Based Harmony Search. The Proposed
technique has been compared with conventional
algorithms like Simple Genetic Algorithm (SGA),
Adaptive Genetic Algorithmand Particle Swarm
Optimization (PSO. The projected algorithm is found to
be robust and more efficient and offers computationally
faster solution almost double on assessment. Two test
cases of Generation cost minimization and Reactive
power losses optimizations are demonstrated in this paper
and the results are found to be much futuristic.
REFERENCES
[1] Zong Woo Geem, M. Fesanghary, Jeong-Yoon Choi, M. P. Saka,
Justin C. Williams, M. Tamer Ayvaz, Liang Li, Sam Ryu and A.
Vasebi, "Recent Advances in Harmony Search,Advances in
Evolutionary Algorithms, I-Tech Education and Publishing,
Vienna, Austria, pp. 468, 2008.
[2] X.-S. Yang, "Harmony Search as a Metaheuristic Algorithm", in:
Music-Inspired Harmony Search Algorithm: Theory and
Applications, Studies in Computational Intelligence, Springer
Berlin, vol. 191, pp. 1-14, 2009.
[3] Chebbo, A.M.; Ekwue, A.O.; Irving, M.R , "Coupled active and
reactive power flow: a scheduling and despatch tool," Optimal
Power Flow - Invaluable Tool or Expensive Toy (Digest No.:
1997/102), IEE Colloquium, vol., no., pp.4/1-4/6, 13 May 1997.
[4] E. Lobato, L. Rouco, M. I. Navarrete, R. Casanova and G. Lopez,
“An LP-based optimal power flow for transmission losses and
generator reactive margins minimization”, in Proc. of IEEE porto
power tech conference, Portugal, Sept. 2001.
[5] J. Hazra, A. K. Sinha, "A Study on Real and Reactive Power
Optimization using Particle Swarm Optimization," Second
International Conference on Industrial and Information Systems,
ICIIS 2007, pp. 323-327, Sri Lanka
[6] Z.W. Geem, "Optimal Cost design of water Distribution Networks
using harmony Search," Engineering Optimization, Vol. 38, Iss. 3,
pp. 259-277, 2006.
[7] J. Hazra, A. K. Sinha, "A Study on Real and Reactive Power
Optimization using Particle Swarm Optimization," Second
International Conference on Industrial and Information Systems,
ICIIS 2007, pp. 323-327, Sri Lanka.
11
Real Power Transfer Allocation via Continuous

Genetic Algorithm-Least Squares Support Vector
Machine Technique
Mohd Herwan Sulaiman
Mohd Wazir Mustafa Mohd Herwan Sulaiman Mohd Wazir Mustafa
Saifulnizam Abd. Khalid Hussain Shareef
School of Electrical
Faculty of Electrical Engineering System Engineering
School of Electrical Faculty of Electrical Engineering
Faculty of Electrical Engineering Faculty of Engineering
Universiti TeknologiUniversiti
MalaysiaMalaysiaSystem
Perlis Engineering Universiti TeknologiUniversiti
MalaysiaTeknologiand
Malaysia
Build Environment
Johor, Malaysia Perlis, Malaysia
Universiti Malaysia Perlis Johor, Malaysia Johor, Malaysia
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
mherwan@unimap.edu.my
wazir@fke.utm.my Perlis, Malaysia nizam@fke.utm.mywazir@fke.utm.my Bangi, Malaysia
mherwan@unimap.edu.my shareef@eng.ukm.my
Abstract— This paper proposes a new hybrid technique, transfer from generators to loads by implementing integration
Continuous Genetic Algorithm and Least Squares Support of continuous genetic algorithm (CGA) with least squares
Vector Machine to allocate the real power transfer from support vector machine (LS-SVM), namely CGA-LSSVM.
generators to loads, namely CGA-LSSVM. CGA is used to obtain
the optimal value of hyper-parameters of LS-SVM and
Basically, the proposed method can be adapted whether using
supervised learning approach is adopted in the training of LS- PSP, circuit theory or optimization methods. This is due to the
SVM model. The technique that uses proportional sharing technique just needs a teacher to train the support vector
principle (PSP) is utilized as a teacher. Based on load profile of model. However, for this paper, PSP method is selected as a
the system and followed by PSP technique for power tracing teacher due to its simplicity and CGA-LSSVM will learn from
procedure, the description of inputs and outputs of the training the results of PSP.
data are created. The CGA-LSSVM is expected to be able to
assess which generators are supplying to which specific loads. In
This paper is organized as follows. The initial concept of
this paper, the 25-bus equivalent system of southern Malaysia is PSP is discussed in Section 2. Function estimation using LS-
used to illustrate the effectiveness of the CGA-LSSVM technique SVM is presented in Section 3 followed by CGA
compared to that of the PSP technique. implementation in Section 4. In Section 5, the application of
CGA-LSSVM for generators’ contributions to loads allocation
Keywords- Continuous genetic algorithm (CGA); Least is discussed. The result of proposed method with the
Squares Support Vector Machine (LS-SVM); Proportional
Sharing Principle (PSP) comparison with PSP method is presented in section 6.
Finally, conclusion is stated in Section 7.1
I. INTRODUCTION
Deregulation and unbundling of transmission services in the II. PSP AS A TEACHER
electricity supply industry has attracted many researchers and
power engineers to get involve in one of the most important The concept of PSP is proposed by Bialek [1], where the
node or bus is treated as a perfect mixer of power inflows and
issues, viz. power flow allocation problem. Since the last
outflows. To apply this concept, the test system must be
decade, there are a lot of techniques and algorithms have been constructed into lossless system. This paper will uses a
proposed in literature. The method based on proportional different point of view to construct the lossless system, where
sharing principle (PSP) [1] can be said as a pioneer in power the system is modified by removing the loss at each line and
allocation solution followed by others to come out their attributed to the sending end bus as virtual load. The proposed
algorithms to solve the problems [2-4]. manipulation technique is depicted in Figs. 1 and 2. Since this
The technique based on circuit theory also has been paper proposes a method to trace the power transfer between
proposed [5, 6]. There are advantages and disadvantages of generators and loads, the virtual load tracing will not be
using either PSP or circuit theory methods. For instance, PSP discussed. However, the losses (virtual loads) can be traced
using the same approach of load tracing too.
method cannot handles a loop flow system while for circuit
theory, sometimes the result of power tracing at certain loads
or lines exceeds the particular generation capacity. To
overcome these drawbacks, optimization approaches have
been proposed [7, 8]. However, the optimization techniques
end up with longer computation times, which is cannot be
implemented in real time on-line. 1
This work was supported by Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia under
This paper proposes a new technique to allocate the power Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS).
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 12

III. FUNCTION ESTIMATION USING LS-SVM
Support vector machine (SVM) is known as a powerful
methodology for solving problems in nonlinear classification,
function estimation and density estimation. SVM has been
introduced within the context of statistical learning theory and
structural risk minimization. Least squares support vector
machine (LS-SVM) is reformulations from standard SVM [9]
which lead to solving linear Karush-Kuhn-Tucker (KKT)
systems. LS-SVM is closely related to regularization networks
and Gaussian processes but additionally emphasizes and
exploits primal-dual interpretations [10].
In LS-SVM function estimation, the standard framework is
Figure 1. Example of converged power flow of 4-bus system. based on a primal-dual formulation. Given N
dataset {x i , y i }i =1 , the goal is to estimate a model of the form:
N
y ( x) = wT ϕ ( x) + b + ei (3)
where x ∈ R , y ∈ R and ϕ (.) : R → R h is a mapping to

n n n
a high dimensional feature space. The following optimization

problem is formulated:
1 T 1 N
min
w,b ,e J ( w, e) = w w + γ ∑ ei2 (4)
2 2 i =1
Subject to y i = wT ϕ ( xi ) + b + ei , i=1,…,N.
Figure 2. Lossless system.
After lossless system is constructed, Bialek’s method is With the application of Mercer’s theorem [9] for the kernel
applied, which is the distribution matrix is created as follows matrix Ω as Ω ij = K (xi , x j ) = ϕ ( xi ) T ϕ ( x j ), i, j=1,..,N it
[1]: is not required to compute explicitly the nonlinear mapping
φ(.) as this is done implicitly through the use of positive
⎧ 1 for i= j definite kernel functions K [10].
⎪ P From the Lagrangian function:
[A] = ⎪⎨− c ji = − j −i for j ∈αi (1) 1 T 1 N
⎪ Pj ζ ( w, b, e; α ) = w w + γ ∑ ei2 −
0 otherwise 2 2 i =1
⎪⎩ (5)
N
where Pj is representing of the total power flow through bus j,
αi is the set of buses supplying directly to bus i and |Pj-i| is the
∑ α (w ϕ ( x ) + b + e
i =1
i
T
i i − yi )
magnitude of power flow (receiving end) in line j-i. From
distribution matrix A, the shares of generators to the loads can where α i ∈ R are Lagrange multipliers. Differentiating (5)
be calculated as follows:
with w, b, ei and αi, the conditions for optimality can be
described as follow:
PGi
∑ [A ]
n
−1
PLkGi = ik .PLk
Pi k =1
(2)
where A-1 is inversion of matrix A, PLk is load at bus k, PGi is

generation bus i, and Pi is through power of bus i. Vector
PLkGi is used as a target in the training process of proposed
CGA-LSSVM.
13
⎧ dζ N • Selection: roulette wheel
⎪ dw = 0 → w = ∑ α iϕ ( xi ) • Crossover probability = 0.9
⎪ i =1 • Mutation probability = 0.1
⎪ dζ N
= 0 → ∑αi = 0 • Population = 20
⎪ db i =1 • Maximum iteration = 40
⎨ dζ (6)
⎪ = 0 → α i = γei , i = 1,..., N
⎪ dei V. CGA-LSSVM FOR GENERATORS’ CONTRIBUTIONS TO
⎪ dζ LOADS ALLOCATION
⎪ = 0 → yi = wT ϕ ( xi ) + b + ei
α
⎩ i The proposed power allocation method is elaborated by
designing an appropriate CGA-LSSVM model using LS-
SVMlab Toolbox [12] for the 25-bus equivalent system of
By elimination of w and ei, the following linear system is
southern Malaysia as shown in Fig. 3. The input samples for
obtained [10]:
training is assembled using daily load curve and performing
load flow analysis for every hour of load demand. The target
⎡ 0 1T ⎤⎡ b ⎤ ⎡0⎤ vector for the training is obtained from PSP method. Input
⎢ −1 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
=⎢ ⎥ (7)
data (D) for developed CGA-LSSVM contains independent
⎣ y Ω + γ I ⎦ ⎣α ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ variables, viz. real power generation except slack bus (Pg2 to
Pg12), real loads (Pd13, Pd14, Pd16 to Pd18) and reactive loads
with y =[y1,…,yN]T, α=[ α 1,…, α N]T. The resulting LS-SVM (Qd13, Qd14, Qd16 to Qd18) and the output/target parameter, (T)
model in dual space becomes: which is real power contributions from individual generator to
loads placed at buses 13, 14, 16, 17 and 18. This is considered
N
as 60 outputs (12 generators’ contributions to each load). The
y ( x) = ∑ α i K ( x, xi ) + b (8)
flow of CGA-LSSVM is depicted in Figs. 4 and 5.
i =1
Usually, the training of the LS-SVM model involves an A. Training, validation and testing processes
optimal selection of kernel parameters and regularization After the input and target of training data have been created,
parameter. Several kernel functions, viz. Gaussian radial basis the next step is to divide the data (D and T) up into training,
function (RBF) Kernel, linear Kernel and quadratic Kernel are testing and validation subsets. In this case, 48 samples (29%)
available. For this paper, the RBF Kernel is used which is of data are used for the training, 72 samples (42%) for
expressed as: validation and 48 samples (29%) for testing out of 168 hours.
Table I shows the numbers of samples of training, validation
2
−
x − xi and testing subsets.
2
K ( x, x i ) = e 2σ
(9)
Note that σ2 is a parameter associated with RBF function

which has to be tuned.
IV. CONTINUOUS GENETIC ALGORITHM

In order to find the optimal value of regularization
parameter, γ and Kernel RBF parameter, σ2, continuous
genetic algorithm (CGA) is proposed to be integrated with LS-
SVM. Genetic algorithm is a subset of evolutionary algorithms
that model biological processes to solve the optimization
problems. GA approach can be divided into two: binary and
continuous. For this paper, CGA is selected since it has an
advantage in the accurate representation of the continuous
parameter. Each chromosome consists of two parameters
representing γ and σ2 in continuous floating numbers that Figure 3. Single line diagram for the 25-bus equivalent system of South
Malaysia
generated randomly. The single point arithmetic crossover
method is adapted [11]. The CGA properties to find the
optimal γ and σ2 are as follow:
14
TABLE I
THE NUMBERS OF SAMPLES FOR TRAINING AND TESTING SET
Data Types Samples (Hour)
Training (1-24), (145-168)
Validation (25-72), (121-144)
Testing (73-120)
The property of regularization parameter γ and Kernel RBF

σ2 are decided through the CGA technique that has been
discussed above. The mean square error (MSE) vs. iteration is
depicted in Fig. 6. From the model of CGA-LSSVM, the final
value of γ is set to 964.5835 and σ2 is set to 9.8613 yields a
reasonable accuracy of the output of the predictive model that
has been designed. Figs. 7, 8 and 9 show the training,
validation and testing performances for the function estimation
of CGA-LSSVM model. The model’s output is indicated by
the solid line whereas the target is indicated by the points *.
The MSE for validation is 1.8073 x 10-4 and for testing
process is 2.1656 x 10-4 which show that the estimation by
CGA-LSSVM model and the training data points having the
similar characteristics.
Figure 5. Flow of CGA-LSSVM.
Figure 6. MSE vs. Iteration.
B. Pre-testing and simulation

After the CGA-LSSVM model has been trained using
MATLAB, the next step is to simulate the model. The entire
sample data is used in pre-testing. After simulation, the
obtained result from the trained model is evaluated with the
linear regression analysis. The regression analysis for the
trained model that refers to the contribution of Generator 12 to
load bus 18 is shown in Fig. 10. The correlation coefficient,
(R) in this case is equal to one indicates the perfect correlation
between trained CGA-LSSVM model with the PSP method.
Figure 4. Flow of proposed method. The MSE value for pre-testing is 2.0586 x 10-4.
15
Figure 10. Regression analysis between CGA-LSSVM output and
corresponding target.
Figure 7. Training for 48 samples data.

VI. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
The case scenario is that real and reactive power at each
load is assumed to decrease by 10% from hour 1 to 168, from
the nominal trained pattern. It is also assumed that all
generators also decrease their production proportionally
according to the variation of demands. The allocation of real
power from generators to loads using PSP and proposed model
on hours 20 out of 168 hours are tabulated in tables II and III
respectively.
TABLE II
ANALYSIS OF GENERATORS’ CONTRIBUTIONS ALLOCATION TO LOADS ON
HOUR 20 USING PSP METHOD
Supplied PSP Method
by
Load Bus ID
(MW) 13 14 16 17 18
G1 0 0 96.0087 0 0
G2 0 78.7866 0 0 0
Figure 8. Validation for 72 samples data. G3 0 78.7866 0 0 0
G4 0 0 85.5728 0 0
G5 3.1695 0 23.1123 31.6955 20.797
G6 0 0 65.8252 0 0
G7 2.6413 0 19.2602 26.4129 17.3309
G8 0 21.2382 0 0 57.512
G9 0 17.6985 0 0 47.9266
G10 3.4337 0 25.0383 34.3368 22.5301
G11 3.4337 0 25.0383 34.3368 22.5301
G12 3.6978 0 26.9643 36.9781 24.2632
Total 16.376 196.510 366.820 163.760 212.89
Actual
Load 16.376 196.510 366.820 163.760 212.89
TABLE III
ANALYSIS OF GENERATORS’ CONTRIBUTIONS ALLOCATION TO LOADS ON
HOUR 20 USING CGA-LSSVM METHOD
Supplied CGA-LSSVM Method
by
Load Bus ID
(MW) 13 14 16 17 18
Figure 9. Testing for 48 samples data. G1 0 0 96.0122 0 0
G2 0 78.7947 0 0 0
G3 0 78.7947 0 0 0
G4 0 0 85.5814 0 0
G5 3.1699 0 23.1154 31.6985 20.798
16
G6 0 0 65.8319 0 0 23 0.993 5.7219 0 0 0 0
G7 2.6416 0 19.2627 26.4157 17.3319 24 0.991 5.4366 0 0 0 0
G8 0 21.2378 0 0 57.5197 25 0.978 4.3129 0 0 0 0
G9 0 17.6982 0 0 47.9332 Total: 958.32 631.320 956.356 592.695
G10 3.434 0 25.0416 34.3401 22.5311
G11 3.434 0 25.0416 34.3401 22.5311
G12 3.6982 0 26.968 36.9822 24.2645
VII. CONCLUSION
Total 16.378 196.526 366.854 163.777 212.91
Actual This paper has presented a new method to allocate the
Load 16.376 196.510 366.820 163.760 212.89 generators’ contributions to loads in deregulated power system
using incorporation of LS-SVM technique with continuous
The results obtained by the CGA-LSSVM model are genetic algorithm (CGA). The developed CGA-LSSVM
compared well with the result of PSP. The difference between adopts real power allocation outputs determined by PSP as an
generators in both methods is reasonable which is the largest estimator to train the model. The results show that CGA-
difference is 0.0086 MW at bus 16 for G4. The MSE of this LSSVM able to trace the power transfer from generators to
simulation is very small which is 2.98 x 10-2. The load flow loads even though just using small amounts of data in training
result for the test system is given in Table IV. It can be process. Better computational time is crucial to improve online
observed that the sum of real power contributed by each application. For this, CGA-LSSVM provides the results in a
generator obtained from CGA-LSSVM and PSP are in faster and convenient manner with acceptable accuracy.
conformity with the actual power flow although there are very
small variations in the predicted result from CGA-LSSVM.
Moreover, by using CGA-LSSVM, the simulation process is REFERENCES
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17
Thyristor Controlled Series Compensator

Planning Using Evolutionary Programming for
Transmission Loss Minimization for System
under Contingencies
Nor Rul Hasma Abdullah*, Ismail Musirin** and Muhammad Murtadha Othman***
*
Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Kuantan, Pahang. Email: norrul78@yahoo.com
** Universiti Teknologi Mara, Shah Alam, Selangor. Email: i_musirin@yahoo.co.uk
*** Universiti Teknologi Mara, Shah Alam, Selangor. Email: mamat505my@yahoo.com
Abstract—The increment of power demand can cause a by developing a new way of transmitting more efficient
rapid reduction in voltage profile that can disrupt system and economical supply using the existing transmission
stability leading to potential failure on the entire system as lines. There are few other methods available in solving the
the system has to work under a stressed condition. Thus, the problems.
Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) are integrated In couple of years, the electromechanical equipments
in power system to control the power flow in specific lines were used. Those equipments were switched inductors or
and improve the security of transmission line. This paper capacitors banks and phase-shifting transformer. However
proposes a static voltage stability index (SVSI) for all this equipments are not reliable or not efficient enough
placement of Thyristor Controlled Series Compensator due to the certain problems related to this equipments.
(TCSC) and used Evolutionary Programming (EP)
They are not only relatively slow but they also cannot be
techniques for optimal sizing of TCSC used for system
switched frequently because they tend to wear out quickly
under contingencies. The objective of the study is to
[1]. In line with the improvements in the semiconductor
minimize the total real power losses, and at the same time
monitoring the voltage profile along with the installation
technology, Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS)
cost. Critical contingency cases have been used to decide
devices are used. The use of FACTS devices could extend
optimal sizing for the placement of TCSC. The TCSC
the voltage stability margin [7]. In this work, three
devices are installed in the system in order to enhance the FACTS technologies were investigated; unified power
system security; performed on the IEEE 30-bus RTS for flow controller (UPFC), thyristor controlled series
several loading conditions. The simulations results are capacitor (TCSC) and the static VAR compensator (SVC).
compared with those obtained from the Artificial Immune However, not all can be provided by FACTS devices and
System (AIS) technique in the attempt to highlight its merit. it is important to select the type of devices in order to
achieve the purpose. In [8], the researchers also suggested
Keywords—TCSC; Loss Minimization; Contingency (N-m), the application of FACTS devices for improving the static
EP; AIS; Installation Cost voltage stability condition. On the other hand, in [9]
proposed an optimization process for FACTS allocation
I. INTRODUCTION for security enhancement against voltage collapse utilizing
the non-linear programming method.
Over the last few decades, the power transmission
system problems such a voltage deviation due to load TCSC is one of the suitable approaches to be chosen
variation and power transfer limitation were observed due according to the purpose. TCSC offer smooth and flexible
to reactive power unbalances. The lack of reactive power control of the line impedance with much faster response
support was known to be the voltage instability compared to any other control devices [10]. These devices
phenomena in power system. In addition, the increment in have been commonly used in electric power systems for
load variation should be monitored or observed because voltage stability enhancement [10]. A proper use of TCSC
few problems could appear with the power flows through can eliminate line overloads and hence increases the
the existing electric transmission networks. If this system security margin [1]. The application of TCSC as a
situation fails to be controlled, some lines located on the compensation technique for stability control in power
particular paths might become overloaded [1]. Therefore, system was reported in [11]. The effects of TCSC phase
reactive power planning procedures are required in order and amplitude were investigated while the capability of
to enhance the voltage stability in power system network. TCSC in performing better compensation process over the
Most of the popular techniques are the reactive power traditional series compensation and parallel lines were
dispatch [2], capacitor placement [3], FACTS devices [4, highlighted.
30], transformer tap changer setting [5] and other reactive The application of artificial intelligence (AI)
power compensation technique. technologies has recently been utilized in the
Building a new transmission line will not be an efficient determination of optimal allocation of multi-type FACTS
way to solve the problems since it is quite complicated devices [12, 13]. Several methods have been proposed
and due to the environmental and political reasons [6]. optimization techniques in conducting with FACTS
Therefore the only way to overcome this major problem is device such as Genetic Algorithms (GAs), Tabu Search
(TS) and Simulated Annealing (SA) [14, 15].
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 18

Furthermore, other AI technologies namely Genetic degree of TCSC. The TCSC device constraint limit is
Algorithm technique [16, 17], evolutionary programming given by [27],
[12, 13] and particle swarm technique [18] are also
proposed by researchers for solving the optimal placement (2)
of FACTS devices. In this study, EP technique was used − 0.8 X L ≤ X TCSC ≤ 0.2 X L
as one of the optimization technique. By using EP
technique to optimize the size of TCSCs, the loss can be
minimized and voltage profile can be improved. Therefore A. TCSC Placement
the recovered supply can be used to support the increasing The placement of the TCSCs in the network is
electrical energy demand in the system. determined first before the minimization of total loss by
This paper presents the application of EP to minimize controlling the device parameters is performed. Locations
losses and improve voltage profile in power system along of FACTS devices in the power system are obtained based
with calculation of installation cost. The technique on the performance using the voltage stability index
determines the location of TCSC installation based on measured each line for the same operating conditions.
voltage stability index as the fitness and their optimal TCSCs are installed in the weakest buses and heavily
sizing minimization when the system under stress and loaded areas to reduce stressed condition in the system.
contingencies. The method performed on the IEEE 30-bus The SVSI technique was applied as the tool to indicate the
reliability test system has indicated that the proposed TCSCs location into the network. When the load flow
methods are worth in loss minimization scheme. program was run, stability indices are calculated for TCSC
placed in every line one at a time for the same operating
II. EVOLUTIONARY PROGRAMMING conditions and the system identified five line buses with
The EP is one of the artificial intelligent area uses an the highest SVSI for the purpose of installing the TCSC.
idea which was inspired from natural selection process to The EP optimization technique is then used to determine
find the global optimum of complex problems [20]. Its the optimal sizing of the TCSC. The concept of the SVSI
evolutionary algorithms are based on computational is demonstrated through a simple two-bus system model.
models of fundamental evolutionary processes such as The mathematical formulation for SVSI [19] is given as
initialization, mutation and reproduction. This method has below:-
been thoroughly discussed since its introduction by Fogel
in 1960 [21]. It has also been successfully applied to 2 (X 2
ji )(
+ R 2ji Pji2 + Q 2ji )
various areas of power systems to solve the optimization SVSI ji = 2
(3)
problem related to unit commitment [22], optimal reactive Vi − 2 X jiQ ji − 2 R ji Pji
power dispatch [24], reactive power planning [23, 24], and
optimal power flow problems [25]. where i is the sending bus, j is the receiving bus, Rji is
EP has been used as optimizing the parameters of the line resistance, Xji is the line reactance the real power
control system that are complex and difficult to solve by at the receiving end, Pji is the reactive power at the
conventional optimization methods. The EP selects receiving end and Vi is the sending end voltage. SVSI has
individuals from the current population to be parents a value between 0 and 1, in which 0 represents the no-load
randomly and uses them to produce the offspring for the condition and 1 represents unstable condition. For that
next generation. A fitness or objective function is used to reason, SVSI has to be maintained below 1 to certify
reflect the strength of each candidate of population. stability occur in the system.
B. Cost of Installation
III. THYRISTOR CONTROLLED STATIC
COMPENSATOR (TCSC) The cost of installation of TCSC devices has been
mathematically formulated and is given by [6];
In this paper, TCSC can be represented as the inductive
or capacitive compensation by decreasing or increasing
the reactance of the transmission line branch. Its value is IC = C TCSC × S ×1000(US $ ) (4)
function of the reactance of the line XL where the TCSC is
located [26]. The mathematical models of TCSC, is shown
in Fig. 1. In this figure, the series reactance of TCSC as C TCSC = 0.0015 S 2 − 0.7130 S + 153 .75(US $ / KVAR ) (5)
been assumed to be connected between bus i and j.
S = Q2 − Q1 (6)
where IC is the installation cost of TCSC, CTCSC is the cost

of TCSC devices in US$/KVAR, S is the operating range
Figure 1. Block diagram of the considered TCSC devices of TCSC in MVAR, Q1 is the reactive power flow through
the branch before TCSC installation and Q2 is the reactive
power flow through the branch after TCSC installation.
Z ij = Z L + jX TCSC , X TCSC = rTCSC . X L (1) IV. METHODOLOGY
The aim of this study is to analysis the effect of TCSC
where ZL is the impedance of the transmission line, XTCSC placement for loss minimization when the system under
is the reactance of the line where TCSC is located and stress and contingencies. The TCSCs are placed at the
rTCSC is the coefficient which represents the compensation weakest transmission line in power system verified using
19
SVSI index. Different loading condition shows a different contingencies selections in this study.
location for TCSCs placement in the system as it depends
on which line are the weakest subjected to loading factor C. Evolutionary Programming Algorithm
variation. There were two constraints assigned before the In the following steps described the process of the
TCSCs sizing is optimized. The constraints were total loss implementation of EP technique. The EP optimization
to be less than the loss_set and voltage at the loaded bus technique was implemented in the following procedures as
higher than V_set. The loss_set and V_set are the total loss shown in Fig. 3.
and voltage at the loaded bus before the optimization Step 1: Five random initial populations known as parent
process was conducted. individual, xi were generated randomly within their
Five initial variables (parent) i.e. x1, x2, x3, x4 and x5 are feasible range represent the sized of TCSC.
generated randomly. These values will be the size of Step 2: These values will be used for the mutation
TCSCs to be installed and transferred into the load flow process using the Gaussian mutation operator for breeding
programme for evaluating the total losses. Then, the size a new population (offspring) to the selected individual
of TCSC was mutated and the load flow programme to get
(parents), xi , j .Each element of the offspring individual is
new total loss is running again. The combination process
between the mutated parent (offspring) and parent is calculated according to the following equation:-
occurred before its being ranked to transcribe into new
generations. This process was repeated until the minimum ( )
xi +m , j = xi , j + N 0, σ i2, j ,
new total loss was achieved; therefore the optimal solution
⎛ fi ⎞
σ i , j = β (x j max − x j min )⎜⎜
of TCSC sizing will be defined. Several inequality (7)
⎟⎟
constraints are set in this study so as to achieve the ⎝ f max ⎠
optimal solution.
A. Test System where xi + m is the mutated parent (offsprings), xi , j is
The proposed method has been tested on the IEEE 30- the parent, N (μ , σ 2 ) is the Gaussian random variable with
bus reliability test, which consist of 5 voltage control mean μ and variance σ 2 , β is the mutation scale, x j max
buses, 24 load buses, 1 slack bus, 41 interconnected lines
and 4 transformer tap changers. The base power is 100
MVA. The number of TCSC units installed in the system
is limited to five. The load bus 26 was selected to perform
the test as it the weakest bus among the others.
B. Contingency Analysis Algorithm
In this study, two generator outages and three line
outages are considered during the process. The selections
of outages are based on the most severe generator and line
in the system verified using SVSI index to maximize the
performance of the system. Fig. 2 shows the flow chart of
Figure 3. Flow of developed EPs optimization algorithms for

Figure 2. Flow of developed contingencies analysis algorithm
TCSC parameters
20
is the maximum random number for every variable, optimal solution is completed when the difference is less
x j min is the minimum random number for every variable, then 0.0001 as indicated mathematically as shown below:-
f i is the fitness for the i th random number and f max is Total Lossmax – Total Lossmin ≤ 0.0001 (8)
the maximum fitness. The mutation scale, β can be
manually adjusted between 0 and 1 in order to achieve V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
better convergence. The lower value of β, convergence of The severe generators and lines are rank based on the
EP is expected to occur more quickly and vice versa. SVSI index is shown in Table I and II. Based on the
Step 3: The combination process between the parent tables, generator 13, 11 and line 1, 9, 7 were selected to be
and the mutated parent or offspring is performed. outage during the process.
Step 4: In this step, the set of candidates produced from A. Loss Minimization
combination process will be sort and rank using the
tournament selection to identify the candidates that can be Result for SVSI, voltage profile improvement and
transcribed into the next generation. The populations of losses minimization considering multi-contingencies in a
candidates with better fitness function were sorted in transmission line at bus 26 is tabulated in Table III. From
ascending order. The first half or the population would be the table, bus 26 was subjected to variation of loading
retained as a new individuals or parent to the next conditions. Loading factor, λ is increased gradually in
generation and the others will be removed from the pools. order to observe the effect of total losses with the
The process is continued until a convergence is reached. installation of TCSCs to the system. The loading factor, λ
was increased up to 2.3 p.u.. The five location of TCSCs
Step 5: The optimization process will continue until it
installation in the network are also identified by using
achieved the stopping criterion. The stopping criterion is
SVSI technique and shown in the table. Different loading
identified based on the difference between the maximum
condition shows a different location for TCSCs placement
and minimum total loss as the objective function. The
in the system as it depends on which line are the weakest
TABLE I.
GENERATOR RANK BASED SVSI FOR IEEE 30-BUS RTS
Rank Gen Outage No. Line No. SVSI (p.u)
1 13 5 0.1695
2 11 5 0.1694
3 2 5 0.1634
4 8 5 0.1611
5 5 15 0.1463
TABLE II.
LINE RANK BASED SVSI FOR IEEE 30-BUS RTS
Rank Line Outage No. SVSI (p.u)
1 1 0.5008
2 9 0.2436
3 7 0.2012
TABLE III.
LOCATION AND SIZE OF TCSC WHEN BUS 26 WAS REACTIVELY LOADED CONSIDERING CONTINGENCIES OCCUR IN THE SYSTEM
λ factor Analysis SVSI Total % X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 Vm

(p.u.) Loss Cost (US$)
(MW) ∆Loss (p.u.) (p.u)
Line No. 1 2 5 4 37
1 Pre-TCSC 0.5969 82.74 8.5 0.8235 $28,787.82
Post-TCSC 0.4795 75.71 0.187 0.154 0.023 -0.023 -0.114 0.8459
Line No. 1 2 5 31 37
1.5 Pre-TCSC 0.6126 87.26 9.7 0.7584 $32,338.90
Post-TCSC 0.4888 78.80 0.187 0.154 0.023 -0.023 -0.114 0.784
Line No. 1 31 2 5 37
2 Pre-TCSC 0.6409 95.94 12.2 0.6671 $35,864.73
Post-TCSC 0.5155 84.28 0.187 0.154 0.023 -0.023 -0.114 0.716
Line No. 1 31 2 5 37
2.3 Pre-TCSC 0.6888 111.38 19.6 0.5571 $58,359.27
Post-TCSC 0.5304 89.59 0.187 0.154 0.023 -0.023 -0.114 0.6578
21
TABLE IV.
COMPARISON RESULT FOR TCSC BETWEEN EP AND AIS WHEN BUS 26 WAS REACTIVELY LOADED CONSIDERING CONTINGENCIES OCCUR IN THE
SYSTEM
λ Pre TCSC Post TCSC

factor EP AIS
SVSI Voltage Loss SVSI Voltage Loss %∆Loss Cost SVSI Voltage Loss %∆Loss Cost
1.0 0.597 0.8235 82.74 0.48 0.8459 75.71 8.5 $28,787.82 0.581 0.8277 81.70 1.3 $6,075.74
1.5 0.613 0.7584 87.26 0.489 0.784 78.80 9.7 $32,338.90 0.541 0.7628 82.00 6.0 $18,794.71
2.0 0.641 0.6671 95.94 0.516 0.716 84.28 12.2 $35,864.73 0.613 0.7345 91.00 5.2 $21,163.98
2.3 0.689 0.5571 111.38 0.53 0.6578 89.59 19.6 $58,359.27 0.631 0.6792 97.12 12.8 $42,550.94
0.9
SVSI and voltage profile (p.u)
115
0.8
110
105
Total Loss (MW)

0.7
100
0.6
95
90
0.5 85
80
0.4 75
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.3 70
λ at bus 26 (p.u) 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.3
λ at bus 26 (p.u)
SVSI before optimization of T CSC
SVSI with optimized T CSC
T otal loss before optimization of T CSC
Voltage before optimization of T CSC
T otal loss with optimized T CSC
Voltage with optimized T CSC
Figure 5. Transmission loss profiles for bus 26 loaded

Figure 4. SVSI and voltage profiles for bus 26 loaded
subjected to loading factor variation. From Fig. 4, the As illustrate in Fig. 7, it is observed that when EP was
application for minimization of losses as the objective used to optimize the size of TCSC, it gives better results in
function using EP has significantly increased the voltage term of voltage profile enhancement as compared to AIS
profile value and reduce the SVSI at the loaded bus; hence at several loading condition. For instance, at loading
improving the voltage stability in a system. As shown in factor, λ26=1.5 p.u., EP methods outperformed AIS with
Fig. 5, it is observed that the total losses value for post- the improvement in voltage profile from 0.7584 p.u. to
TCSC decreased with the increment in the loading factor. 0.784 p.u. as compared to AIS which can only manage to
For instance, at loading condition of 2.3 p.u. the losses increase the voltage up to 0.7628 p.u.. Nevertheless, AIS
have been reduced from 111.38 MW to 89.59 MW with outperformed EP at loading factor, λ26 = 2.3 p.u. with the
the 19.6% lower than before the installment of TCSCs. In increment to 0.6792 p.u. from 0.5571 p.u. while EP only
order to achieve this reduction, the values of UPFC are manage to improve to 0.6578 p.u..
0.187 p.u., 0.154 p.u., 0.023 p.u., -0.023 p.u. and -0.114 As for the installation cost, an installation cost of five
p.u. which should be installed at line number 1, 31, 2, 5 TCSCs devices equal to US$ 58,359.27 is obtained by EP
and 37 respectively. The cost of TCSC installation is technique, while for the same number of TCSCs devices
US$58,359.27. The results for other loading factor are the installation cost obtained by AIS technique is US$
indicated in the same table. 42,550.94. The results for other loading factor are
B. Comparison of EP and AIS results in UPFC indicated in the same table.
Installation VI. CONCLUSION
Comparative study was performed by implementing This paper has presented the application of thyristor
similar scheme using AIS. The comparisons are made in controlled series compensator (TCSC) planning using
terms of voltage profile, total loss minimization and evolutionary programming for transmission loss
installation cost. In this section, the results of the TCSC minimization and voltage profile improvement for system
installation with loss minimization as the objective under contingencies. In this study, EP and AIS methods
function are verified from two aspects in terms of voltage are applied at bus 26 for the minimization of real power
profile improvement and loss minimization using EP and loss as the objective function. Simulation is carried out on
AIS. Table IV tabulates the results of comparative studies the IEEE 30-bus RTS system. Both the EP and AIS
using EP and AIS. From Table IV, Fig. 6 and Fig. 7, it is techniques performed well in most cases. Simulation
observed that when EP was used to optimize the size of results demonstrated that the proposed EP technique is
TCSC, it gives better results as compared to AIS in terms feasible for loss minimization scheme in other power
of total losses. For instance, at loading factor, λ26= 2.3 system network. For future work, other FACTS devices
p.u., EP methods has improved the transmission loss value such as UPFC, SVC and TCPAR can be incorporated
from 111.38 MW to 89.59 MW while AIS manage to together to achieve similar task.
improved the transmission loss value to 97.12 MW.
22
115 0.9
110
Total Losses at bus 26(MW) 105
Voltage at bus 26 (p.u)

0.8
100
95
0.7
90
85
0.6
80
75
70 0.5
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.3 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.3
λ at bus 26 (p.u) λ at bus 26 (p.u)
T otal Losses before installation of T CSC Voltage before installation of T CSC
T otal Losses after optimised wit h EP Voltage after optimised with EP
T otal Losses after optimised wit h AIS Voltage after optimised with AIS
Figure 6. Transmission loss profiles using EP and AIS with bus Figure 7. Voltage profiles using EP and AIS with bus 26 loaded
26 loaded
[14] T.S. Chung, Y.Z. Li, “A Hybrid GA Approach for OPF with
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23
Artificial Neural Network-based Forecast for

Electricity Consumption in Malaysia
M.S. Mohamed Othman1, D. Johari2, I. Musirin3, T. K. Abdul Rahman4, N.F. Nik Ismail5
1
University Technology MARA, Shah Alam, MALAYSIA syahmin_200@yahoo.com
2
University Technology MARA, Shah Alam, MALAYSIA dalinaj@yahoo.com
Abstract—An essential element of electric utility resource As a branch of artificial intelligence (AI), ANN has the
planning is the long term forecast of the electricity ability to learn by example and do tasks based on training
consumption. This paper presents an approach to forecast experience. It does not require any prior knowledge of a
annual electricity consumption by using artificial neural solution and can be trained to perform a particular
network based on historical data for Malaysia. It involves function. Hence, making it profoundly suitable for pattern
developing several ANN designs and selecting the best recognition and forecasting tasks [9], [10]. ANN also
network that can produce the best results in terms of its requires fewer examples to learn than statistical
accuracy. The network is developed by means of economical approaches, as long as the examples represent the entire
conditions and how the variables are going to be changed in spectrum of expected patterns. It is highly non-linear and
the following years. After obtaining the most reliable model, can resolve many problems traditional methods cannot
ANN is used to forecast the electricity consumption. The [11].
developed ANN model yields very satisfactory results and as
This paper presents the forecast of electricity
a result, the range of electricity consumption can be
successfully obtained.
consumption in Malaysia by using ANN based on
historical data. Independent and dependent variables must
Keywords — Artificial neural network; electricity
first be identified and selected from available data [2]. In
order to get the best ANN model, several feed-forward
consumption; forecasting; cross validation
back-propagation ANN designs were constructed in
MATLAB. Each network performance was evaluated by
I. INTRODUCTION
using cross-validation method and network design with
Demand for electricity has continuously increased in the best performance was selected as the ANN model. As
Malaysia. Rapid growth in the industrial and commercial a result, the developed ANN model produced excellent
sectors has caused the rise in the electricity consumption results when presented with new sets of input data.
seen today [1]. Other reasons that encourage this increase Consequently, forecast of the electricity consumption can
are development in the agricultural and housing sectors, be successfully done.
increased population growth and improved life style [2].
Forecasting electricity consumption is therefore, a II. METHODOLOGY
significant element in strategic planning of electric utility In general, the forecast of electricity consumption can
company. A utility company may take several years to be grouped into two major stages. They are data collection
complete and commission a complex distribution and and development of the ANN. The flowchart is shown in
transmission network, or longer to construct a power Fig.1.
generation plant [3] and the forecast may provide the
information needed to plan these activities strategically. A. Data Collection
The forecast not only provide the expected amount of Data for the electricity consumption were obtained
electricity consumption required, it also helps in the from the Malaysian Energy Commission from year 1996
management of reserved electricity for emergency use. to 2008. They were obtained annually and were tabulated
Consequently, generation cost for the electricity can be in Table I. The data consists of population, number of
minimized and electricity tariff can be kept under electricity consumers, peak demand and per capita
controlled [2]. electricity consumption as the independent variables and
Over the years, various methods have been proposed total electricity consumption as the dependent variable
and developed to forecast electricity consumption. They [12-13]. These independent variables are taken to be the
include statistical analysis, time series analysis, regression input data to the ANN while the dependent variable
analysis, nonnegative least square method, multiple liner becomes the target output. All the data would be presented
regression and artificial neural network [2, 4-6]. in the training and testing processes.
Artificial neural network (ANN) is a mathematical B. Normalization and denormalization
model or computational model that emulates the structure
and functional aspects of biological neural networks [7]. It Network training can be made more efficient if certain
consists of an interconnected group of neurons that preprocessing steps are performed. This process called
operate in parallel to process information. ANN has normalization involves scaling of the inputs and target
emerged as the technology of choice for various outputs so that they always fall within a specified range.
engineering and non-engineering applications such as Normalization of data should be done with higher
pattern recognition, system identification, classification, values that should not suppress the influence of lower
control systems and forecasting tasks [8]. values and symmetry of activation function is retained [9].
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 24

Basically, the method used is linear transformation. For C. ANN Model
this study, the data were normalized in the range of -1 to In this study, several three-layer feed-forward back-
1. Denormalization, on the other hand, is performed to propagation ANN are developed in MATLAB. MATLAB
convert the outputs back to the characteristics of the programming is used to simulate the ANN due to its
original target data. flexibility and efficiency [14]. A single hidden layer
network with one input layer and one output layer is
TABLE I. constructed. Network configurations such as number of
DATA OBTAINED FROM MALAYSIA ENERGY COMMISSION neuron and transfer function are determined heuristically
(1996 – 2008) while the best network design is determined by using
cross validation method. The developed ANN receives
Populati
Per Capita No of Peak Total input data and also target output to produce network
Electricity Electricity Demand Electricity
Year on
Consumpti Consumer (MW) Consumpti
output as shown in Fig. 2.
(million)
on (kWh) (TNB) TNB on (GWh) In Fig. 2, x represents the input parameters such as the
1996 21.20 1,960 4,196,455 7,413 41,600
population, number of electricity consumers, per capita
1997 21.67 2,260 4,337,617 8,302 49,100
electricity consumption and peak demand while y
represents the target output. Network output is represented
1998 22.20 2,320 4,669,289 8,470 51,156
by Y. Target output is the total electricity consumption for
1999 22.71 2,450 4,902,346 8,819 55,629
one year in advance.
2000 23.30 2,660 5,027,128 9,712 61,970
2001 23.80 2,792 5,223,890 10,060 66,445
2002 24.50 2,844 5,481,674 10,783 69,670
2003 25.10 2,950 5,750,976 11,329 74,100
2004 25.10 3,180 6,010,087 12,023 81,390
2005 26.70 3,193 6,253,239 12,493 85,260
2006 26.60 3,322 6,477,281 12,990 88,377
2007 27.20 3,570 6,688,426 13,620 97,113
2008 27.70 3,594 6,932,329 14,007 99,548
Fig. 2: Architecture of the developed ANN
D. Training Process
One of the most significant properties of ANN is its
ability to learn from the environment and improve its
performance through learning. This process known as the
training process takes place through iterative changes in
its free parameters (synaptic weights and threshold). The
ANN are adjusted, or trained, so that a particular input
leads to a specific target output. The general steps in the
training process are:
i) Assemble the training data
ii) Create the network object
iii) Train the network
iv) Simulate the network response to new inputs
The training process is normally performed until the
ANN is fully trained, indicated by a low training error
value. For the project, in order to determine the best ANN
design, each network is trained and tested to estimate its
performance and determine which configuration provides
the best results. This could be done by using cross
validation, a model evaluation method that estimates
generalization error based on re-sampling [12-13]. It is a
statistical practice of partitioning a sample of data into
subsets where the analysis is performed on a single subset
while the other subsets are retained for subsequent use in
confirming and validating the initial analysis [15].
There are two types of cross validation method that can
be considered. They are hold-out cross validation and k-
Fig 1: ANN Algorithm fold cross validation [10]. The hold-out cross validation
method is the simplest kind of cross validation where the
training data is separated into two sets, called the training
and the validation sets. The training set is used to train the
25
network while the validation set is used to evaluate the Using the holdout and k-fold cross validation methods,
network performance by estimating its error. This process the training data was subdivided into training and
must be repeated for each network design constructed and validation sets. For the study, k was set to be two because
the network that produces the lowest training error would of data limitation. Applying both methods, each network
be selected as the best ANN design. was trained using training set and its performance was
The k-fold cross validation method is one way to evaluated using validation set. The training stopped when
improve over the hold-out method. In this method, the the network converged to the desired performance goal.
training data is divided into k subsets. Each time, one of Network with the lowest training error was selected as the
the k subsets is used as a validation set and the other k-1 best design. The best network was once again trained but
subsets are gathered to form a training set. Then, the this time using both training and validation sets as the
average error across all k trials is computed. The training data. Its performance was then evaluated using
advantage of this method is that it matters less on how the the testing set.
data gets divided [10]. Every data point would be in a The results were then compared between the hold-out
validation set exactly once, and would be in the training cross validation and k-fold cross validation in order to see
set k-1 times. The variance of the estimated result is which cross-validation method gives the best results in
reduced as k is increased. A variant of this method is to terms of the R-value. R-value close to one implies that
randomly divide the data into a validation and training set there is a strong correlation between target outputs and
k at different times. This process is also repeated for each network outputs. R-value close to zero indicates
network design constructed and the network that produces otherwise and is therefore, undesirable.
the lowest training error would be selected as the best The best ANN design produced by using hold-out cross
ANN design. validation method was a [8, 5, 1] configuration with
E. Testing Process tansig, logsig, purelin as the transfer functions while that
produced by k-fold was a [19, 10, 1] configuration, with
Testing process is carried out to measure the tansig, logsig, purelin as the transfer functions.
performance of the trained network which can be
measured to some extent by performing a linear regression Fig. 3 and Fig. 4 show the results obtained by both
analysis between the network response and the methods. By using hold-out cross validation, it was found
corresponding targets. The regression coefficient, R value that the R-value obtained was 0.98433 while the R-value
represents the relationship between the network response obtained by using k-fold was 0.99536. It can be seen that
and the target outputs. Values close to one indicate that the network trained by using k-fold cross validation
there is a strong correlation between the target outputs and method gives a higher R-value compared to that of the
network outputs while the values that are close to zero hold-out. The network obtained by using k-fold cross
indicates otherwise. validation method was then selected as the best ANN
design for the forecast of the electricity consumption.
Once best design is identified, the network is trained
once again using both training and validation sets as the
whole training data. Its final performance is then assessed
using the testing data. A fully trained network should be
able to forecast electricity consumption from a set of
unseen data. However, it should be noted a fully trained
neural network may not necessarily perform well during
the testing in which case, re-training is essential.
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Annual data obtained from the Malaysian Energy
Commission were first preprocessed in order to make the
training much more efficient. They were normalized in the
range of -1 to 1. Once normalized, the data was divided
into training and testing data. Thirteen years’ worth of
data was utilized where data from year 1996 to 2003 were Fig. 3: Result from hold-out Cross Validation
used as training data while the remaining years were
reserved for testing. Altogether, there were 4 input
variables and a single output.
Numerous three-layer feed-forward back-propagation
ANN with different architecture were developed in
MATLAB [16]. Each network design has different
number of neurons and transfer functions which were
determined heuristically. The number of layers, however,
was kept at three for simplicity. During the process of
determining the best architecture, the values of the
learning rate and momentum constant were kept constant
at 0.5 and 0.95 (typical value) respectively. They were
kept constant at this stage so that the effect of having
different number of neurons and transfer functions could
be observed.
Fig. 4: Result from k-fold Cross Validation
26
Now, the results may be improved if optimal values of consumption, the error between actual and predicted
learning rate and momentum constant were used. In order values is just 0.00101 which is very small as shown in Fig.
to obtain the optimal values of these two ANN 8.
parameters, each value within their limits of 0 to 1 should
be tested.
This was done by keeping the momentum rate constant
at 0.95 while the learning rate values were varied between
0 and 1. The best learning rate value obtained was 0.05.
After that, the learning rate was kept constant at 0.05
while the momentum constant values were also varied
between 0 and 1. The best momentum constant value
obtained was 0.7. Fig. 5 and Fig. 6 show the errors
obtained when training the ANN with different values of
learning rate and momentum constant.
Fig. 7: Result from the best network
TABLE II.
PROPERTIES OF THE DEVELOPED NETWORK FOR FORECASTING
ELECTRICITY CONSUMPTION
ANN properties Properties
Network configuration [19,10,1]

Fig. 5: ANN training errors with varying learning rate Transfer function tansig, logsig, purelin
(Momentum constant fixed at 0.95)
Learning rate 0.05
Momentum constant 0.70
Epochs 1000
Regression coefficient, R 0.99899
Fig. 6: ANN training errors with varying momentum rate

(Learning rate fixed at 0.05)
Once the optimal parameters were obtained, the ANN

was once again trained using both of these values and the
training data. Its final performance was evaluated using Fig. 8: Actual versus predicted values of the forecast for the
electricity consumption
the testing set. It was expected that with optimal
parameters, the R-value will improved and a more robust
ANN will be produced. IV. CONCLUSION
From the results, it was found that best R-value has An artificial neural network based technique for the
improved to 0.99899 as shown in Fig.7. This is very close forecast of electricity consumption based on historical
to 1.0 and it illustrates a very good correlation between data was presented. The development of the ANN model
target output and network output. involved creation of numerous feed-forward back
The properties of the best ANN model for the propagation networks in MATLAB and selection of the
forecasting task can then be summarized in Table II. The best ANN model via cross validation method. Comparison
best possible configuration is a [19, 10, 1] configuration between the results showed that the k-fold cross validation
with tansig, logsig, purelin as the transfer functions. Its method produced better results for the ANN in terms of its
performance yields a 0.99899 R-value which implies that R-value. As a result, the developed ANN model produced
the network is fully trained and it was achieved by using a excellent results when presented with new sets of input
learning rate of 0.05 and momentum constant of 0.70. data. Consequently, forecast of the electricity
Employing this ANN model to forecast the electricity consumption can be successfully done.
27
ACKNOWLEDGMENT International Conference on Information Technology and
Computer Science, 2009 (ITCS 2009), 2009
The authors would like to express their gratitude to the [15] Y. Liu, "Create Stable Neural Networks by Cross-Validation," in
Malaysian Energy Commission for the supply of the data International Joint Conference on Neural Networks. Sheraton
and to all the people who have either directly or indirectly Vancouver Wall Centre Hotel, Vancouver, BC, Canada, 2006.
contributed towards the successful completion of this [16] S. N. Sivanandam, S. Sumathi, and S. N. Deepa, Introduction to
technical paper. Neural Networks using Matlab 6.0: Tata McGraw Hill Publishing
Company Limited, 2006.
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and Mohibullah, "Evaluation and Forecasting of Long Term
Electricity Consumption Demand for Malaysia by Statistical
Analysis," in First International Power and Energy Coference
PECon 2006. Putrajaya, Malaysia, 2006.
[2] M. A. Azadeh and S. Sohrabkhani, "Annual Electricity
Consumption Forecasting with Neural Network in High Energy
Consuming Industrial Sectors of Iran," presented at IEEE
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2006
[3] Y. H. Fung and V. M. R. Tummala, "Forecasting of Electricity
Consumption: A Comparative Analysis of Regression and
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[4] D. Zhou, F. Gao, X. Guan, S. Member, IEEE, Z. Chen, S. Li, and
Q. LI, "Daily Electricity Consumption Forecast for a steel
Corporation Based on NNLS with Feature Selection," in 2004
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[5] L. M. Yan and O. H. Choon, "Neural networks forecasting on
electricity consumption in Malaysia," in Mathematics Subject
Classification: 62M45, Secondary 62M10, 2000.
[6] Y. H. Fung and V. M. Rao Tummala, "Forecasting of electricity
consumption: a comparative analysis of regression and artificial
neural network models," presented at 2nd International
Conference on Advances in Power System Control, Operation and
Management (APSCOM93), 1993.
[7] K. L. Priddy and P. E. Keller, An Introduction to Artificial Neural
Network, Original U.S ed. New Delhi, 2007.
[8] A. Azadeh, S. F. Ghaderi, and S. Sohrabkhani, "Annual electricity
consumption forecasting by neural network in high energy
consuming industrial sectors," Energy Conversion and
Management, vol. 49, pp. 2272-2278, 2008.
[9] T. G. Manohar and V. C. V. Reddy, "LOAD FORECASTING BY
A NOVEL TECHNIQUE USING ANN," ARPN Journal of
Engineering and Applied Sciences, vol. 3, pp. 23, 2008.
[10] J. Schneider and A. W. Moore, "A Locally Weighted Learning
Tutorial using Vizier 1.0," 1997
[11] D. Johari, T. K. A. Rahman, and I. Musirin, "ANN Model
Selection and Performance Evaluation for Lightning Prediction
System," in Proceedings of the 2nd Seminar and Information
Technology. Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia, 8th - 9th July 2009.
[12] I. A. K, N. B. Mariun, M. A. M. R, M. Saleem, N. I. A. Wahab,
and Mohibullah, "Evaluation and Forecasting of Long Term
Electricity Consumption Demand for Malaysia by Statistical
Analysis," in First International Power and Energy Coference
PECon 2006. Putrajaya, Malaysia, 2006.
[13] A. Azadeh, S. F. Ghaderi, S. Tarverdian, and M. Saberi,
"Integration of artificial neural networks and genetic algorithm to
predict electrical energy consumption," Applied Mathematics and
Computation, vol. 186, pp. 1731-1741, 2007.
[14] L. Ren, Y. Liu, Z. Rui, H. Li, and R. Feng, "Application of Elman
Neural Network and MATLAB to Load Forecasting," presented at
28
Preprocessing of Acoustic Emission Signals from

Partial Discharge in Oil-pressboard Insulation System
Y.H Md Thayoob#1, Z. Zakaria#2, M.R Samsudin*3, P.S Ghosh4, M.L. Chai5
#
Department of Electrical Power Engineering, Universiti Tenaga National, 43009 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia.
1
yasmin@uniten.edu.my
2
ita.zack86@gmail.com
*
TNB Research Sdn. Bhd., 43009 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia
3
raffi.samsudin@tnbr.com.my
4
RUP Consultants Plus Inc., Calgary, Canada.
4
psg_02@rediffmail.com
5
Baker Atlas (M) Sdn. Bhd., 87000 Labuan, Sabah, Malaysia
5
eimog_chai@hotmail.com
Abstract— Partial discharge (PD) is one of the major electromagnetic interference [1]. However, the acoustic
contributors of the problem in high voltage electrical system. It emission detection method is immune to the electromagnetic
can cause the insulation of a high voltage equipment to fail and interference and can provide the indication of the location of
lead to catastrophic incident. In a power transformer, detection PD within a complex insulation system as such as in a power
of PD using acoustic emission technique has been gaining transformer.
popularity due to its nonintrusive application and capability of
The ageing of the insulation system of power
locating PD sources. In this research work, acoustic emission
(AE) detection system is used to detect PD in an experimental transformers is influenced by various stresses such as the
tank filled with transformer oil. Three different types of PD thermal, electromechanical and chemical. Thermal stress may
sources to generate PD in the experimental tank are created from lead to the degradation of the oil and the cellulose paper.
pressboards which are the plain pressboard, the floating metal in Under these stresses, the paper may become brittle and the
the pressboard and the bubble in pressboard. Several samples of durability against mechanical stress is strongly reduced [3].
AE signals due to the occurrence of PD from the same discharge Furthermore, the breaking process of the cellulose molecule
source are captured and recorded. In order to characterize the chains produces water in the solid insulation, which acts as a
different types of PD sources, five features or descriptors were catalyst for further breakdown of the insulation system. The
extracted from the Short-Time Fourier Transform spectrogram
moisture content together with some other contaminants may
of the AE signals. Then, the preprocessing of the AE signals are
carried out from the extracted features using Self-Organizing then lead to breakdown in the power transformer [4].
Map (SOM) Neural Network. Finally, the characteristics of the Therefore, research work on the defects in the pressboard
AE signals from the acquired samples can be obtained and the insulation system is required. Consequently, in this research
outlier samples can be determined. work, three different types of partial discharge sources have
been created from the pressboard, which are the plain
Keywords-Partial Discharge Sources; Oil-pressboard Insulation; pressboard discharge source, bubble in the pressboard
Acoustic Emission Signals; Acoustic Emission Sensors; Self- discharge source and the floating metal in the pressboard
Organizing Map discharge source. This corresponds to the common faults in a
power transformer that lead to breakdown as a result of the
I. INTRODUCTION
occurrences of partial discharge activity.
In this experimental work the PD detection system
Failure in the high voltage equipment due to defective employed is acoustic emission (AE) detection system. Three
insulation are usually catastrophic and may cause millions of different types of PD sources have been utilized and immersed
dollars damages to the power utilities. It has been proven that inside an experimental tank which is full with the transformer
the internal partial discharges are the key factor influencing oil. The occurrence of PD from the discharge source is
the insulation to become defective [1]. Hence, the early detected by the AE sensors that are placed on the outer surface
detection of partial discharges originating from defects in of the experimental tank. Several samples of AE signals are
operating transformers could reduce the cost of transformer acquired for each type of PD source for the characterization of
failures [2]. The two main non-destructive methods employed the AE signals for different types of PD sources. The time
to detect partial discharges in power transformers are the domain AE signals acquired are transformed into the time-
electrical method and acoustic emission detection method. The frequency representation, in the form of spectrogram by
origin of the PD source cannot be determined with electrical utilizing the Short-Time Fourier Transform. Then, the
detection method and electrical measurements are usually not characterization of the different types of PD sources is
preferred in the field or in-service transformers as a result of achieved by extracting the appropriate features from the
interference from transmission facilities and other sources of spectrograms [4, 5]. Nevertheless, the AE signals acquired are
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 29

random signals and some of the samples may m be affected by Appropriate sampling freequency, fs, that meets the
noise or other phenomena. Hence, in order to ensure that all requirement of Nyquist-Shannoon sampling theorem is used to
the AE samples can be used to characterizee the PD source, a sample the AE signals captuured by the AE system. The
preprocessing stage need to be carried out to determine any sampling frequency, fs, that isi used in the experiment is 5
outlier in the acquired AE samples. As suuch, the Kohonen MHz, which is more than twenty times the maximum
Self-Organizing Map (SOM) which is an unnsupervised neural detection frequency of the senssor.
network has been applied in this paper for visualization
v of the
acquired AE samples which are characterized from the III. KOHONEN SELF E ORGANIZING MAP
extracted features in the time-frequency reppresentation of the Self Organizing Map (SOM M) is a non-supervised learning
AE signals. From the results of the SO OM clustering or neural network which is designned to organize itself according
mapping, the AE samples which can be groouped into having to the nature of the input data. It is a type of Artificial Neural
similar characteristics can be distinguished and
a outlier samples Network (ANN) and well knoown as a successful method in
can also be determined [6]. Therefore, thiis will ensure the producing an orderly mapping of high dimensional data onto a
validation of the AE samples to be used for characterization
c of regular two-dimensional (2-D) grid. Figure 3 shows the simple
different types of PD sources in further PD D analysis such as system structure of a SOM Kohhonen Network [10].
for the application of PD pattern recognition [7]. It has a two-layer neural network
n that consists of an input
layer and an output layer.. The inputs for SOM are
II. THE EXPERIMENTAL SETUP E multidimensional numerical datad arranged in a data matrix.
An experimental tank with the dimensioon of 50 x 50 x 80 Each row of the matrix is one observation or data sample and
cm is employed in this research work. It is made of steel and each column is a variable orr feature. The output layer are
filled with transformer oil, where partial disscharge occurs [8]. constructed of a set of neuronns (nodes) arranged on a two-
Three different types of partial discharge soources are created dimensional grid called the map.
m The number of neurons on
such as the plain pressboard, floating metal in the pressboard the map is determined during thet training process. At the end
and bubble in the pressboard [8]. of the learning process, thee weight vectors or the best
When partial discharges occur inside the experimental matching units (BMUs) are grrouped in clusters depending on
tank, the acoustic signals emitted are dettected by the AE their distance in the input spacce and forms the pattern on the
detection sensors mounted on the outer--side wall of the map [11].
experimental tank and sent to the AE dettection system for
storage and analysis. PD is generated for thrree different types
of PD sources which are the plain pressboardd, floating metal in
pressboard and bubble in pressboard. Figurre 1 shows one of
the AE sensors attached to the outer-sside wall of the
experimental tank. The AE detection senssor, which is the
R15IAST, is a narrow band sensor and hass the capability to
detect acoustic signals in the range of 70 kH Hz to 200 kHz. It
has resonant frequency at 150 kHz and built-in with the
integrated auto sensor test capability. The schematic
s diagram
of the above experimental set up is as show wn in Figure 2. A
more detail work on the experiment can be foound in [8,9].
Figure 2. Schematic diagram

m of the experimental setup [8]
Output Layer
Weight
Figure 1. AE detection sensors R15IAST attached to the outer-side wall of
the experimental tank [8] Input
Figure 3. A Simple Kohonen
K Network[9]
Figure 3. A Simple Kohonen Network
30
The Unified distance Matrix (U-matriix) map, showing
the distances between neighbourhood units, is widely used to
visualize the cluster structure of the SOM M [11]. It is a 2-
dimensional grid map consists of map units or neurons, which
are determined by the weight vectors during the training of the
SOM. The U-Matrix allows samples with input i data vectors
which closely resemble one another to occuupy the neurons or
map units which are located near or adjacennt to each other on
the map. In gray scale graphic presentatioon, the lighter the
colour between two map units is, the largger is the relative
distance between them, and thus indicate cluster boarders.
Component planes are also used to aid in thhe visualization of
the SOM mapping. Component planes are SOM S showing the
values of a single dimension of the input vector
v in the input
data set [11].
Two evaluation criteria are used to evaluate
e the SOM
qualities which are the quantization error annd the topographic Figure 4. Time domain data capttured by the AE Detection System
M
error [12]. The mean quantization error, MQE between data
vectors and their BMUs on the map is a measure of data
representation accuracy. It is computed ass in the equation
given in (1) below:
MQE = D − m BMU (1)
Where D is the input data vector and m BMU is the weight

vector of the BMU. On the other hand, the mean topographic
error, MTE measures the proportion of all data vectors for
which the first and second BMUs are not adjacent
a units. The
mean topographic error MTE can be compuuted in the map as
in the equation given in (2) below:
1
2
Where N is the number of input samplees and is 1

Figure 5. Spectrogrram of the AE signal
if the first and second BMUs of xk are not next
n to each other,
otherwise is 0. The general rule off thumb is that, the
B. The Selection of Extracted Features
F
smaller these errors, the better the mapping.
Five discriminatory featurres or descriptors have been
extracted from the spectrograams of all the AE samples as
IV. CHARACTERIZATION OF ACOUSTIC EMISSION SIGNALS introduced in Table 1 for characterizing the three different
A. Time- Frequency Representation types of PD sources. The descrriptors for the occurrence of the
highest peak magnitude (Pmax),, rise time (tR) and fall time (tF)
Matlab’s digital signal processing tooolbox is used to
of the highest peak magnitudee in the STFT spectrogram are
transform the time domain AE signals for all the three
illustrated in Figure 5 and obtaained by utilizing the formula as
different types of PD sources into the time-frequency
described in Table 1.
representation in the form of spectrogramss for this research
Software developed on Matlab
M is used to compute the
work [2]. Figure 4 shows a sample of the tiime domain signal
descriptor values for all the samples of AE signals acquired
captured by the AE detection system. A sample of the
from the occurrence of PD unnder three different types of PD
spectrogram of the AE signal that is generatted from the plain
sources. For each type of PD D source, five descriptor values
pressboard discharge source, which utilizzes the Hamming
from fifteen samples of AE siggnals were obtained. The values
window function with window length of 128 is shown in
of all the descriptors are used as
a the input vectors for the SOM
Figure 5.
mapping. Hence, the input datta sets to the SOM map consist
Thus, all 45 AE data samples with 15 saamples from each
of 45 different samples of AE E signals with 15 samples from
type of discharge sources are transformed innto time-frequency
each of the three different typees of PD sources and named as
representation and displayed in the form of sppectrograms.
P, B and F respectively.
31
TABLE I component in the data set is very important in shaping the
FIVE DESCRIPTORS FOR THE FEATURE EXTRACTION output map so that the input parameter with much larger value
will not dominate the map topology and mask the other
No. Descriptors Formula component.
Highest peak The quality or performance of the SOM map generated is
1 Max (|STFT (mT,nΩ)|)
magnitude ( Pmax ) illustrated by the mean topographic error (MTE) and mean
quantization error (MQE) while the map size and the training
N −1 time show the complexity of the SOM computation. Once the
Instantaneous
∑
nΩ = 0
f n Ω STFT ( mT , n Ω ) most optimized SOM parameters are determined, the resultant
2 output map in the form of U-Matrix and its component planes
frequency ( Fins ) N −1
∑
nΩ = 0
STFT ( mT , n Ω ) will be saved for visualization and analysis of the AE signal
patterns for the different types of partial discharge sources.
Time of Further description of the SOM mapping can be found in
occurrence of the [9,10,11].
3 highest peak from -
STFT spectrogram
( tmax)
VI. PREPROCESSING OF AE SIGNAL PATTERNS
Rise time of the Preprocessing of the AE signals patterns obtained from the
highest peak from
4
STFT spectrogram thighest_peak- tstart_of_highest_peak spectrograms of all the AE samples using SOM are discussed
( tR ) and presented below.
Fall time of the A. The SOM Parameters Optimization

highest peak from
5
STFT spectrogram tend_of_highest_ peak - thighest_peak Table 2 (a), (b), (c) and (d) show the analysis that was
( tF ) carried out for different number of neurons and different types
of normalization method known as ‘var’, ‘range’, ‘logistic’
and ‘log’. Notice that small values of the mean quantization
Software developed on Matlab is used to compute the error (MQE) and mean topographic error (MTE) were
descriptor values for all the samples of AE signals acquired obtained for all number of neurons, which means good
from the occurrence of PD under three different types of PD classification map were genearated for all number of neurons
sources. For each type of PD source, five descriptor values selected for analysis. However, in order to obtain a good
from fifteen samples of AE signals were obtained. The values compromise between the map quality and the computation
of all the descriptors are used as the input vectors for the SOM complexity, it was decided that only the SOM set up
mapping. Hence, the input data sets to the SOM map consist parameters which resulted in a training time of less than 5s
of 45 different samples of AE signals with 15 samples from would be considered for each type of input normalization
each of the three different types of PD sources and named as method.
P, B and F respectively. Next, the SOM parameters with the training time of less
than 5s and produce the smallest MTE, is observed since MTE
illustrates the topological accuracy of the map generated.
V. THE SOM MAPPING PROCEDURE Therefore, a smaller topograhic error is prefered as it produces
The SOM mapping is performed using the SOM toolbox a better clustering or classification of the adjacent best
for Matlab 7.6. The SOM toolbox was run on Core 2 Duo, 2.0 matching units (BMUs) of the neurons on the map as
GHz computer processor. The SOM input data sets are the five described earlier. Besides that, a good trade off between MQE
descriptors from 45 different samples with three different and MTE is also necessary as the MQE shows the accuracy of
types of PD sources as described earlier. Before the execution BMUs generated by the SOM map.
of the SOM toolbox, some parameters need to be set such as After analyzing each of the tables in Table 2 separately, the
the map lattice, map shape, number of neurons and the input best choice for the number of neurons was selected from each
normalization method. of the table and the corresponding row in the table was
There are two types of map lattice which are the highlighted. Comparison was then made from each of the
rectangular and hexagon lattice. The hexagon shape is selected selected rows for all the tables in order to choose the most
as it gives clearer, smoother and better visualization for the optimized SOM set up parameters. As such, the parameters
nodes on the map. For the number of neurons and the input from Table 2(c) which consist of 160 neurons and “logistic”
normalization method, an analysis was carried out in order to normalization method gave the best result especially for the
select the best choice which gave a good trade-off between the accuracy of the topological map. Hence, such setup
computation complexity and visualization quality of the map. parameters will be used for the generation of SOM map for the
There are several types of input normalization such as “var”, analysis of the AE signal patterns obtained from all the AE
“range”, “log” and “logistic”. The normalization of the samples acquired in this study.
32
TABLE 2. ANALYSIS OF SOM SET UP PARAMETERS B. The U-Matrix SOM Map
(a) The resultant SOM output map known as the U-Matrix
generated from the execution of the SOM toolbox using the
Map Lattice : Hexagonal , Input Normalization: ‘var’ most optimum SOM set up parameters is presented in Figure
No. of Quantization Topographic Map Training 6. Notice that each of the data samples that correspond to the
Neurons Error Error Size Time(s) BMU on the map is formed by the vector of five descriptors or
160 0.192 0.044 [16, 10] 1 features extracted as in Table 1 for each sample. Since the
180 0.164 0.022 [16, 11] 1 SOM parameters selected are optimum and produce good map
200 0.147 0.000 [18, 11] 2 quality measurements, the position of the neurons or map units
220 0.126 0.067 [18, 12] 3 which correspond to the BMUs on the U-Matrix and also the
250 0.092 0.044 [19, 13] 3 clustering of the map units are considered to be accurate.
300 0.057 0.067 [21, 14] 4
350 0.047 0.022 [23, 15] 6 As illustrated in the U-Matrix, the map units for the
samples with the same PD source are labeled with the same
alphabet such as all the 15 samples from the Plain Pressboard
(b) discharge source which are named from P1 to P15.
Furthermore, notice that, most of the map units for the
Map Lattice : Hexagonal , Input Normalization: ‘range’
samples with the same PD source which are also labeled with
No. of Quantization Topographic Map Training the same alphabet are located near or closely adjacent to each
Neurons Error Error Size Time(s) other. Hence, three different clusters for three different types
160 0.045 0.000 [18, 9] 2 of PD sources can be formed in the U-Matrix.
180 0.037 0.022 [18, 10] 2
200 0.032 0.032 [20, 10] 3 The value of the distance between the map units is shown
220 0.026 0.044 [20, 11] 3 by the colour coding indicator on the right of the map with
250 0.022 0.067 [23, 11] 4 lighter colour between the map units indicates higher distance
300 0.013 0.044 [25, 12] 4 as compared to darker colour. Hence, lighter colour shows that
350 0.010 0.111 [27, 13] 5 the boundary or distance between one sample vectors with
another is greater and more separable.
(c)
Map Lattice : Hexagonal , Input Normalization: ‘logistic’
No. of Quantization Topographic Map Training
Neurons Error Error Size Time(s)
160 0.039 0.000 [16, 10] 1
180 0.033 0.089 [16, 11] 2
200 0.030 0.022 [18, 11] 3
220 0.027 0.044 [18, 12] 3
250 0.019 0.022 [19, 13] 4
300 0.014 0.022 [21, 14] 4
350 0.010 0.089 [23, 15] 4
(d)
Map Lattice : Hexagonal , Input Normalization: ‘log’
No. of Quantization Topographic Map Training
Neurons Error Error Size Time(s)
160 0.018 0.444 [13, 12] 1
180 0.013 0.578 [15, 12] 1
200 0.010 0.489 [15, 13] 2
220 0.010 0.267 [16, 14] 2
P1-P10: Samples from Plain Pressboard
250 0.006 0.244 [17, 15] 3 B1-B10: Samples from Bubble in pressboard
300 0.004 0.178 [19, 16] 4 F1-F10: Samples from Floating Metal in pressboard
350 0.002 0.200 [21, 17] 6
Figure 6. The U-Matrix for the plain pressboard, bubble and floating metal in
pressboard parameters after removal of redundant features. SOM parameters:
Lattice = hexagonal, No. of neurons = 160, input normalization = “logistic”.
QE= 0.039 and TE = 0.000.
33
However, notice also that in the U-Matrix, some of the CONCLUSION
samples that have been marked with yellow circles cannot be This paper has presented the preprocessing and analysis of the
clustered together with other map units from the same sample AE signals acquired for three different types of PD sources. In
type. For example, the samples for P3, P7 and P10 cannot be order to characterize the different types of PD sources, five
grouped together with the map units from other samples from features or descriptors were extracted from the Short-Time
the same discharge source. Hence, these samples will be Fourier Transform spectrogram of the AE signals. Then, the
considered as outliers and cannot be utilized for characterizing preprocessing of the AE signals from the extracted features is
the Plain Pressboard discharge source. carried out using Self-Organizing Map (SOM) Neural
Similarly, the U-Matrix in Figure 6 has also indicated that Network. Finally, from the results of the SOM mapping or
samples B1 and F9 cannot be clustered together with other clustering, the characteristics of the acquired AE signals for all
samples from their corresponding type of discharge sources. the samples are analyzed and the outlier samples can be
Therefore, these samples will also be considered as outliers successfully determined.
and cannot be utilized for characterizing the Bubble in
Pressboard and Floating Metal discharge source respectively.
Other than these five samples which are considered as outliers, REFERENCES
other samples are found to be able to be grouped distinctly
[1] Acoustic Emission Detection of Partial Discharges in Power
within the same type of discharge source and the separation or Transformers, EPRI Final Report no. EL-4009, 1985.
boundary between the samples from different discharge [2] Z.Zakaria, Y.H.Md Thayoob, M.R Samsudin, P.S Ghosh and M.L Chai,
sources can also be shown and marked clearly. “ Feature Analysis of Acoustic Emission Signals in Time-Frequency
As such, the five samples, P3, P7, P10, B1 and F9 which Representation from Partial Discharge Sources using Self-Organizing
Map”, IEEE Internasional Conference of Signal and Image Processing,
are considered as outliers will not be included for further Nov. 2009, Malaysia.
analysis of the AE signals due to the occurrence of PD. [3] L. E. Lungaard, “Partial discharge-Part XIII: Acoustic Partial Discharge
Figure 7 shows the component planes of the five Detection- Fundamental Considerations”, IEEE Electrical Insulation
Magazine, July/August 1992, Vol. 8, No. 4, 1992
descriptors that have contributed to the mapping or clustering
[4] M.L Chai, Yasmin H. Md Thayoob, P S Ghosh Ahmad Zuri Sha’ameri
in the U-Matrix in Figure 7. Notice that the component planes and Mohd Aizam Talib, “Identification of Different Types of Partial
have all variations of colours ranging from dark to light with a Discharge Sources from Acoustic Emission Signals in the Time-
unique pattern and none of the Descriptor has uniform Frequency Representation”, IEEE International Conference on Power
contribution throughout the plane. As such, each of the and Energy (PECon), Dec. 2006, Malaysia.
Descriptor possesses discriminatory feature and does [5] Charu C. Aggarwal, Philip S.Yu, “Outlier Detection for High
Dimensional Data”, International Conference on Management of Data,
contribute to the clustering in the U-Matrix. Hence, all the five Proceeding of the 2001 ACM SIGMOD , pp. 37-46.
Descriptors used in this application are significant as features [6] N.C.Sahoo, M.M.A.Salama, and R. Bartnikas, “Trends in Partial
for the clustering of the AE samples. Discharge Pattern Classification: A Survey”, IEEE Trans. on Dielectrics
and Elect Insulation, Volume 12, Issue 2, Pages 248-264, April 2005.
[7] M.L Chai, Yasmin H. Md Thayoob, P S Ghosh Ahmad Zuri Sha’ameri
and Mohd Aizam Talib, “Identification of Different Types of Partial
Discharge Sources from Acoustic Emission Signals in the Time-
Frequency Representation”, IEEE International Conference on Power
and Energy (PECon), Dec. 2006, Malaysia
[8] C.M. Lee, A.Q. Ramli, P.S. Ghosh, Y.H.M. Thayoob and Z. Wang, “The
Effect of Different Partial Discharge Sources on Acoustic Waves
Propagation in an Experimental Tank”, Proceedings of the XIVth
International Symposium on High Voltage Engineering, Tsinghua
University, Beijing, China, Aug. 25-29, 2005.
[9] Yasmin H. Md Thayoob, M.R Samsudin, P S Ghosh and Ahmad B.
Abd. Ghani, “Analysis of Partial Discharge Signal Pattern in XLPE
Cable under Various Soil Conditions using Self-Organizing Map”,
Proceedings of the XVIth International Symposium on High Voltage
Engineering, South Africa, Aug. 2009.
[10] Wen-Yeau Chang and Hong-Tzer Yang, “Partial Discharge Pattern
Recognition of Molded Type Transformers Using Self Organizing
Map”, 8th International Conf. on Properties and Applications of
Dielectric Materials, June 2006, pp. 246-249.
[11] T. Kohonen, , “Self-Organizing Maps”, 2nd Edition, Springer-
Heidelberg,1977.
Figure 7. The component plane shows the contribution of all the five
descriptors for three types of PD sources.
34
Cluster Validity Analysis for Electricity Load

Profiling
N. Anuar, Z. Zakaria
Faculty of Electrical Engineering
Mara University of Technology
Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
Abstract— The main function of load profiles is to provide obtain consumers’ typical load profiles. One of the main
information on the consumer’s electrical consumption. Such issues in data clustering is to determine the number of
information is useful for both consumers and suppliers. optimal cluster. Non-fuzzy index, Xie-Beni index and
Consumers can participate in the retail market and keep Davies and Bouldin index are used as cluster validity
track of their actual power consumption and suppliers could
indices to determine the optimal number of clusters and
use such information for load management, develop
electricity tariffs, etc. Main objective of this paper is to do to examine the capability of the proposed clustering
cluster validity analysis for load profile determination by techniques.
using Fuzzy C-Means (FCM). Fuzzy C-Means is a well
known clustering algorithm for typical load profiles II. LOAD PROFILING
determination and the data classification is achieved by A. Fuzzy C-Means
minimizing the objective function iteratively. Results of the
FCM algorithm depend on the selection of the initial cluster Clustering is the process of organizing objects or data
center or the initial membership value. Cluster validity into groups which have similarities in some way. Hence a
indexes which are non-fuzzy index, Xie-Beni index and cluster is a collection of objects which are similar between
Davies-Bouldin index are used to determine the optimal them and are dissimilar to the objects belonging to other
number of cluster. The measured load profiles used in this clusters. Some of the popular clustering methods
project are obtained from Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB), discussed in [1-13] are self-organized maps (SOMS), K-
a Malaysian distribution company. means clustering (KM), hierarchical clustering (HC) and
Fuzzy C-means (FCM). They are unsupervised
Keywords — Load Profiling; Clustering; Fuzzy C-means; classification where the data is assigned to unknown class
Cluster Validity [1]. Each of this method has its own advantages and
disadvantages. However, this work proposes the FCM
I. INTRODUCTION algorithm because of its main advantage to handle the
outliers more efficiently [1]. The goal of FCM clustering
Load profile is a broad term that can refer to a number is to identify natural groupings of data to produce concise
of different forms of data that represent the pattern of representation of a system’s behavior that can be used for
electricity usage of a segment of supply market different purposes such as billing and marketing [2],[3].
customers. Power systems worldwide have been FCM minimizes the objective function that represents the
witnessing new operating conditions as a result of the distance between a given sample of data and a cluster
deregulation and liberalization. Customers in the new centre [3]. Each data points belong to several clusters with
liberalized market have the opportunity of choosing their some degree that is specified by a membership grade
electricity suppliers between several suppliers and the [3],[4],[5]. The objective function is as follows,
possibility to access to new products and services from
them. For this reason, energy commercializers are now
more and more interested in the development of new
(1)
suitable strategies and products to be offered to each of
their different user or to find new market opportunities.
Information from consumer’s consumption pattern in the Where
deregulated power system serves as a foundation for a n = number of load profiles
‘fair’ settlement system for consumers without c = number of clusters
appropriate meters. While in the regulated environment
m = ‘fuzzification’ metre
such information is used for demand-side management
and system planning. xk = averaged load profile for kth customer
A lot of efforts have been made to investigate ci = ith cluster center
methodologies to form optimal efficiency in determining uik = membership function value of kth customer load
load profile, derived from various clustering and profiles
classification techniques. Fuzzy C-Means clustering FCM clustering algorithm starts with determining the
method is used in this work as the clustering algorithm to number of clusters followed by guessing the cluster centre
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 35

point. This cluster centre point is most likely to be B1. Xie-Beni Index
inaccurate and is intended to mark the mean location of The Xie Beni index is expressed as,
each cluster. Next, each data set is assigned a membership
grade for each cluster. Each cluster centre point and its
membership grade are updated iteratively by minimizing
the objective functions until the position of the centre (5)
point is stable [5]. The iterative procedure updates
membership uij and the cluster centroids cj by,
Where
xj = the jth data from n data in c clusters.
Cij = cluster centroid
(2)
This index measures the compactness and separation of a
fuzzy C partition. The optimal number of cluster is given
by the minimal number of Xie-Beni index [9]. As being
(3) reported in [10], Xie-Beni index is the most reliable
cluster validity index as it provided the best response
over a wide range of choices of number of clusters.
Where m represents ‘fuzzification’ metre or the degree of
fuzziness. In this work the value of m is equal to 2. The B2. Non-fuzzy Index
choice of m is hitherto heuristic but [6] reported that the
best choice of m is between 1.5 to 2.5 and most FCM This index measure how fuzzy a C partition is and is
users preferred m=2. Total number of clusters is defined by,
represented by c and N is the total number of data being
clustered.
(6)
B. Cluster Validity Indexes
Where N is the number of data in c clusters. The optimal
number of cluster is obtained by finding the maximal
The main problem in data clustering is the value of NFI [11].
determination of optimal number of clusters [6-8]. This
problem is called clustering validity. In general, well-
separated clusters should have a high intra-cluster validity B3. Davies-Bouldin Index
that is low variance among intra-cluster members.
Variance is defined by,
Another good clustering validity measure is the
Davies and Bouldin index. This index represents the ratio
(4) of total intra-cluster scatter to inter-cluster separation
[12]. A low scatter and high distance between clusters
give the optimal number of cluster hence minimal value
Where of this index is desired [13]. Davies-Bouldin index is
= mean of x. defined by,
N = number of load profiles
(7)
However computing intra-cluster similarity alone is not
enough to determine the optimal number of clusters. Inter-
cluster variance need to be computed as well. Good Where Ri,
clusters have low inter-cluster similarity (high variance (8)
among inter-cluster members) and high intra cluster
similarity (low variance among intra-cluster members) as And Rij,
mentioned above.
(9)
Many cluster validity indexes have been proposed in
the past work. Some of the popular approaches are non-
fuzzy index, partition coefficient, partition entropy, Xie- Where
Beni index, Dunn’s index and Davies and Bouldin index cij = cluster centroid
[6-8]. In this paper, three validity indexes are used to
determine the optimal number of cluster for FCM c = number of cluster
clustering algorithm. The indexes are Xie-Beni index,
non-fuzzy index, and Davies and Bouldin index.
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The FCM clustering algorithm was tested on 100
measured load profiles obtained from feeders of the
36
Malaysian distribution company. The measured load
profiles sampling interval is 30 minutes. Hence one data
of measured load profile is represented by 48 values per
day. The data come from different type of consumer such
as domestic, commercial and industrial. All collected
consumer’s data were normalized to per unit value. After
normalization, FCM algorithm was applied to obtain the
typical load profiles. The algorithm starts with number of
cluster equal to 2 and stops at 30. Some of the typical
loads profiles obtain are presented below. TLPs obtained
are the average of the feeders in the same cluster. Figures
1-3 show the typical load profiles with 3, 4 and 5 clusters
respectively. Patterns in these figures indicate consumers’
electrical consumption in a day. In Fig. 1, classes C1 and
C2 are similar during peak hour while classes C1 and C3
are similar during off-peak hour.
Figure. 3 5-class typical load profiles
Clustering algorithms such as FCM is an unsupervised

process. It is said to be unsupervised because during the
classification process, unlabeled samples is used as the
input data. Since the aim of load profiling is to determine
the optimal number of cluster, Non-fuzzy index, Xie-
Beni and Davies-Bouldin were used to classify the
natural group of the data. The cluster validity indexes for
2 to 6 clusters are as shown below
TABLE I.
CLUSTER VALIDITY INDEX
Total Number of Cluster

Index
Figure. 1 3-class typical load profiles 2 3 4 5 6
XB 0.187 0.243 0.309 0.249 1.69
In Fig. 2, class C1 is similar with class C3 and class NFI 0.450 0.308 0.239 0.223 0.181
DB 0.230 0.0577 0.648 0.191 1.183
C2 is similar with class C4 during off-peak hour. All four
classes except C1 have similar pattern during peak hour.
Optimal number of cluster is solved by minimizing
Xie Beni index. From Table 1, the smallest index by Xie-
Beni is for TLPs with two clusters. However the second
smallest index was chose which is for TLPs with three
clusters. This is because when TLPs with two clusters
and three clusters were compared, TLPs with three
clusters shows pattern of power consumption that is more
dispersed and distinct from each other.
Maximal index of NFI is solved to obtain the optimal
number of clusters. Table 1 show that TLPs with two
clusters have the maximal index of NFI. However with
the same argument with Xie-Beni index, the second
highest value of Xie-Beni index was chose which is TLPs
with three clusters.
As for Davies-Bouldin index, the optimal number of
cluster is obtained by the minimal value and TLPs with
Figure. 2 4-class typical load profiles three clusters have the minimal index value. By
comparing validity indexes for each TLPs with different
All five classes in Fig. 3 have similar pattern during number of clusters and their validity indexes, C=3 was
off-peak hour. C1 and C3 have similar pattern during selected as the most appropriate number of clusters.
while classes C2, C4 and C5 share the similar pattern From Fig. 1, we can see that the TLPs represent three
during peak hour. From all these 3 figures we can see that different major main categories, compared to Fig. 2 and
as the number of cluster increases, the load profiling Fig. 3 where there are classes which share similar pattern
become more ‘crisp’ and dispersed from other classes. of electrical consumption.
37
V. CONCLUSION electrical customers through the use of self organizing maps and
daily load parameters,” IEE 2004.
[4] Zuhaina Zakaria, K.L Lo, and Mohamad Hadi Sohod,
This paper presents cluster validity analysis when “Application of Fuzzy Clustering to determine electricity
determining the typical load profiles by using FCM consumer’s load profiles,” PECon 2006, Nov. 28-29, 2006.
clustering algorithm. Non-fuzzy index, Xie-Beni index [5] Iswan Prahastono, Dr David J King, Dr C.S Ozveren, and Prof.
D.Bradley, “Electricity load profile classification using fuzzy c-
and Davies-Bouldin index were used as the cluster means method,” unpublished.
validity index to find the natural number of clusters for [6] H. S. Rhee, and Kyung-WhanOh, “A validity measure for fuzzy
the set of data used in this project. This method could clustering and its use in selecting optimal number of clusters,” 5th
become very useful to distribution company to obtain IEEE International Conference on Fuzzy Systems, Seoul, Korea,
useful information and knowledge on consumers’ 1996.
electrical consumption in order to improve their service. [7] M. Roubens, “Fuzzy clustering algorithms and their cluster
validity,” European Journal of Operational Research, vol. 10, pp.
Consumers will also have the opportunity to know and 294-301, 1982.
keep track of their electrical consumption. In a liberalized [8] F.F Rivera, E. L. Zapata, and J.M Carazo,”Cluster validity based
market, such information could help customer to choose on the hard tendency of the fuzzy classification,” Pattern
their own electrical supplier. Recognition Letters, vol. 11, pp. 7-12, 1990.
[9] Yuangang Tang, Fuchun Sun, and Zengqi Sun, “Improved
validation index for fuzzy clustering”, 2005 American Control
ACKNOWLEDGMENT Conference, Jun. 8-10, 2005.
[10] Zhenghao Shi, Yuyan Chao, Lifeng He, Tyuyoshi Nakamura, and
The author would like to thank Assoc. Prof. Dr Zuhaina Hidenori Itoh, “Rough set based FCM algorithm for image
Zakaria whose comments and suggestions have helped in segmentation”, International Journal of Coputational Science,
improving this paper. 2007, Vol. 1, No. 1, 58-68.
[11] Nurul Fakhri Omar, “The optimal choice of fuzziness parameter in
load profiling,” unpublished.
REFERENCES [12] Sriparna Saha, and Sanghamitra Bandyopadhyay, “Performance
evaluation of some symmetry-based cluster validity indexes,”
[1] D. Gerbec, S. Gasperic, I. Smon, and F. Gubina, “Determining the IEEE Transactions on System, Man and Cybernetics, Vol. 39, No.
load profiles of consumers based on fuzzy logic and probabilti 4, July 2009.
neural networks,” IEE Proc.-Gener. Transm. Distrib., vol.151, no.
3, May 2004.
[2] R.F Chang, and C.N Lu, “ Load profile assignment of low voltage [13] Isaac J. Sledge, James C. Bezdek, Timothy C. Havens, and James
customers for power retail market applications,” IEE Proc.-Gener. M. Keller, “Relational generalizations of cluster validity indices,”
Transm. Distrib., vol.150, no. 3, May 2003. IEEE Transactions on Fuzzy Systems, Vol. 18, No. 4, August
2010.
[3] Sergio Valero Verdu, Mario Ortiz Garcia, Francisco J. Garcia

Franco, Nuria Encinas, Antonio Gabaldon Marin, Angel Molina,
and Amilio Gomez Lazaro, “Characterization and identification of
38
Silent Discharge Ozonizer for Colour Removal of

Treated Palm Oil Mill Effluent Using A Simple
High Frequency Resonant Power Converter
Mochammad. Facta*, Zainal Salam**, Zolkafle Buntat, Adhi Yuniarto
* Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai Johor - Malaysia. Email: mochfacta@yahoo.com
** Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai Johor - Malaysia, Email: zainals@fke.utm.my
Abstract— Palm oil agricultural and industry activities frequently. The oxidation treatment using chlorine and
generate a great amount of by product, known as palm oil chloride oxide was reported adequately for colour
mills effluent (POME). The treatment conducted using abatement, but they have unpleasant taste and smell.
membrane bioreactor has successfully removed the heavy Ozone gas has become a preferable choice for water and
organic component of POME but the water that remains
still contain colour as its by product. This paper proposed
air treatment due to its less harmful effect to the
the use of a simple silent discharge ozonizer in colour environment.
removal of treated palm oil mill effluent (POME). The The conventional ozone generator were made with low
ozonizer chamber was developed from a simple planar frequency (50 or 60 Hz) ac source[4, 5]. Such
metal dielectric barrier discharge construction. A simple configuration requires the chamber to be operated at very
high frequency power converter as power supply to the high voltage near to the sparking potential and presents
chamber was designed based on resonance phenomena. This with a transformer with a large footprint. Furthermore
power supply converted a direct current low voltage input
into high frequency and high sinusoidal voltage output. This with regard to safety, high voltage may not be suitable for
high voltage created micro electrical discharges inside many applications.
chamber to generate ozone from oxygen molecules. At Recently, the use of high frequency power supply (in
normal atmospheric pressure and ambient temperature, this the range of tens to hundreds of kHz) allows for an
ozonizer produced ozone concentration up to 1800 ppm. increase in the power density applied to the ozone
Ozone in a certain concentration was injected into the generator electrode surface[4, 6]. This results in an
treated POME water through a diffuser for several minutes.
As the result, the colour of treated POME water has
increase in ozone production for a given surface area,
successfully changed from 100 mg/l Pt.Co into 40 mg/l Pt.Co while decreasing the require peak voltage.
or lower. Visually, water colour below 40mg/l Pt.Co is The use of full bridge high resonant converter is
considered clear. Extended the time of ozone treatment upto reported to generate ozone at 88 kHz[7], but, this
15 minute has successfully reach colour abatement below 15 converter requires four MOSFET switches and is fed from
mL/l Pt.Co which accords to World Health Organiation 340 Volt high DC source. Alonso et. al[6, 8]. proposed a
(WHO) recommendation for Colour in drinking water. push pull converter driving an ozone chamber filled with
special discharge gas operated at certain pressure. Such
Keywords—Color removal, silent discharge; resonant chamber is considered complicated to construct. In
converter, ozonizer. references [9-11] planar electrodes are made from metal
I. INTRODUCTION with borosilicate glass as dielectric. This ozone chamber
Palm oil is the most important agriculture crop in need to be operated at higher voltage ( more than 7 kV)
Malaysia and Indonesia, covering about more than three and frequencies from 5 - 7 kHz. It is important to note in
million hectares of the cultivated area. In 2007 Malaysia this case and other similar systems the application of
and Indonesia remained as the world’s largest producers higher voltage result in filamentary effect inside the
and exporters of palm oil, contributed for 87% of global chamber[9, 12] and consequently a cooling mechanism is
production. Unfortunately, this big agricultural and absolutely necessary, thus complicating the overall
industry activity generates a great amount of by product, system.
known as palm oil mills effluent (POME). The treatment In this paper, ozone gas was generated by a simple
conducted using membrane bioreactor has successfully ozonizer construction based on the application of
removed the heavy organic component of POME. How electrical discharge to conduct colour removal from the
ever colour in water still left as by product[1, 2]. The result of palm oil mills effluent treatment. An ozonizer
treated POME has brown or red dark colour because of proposed and used in this work is constructed by two
the carotenes[3]. This carotenes, naturally, are fat-soluble parts, first is ozone chamber where the electrical discharge
and or less soluble in water. This colour is difficult to occurred and the second part is power supply with a single
remove by biological treatment. It has become an switch where a high voltage high frequency electrical
esthetical problem in palm oil mills treatment. This supply is generated.
coloured water later become unattractive and the major
reason of complain when it is utilized. The colour removal
techniques using activated carbon were reported, but
activated carbon has very short life and must be replaced
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 39

II. OZONIZER CHAMBER AND ITS EQUIVALENT operated in a frequency range of 32 - 40 kHz. To generate
CIRCUIT high frequency, a single MOSFET IRF640 is controlled
A. Figures and Tables by pulsed width modulation integrated circuit (PWM IC).
The ozone chamber in this work is constructed by A 560 nF capacitor is put in parallel with the MOSFET as
aluminium mesh as electrode and metal tape with mica shunt capacitor. The gate drive opto coupler is connected
to the MOSFET and PWM IC to amplify the control
dielectric sheet as dielectric material are placed between
signal and provide electrical isolation. The inverter is
the electrodes. The air gap inside chamber is 2 mm. By
using mica, it is possible to construct a wide plane supplied by variable DC source (0 – 60 Volt). To increase
dielectric shape mica with 0.1 mm thick without any the voltage a step up ferrite transformer is connected
between the inverter and the high frequency DBD
crack. The dielectric strength is more than 20 kV/mm with
chamber. When the ferrite transformer is measured by
dielectric constant between 6 until 7. The maximum
LCR meter at 1 kHz the primary winding (L1) is 114 uH
operating temperature is about 500oC[13, 14]. A complete
construction of the chamber is shown in figure 1.a. and the secondary winding (L2) is 1.5 H. The
advantageous of this high frequency transformer is a small
Gas Inlet
Hole for Phase ferrite core size and much fewer windings.
Terminal
Electrode
Aluminium Mesh Insulation Tape
on Metal Plate
Mica Sheet 2 mm
air gap
Electrode
Aluminium Mesh
on Metal Plate Hole for Neutral
Terminal Gas
220mm Outlet
240mm
252mm
Figure 3. Resonant Converter with equivalent model of ozone chamber
The high frequency transformer in figure 3 is simplified

with the inductor (L1) for primary winding, inductor (L2)
for secondary winding and magnetization inductance (Lm)
[18]. The sequence operation of resonant converter when
Figure 1. The configuration of ozone chamber (a) Equivalent model of the MOSFET as switch (S1) turns on and off in certain
ozone chamber (b) duty cycle (D) is shown in figure 4.a and 4.b.
The presents of dielectric layer between two electrodes

and air gap give representation of capacitance, during
micro discharges, current flows in the certain value of
resistance. Due to this electrical characteristics, the
equivalence circuit of the ozone chamber is represented in
parallel capacitance and resistance [15] and it is shown in
figure 1.b. The parameters of ozone chamber under
frequency 30 – 40 kHz are 600kΩ for Rp and 0.33nF for
Cp. Figure 4. Simplified circuit when S1 is on (a) and when S1 is off (b)
III. METHODOLOGY The expected waveform of resonant power converter

during operation near resonant is shown in figure 5.
The experimental setup of the complete ozone
Vgs
generation system is shown in Fig. 2. S1 on S1 off
t
0
It t
0
IC
0
t
VC
Figure 2. Experimental Set Up of the complete ozone generation system
for Colour Removal t
0
Io
The power supply is resonant converter with a single 0
t
switch for high frequency resonant inverter. It is modified
from class E resonant power converter[16, 17]. There is Figure 5. The expected wave form of resonant power converter during
no parasitic capacitor at the high voltage side as in the operation near resonant.
conventional class E resonant converter because the
chamber is already inherently capacitive. This inverter is
40
When Switch (S1) turned on, then the capacitor Ce is In Figure 6, the gate signal is turn on and off when
short circuit by switch S1, the switch current (It) switching voltage is zero. The ZVS mode operation is
gradually increases from zero. The flowing current successfully conducted during the experiment.
through the switch creates heat. This heat is dissipated in
the switch and it gives a turn on switching loss, but
because the switch is on when the voltage is zero, then it
does not overlap with the current, so the switching losses
is considered zero.
When the switch is off the current still flows, this
makes hard switching during switch turns off. The
flowing current (Ic) in resonant has sinusoidal form. This
current makes the capacitor (Ce) charged and the switch
voltage (Vc) rises from zero to maximum. When the
flowing current is in negative cycle and the switch
voltage (Vc) falls to zero. The current in load side (Io)
during resonant is also sinusoid. Although the switch is
turn off as hard switching but, the switching voltage is
zero, so the switching loss is also zero.
The voltage and current switch do not overlap each
other so that during the interval of switching so this Figure 7. Voltage at low voltage side of high frequency transformer
operation is know as zero voltage switching (ZVS). The with attenuation 500x
switching losses are considered to be zero and this
resonant converter yields high efficiency. When the equivalent circuit of the system is equal to
During the experiment as shown in Figure 2, the Figure 8, and the voltage input at low voltage side of high
samples of treated POME was put into the sealed tank. A frequency transformer at frequency near resonance as
diffuser was connected to the output of ozone chamber shown in Figure 7 is formulated in Fourier series as in
through polyutherane pipe and sunk inside reaction tank. equation (1)
This diffuser created bubbles when ozone was injected.
Oxygen as an input gas was injected at 1 liter per minute,
then the high frequency power supply was switched on.
The desired ozone dosage was achieved by adjusting the
amplitude of sinusoidal voltage through the variable DC
source at near resonant frequency. Every sample of treated
POME which was injected by ozone in the certain contact
time was measured. The water colour of treated POME
was measured with a spectrophotometer using ADMI Figure.8 Equivalent circuit of resonant power supply
method (HACH/DR5000).
∞
V V 2Vm
IV. RESULT AND DISCUSSION Vinput (t ) = m + m sin ωt − ∑ cos ( nωt )
During the experiment near resonant frequency at
π 2 2
n = 2,4,6 n − 1 π
(1)
( )
38.78 kHz, the high sinusoidal output voltage was
obtained as shown in figure 6, meanwhile the voltage at Then the relation between the input voltage and the
low voltage side of high frequency transformer is shown output voltage at terminal chamber can be represented by
in figure 7. gain G (ω) as:
Voutput 1 (2)
G (ω ) = =
Vinput 2 L
1 − ω LC + j
R
or
Voutput 1 (3)
G (ω ) = = 2
Vinput ⎛ω ⎞
1− ⎜ ⎟ + j
(ω / ωo )
⎝ ωo ⎠ Q
Where the resonant frequency ωo is equal to 1/ LC and
the quality factor Q is equivalent to R / ωo L .
If Q is high and the equation (3) give the amplification of
output voltage higher than input voltage as shown in Figure
9.
Figure 6. Output voltage at terminal chamber with attenuation 1000x
(upper), and the control signal and switching voltage (lower) at
frequency near to resonance
41
7
G(w)
1800
6
1600
5
1400
4
Ozone (ppm)
1200
3
1000
2
800
1
600
0
0 5 10 15 20 400
(W/Wo)
Figure 9. Amplification of amplitude voltage as the function of 200

frequency
0
1150 1175 1200 1225 1250
60 Applied voltage in effective value (Volt)
55
50
45
40 Figure 11. Ozone Concentration in ppm as a function of applied voltage
35 in Volt
THD (%)
30
25
20 The high out put voltage in the range of 1.16–1.23 kVrms
15 was generated from variable DC source from 53 -57 Volt
10
as it is shown in figure 12.
5
0
0.5 1 1.5 2 1250
w/wo
AC Voltage in rms (Volt)
Figure 10. The effect of frequency to THD. 1225
The relation of THD as the function of frequency has

been stated in[19], but for this type of power supply the 1200
detail effect of increasing frequency against THD based on

equation (4) and (5) is shown in Figure 10.
1175
∞
∑ 2
Voutput
i =3,5,7 ,..
,i
THD(%) =
Voutput ,1 1150
(4) 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58
and DC Voltage (Volt)
Vinput (t ) (5)
Voutput ,i = 2
⎛ nω ⎞
1− ⎜
( n ω ωo ) Figure 12. The reation of AC high voltage output and DC voltage
⎟ +j
⎝ ωo ⎠ Q
Figure 13 showed the result for every dosage of ozone
gas concentration injected in to the tank for 5 minute. The
At the resonant frequency (ω/ωo=1) the THD is is low, colour of water was measured in Platinum-Cobalt Scale
and the output voltage is nearly sinusoidal waveform. (Pt/Co scale) It is based on dilutions of a 500 ppm platinum
During this work, the ozonizer achieved 1800 ppm at cobalt solution and it is specific to evaluate pollution levels
1.23 kVrms with 1 liter per minute flow rate. The and colour in waste water[20, 21]. The experimental result
relationship for voltage with ozone concentration is shown showed that when the initial colour was about 100 mg/l
in figure 11. PtCo, the colour removal process achieved 20 mg/l PtCo or
below for ozone injection more than 800 ppm in five
minute. Visually, water colour below 40mg/l PtCo is
considered clear. The rate of colour removal was in the
range from 7.3 mg/l PtCo/minute until 11.5 mg/l
PtCo/minute.
42
palm mill effluent treatment. In this work, the water
180 colour removal process achieved 20 mg/l PtCo or lower
160
in 5 minute and by extending the contact time up to 15
minute, 15 mg/L Pt.Co as recommended by WHO for
140 drinking water was achieved
4. The higher contact time of ozone produced higher
120 colour removal of POME
100
Pt Co (mg/L)
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
80
The authors wish to acknowledge the Research
60 Management Center (RMC) of Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia (UTM) and Ministry of Science and Technology
40 Malaysia (MOSTI) for the financial funding of this project
and also the Laboratory of Energy Conversion, Institute of
20
Environmental & Water Resource Management and High
0
Voltage High Current Institute, Faculty of Electrical
0 500 1000 1500 2000 Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) for
providing instrumentation devices support.
ozone gas injected (ppm)
Figure 13. Colour removal as a function of ozone dosage injection for 5

minute
REFERENCES
[1] Ahmad. A.L., Ismail. S., and Bhatia. S.,
"Membrane treatment for palm oil mill effluent:
120
effect of transmembrane pressure and crossflow
velocity," Desalination, vol. 179, pp. 245-255,
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2005.
5 min
10 min
[2] Yuniarto. A, Ujang. Z, and Noor. Zainura Z.,
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15 min "Bio Fouling reducer in submerged membrane
Pt Co (mg/L)
WHO standard bioreactor for palm oil mill effluent treatment,"

60
in International Conference and Expo on
Environmental Management and Technology
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(ICEEMAT’08) Malaysia, 2008.
[3] Ahmad. A.L. , Chan. C.Y, Abd Shukor.S.R. ,
20
and Mashitah. M.D, "Recovery of oil and
carotenes from palm oil mill effluent (POME),"
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Chemical Engineering Journal, vol. 141, pp.
O3 injected (ppm) 383-386, 2008.
Figure 14. Colour removal as the function of dosage of ozone injection [4] U. Kogelschatz, Baldur Eliasson, "Ozone
at different contact time generation and application," in Handbook of
electrostatic processes New York: Marcel
Figure 14 shows that by increasing the ozone Dekker, 1995, pp. 581 – 605.
concentration for constant contact time, there is a trend to [5] Mohammad A.T. Alsheyab and Aurelio H.
achieve lower water colour in PtCo. It is also recorded Muñoz, "Optimisation of ozone production for
from figure 11 that colour removal process reach 15 mg/L water and wastewater treatment," Desalination,
PtCo or lower as it is recommended by World Health vol. 217, pp. 1-7, 2007.
Organization (WHO) for drinking water[20]. The other [6] J. M. Alonso, M. Valdés; A. J. Calleja; J. Ribas;
factor contributing to the colour removal process is the J. Losada, "High Frequency Testing and
effective ness of diffuser to dissolve the ozone gas into Modeling of Silent Discharge Ozone
liquid effluent. Generators," Ozone: Science and Engineering,
Taylor and Francis Ltd, vol. Volume 25,
V. CONCLUSION Number 5, pp. 363-376, October 2003
1. A ozonizer constructed with a simple planar electrode [7] Nisoa. M., Srinoum. D., and Kerdthongmee. P.,
and dielectric and supplied by simple power supply in "Development of High Voltage High Frequency
high frequency has been successfully generated ozone Resonant Inverter Power Supply for
gas up to 1800 ppm At 1.23 KVrms. Atmospheric Surface Glow Barrier Discharges,"
2. The use of high frequency near resonant has been Solid State Phenomena, vol. 17, pp. 81-85, 2005.
effectively proven to magnify the dc input voltage to [8] J. M. Alonso, JorgeGarcía, Antonio J. Calleja,
supply ozone chamber generate ozone in the range 1.16 Javier Ribas, and Jesús Cardesín "Analysis,
kV rms upto 1.23 kVrms which is considering lower Design, and Experimentation of a High-Voltage
than voltage required in the recent ozonizer. Power Supply for Ozone Generation Based on
3. The ozone gas has been successfully injected into the Current-Fed Parallel-Resonant Push–Pull
reaction tank to remove colour of liquid result from oil
43
Inverter " IEEE Transaction on Industrial "Single-Switch Power Supply based on the Class
Application, vol. Vol.41, No.5, pp. 1364 – 1371, E Shunt Amplifier for Ozone Generators," in
September/October 2005 Power Electronics Specialists Conference, 2007.
[9] Koudriavtsev. Oleg., Shengpei. Wang., PESC 2007. IEEE, 2007, pp. 1380-1385.
Yoshihiro. Konishi., and Mutsuo. Nakaoka., "A [16] M. K. Kazimerczuk, Darius Czarkowski,
Novel Pulse-Density-Modulated High- Resonant Power Converter: John Wiley and
Frequency Inverter for Silent-Discharge-Type Sons, 1995.
Ozonizer," IEEE Transaction on Industry [17] M. H. Rashid, Power Electronics Circuit,
Application, vol. 38, March/April 2002. Devices and Application. New Delhi: Prentice
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Takahiko, Matsuo. Hisao , Ikegami. Tomoaki , [18] Sam Ben-Yaakov, Michael Gulko, and Alex
and Ebihara. Kenji, "Ozone and NO Generation Giter, "The simplest electronic ballast for HID
Using High Frequency Dielectric Barrier lamps," in Elevent Annual Applied Power
Discharge," in the XIVth International Electronics Conference and Exposition, 1996.
Symposium on High Voltage Engineering APEC '96. . vol. 2 San Jose, CA , USA 3-7 Mar
Tsinghua University, Beijing, Cina, 2005, p. 1996 pp. 634 - 640.
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[11] Jitsomboonmit, Pongsathon, and Somsak Electronic Handbook: ACADEMIC PRESS,
Dangtip, "Design of high voltage medium 2001 pp. 507-532.
frequency power supply for plasma application," [20] Langlais. Bruno, David A. Reckhow, and D. R.
in 33rd Congress On Science & Technology of Brink, Ozone in water treatment: application
Thailand, 2006. and engineering:cooperative research report.
[12] Z. Buntat, J. E. Harry, I. R. Smith, "Generation Chelsea, Michigan: Lewis Publishers, 1991.
of a Homogeneous Glow Discharge in Air at [21] W. Allen, W. B. Prescott, R. E. Derby, C. E.
Atmospheric Pressure," Journal ELEKTRIKA, Garland, J. M. Peret, and M. Saltzman,
vol. VOL. 9, NO. 2, pp. 60-65, 2007. "Determination of color of water and wastewater
[13] Kasap. Safa. O., Principle of Electronic by means of ADMI Color Values. ," in the 28th
Material and Devices, 3 ed. New York: Mc Purdue Industrial Waste Conference. , Purdue
Graw Hill, 2006. University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA, 1973,
[14] N. H. Malik, A. A. Al Arainy, and M. I. Qureshi, pp. 661–675.
Electrical Insulation in Power System. New
York: Marcel Dekker, 1998.
[15] M. Ponce-Silva, J. Aguilar-Ramirez, E.
Beutelspacher, J. M. Calderon, and C. Cortes,
44
A New Interleaved ZCS PWM Boost Converter

Mahdi Rezvanyvardom*, Ehsan Adib**, Member, IEEE and Hosein Farzanehfard***, Member,
IEEE
* Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, Iran. Email:
m.rezvanyvardom@ec.iut.ac.ir
** Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, Iran. Email:
e.adib@cc.iut.ac.ir
*** Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, Iran. Email:
hosein@cc.iut.ac.ir
Abstract— In this paper, a new interleaved zero-current-

switching PWM boost converter is introduced which uses only
one auxiliary switch to provide soft-switching condition. In the
proposed interleaved converter, soft switching is obtained for all
semiconductor devices. Thus, the reverse-recovery losses of boost
diodes are reduced. In addition, high efficiency is achieved due to
reduction of switching losses. The converter is analyzed and the
design procedure is discussed. Simulation results are presented to
verify the validity of theoretical analysis.
Fig. 1. Proposed interleaved ZCS boost converter.
Keywords— Interleaved boost converter, soft switching, zero-
current switching. zero current switching (ZCS) techniques are preferred to
eliminate tailing current losses. Several interleaved ZCS PWM
I. INTRODUCTION converters are introduced in [7]-[10]. In [7] and [9], two
C URRENT fed converters have many industrial

applications. Most renewable power sources, such as fuel
cell, solar-cells provide low output voltage and their
auxiliary switches are used to provide soft switching
conditions. The current peak of some semiconductor devices
in the converter introduced in [10] is high although interleaved
voltage should be boosted using current fed converters. Also, technique is used. In this paper a new interleaved ZCS PWM
the boost converter is widely applied in single-phase power converter is introduced which uses only one auxiliary switch.
factor correction (PFC) circuits due to its simple structure and Therefore, the converter auxiliary circuit is simple.
continuous input current. Interleaved the converters are Furthermore, in this converter the current stresses of the main
usually used for high power applications to share the current switches are low.
stress between switches. Therefore using interleaved boost The main converter is composed of D1, D2, S1 and S2. The
converters is desirable for high power applications. In auxiliary circuit is composed of Sa, Lr and Cr. The intrinsic
addition, interleaved connection reduces input current ripple anti-parallel diodes of main switches are Ds1 and Ds2. The
and switching loss which will result in higher efficiency. output capacitance and load resistance are Co and Ro
Nowadays, in order to obtain soft-switching condition for respectively. The proposed converter operates like a
current-fed converters, zero current transition and zero voltage conventional interleaved boost converter except during
transition techniques are vastly applied. These techniques switching instants. Lr and Cr are resonant components, while
provide soft switching condition while the control circuit Sa controls the resonant instant. Auxiliary switch Sa is a
remains PWM. Therefore, switching losses and unidirectional switch while main switches are bidirectional
electromagnetic interferences (EMI) are reduced. By applying switches.
soft switching techniques, switching frequency can be
increased in order to reduce the converter volume and weight II. PROPOSED ZCS PWM SWITCH TOPOLOGY FOR
[1]-[3]. Zero-voltage switching interleaved converters are INTERLEAVED BOOST CONVERTERS
proper techniques when MOSFET switches are used to reduce
capacitive turn on losses as well as switching losses [4]-[6]. In order to simplify the converter analysis, following
For higher power applications where IGBT switches are used, assumptions are considered:
1- Output capacitor is large enough so that it can be replaced
by a DC voltage source.
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 45

(a) Mode1. (e) Mode5.
(b) Mode2. (f) Mode6.
(c) Mode3. (g) Mode7.
(d) Mode4. (h) Mode8.
Fig. 2. Equivalent circuit of each operating mode. (a) Mode 1. (b) Mode 2. (c) Mode 3. (d) Mode 4. (e) Mode 5. (f) Mode 6. (g) Mode 7. and (h) Mode
8.
46
At t1, current of resonant inductance Lr become zero. In this
mode S1 and S2 are on and L1 and L2 are being charged.
Mode 3: [t2 − t3] [Fig. 2(c)]

In this mode, in order to provide soft-switching for S2 turn
off, Sa is turned on. By turning Sa on, a resonant starts between
Lr and Cr. Therefore auxiliary switch Sa turns on under ZCS
condition. After half of the resonant period, Cr voltage is
reversed, and Lr current reaches zero. Since the auxiliary
switch Sa is a unidirectional, the switch current remains zero at
the end of this mode. Thus, Sa can turned off under ZCS
condition. Duration of this mode is
Tr
t3 − t 2 = (2)
2
where
Tr = 2π Lr C r (3)
Mode 4: [t3 − t4] [Fig. 2(d)]

At t3, another resonance starts between Lr and Cr, though
D1 and D2. Thus, main switches current decreases to zero. This
mode ends when Lr current is equal to 2Iin and S2 and S1
currents become zero. Duration of this mode is
2 I in Z r
sin( )
V0
Fig. 3. Theoretical waveforms of the proposed interleaved converter. t 4 − t3 = (4)
ωr
2- Inductances L1 and L2 are equal (L1=L2). where
3- All semiconductor devices are ideal. Lr
The converter operation consists of to symmetrical half cycles Zr = (5)
during each switching period. Therefore, only half of the Cr
switching cycle is explained. In addition, it is assumed that
converter operates at steady state. Other important relations in this mode are:
Converter operation in half of the switching cycle can be
divided into eight modes. The equivalent circuit for each VCr = −V0 cos(ω r (t − t 3 )) (6)
operating mode and theoretical waveforms are illustrated in
Fig. 2 and Fig. 3 respectively.
Before the first mode, main switch S1 and auxiliary switch
Sa are off. Main switch S2 is on and inductor L2 is charged. V0
Also, Do is conducting and Cr is charged to Vo.
I Lr = sin(ω r (t − t 3 )) (7)
Zr
Mode 1: [t0 − t1] [Fig. 2(a)] V0

This mode begins by turning S1 on. Due to L1, main switch I S 2 = I in − sin(ω r (t − t 3 )) (8)
2Z r
S1 is turned on under ZCS condition. Therefore, the current
flowing through S1 increases linearly to L1 current (Iin) and Lr
current decreases linearly from Iin to zero. Duration of this Mode 5: [t4 – t5] [Fig. 2(e)]
mode is During this mode, the resonance between Lr and Cr
continues through the body diode of main switches and Lr
Lr I in current is greater than 2Iin. In this condition, main switch S2
t1 − t 0 = (1) can be turned off under ZCS (and ZVS) condition. At the end
V0 of this mode Lr current becomes equal to 2Iin and body diode
Mode 2: [t1 − t2] [Fig. 2(b)]
47
of the main switches turn off. For Cr voltage and Lr current, Tsw
the equations of pervious mode can be used. Tres = 2π C r Lr = (11)
10
Mode 6: [t5 – t6] [Fig. 2(f)] Tres and Tsw are resonant period and switching period
At t5, current of resonant inductance Lr is 2Iin. In this mode, respectively. By using (10) and (11), Tres , Lr and Cr can be
D2 current is constant and equal to Iin. During this mode the obtained.
resonance between Lr and Cr continues and Lr current
decreases from 2Iin to Iin. Therefore, S1 current increases from 2) Selection of S1, S2 and Sa: the peak current and
zero to Iin respectively. Equations 6 and 7 can be applied for voltage stresses are obtained from the following
this mode. At the end of this mode, Cr voltage is defined as V1 equations:
which is less than V0.
Vs1, 2=Vsa=Vo max
Mode 7: [t6 – t7] [Fig. 2(g)]
In this mode, Lr current is constant and equal to L2 Isw1, 2= P0/(2Vin)+ΔIL/2
current(Iin) and Cr is charged with a constant current to V0. Isa=V0/Zr
Duration of this mode is
where ΔIL is the current ripple of each input inductor.
C (V − V1 )
t7 − t6 = r 0 (9) 3) Selection of D1, D2 and Do: The peak of current and
I in
voltage stresses are obtained from the following equations:
Mode 8: [t7 – t8] [Fig. 2(h)] VD1,2 max=Vo max

At t7, the voltage of Cr reaches Vo, therefore output diode Do
is forward biased and conducts. In this mode the proposed VDo max=2Vo max
converter behaves like a regular interleaved PWM boost ID1,2 max= P0/(2Vin) +ΔIL/2
converter. IDo max=P0/Vin+ ΔIL
III. DESIGN PROCEDURE
4) Selection of L1, L2 and Co: The inductances value of L1
This section present design method for the proposed converter.
and L2 and capacitance value of Co can be obtained exactly
The converter specifications is
like a conventional PWM converter [12].
Output power Po=200W
Output voltage Vo=240V IV. SIMULATION RESULTS
Input voltage Vin=75V
Switching frequency fs=100 kHz The proposed ZCS interleaved boost converter is simulated by
PSPICE for output power of 200 W, input voltage of Vin= 75
Of the main switch
VDC and output voltage of Vo=240 VDC operating at fsw = 100
Switching frequency fs=200 kHz
kHz and fres=1MHz. According to design procedure section,
Of the auxiliary switch the circuit elements are calculated as: Lr =5 μH, Cr = 2.4 nF,
L1 = L2 = 300 μH, and CO = 100 μF. Fig. 4 illustrates the
The design procedure of this converter is explained in four simulation waveforms. Fig. 5(a) shows current of input
steps as following: inductances L1, L2 and sum of them. Fig. 5(b), 5(c) and 5(f)
show current and voltage of main switch S2, auxiliary switch
1) Resonant Elements (Cr and Lr): Based on mode 4, Sa and diode Do, respectively. Fig. 5(d) shows current of
the maximum current of Lr should be greater than the sum of resonant inductance Lr. Fig. 5(e) shows voltage of resonant
L1 and L2 currents. Thus: capacitor Cr. Dashed and continuous lines show current and
voltage waveforms respectively.
Vo V
I Lr = = 2 I in ⇒ Z r = o (10)
Zr 2 I in
The resonant period should be negligible in comparison to

switching period. Thus, the resonant frequency is selected ten
times greater than switching frequency.
48
Fig. 5(a). Current of input inductances L1, L2 and their sum. Fig. 5(d). Current of resonant inductances Lr.
Current scale is 0.5A/div. Current scale is 4A/div.
Fig. 5(b). Current and voltage of main switch S2. Fig. 5(e). Voltage of resonant capacitor Cr.
Voltage scale is 100V/div and current scale is 2.5A/div. Voltage scale is 200V/div.
Fig. 5(c). Current and voltage of auxiliary switch Sa. Fig. 5(f). Current and voltage of diode Do.
Voltage scale is 100V/div and current scale is 2.5A/div. Voltage scale is 200V/div and current scale is 5A/div.
Fig. 5. Simulation results waveforms. Dashed and continuous lines show current and voltage waveforms respectively.
49
V. CONCLUSION
In this paper a new interleaved ZCS PWM boost converter is
introduced. This converter uses only one auxiliary switch to
provide soft-switching condition. This converter has higher
efficiency than the conventional PWM hard-switching
converter due to reduced switching losses. According to
SPICE simulation results, Efficiency of the proposed
interleaved converter is 98.5%. Efficiency is improved by
about 2.7% with respect to hard-switching counterpart. This
converter is analyzed and design procedure is presented.
REFERENCES
[1] M. Mahdavi,H. Farzanehfard, “Zero-current-transition bridgeless PFC

without any extra switch” IEEE Trans. Industrial Electronics., Vol. 56,
pp. 2540 – 2547, 2009.
[2] E. Adib, H. Farzanehfard, “Family of soft-switching PWM converters
with current sharing in switches” IEEE Trans. Power Electronics., Vol.
24, pp. 973-984, 2009.
[3] E. Adib, H. Farzanehfard, “Family of zero current zero voltage transition
PWM converter” IET. Power Electronics. Vol. 1, pp. 214-223, 2008.
[4] Y.C. Hsieh, T.C. Hsueh, H.C. Yen, “An interleaved boost converter
with zero-voltage transition ” IEEE Trans. Power Electronics., Vol. 24,
pp. 973 – 978, 2009.
[5] E. Adib, H. Farzanehfard, “Zero-voltage transition current-fed full-
bridge PWM converter” IEEE Trans. Power Electronics., Vol. 24, pp.
1041-1047, 2009.
[6] D. Wang, X. He, R. Zhao, “ZVT interleaved boost converters with built-
in voltage doublers and current auto-balance characteristic” IEEE Trans.
Power Electronics., Vol. 23, pp. 2847-2854, 2008.
[7] G. Yao, A. Chen, X. He, “Soft switching circuit for interleaved boost
converter” IEEE Trans. Power Electronics., Vol. 22, pp. 80 – 86, 2007.
[8] E. Adib, H. Farzanehfard, “Family of zero-current transition PWM
converters” IEEE Trans. Industrial Electronics., Vol. 55, pp. 3055-3063,
2008.
[9] C.M. De oliveira stein, J.R. Pinheiro, H.L. Hey, “A ZCT auxiliary
commutation circuit for interleaved boost converters operation in critical
conduction mode” IEEE Trans. Power Electronics., Vol. 17, pp. 954-
962, 2002.
[10] G. Yao, H. He, J. Shi, Y. Deng, X. He, “A ZCS PWM switch circuit for
the interleaved boost converters” IEEE Power Electronics Specialists
Conference, PESC., pp. 1- 4, 2006.
[11] P.W. Lee, Y.S. Lee, D.K.W. Cheng, X.C. Liu, “Steady-state analysis of
an interleaved boost converter with coupled inductors” IEEE Trans.
Industrial Electronics., Vol. 47, pp. 787-795, 2000.
[12] Unitrode Product and Applications Handbook 1995–1996, Unitrode
Corp., Merrimack, NH, 1995, pp. 10-303-10-322.
50
DVR Based Cascaded Multilevel Z-Source

Inverter
Mohamad Reza Banaei and Ali Reza Dehghanzadeh
Electrical engineering department, Faculty of engineering, Azarbaijan University of Tarbiat Moallem, Tabriz, Iran.
Email: m.banaei@azaruniv.edu, s.dehghanzadeh@azaruniv.edu
Abstract— This paper proposes a new topology of Z-source In this paper, a cascaded h-bridge inverter is proposed
based cascaded multilevel inverter. In this topology the as a multilevel inverter combined with Z-source inverter.
output voltage is not limited to DC voltage source similar to In addition to cascade inverter advantages, proposed
traditional cascade multilevel inverter and can be increased topology employs Z-source inverter advantages such as
with Z network shoot-through state control. Besides, it is shoot through capability and ability of voltage boosting.
more reliable against short circuit. Performance of The output voltage of proposed inverter can be controlled
suggested topology in the closed-loop control scheme is using modulation index and shoot through state.
described in the Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR)
structure. Compensation capability of the proposed DVR The suggested topology is employed in the DVR as a
increases. The operating principle, switching algorithm and Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) to introduce the
characteristics of proposed topology are described in this performance of proposed VSI in the closed loop control
paper. The performance of suggested inverter and switching scheme. The simulations carried out by MATLAB /
algorithm are validated with simulation results using SIMULINK show the capability of proposed topology.
MATLAB/SIMULINK software.
II. CASCADED H-BRIDGE MULTILEVEL INVERTER
Keywords—Cascaded H-bridge Inverter; DVR; Z-source; Single phase topology of a cascade inverter is shown in
Voltage Boosting Fig. 1. An output phase voltage waveform of a cascade
inverter with isolated dc voltage sources is achieved by
I. INTRODUCTION summing the output voltages of bridges. Output phase
In recent years, the multilevel voltage inverter has voltage of a cascade inverter is obtained by [1]:
received wide attention in research and high power
applications such as large induction motor drives, UPS (1)
Vo = Vo1 + Vo2 + ... + Von
systems and flexible AC transmission systems (FACTS)
[1]. Multilevel inverter synthesizes a desired output
voltage from several levels of input DC voltage sources.
With an increasing number of dc voltage sources, the S1,1 S1,3
inverter voltage output waveform approaches a nearly
sinusoidal waveform while using a fundamental frequency V1
switching scheme [2]. As compared to traditional two VO1
level inverters, the multilevel inverters have more S1,4 S1,2
advantages which include lower semiconductor voltage
stress, better harmonic performance, low electromagnetic
interference (EMI) and lower switching losses [3-4]. S2,1
Despite these advantages, multilevel inverters output S2,3
voltage amplitude is limit to DC sources voltage
V2 VO2 VO
summation. For the boost or buck of multilevel output
voltage the other converters as a DC/DC converter is
S2,4 S2,2
needed. Occurring of short circuit can destroy multilevel
inverters, therefore multilevel inverters need to operate
with dead-time protection. To solve these problems,
multilevel inverter based Z-source inverter is proposed in
this paper.
The Z-source inverter utilizes Z impedance network
between the DC source and inverter circuitry to achieve Sn,1 Sn,3
boost operation. The Z-Source inverter, unlike traditional VOn
inverters can utilize shoot-through states to boost the input Vn
dc voltage of inverter switches when both switches in the
same phase leg are on [5]. The Z-Source inverters with Sn,4 Sn,2
respect to traditional inverters are lower costs, reliable,
lower complexity and higher efficiency [6-7].
Figure 1. Configuration of cascaded H-bridge multilevel inverter
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 51

Dc voltage sources of all H-bridge cells are the same,
the maximum number of levels of phase voltage is given
by [1]: Vl
L1 S1 S3
m = 2n + 1 (2)
VL
Vdc Vin
n, m are the number of dc voltage source and the VC C1 C2
maximum number of levels of phase voltage respectively. S4 S2
These Multilevel inverters have been called symmetrical
multilevel inverter. L2
III. Z-SOURCE INVERTER (a)

The Z-Source inverter structure is shown in Fig. 2(a).
Z-Source inverter operates in two modes: non shoot- Vl
through and shoot-through state. The equivalent circuit of
shoot-trough state is shown in Fig. 2(b). With the analyze
of circuit the (3), (4) can be expressed as [8]:
Vdc Vin
VC
Vl = VC (3)
Vin = 0 (4)
(b)
The equivalent circuit in non shoot-through state is Vl

shown in Fig. 2(c). Inductors voltage and output of LC
network can be calculated as [8]:
Vdc Vin
Vl = Vdc − VC (5) VC
Vin = VC − Vl (6)
Vin = 2VC − Vdc (7) (c)

Figure 2. Circuit diagram of (a) single phase Z-Source, (b) Z-Source in
shoot through state, (c) Z-Source in non shoot through state
It is assumed that average voltage of inductor is zero so
relation between capacitor and output voltage is found as
[8]: IV. PROPOSED MULTILEVEL INVERTER
Fig. 3 shows the suggested multilevel inverter. The
proposed topology consists of a series single phase H-
VC Tns
= bridge inverter units, Z impedances and DC voltage
Vin Tns − T sh (8) sources. It is supplied from several DC sources, which
may be obtained from batteries, fuel cells, solar cells or
ultra - capacitors. Each H-bridge inverter can generate
Where Tsh is the total shoot-through state period and Tns three different voltage outputs +Vin, 0, -Vin. The number
is the total non shoot-through state period during all of output voltage levels in the suggested topology is 2n+1
period of switching. Substituting (8) in to (7) during non where n is the number of Z impedances or DC voltage
shoot through state Vin is obtained as [8]: sources.
As compared to cascaded H-bridge inverters, the
1 proposed topology has an extra switching state: shoot-
Vin = ( )V dc through state. During the shoot-through state, the output
T (9)
1 − 2 sh voltages of Z networks are zero. In this paper, each H-
T bridge is turned in to shoot-through state when the output
voltage level is traditional zero therefore some or all of the
1 zero states are changed to shoot-through state. Table 1
B=
T (10) indicates the values of V0 for states of switches.
1 − 2 sh
T
Where T is period of switching and B is boost factor

and it is clear that B ≥ 1 .
52
TABLE I.
STATES OF SWITCHING
Voltage Level Output ON Switches
L1 Voltage
S1 S3 Level 2 (non shoot-through) 2Vin S3,S4,S5 ,S6
Vdc C1 C2 Vin Level 1 (non shoot-through) Vin S1,S3,S5 ,S6
L2 S4 S2 Level 1 (shoot-through) Vin S1,S2, S3, S4, S5, S6
L1 VL Level 1 (non shoot-through) Vin S3,S4,S5 ,S7
S5 S7 Level 1 (shoot-through) Vin S3,S4,S5 ,S6, S7, S8
Vdc Vin Level 0 (zero state) 0 (V) S1,S3,S5 ,S7

C1 C2
S8 S6 Level 0 (shoot-through) 0 (V) S1,S2,S3 ,S4,S5,S7
L2 Level 0 (shoot-through) 0 (V) S1,S3,S5 ,S6,S7,S8

Figure 3. Circuit diagram of a single phase multi level based Z-Source
inverter Level -1 (non shoot-through) -Vin S1,S3,S7 ,S8
Level -1 (shoot-through) -Vin S1, S2, S3, S4, S7,

Several modulation strategies have been proposed for S8
multilevel converters. Among these methods, the most
common used is the sinusoidal pulse width modulation Level -1 (non shoot-through) -Vin S1,S2,S5 ,S7
(SPWM). The principle of the SPWM method is based on
a comparison of a sinusoidal reference waveform, with Level -1 (shoot-through) -Vin S1, S2, S5, S6, S7,
shifted carrier triangular waveforms. Proposed S8
Modulation waveforms to switching of proposed inverter
are shown in Fig. 4. For each H-bridge, two triangular Level -2 (non shoot-through) -2Vin S1,S2,S7,S8
waveform assumed. This method uses one straight line
(VP) to control the shoot-through state time, when one of
the triangle waveforms is greater than VP, the related H- Tsh T1
bridge turns in to shoot-through state and otherwise it = (12)
T Tca
operates just as traditional PWM. For example when C1
or C3 is greater than Vp, then upper staircase in Fig. 3 is
turned in to shoot-through state, and when C2 or C4 is Substituting (11), (12) in to (10), boost factor, B, is
greater than VP, then down staircase is changed to shoot- obtained as:
through state. Therefore boost factor of proposed inverter
can be controlled by the value of VP.
Fig. 4 leads to the relation (11). 1
B= (13)
Vca − V P
1−2( )
T1 Vca − V P Vca
= (11)
Tca Vca
It is considered that by decreasing VP, boost factor B
increases, as a result the Z network output voltage, i.e. Vin j
Where Vca is the peak value of triangle waveform and increases in Figure. 5 and load voltage is controlled.
T1 is shoot-through time during half of triangles period
time, Tca. It is clear that:
Figure 4. Modulation waveforms to switching
53
V. DVR
The DVR is a custom power device to guard sensitive
loads against voltage disturbances such as voltage sag and VL
swell, where it can inject a controllable voltage in series
with the supply voltage to keep the load voltage constant
[9-10]. The basic configuration of the DVR based
proposed topology is described in Fig. 5. Here, the voltage
source converter (VSC) is installed in series with line. The abc to dq
series connection is performed by single-phase
transformers. The transformers not only reduce the
voltage rating of the inverters but also provide isolation - +
between the inverters and basic system. The VS, Vinj and VL abc to dq Vref
are the supply voltage, the DVR- injection voltage and the
load voltage, respectively [9].
PI Controller
As shown in Fig. 5, the load voltage is: dq to abc
V L = V S + Vinj (14)
Modulation Unit
The technique of output feedback control is
incorporated to determine the switching actions of the S1 S2 S8
inverters. The measured voltages are the inputs to the
disturbance identification unit, which gives signals to the Z-source Based
Vdc
control unit as shown in Fig. 6. Modulation unit generates Multilevel Inverter
switches signal to produce desired injected voltage and its
performance is similar to switching algorithm as
mentioned in pervious section. Sinusoidal signals are Figure 6. Control unit of DVR
produced by control unit and depend on system voltage
condition.
In the closed-loop control scheme VP is assumed the VI. SIMULATION RESULTS
maximum of sinusoidal signals, therefore DVR injected Configuration shown in Fig. 3 has been modeled by
voltage is controlled by two factors: modulation index and MATLAB / SIMULINK to prove the capabilities of
shoot-through state time. Maximum voltage injection of mentioned inverter. Suggested multilevel inverter
proposed inverter topology is not limit to batteries voltage parameters are listed in Table 2. The amplitude of sin
summation, therefore DVR compensation capability wave in Fig. 4 is 2.4. Three different boost factors i.e. 1,
develops. 1.25 and 1.66 have been considered for proposed inverter.
Fig. 7(a) presents the five level load voltage in B=1. In
this boost factor, VP is assumed 3 therefore zero states are
Vinj not turned to shoot-through state.
Lth Rth
As shown in Fig. 7(a), desired five levels are
approximately 0, ±75 and ±150. Fig. 7(b) presents the
output voltage of Z network, Vin which is about 75V. Fig.
Vth VS Sensitive 8(a) shows load voltage waveform in B=1.25 and VP=2.7,
Load desired five levels are approximately 0, ±95 and ±190.
VL
Fig. 8(b) presents Vin.
Filter
Fig. 9(a) shows load voltage waveform in B=1.66 and
VP=2.4, therefore all of zero states time changed to shoot-
through states time. In this duty cycle five levels are
approximately 0, ±130 and ±260. Fig. 9(b) presents Vin.
To study the advantages of proposed Z-source based
Z-source Based multilevel inverter in the closed loop control scheme, the
Multilevel Inverter system shown in Fig. 5 is modeled. The system
parameters are listed in Table 3.
It is assumed that the voltage magnitude of the load
Energy Storage must be set at 1 pu during the voltage disturbance. The
simulation is carried out for a balanced voltage sag. The
source voltage drops to 0.8 pu from 0.24 s to 0.34 s as
Figure 5. Block diagram of a DVR connected sensitive load shown in Fig. 10. (a). The DVR can compensate the
54
dropped voltage immediately. Fig. 10(b), (c) show the
DVR injected voltage and sensitive load voltage,
respectively.
TABLE II.
PROPOSED INVERTER PARAMETERS
Vdc 75 V
L1=L2 3 mH
C1=C2 1300 µF
Tca 0.0005 s
Vca 3
T 0.02 s (a)
TABLE III.
SYSTEM PARAMETERS
Load voltage (VL-L) 2000 v

Nominal frequency 50 Hz
Sensitive load impedance (phase – ground) 144+91j Ω
Series transformer turn ratio 1:2
(b)
Figure 8. Case 2: B=1.25 (a) Load voltage (b) Vin
(a)
(a)
(b)
Figure 7. Case 1: B=1 (a) Load voltage (b) Vin
(b)
Figure 9. Case 3: B=1.66 (a) Load voltage (b) Vin
55
topology tested in the DVR structure as a VSI.
Simulation results show the ability of proposed strategy
in boosting of voltage.
REFERENCES
[1] A.K. Al-Othman, Tamer H. Abdelhamid, “Elimination of
harmonics in multilevel inverters with non-equal dc sources using
PSO”, Elsevier Energy Conversion and Management, Vol. 50, pp.
756–764, 2009.
[2] Sung-Jun Park, Feel-Soon Kang, Su Eog Cho, Chae-Joo Moon,
Hae-Kon Nam, “A novel switching strategy for improving
(a) modularity and manufacturability of cascaded-transformer-based
multilevel inverters”, Elsevier Electric Power Systems Research,
Vol. 74, pp. 409-416, 2005.
[3] G. Said Barkati, Lotfi Baghli, EL Majid Berkouk, Mohmed-Seghir
Boucherit, “Harmonic elimination in diode-clamped multilevel
inverter using evolutionary algorithms”, Electric Power System
Research, Vol.78, pp. 1736-1746, 2008.
[4] Keith A. Corzine, Mike W. Wielebski, Fang Z. Peng, Jin Wang,
“Control of Cascaded Multilevel Inverters”, IEEE Trans. Power
Electronics, Vol. 19, NO. 3, pp. 732-738, MAY 2004.
[5] Miaosen Shen, Alan Joseph, Jin Wang Fang Z. Peng, Donald J.
Adams, “Comparison of traditional inverters and Z-source inverter
for fuel cell vehicles”, IEEE Trans. Power Electronics, Vol. 22,
(b) NO. 4, pp. 1453-1463, JULY 2007.
[6] Amitava Das, Debasish Lahiri, A.K.Dhakar, “Residential Solar
Power Systems Using Z-Source Inverter”, TENCON, IEEE
Regional 10 Conference, 2008.
[7] Jin Wang, Fang Z.Peng, Leon M. Tolbert, Donald J. Adams,
“Maximum Constant Boost Control of the Z- Source Inverter ” ,
Industry Application Conference, 39 th Annual meeting
Conference Record, 2004.
[8] Amitava Das, S.Chowdhury, S.P.Chowdhury, Prof. A. Domijan,
“Performance analysis of Z-source inverter based ASD system
with reduced harmonics”, Power and Energy Society General
Meeting - Conversion and Delivery of Electrical Energy in the
21st Century, Pittsburgh, July 2008.
[9] M.R. Banaei, S.H. Hosseini, S. Khanmohamadi, G.B.
(c) Gharehpetian, “Verification of a new energy control strategy for
Figure 10. Balanced voltage sag (a) supply voltage (b) DVR injected dynamic voltage restorer by simulation”, Elsevier J. Simul. Model.
voltage (c) sensitive load voltage Pract. Theory, Vol.14, NO.2, pp. 112-125, 2006.
[10] Amit Kumar Jindal, Arindam Ghosh, Avinash Joshi, “Critical load
CONCLUSION bus voltage control using DVR under system frequency variation”,
Electric Power Systems Research, Vol.78, pp. 255-263, 2008.
In this paper, a new configuration of Z-source has been
proposed, that employs cascaded H-bridge multilevel
inverter to decrease THD of output voltage waveform.
Output voltage of proposed topology can be controlled in
two open-loop and closed loop control scheme. Proposed
56
A Bidirectional Zero Voltage Transition

Converter with Coupled Inductors
M. R. Mohammadi* and H. Farzanehfard**
*Isfahan University of Technology/Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Isfahan, Iran. Email:
mr.mohammadi@ec.iut.ac.ir
** Isfahan University of Technology/Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Isfahan, Iran. Email:
hosein@cc.iut.ac.ir
Abstract— A bidirectional ZVT buck and boost converter

with coupled inductors is proposed in this paper. In this
converter a coupled inductor is used to reset the auxiliary
circuit current to zero, in order to ensure soft switching of
the auxiliary switches at turn off. All switches in the
proposed converter are soft switched and thus high
efficiency is achieved. The principle of operation is
explained and analyzed. The simulation results justify the
converter analysis. Figure 1. Bidirectional buck and boost converter structure
Keywords—Zero Voltage Transition (ZVT), bidirectional dc-

dc converter, Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) (ZVT) circuit is proposed. This converter has two
auxiliary switches, which are turned – off under hard-
I. INTRODUCTION
switching condition. Another ZVT converter is proposed
Bidirectional dc–dc converters are able to transfer in [10] where all the switches are soft switched. But in
energy between two dc sources, in either direction. Due this converter two equal capacitors are needed in series
to their ability to reverse the direction of current flow, between positive line and ground. Besides, the auxiliary
they are being increasingly applied in applications like dc circuit is applied two times in a switching cycle, and thus,
uninterruptable power supplies[1][2], battery charger result in more complex control circuit.
circuits[3], multiplexed-battery systems [4], computer In this paper a soft switching PWM buck and boost
systems, aerospace systems [5] [6], dc motor drives converter is introduced which provides soft switching
circuits [7] [8] , fuel cell applications[9] and electric condition for all switches and diodes. Also the proposed
vehicles[10]. converter uses an auxiliary circuit only once at switching
Various bidirectional dc-dc converters can be divided instant in each switching cycle. Therefore, the control
into the non isolated and isolated bidirectional dc-dc circuit is simple and also the auxiliary circuit losses are
converters. Non isolated bidirectional dc–dc converters low.
are typically based on the buck and boost converter This paper is organized as follows: In section II of this
structure shown in Fig. 1. In the forward mode of paper, operation modes are analyzed. In section III,
operation, S1 operates as the boost switch and S2 operates design considerations are explained and in section IV,
as the boost diode. Also in reverse mode of operation,S2 simulation results are presented. The simulation results
operates as the buck switch and S1 operates as the buck confirm the theoretical analysis. Conclusions are
diode. presented in section V.
The high frequency operation in the bidirectional dc-dc
converters, as in all dc-dc converters, is desirable because
of the reduction of reactive component size and cost. II. CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION AND OPERATION
However, in a hard-switching converter, as the switching The circuit configuration of the proposed converter is
frequency increases, switching losses and shown in Fig. 2. It differs from a bidirectional buck and
electromagnetic interference increase. To solve this boost converter, since the addition of an auxiliary
problem, soft-switching converters are employed [12]. inductor La , a snubber capacitor Cs , a coupled inductor
Comparing to the unidirectional dc/dc converter, it is LT and two auxiliary unidirectional switches Sa1 and Ss2.
more difficult to achieve soft switching in bidirectional In order to simplify the theoretical analysis, it is assumed
dc/dc converters due to more switches, more complicated that all semiconductor devices are ideal. Also, inductor L
operating modes and more complex energy flow [13]. is large enough to assume its current is constant in a
Several soft switching bidirectional converters are switching cycle. Also it is assumed that the turn ratio of
proposed in literature. The converter proposed in [3] has coupled inductors is n, Thus, LT = n2 L. The converter
very high turn-off losses and additional filtering is needed operation is analyzed in both boost and buck modes.
to reduce voltage ripple. In [8] a Zero Voltage Transition
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 57

La
Z0 = (6)
C S (n + 1)
This mode ends when the Cs voltage reaches zero. Thus,

the duration of this mode is
1 nV1
Figure 2. Proposed bidirectional ZVT buck and boost converter with t 2 − t1 = cos −1 ( ) (7)
coupled inductors ω0 nV1 − (n + 1)V2
A. Boost mode of operation In boost mode of operation, V1 =V2(1-D) , thus

The converter operation in boost mode has six distinct
operating modes in a switching cycle. The equivalent 1 nD − n
circuit for each operating mode is shown in Fig. 3 and the t 2 − t1 = cos −1 ( ) (8)
ω0 nD + 1
converter theoretical waveforms are shown in Fig. 4.
Before the first mode, it is assumed that the main switch
S1 is off and the main inductor current(Iin) flows through At the end of this mode, La current is defined as ILa0.
the anti parallel diode of switch S2, and thus, the Cs From (3) , (8) ILa0 is obtained as
voltage is equal to V2.
V2 n(2 D − 1) + 1
I La 0 = I in + (9)
Mode 1 [t0−t1] Z0 n +1
At t0, the auxiliary switch Sa1 is turned on under ZC
condition due to series inductor La. By turning this Mode 3 [t2−t3]
switch on, the current of auxiliary inductor, starts to The anti parallel diode of main switch S1 is turned on
increase linearly, until it reaches the input current Iin and at the beginning of this mode under ZC condition and
prepares the condition for anti parallel diode of main thus the main switch S1 can be turned on under zero
switch S2 to turn off under ZC condition. The equation of voltage zero current(ZVZCS) condition. The voltage
auxiliary inductor current in this mode is across the coupled winding is nV1. The negative voltage
across the auxiliary inductor La would reset the inductor
(n + 1)V2 − nV1 current linearly to zero. The equation of auxiliary
I La = (t − t 0 ) (1)
La inductor current in this mode is
Also the duration of this mode is nV1

I La = I La 0 − (t − t 2 ) (10)
La
I in La
t1 − t 0 = (2)
(n + 1)V2 − nV1 Resetting the auxiliary switch current to zero at t3 ensures
ZC condition for the auxiliary switch at turn off, thus the
Mode 2 [t1−t2] duration of this mode is
When La current becomes equal to the input
current(Iin), the anti parallel diode of main switch S2 La I La 0
t3 − t 2 = (11)
turns off under ZC condition and a resonance starts nV1
between La and Cs. During this resonance, Cs is
discharged from V2 to zero and provides zero voltage Mode 4 [t3−t4]
(ZV) condition for S1 turn on. The important equations of In this mode, the converter operates like a regular
this mode are boost converter and the main switch current is almost
constant and equal to Iin .
nV1
V2 −
n + 1 ) sin(ω (t − t )) Mode 5 [t4−t5]
I La = I in + ( 0 1 (3)
Z0 This mode begins with turning the main switch off.
Due to snubber capacitor Cs, the voltage across the main
nV1 nV1 switch changes slowly and S1 is turned off under almost
VCs = + (V2 − ) cos(ω 0 (t − t1 )) (4) ZV condition. At the end of the mode, Cs charges up to
n +1 n +1 V2 and the anti parallel diode of main switch S2 begins to
conduct.
where
Mode 6 [t5−t0+T]
(n + 1) The converter operation in this interval is like a regular
ω0 = (5)
La C S boost converter.
58
Figure 3. Equivalent circuit for each operation modes of boost mode
ZC condition and a resonance starts between La and Cs.

B. Buck mode of operation
During this resonance Cs is charged from zero to V1 and
The converter operation in buck mode is composed of provides ZV condition for S2 turn on. The important
six different operating modes in a switching cycle. The equations of this mode are
equivalent circuit for each operating mode are shown in
Fig. 5 and the converter theoretical waveforms are shown
in Fig. 6. Before the first mode it is assumed that the
main switch S2 is off and the main inductor current(Io)
flows through the anti parallel diode of switch S1, and
thus, the Cs voltage is equal to zero.
Mode 1 [t0−t1]
At t0, the auxiliary switch Sa2 is turned on under ZC
condition due to series inductor La. By turning this
switch on, the current of auxiliary inductor, La, starts to
increase linearly, until it reaches the output current Io and
prepares the condition for anti parallel diode of main
switch S1 to turn off under ZC condition. The equation of
auxiliary inductor current in this mode is
V2 + nV1
I La = (t − t 0 ) (12)
La
Also the duration of this mode is
I in La
t1 − t 0 = (13)
V2 + nV1
Mode 2 [t1−t2]
When La current becomes equal to output current(Io),
the anti parallel diode of main switch S2 turns off under Figure 4. Converter theoretical waveforms in boost mode
59
Figure 5. Equivalent circuit for each operation modes of buck mode
At the end of this mode, La current is defined as ILa0. From

nV1 + V2 (14) , (19) ILa0 is obtained as
I La = I o + ( n + 1 ) sin(ω 0 (t − t1 )) (14)
Z0
nV1 + V2
VCs = (1 − cos(ω 0 (t − t1 ))) (15)
n +1
where
(n + 1)
ω0 = (16) V2
La C S
La
Z0 = (17)
C S (n + 1)
This mode ends when the Cs voltage reaches zero. Thus, the
duration of this mode is
1 nV1 − nV2
t 2 − t1 = cos −1 ( ) (18)
ω0 nV1 + V2
In buck mode of operation, V1=V2D
1 nD − n
t 2 − t1 = cos −1 ( ) (19)
ω0 nD + 1 Figure 6. Converter theoretical waveforms in buck mode
60
V2 n(2 D − 1) + 1 auxiliary switch, and its value can be designed like any turn-
I La 0 = I o + (20) on snubber inductor [14]. To ensure the auxiliary switches
Z0 n +1
turn off at zero current condition , they must be
unidirectional.
Mode 3 [t2−t3]
The anti parallel diode of main switch S2 is turned on at IV. SIMULATION RESULTS
the beginning of this mode under ZC condition and thus the To verify the principle of operation, the proposed
main switch S2 can be turned on under zero voltage zero converter is simulated at 50W , 100 kHZ. The voltage of V1
current(ZVZCS) condition. The voltage across the coupled is 24V and the voltage of V2 is 48V. The simulation is
winding is n(V2-V1). The negative voltage across the performed using Pspice software. According to the
auxiliary inductor La would reset the inductor current discussions in the previous section, the designed values for
linearly to zero. The equation of auxiliary inductor current La, Cs, and n are 3 μH, 5 nF, and 1/3, respectively.
in this mode is Furthermore, the value of L is selected 300 μH. IRFP450 is
selected for the converter switches, and MUR460 is chosen
n(V2 − V1 ) for diodes. To implement the unidirectional switch, diode is
I La = I La 0 − (t − t 2 ) (21)
La placed in series with the auxiliary switches.
Fig. 7 shows the zero-voltage and zero current turn-on
Resetting the auxiliary switch current to zero at t=t3 ensures and zero voltage turn-off of the main switch S1 in boost
zero current switching. Thus the duration of this mode is mode of operation. Note that , due to snubber capacitor Cs,
the voltage across the main switch increase slowly and S1 is
turned off under almost ZV condition. Fig. 8 shows the zero
La I La 0
t3 − t 2 = (22) current turn-on and turn-off of auxiliary switch Sa1 in boost
n(V2 − V1 ) mode of operation. Fig. 9 shows the zero-voltage and zero
current turn-on and zero voltage turn-off of the main switch
Mode 4 [t3−t4] S2 in buck mode of operation. Note that , due to snubber
In this mode, the converter operates like a regular buck capacitor Cs, the voltage across the main switch increase
converter and the main switch current is almost constant and slowly and S2 is turned off under almost zero voltage (ZV)
equal to Io . condition. Fig. 10 shows the zero current turn-on and turn-
off of auxiliary switch Sa2 in buck mode of operation.
Mode 5 [t4−t5]
This mode begins with turning the main switch off. Due
to snubber capacitor Cs, the voltage across the main switch
changes slowly and S1 is turned off under almost ZV
condition. At the end of the mode, Cs discharges to zero and
the anti parallel diode of main switch S1 begin to conduct.
Mode 6 [t5−t0+T]
The converter operation in this mode is like a regular
buck converter and the input current runs through the anti
parallel diode of main switch S1. Figure 7. Voltage and current of main switch S1 in boost mode of
operation (voltage: 20V/div , current 2A/div , time: 1μs/div)
III. DESIGN CONSIDERATION

The main buck and boost converter can be designed like a
regular buck and boost converter Therefore, it is important
to select n, La ,Cs and semiconductor devices. From (8)
,(19) it can be observed that to ensure discharging of Cs to
zero in boost mode and charging Cs to V2 in buck mode for
full duty cycle range, n must be smaller or equal to one.
Also Large value of n would increase the voltage stress of
auxiliary switches Sa1 and Sa2 , and increase the turn-on
switching loss in these switches. However, small value of n
would increase the duration of modes 2,3 and 4 in both buck Figure 8. Voltage and current of auxiliary switch Sa1 in boost mode of
and boost modes and increases the current stress of auxiliary operation (voltage: 40V/div , current 4A/div , time: 1μs/div)
switches. Capacitor Cs is the snubber capacitor for S1 and S2
; therefore, its value can be designed like any snubber
capacitor [14]. Also, La is the snubber inductor of the
61
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Switching Bidirectional DC-DC Converter With State Analysis and
Soft-Switching-Oriented Design Consideration", IEEE Trans. Ind.
Electron., vol. 56, no. 6, pp. 2174–2184, June. 2009
[14] A. I. Pressman, Switching Power Supply Design, 2nd ed. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1998.
Figure 10. Voltage and current of auxiliary switch Sa2 in buck mode of
operation(voltage: 40V/div , current 4A/div , time: 1μs/div)
V. CONCLUSION
In this paper a bidirectional ZVT buck and boost
converter is introduced and analyzed that guarantees soft
switching condition for all semiconductor devices. In this
converter a coupled inductor is used to reset the auxiliary
circuit current to zero, in order to ensure soft switching of
the auxiliary switches at turn off. The principle of operation
is explained and analyzed. The simulation results justify the
converter analysis.
REFERENCES
[1] K. Venkatesan, “Current mode controlled bidirectional flyback
converter,” in Proc. IEEE PESC’89, 1989, pp. 835–842.
[2] M. Jain, P. K. Jain, and M. Daniele, “Analysis of a bi-directional DC-
DC converter topology for low power application,” in Proc.
CCECE’97, 1997, pp. 548–551.
[3] D. M. Sable, F. C. Lee, and B. H. Cho, “A zero-voltage- switching
bidirectional battery charger/discharger for the NASA EOS satellite,”
in Proc. IEEE APEC’92, 1992, pp. 614–620.
[4] R. K. Williams and W. Grabowski, “Single package 30-V battery
disconnect switch facilitates battery multiplexing in notebook
computers,” in Proc. IEEE APEC’98, 1998, pp. 691–699.
[5] B. Ray, “Single-cycle resonant bidirectional DC/DC power
conversion,” in Proc. IEEE APEC’93, 1993, pp. 44–50.
[6] Z. R. Martinez and B. Ray, “Bidirectional DC/DC power conversion
using constant frequency multi-resonant topology,” in Proc. IEEE
APEC’94, 1994, pp. 991–997.
[7] F. Caricchi, F. Crescimbini, F. G. Capponi, and L. Solero, “Studyof
bi-directional buck-boost converter topologies for application
inelectrical vehicle motor drives,” in Proc. IEEE APEC’98, 1998,
pp.287–293.
[8] K. T. Chau, T. W. Ching, and C. C. Chan, “Bidirectional soft-
switching converter-fed DC motor drives,” in Proc. IEEE PESC
Conf. Rec., 1998, pp. 416–422.electrical vehicle motor drives,” in
Proc. IEEE APEC’95, 1995, pp. 887–892.
[9] F. Z. Peng, H. Li, G.J. Su, and J.S. Lawler, "A New ZVS
62
Buck-Boost Interleaved Inverter for Grid

Connected Photovoltaic System
Omar Abdel-Rahim, IEEE Student Member, Mohamed Orabi, IEEE Senior Member and Mahrous E.
Ahmed, IEEE Member
APEARC, South Valley University,
Aswan City 81542, Egypt
orabi@ieee.org
Abstract—in this paper, a single stage buck-boost voltage gain and low efficiency compared to two stage
inverter is proposed for grid connected PV system with a inverters. In [1], the proposed topology suffers from low
very high voltage gain. The proposed inverter not only gain and complex control. Flyback inverter proposed in
boosts DC output voltage of the PV module but also [2] suffers from high stress on switches and also the
converts it into AC voltage which is required for grid efficiency decreases as the turns ratio increases. A single
connection. Discontinuous conduction mode (DCM) is stage inverter which was proposed in [3] has the
employed to achieve unity power factor with the grid following advantages such as simple, compact, low cost
voltage and a maximum power point tracking (MPPT) and simple control, but suffers from low voltage gain and
control. The proposed topology has several desirable low efficiency. In [4], the proposed inverter could buck or
features such as high gain, low cost, compact size and boost input voltage, but suffer from complex control and
simple control. Only two switches operate at high the gain is not very high.
switching frequency and so switching losses are In this paper a single stage inverter is proposed it has a
minimized. Simulation and experimental results are given very high gain, low switches stresses and simple control,
to prove the proposed system. as it will be explained in the next section. Figure 3 shows
the schematic of the proposed inverter. The proposed
Keywords— Single Stage, Buck-Boost Inverter, Low-Cost, inverter consists of two buck boost converters, one
Grid-Connected, PV system, Simple-Control, DCM, MPPT. converter operates during positive half cycle and the
other operates during the negative half cycle.
I. INTRODUCTION
Renewable energy has become an important source of
energy; Photovoltaic system (PV) is an example of
renewable energy. PV modules convert sunlight into
electrical power, so they provide an important source of
energy. PV modules can't be connected to the grid
directly, but this could be done by using power
conditioning system, that is for example H-bridge inverter,
to convert dc output power of PV modules into ac output
power. Output voltage of PV modules is not very high, so
we may be in need to connect more than one module in
series to get the required dc voltage.
H-Bridge Inverter, shown in Fig.1, is a buck inverter
that has the requirement of input voltage greater than
output voltage. In case of input voltage is smaller than
output voltage, a boost converter is used before the Figure 1: Traditional voltage source inverter.
inverter stage to provide the required voltage for the
inverter as shown in Fig. 2. The proposed system is suitable for AC module
Inverters may be classified as single stage or two technology, where each PV module can be attached to the
stages according to how is the input voltage will be grid directly. This application is good as electrical
boosted. In the two stage inverters, the first stage is boost characteristics of the PV module are greatly affected by
converters which boost input voltage to become greater shading condition. Shadow causes the output power of
than output voltage and the second stage is a buck the PV module to be reduced. The proposed inverter
converter used to convert dc input voltage into an ac helps in solving this problem by reducing number of
output voltage. In the single stage inverters, the inverter connected modules per inverter. A maximum power point
does two functions boosting the input voltage and tracking control is applied for better utilization of the PV
converting DC power into AC power. Single stage module. As the module power is low and to simplify the
inverters have some advantages over two stage inverters control for unity power factor DCM mode is applied. The
such as low cost and compact size but suffer from low paper is organized in the following way.
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 63

(3) (4)
Mode 3: when SW1 and all dioodes are OFF and inductor
current becomes zero as shownn in Fig. 4 (d);
0 (5) (6)
Fig. 5 shows inductor currentt and Fig. 6 shows diode

current D4, from steady state analysis , it can be conclude
that:
Figure 2: Two stage inverter configuration. 0 (7) (8)
Where means averagge of inductor voltage and

means average of dioode current. Using (7) and
(8) we could obtain the gain
g of the converter as
following:
√2 (9)
Figure 3: Schematic of the prooposed inverter. Where , D: the converter dusty cycle,
Ts: switching period, L: converter inductor and R: load
resistance. Equation (9) show ws that the gain of the
Section II presents switched inducctor buck boost converter is higher than traditiional buck boost converter
converter. Section III presents analysiss and operation of by √2. Figure 7 shows a compparison between the gain of
the proposed single stage inverter. Secction IV describes the switched inductor and the t traditional buck-boost
the MPPT control techniques used for tracking
t maximum converter. The figure shows the gain of the switched
power from PV. Section V summarizess simulation result inductor is approximately onee and half higher than the
of the proposed system. Section VI summarizes conventional converter.
experimental results of the proposed sysstem.
III. PROPOSED SINGLE STAGE T DC-AC INVERTER
II. SWITCHED INDUCTOR BUCK-BOOST
O CONVERTER The proposed system connsists of two buck boost
Traditional buck-boost converter coould operate as a converters; each converter operates for a half cycle as
buck or boost converter according to the adjusted duty shown in Fig.8. Operation of the t proposed inverter is as
cycle. To increase the gain of the convverter, its inductor follow, Switches SW1 and SW4 S operate at switching
has replaced by the switched inductor proposed in [5] frequency equal to grid fundam mental frequency, each one
operates for one half cycle. SWW4 operates in the positive
with this replacement the gain of the converter is
half cycle while SW1 operates in the negative half cycle.
improved. Figure 4 shows the propoosed buck- boost Switches SW3 and SW2 opperate at high switching
converter. The converter operates in DCCM when , frequency. To provide a highh quality grid current and
that's inductor current ripple is higherr than its average reduce the size of the output fillter each converter operates
value, When the converter operates in DCM, it has three for only one half cycle. SW3 operates
o in the positive half
modes of operation as shown in Fig.4. Mode 1 as shown cycle while SW2 operates inn the negative half cycle.
in Fig. 4 (b) takes place when SW1 annd diodes D1 and Figure 9 shows the operation modes
m of the inverter during
D3 are ON and the steady state equatioon of the converter positive half cycle. During thhe positive half cycle the
is given by: inverter has three modes of operation:
Mode1: when switch SW3 iss ON as shown in Fig. 9 (a).
(1) (2) Mode2: when diode D4 is ON N Fig. 9 (b).
Mode3: when both SW3 andd D4 are OFF as shown in
Mode 2 occurs when diodes D2 and D44 are ON and SW1 Fig.9(c).
is OFF as shown in Fig.4 (c); In order to inject a sinusoidal ac current into the grid at
unity power factor, the operatioon of converters must be in
64
the DCM mode. The proposed inverrter has only four V. SIMULATTION RESULT
switches so that it has lower cost andd lower switching
The proposed system wass simulated using PSIM
losses as compared to two stage invertter. The high gain
buck boost converter helps in reducinng number of PV software. Two PV modules of the BP485 85W PV
modules connected in series which helpps in reducing the module were used [8]. Electrrical characteristics of the
effect of environmental condition, such as shadow, on the used PV module are shown in Table 1. Two PV modules
performance of the PV module annd MPPT control were connected in series to give output power equal to
operation. 170 W. Circuit parameters arre as follow fs = 10 kHz,
input capacitor Cp =10 mF, filter capacitor Cf = 1uF,
switched inductors L1=L2=1220 µH for each converter
IV. MPPT CONTROL ALGORITHM and output filter inductor Lf =3.5
= mH and grid voltage
PV module which is connected to grid must always and frequency are 311V and 500Hz, respectively.
deliver its maximum power to the grid. Any change in the
environmental conditions will shift the operating point of
the PV module to a lower power point, a maximum
power point tracking (MPPT) controlleer is used with PV
modules to ensure that the PV moduless always operate at
its maximum power. Maximum pow wer point tracking
algorithm proposed in [7] will be ussed in this paper.
Figure 10 is the flowchart of the used MPPT control
technique. Where , and are the momentary
m voltage
and current of the PV array. And are the previous
P
voltage and current, respectively. The term can be
I Figure 5: inductor current. Figure 6: diode D4 current.
replaced by I V, making the calcuulation easier. The
V
major check of this algorithm is achieveed by detecting I
I
V, and then D (duty) will be adjdjusted in order to
V
move the operating point into the direcction of maximum
power point of the PV array. The algoorithm begins with
checking if dV 0 or not. If dV 0 , then dI is
checked. For dI 0 , D is held unchannged. For I 0 , D
must be incremented, while if dI 0 , D must be
decremented. On the other hand, if dV d 0 , then I
I I
V should be checked. For I V 0, D is
V V
I
held unchanged. But if I V 0, then D must be
V
I
decreased and if I V 0, D must
m be increased.
V
Then, the algorithm continues until thee power reaches to
its maximum value. Figure 7: Comparison between switched inductor buck boost
converter and traditional buck
b boost converter.
Figure 4: (a) schematic of the proposed Switcheed inductor buck-boost

converter; (b) mode 1; (c) mode2; (d) modee 3. Figure 8: Proposed single sttage inverter.
65
As switches SW2 and SW3 are modulated using sine operate at grid fundamental frequency, while Fig. 14 (a)
wave this cause a large oscillation in the PV output and Fig. 15 (a) show that Switches SW3 and SW2 operate
voltage, this large oscillation make MPPT controller at high switching frequency for only one half cycles.
doesn't work well so that a large capacitor is used in the Inverter Efficiency was found 87% at full load. This is a
input, The value of the switched inductors is very small good efficiency for DCM operation with such high
as the converter operates in the DCM mode and output voltage gain.
filter is very small due to sine modulation of the
converter switches SW2 and SW3. Figure 11 shows
simulation results of the grid current which is in phase
with a grid voltage. Unity power factor is achieved
without any feedback from grid current this is due to the
converter operating in DCM mode. Figure 12 shows
output power of the PV module, the figure indicates that
the MPPT control is operating well and able to extract
maximum power from PV modules. Figure 13 shows one
inductor current as shown each conductor carry current
for only one half cycle, the current is discontinuous and
the ripple is high due to DCM operation.
(a)
Figure 10: Flowchart of the MPPT control.
Table .1 Electrical characteristics of Bp 485 PV module
Electrical Characteristics BP 485

Maximum power (Pmax) 85W
(b) Voltage at Pmax (Vmp) 17.8V
Current at Pmax (Imp) 4.9A
Short-circuit current (Isc) 5.4A
Open-circuit voltage (Voc) 22.0V
Temperature coefficient of Isc (0.065±0.015)%/ °C
Temperature coefficient of Voc -(80±10)mV/°C
Temperature coefficient of power -(0.5±0.05)%/ °C

(c)
Figure 9: operation modes of the inverter during positive half cycle (a)
mode 1 when SW3 is on while D4 is off (b)mode 2 when SW3is off
while D4 is on (c) mode 3 when SW3 and D4 are off
Figure 14 and 15 show the switches’ pulses. Figure

14 (b) and Fig. 15 (b) show that switches SW4 and SW1
66
Figure 11: grid current multiplied by 50 and grid voltage
Figure 15: Switches SW1 and SW2 pulses (a)-switch SW2 pulses (b)-
switch SW1.
Figure 12: Output power of PV module.
Figure 16: Switches SW1 and SW4 Experimental pulses
VI. EXPERIMENTAL RESULT

A prototype for the proposed PV system has been
established in the lab. The prototype was built using five
inductors four 120µH for the two converters and one 3.5
mH for the filter, three MBR40250G diodes and one
RURG8060 diode, two capacitors 10 mF and 1µF, low
Figure 13: Inductor current. switching frequency switches, SW1 and SW4, were
constructed using two IRFP27N60KPBF switches while
the two converters switches were built using
IXFT36N50P switches. FPGA kite were used to generate
switches pulses and to perform maximum power point
tracking on the inverter. Figure 16 shows switches SW1
and SW4 pulses, as shown each switch operates for only
one half cycles. Figure 17 shows switch SW3 pulses, the
switch is operating at switching frequency equal to 10
kHz to obtain high quality output and reduce output filter.
First, the PV output has been checked for MPPT. A
resistive load of 880 ohm was used as a load. The
obtained PV output which will be the input voltage of the
inverter is 20V as shown in Fig. 18, this creates an output
Figure 14: switches SW3 and SW4 pulses (a)-switch SW3 pulses (b)- voltage of the inverter of 314 V as shown in Fig. 19. The
switch SW4 shape of the voltage is sinusoidal and with low ripple.
67
cycles and operates in DCM to provide unity power
factor control. Due to the high voltage gain of the
converter, a reduction in the number of modules
connected in series is used and this helps in overcoming
the environmental variations such as shadows which
reduce output power of the PV modules. Simulation and
experimental results assure the proposed idea of the
single stage interleaved inverter for high voltage gain
applications.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors gratefully thank the ministry of Science,
Egyptian science and technology development funds (STDF
project No 346), for supporting this project.
Figure 17: Switch SW3 Pulses.
REFERENCES
[1] R. Cácere and I. Barbi, " A boost dc–ac converter: analysis,
design, and experimentation," IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON
POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 14, NO. 1, JANUARY 1999.
[2] N. Kasa and T. Iida, “Fly back type inverter for small scale
photovoltaic power system,” in Proc. IEEE IECON, 2002, vol. 2,
pp. 1089–1094.
[3] S. Jain and V. Agarwal, " A Single-Stage grid connected inverter
topology for solar PV systems with maximum power point
tracking," TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL.
22, NO. 5, SEPTEMBER 2007
[4] C. Wang, “A Novel single-stage full-bridge buck-boost inverter,”
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, Vol.19, No.
1, January 2004.
[5] B. Axelrod, Y. Berkovich and A. Ioinovici, "switched-capacitor/
switched-inductor structures for getting transformer less hybrid
dc–dc pwm converters, " IEEE TRANSACTIONS on Circuits and
Figure 18: PV output voltage. Systems-----I: REGULAR PAPERS, VOL. 55, NO. 2, MARCH 2008
[6] T. Liang, Y. Kuo and J. Chen, ‘‘Single-stage photovoltaic energy
conversion system,’’ Electric Power Applications, IEE Proceedings-
Volume: 148.2001.
[7] www.solarcellsales.com/techinfo/docs/bp-485.pdf.
Figure 19: Output voltage of the inverter.
VII. CONCLUSION
A single stage buck boost inverter was proposed in this
paper, the inverter has desirable features such as simple
control, low switching losses, lower number of switches
and low cost. The inverter consists of two interleaved
buck boost converter each one operates for only one half
68
Renewable Energy Inverter Development using

dSPACE DS1104 Controller Board
Zamre Abd. Ghani*, MA Hannan**, Azah Mohamed***
*
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia. Email: zamree64@eng.ukm.my
**
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia. Email: hannan@vlsi.eng.ukm.my
***
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia. Email: azah@ vlsi.eng.ukm.my
Abstract—In this paper, the development of three-phase II. DSPACE CONTROLLER BOARD
renewable energy inverter by using the dSPACE DS1104 digital
signal processing controller board is presented. The board A dSPACE DS1104 controller board is used as an inverter
enables the MATLAB/Simulink model linking to the hardware. control platform because it enables the linking of the
The standalone voltage source inverter’s control system which is MATLAB/Simulink inverter model to the real hardware. This
implemented in the DS1104 board utilizes a digital proportional is done by introducing the dSPACE input-output (I/O) interface
integral controller to stabilize its 50Hz sinusoidal ac output blocks such as DS1104ADC, DS1104DAC and
voltages. The board generates the sinusoidal pulse-width DS1104BIT_OUT_CX blocks into the Simulink models. By
modulation control signals for the switching of the inverter’s using the MATLAB/Simulink Real-Time-Workshop (RTW)
power devices, insulated gate bipolar transistors. The simulation function, the Simulink model with the dSPACE interface
was performed in the Simulink/MATLAB environment and the blocks is converted to the C-code automatically [8]. Then this
PV output power is represented by a dc power supply. This code is compiled by a compiler and linked to the real-time
simulation is then translated into the inverter prototype which dSPACE DS1104 processor board. With the application of the
was tested in the laboratory. The experimental results waveforms dSPACE ControlDesk graphical user interface (GUI) software,
such as ac output voltages, current and total harmonic distortion the monitoring of the performance and behavior of the inverter
are presented. in real time is made possible [8]. Moreover, the user is able to
Keywords- PV; dSPACE; inverter; SPWM; MATLAB/Simulink
alter the controller parameters and see the performance in a real
time.
I. INTRODUCTION A deadbeat controller that utilizes dSPACE DS1104
There are many types of electronic controllers which used controller board in the design of high frequency link inverter is
to control the inverters, for instance analogue circuit considered [9]. A digital proportional integral (PI) controller is
controllers, digital circuit controllers, digital signal processors an alternative way to control and stabilize the ac output
(DSP), microcomputers and field programmable gate arrays voltage. Fig. 1 shows a block diagram of the dSPACE DS1104
(FPGAs) [1][2][3][4]. Many opportunities still exist for the which consists of a main processor PowerPC603 64-bit
design engineers to improve on inverters, since inverter failure floating-point processor runs at 250MHz, and a slave 16-bit
remains one of the primary causes of photovoltaic (PV) system DSP subsystem based on the TMS320F240 DSP
failure [5]. Improvement on the inverter’s controller microcontroller. This controller is used due to its ideal
performance is one of the methods to improve the inverter hardware for prototype development system for cost-sensitive
performance. rapid control prototyping. It is specially designed for the
development of high-speed multivariable digital controllers and
With the availability of a graphical object-oriented package real-time simulations in various fields [8].
(ControlDesk software), a dSPACE system has enables the
development of user-friendly control panels for on line
monitoring and supervision [6]. A dSPACE system is quite
popular in controlling platform and is widely used in
automation systems and car manufacturing industries [7]. As
an alternative application area, the dSPACE system is used as a
control platform in the PV standalone inverter development.
In this paper, the simulation is carried out by demonstrating
the sinusoidal pulse-width modulation (SPWM) control
scheme as to justify for the implementation of the real inverter
hardware. The simulation is carried out in Simulink/MATLAB
environment with the SimPowerSystem and dSPACE RTI1104
(Real-Time Interface) blockset libraries.
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 69

Personal Computer SPWM generator
νdref, PLL
νqref Triangular wave
dSPACE DS1104 Board Voltage regulator
PCI slot Slave DSP-TI d,q/a,b,c inverse

TMS320F240 PI Comparator
transformation
PowerPC 603 Master
Processor SPWM
a,b,c/d,q output
Memory Memory From
transformation
ADC
Serial Peripheral
Timers
Interface
PLL
Interrupt controller 4 Capture Inputs
Figure 3. Block diagram of the voltage control scheme implemented in
ADC Unit PWM Generator dSPACE DS1104 controller board
DAC Unit
The sampled signals are transformed into a two-phase
Digital IO reference frame system dq (direct-quadrature)-coordinate
system by using the Park’s transformation [10] with the
Incremental Encoder assumption that the three-phase load is a balance load, hence
Interface the νo term in the dq coordinate frame can be neglected. This
transformation employs the 50Hz synchronization signal from
a phase-locked loop (PLL) block.
Inverter
Next, these voltages are compared to the reference voltage
Figure 1. Block diagram of the dSPACE DS1104 controller board νdref and νqref . This process generates the error voltages which
are fed to the PI controllers for the output voltage regulation.
III. CONTROL STRATEGY The PI control algorithm (in time domain) is shown (1).
Fig. 2 shows the block diagram of a dSPACE controlled t
inverter used in this paper. It consists of three main blocks u (t ) = K p e(t ) + K i ∫ e(τ )dτ (1)
0
which are (1) voltage sensors, (2) dSPACE DS1104 controller
board and (3) inverter. The inverter output is then connected to Where u (t ) is the output of the PI controller, parameter K p
the load.
Inverter output voltages, νa νb νc and K i are the gains of the controller, and e(t ) is the error
Voltage sensors which is the difference between the reference voltage and the
measured one (error = νdref - νd). The controller minimizes the
Inverter rise time and the steady-state error of the inverter output
ADC voltage. The controller calculates the integral of the error and
Driver IGBT Filter sums it with the error. Based on this summation, the PI
controller will generate a control signal in such a way that the
Voltage regulator
error signal is kept to a minimum value [11]. In this way the
system is capable of keeping the output voltage as close as
SPWM
SPWM generator possible to the reference voltage. As a result the inverter output
signals Load
voltage can be controlled and stabilized.
Digital I/O In order to shape up the inverter output waveforms close to
the sinusoidal waveforms, the output signals from the PI need
dSPACE DS1104 to be transformed back to the 3-phase coordinates system. This
controller board is accomplished by using the inverse Park’s transformation
[10] which requires the synchronization signal from PLL as
Figure 2. Block diagram of dSPACE controlled inverter
well. Finally these signals are fed to the SPWM generator for
the generation of SPWM switching signals for the inverter. The
The voltage sensors consist of three voltage sensors
SPWM is one the method to pulse-width modulate the
circuitry which functions as an interface between the inverter inverter’s switches in order to shape the output ac voltages to
and the input of dSPACE controller board. In order to read the be as close to a sine wave as possible [12]. The switches duty
inverter analog output voltages, νa, νb and νc, these sensors are ratios are modulated by the control signal (reference signal)
used. The voltages are read and scaled down to workable which is the desired inverter’s output fundamental frequency.
voltage level for the dSPACE DS1104 board. These analog In this generator, the control signal of 50 Hz are compared to
signals then are fed to the ADC (Analog-to-Digital Converter) the triangular wave (carrier) of 3050 Hz to generate the SPWM
channels of the dSPACE DS1104 board. The signals are switching signals to drive the inverter’s switching devices
sampled and used for a voltage regulation process in the (IGBTs). This triangular wave’s frequency establishes the
voltage control scheme which is detailed out in Fig. 3. inverter switching frequency with which the inverter switches
are switched. [12]. A control variable called modulation index,
M, is responsible for the rms (root-mean-squared) output
voltage of the inverter. The modulation index is the ratio of the
70
amplitude of control signal, Aref to the amplitude of carrier In the simulation model, the PV input is replaced with a
signal, Atri which is fixed, as shown in (2). 40V dc input voltage which represents the output power from
the PV. In the figure, the IGBT, LC filter and transformer make
(2) up the inverter unit which is connected to the resistive load.
The oscilloscopes are employed to measure inverter’s output
The rms output (fundamental) line voltage is proportional to waveform before and after filter. The system control is
the modulation index and the input voltage, and is shown in governed by controller which reads the inverter’s dc input
(3). voltage the output ac voltages and then generates the PWM
0.612 (3) signals for driving the IGBTs. With the control scheme
implementation, the inverter is able to maintain a phase and
The index can be varied from 0 to 1 (linear range) which then line voltage output as in the result and discussion section.
varies the output voltage from 0 to 0.612 . Increasing the
index above 1 (usually avoided) will cause over modulation The dSPACE DS1104 enables the linking of the
and resulted higher output voltages with more harmonics MATLAB/Simulink model to the real inverter hardware. The
appear in the output waveform compared to that of linear implementation of the control system with the dSPACE
region. DS1104 RTI (Real-Time Interface) for the PV inverter system
is shown in Fig. 5.
The inverter consists of three main sections which are (1)
driver (2) IGBTs and (3) filter. This IGBT driver circuit serves
as an interface between the DS1104 controller board output
SPWM signals and the inverter’s IGBT. For the inverter
operation, it is important that the generated SPWM switching
signals posses the correct voltage levels for the IGBT to switch
completely on and off. Another important criterion is that there
must be isolation between system control circuit which deals
with low voltage and high voltage of the inverter. This is
achieved with the design of IGBT’s driver circuits that employ
the optocoupler devices.
To produce a three-phase 50 Hz output voltage, the
controller generates the SPWM gating signals as described
previously. As a result of IGBT’s switching on and off
according to the SPWM signals, the ac voltage waveforms are
Figure 5. dSPACE DS1104 RTI control system implementation of the PV
generated at the inverter’s output. These output voltage passes inverter system
through the second order LC low pass filter to reduce the
higher order harmonic components as to produce a nearly The dSPACE DS1104 RTI library blocks used are
sinusoidal shape output waveform. It is recommended to set the DS1104BIT_OUT blocks and DS1104MUX_ADC blocks. The
cut-off frequency 1 or 2 octave above the fundamental DS1104MUX_ADC block is used for reading and sampling of
frequency which is 200 Hz [13]. The calculated capacitance the inverter’s output voltages. It converts the voltages to digital
and inductance values are 30μF and 20 mH, respectively. Since form to be used by the controller. The generated SPWM
the dc (direct current) input voltage is small, the inverter output switching signals are then connected to the conversion block
voltage need to be stepped-up and this is achieved by using the for a suitable voltage level required by the DS1104BIT_OUT
transformer. blocks. The SPWM signals are connected to the hardware
(inverter) through the DS1104BIT_OUT blocks.
The other components involved which are not shown in
Fig. 2 are a dc input power which comes from a PV modules V. EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP
and a transformer. For the in-laboratory testing, the PV is
As to verify the simulation, an inverter prototype was
represented by the dc power supply source.
build, tested and evaluated in laboratory. For the in-laboratory
IV. SIMULATION MODEL evaluation, the dc input voltage is set to 40V. The equipments
used include dc power supply to represent the PV, digital
Fig. 4 shows the inverter system simulation model using
multimeter, oscilloscope and Fluke 434 Power Quality
dSPACE controller which runs in Simulink/MATLAB
environment. Analyzer. The currents are measured by using three ac current
clamps Fluke i400S. The set up is shown in Fig. 6.
Figure 4. Inverter system simulation model using dSPACE controller
71
These three-phase voltage waveforms contain harmonics
Dc power components which can be reduced and filtered out after
supply passing through the LC filter. The output voltage waveforms
after filtering are shown in Fig. 9.
0.2
0.15
0.1
Driver
0.05
Voltage (V)
IGBT Power
Quality 0
Analyzer
-0.05
Figure 6. In lab experimental set-up
-0.1
VI. RESULT AND DISCUSSION -0.15
A. Simulation results
-0.2
Fig. 7 shows simulation result of inverter output voltage 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
Time (sec)
before the filter.
Figure 9. 3-phase output voltage after the filter
40 It can be seen that the waveforms are sinusoidal shape. The

waveform’s frequency is determined by considering the period,
30 T which is 0.02 seconds and corresponds to a frequency of 50
20 Hz. A fast fourier transform (FFT) analysis is performed on the
output voltage waveform in order to determine the quality of
Voltage (V)
10 the output voltage. The total harmonic distortion (THD) is

0 calculated and the result is shown in Fig. 11. From the figure, it
can be seen that the output voltage THD is 0.26% which is
-10 below than 5%.
-20
Selected signal: 2 cycles. FFT window (in red): 1 cycles
-30
Phase voltage (V)
0.1
-40
0
0 0.01 0.02 -0.1
Time (sec)
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04
Figure 7. Output voltage before the LC filter Time (s)
It consists of phase a, phase b and phase c voltage waveforms Fundamental (50Hz) = 0.1873 , THD= 0.26%
which alternate between +40Vdc, 0V and -40Vdc. For a clearer

Mag (% of Fundamental)
0.25
waveform, a phase-a voltage waveform is shown in Fig. 8.
0.2
0.15
40 0.1
0.05
0
0 5 10 15 20
20 Harmonic order
Voltage (V)
Figure 11. FFT analysis for simulation showing the THD of the output
0 voltage
B. Experimental results
-20
For the experimental result, the phase voltages and
currents are measured and shown in Fig. 12 and Fig. 13
-40 respectively.
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
Time (sec)
Figure 8. Output waveform of phase-a before filter
72
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors acknowledge the financial support received
under the grant UKM-OUP-TK-15-68/2010.
REFERENCES
[1] Said H. El-Hefnawi, “Digital Firing and Digital Control of A
Photovoltaic Inverter”, Renewable Energy, Vol 12, No. 3, pp. 315-320,
1997.
[2] Frederick et. al, “A McMurray Inverter Controller”, IEEE Transactions
On Industrial Electronics and Control Instrumentation (IECI), Vol. 26,
No. 3, pp. 156-160, 1979.
[3] Jeyraj Selvaraj and Nasrudin A. Rahim, “Multilevel Inverter For Grid-
Figure 12. Experimental output voltages of phase a,b and c Connected PV System Employing Digital PI Controller”, IEEE
Transaction On Industrial Electronics, Vol. 56, No. 1, pp. 149-158,
2009.
It can be seen that the phase a voltage is 133.3 Vrms, which is
[4] Saad Melkhilev and N. A. Rahim, “XilinX FPGA Based Three-Phase
nearly sinusoidal with a frequency of 50Hz. PWM Inverter and Its Application For Utility Connected SyStem”,
Proceeeding of IEEE TENCON, pp. 2079-2082, 2002.
[5] Roger A. Messenger and Jerry Ventre, Photovoltaic System Engineering,
Second Edition, CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, Florida. 2004.
[6] Sefa, N. Altin, S. Ozdemir and M. Demirtas, “ dSPACE Based Control
of Voltage Source Utility Interactive Inverter”, International
Symposium on Power Electronics, Electrical Drives, Automation and
Motion (SPEEDAM), pp. 662-666, 2008.
[7] Li, H.L et. al. “ Development of a Direct ac-ac Converter Based on a
dSPACE Platform”, International Conference on Power System
Technology, Chongqing (China), pp. 1-6, 2006.
[8] dSPACE DS1104. Hardware Installation and Configuration and
ControlDesk Experiment Guide, Paderborn, Germany, 2008.
[9] Zainal Salam, Toh Leong Soon and Mohd Zulkifli Ramli, “ Hardware
Implementation of the High Frequency Link Inverter Using dSPACE
DS1104 Digital Signal Processing Board”, First International Power
and Energy Conference PECon, pp. 348-352, 2006.
Figure 13. Three phase output current with phase a,b and c [10] Hadi Saadat, Power System Analysis, Second Edition, McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., United States of America, 2004.
The figure shows the phase current waveforms of frequency [11] Krismadinata Chaniago, J. Selvaraj and N. A. Rahim, “Implementation
50Hz which are nearly sinusoidal. The THD for the output of Single-Phase Grid Connected Inverter Using TMS320F2812”,
Conference on Industrial Electronics and Applications ICEA, pp. 1498-
waveform was measured to be 24.6% and it is shown in Fig. 1502, 2008.
14. The filter needs to be improved for more reduction in [12] Mohan et al, Power Electronics, Converters, Applications, and Design,
lower order of harmonics component levels. Third Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,New Jersey, 2003.
[13] J. Micheal Jacob, Power Electronics: Principle & Applications, Delmar
Thomson Learning Inc., New York, 2002.
Figure 14. THD for the phase a, b and c output voltage
VII. CONCLUSION
The three-phase PV inverter controller development by
using the DSPACE DS1104 controller board as the platform
has been presented. It has been simulated and tested in
MATLAB/SIMULINK and in the laboratory respectively. The
test results show that the inverter controller produces stable and
near 50Hz sinusoidal shape line voltage of 230Vrms. The output
voltage and current waveform’s THD is quite high and need
further improvement in the filter hardware implementation in
order to improve the quality of the output waveform.
73
ANFIS Based Field Oriented Control for Matrix

Converter fed Induction Motor
Chitra Venugopal*
* University of Kwazulu Natal/School of Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering, South Africa
Abstract—This paper presents a novel Adaptive Neural Sensorless vector control and Field Oriented
Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS) based Matrix Converter Control(FOC).
for speed control of Induction Motor. The proposed ANFIS Direct torque control method consists of torque and flux
consists of fuzzy logic controller algorithm with a five layer estimators, adaptive model of the motor and optimum
Artificial Neural Network. The ANFIS system tunes the switch selector table blocks. The major drawbacks of DTC
fuzzy system with hybrid learning algorithm and hence are adaptive model of the motor. Because this involves
generates the reference voltage. The reference voltage is calculating an estimate of the motor’s magnetic flux and
used to generate the duty cycle for matrix converter torque to select the switching state of the drive. Inaccurate
switches. The matrix converter is designed using Venturini estimations degrade the drive performance and hence the
algorithm and results are shown under different switching
speed control process. In Sensorless vector control method
frequencies.
around zero speed, the slip angular velocity estimation
The ANFIS based Field Oriented Controller
becomes impossible since division by zero takes place.
circuit is designed using MATLAB/SIMULINK and its
Field Oriented Control (FOC) technique is intended to
performance is investigated under different reference speed control the motor flux and thereby be able to decompose
and torque conditions. The conventional PI controller based the AC motor current into flux and torque components.
matrix converter drive and ANFIS controller based matrix These components can be treated separately and then
converter drive is designed. Their speed and torque recombined to create the actual motor phase currents. This
performance are compared. The simulation study indicates gives a better control of the motor torque and hence higher
the robustness and suitability of ANFIS controller based dynamic performance[4].
matrix converter drive for high performance applications. This method employs the conventional Proportional
Integral (PI) Controllers. However the design of these
Keywords — Field Oriented Control; Matrix Converter; controllers depends on selecting accurate PI gain values.
ANFIS Controller; PI Controller; Because these PI controllers are very sensitive to
disturbances, parameter variations and system non-
I. INTRODUCTION linearity. To select the accurate PI gain values the exact
Induction motors are widely used in Industrial mathematical model of the motor must be derived.
applications where wide range of speed control and fast The design of Intelligent controllers based Artificial
torque response is required. The drive circuit should be Intelligence does not need the exact model of the motor.
capable of providing variable amplitude and variable Therefore, Artificial Neural Network (ANN) and Fuzzy
frequency to the induction motor to operate it at the Logic Control (FLC) draws considerable attention in the
required speed and torque levels. But the major drawbacks variable speed control drives. The accuracy of FLC
of the conventional Voltage Source inverter circuit are that method depends on the rule set and shape of the
it requires bulky DC link components and limitation on membership function. The accuracy of ANN method
its output frequency levels. Cycloconverters eliminates depends on the training data set.
this drawback by changing the output frequency less than In this paper Adaptive Neuro- Fuzzy Inference System
the input frequency or higher than the input frequency. (ANFIS) is used as an intelligent tool to replace the
But cycloconverters operate satisfactorily when changing conventional PI controllers. It helps to generate and
the output frequency less than the input frequency. The optimize membership functions as well as the rule base
performance of cycloconverters is not satisfactory when from the sample data provided. It does not require the
changing the output frequency higher than the input mathematical model of the system. This paper provides a
frequency due to the amount of ripples present in the novel control technique for matrix converter based on
output. Matrix converter eliminates this drawback by ANFIS. A complete simulation model of the FOC based
providing sinusoidal output voltage and sinusoidal input matrix converter fed Induction motor is developed. The
current[1]. Also, the number of switches used in matrix speed and torque performance of the induction motor is
converter is less compared to cycloconverters and the obtained for various reference speed values. A comparison
switches provide bi-directional current flow. Another is made with the conventional PI speed controller and
major advantage of matrix converter is that it provides ANFIS based speed controller response. Section II
AC-AC conversion without any DC link. Hence the size presents the mathematical modeling of the matrix
of the converter is greatly reduced due to the lack energy converter and its output for various input frequencies.
storage link. Section III presents the design of conventional and ANFIS
There are different type of conventional control based FOC schemes. Section IV presents the performance
techniques available namely Direct Torque Control(DTC), of schemes for various reference speed values and
comparison results. Section V presents the conclusion.
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 74

II. DESIGN OF MATRIX CONVERTER The relationship between input and output current is
given by
A. Fundamentals of Matrix Converter
Matrix Converter is one of the direct AC-AC converters io (t ) = M (t ) T .ii (t ) (2)
which can produce variable output voltage with variable Where,
frequency. Matrix Converter has got 9 bi-directional
switches arranged in the form of 3 x 3 matrixes[2]. The ⎡m Aa m Ba mCa ⎤
M (t ) = ⎢⎢m Ab mCb ⎥⎥
switches are capable of holding bi-directional current
flow. The turn on and turn off of the switches are m Bb (3)
controlled by using appropriate control technique to ⎢⎣ m Ac m Bc mCc ⎥⎦
produce sinusoidal output voltage and sinusoidal input
current. The general structure of matrix converter is
shown in the Fig. 1.
The switching state of bi-directional switches should be The output voltage of each phase is given by
selected such that the following rules should not be
violated at any operating condition
• Input short circuit should be avoided by not t A0 * v A + t Bo * v B + t Co * vC
vo = (4)
connecting any two input lines to the same output line T
• Output short circuit should be avoided by
connecting atleast any one of the input phase to the output T = t Ao + t Bo + t Co (5)
Considering the above two conditions various modulation t io
techniques are developed to turn on and turn off of mio = (6)
switches without producing overcurrent and overvoltage T
spikes. Venturini algorithm presents a modulation method Where, t Ao , t Bo , t Co represents switching interval of
in which the output voltages are obtained by multiplying
the modulation index matrix with the input voltages. In each switch, T represents the sampling interval and mio is
the scalar control algorithm, the switching is arranged so the duty cycle of the each switch.
that each output is switched between the most positive and
most negative lines using PWM technique. The space 1 Vi v o 2q
vector modulation technique, the space vectors of input mio = [1 + 2 + sin(ωi t + β i ) sin(3ωi t ) (7)
3 2 3q m
current and voltages are analyzed and based on the Vim
position the switching sequence is determined.
Where, q is the voltage transfer ratio given as
B. Design of Matrix Converter 2
v om
Here Venturini algorithm is used to design the matrix q= and qm is the maximum voltage transfer ratio
converter. The bi-directional switches are controlled such Vim2
that any of the input phases (A,B,C) can be connected to 0.866.
any of the output phases(a,b,c) during the particular
The block diagram of matrix converter is shown in Fig. 2.
switching interval[8].
The input filter is used to eliminate the harmonics. Duty
According to venturini algorithm[2], the relationship cycle generator block is constructed using the equations
between the output voltage and input voltage is given by (1) upto (7). The reference voltage is given from a
vo (t ) = M (t ).Vi (t ) (1) reference source to check the output current and voltage of
matrix converter. Fig. 3 and Fig. 4 shows the matrix
Where, o(= a,b,c) represents the output phase converter output voltage and output current respectively.
components and i(=A,B,C) represents the input phases. Fig.5 and Fig. 6 shows the duty cycle for switching
frequency of 100Hz and 5000Hz respectively.
III. INDIRECT FIELD ORIENTED CONTROL

A. Conventional Controller
In the conventional Field Oriented Control (FOC), the
control is achieved in the reference frame (d-q) which is
attached to the rotor flux space vector [5]. So to achieve
the control, the system needs the information of
magnitude and phase angle of the rotor flux space vector.
To get this, the stator currents of the induction motor are
separated into flux and torque producing components by
applying Clarke and park transformations. The direct axis
(d-axis) should be aligned with the rotor flux space
Fig.1 General Structure of Matrix Converter [1] vector. The space vector is rotating at a rate equal to the
angular frequency of the phase currents[5]. With the rotor
magnetic flux space vector, the rotational d-q axis can be
75
Fig. 2 Block diagram of Matrix Converter
established. From the d-q co-ordinate system, the stator
current torque (isq) and flux (isd) producing components
are separated. The error between the required
speed and actual speed is calculated. PI controllers are 1
used to produce reference voltages. These PI controllers 0.9
are tuned by isq and isd . The reference voltages generated 0.8
by PI controllers are used to determine the switching state 0.7
of the switches in the matrix converter. 0.6
S witching voltage
0.5
0.4
200
0.3
150
0.2
100
0.1
Voltage in Volts
50 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Time in msec
-50 Fig. 6 Duty Cycle for Switching frequency of 5000Hz

-100
B. ANFIS Controller
-150
The ANFIS is one of the inferences systems where
fuzzy logic and artificial neural network is combined.
-200
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
Time in sec 4
x 10
Using the prior knowledge about the output of the system,
artificial neural network can be trained online or offline
Fig. 3 Matrix Converter output voltage
learning process. The ANFIS inference system structure
proposed is composed of five functional blocks namely
60 rule base, database, decision making unit, fuzzification
interface and defuzzification interface.
40
These five blocks are generated using five network
20 layers. The inputs to the ANFIS controller are flux error
and speed error. The error signals are multiplied by their
Current in Amp
0
respective weights and mapped through two fuzzy logic
membership functions. Training the ANFIS is system is
actually tuning the weights to reduce the flux and speed
-20
-40 errors. According the tuning the width of the membership

function of the ANFIS structure gets changed. The
-60
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 proposed ANFIS structure composed of five membership
Time in Sec 4
x 10 function and governed by 25 rules.The ANFIS layers and
Fig. 4 Matrix Converter output current rules are shown in Fig. 7.
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
Switching Voltage
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Time in sec
Fig. 5 Duty cycle for Switching frequency of 100Hz
Fig. 7 ANFIS layers and Rules formation
76
VA Va
ViA
VB Vb
ViB
VC Vc
ViC
Phi
VAref VAref Is a
Vsd Vsd Vsalpha Vs alpha
theta VBref
VBref Is b
PI Current Controller Vsq Vs beta Vs beta VCref

VCref Is c
dq -alphabeta alphabeta -abc
Matrix Converter
wr Is q*
Vsq
Speed Saturation theta
ANFIS
PI Controller
Controller
Isa
theta
Isd Is alpha Isalpha

Isb
Isq Isbeta Isbeta Isc

wsl-theta
ABC-alphabeta
alphabeta -dq
wm
wsl
Va
wm Vb
Vc
Is d
Motor Speed
wsl Tm Isa
Is q
Isb
wsl
Motor Torque
Isc
Phi
Te 1
Induction Motor model Torque Reference
Fig. 8 ANFIS based FOC for Matrix Converter
The surface view of the rules are shown in Fig.13.The 160.24
output of the ANFIS controller generates Vsd and Vsq 160.22
voltages. These voltages are converted into three phase 160.2
voltages and fed as reference voltages into the matrix 160.18

wm in rad/sec
converter. Using the algorithm described in section II, 160.16
required duty cycle can be calculated. The switches will 160.14
be turned on and off according to the duty cycle and 160.12
hence the frequency and amplitude of output voltage can 160.1
be altered to achieve the reference speed.

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000
Time in msec
Fig. 10 Speed Response of PI Controller (TL =10)

IV. SIMULAITON RESULTS 159.985
To verify the technique proposed in the paper,

simulations based on Matlab/Simulink is implemented. 159.98
Fig. 8 shows the simulation model of Indirect Field

Oriented Control using ANFIS Controller. The speed and 159.975
wm in rad/sec
torque performance of conventional FOC based matrix

converter fed induction motor are compared with the 159.97
ANFIS controller based matrix converter fed induction

motor performance. Fig. 9 and Fig. 10 shows the speed 159.965
response of PI controller for no load and applied torque

respectively. Fig. 11 and Fig. 12 shows the speed response 159.96
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Time in msec
3000 3500 4000 4500 5000
ANFIS controller of no load and applied load torque

Fig. 11 Speed response of ANFIS Controller (TL=0)
respectively.
160.045
160.22
160.2 160.04
160.18
160.035
160.16
wm in rad/sec
160.03
wm in rad/sec
160.14
160.025
160.12
160.02
160.1
160.015
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000
160.01
Fig. 9 Speed response of PI controller (TL = 0)

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000
Time in msec
Fig. 12 Speed response of ANFIS Controller (TL=10)
77
The reference speed is maintained at 160 shows that the proposed ANFIS based controller for
rad/sec. Initially the performance of PI controller and matrix converter fed Induction motor is found to be
ANFIS controller was investigated with no load torque. It suitable for high performance applications.
is observed that PI controller initial speed shoots upto .
160.19 and in settles at 160.09 rad/sec. The load torque of
20 Nm is applied at t- 0.28msec, then the speed of PI REFERENCES
controller shoots to 160.22 rad/sec and settles at 160.12.
The ANFIS controller avoids the overshoot. Initially the [1] E.Erdem, Y.Tater, and S.Suntar, “Modelling and Simulation of
Matrix Converter using Space Vector Control algorithm”,
at no load torque, the speed stays constant at 159.975. EUROCON 2005, Nov 2005.
When load torque is applied, the speed goes upto 160.04 [2] A.Alesina and M.G.B. Venturini, “Analysis and design of
rad/sec and settles at 160.015 rad/sec. optimum amplitude nine-switch direct ac-ac converters,” IEEE
The results shows better performance of ANFIS Trans. Power Electronics, vol 4, no. 1, pp. 101 – 112, Jam. 1989.
controller based Matrix converter drive for Induction [3] D.Casadei, G.Serra, and A.Tani, “Reduction of the input current
harmonic content in matrix converters under input/output
motor as compared to Conventional PI controller drive unbalance,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electronics, vol. 45, no. 3, pp. 401 –
based matrix converter drive for Induction Motor under 411, Jun. 1998.
no load and loaded torque conditions. [4] B.K. Bose, “Power Electronics and AC Drives,” Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: 1986.
V. CONCLUSION [5] C. Wang, D.W. Novotny, T.A. Lipo, “An Automated Rotor time
Constant Measurement System for Indirect Field-Oriented
A novel ANFIS controller based Matrix Converter for Drives,” IEEE Trans. On IA, Jan./Feb. 1988, vol. 24, pp. 151 –
Induction Motor is presented in this paper. The matrix 159.
converter is designed using Venturini algorithm and [6] H.Karaca, R. Akkaya, H. Dogan, “A Novel Compensation Method
sinusoidal current and voltage outputs are generated. The Based on Fuzzy logic Control for Matrix Converter under
variation in duty cycle is observed for different switching Distorted Input Voltage Conditions”, IEEE International
Conference on Electrical Machines, September 2008.
frequency selection. It shows that the change in reference
[7] M.E.O. Filho, E.R. Filho, K.E.B. Quindere, J.R. Gazoli, “A
voltage from the controller changes the selection of Simple Current Control for Matrix Converter”, IEEE International
switching state of the matrix converter. The ANFIS Symposium on Industrial Electronics, pp. 2090 – 2094, 2006.
controller based Field Oriented Control for matrix [8] H.Karaca, R.Akkaya, “Control of Venturini Method based Matrix
converter is designed. The advantages of ANFIS are Converter in Input Voltage variations,” Proceedings of the
International Multi Conference of Engineers and Computer
faster speed operation and accuracy due to training Scientists 2009, Vol. II, Mar. 18-20, 2009.
capability. The performance of ANFIS controller is
compared with conventional PI controller. The results
Fig. 13. Surface view of the rules in ANFIS
78
Analysis of Hybrid Photovoltaic and Wind

Energies Connected to Unbalanced
Distribution Systems
Karar Mahmoud and Mamdouh Abdel-Akher
APEARC, Department of Electrical Engineering
Aswan Faculty of Engineering, South Valley University
81542 ASWAN, Egypt
Abstract— This paper presents a steady state analysis of power loss of the system and improve voltage profile [1,
allocation of photo-voltaic and wind generation units in 2].
electrical distribution networks. A complete steady state Authors in [3, 4] provide an index terms to study the
models for PV energy power generation systems for power impact and the benefits of connecting distribution
flow applications is applied. In addition, a new model for the
generation in a distribution network. It is noticeable that,
induction generator for wind generation unit will be
presented. These models are driven without any assumption studying of the effect of the distribution network is
and by taking into consideration complete generation considered as important steps for defining the operation
system equivalent circuits parameters. It is noticeable that of distribution networks.
the input data for these driven models are only the This paper studies the impact of connecting
environmental conditions. In addition, different load Distribution PV, wind, and hybrid generation units in the
models, capacitor banks, distribution transformer and unbalanced distribution networks. Twenty four
voltage regulators are also implemented with any number of simulations, each of which represents the average
phases and connection. This Analysis is performed to behavior of the system for the time period of one hour,
identify issues that will be most relevant to engineers
are used to study the system conditions over the course of
working in planning and operations of distribution systems
with installed distribution generation. Comprehensive tests the day .The used power flow algorithm is based on
are applied on 123 node IEEE distribution test system. backward/forward [5]. The IEEE 123 node distribution
system is used for this analysis.
Keywords—Distribution system; real power loss; PV
generation unit; Wind generation unit
II. DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM MODELING
I. INTRODUCTION The detailed of models for distribution system elements
Due to the rapid increase of distributed energy include:
resources, distribution systems can no longer be modeled A. Line Model
as passive networks receiving electric power from the Distribution lines employ phase coordinates for the
high voltage power transmission networks and solution of the unbalanced distribution systems. This is
distributing it to consumers. Consequently, the existing obtained by applying Kron’s reduction technique to the
distribution power-flow tools are deemed inadequate for 4×4 impedance matrix. This is applicable for well-
the modeling, design, and characterization of active grounded distribution system [6]. If any phase, neutral
power distribution networks. Moreover, the existing wire, or grounding of the line section does not exist, the
positive sequence network software tools for planning corresponding row and column in this matrix contain all
and operation of transmission networks are not applicable zero entries. In addition, the admittance for the three
to unbalanced distribution networks. phase distribution lines is also taking into consideration
The solar and wind energies are considered the in this line model.
fastest-growing sources of distributed energy resources.
A large percentage of the installed distributed energy B. Load Model
resources are photo-voltaic (PV) and wind generation The loads on a distribution system are typically
units connected to rural distribution systems. The specified by the complex power consumption. The loads
installed generation units are expected to increase in the on a distribution feeder can modeled as Wye-connected
future accompanied with decrease in the cost of these or delta-connected. In addition, load types are such as
generation technologies. constant power, constant impedance and constant current
Since, the distribution generators are normally placed are taking in consideration .These loads can be three-
close to load centers and added mostly at the distribution phase, two-phase, or single-phase.
level. A common strategy to find the optimal size and
location of distribution generators is to minimize the
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 79

0 (3)
As result, the voltage Vmpp and current Impp at MPP

can be solved by nonlinear equations (1) and (3).Thus,
the value of the PV power at MPP can be obtained.
Cells can connected in parallel increase the current and
cells connected in series provide greater output voltages.
Figure 1. Practical PV equivalent circuit
Thus, the output power of the PV array can be controlled
by the number of the PV cells.
C. Three-phase Transformer model
A three-phase transformer model with various (4)
connections is implemented in the forward/backward
sweep power flow method [7]. The developed model (5)
provides an effective solution to the singularity problem
of the nodal admittance submatrices appeared in some Where N1 is the total number of the PV cells which
transformer configurations. connecting in series and parallel connections in a PV
D. Three-phase Transformer model array .However N2 is the total number of the PV arrays in
A three-phase transformer model with various a PV generation unit.
connections is implemented in the forward/backward Relating to the inverter part model, the real power
sweep power flow method [7]. The developed model exported by invert part is assumed equal to the DC power
provides an effective solution to the singularity problem under system steady-state operation.
of the nodal admittance submatrices appeared in some
transformer configurations. F. Wind generation unit modeling
E. Photo-voltaic generation unit modeling The majority of wind electric power is generated
Figure (1) shows the equivalent circuit of the PV cell. using induction generators. Hence, developing accurate
The basic equation from the theory of semiconductors [8] models of induction generators in power-flow should
that mathematically describes the I–V characteristic of consider the unbalance nature of distribution systems.
the ideal PV cell is There are various models have been presented to defined
the steady-state modeling of the asynchronous wind
turbines for the load flow analysis [9-11]. These models
1 (1)
/ are represented only by the positive sequence network
with assumption of balanced terminal machine voltage.
Where The induction machine can also be represented by
equivalent sequence impedances at the terminal node of
V,I : The terminal voltage and current for the PV the machine [6, 12]. This approach requires the prior
knowledge of the machine slip; hence, it is suitable for
Ipv : The current generated by the incident light.
modeling the induction motor rather than induction
I0 : The leakage current of the diode.
Rs,Rp : the equivalent series and parallel resistance .
q : The electron charge (1.60217646 × 10−19 C).
k : The Boltzmann constant (1.3806503 × 10−23
T : The temperature of the p–n junction (in
a : The diode ideality factor.
It is noticeable that these parameters are mainly

depending on solar irradiance, the cell surface
temperature. Usually, the operating data of commercial
PV module under standard test condition (irradiance of
1000W/m2, cell temperature of 25) are provided. The
equation for the PV cell power can be written is:
1 (2)
Figure 2. Positive- and negative- sequence networks of three-phase

Since the differential of PV cell power to PV cell induction machine.
voltage is zero only at the maximum power point (MPP)
80
generators. Other models use only the positive equivalent Where the value of A, B, and C are function of
circuits for modeling of induction machine. This will be machine parameters as follows:
valid for transmission systems, which has a balanced
2
state. A= D (16)
This paper developed an accurate induction generator
model. The model is represented by the decoupled
B = ℜ(D)ℜ(Rr (Zs + Zm))+ ℑ(D)ℑ(Rr (Zs + Zm)) (17)
sequence networks of the induction machine. The only
variable which considered to be known is the wind speed It is noticeable that for wind turbine model, the curve
or the mechanical shaft power. Figure (2) shows the of the mechanical power as function of the wind speed
decoupled positive- and negative- sequence components can also be obtained by linear interpolation [10].
circuits of an induction machine. The zero-sequence The proposed induction generator model described in
network is not presented since the machines are typically the previous section is integrated into the
connected to delta or ungrounded Wye feeder. forward/backward power-flow analysis. The overall
The general power equation for the induction generator: solution process involves two iteration loops. The inner
iterative process is for calculating the slip of the generator
ΔP = PE − PM (6) based on Newton-Raphson method using (12).
pos pos neg neg

ΔP = (I r ) 2 R L + (I r ) 2 R L − PM (7) III. IMPACT INDEXES
The following indexes are used to study the impact
Where:
of the different distribution generation type as the
⎛ pos ⎞ ⎛ pos ⎞
Zr + RL following:
pos ⎜ ZmVs ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
Ir = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ Zs + Zm ⎟
pos
⎜ Z +Z +R ⎟ ⎜ pos
Zm + Zr + RL ⎟ A. Power Losses
⎝ m r L ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
(8) Since, an important benefit offered by DG is the
reduction in electrical line losses. Generally, the line real
⎛ neg ⎞ ⎛ neg ⎞
Zr + RL
neg ⎜ ZmVs ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ power loss can be decrease with connection of DG.
Ir = ⎜ ⎟ Z
⎜ s m+ Z ⎟ (9) However, it is possible to have an increase in loss at very
neg ⎜ neg
⎜ Z +Z +R ⎟ Zm + Zr + RL ⎟ high penetration levels. This will mainly depending on
⎝ m r L ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
the ratings and locations of DG units. The index terms for
R pos
L = R r (1 − s)/s (10) the real and reactive power loss can be written as the
following:
R neg
L = R r (s −1)/(2− s) (11)
Total real losses with DG
It is noticeable that (7) is function of the operating Lp = 1 − (18)
slip and the sequences voltages at the machine terminal. Total real losses without DG
There is no direct solution for this nonlinear equation.
Total reactive losses with DG
However, under constant three-phase terminal voltage, Lq = 1 − (19)
the slip can be considered as a state variable for this Total Reactive losses without DG
equation. Thus, this equation can be solved by applying
Newton-Raphson method. At iteration k: B. Voltage profile
It noticeable that connecting a distribution generation
⎛ d(ΔP) ⎞ on the distribution network will successfully improve the
sk + 1 = sk − ΔPk ⎜ ⎟ voltage profile. The voltage profile can be improved
⎝ ds ⎠k (12)
because DG can provide a portion of the real and reactive
Where power to the load, thus helping to decrease current along
d(ΔP) d(ΔP) d(ΔP) a section of the distribution line. The index terms for the
= + (13) voltage-improving factor can be written as the following:
d(s) d(s) pos d(s) neg
pos
2 ⎡ Voltage with DG ⎤
ZmVs R r ⎡(As2 + 2Bs + C)(1− 2s) − s(1 − s)(2As + 2B)⎤ L v = Max ⎢ ⎥ (20)
d(ΔP) ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ (14)
d(s) pos
=
2 ⎢⎣ Voltage without DG ⎥⎦
⎛⎜ As2 + 2Bs + C⎞⎟ abc
⎝ ⎠
⎡(A(2− s)2 + 2B(2− s) + C)(2s− 3))− (2− s)(s−1))(2A(2− s)+ 2B)⎤

d(ΔP) ⎢
=⎣
⎥⎦ IV. TEST SYSTEM
d(s) neg 2
⎛⎜A(2− s)2 + 2B(2− s)+ C⎞⎟
⎝ ⎠ The IEEE 123 bus radial test system will be used as
2
(15) test system in Figure (3). The load flow analysis was
× Z m Vsneg R r
performed using per-unit values on a basis of 115kV/4.16
kV/480 V and 10 MVA.
81
32 29 250 350
33
30
251 51 111 110 112 113 114 900 30
28 50 151 300
31
25
48
47
49
46
109 107
800 G
26
45
108
106 104 451 25
27
23 44 43 65
64
103
450 700 T
105 102
100
24
42 41
66
63
101 600 20
G (W/m2)
21 99
40 71
98
22
500
T (C)
39 62 197 70
38
19 135 35
36 97 69 15
20 18
160 67
68
75 400
37 74
60
14 58
57
73 300 10
11 59 72 85
61 610
78
79
200
2
10
9
52 53 54
56
77
5
7 8 13
152 55 76
80
100
94 84
76
149 1
12
34
96
90 88 81 0 0
150 17 92
1
3
5
7
9
11
13
15
17
19
21
23
15 87 86 83
95 91 89 82
3 93
5 6 16
195
4
Time(hour)
Figure 3. The IEEE 123 bus distribution system
Figure 4. irradiations,and tempreture curves
Usually, the operating data of commercial PV 20

module is simulated under standard test condition 18
(irradiance of 1000W/m2, cell temperature of 25). The 16
equivalent circuits Parameters for the PV array are given
Wind Speed (m/s)

14
at [8].it is noticeable that each single PV arrays generate 12
(200.14 watt) at standard test conditions. It is noticeable 10
that the number of arrays for each PV generation unit is 8
1000 arrays. Thus, the value of generation at standard test 6
conditions power for this number of arrays is 200.14 KW. 4
Figure (4) shows the irradiations, and temperature curves 2
for all the day. 0
To demonstrate the analysis of an induction
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
generator for wind generation, a 240 volt, 25 HP
induction motor with the following per unit parameters Time(hour)
will be used: Figure 5. wind speed curve
1.2
Rs = 0.0336 Rr = 0.0394
1
Percecr Load Power
Xs = Xr = 0.08 Xm=2.1 0.8
It is noticeable that the wind turbine parameters are 0.6

given at [10].this parameter is used in this paper to 0.4
calculate the relating wind power due to wind speed as in
0.2
figure (5).In addition all three phase loads are assumed to
have the same Daily load curves as in figure (6). 0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
V. CASE STUDIES Time(hour)
Different cases are simulated and studied to show Figure 6. Daily Load curve
the benefits of DG . For each case, comprehensive tests
are performed. The cases considered are listed as follows: with unity power factor by employing capacitor banks for
this case. Finally, a hybrid PV and wind generation
1) Base case(No DG) system is studied at case 5.For each of these four
2) Only PV generation units type. buses,there are a hybrid PV and wind generation
3) wind generation units type. system.each generator produces 50% of it’s rated power.
4) wind generation units type ( unity PF).
5) Hybrid PV/ wind generation unit. VI. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The analysis of the IEEE 123 for all the day without It can be noticed from figure (4) that the operation
connecting any type of DG (Base case).Case 2 calculate time for each PV generation unit is from (6 AM:8 PM).At
load flow with four PV generation type at any time out this rangethat after sunset , the PV
buses(67,76,101 and 105). Case 3 calculate load flow generation will be zero.
with four wind generation system type at the previos figure 7 ,8 and 9 show the values of indexes LP , Lq ,
buses. Case 4 uses the same generation at the previos case Lv for each case during the day respectively.It is
.However, the induction generators is assumed to operate noticeable that for both cases the value of LP at each time
82
0.9 120
Case 2 Case 1
0.8 Case 4 Case 2
0.7 Case 3 100
Case 5 Case 3
0.6 Case 4
Power loss(KW)
80
0.5 Case 5
Lp
0.4 60
0.3
40
0.2
0.1 20
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Time(hour)
Time(hour)
Figure 7. Lp index variation during the day Figure 10. Total power loss during the day
0.9
Case 2
0.8 Case 4
0.7 Case 3 250
Case 5 Case 1
0.6 Case 2
Reactive loss (K VAR)

0.5 200 Case 3
Lq
0.4 Case 4
150 Case 5
0.3
0.2
0.1 100
0
50
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
Time(hour) 0
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Figure 8. Lq index variation during the day
Time(hour)
Figure11. Total reactive power loss during the
1.035 Case 2 day
1.03 Case 4 6000
Case 3 Grid
1.025 Case 5 PV
1.02 5000 Wind
1.015 Load
Lv
1.01 4000
1.005
Title
1 3000
0.995
0.99 2000
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
1000
Time(hour)
Figure 9. Lv index variation during the day 0
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Time(hour)
is larger than zero at the operation of distribution
generator.For case 1, the LP and Lq is equal to zero Figure 12. Grid,distribution generators and
during sunset.This is due to the absence of PV generation load power curves
during the sunset. In addition, Lv index will obvosioly
increased during the operation time of the PV generator decreased by connecting one of each distribution
units(6 AM:8 PM).Regarding case 3 and 4 is , the value generation type.
of the indexes improved at case 4 more than case 3.This Figure (12) shows the total real power of the grid,PV
is due to the reactive power which supplied from the generation unit,wind generation and load power during
distribution network to the induction generator will be the day at hybrid PV/wind generation case. It can be
harnfull for the distribution losses and voltage profile at noticed from figure (4) that the operation time for each
case 3.However, this reactive power will be saved by PV generation unit is from (6 AM:8 PM).At any time out
using capacitors banks. this rangethat after sunset , the PV generation will be
Figure 10 and 11 show the total three-phase activetal zero.in addition, the value of the load power is at peak
three-phase active and reactive power losses during the point at this period(6 AM:8 PM).Thus, PV generation
day.It is noticeable that the total losses will be obvoisly unit will regulate the grid power generation at this period.
83
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
3500
PV1
PV2 The authors gratefully acknowledge the contribution of
3000
PV3 the Science and Technology Development Fund (STDF)
PV4 under project no. 346 and the US Egypt Joint Science and
2500
Technolgy Fund Under the project no. 839 for providing
Power (KW)
2000 research funding to the work reported in this paper.

1500
REFERENCES
1000 [1] K.-H. Kim, Y.-J. Lee, S.-B. Rhee, S.-K. Lee, and S.-K. You,
“Dispersed generator placement using fuzzy-GA in distribution
500 systems,” in Proc.2002 IEEE Power Engineering Soc. Summer
Meeting, vol. 3, Chicago, IL, July 2002, pp. 1148–1153.
0 [2] M. H. Nehrir, C. Wang, and V. Gerez, “Impact of wind power
distributed generation on distribution systems,” in Proc. 17th Int.
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Conf. ElectricityDistribution (CIRED), Barcelona, Spain, May

Time(hour) 2003.
[3] L. F. Ochoa, A. Padilha-Feltrin, and G. P. Harrison, “Evaluating
Figure 13. Grid Power variation with PV distributed generation impacts with a multi objective index,” IEEE
generation unit size
Trans. onPower Delivery, Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 1452-1458, July
2006.
Figure (13) shows the total grid power variation With PV
[4] P. Chiradeja and R. Ramakumar, “An approach to quantify the
generation unit size where: technical benefits of distributed generation,” IEEE Trans. Energy
Convers., vol.19, no. 4, pp. 764–773, Dec. 2004.
PV4>PV3>PV2>PV1 (20) [5] M. Rade Ciric, Antonio PadilhaFeltrin, and F. Luis Ochoa Power
Flow in Four-Wire Distribution Networks—General Approach”,
It is noticeable that by increase the sizre of PV in a IEEE Trans. Power Systems, vol. 18, no. 4, Nov. 2003
[6] W. H. Kersting, Distribution System Modeling and Analysis. Boca
hybrid PV/wind case, the grid power will be more
Raton,FL:CRCPress,2002.
regulated.This will have good impacts on distribution [7] Peng Xiao, David C. Yu, and Wei Yan “A Unified Three-Phase
system. Transformer Model for Distribution Load Flow Calculations”
IEEE Trans. Power Systems, Vol. 21, No. 1, February 2006.
VII. CONCLUSION [8] Marcelo Gradella Villalva, Jonas Rafael Gazoli, and Ernesto
This paper provides a study for the effect of Ruppert Filho Comprehensive Approach to Modeling and
allocation of photo-voltaic and wind generation units in Simulation of Photovoltaic Arrays IEEE Trans. Power Electronics,
electrical distribution networks.These generation units are Vol. 24, No. 5, May 2009.
[9] Andrés Feijóo” On PQ Models for Asynchronous Wind Turbines”
efficiently modelled and integerated to load flow
IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 24, no. 4, Nov. 2009
algorithm based on forward/backward sweep. [10] A. Feijoo and J. Cidras, “Modeling of wind farms in the load flow
Comprehensive tests are applied on 123 node IEEE analysis,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 110–115,
distribution test system. Feb. 2000
[11] A. Feijóo and J. Cidrás, “Corrections to ’Modeling of wind farms
in the load flow analysis’,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 16, no.
4, p. 955, Nov. 2001
[12] Rade M. Ciric, Antonio PadilhaFeltrin, and Luis F. Ochoa Power
Flow in Four-Wire Distribution Networks—General Approach”,
IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 18, no. 4, Nov. 2003
84
Coherency determination in grid-connected

distributed generation based hybrid system
under islanding scenarios
Prakash K. Ray#, Soumya R. Mohanty#, Nand Kishor#, Harish C. Dubey*
#Department of Electrical Engineering, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology, Allahabad, INDIA,
Email: pkraymnnit@gmail.com, soumyaigit@gmail.com , nandkishor@mnnit.ac.in
*Department of Electronics & Comm. Engg, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology, Allahabad INDIA,
Email: harish.dubey123@gmail.com
Abstract: S-transform and wavelet transform based approach [6], which is based on moving a varying and scalable
for islanding and coherency detection between the energy localizing Gaussian window and is fully convertible from
resources is studied in distributed generation (DG) based the time domain to two-dimensional (2-D) frequency
hybrid power system. The hybrid system consisting of translation domain, is considered to avoid the limitation of
photovoltaic (PV), fuel cell (FC) and wind energy systems
wavelet transform. The S-transform has an advantage of
(WES) connected to utility grid are considered. Simulation
results clearly reflect the advantages of S-transform in providing multi-resolution while retaining the absolute
localizing and detecting the islanding of different resources. phase of each frequency component which is useful even in
On the other hand, coherency detection could provide useful detecting the disturbances in presence of 20dB noise. In
information for the stability investigation under islanding addition to this, the coherency between the generators is
scenarios. studied and detected which is useful for the stability
operation of the hybrid power system [7]-[8].
Keywords: Coherency, Distributed generation, Hybrid system, This paper is organized as follows; DG based hybrid
Islanding detection, S-transform, Wavelet transform. system configuration and components modeling is
introduced in Section II, paradigms of the approach for
I. INTRODUCTION islanding detection is given in Section III, followed by
Modern power system design, operation and control results and discussion in Section IV. Lastly conclusions
would have to be re-examined and restructured because of drawn from the studies is presented in Section V.
the deregulation of utility industry and awareness for clean
environments [1]-[2]. Though the connection of distributed
generation (DG) into the distribution network have some II. DG BASED HYBRID SYSTEM
positive impacts such as voltage support and improvement Fig. 1 depicts a model of hybrid DG based power system
of power quality, reduction in transmission and distribution considered in the study for islanding and coherency
losses, improvements in reliability etc., but in other way detection. The sub-sections present a brief modelling on
introduce some power quality problems and instabilities. each power generation resources.
Therefore, many issues are to be seriously studied and
detected with the DG penetration to utility grid, like
islanding operation coherency characteristics between the
different types of DG such as wind, photovoltaic and fuel
cells along with the conventional power generations.
Islanding of DG occurs when the utility grid is
disconnected due to heavy faults but still the DG supplying
power to the local loads. In this context, Wavelet transform
[3]-[4] is useful in detecting and extracting disturbance
features of islanding disturbances because it is sensitive to
signal irregularities but insensitive to the regular signal
behaviour.
The major drawback of wavelet transform is its inability
to detect islanding disturbance under noisy conditions. As a
result, modified wavelet transform called S-transform [5]- Figure 1. Configuration of hybrid distributed generation resources.
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 85

A. Wind energy conversion system (WECS) ∞
In general, the relationship between wind speed and

W (τ , a ) = ∫ h(t ) ω (t − τ , a) dt
−∞
(3)
mechanical power extracted from the wind can be

described as Where W (τ , a) is a scaled replica of the fundamental
ρ
Pm = Awt C p (λ , β )Vw3 mother wavelet; the dilation determines the width of the
2 (1) wavelet and this controls the resolution. The S–transform is
obtained by multiplying the CWT with a phase factor as
where P is the power extracted from the wind in watts; ρ is
m
the air density (kg/m3); C is the performance coefficient or

p S (τ , f ) = exp(i 2π f τ ) ⋅ W (τ , a) (4)
power coefficient; λ is the tip-speed ratio (Vt/Vw), Vt (m/s)
is blade tip speed, and Vw (m/s) is wind speed at hub height In this equation, the dilation factor is the inverse of the
upstream of the rotor; Awt = π R 2 is the area covered by the frequency. Thus, the final form of the continuous S-
2 transform is obtained as
wind turbine rotor (m ), R is the radius of the rotor; and β is
the blade pitch angle (in degrees). The doubly-fed induction ∞
⎛ f ⎞ (τ − t )2 f 2
∫
generator (DFIG) model used as a part of the WECS is
S (τ , f ) = h (t ) ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ exp (− ) ⋅ exp (−i 2π ft ) dt
taken from [9]. ⎝ 2π ⎠ 2
−∞
B. Fuel cell (5)
The modeling and power generation from the solid oxide and the width of the Gaussian window is
fuel cell system is taken from ref. [10].
1
σ( f ) =T = (6)
f
C. Photovoltaic (PV)
IV. SIMULATED RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Photovoltaic effect is a physical process through which
solar energy is converted to electrical energy directly. The This section presents the performance of above discussed
operating principle of a PV/solar cell is similar to p-n techniques for detection islanding event in hybrid system
junction diode .The relationship between the output voltage and coherency detection between the energy sources under
V and the load current I of a PV cell/module is given by various operating scenarios. The various operating
scenarios are formulated under islanding of energy
⎡ V + IRs ⎤ resources from the grid. The models of these resources are
I = I L − I 0 ⎢exp( ) − 1⎥ (2)
⎣ α ⎦ simulated in MATLAB/SIMULINK environment. The
parameters of various components used for simulation are
given in the appendix.
Where I L is the light current of the PV cell in amps; I 0 is
the saturation current ; I is the load current in amps; V is A. Islanding detection using wavelet and S-transforms
the output voltage of the photovoltaic cell in volts; Rs is the under noisy condition
series resistance of the PV cell in ohms and α is the This sub-section presents the islanding detection using
thermal voltage timing completion factor of the PV cell in wavelet and S-transform under various operating scenarios.
volts. A number of PV modules may be connected in series The negative sequence voltage extracted at point of
and parallel to increase the rating according the common coupling, through sequence analyzer, is passed
requirements. through ‘daubechies4’ (db4) and ‘dmey’ as mother wavelet
as well as S-transform to detect the islanding condition. In
III. ISLANDING DETECTION METHOD the simulation part ,the extracted negative sequence voltage
(original signal) is taken for 2000 samples while the
A. Modified Wavelet Transform: S–Transform corresponding approximate and detail wavelet coefficients
are taken for 1000 samples ,i.e., half the samples of that of
It is well known that information is contained in the
the extracted signal.
phase of the spectrum, as well as in the amplitude. In order
Fig 2(a) shows the extracted negative sequence voltage
to utilize the information contained in the phase of the
signal at the point of common coupling when wind energy
continuous wavelet transform (CWT), it is necessary to
system is islanded from the grid with 20 dB noise. While
modify the phase of the mother wavelet. The CWT
the detail coefficients obtained by wavelet transform using
W (τ , a) of a function h(t ) is defined as db4 and dmey as mother wavelets are shown in Fig.2 (b) &
(c) respectively. S-transform analysis of negative sequence
voltage signal results in a ST-complex matrix from which
86
magnitude of the signal is extracted and shown in Fig. 2(d). coherency between the energy resources respectively. The
It can be seen that S-transform contours have increased coherency detection between different pair of energy
magnitude at the instant of islanding event, clearly resources under normal operating and photovoltaic islanded
detecting and localizing the disturbance. While both the scenarios are represented in Fig. 3 & 4 respectively. The
wavelet transforms fail to detect the islanding event under simulation results show that the coherency between the
noisy condition which exposes their limitations. energy resources is disturbed in the case of islanding
. scenario as compared to the normal scenario. This may
disturb the stability of the hybrid system which is
detrimental to its performance and operation.
magnitude
1
(a) Negative sequence voltage
1
0 50 100 150 200 250
sample
(a) Coherency between grid and FC
magnitude
0.9
0.8
(b) With db4
0.7
0 50 100 150 200 250
sample
(b) Coherency between grid and wind
1
m agnitude
(c) With dmey 1

0 50 100 150 200 250
sample
18
absolute value of ST matrix
16 (c) Coherency between grid and PV
14
m agnitude
12 0.9
0.8
10
0.7
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
sample number 0 50 100 150 200 250
sample
(d) With S-transorm
(d) Coherency between wind and FC
Figure 2. Islanding detection event for fuel cell system connected to
grid with 20 dB noise. 1
m agnitude
B. Study of coherency between the energy sources 1
This sub-section presented the study of coherency 1

0 50 100 150 200 250
detection between the different pairs of energy resources sample
under various islanding scenarios. This helps to investigate
the stability of the hybrid system by identifying the (e) Coherency between FC and PV
coherent group of generators. In this study the binary digits
0 &1 are considered to designate non-coherency and Figure 3. Coherency detection under normal operating condition.
87
m agnitude 1 APPENDIX
Parameters of the components of the hybrid system
1
Wind energy conversion system :Active power :500kW, rated speed :12
1 m/s, rated voltage 575V, frequency :50Hz
0 50 100 150 200 250
sample
Photovoltaic: Active power :50kW, modules :25×24, temperature :
250 C
(a) Coherency between grid and FC.
Fuel cell: Active power: 50kW, optimal operating
temperature: 12730 K , ideal standard potential : 1.229 V, SOFC array
m a g n itu d e
0.9
:5 (series) × 2 (parallel) 5kW fuel cell stacks; rated voltage 200V
0.8
0.7 Converters: For PV/FC: boost converter- 50kW,input voltage
:200V,output voltage:500V;For Wind Turbine: PWM converter- 500kW
0 50 100 sample 150 200 250
(b) Coherency between grid and wind.

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no.2, pp. 1273-1283, 2008.
0 [2] Seul-Ki Kim, Jin-Hong Jeon, Chang-Hee Cho, Jong-Bo Ahn, and Sae-
0 50 100 sample 150 200 250 Hyuk Kwon, “Dynamic Modeling and Control of a Grid-Connected
Hybrid Generation System With Versatile Power Transfer”, IEEE
trans. on ind. Electr., vol. 55, no. 4, 2008.
(c) Coherency between grid and PV.
[3] S.R.Samantaray, Trupti Mayee Pujhari, B.D.Subudhi, A new approach
to Islanding detection in Distributed Generations, Third International
1 Conference on Power Systems, IIT, Kharagpur, INDIA, December
m a g n it u d e
27-29, 2009.
0.5 [4] Cheng-Tao Hsieh, Jeu-Min Lin & Shyh-Jier Huang, “Enhancement of
islanding-detection of distributed generation systems via wavelet
transform-based approaches”, Electrical Power and Energy Systems,
0 ELSEVIER, vol. 30, pp. 575–580, 2008 .
0 50 100 150 200 250
sample [5] R. G. Stockwell, L. Mansinha, and R. P. Lowe, “Localization of the
complex spectrum: The S– transform,” IEEE Trans. Signal
Processing, vol. 44, pp. , 998–1001, 1996 .
(d) Coherency between wind and FC. [6] P. K. Dash, B. K. Panigrahi, and G. Panda, “Power Quality Analysis
Using S–Transform”, IEEE Trans. on Power Del., vol. 18, no. 2,
1 2003.
m a g n it u d e
[7] K.K. Anaparthi, B.Chaudhuri, N.F. Thornhill, B.C.Pal, “Coherency

0.5 Identification in Power Systems Through Principal Component
Analysis”, IEEE Trans. Power system, vol.20, no.3, pp.1658 – 1660,
0 2005.
0 50 100 sample 150 200 250 [8] E. De Tuglie, S.M. Iannone, F. Torelli, “A coherency-based method to
increase dynamic security in power systems, Electric Power Systems
Research,vol.78, pp. 1425–1436, 2008.
(e) Coherency between FC and PV. [9] A. Tapia, G. Tapia, J.X. Ostolaza, J.R. Saenz,” Modeling control of a
wind turbine driven doubly fed induction generator”, IEEE Trans.
Figure 4. Coherency detection under islanding of photovoltaic system. Energy Convers., vol. 18, no.2, 194–204,2003.
[10] J. Padulles, G.W. Ault, J.R. McDonald, “An integrated SOFC plant
V. CONCLUSION dynamic model for power systems simulation”, J. Power Sources ,vol.
86, pp. 495-500, 2000.
This paper has considered the study on detection of
islanding events in DG based distribution system using
wavelet and S-transform techniques under various
scenarios. The simulation results clearly show the
advantages of S-transform as comparison to wavelet
transform in detecting and localizing the islanding events in
the hybrid system. Further, coherency characteristics
between the energy resources were also investigated under
different islanding scenarios. This reflects that the
coherency nature is greatly disturbed under islanding
scenario.
88
Effect of the PV/FC Hybrid Power Generation

System on Total Line Loss in Distribution
Network
Yahya Kabiri Renani, Student Member, IEEE, H. Askarian Abyaneh, Senior Member, IEEE S. H. H. Sadeghi
, Senior Member, IEEE, H. Hashemi Dezaki, Student Member, IEEE, H. Nafisi, A. Talebi
Amirkabir University of Technology/Department of electrical engineering, Tehran, Iran. Email: y.kabiri@ieee.org
Abstract— In this paper, the effect of PV/FC hybrid power factors, such as insulation (incident solar radiation) levels,
generation system on total line loss of distribution network temperature, and loading conditions. Its electrical power
has been studied. Studies have been conducted on a real life output usually increases linearly with the insulation and
20 kV distribution network. A DPL (DIgSILENT decreases with the cell/ambient temperature [5]. Thus the
Programming Language) code is developed to analyze the
electrical output power of PV panels is variable. In the
effect of the PV/FC hybrid system on total line loss in
distribution network. Simulations, in three loading other hands power injection by DG, change power flow in
conditions and by considering worst environmental distribution system and cause total line loss changes in
conditions (cloudy weather, at nights, etc) that output distribution network. Thus if DG had been installed in
power of PV system is zero have been done. Sample order to reduce the total line loss, the variable output
distribution network has been considered in two structures: power of PV system changes the bus voltages and total
1-sample distribution network by PV system as DG and 2- line loss of distribution network. Therefore it is possible
same distribution network but by PV/FC hybrid power that the total line loss increases. For solution this problem,
system as DG. The Simulation results illustrate the can use PV unit hybrid by another renewable source [6].
effectiveness of PV/FC hybrid system in order to decrease
Another renewable energy technology that have
the total line loss.
advantages such as high efficiency, zero or low emission
Keywords—PV/FC hybrid system; Distributed Generation; (of pollutant gases), and flexible modular structure, is fuel
Renewable energy; Fuel cell; Photovoltaic; Total Line Loss; cell. Fuel cells (FCs) are static electric power sources that
Distribution Network convert the chemical energy of fuel directly into electrical
energy [7]. In this paper, the PV/FC hybrid system is
I. INTRODUCTION considered as DG source.
With development of distribution network and By using DG the power flow in network’s lines change,
increasing the power consumption, the power losses hence by proper placement and appropriate capacity
across the lines resistances are increasing. This problem is specifying of DG, can reduce the total loss of network.
more serious in distribution network. A solution, which in One of the most important factors which affect the total
recent years has been considered, is supplying some of the loss of electrical network is the load. By change of load,
consumers by means of distributed generation (DG). DG the total loss also changes. Therefore in different loading
is a small scale electric power source connected directly to conditions, by considering the electrical and network
the utility’s distribution network or on the customer site of limits such as bus voltage limit or line loading limit, the
the meter, and it provides electric power at a site closer to output power of DG must be properly controlled to
customers than the central station generation. DG can optimize the total loss reduction.
generate electricity with high efficiency and low pollution. In this paper, the effect of PV/FC hybrid power
DG ratings range from 5 kW up to 100 MW. [1-4] generation system on line loss in distribution network is
Because of environmental constraint and increasing studied. It is illustrated, when the PV system is under the
demand for conventional energy sources like coal, natural worst conditions, the PV/FC hybrid system can decrease
gas and crude oil, between different DG technologies, the the total line loss effectively. In this paper, the expression
renewable DG is preferred. Renewable energy sources “the worst conditions” refers to the environmental
like wind, sun, and hydro are seen as a reliable alternative conditions (cloudy weather, at night, etc) that output
to the traditional energy sources such as oil, natural gas, or power of the PV system is zero.
coal. A renewable energy technology that gains The effect of the PV/FC hybrid system on the total line
acceptance as a way of maintaining and improving living loss is studied on a real life 20 kV distribution network of
standards without harming the environment is the city Sirjan (Iran). A PV/FC hybrid power generation as
photovoltaic (PV) technology. Physically, the power DG is installed to a proper location to minimize the total
supplied by the PV panels depends on many extrinsic line loss of distribution network. By considering three
comprehensive case for loading conditions (general
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 89

loading/minimum loading/maximum loading), best
location for DG installation is determined. Hence by DG
installation in this location, loss reduction will be
maximized.
A DPL (DIgSILENT Programming Language) code is
developed to analyze the effect of the PV/FC hybrid
power generation system on total line loss in distribution
network. Simulation for two different network structures
has been done: 1- distribution network with PV system as Figure 1. A radial distribution network without DG
DG and 2- distribution network with PV/FC hybrid
system as DG. Finally total line loss in each loading
condition and under worst conditions for both structures is
calculated. This total line loss has been compared. The
benefits of PV/FC hybrid power generation system as DG
for loss reduction than PV system as DG have been
evaluated.
Simulation results demonstrate, by using the PV/FC
hybrid system instead of the PV system alone, the total
line loss is reduced effectively. Figure 2. A radial distribution network with DG
II. EFFECT OF DG ON TOTAL LINE LOSS OF

DISTRIBUTION NETWORK apparent power of load L1, load L2, DG and global
network respectively.
For explanation the effect of DG on total line loss of
distribution network, as shown in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2, two In condition 1, if S DG < S L 2 then a part of L2
simple radial distribution networks with 3 buses and 2 supported by DG and therefore the currents I1, I2 must be
loads is considered. As shown in Fig.1, in this radial less and with regard to the Eq.1, the total loss will reduce.
network, all loads are supplied by one source. Hence the If S DG > S L 2 then total power demanded by L2 and a
total line loss of this distribution network is calculated as
below: part of L1 supplied by DG. Therefore the total line loss can
be more or less than distribution network without DG that
Ploss = RAB × I 12 + RBC × I 22 (1) depends on change of I1, I2.
Or: In condition 2, total power demanded by L1, L2 supplied
S loss = S net − (S L 1 + S L 2 ) that : S = P + jQ (2) by DG while some power delivered to network too.
The total loss in distribution network with DG that Therefore in this condition total line loss can be less or
shown in Fig.2 can be calculated by Eq.1 which the more than distribution network without DG.
currents I1, I2 are calculated as below: In the situation that S L 1 , S L 2 , S DG are not in the
* same phase, it’s not easily possible to determine the
⎛ S + S L 2 − S DG ⎞ (3) change of the total line loss by DG connection to the
I1 = ⎜ L1 ⎟
⎝ VB ⎠ distribution network. In this situation by regard of Eq.3,
*
Eq.4 it should be calculated the magnitude of I1, I2 and
⎛ S − S DG ⎞ (4) then by regard of Eq.1, the total line loss of the
I2 = ⎜ L2 ⎟ distribution network can be calculated.
⎝ VC ⎠
Or, the total loss in this structure can be calculated as A. Renewable energy source as DG
below: Renewable energy sources like wind, sun, and hydro are
S loss = (S net + S DG ) − (S L 1 + S L 2 ) (5) seen as a reliable alternative to the traditional energy
sources such as oil, natural gas, or coal. Output power of
If it is supposed that S L 1 , S L 2 , S DG are in the same some renewable energy sources such wind and sun, are
phase, two conditions can be considered: very dependent on environmental conditions. For example
a PV power generation experiences large variations in its
⎧ ⎧a : S DG < S L 2 output power due to intermittent weather conditions.
⎪1: S DG < (S L 1 + S L 2 ) ⇒ ⎨ Photovoltaic’s electrical power output usually increases
⎨ ⎩b : S DG > S L 2 (6)
linearly with the insulation (incident solar radiation) and
⎪ 2 : S > (S + S )
⎩ DG L1 L2 decreases with the cell/ambient temperature [5].
As expressed earlier, the output power of DG affects the
In the above equations,Ploss is the total line loss of the total line loss. Therefore, by changing the output power of
distribution network, R AB and R BC are resistance of the DG, total line loss changes subsequently. It is
lines AB and BC respectively. I1, I2 are currents in lines supposed that DG had been installed in a proper location
in order to reduce the total loss of distribution network.
AB and BC, respectively. S L 1 , S L 2 , S DG , S net are This DG delivers a certain amount of power in a specified
90
power factor, to reduce total line loss of distribution DG. For simulation, a DPL (DIgSILENT Programming
network. Therefore if the output power of the DG Language) code has been developed. DG location is
changes, total line loss will increase and this increment in determined in a way which the total line loss is
total line loss is not desirable. minimized. Three loading conditions for distribution
One solution to overcome this problem is to integrate network are considered as below:
the renewable power generation with other power sources. 1- Distribution network operate in minimum
Therefore, in this paper, the PV/FC hybrid power loading condition
generation as DG is considered. The PV generators which 2- Distribution network operate in normal loading
directly convert solar radiation into electricity have a lot
condition
of significant advantages such as being inexhaustible and
pollution free, silent, with no rotating parts, and with size- 3- Distribution network operate in maximum
independent electric conversion efficiency [8]. The FC is loading condition
an electrochemistry device, which produces electricity
directly and efficiently and emits pure water and gases. In each loading condition, to optimize the total line loss,
On the one hand, there are no moving parts in the device, the proper output power of the PV/FC hybrid system is
so the noise is very low. In PV/FC hybrid power system in obtained. Voltage limits (maximum voltage level in each
environmental conditions (such as cloudy weather, at bus must be less than 1.05 pu, and minimum voltage level
nights, etc) that PV can’t deliver necessary demanded in each bus must be more than 0.95 pu) and lines
power to distribution network, the FC supply this constraint are considered. The power factor of DG for all
necessary power to prevent the increasing of the total loss. conditions is 0.825 constant. The total line loss of
studding distribution network in two structures: 1-
III. DETERMINATION OF OPTIMAL PLACEMENT OF DG distribution network with PV/FC hybrid system as DG
For determination the optimum location of the PV/FC and 2- distribution network with PV system as DG, under
hybrid system in distribution network, the voltage limits worst conditions are calculated. It is supposed that, under
are considered (voltage in all busses must be between worst conditions, distribution network operation is like
minimum limit (0.95pu) and maximum limit (1.05 pu)). distribution network without DG.
DG installation in all nodes that DG connection is possible A. Simulation results in loading condition 1
has been checked and the location which the total line loss
In this situation as shown in table 1, presence of the DG
will be minimized has been selected.
causes to increase the total loss by 30 kW (13%).
To determine the appropriate bus to connect the DG
Therefore, when the output power of the PV unit is zero
system, DPL (DIgSILENT Programming Language) in
and the distribution network operates under minimum
DIgSILENT, has been used. Based on the results obtained
loading, it is not desirable that FC unit deliver any power
from the simulations, optimal location of the PV/FC
to distribution network.
hybrid system is the bus number 26, which is specified in
In table 1 to table 3, Inet, Pnet, Qnet, Snet are current in kA,
Fig.3.
active power in MW, reactive power in MVAr and
IV. SIMULATION RESULTS apparent power in MVA from global network to
distribution network respectively and Idg, Pdg, Qdg, Sdg are
In this paper, a real life 20 kV distribution network of
current in kA, active power in MW, reactive power in
city Sirjan (Iran) with 77 nodes has been simulated. The
MVAr and apparent power in MVA from DG to
single line view of this network is shown in Fig.3. A
distribution network respectively.
PV/FC hybrid power generation system is considered as
Figure 3. Single line view of the 20 kV distribution network of city Cirjan (Iran)
91
Figure 4. Voltage profile in load condition 1 under worst Figure 5. Voltage profile in load condition 2 under worst
environmental conditions environmental conditions
TABLE I. TABLE II.

MEASURED PARAMETERS IN LOAD CONDITION 1 UNDER WORST MEASURED PARAMETERS IN LOAD CONDITION 2 UNDER WORST
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS
min loading with PV as DG with PV/FC as DG normal loading with PV as DG with PV/FC as DG
Inet(kA) 0.14 0.13 Inet(kA) 0.26 0.12
Pnet(MW) 4.68 1.25 Pnet(MW) 9 1.78
Qnet(MVAr) -1.91 -4.44 Qnet(MVAr) 1.24 -3.94
Snet(MVA) 5.06 4.61 Snet(MVA) 9.09 4.33
Idg(kA) 0 0.12 Idg(kA) 0 0.23
Pdg(MW) 0 3.47 Pdg(MW) 0 6.96
Qdg(MVAr) 0 2.37 Qdg(MVAr) 0 4.76
Sdg(MVA) 0 4.2 Sdg(MVA) 0 8.43
total loss(MW) 0.23 0.26 total loss(MW) 0.64 0.37
In the above situation, the voltage profile is shown in the state that PV system is used as DG and another is
fig.3. One curve is related to the state that PV system is corresponded to the state that PV/FC hybrid system is
used as DG and another is corresponded to the state that used as DG. As can be seen from this figure, the other
PV/FC hybrid system is used as DG. As shown in Fig.4, advantage of using the PV/FC hybrid system as DG is the
when the PV system is used as DG, voltage in all busses is compensation of the voltage drop. Voltage in all busses is
kept lower than its maximum limit (1.05pu). between 1pu and 1.05pu.
B. Simulation results in loading condition 2 C. Simulation results in loading condition 3
In this situation as shown in table 2, presence of the DG In this situation as shown in table 3, presence of the
causes to decrease the total loss by 270 kW (42%). DG causes to decrease the total loss by 480 kW (51%).
Therefore, when the output power of the PV unit is zero Therefore, when the output power of the PV unit is zero
and the distribution network operates under normal and the distribution network operates under maximum
loading, it is desirable that FC unit delivers 6.95 MW loading, it is desirable that FC unit delivers 8.35 MW
active power and 4.76MVAr reactive power to active power and 5.5MVAr reactive power to distribution
distribution network. The FC unit delivers this power to network. The FC unit delivers this power to prevent the
prevent the total loss increase caused by worst conditions. total loss increase caused by worst conditions. (in this
As can be seen from the table 2, by using the PV/FC situation, the FC unit operate in its maximum capacity).
hybrid system instead of the PV system, the active power As can be seen from the table 3, by using the PV/FC
from global network to distribution network has been hybrid system instead of the PV system, the active power
reduced by 7.2 MW whereas the reactive power from from global network to distribution network has been
global network to distribution network has been reduced reduced by 8.9 MW whereas the reactive power from
from 1.24MVAr to -3.94MVAr. In the other words, the global network to distribution network has been reduced
global network receives 3.94MVAr reactive power from from 2.35MVAr to -3.98MVAr.
distribution network instead of delivers 1.24MVAr In the above situation, the voltage profile for two
reactive power to it. different states is shown in Fig. 6. One curve is related to
In the above situation, the voltage profile for two the state that PV system is used as DG and another is
different states is shown in Fig. 5. One curve is related to
92
corresponded to the state that PV/FC hybrid system is DG delivers 4.2 MVA to distribution network, the total
used as DG. When distribution network operate under loss will increase by 30 kW (13%).
maximum loading, as shown in this figure, by using As can be seen from fig. 3 to fig. 6, by using PV/FC
PV/FC hybrid system as DG, voltage drop has been hybrid system instead of PV system, in addition to the
compensated. In this loading condition like loading total line loss reduction, the voltage drop has been
condition 2, voltage in all busses is between 1 pu and compensated too. Therefore, by using PV/FC hybrid
1.05pu. system instead of PV system, the voltage profile has been
improved effectively too.
V. CONCLUSION
In this paper, the effect of the PV/FC hybrid power References
generation system on total line loss of distribution [1] Haiping Xu, Li Kong, and Xuhui Wen, Member, IEEE,” Fuel Cell
Power System and High Power DC–DC converter” IEEE
network is studied. An actual 20 kV distribution network TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 19, NO.
of city Sirjan (Iran) has been simulated. 5, pp.1250-1255, SEPTEMBER 2004
The simulation results conclude that, by using PV/FC [2] P. Chiradeja and R. Ramkumar, “An approach to quantify for
hybrid power generation system instead of PV system, in technical benefits of distributed generation,” IEEE Transactions
worst environmental conditions that output power of PV on Energy Conversion, vol. 19, no. 4, Dec. 2004, pp. 764-773.
[3] W. El-Khattam and M. M. A. Salama, “Distributed generation
system is zero (cloudy weather, at nights, etc), can reduce technologies, definitions and benefits,” Electric Power System
the total line loss of distribution network effectively. Research, vol. 71, 2004, pp. 119-128.
When distribution network operates under normal loading [4] P. Chiradeja, “Benefit of Distributed Generation: A Line Loss
condition and maximum loading condition, the total loss Reduction Analysis” IEEE/PES Transmission and Distribution
reduction is 270 kW (42%) and 480 kW (51%) Conference & Exhibition: Asia and Pacific Dalian, China, 2005
respectively. [5] Henry Shu-Hung Chung, Member, IEEE, K. K. Tse, Member,
IEEE, S. Y. Ron Hui, Fellow, IEEE, C. M. Mok, and M. T. Ho,
But when distribution network operates under Student Member, IEEE, “A Novel Maximum Power Point
minimum loading condition, it is desirable to DG don’t Tracking Technique
deliver any power to distribution network, because in this [6] A. Woyte, V.V. Thong, R. Belmans, and J. Nijs, “Voltage
condition, any power injection from DG to distribution fluctuations on distribution level introduced by photovoltaic
systems,” IEEE Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 202-
network cause the total loss increases. In this condition if 209, March 2006.
[7] M.Dargahi, J.Rouhi, M.Rezanejad, M.Shakeri, “Maximum Power
Point Tracking for Fuel Cell in Fuel Cell/Battery Hybrid Power
Systems”, ISSN 1450-216X Vol.25 No.4, pp.538-548, 2009
[8] Henry Shu-Hung Chung, Member, IEEE, K. K. Tse, Member,
IEEE, S. Y. Ron Hui, Fellow, IEEE, C. M. Mok, and M. T. Ho,
Student Member, IEEE, “A Novel Maximum Power Point
Tracking Technique for Solar Panels Using a SEPIC or Cuk
Converter,” IEEE Trance. Power Electronics, VOL. 18, NO. 3,
pp.717-724 , May 2003
BIOGRAPHIES
Yahya Kabiri was born in Isfahan, Iran in 1986.
He received the B.S. in electrical engineering from
Figure 6. Voltage profile in load condition 3 under worst Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, Iran in
environmental conditions 2008. Currently he is M.Sc. student at Amirkabir
University of Technology, Tehran, Iran.
His main fields of research are fuel cell and
TABLE III. photovoltaic hybrid system, Renewable Energe
MEASURED PARAMETERS IN LOAD CONDITION 2 UNDER WORST Sources, Distributed Generation (DG) and DG
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS
connection to distribution system.
max loading with PV as DG with PV/FC as DG Hossein Askarian Abyaneh was born in
Inet(kA) 0.31 0.13 Abyaneh, Isfahan on March 20, 1953. He received
the B.S. and M.S. degree both in Iran in 1976 and
Pnet(MW) 10.93 2.02 1982 respectively. He also received another M.S.
degree and Ph.D. from UMIST, Manchester, U.K.
Qnet(MVAr) 2.35 -3.98 in 1985 and 1988 respectively, all in electrical
power system engineering. He published over 140
Snet(MVA) 11.18 4.47 scientific papers in international journals and
conferences.
Idg(kA) 0 0.28 Currently, he is a Professor with the Department of Electrical
Engineering and Head of the Electrical Engineering Department, AUT,
Pdg(MW) 0 8.35
Iran, working in the area of the relay protection and power quality.
Qdg(MVAr) 0 5.5
Sdg(MVA) 0 10
total loss(MW) 0.94 0.46
93
Seyed Hosein Hesamedin Sadeghi (M’92–
SM’05) received the B.S. degree in electrical
engineering from Sharif University of Technology,
Tehran, Iran, the M.S. degree in power
engineering from the University of Manchester
Institute of Science and Technology, Manchester,
England, and the Ph.D. degree in electronic
systems engineering from Essex University,
Colchester, U.K., in 1980, 1984, and 1991.
In 1992, Dr. Sadeghi was appointed as a Research Assistant Professor
at Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN. During 1996-1997, and 2005-
2006 he was a Visiting Professor at the University of Wisconsin,
Milwaukee. He is currently a Professor of electrical engineering at
Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran. His current research
interests include electromagnetic compatibility problems in power
engineering and electromagnetic non-destructive evaluation of
materials. He holds 3 patents and is the author or coauthor of one book
and over 200 papers and technical reports.
Hamed Hashemi Dezaki was born in 1986,

Borujen, Iran. He received B.S. degree in
electrical engineering from Amirkabir University
of Technology, Tehran, Iran in 2009. Presently,
he is a M.Sc. student at the department of
electrical engineering of Amirkabir University of
Technology, Tehran, Iran. His main fields of
research are power system transient and protection of power systems,
power quality, high voltage, reliability, electrical insulation and using
artificial intelligence in power system and distributed generation (DG).
Hamed Nafisi was born in Tehran in the Iran, on

April 31, 1984. He received his B.Sc. and M.Sc.
in electrical engineering in 2006 and 2008 from
the Amirkabir University of Technology (AUT),
Tehran, Iran. Now, he is the Ph.D. student in the
Amirkabir University of Technology (AUT),
Tehran, Iran. His research interests include Smart
Grid, Power System Protection, Power
Electronic, Using Artificial Intelligence in Power System and
Distributed Generation (DG).
94
Characteristic and Transient Analysis of Gen-4

Nuclear Power via Reactor Kinetics and
Accelerator Model
Syed Bahauddin Alam1 ,
Md. Nazmus Sakib, Md. Rishad Ahmed, Hussain Mohammed Dipu Kabir, Khaled Redwan, Md. Abdul Matin
Department of EEE, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET), Dhaka
1
baha ece@yahoo.com
Abstract—The initiating postulate of energy has hairsplitting the

prerequisite of alternative reservoirs of energies other than fossil
fuels. At the present time, considering cost factors, environmental
viability and unlimited resource of power, nuclear is one of the
best options and in this era of energy crisis. In this paper,
Characteristic features of gen-4 nuclear reactors, its reactivity
control mechanism, characteristic features of fission reactors,
reactor kinetics and accelerator models have been discussed.
As well as transient analysis of reactor via simulation and its
industrial viability has been discussed in this paper.
Index Terms—Nuclear Reactor, Gen-4, Reactor Kinetics, Accel-
erator, Cost, Electricity.
I. I NTRODUCTION
Reactivity control and its safety is treated by assimilation of
neutrons in the nuclear reactor. For controlling reactivity, Gen-4
reactors are robust enough [1]. In these reactors different mech-
anisms are used for controlling the mechanism of reactor core’s
activity. When the water flow through the core is increased,
Fig. 1. Reactor Kinetics for no Delayed neutrons
because of neutron moderation, reactivity is also increased.
Abrupt responsiveness commutes are handled by manipulating
recirculation flux through the jet pumps. is small compared to the time neutron spends as a thermal
In Gen-4 nuclear reactors heavy particle scattering may be neutron before it is finally absorbed. Reactor kinetics model
done because of smoothing of the reactor process. Heavy for delayed neutrons and no delayed neutrons are twisted with
Particle scattering from an Electron and by this mechanism prompt neutron lifetime.
reactivity and atom speed can be controlled. Industrial applications of gen-4 nuclear reactor are basically
For PARR-1 Nuclear Reactor [2] Computer-Aided Testing wide enough. Accelerator kinetics and its models are used in
and simulation has evolved. the reactors for industrial applications.
In the design of thermal reactor Resonance Escape Proba-
Transient analysis of nuclear reactors basically provides
bility [3] is one of the important factors. In a thermal reactor,
security information and its operating condition at different
most of the neutrons are immersed after they have retarded to
valve position, temperature etc.
thermal energies.
In this paper, Characteristic features of gen-4 nuclear reac-
Thermal reactors are typical to diverse escape probability. All
tors, its reactivity control mechanism, characteristic features of
of the fission neutrons must eventually be absorbed somewhere
fission reactors, reactor kinetics and accelerator models have
in the reactor and there having no efflux of neutrons from an in-
been discussed. As well as transient analysis of reactor via
finite nucleus. . In most reactor designs, various restraints ensue
simulation and its industrial viability has been discussed in this
in this heat departure the reactor chamber at a comparatively
paper.
low temperature, so that trivial or none of it can be retrieved
Fig. 1 shows Reactor Kinetics for no Delayed neutrons.
as wattage. In a fusion power reactor a plasma must be exerted
at a high temperature in order that nuclear fusion can pass off. II. CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF GEN-4
A system’s energy is lost to its surroundings is defined as NUCLEAR REACTORS
Confinement times . In a plasma device, whether enough fusion
will occur to sustain a reaction is determined by confinement A. Reactivity Control
times. Thermal Utilization factor of Fusion [4], [5], [6] reactor By immersion of neutrons in the reactor fuel, secure reactiv-
and Prompt neutron lifetime. For an infinite thermal reactor ity command is fundamentally acted. For ascertaining reactivity,
time required for neutron to slow down to thermal energies Gen-4 reactors are robust enough. In these reactors different
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 95

Fig. 3 shows reactivity vs. lifetime curves.
Fig. 2. Heavy Particle Scattering from an Electron
mechanics are exploited for operating the mechanics of reactor

core’s process. By insuring circulation rate of flow through the
jet pumps short term reactivity commutes are performed. When Fig. 3. Testing for PARR-1 Nuclear Reactor
the water flux through the core is changed magnitude, because
of neutron temperance, reactivity is as well increased.
Control cruciform control vanes are required for longer term C. Computer-Aided Testing for PARR-1 Nuclear Reactor
reactivity. By the commixture of GadoliniumOxide(GdO2 ) Data processor (PC) accomplishes reactivity reckonings from
and U O2 pellets, reactivity control for counterbalancing the static positive reactor period info for the control rod and
fuel burn up is rendered. Gadolinium is transmuted into accomplishes online acquisition of distinct signals exploitation
lowneutronabsorption cross-sectional and by that way more of the well-known in − hour equation as given below,
neutrons are imbibed in the reactor fuel.
6
X βi
B. Heavy Particle Scattering from an Electron ρ = 1/T + (4)
1
l + λit
Fig. 2 shows an electrons scatters heavy electrons. Since
smoothening of the reactor operation, in Gen-4 reactors, heavy where, p = scheme reactivity, T = static reactor flow, l= neutron
particle dispersion is done. As alpha is heavy charged particles, interim time period, and βi , λi the fraction and decay constant
pass through matter and they interact through the Coulombic of the ith group of delayed neutrons, respectively. Fig. 3. is
force, predominately on the electrons of the medium as of showing Testing for PARR-1 Nuclear Reactor.
they occupy most of the matter’s bulk. Towards heavy charged
molecules with kinetic energy (MeV range), the more minus- D. Resonance Escape Probability
cule separation energy of an electron to the nucleus is trifling. ResonanceEscapeP robability is one of the crucial fac-
Thus, a “free” electrons at rest is that, with which an incident tors out the contrivance of nuclear reactor. Thermal reactors
alpha particle interacts. are distinctive to diverse escape probability. There can be
To analyze this scattering reaction, identify particles X and ordinal outflow of neutrons from an infinite core; all of the
y as the electron. For this scattering process, there is no change fission neutrons must eventually be absorbed somewhere in
in the rest masses of the reactants, i.e., Q = 0. Now, the reactor. However, some neutrons might be absorbed as
p 2 p retarding by nuclei having absorption resonances at energies
Ee = M me EM cosΘe (1) over the thermal region. Most of the neutrons are assimilated
M + me
in a nuclear reactor subsequently decompressing to thermal
The maximum electron recoil energy and the maximum energies. If P is the probability that, a fission neutron is
kinetic energy loss by the incident heavy particle, occurs for not immersed in any of these resonances, then P is the
cos2 Θ = 1 (2) ResonanceEscapeP robability.
Thus, the maximum energy of the recoil electron is P = e−NF VF I/ξM ΣsM VM (5)
Resonance Escape Probability is shown in Fig. 4.
(Ee )max = 4me EM /M (3)
This is an energy sufficient to free most electrons from their E. Characteristic Analysis of Fusion Reactors
atoms and create an ion-electron pair. Virtually collisions 1) Energy Gain Factor Model: Fusion energy gain factor, Q
transfer less energy from the alpha particle, and, consequently, is the ratio of fusion power density to to the externally supplied
tenners of grands of ionization and innervation fundamental power for heating unit volume of plasma in steady state.
interaction are requisite for an alpha with respective MeV Plasma must be maintained at a high temperature in a fusion
of kinetic energy to retard and become part of the ambient power reactor in order that nuclear fusion can occur. Various
medium. constraints ensue in this heat imparting the reactor chamber at
96
Fig. 4. Resonance escape probability Fig. 5. Quality Factor
a relatively low temperature in virtually reactor excogitations,

so that minuscule or none of it can be recuperated as wattage.
In these reactors, wattage is brought forth from the fraction of
the fusion power comprised in neutrons. The neutrons are not
moderated by the obtuse plasma in inertial confinement fusion
or the magnetic fields in magnetic confinement fusion but are
absorbed in a encompassing “blanket”. Imputable to versatile
exothermic and endothermic reactions, the blanket may have a
power gain factor a few per centum higher or lower than 100%,
but that will be neglected in our scheme. A fraction of the
electrical power is re-circulated to run the reactor arrangements.
It is defined as,Let,
Pf us =fusion power density
Pheat =Power supplied by external power sources
Pelect =Produced electric power
frecirc =fraction of power used to run fusion reactor
Here, Fig. 6. Particle Confinement times
Pelect =ηelect (1 − fc )Pf us
Ph eat=(1 − fc )Pf us ηelect ηheat frecirc
A simple expression for the optimal confinement for the
Thus Fusion energy gain factor is,
optimal confinement time is given. In a plasma ignition, the
fusion power density that goes into heating the plasma Pheat ,
1 must exceed the power density lost to the environment, Ploss .
Q= (6) The energy confinement times,τE is as follows,
(1 − fc )ηelect ηheat frecirc
frecirc < 1, because fusion power plant is to produce electricity 3nkT
τE = (7)
for external consumption. Ploss
The one conduct of energy expiration that is autonomous Where we have used the fact that the average kinetic the average
of the confinement intrigue and practically inconceivable to kinetic energy of the electrons and ions with 3KT /2. The
obviate is Bremsstrahlung actinotherapy. Alike the fusion power heating power Pheat with Qf us replaced by the kinetic energy
density, the Bremsstrahlung power density devolves on the Ec of all charged fusion products for the D-T reactions.
square of the plasma compactness, but it does not alter as apace
with temperature. Fig. 5 represents the quality factor and Fig. G. Thermal Utilization factor of Fusion reactor
6 shows the particle confinement times. Because not all thermal neutrons are absorbed by the fuel,
we define thermal utilization as the probability that, when a
F. Energy Confinement times thermal neutron is absorbed, it is absorbed by the “fuel” (F)
In which 0.5 of a system’s energy is lost to its surroundings and not by the “nonfuel” (NF). Equivalently, it is the ratio of
is defined as Confinement times. In a plasma device, whether the average thermal neutron absorption rate in the fuel to the
enough fusion will occur to sustain a reaction is determined by total thermal neutron absorption rate in the fuel and nonfuel.
confinement times. Mathematically,
97
Fig. 7 shows thermal utilization factor of fusion
reactor and reactor kinetics is shown in Fig. 8.
Fig. 8. Reactor kinetics
Fig. 7. Thermal Utilization factor of Fusion reactor Fig. 9 shows the reactor kinetics for delayed neutrons.
f
X NF
X
f= / (8)
a a
where N F /N N F is the ratio of fuel-to-nonfuel atomic con-

centrations. The value of f can range from near zero for a very
dilute fuel mixture to unity for a core composed only of fuel.
III. REACTOR KINETICS MODEL

0
Considering a core in which the neutron cycle takes l
seconds to complete. The alteration ∆n in the entire count of
thermic neutrons in one cycle at time t is (kef f − 1)n(t),
where n(t) is the amount of neutrons at the setting out of
the cycle. Thus,
dn(t) kef f − 1 Fig. 9. Reactor Kinetics for Delayed neutrons

= n(t) (9)
dt l0
The solution of this first-order differential equation is,
B. Reactor Kinetics for Delayed neutrons
kef f − 1 Considering an infinite homogenous reactor whose caloric
n(t) = n(0)exp[ n(t)] (10)
l0 flow must be independent of the position. For thermal neutron
where, at t = 0, the neutron population is n(0). In this time dependent diffusion equation is,
framework, the neutron population and therefore the reactor
power alters exponentially soon enough, if kef f 6= 1 dn
st − ΣaφT = , (12)
A. Prompt neutron lifetime dt
where n is the density of thermal neutrons and sT is the
For an infinite thermal reactor, time expected for neutron
source density of neutrons into the thermal energy region.
to retard to thermal energies is minuscule equated to
The rate of change of neutron density is,
the time neutron drops as a thermal neutron before it is
finally engulfed. The interim between emanation of the
prompt neutrons and immersions in nuclear reactor is called dn X X 6
P romptneutronlif etime, lf p . Mean diffusion time is td . = kξ (1 − β) + λi Ci (13)
dt
For an infinite thermal reactor, i=1aφT
where,
√ n= PAeωτ
P
Π C= Beωτ
td = P P (11)
2υT ( aF + aM )
98
The complete solution for n is,
β λρt ρ ρ−β
n = n0 e β−ρ − e lp (14)
β−ρ β−ρ
Finally it is,
T = lp /(kα − 1) (15)
IV. INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF GEN-4

NUCLEAR REACTOR VIA ACCELERATOR MODEL
A. Tracer and Detection
Radioisotopes can retraces ideally from a tracer bullet.
To discern the tracer bullet in a sample, few atoms are
mostly necessitated. Let, the actinotherapy emitted by the Fig. 10. Transient analysis of ESBWR at t=3.50 sec
disintegration of a distinct radionuclide with a half time of
T0.5 can be traced in a sample distribution with an efficiency
of e. If a sample contains N atoms of the radionuclide, the C. Betatron
calculated count rate is,
If the magnetic field increases, there is a varying flux
connecting the loop of electrons and so an induced e.m.f.
CR = λN = N 0.693
T0.5 which accelerates the electrons. As the electrons get quicker
they motive a larger magnetic field to extend moving at an
To observe the comportment of the radionuclide label, this invariant radius, which is rendered by the modifying field;
count rate must be greater than some minimal count rate the issues are proportional, so the field is always impregnable
CRmin which is above the base count rate. Then the minimum enough to keep the electrons in orbit. The magnetic field wont
number of radioactive subatomic particle in the sample to cause the electrons draw in a circle is also the one used to
required to observe the comportment of the radioisotope is speed up them, though the magnet must be cautiously contrived
so that the field intensity at the orbit radius is equal to half the
Nmin = 1.442CRmin T0.5 atoms average field strength relating the orbit. The E-field is,
¯
dB(t)
If the atomic weight of the radionuclide is A, the minimum E(t) = 0.5R (18)
mass of radionuclides in the sample is dt
The field is changed by passing an alternating current through
the primary coils and particle acceleration occurs on the first
1.442CRmin T0.5 quarter of the voltage sine wave’s cycle. The force on the
Mmin = (16)
Na electron produced by the E-field is
B. Cyclotron Application ¯
dB(t)
Fa (t) = 0.5eR (19)
A cyclotron comprises of two D-shaped realms cognised as dt
dees. The oscillation degenerates with the magnetic field in the However, if the total energy is much greater than the rest
dees continually contributing the charge back to the gap. As energy then E = pc is an effective estimation. When the mag-
the charge is in the dee, the force field in the gap is inverted, netic field is at its strongest value, the subatomic particles have
so the charge is once again accelerated across the gap. There maximum energy. But the formula used for the cyclotron will
is a magnetic flux vertical to the plane of the page in each dee. not work for betatron because the electron will be relativistic.
All time the charge cuts through the gap it picks up speed. As the centripetal force is again rendered by the Lorentz force,
These cause the half-circles in the dees to step-up in radius Betatron is still used in industry and medicine as they are the
and finally the charge issues from the cyclotron at high speed. very compact accelerators for electrons.
The terminal kinetic energy is fundamentally independent of the V. TRANSIENT ANALYSIS OF NUCLEAR REACTORS
potential drop in the gap, but the kinetic energy is proportional
to the square of the magnetic field, so increasing the magnetic A. Transient Analysis of ESBWR
field is the way to increase the kinetic energy. ESBWR is founded on the originally Simplified BWR
An ion reaching the exit port at radius R with speed v has (SBWR) by economics of surmount to a higher power level
an energy given by, K=qV , where v is the equivalent potential of 4500 MWt (1560 Mwe). The economic consumption of
difference. recirculation pumps in premature BWR patterns or reactor
interior pumps for ABWR is completely eradicated. Core flux is
q by natural circulation. The Electric Economic Simplified BWR
V = 0.5B 2 R2 (17)
m (ESBWR) depends on the manipulation of natural circulation
99
VI. CONCLUSIONS
Speculating about diverse viewpoints, it is clear that, suc-
ceeding energy for the world is nuclear. For having a carbon
emission free environment, nuclear is a just alternative. Con-
sidering the cost of energy generation, electricity production
and for replenishment of energy crisis, energy future lies down
towards nuclear. Our analyze settles that in order to obtain a
long term solution to the ongoing energy crisis, it is important
for the world to formulate frameworks for nuclear energy based
electricity generation in the near future. In spite of the environs
well-disposed nature and renewability of sources like solar,
wind, biomass or geothermal energy resources, these sources
cannot serve as a long term cost effective nostrum to energy
crisis in the years to come. By devising and comparing about
cost factors, environmental issues, power generation efficacy
Fig. 11. Transient analysis of ESBWR at t=149.00 sec and fossil fuel replacement benefits, nuclear can be good
option as a energy source for developing countries. Appropriate
safety measures with complimentses to nuclear power can
emphatically and unquestionably provide environment friendly,
cost effective, sustainable solutions to the problem of energy
crisis and thereby help the world to excise its future energy
exact.
R EFERENCES
[1] F. Baque, G. Rodriguez, N. Jardin, J. M. Carpreau, J. M. Augem, Sibilo,
J.;“Generation IV nuclear reactors - R&D program to improve sodium-
cooled systems inspection” in Advancements in Nuclear Instrumentation
Measurement Methods and their Applications (ANIMMA), pp. 1-10, 7-10
june 2009.
[2] “Computer-aided testing and operational aids for PARR-1 nuclear reactor”
in Nuclear Science, IEEE Transactions on ,Volume: 37 Issue:3, pp. 1468
- 1477, Jun 1990
[3] “The application of digital computers to nuclear-reactor design”in : Pro-
ceedings of the IEE - Part B: Radio and Electronic Engineering, Volume:
105 Issue:22 , pp. 331 - 336 , 1958.
[4] S. J. Zinkle, ”Fusion materials science: overview of challenges and recent
Fig. 12. Transient analysis of APWR at t=56.00 sec progress” in (APS DPP43 Invited tutorial)
[5] G.R. Odette and M.Y. He, J. Nucl. Mater. 307-311, 1624 (2002).
[6] T.S. Byun and K. Farrell, J. Nucl. Mater. 326, 86 (2004).
[7] W. Sweet, “Advanced Pressurized Water Reactor” in Spectrum,
and passive characteristics to enhance the plant functioning and IEEE,Volume: 34 Issue:11, pp. 41 - 48, Nov 1997.
simplify the design. Fig. 10 and Fig. 11 show the transient
analysis of ESBWR. Here simulation has been done for various
conditions and stages. First condition is,
Hydrolic pressure=67.91 bar, Steam Flow=2434 kg/s, Satura-
tion Temperature=287.4 degree Celsius, RC temparature=271.1
degree cel, SLC=DPV=PCCS=0,at t=3.50 sec transient condi-
tion is shown in figure tran1
Second condition is,
Hydrolic pressure= 8.82 bar, Steam Flow=0.0 kg/s, Satura-
tion Temperature=174.7 degree Celsius, RC temparature=174.7
degree cel, SLC=PCCS=2, DPV=0, at t=149.00 sec transient
condition is shown in figure tran2
B. Transient Analysis of APWR at Specific Point

Fig. 12 shows the transient analysis of APWR. Advanced
Pressurized Water Reactor [7] (APWR) consumptions gas
turbine substituting diesel generator for exigency power, and
incontainment refueling water storage pit (RWSP) for post-
LOCA recirculation. Its output is near 1500 MW electric and
evolutionary with 4 coolant loops and 4 trains of ECCS direct
vessel injecting.
100
EM Shielding, Dosimetry Control and

Xe(135)-Sm(149) Poisoning Effect for
Nuclear Waste Treatment
Hussain Mohammed Dipu Kabir, Md. Nazmus Sakib, Celia Shahnaz, Shaikh Anowarul Fattah
Department of EEE, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, Dhaka
1
baha ece@yahoo.com
Abstract—A crucial yard mensuration of the shape up of

a state is the level to which clean, low-priced and sustainable
energy resources are made available for the bulk assemblage.
At present eons, equating cost factors, environmental issues,
power generation with other substitute energy informants,
atomic or nuclear power is turning into a popular alternative
as an energy option. Though it is clean and safe alternative,
nuclear waste is still a matter of great concern. In this paper,
nuclear waste treatment for nuclear plant by radioactive
and electromagnetic shielding via dose conversion factors,
photons and neutrons response functions has been explained.
Moreover, analyzing of Quality-Factor and Poisoning decay
of Xenon and Samarium has been discussed. In this paper
modernized radioactive waste treatment processes as well
as secured data transmission from nuclear power plant
to National Load Dispatch Center (NLDC) using digital
watermarking is proposed as this type of vulnerable data
transmission is a matter of great concern.
Index Terms—EM (Electromagnetic) shielding, dose,
kerma, Quality-Factor, poisoning, Samarium, Xenon, digital
watermarking. Fig. 1. Reactivity with mean life time
I. I NTRODUCTION
small amount of high level nuclear waste. For controlling
The promising conveyable of nuclear waste materials
and transmutation of radionuclides physical operation can
from nuclear reactors and defense amenities to a repository
be made at reactor for mitigating waste virility. In figure
are the essence concern in the present eon. The aspiration
1, reactivity is decreased with mean life time and stable
of waste treatment is of grave importance now in order
period is shown. In this paper, nuclear waste treatment
to handle nuclear waste transportation issues at the local,
by radioactive and Electro-Magnetic (EM) shielding via
tribal, state, regional and national levels [1]. For fossil fuel
dose conversion factors [7], photons and neutrons response
burning power plants, solid waste is primarily a trouble
functions has been explained. Moreover, Quality-Factor [8],
for coal based power generation. Approximately 10% of
dose rates [9] and kerma [10] is calculated, controlled and
the substances of coal is ash which often includes metal
explained for that purpose. Finally Poisoning [11] of Xenon
oxides and alkali. Such residues necessitate disposition,
and Samarium and Decay Chain has discussed. In addition
generally burial, though some reprocessing is possible, in a
with the waste treatment, data transmission of power gen-
manner that limits migration into the general environment.
eration from nuclear plant to NLDC is a matter of concern.
Volumes can be substantive. While burning in a power
For that reason, data transmission security has grave im-
plant, oil also yields residues that are not entirely burned
portance as foreign intelligence have an askance look on
and thus conglomerate [2], [3]. These residuals must also be
power generation and transmission data of nuclear power
disposed as solid wastes. Once the fission operation in the
plant. In this paper, secured data transmission of nuclear
reactor has decelerated, the fuel rods are supplanted. The
power plant to National Load Dispatch Center (NLDC)
spent fuel rods hold extremely radioactive fission products
is proposed using digital watermarking [12] scheme and
and must be stored safely [4], [5].
proper treatment [13] and controlling of nuclear waste is
These used fuel rods are regarded as high level nuclear
proposed as a cardinal feature.
waste. Currently all high level nuclear waste is stored in
large pools of water at the power plants where it was
II. E LECTROMAGNETIC (EM) R ADIATION S HIELDING
generated [6]. Seven to ten feet of water is enough to stop
T ECHNOLOGY
all radioactivities. Since the late 1950’s, high level nuclear
waste has been stored in this form, and there has never been In analysis, the source and shielding are identified and
any release of radioactivity. There is actually a relatively the task is to influence the resultant dose. The task is to
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 101

Fig. 3. Buildup factors computed by geometric progression method the
PALLAS code
Fig. 2. Cross sections and dose conversion factors
such as those for energy dethronement. Another is a set

regulate the existence of the shielding required to accom-
of effluence-to-dose factors relevant to a comprehensive
plish the destination. At commencement it must be said that
alignment of dosimetry stipulates. By controlling these
screening contrives and shielding analysis are complemen-
parameters, P ALLAS code and hyperbolic functions, dose
tary activities. In convening, the source is identified and a
conversion factors can be controlled. Fig. 3 shows buildup
target dose goal is specified. Whether one is engaged in
factors computed by geometric progression method the
a hand computation or in a most elaborate M onteCarlo
PALLAS code.
model, one is confronted with the chores of (1) qualifying
the source, (2) characterizing the nature and rarefying
B. Phantom-Related Dose
dimensions of the shielding materials, (3) valuating at a
target location the radioactivity strength and possibly its The phantom dose, in fact, is a point function and serves
angular and energy dispersions, and (4) commuting the as a standardized reference dose for instrument calibra-
saturation to a dose or reaction substantive in terms of tion and radiation protection purposes. A local irradiation
actinotherapy cores. M onteCarlo codes are amenable to dose within a simple geometrical phantom or some sort
these more complex shielding problems and have become of intermediate dose within an anthropomorphic phantom
more and more popular as high-speed ciphering has become by phantom-related dose is considered. Dose conversion
uncommitted to so many people. Generally, nevertheless, factors are also usable for three profundities of incursion
they do require considerably more expertise and aiming to into the geometric phantom: (1) a 10-mm depth, the dosage
use and are often much denser in accomplishing a root than being called the ambient dose, a foster to the earlier whole
are the deterministic methods. body dose and the dose suitable for instrument standardiza-
tion; (2) a 3-mm depth, suited for exemplifying the dose to
A. Cross sections and dose conversion factors the lens of the eye; and (3) a 0.07-mm depth, desirable for
Two more foundation stones need to be in place to constituting the dot to the skin. Fig. 4 is presenting photon
support a mature radiation shielding technology. response functions and fig. 5 shows neutron response
Working with buildup factors computed using the functions. Fig 6 and 7 compare response functions for
P ALLAS code, Harima developed a data fit in the photons and neutrons, respectively. At energies over about
following form, called the geometric progression formula. 0.1 MeV, the assorted photon response mappings are very
Fig. 2 presents cross sections and dose conversion factors. closely equal. Personnel dosimeters are usually calibrated
to contribute responses proportional to the ambient dose.
This is a fortunate position for radiation mensuration and
tanh(µr/ξ − 2) + 0.96
K(µ, r) = c(µr) + d (1) surveillance determinations. Both the ambient dose and
1.96 the tissue Kerma closely estimate the efficacious dose
Where a, b, c, d, and ξ are parameters that devolve on equivalent.
the gamma-ray energy, the attenuating medium, and the
nature of the response. This appears to be a very exotic, III. C ONTROLLING OF R ADIATION D OSIMETRY
even eccentric, fitting formula. That may be so, but it PARAMETERS
is so an inordinately accurate pattern, as is illustrated in
Fig. 1 above. Both the results of P ALLAS calculations A. Controlling Doserates
and the constants for the patterned advance buildup factors The unshielded dose rate at the dose point is given by
are tabularized in pattern criteria. One is a comprehensive
set of samples, or interaction coefficients, explicating not kSEµen
only reactions but also dosimeters colligated coefficients D= (2)
4Πρr2
102
kSEµenBe−µt
D= [A1 eα1µT + (1 − A1 )eα1µT ] (5)
4Πρr2
An intimately concerned deterministic quantity, used
only in association with circuitously ionizing (uncharged)
radioactivity, is the Kerma, an acronym for ’Kinetic Energy
of Radiation Absorbed Per Unit Mass’. The absorbed dose
is, in principle, a mensurable quantity; but in many contexts
it is unmanageable to compute the immersed dose from
radiation effluence and material properties. The calculation
of the kerma (rate) is closely related to the reaction (rate)
density. If, at some point of interest in a medium, the
fluence of radiation with energy E is φ, the kerma, k at
that point is
µtr (E)
K(E) = Eφ (6)
ρ
Fig. 4. Photon Response Functions
With the assumption of charged particle equilibrium, the
absorbed dose rate, D0
µen ESp
D0 = 1.6 × 10−10 exp[−µr] (7)
4Πρr2
Now,if only elastic scattering is of importance, the neu-
tron kerma is,
Eφf sµs
K = 1.6 × 10−10 (8)
ρ
In a neutron dissipate, the scattering nucleus recoils
through the medium producing ionization and innervations
of the ambient atoms. The primary mechanism for trans-
ferring the neutrons kinetic energy to the medium is from
neutron scattering interactions, when fast neutrons pass
through a medium. The average neutron energy loss (and
hence average energy of the recoil nucleus) for isotropic
elastic scattering in the center-of-mass system of a neutron
with initial energy E.
Fig. 5. Neutron Response Functions
B. Controlling Quality-Factor and Dose Equivalent
The Quality-Factor and the Absorbed Dose are both
For Shielded primary photon dose rate, primary photon point functions that is deterministic measures that may be
dose rate is attenuated exponentially, and the dose rate from assessed at points in infinite. Their product is identified as
primary photons, taking account of the shield, is given by the dose equivalent H and is distinguished as a reserve
assess of radiotherapy jeopardy when enforced in the
kSEµene−µt context of establishing radiation protection guideposts and
D= (3)
4Πρr2 dose determines for population radicals.
where for the photons in the shield material, µ is the The dose equivalent
linear attenuation coefficient. This expression does not H = Qf × D = Qf ρ−1 × 1.6 × 10−10 Eφµen (9)
account for the buildup of secondary radiation and will
generally underestimate the true dose rate, especially for where Dis the absorbed dose at the point of interest.
thick shields and when the dose point is close to the shield In fig. 6 controlling quality factor and dose equivalent is
surface. For shielded dose rate accounting for buildup shown.
the added effect of the buildup is taken into account by IV. NUCLEAR WASTE TREATMENT BY
incorporating a point isotropic source dose buildup factor, POISONING: DECAY CHAIN
B
kSEµenBe−µt In a reactor core the fission products that accumulate are
D= (4) of concern for two explanations. First, they play long-term
4Πρr2
ignite origins through their disintegrations. Second, they act
The order of magnitude of the buildup factor hinges upon as epenthetic neutron absorbent or toxicants that, over time,
the origin and screen geometry, the outdistance from the decrease the thermal utilization factor and, thus, bring in
shield control surface to the dose degree, photon energy, electronegative reactivity into a core. For fission products
the shield corporeal and heaviness. Now, acquired from the fission of 235 U , it is often presumed that
103
Fig. 8. Equilibrium Xe(135)and I(135) concentrations as a function of
the steady-state flux density
Fig. 6. Controlling Quality Factor and Dose Equivalent
Fig. 9. Xe(135) transients shutdowns from equilibrium at constant flux

densities
0 0
by kef f =kef f f /f . If we assume the unpoisoned core is
critical kef f = 1,then poison reactivity is given by,
Np Np η
Fig. 7. Poison Reactivity ρp ' −0.6σap P = −σap P f (11)
f fν
B. Xenon Decay Chain and Poisoning
each fission produces 1 atom of static poisonous substance A very small nuclear denseness of Xenon nuclide can
with an concentration cross section of 50 barns. While this have a right smart reactivity consequence. Of all isotopes it
simplistic rule-of-thumb exploits for long-term reckonings has the largest thermal neutron absorption cross section. For
of burn up effectuates, the two particular poisons 135 Xe Counterbalancing Xenon Poisoning, a reactor operating at a
and 149 Sm have such prominent absorption cross sections constant flux density φ0 , the equilibrium concentrations of
that they must be tempered on an individual basis. 135
I and 135 Xe are found from decay per buildup equations
by setting the time derivative to zero. The result is
A. Poison Reactivity P
f
Fig. 7 shows poison reactivity. To determine the reactiv- I0 = γI ( )φ0 (12)
ity transient caused by a particular fission product poison, λI
P
Np t/ f , buildup equations for the poison decay chain P
f
and a quantity that is found from the decay. X0 = [φ0 γI + φ0 γX ] (13)
λX + σaX φ0
The reactivity ρp introduced by a fission product poison
is directly proportional to its average concentration Np in Equilibrium Xe(135)and I(135) concentrations as a func-
the core. tion of the steady-state flux density is shown in Fig. 8.
0 From equations it is understood that, while the 135 Xe
kef f −1 kef f − 1
ρp = 0 = (10) concentration is independent of φ0 at high flux density
kef f kef f
levels, the 135 I concentration continues to increase linearly
0
where kef f indicates the core with the poison included with φ0 . Xe(135) transients shutdowns from equilibrium
and kef f refers to the same core without the poison. Since at constant flux densities is shown in Fig. 9.
135
the poison changes only the thermal utilization factor, I would decay away, and the 135 Xe concentration
the two multiplication factors are related to each other would finally begin to decrease as it decays. 135 Xetransient
104
Fig. 10. Xe(135) transient for the buildup to equilibrium Fig. 12. The buildup of Sm(149)to equilibrium
Fig. 11. Xe(135)Equilibrium flux density before shutdown

Fig. 13. Sm(135)transient for the buildup to equilibrium during a start
for the buildup to equilibrium is shown in Fig. 10 following

of 149 P m. There is negligible production of 149 Sm as a
the shutdown from various flux levels.
direct fission product. Since 149 Sm is stable, the only way
If during the shutdown transient, reducing the 135 Xe
it can vanish is for it to absorb a neutron which it does at
reactivity temporarily to below its equilibrium values, the
a volumetric rate of σas φ(t)S(t), where S(t) is the average
reactor were started up again, the large absorption cross 149
Sm concentration. Thus the decay/buildup equations for
section for 135 Xe would cause this nuclide to be burned 149
P m and 149 Sm are
up very rapidly. Examples of these restart transients are
shown in Fig. 9-10. In many power or propulsion reactors, ∆P (t) X
the time to poison is usually only a few tens of minutes, and = −λP P (t) + λP f φ(t) (14)
∆t
the operator may go through substantial force to acquire
the reactor resumed before it poisons out so as to avoid ∆S(t)
= λP P (t) − σaS φ(t)S(t) (15)
a protracted period of lost production. Once the reactor ∆t
has poisoned out, it is requisite to postponement until Because of the long half-lives of 149 P m and 149 Sm, the
the negative 135 Xe reactivity has peaked and descended buildup of 149 Sm to its equilibrium level takes many tens
back to a level that can be offset by all controllable of hours, especially for reactors operating at low average
positive reactivities. The time from the closure until the flux densities φ0 . It is seen the equilibrium 135 Sm is,
reactor poisons out is the called the time-to-poison. The P
interval throughout which the reactor cannot be resumed is (γP f)
S0 = ) (16)
called the poison shutdown time and is typically of 15- σas
25 hours continuance. It is unimaginable to restart the Fig. 12 shows the buildup of 149 Sm to equilibrium a
reactor, and the reactor is stated to have poisoned out. level that is independent of the flux density.
135
Xe equilibrium flux density before shutdown is shown Thus at equilibrium, all reactors have the same amount
in Fig. 11. of 149 Sm poisoning.Fig. 13 shows 149 Sm transient for the
buildup to equilibrium during a start.
C. Samarium Poisoning
The second fission product poison which must be ac- V. DATA TRANSMISSION TO NLDC: SECURITY
counted for explicitly in power reactors is 149 Sm. This CONCERN
stable nuclide is a daughter of the fission products 135 Sm This far, in this paper, we discussed only about an
and 135 P m. The generation rate of 149 Sm is the decay rate efficacious way of treating nuclear waste materials. But
105
technology is more efficacious than the conventional one.
In this paper, nuclear waste treatment by radioactive and
electromagnetic shielding via dose conversion factors, pho-
tons and neutrons response functions has been explained.
Moreover, analyzing of Quality-Factor and Poisoning de-
cay of Xenon and Samarium has discussed. In addition,
modernized radioactive waste treatment processes as well
as secured data transmission of nuclear power plant to
Fig. 14. Watermarked DCT coefficient
National Load Dispatch Center (NLDC)is proposed using
Digital Watermarking technique. This data transmission
we also have to keep in mind that this waste handling security has grave importance as foreign intelligent services
actually takes place in a nuclear power plant. So various have an avarice look on power generation data of nuclear
data of great importance about this waste treatment process power plant . Through proper management and treatment
needs to be conserved and transmitted frequently. National technologies of nuclear wastes discussed in this paper,
load displacement center (NLDC) of any country, which world can have nuclear energy as a safe and clean future
keeps the national load distribution and management go- energy reservoir.
ing, needing an enormous amount of data to receive and R EFERENCES
transmit, is a good example. For a secured exchange of this
[1] D. J. M. Ryskamp, “Nuclear Fuel Cycle Closure”, in IEEE Power
data we are proposing the concept of digital watermarking. Engineering Society Meeting, Idaho National Engineering and Envi-
Digital watermarking is an art of digital data hiding in ronmental Laboratory, April 28, 2003.
another data. In this paper we used an audio signal to host [2] G. Butler, “Nuclear Power Waste Management Issues” in Power
Engineering Journal, pp. 207-212, Vol. 6, Issue 4, Aug 2002.
our waste data of concern. Among various techniques of [3] F. Wicks, “The nuclear waste problem and reconsideration of the
audio watermarking, we used “DCT Coefficients Replace- ocean disposal option” in Energy Conversion Engoneering Confer-
ment Method”. In this method a host audio signal is first ence, pp. 801-803, 2002.
[4] R. L. Murray, “Radioactive Waste Storage and Disposal”, in Proceed-
framed, considering samples within 25.5 milliseconds as ings of IEEE pp. 552-579, vol. 74, Issue 4, 1986.
one frame. DCT (Discrete Cosine Transform) coefficients [5] M. A. Champ, H. D. Palmer.“Overview of the comcept for ocean
of each frame are then calculated, with overlapping frames storage of nuclear wastes” in Oceans02 MTS/IEEE, vol. 04, pp. 2105-
2116, 2002.
to reduce edge effect. Then information data, nuclear waste [6] W. R. Wells, “The development and management of nuclear waste
data in this case, are represented by corresponding ASCII transportation research center” in Technology management: The new
values and these values are encrypted by an encryption international language, p. 579, Portland, 1991,
[7] Freytag, Eberhard; “Fluence-to-Dose Equivalent Conversion Factors
code. By a scaling factor, known to both receiving and in Mixed Radiation Fields”, in IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Sci-
sending end, these ASCII vales are scaled down to ad- ence, Vol: 23 , Issue: 4, Page(s): 1411 - 1413, 1976
just with low amplitude DCT coefficients having very [8] Mezheritsky, A.V., “Quality factor concept in piezoceramic trans-
former performance description”, in IEEE Transactions on Ultrason-
small impact on perception of audio signal. Then DCT ics, Ferroelectrics and Frequency Control, Volume: 53 , Issue: 2, pp:
coefficients beyond a certain threshold are replaced by 429 - 442, 2006.
information signal. The information code being inserted [9] Van Nieuwenhove, R. Vermeeren, L, “Online gamma dose-rate mea-
surements by means of a self-powered gamma detector”, in IEEE
last thing we have to do is to calculate IDCT (Inverse Transactions on Nuclear Science, Volume: 49, Issue: 4, Part: 1,
Discrete Cosine Transform) values to obtain audio signal Page(s): 1914 - 1918, 2002.
back, with watermark perceptually impossible to detect, [10] Michel, T.; Bohnel, M.; Durst, J.; Sievers, P.; Anton, G., “Low
Energy Dosimetry With Photon Counting Pixel Detectors Such as
prior to transmission through an unreliable channel. After Medipix”, IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science, Volume: 56 , Issue:
audio signal is received on the other end of channel, similar 2, pp: 417 - 423, 2009.
procedure is used to extract the information signal. As both [11] Zhang, Y.; Weber, W. J.; Shutthanandan, V.; Devanathan, R.; The-
vuthasan, S.; Balakrishnan, G.; Paul, D. M., “Damage evolution on
scaling factors and encryption key are known in this end Sm and O sublattices in Au-implanted samarium titanate pyrochlore”,
too, there is no difficulty to recover the data. So, obvious in Journal of Applied Physics, Volume: 95, Issue: 5, Page(s): 2866 -
from above discussion, watermarking is providing extra ad- 2872, 2004.
[12] Syed Bahauddin Alam, A B M Rafi Sazzad, Md. Nazmus Sakib,
vantages over conventional encryption. Firstly the existence Hussain Mohammed Dipu Kabir, Celia Shahnaz, Shaikh Anowarul
of hidden data has to be sensed, decryption of data comes Fattah; “Manipulation and Transparency Control of ICT constituted
after that. Again randomization of watermarking opens a E-Administrative Protocol via Digital Watermarking for LDC’s”, in
International Conference on Information Theory and Information
wide range of encryption options. In fig. 14. watermarked Security, ICITIS, Beijing, China, Dec 17, 2010.
DCT coefficients are shown. [13] Syed Bahauddin Alam, Hussain Mohammed Dipu Kabir, Md.
Rishad Ahmed, A B M Rafi Sazzad, Celia Shahnaz, Shaikh Anowarul
VI. CONCLUSIONS Fattah; “Nuclear Waste Transmutation by Decay Energetics, Compton
Imaging, Bremsstrahlung and Nuclei Dynamics”, in IEEE Power and
Radioactive waste comes from many places in the nu- Energy Conference, PECON, Kualalampur, Malaysia, Nov 29, 2010.
clear fuel cycle, but fission products generated in reac-
tors dominate both the high-level and low-level problems.
Nuclear waste management technologies via PUREX pro-
cess, ISR and Laser Isotope Separation(LIS)technology,
RSICC software, DIMS system development and modern-
ized radioactive waste treatment processes are adopted at
earlier and it is apprehend that, nuclear waste treatment
106
Nuclear Waste Transmutation by Decay Energetics,

Compton Imaging, Bremsstrahlung and
Nuclei Dynamics
Hussain Mohammed Dipu Kabir, Md. Rishad Ahmed, A B M Rafi Sazzad, Celia Shahnaz, Shaikh Anowarul Fattah
Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET), Dhaka
1
baha ece@yahoo.com
Abstract—Of all the panoramas of nuclear power in the

world, none is so disputatious or as pivotal as the issue
of nuclear waste and its management. While there is no
contiguous reason for alarm, an immense amount of ame-
lioration is needed if the worlds custody of its radioactive
waste is to become a programmed and prosecuted success.
Disposal of waste can highly jeopardize the atmosphere and
environment. Already waste disposal in ocean is proscribed
by the governments of developed countries. As energy sources
are going to be diminished, our future prognoses certainly
run towards nuclear power as it is already weighed as
a safe and clean alternative energy. As, tralatitious waste
disposal system is hazardous, rumination about nuclear waste
management, treatment and processing via adopting different
physical and chemical technologies is of grave importance.
Virility of nuclear waste needs to be controlled and mitigated
for safe industrial purposes and fuel consumptions. In this
paper, overhauled radioactive waste treatment processes as
well as assured data transmission from nuclear power plant Fig. 1. Stability of Nuclear
to National Load Dispatch Center (NLDC) using digital
watermarking is proposed as this type of penetrable data
transmission is an affair of cracking concern.
Index Terms—Nuclear Waste, Q-value, compton imaging,
was ennobled in the source Nuclear Waste: An Interna-
beta decay, bremsstrahlung, NLDC, nuclei dynamics, digital tional Problem and Evaluating the Antarctic Continent as a
watermarking. Disposal Sight. But, at present environmental hazards are
observed by ocean disposal and disposed at Mountain. Sci-
I. I NTRODUCTION entists Voice Concerns about Yucca Mountain Repository.
Radioactive wastes are innately unstable, exonerating By that repository, global environment is contaminating
energy in the form of radiation as they split up. In Fig. and scientists are thought of long-term factors, such as the
1, components of nuclear fuel cycle, which is the source influence of climate change, the robustness of the metallic
of radioactive waste is shown. The Nuclear Waste Policy waste packages, and the impact of volcanic activity require
Act of 1982 (meliorated in 1987) [1] directed by the U.S. detailed probing as well. Same problems are occurred in
Department of Energy (DOE) cogitate Yucca Mountain, the case of ocean disposal that jeopardy and contaminate
Nevada, for suitableness as the nations first inscrutable the ocean.In October, 1993, the Russian Navy decked 900
geological repository for high-level radioactive waste and tons of liquid nuclear waste straightly in the Sea of Japan.
spent nuclear fuel that is also nuclear waste. The potential So, instead of dumping or disposal of nuclear waste into
venturing of these waste [2] materials from nuclear reactors environment, the better option is nuclear waste management
and vindication initiations to a repository in Nevada is of and treatment so as to mitigate its radioactive virility
vital concern to Nevada residents. But at present,it is seen by recycling and for further nuclear industrialization. At
that,waste disposal [3] is a great threat for environment. present the treatment of nuclear wastes is a matter of
Now a days, The management of radioactive wastes is great concern to the whole world. In this paper, innovative
well diversified as well as complex subject, as there are technologies and physical explanation of beta decay, comp-
many sources of radioactivity, types of waste, and possible ton scattering and radiative stopping power phenomena for
ways to deal with the wastes including dispersal, storage, waste management process has been discussed. In accession
or burial [4], [5]. At Yucca Mountain in Nevada, many on the waste transmutation, information transmission of
alternatives of nuclear waste have been contemplated with power propagation from nuclear plant to NLDC is an
the most recent verdict for the plunging of 70,000 tons.The issue of interest. For that rationality, data transmission
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in Vienna protection has grievous immensity as foreign intelligence
should extend its responsibilities that now include nuclear agency have an askance look on power generation and
nonproliferation and nuclear aegis to nuclear waste and it transmission data of nuclear power plant. In this paper,
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 107

procured information transmission of nuclear power plant
to National Load Dispatch Center (NLDC) is proposed
using digital watermarking scheme and proper discourse
and operating of nuclear waste is proposed as a cardinal
feature.
II. PHYSICAL SOLUTIONS OF NUCLEAR DECAY
ENERGETICS
In nuclear waste management [6], basic motive is to
weaken the radoactive power of nuclear waste [7]. The
purpose of weaken this waste power is as it can decay its
energy as as fast as possible [8]. If it can be made weak,
then its radiotoxicity will be lessen and this waste then wont
effect the environment and health. So, the motive goes to
mitigate the radioactivity of nuclear waste via physical and
chemical solutions as it can be made reusable and do not
affect the environment and public health.
Fig. 1 shows the stability of nuclear.
A. Decay and Nucleon Separation Energy
The decrease in the rest mass energy or increase in the
kinetic energy of the product nuclei can be defined as Q Fig. 2. Mass Parabola’s for stable and unstable Beta
value of a nuclear reaction. For radioactive analysis Q value
can be called as ’Disintegration Energy’. For α equation is
as follows
A−4
Qα/c2 = M (A
Z P ) − [M (Z−2 D]
2−
+ m(42 )α] (1)
A−4
'M (A
Z P ) − [M (Z−2 D]
2−
+ 2me + m(42 )α] (2)
A−4
'M (A
Z P ) − [M (Z−2 D]
2−
+ M (42 He)] (3)
In the above equations binding energies of two electrons
Fig. 3. Beta decay of 40 K
in the He atom and in the daughter ion are several eV
whereas Q values is in the MeV range. For occurring of
alpha decay,condition is,
factor. Q − value computing for a reactor separating a
A−4 intersection nucleus, that is as equation
M (A 4
Z P ) > [M (Z−2 D] + M (2 He)] (4)
Mass Parabola’s for stable and unstable Beta is shown in Q = [mn + M (A 4 A ∗ 2
Z X) − M (2 He) − M (Z X )]c (7)
Fig. 2.
The separation energy may be expressed as, M (AZ X)is the mass of an excited nucleus that is greater
∗
than ground state atom M (A ZX )
Sn (A A A−1 If the decay energy Q were apportioned only amongst
Z X) = BE(Z X) − BE(Z X) (5)
the Daughter atom and the beta particle, there would not
The energy equivalent of the mass decrease is be a ambit of beta energies.
The decay energy of radioactive materials are obtained
A−1
Sp (A A
Z Y ) = BE(Z Y ) − BE(Z−1 X) (6) from the above Q − value equation. Specially in equations
B. Q-Value for Radioactive Waste: β-Decay Process
By using Beta-decay process,waste treatment can be Qβ− /c2 = M (A A
Z P ) − [M ([Z+1 D]+) + mβ− + mυe ] (8)
done. In general, a transition rate depends on (1) The count

of directions that the change over can occur. (2)The inten-
Qβ− /c2 'M (A A
Z P ) − [M (Z+1 D) − me + mβ− + mυe ] (9)
sity of the fundamental interaction inducing the conversion
i.e. the “coupling” within the initial and terminal states. For β − decay to occur spontaneously M (A ZP ) >
In many processes, in the excited state one of the product M (AZ+1 D) for that reason Qβ− is positive.
nuclei is left decomposing by the emission of one or more For a decay to an energy level E ∗ the mass of the
gamma photons as the nucleus retroverts to its ground state. daughter atom is replaced by the mass of excited daughter
∗ ∗ 2
The mass of a nuclear atom amid its nucleus is heavier than M (A A
Z+1 D ) ' M (Z+1 D) + E /c thus Qβ− for radioac-
representing nuclear ground state nucleus by the measure tive decay to an excited level with energy E ∗ above zero
[6] E ∗ /c2 where E ∗ is the energizing energy of radioactive level is as equation
108
Fig. 4. Beta deacy and radioactivity
Fig. 5. Bremsstrahlung production

∗ 2
Qβ− /c2 = M (A A
Z P ) − M (Z+1 D) − E /c (10)
1) Beta Decay Mechanism: Fig. 3 shows a typical beta is modeled by collision of ‘free electron’ as the outermost
decay and fig. 4 shows change of radioactivity at different shell electrons are loosely colligated. Where the electron
times by decay process.Integrand must have Even parity loses a negotiable amount of energy, there takes place
to give a non-zero integral. Here, V is scalar quantity and ‘Collisional Energy Losses’. The rate of energy release by
spatially dependent terms which are scalars i.e. independent this mechanics devolves on the electron energy and the
of direction. Here is no change in parity ψi and ψf both ionization free energy.
EV EN or both ODD i.e. same parity. Bremsstrahlung production curve is shown in Fig. 5.
Another process is, Fermi model assumed a pure Vector Bremsstrahlung irradiation is rendered in the contour of
interaction. Gamow-Teller assumed a Tensor or Axial in- photon emanation while an electron acts with the coulomb
teraction. It takes into account the spins. Now, the Nuclear field of the nucleus. When an electron conks close to the
weak interaction is Vector-Axial. Its Strength is about 10−6 nucleus of an particle, it goes through an electromagnetic
of the Nuclear Strong force. force and issues in an energy loss. The probability of
such an fundamental interaction gains as the outstrip of
Z
Vf i = ψf∗ Vψi dV (11) the electron’s near to the atom diminishes. Subsequently
the energy lost is reborn to a Bremsstrahlung photon, this
As the kinetic energy of the parent nucleus is zero, procedure is referred to as a radiative energy loss. The
the radioactive decay energy must be disbursed among the uttermost energy of the Bremsstrahlung photon cannot be
kinetic energies of the products. So by using decay energy heavier than the incidental electron energy and a orbit of
operation, mitigation of the power of radiotoxic waste is photon energies beneath this evaluate is produced. The
possible. The mass of decayed particle is much less than energy release due to output of photons per path distance
the daughter nucleus Q. For that reason, if any radioactive dz from electrons of energy E=hυmax , where υmax is the
waste is done intervention by beta-decay operation, its Bremsstrahlung absolute frequency, is given close to by the
toxicity will be mitigated earlier. As the mass of decayed following relationship.
particle is much less than the daughter nucleus Q, by
doing that operation treatment and conditioning is possible. −1
In any nuclear waste management plant, by using and (dE/dZ)rad = 5.343Z 2 EN r02 Z 3 (12)
varying excited nuclei produced by reactor through Q value where Z is the atomic number, N the number of nuclei
variation as per equation above, as energy is varied so it per unit volume and r0 the classical radius of the electron.
can be processed and conditioned. The collision stopping power [7] of radioactive element
C. Radiative energy loss: Bremsstrahlung production is as equation (13)
Via Radiation Power Mitigation Reaction, the virility of
(−dE/dS)coll = ρ(Z/A)z 2 f (I, β) (13)
waste may be weaken. For the sake of weaken the radiotox-
icity of the radioactive material as early as possible,waste where f (I,β) is a complex function for radioactive re-
treatment and management is done. sources. The photons developed by excursus of charged
When a laying out electron motions with atomic Elec- radioactive particle are called “Bremsstrahlung”. When the
trons, collision energy loss goes on and this consequences electron is deflected by both ambient nuclei and ambient
in either ionization or excitation of the nuclei. Large energy electron of unstable fabric, Bremsstrahlung is released. The
departures pass off less oftentimes where a substantial ratio radioactive power can be written as equation
of the energy of placing electrons is transported to an orbital
electron, which is named a knock-on collision, and the
expelled electron is pertained to as a δ-ray. This process (−dE/dS)rad = ρ(Na /A)(E + me c2 )Z 2 F (E, Z) (14)
109
Where is a radioactive function strongly dependent on
radioactive energy. For a relativistic radioactive particle of
rest mass M, with E >> Me c2 , it can be shown that
the radioactive to ionization losses is approximately. Now
energy equation can be written as equation (15),
(−dE/dS)rad
= 1.4285×10−3 EZ(me /M )2 (15)
(−dE/dS)coll
In equation (15), derivatives of radiational and collisional

energies are negative. In that ratios energy E is divided
up by the amount of 700. As Energy variance is large
enough and energy derivatives are negative. That negative
Fig. 6. The Compton interaction process
derivatives of energies are multiplied by 700 in equation
(15). So, energy reduction of nuclear material is higher in
that case. At that particular energy, as there is the ratio-
cination of radiation and collision derivatives, an electron c c 0 h
0 − =λ −λ= (16)
can move through radioactive waste as it can lose energy by υ υ mc(1 − cosθ)
bremsstrahlung by exciting and ionizing radioactive wastes. 0
So, Radiation stopping power can lessen the effect of waste where λ is the wavelength of the incident photon, λ
characterization and hence it is primed for dispensation and the wavelength of the scattered photon, m the mass of the
conditioning. electron and θ the angle of scattering for the photon. On
rearranging, the above equation becomes
III. COMPTON IMAGING IN NUCLEAR WASTE 0 hυ
CHARACTERIZATION AND ITS NOVELTY hυ = (17)
1 + α(1 − cosθ)
Operations and decomissioning of nuclear waste in Var- where α is the ratio of the energy of the photon to the
ious sectors and its treatment [9] as of a greater concern. rest energy of the electron. The kinetic energy T for the
To solve this problem Compton imaging system have a recoil electron is given by
number of advantages for characterization of nuclear waste,
such as identifying hot spots in mixed waste in order to α(1 − cosθ)
reduce the volume of high-level waste requiring extensive T = hυ (18)
1 + α(1 − cosθ)
treatment or long-term storage and imaging large objects.
An event consists of a detection of the energy and posi- and the scattering angle of the electron is given by
tion of a Compton scattering in the front plane, followed 1
by detection of the residual energy and position of the cotφ = (1 + α)tan θ (19)
2
scattered gamma ray in the back plane. A large field-of-
view, increased skillfulness and good backdrop suppression Klein and Nishina carried out a quantum mechanical
is included by the advantages of Compton cameras over treatment to obtain the Compton scattering cross-section
conventional imaging techniques. Compton cameras have using the Dirac equation for the electron. This reduces to
a magnanimous energy range (140 to 10,000 keV) and the classical Thomson scattering equation, for low-energy
can be used in an energy selective mode to singly image photons when
amalgamated gamma-ray sources .The softening of nuclear α1
waste management is now a days done by multiple Comp- As E = hυ,
ton scattering. In an x-ray scattering interaction, the energy 1 1 1
and momentum ahead scattering must equal the energy and − = (1 − cosθ) (20)
E0 E me c2
momentum later scattering. The initial momentum of the
incident photon to equal the vector sum of the momenta It can be written as,
of scattered photon and recoil electron is required for the 0 1 1
Preservation of liner momentum. Compton is competent to E =[ + (1 − cosθ)]−1 (21)
E me c2
predict the wave length switch of dispersed x-rays by using
1−cosθ
the particle model for the x-rays; it could not be done by As per equation, energy is reduced by a factor of me c 2
wave model. From the Compton scattering derivation, the
scattered wavelength equation is found using equation Fig. 6 is showing the Compton interaction process and
While contemplating the scattering hypothesis of pho- the photoelectric interaction process is shown in Fig. 7.
tons by electrons, it is commonly a acceptable estimation Fig. 8 is showing relative periodicity of energy for different
to conceive the electrons as free subatomic particles. If angle in compton scattering. As energy is conserved, the
scattering is considered, relativistic equivalences deduced kinetic energy Te of the recoil electron must equal the
from the law of conservation of energy and impulse can energy lost by the photon. Now, the Lost Energy is shown
be explicated. The alteration in the wavelength of a photon ,
0
inclines by Te = E - E
110
Fig. 10. Neutron Skins
Fig. 7. The photoelectric interaction process

IV. NUCLEI DYNAMICS
The proton and neutron spatial distributions are exhaus-

tively coalesced approach the stability line, and radius of
1
nuclear is proportional to A 3 . The surplus neutrons form
a stratum on the surface of such and in light neutron-
rich nuclei near the drip-line, protons and neutrons are
dissociated. Circumvents the nucleus, in cloggier nuclei
near the neutron drip line, a rarity but compact layer of
neutrons.
A. Neutron Skins
This position is unlike from that depicting normal static
nuclei where proton and neutron dispersions are soundly
Fig. 8. Angle vs. energy for compton scattering mixed. A neutron skin is a topography of nucleons sprang
on the surface of neutron-rich nuclei. The outmost neutrons
figure a surface layer. A proton skin, while it may be
From the above equations, it is evident that, by compton flimsier than that of neutrons, may also exist in very proton-
scattering to the nuclear waste due to recoil electron, rich nuclei. New types of excitation modes, such as soft-E1
energy of waste will be diminished as kinetic energy and resonances and E2-neutron modes, are predicted in neutron
hence it can be told that, for nuclear waste treatment and skin nuclei. Neutron Skins is shown in Fig. 10.
conditioning, no scruple that, compton scattering is a strong
and effective way and it is shown in fig.9. The Compton B. Neutron Halos
interaction process with an M-shell electron and the photon
is scattered and a recoil electron is produced is shown in This physical process presents a novel character of quan-
figure. tum tunneling and necessitates newfangled treatments of
the few-body nuclear quantal system. At the neutron drip-
line, neutrons are bound exceedingly weakly, some of the
neutrons diffuse extinct from the nucleus and form an super
thin cloud called a neutron halo. It is a new gainsay for
nuclear supposition to explicate a method to treat threshold
phenomena including a reproducible intervention of bound
and unbound states. Halos are very energizing since it
constitutes what is essentially the study of a new state of
matter. Neutron halos is shown in Fig. 11.
C. Exotic Shapes
Many nuclei experience a rugby ball form in fast re-
volving states. As a nucleus is a conglomeration of a
minuscule count of protons and neutrons, it renders an
singular chance that how shape formulates in the quantum
system. Other determines such as pear-like are presaged
by diverse models. Analyze of these shapes will heighten
the examine of proportion and its breaking in a few-body
Fig. 9. Lost energy and scattering angle system.
111
VI. CONCLUSIONS
Traditional Waste management system characterization
is not well developed and not at all considered as a
effective one. For soften Radioactivity, Compton Imaging
is no scruple that, a new dimension of waste treatment.
Now, very strong software has evolved for computing the
waste virility and its conditioning process. At present DIMS
system development and its algorithm serve a hard manner
in waste management for the sake of reprocessing and
its treatment via chemical and physical appliance.Compton
scattering, beta-decay and stopping radiative power phe-
nomena and its technology for softening radioactive waste
power can give better results in terms of efficiency and
Fig. 11. Neutron halos safety issues. As, there are effectual physical energetic
solutions and processes in the laboratory, protection shield
and waste management cost is minor comparative to the
V. NUCLEAR DATA TRANSMISSION SECURITY transportation, disposal and burial of nuclear waste. Above
CONCERN: DIGITAL WATERMARKING all, as by chemical and physical progression and component
mining of radiotoxic element, the environmental hazard and
NLDC (National Load Dispatch Center) of every country health rumination will be alleviated. In improver, developed
keeps the trace of all kind of load distribution of that radioactive material intervention procedures as well as
country which follows a great deal of data to be transferred battened data transmission of nuclear power plant to Na-
at a regular specific interval. Hence communication tional Load Dispatch Center (NLDC) is purported utilizing
channel security between different power plant and NLDC Digital Watermarking proficiency. This data transmission
becomes a major concern. For nuclear power plant security protection has engraved importance as extraneous intelli-
is much more crucial. Security of data about nuclear power gent avails have an envious look on power generation data
plant involves national security and loss or modification of of nuclear power station. Finally, the analyzed treatment,
which might have a devastating impact on mankind and conditioning and management process via sophisticated di-
mother world. In this paper, we have proposed new state of agnostic contrivance will further eradicate the predicament
art security called digital watermarking [9]. Watermarking of nuclear waste management problem by applying the
is a process of digital data hiding with in another digital apposite technology for the sake of the stockpile of new,
entity (audio, image, video, text). Here we used a scheme clean and safe alternative energy via proper conduct.
where a text (load distribution data), is watermarked in an
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[2] R. L. Murray, “Radioactive Waste Storage and Disposal” Proceedings
are considered to be a frame. DCT coefficients contain of IEEE pp. 552-579, vol. 74, Issue 4, 1986.
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storage of nuclear wastes” in Oceans02 MTS/IEEE, vol. 04, pp. 2105-
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Usually a text data is read as a matrix form (string). It is transportation research center” in Technology management: The new
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For simplicity this binary data is lined up as a single Characterization and Treaty Verification” in Nuclear Science Sympo-
dimensional row vector. Then the binary text data is seum, 1997, IEEE, vol. 1, pp. 362-364, 1997.
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inserted in LSB (Least Significant Bit) of each selected forced Concrete Used to the Nuclear Waste Cotainer”, in Professional
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dividing by Multiplication Factor. At last IDCT (Inverse 2006.
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Discrete Cosine Transform) is calculated to obtain the Sakib, Celia Shahnaz, Shaikh Anowarul Fattah; “EM Shielding,
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selected coefficients binary representation. mus Sakib, A B M Rafi Sazzad, Celia Shahnaz, Shaikh Anowarul Fat-
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112
Can Gen-4 Nuclear Power and Reactor Technology

be Safe and Reliable Future Energy for
Developing Countries ?
Syed Bahauddin Alam∗1 ,
Hussain Mohammed Dipu Kabir∗ ,
A B M Rafi Sazzad∗ , Khaled Redwan∗ , Ishtiaque Aziz∗ ,
Imranul Kabir Chowdhury† , Md. Abdul Matin∗
∗ Department of EEE, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET), Dhaka
† American International University Bangladesh, Dhaka.
1
baha ece@yahoo.com
Abstract—For the promising population, the growing demand

of energy has delicate the requirement of alternative sources
of energies other than fossil fuels. Though renewable energy
resources like solar, biomass, hydro and geothermal energy ap-
pear as environment friendly, replenishing sources of energy, a
comprehensive solution appears far-fetched as far as large scale
production and wide-spread dissemination is concerned when long
term cost factors are taken into consideration. The unwavering
boost of population and ongoing depletion of fossil fuels and have
further exacerbated the energy crisis. In this paper, discussions on
the limitations of conventional and renewable sources of energy
compared to advanced fourth generation nuclear power on the
basis of environmental contamination, energy security, cost of
fossil fuels and electricity generation and have philosophy to the
prospects of nuclear power as the ultimate future energy option
for the developing countries are done. Environmental issues, long
term cost factors , radiation hazard and safety concerns have
been considered with respect to the generation of electricity using
advanced third Generation nuclear power. This study proposes Fig. 1. Percentage Use of Nuclear Power for electricity generation in different
that gen-4 nuclear appears to be a long term environment countries
favorable panacea to the much discoursed problem of energy crisis
by maintaining energy security and long term cost concern in
developing countries as well as in the whole world.
Index Terms—Gen-4 Nuclear, Reactor, Kinetics, Neutron, de- which suggested the great economic opportunities that nuclear
layed neutron, transient. energy can give in accordance with the Kyoto protocol. In [5],
nuclear energy has been suggested as a source of electricity, free
I. I NTRODUCTION from CO2 emissions and also an energy source that can play
An important yardstick of the progress of a country is a key role in providing a vital bridge to a sustainable energy
the degree to which clean, affordable and sustainable energy path.Emphasis has been put on nuclear waste management in
resources are made available for the mass population. Fossil [6] which concludes that if properly handled, the waste from
fuels have remained to be the main source of energy over years, nuclear processes can be very small. The pattern is quite differ-
accounting for around 86% of the total primary energy con- ent in terms of new construction . Most of the recent expansion
sumption in 2006 [1]. As projected by the International Energy of nuclear power have been centered in Asia and 16 out of the
Agency (IEA), the prominence of fossil fuels will continue 30 reactors are now being built in developing countries . China
for at least twenty more years. However, the nonrenewable currently has four reactors under construction and plans a more
resource based energy trends are obviously unsubstantial from than five- fold expansion in its nuclear generating capacity over
a social, environmental and economic point of view [2]. A the next 15 years.India has seven reactors under construction
balanced energy portfolio, where non-transient energy sources and plans roughly a seven-fold increase in capacity by 2022.
can play an important role alongside fossil fuels, is much called Japan, Pakistan and the Republic of Korea also have plans to
for to meet the future energy requirements economically and expand their nuclear power capacity. Countries in the Asia-
substantially [3]. Though renewable energy resources offer the Pacific region like Vietnam intends to begin construction of
potential of supplying all these forms of energies with the its first nuclear power plant in 2015 whereas Indonesia plans
added benefit of environment friendly conditions, efficiency of to build two 1000 Mega Watt(MW) reactors in central Java.
energy conversion and cost constraints become significant when Recently, Thailand announced plans to begin the construction
large scale electricity generation is taken into consideration. of nuclear power plants by the year 2015. In Malaysia, a
To this end, nuclear energy based electricity generation is of comprehensive energy policy study including consideration of
utmost importance. In fig.1 Percentage use of nuclear power for nuclear power is to be completed by 2010[7]. Considering the
electricity generation in different countries is shown. Nuclear cost of energy generation and electricity production,defilement
option corresponding to the Italian situation was studied in [4] of environment reliable energy and advanced reactors safety and
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 113

Fig. 2. Fluctuation of energy production cost of $US from 1995to 2008
Fig. 3. Levelised Energy Cost for Different Generation Technologies (2007)
performance as well as waste transmutation, nuclear power is

the best option for future energy reservoir. the electricity production cost per kilowatt hour is significantly
II. CONCERNS ASSOCIATED WITH ALTERNATIVE less than the others[8]. The most significant factors which
SOURCES OF ENERGY establish the urgency of implementing the nuclear energy is
that, the cost of this energy production is stable throughout
As the population goes forward to grow, energy demands
the many years while the generation of electricity by the oil
will continue to rise. The DOE has reckoned that energy
and gas are moving up. Fig. 2 shows the wavering of energy
consumption in the U.S. will increase by 20% by 2010 and
production cost of US from 1995 to 2008. Total electricity use
30% by 2015, requiring to notice paths to increase the measure
is expected to grow by nearly 30% from 2008 to 2035 meaning
of energy that can produce. Before projecting solutions to this
more electric
succeeding energy crisis, it is adjuvant to essay the reservoirs of
electricity today before adjudicating how to fix future problems. generating capacity is needed. Nuclear power is more eco-
Coal presently caters most of the electricity (51%) in the United nomic than renewable and would help keep future consumer
States. 20% comes from nuclear power, 9% from hydroelectric costs down. Many nuclear uprate projects are economic at
sources , 2% from oil, 15% from natural gas and 3% from carbon prices of less than $10 per metric ton,in terms of the cost
other sources, such as wind and solar power. From each one to society per metric ton of CO2 removed, which is one-fourth
of these reservoirs of electricity has its own vantages and to one-eighth the cost of wind generation. California levelized
disfavors. Burning coal to produce electricity is inexpensive, energy costs for different generation technologies (2007) is
and all of the coals that need can come from the United States, Shown here in fig. 3 [9]. Coal with carbon sequestration is
contracting the dependency on extraneous providers. Neverthe- 15 times as costly, and solar is up to 70 times as costly.
less, burning of coal contaminates the atmosphere and brings So,from the discussion above it is crystal clear that, though
forth magnanimous measures of ash that must be disposed initial installment of nuclear plant is high, after implementing
of. Natural gas is inexpensive nowadays, merely supplies and it is cost effective and apposite reason for taking it as a future
prices vacillate. Burning natural gas also produces air pollution. energy alternative. So, from the discussion cost factor, it is
Hydroelectric power brings forth no pollution, but exploitation easily comprehend that, cogitating about the economy, nuclear
of these locations can destroy the local ecosystems. To boot, power can be a better option for the developing countries.
almost all of the potential sites in the United States have already
B. Comparative Economic Studies of Fossil Fuels and Nuclear
been developed. Oil is easy to use, but it produces air pollution
and a dependence on foreign providers. Neither wind nor solar Price Arising of Fossil fuels is a great concern to the
energy produces any defilement and both have an inexhaustible developing and least developing countries. International fuel
supply, but both are too pocket-sized to figure out all of the prices diversely affect generating costs. In the last 4 years gas
energy problems. Nuclear power also creates no contamination. price has more than doubled and it adds 19 euro per MWh and
It is frugal, and there is a copious supply of fuel in the world, it adds CO2 cost. Coal price has increased by 60% in recent 3
annulling dependence on foreign suppliers. The only significant years it adds 7 euro per MWh and adds CO2 cost [10]. Uranium
recede is that high level nuclear waste necessitates careful price has been tripled it adds 1 euro per MWh, but production
disposal. Now,we have to lean for such an energy alternative, cost remains stable.
that is environs well-disposed, sustainable, cheaper, safe and Based on costs of supply from Russia or from Middle East,
competent enough to conform to the worlds ultimate energy the gas price in world could remain around 3.6 euro/GJ, but
demand. All these criteria can be fully quenched by advanced it will more likely remain bound to oil, up to 5 euro/GJ.If
nuclear technology and it is dissertated. anticipated replacement of operating coal plants, then nuclear
would be 3 times cheaper[10] than gas per ton of avoided CO2
III. ECONOMIC PROSPECTS OF ADVANCED
and this cheaper nuclear production cost will influence the de-
NUCLEAR
veloping countries to go towards nuclear.The following figures
A. Cost Stability and economizer quality of arise for the costs of electricity production in newly constructed
Nuclear power for Power generation power plants in 2010[10]. For economic competitiveness of a
Cost is the most significant factor while implementing a Gas Cooled fast Reactor (GFR) is cooled by supercritical CO2
system . Though nuclear power plants have a high initial cost, in a direct Brayton cycle power conversion system(PCS) is
114
designed. Because of its compact PCS, 10% of capital costs are
saved.A reduction of 5% in busbar costs is achieved because of
the higher thermal efficiency of the S − CO2 cycle. Economic
prospects of Advanced Nuclear Reactor are also an attractive
features for the developing and least developing countries.
C. The Financial Model for Advanced Nuclear Power

The underlying assumption here is that the adoption decision
is made by a dynamically optimization economic agent who
must choose between a fossil fuel and a nuclear plant to
minimize the expected generating cost. It is assumed that the
nuclear power plant project contains no risk and produces a
deterministic and known cost. We denote the value of the
nuclear project equals the electricity price minus the constant
production cost. However, we consider that the cost of a fossil
fuel power plant follows a geometric Brownian motion of the
form:
δC
= ξδt + φδz (1)
C
Fig. 4. Radiation shielding
The variable unit cost of a fossil fuel power plant is the only
source of uncertainty in our model, the value of the investment
option is function of this cost C. By a standard arbitrage
argument, the project value can be satisfied the following IV. ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF NUCLEAR
differential equation: POWER: COMPARISON WITH FOSSIL FUELS
Q(P − C) + (r − δ)VGC C = VG − 0.5φ2 C 2 VGCC (2) A. Environmental Impacts and

Radiotoxic Dosage of Fossil Fuels
The general solution to this
The efflorescence environmental effects ensuing from the use
VGC = A1C χ1 + A2C χ2 (3) of fossil fuels are the discharge, during the burning action,
of contents like brown ash, CO2 , all oxides of nitrogen ,
where,
SO2 and traces of heavy materials. Carbon dioxide (CO2 ),
methane (CH4 ), nitrogen oxide (N O2 ) and two Chloro-Fluoro-
χ1 = [(r − δ)/φ2 − 0.52 ]1/2 − (r − δ)/φ2 + 0.5 (4) Carbon (CF Cl3 and CF2 Cl2 ) make the ambiance hold heat
and thus lead to greenhouse warming. Contamination from
fossil fuels is darned for 24,000 early deaths each year in the
χ2 = −[(r − δ)/φ2 − 0.52 ]1/2 − (r − δ)/φ2 + 0.5 (5) U.S. alone. However, as with all energy sources, there is some
defilement related with defend actions such as manufacturing
We denote by F (C) the value of the option to invest in a and expatriation. In figure 4, Radiotoxic dosage of fossil fuels
fossil fuel power plant. we can write write dF as: and shielding has shown.
δF = FC δC + 0.5FCX (δC)2 (6) The National Council on Radiation Protection and Mea-
surements (NCRP) reckoned the average out radioactivity per
A riskless portfolio can be made by assuming that the short ton of coal is 17,100 millicuries/4,000,000 tons in terms
option value F (C) satisfies Itos lemma and that the market of net radioactive discharge . With 154 coal plants in the
to completely hedge the price risks exists. Then the following U.S.A, this quantities to expellings of 0.6319 TBq per year
differential equation is obtained: for a scoop plant, which still does not straightaway equate
to the fixes on nuclear plants , as coal emissions hold long
rF = rCFC + 0.5φ2 C 2 FCX (7)
lived isotopes and have different dispersion .In terms of dosage
The general solution to this to a human living nearby, coal plants release 100 times the
radiotoxicity of nuclear plants. NCRP reports estimated the dot
F (C) = B1 C χ1 + B2 C χ2 (8) to the population from 1000 MW coal and nuclear plants at
490 personrem/ year and 4.8 person-rem/year respectively. The
Equations above must be solved to get must be solved to get
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates an added
B1, B2.
dose of 0.03 milli-rem per year for living within 50 miles (80
C −Hχ1
B1 = VN χ2 (9) km) of a coal plant and 0.009 milli-rem for a nuclear plant
χ2 − χ1
for annually irradiation dosage estimation. Unlike coal-fired or
oil-fired generation, nuclear power generation does not directly
C −Hχ2
B2 = −VN χ1 (10) bring forth any sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, or mercury. So,
χ2 − χ1 for the countries where environmental contamination is of grave
By using this financial model to study sensitivities, overnight concern incorporated with cost factor, nuclear can be a better
costs of $1,200, $1,500, and $1,800 per kW are used. energy option for them.
115
Fig. 5. Loss of confinement times
B. Protecting Environment:Advanced Nuclear option

Abstracted of nuclear power plants, electric alternative em-
anations of NOx would be 2 million tons per year higher. Fig. 6. Thermal utilization
Nuclear energy also extends an alleviation of the globular
carbon dioxide (CO2) disoblige that the world can do without.
About 1,600 million tons of CO2 yearly emanations would have
ensued if 16 percent of the worlds electricity now generated
by nuclear power were to have been generated using coal
Sulfur dioxide emissions would be 5 million tons a year higher.
In France, for example, from 1980 to 1986, in the power
sectors, SO2 and NOx emissions were contracted by 71and
60% respectively, causing diminutions of 569% respectively, in
total SO2 and NOx emissions in France. Through the fission
of uranium, nuclear energy plants develop electricity, not by
the burning of fuels. In figure 5, protecting environment by
reducing confinement times via gen-4 tech is shown.
Another crucial gain that nuclear rendered energy has on
our environment is that the wastes acquired are completely Fig. 7. Decay of neutron lifetime
insulated from the environs. Some of these noxious heavy
metals include arsenic, cadmium, lead, Fig. 4. Sources of
emission free electricity in Percentage and mercury. Though
the radioactive wastes produced by nuclear energy may be kef f − 1
n(t) = n(0)exp[ n(t)] (12)
life threatening for thousands of years, part of the waste l0
caused by the burning of coal remains dangerous forever.In
where n(0) is the neutron population at t = 0. Notice that
advanced nuclear, for generating electricity a High Efficiency
in this simple model, the neutron population (and hence the
and Environment Friendly nuclear Reactor(HEER) is designed
reactor power) varies exponentially in time if kef f 6= 1. In
to enable efficient fuel utilization and as it exhibits longer
figure 6, thermal utilization of gen-4 reactor as a function of
fuel cycle,thus need less refueling.For a safe environment, a
time is shown.
1000 MW liquid salt cooled reactor was designed that is fully
1) Prompt neutron lifetime: The mean time between
environmental friendly and for that purpose,the reactor uses the
emission of the prompt neutrons and absorptions in reactors is
binary salt NaF-BeF2 as the primary coolant and it uses U-Zr-
called P romptneutronlif etime, lf p . For an infinite thermal
H as fuel which are fully clean. In fig. 4. Sources of emission
reactor time required for neutron to slow down to thermal
free electricity in Percentage are shown. As concerning about
energies is small compared to the time neutron spends as a
the environment, nuclear is a clean and environmental friendly
thermal neutron before it is finally absorbed. In fig. 7 decay
energy.
of neutron lifetime is shown. Mean diffusion time is td .
V. GEN-4 REACTOR TECHNOLOGY For an infinite thermal reactor,
A. Reactor Kinetics framework
Consider a core in which the neutron cycle takes ’ seconds √
Π
to complete. The change An in the total number of thermal td = P P (13)
neutrons in one cycle at time t is (kef f − 1)n(t), 2υT ( aF + aM )
where n(t) is the number of neutrons at the beginning of the
cycle. Thus 2) Reactor Kinetics for Delayed neutrons: Considering an
infinite homogenous thermal reactor whose thermal flux must
dn(t) kef f − 1 be independent of the position. Time dependent diffusion
= n(t) (11)
dt l0 equation for thermal neutron is,
The solution of this first-order differential equation is
116
Fig. 8. Radiative decay for heavy particles via kinetics model
Fig. 10. Loss of electric load
Fig. 11. Loss of normal feedwater in Log scale

Fig. 9. Reactor Kinetics for Delayed neutrons
energy is now a great source of electricity generation. In fig.

10, Loss of electric load is shown as a transient analysis of
dn reactor.
st − ΣaφT = , (14)
dt Gen-4 reactors have a less complicated and more rugged
where sT s the source density of neutrons into the thermal design, making them lighter to maneuver and relatively less
energy region, and n is the density of thermal neutrons. In fig. 8. vulnerable to operational derangements. These reactors have a
radiative decay for heavy particles via kinetics model is shown. standardized design for contracting capital cost and construction
The rate of change of neutron density is, time. The climate and energy protection can be exploited by
creditworthy planetary atomic energy enlargement. In fig. 11,
6
Loss of normal feedwater in Log scale is shown as a transient
dn X X
analysis of reactor.
= kξ (1 − β) + λi Ci (15)
dt i=1
Higher handiness and longer maneuvering life and this
aφT
reactor tech has contracted possibility of core melt fortuities.
where, This reactor is insubordinate to life-threatening strokes. For
n= PAeωτ
P
trimming of fuel use and amount of waste, higher burn off
C= Beωτ is occurred. New nuclear power plants integrating Advanced
Light Water Reactor (ALWR) technology overpowers a number
The complete solution for n is, of regulative, economical, technological and societal disputes
prior to licensing, structure, and thriving commence.
β λρt ρ ρ−β In fig. 12. Boundary case of main steam line break is shown
n = n0 e β−ρ − e lp (16) as a transient analysis of reactor.
β−ρ β−ρ
Efficacious management of low- and intermediate-level waste
Finally it is, and radiation exposure modifies nuclear plants to maneuver
T = lp /(kα − 1) (17) safely, cost-efficaciously, and with minimum risk to plant
In fig. 9 reactor kinetics for delayed neutrons is shown. personnel, the public, and the environment. Presently advanced
nuclear power plants aspect substantial economic, environmen-
VI. CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF GEN-4 tal, regulatory and public perceptual experience forces with
REACTOR respect to low and intermediate-level waste (LLW) management
In U.S. more than 100 nuclear plants are implemented and personnel vulnerability to irradiation.
because of a carbon free alternative to fossil fuels. Nuclear In fig. 13, Steam generator tube rupture is shown as a tran-
117
growth and economic development. Energy from conventional
sources should be searched on priority basis in developing
countries. Electricity generation should be based on a source
that can support large scale production, long term security and
environment friendly solutions. As had been discussed in the
previous sections, productive utilization of nuclear energy has
minimal impact on environmental pollution and also the costs
are low as far as long term solutions are concerned. So nuclear
power generation is the ultimate solution for the least developed
countries to meet the growing demand of energies in the years
to come.
Fig. 12. Boundary case of main steam line break VIII. CONCLUSIONS
Speculating about diverse viewpoints, it is clear that, suc-
ceeding energy for the world is nuclear. For having a carbon
emission free environment,nuclear is a just alternative. Con-
sidering the cost of energy generation,electricity production
and for replenishment of energy crisis, energy future lie down
towards nuclear. Our analyze settles that in order to obtain a
long term solution to the ongoing energy crisis, it is important
for the world to formulate frameworks for nuclear energy based
electricity generation in the near future. In spite of the environs
well-disposed nature and renewability of sources like solar,
wind, biomass or geothermal energy resources, these sources
cannot serve as a long term cost effective nostrum to energy
crisis in the years to come. By devising and comparing about
cost factors, environmental issues, power generation efficacy
and fossil fuel replacement benefits, nuclear can be good
option as a energy source for developing countries. Appropriate
Fig. 13. Steam generator tube rupture safety measures with complimentses to nuclear power can
emphatically and unquestionably provide environment friendly,
cost effective, sustainable solutions to the problem of energy
sient analysis of reactor. Now, nuclear waste is greatly minified crisis and thereby help the world to excise its future energy
by exhausted uranium fuel is recycled and reprocessed into a exact.
newfangled quality of TRU fuel that is ingested in advanced
burner reactors. It palliates long-term reposition exacts, because R EFERENCES
the waste is predominately a short-lived fission yield. This sue [1] Energy Information Administration (EIA)s, Annual Report, 2006.
can protract more energy from the fuel and ensue in less waste [2] World Energy Outlook , Annual Report, 2006-2008.
necessitating storage in high-level depositaries. [3] C. Flavin and M. H. Aeck, “Energy for development the potential role
of renewable energy in meeting the millennium development goals” in
Worldwatch Institute, 2007.
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COUNTRIES vironmental Protection: The Nuclear Option”, in Seminar on Population
Growth, Sustainable Development, 2008.
At present the developing countries account for approxi- [5] W. Turner and J. W. Nuclear , “Nuclear Energy five Role In A More
mately 80% of the worlds population. By 2050 it is predicted Sustainable Future Electricplc”, United Kingdom.
that the figure will rise to about 86% [11]. Inadequate supply [6] P. Riley, “Nuclear Energy: A Sustainable Future”,in IEEE conference on
Energy & Power.
of energy hinders the socio-economic development in these [7] (2010) The WIKIPEDIA website [online], Available:
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Bangladesh is 90% gas-based and a greater 42% of this limited [8] The European Energy Forum Website [Online], Available:
http://www.europeanenergyforum.eu/
resource is being utilized for electricity generation as depicted [9] R. Azuma, Y. Baillot, R. Behringer, S. Feiner, S. Julier, B. MacIntyre,
in Fig. 5 drawn on the basis gas consumption in different “Recent advances in augmented reality”in IEEE ComputerGraphics and
sectors of Bangladesh on a particular day in May 2009 [12]. Applications, vol. 21, issue no. 6, 2001, pp. 34-47.
[10] Bjorn Wahlstrom, Bernhard Wilpert, Sue Cox, Rosario Sola, Carl Rollen-
According to an estimate, electricity demand is likely to grow hagen, “Learning Organizations for Nuclear Safety” in IEEE 7th Human
by 15% in the next 15 years, meaning the country will have to Factors Meeting Scottsdale Arizona, 2002.
increase the capacity to 8,000 MW by 2025 [13]. Present day [11] Rheinisch-Westflischen Institute for Economic Research -RWI, Report on
2007.
gas resources suggests that the country will face deficit of 142 [12] The European Energy Forum Website [Online], Available:
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1714 mmcfd by 2019-20. The country will need to add 19,000 [13] Andreas Eursch, “Increased Safety for Manual Tasks in the Field of
Nuclear Science Using the Technology of Augmented Reality” in IEEE
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118
Smart Charger for Sealed Lead Acid Batteries Based

on Parallel Port PC Interfacing
Bilal Asaad Mubdir & Rashid Ali Fayadh
Power Techniques Engineering Department, College of Electrical & Electronic Techniques,
Techniques Baghdad, Iraq
Abstract - Nowadays, the needs to backup electrical resources

have increased widely and progressively, so these resources
represent an important factor for reliability and continuity of any
effective system. The rechargeable batteries (RB) are the most
resources used as backup resources, for examples: lighting, solar
power systems, test instruments, UPS's, cell-phones,
cell notebook
PC's, portable tools and large range of applications.
Because of above uses, it is interested for studying the
rechargeable batteries, with their different types and
specification. To use these batteries safely and protect them from
the damage and deep discharging, we had designed and
implemented an electronic smart charger with capability of
monitor the level of charge (LOC) of battery,
ttery, in addition to this
function, also another circuit was designed to protect the
rechargeable batteries from deep discharging and resulting in
avoid battery fault, damaging or even explosion.
Keywords
Smart charger, PC interfac, ADC, Rechargable Battry, Voltage Fig.1.1 block diagram of the smart charger system.
Regulator, Parallel port
charge is the most important part of the battery-charging
battery
system in the Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs) that provide
1.INTRODUCTION the health of battery to the charging unit that utilize the
movement of the car for charging the battery packs and the
The simple operation of the smart charger depends breaking of the car. So in November 2004 B. Gore and B.
upon the battery level, and this achieved by determining the Holbrook designed a universal and modulator battery-
battery
voltage limits of the battery and comparing this limits with charging system that answer the power needs of various
reference voltage. The comparing process can be achieved by hybrid electric vehicles .[2]
using operational amplifier as a comparator, i.e. (LM741).
There is another method used for obtaining the battery level, it
is by converting the voltage of the battery into digital signal (8 II. THEORY
Bits or more) and send this digital signal to the computer by
interfacing the system through any P.C. Port. I have been There are five main types of rechargeable battery now
interfacing the smart charger system with computer by using in common using for powering electronic and electrical
the parallel port, writing (5 bits) to the computer and equipment: the sealed lead-acid
acid or ‘SLA’ battery (sometimes
controlling more than (8 bits). The obtained voltage level by called the ‘gel cell’), the rechargeable alkaline-manganese
alkaline
the second method using the digital signal is very useful for or ‘RAM’ battery, the nickel-cadmium
nicke or ‘NiCad’ battery,
the other
ther function of the project. Upon the obtained level we the nickel-metal hydride or ‘NiMH’ battery and the lithium-
can protect the battery from the “deep discharge this
deep discharge”, ion or ‘Li-ion’ battery. But before we look at each of these
function named “fault protector". As it was done by D. more closely, we need to clarify a few points about
Mohan Kumar in March 2003 who designed a voltage rechargeable batteries in general.
analyzing circuit to give an audio visual indication of the Battery capacity: Basically
asically primary batteries and secondary
battery level and warns about critical voltage level .[1] batteries are devices which store electrical energy in chemical
form. They are mainly different
differ from each other in terms of
There are many uses and applications for this smart charger is the amount of electrical energy they can store and deliver.
found in any system needs backup power. In HEV’s Broadly speaking the larger the physical size of a battery, the
technologies, monitoring
onitoring the state of charge or the level of the more electrical energy can be stored. The gross electrical
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 119

storage capacity of a battery is usually specified in ampere- load?? we solved this problem by fed all circuits from the
hours (Ah), or for small batteries in milliamp-hours (mAh). same used battery, but another problem would appeared,
In fact the different types of batteries react rather differently at because of the voltage dropping of the battery during the
various charging or discharging levels, and this is another loading time, how we can operate electronics and digital
factor that needs to be taken into account when selecting the circuits by this dropping voltage?? Also this problem has been
type of battery to be used. solved in two parts:
1. Attenuation of all signals to specific small value.
2. Using voltage regulators (8 volts and 5 volts) to supply
all circuits, and using electronics components which
work under low voltage in all circuits.
The last problem we faced, is how to read more than (5 Bits)
from the parallel port?? This problem solved by dividing the
bits into groups and using digital multiplexer controlled from
the P.C. to read the groups data in serial mode.
Voltage regulator: In my system I use the only D.C. to D.C.
regulator or convertor. In electronic engineering, a D.C. to
D.C. converter is an electronic circuit which converts a source
Fig.2.2: Discharge curves for one cell of each of the five main types of of direct current (D.C.) from one voltage level to another. It is
rechargeable battery, compared at typical discharge rates. a class of power converter the uses of D.C. to D.C. converters
are important in portable electronic devices such as cellular
Cell voltage: Although it’s usual to talk about the nominal cell phones and laptop computers, which are supplied with power
voltage for each type of battery, you should be aware that the from batteries primarily. Such electronic devices often contain
actual cell voltage of most batteries varies quite considerably several sub-circuits, each with its own voltage level
during both charging and discharging. For example during requirement different than that supplied by the battery or an
normal or fast charging, the voltage across the cells of an SLA external supply (sometimes higher or lower than the supply
battery might be as high as 2.5V. This might drop to 2.2V per voltage, and possibly even negative voltage). [5]
cell when the charging stops and the battery is fully charged.
Then as the battery is discharged, the cell voltage may slowly High Current Voltage Regulator (HCVR): This regulator
droop to the nominal 2.0V, before dropping more rapidly as some time called “series regulator”, in this type we are adding
the cells approach the fully discharged state. Here the cell an emitter follower (transistor) stage to regulator or IC voltage
voltage might be as low as 1.33V, depending on the regulator forms a simple series voltage regulator and
manufacturer’s definition of ‘fully discharged’. [3] substantially improves the regulation of the circuit. Figure
(3.1) explain the configurations of high current regulator by
using IC voltage regulator. [6]
III. DESIGN & IMPLEMENTATION
Working principle: The Smart Charger is a system designed
to be controlled from the computer. In the panel there are
many circuits to obtain the level and display it. And other
circuits for shutting down the load when the battery level
drops to a specified level that assigned by the user to protect
the battery from the damage. The second way was achieved by
using the computer, and interfacing our system with the
computer through one of the available ports. When using the Fig.3.1: high current voltage regulator using IC voltage regulator
computer, the ADC and Multiplexer with some arrangement
are designed and work for transmitting and receiving the data Here, the load current IL is supplied by the transistor
to\from the computer. ADC will convert the analogue signal of whose base is now connected to IC voltage regulator. Thus the
the battery voltage into digital signal and process this signal transistor's base current (IB) forms the load current for the IC
inside the P.C. and then we can display the level in a software voltage regulator and is much smaller than the current through
interface. By using the obtained level, P.C. gives command to (RL). This regulator is classified as "series" because the
shut down the load at a specified level assigned previously in transistor appears in series with the load. The usage of this
the same software interface. [4] configuration will lead to some loss power in the collector-
emitter junction. The losses result from the load current and
The Control Problem: The biggest problem that we found, is the voltage drop in the collector-emitter junction (VCE) as
to operate the system circuits and control the loads without following
using any external power supply during the disconnection of
the main source and the battery work alone for feeding the ࡼ࢒࢕࢙࢙ࢋ࢙ = ࡵࡸ × ࢂ࡯ࡱ ………………. . (3.1)
120
Where: (IL) is the required load current and is also the transistor's Finally, we used thermal low resistor to limit the charging
emitter current (assumed to be equal to the collector current) and current. Charger unit connected with other circuits, like
(VCE ) is collector-emitter voltage of the transistor. “Overcharging unit” circuit and the P.C. interfacing and
control circuits. The operation of charger unit depends upon
This circuit has much better regulation than the the overcharging unit circuit. According to the block diagram
simple zener regulator, since the base current of the transistor of figure (3.1), we add components to the designed charger
forms a very light load on the IC voltage regulator, thereby unit circuit. The circuit contains many additional parts, like
minimizing variation in IC regulator voltage due to variation relays that manage the flow of current between charger unit
in the load. Note that the output voltage will always be less and the load and between the load and the battery.[8]
than the IC voltage regulator in about 0.65V, due to the
transistor's VBE drop. Although this circuit has good (b) Overcharging Protection Unit
regulation, it is still sensitive to the load and supply variation. This circuit designed to protect the rechargeable
It also does not have the capability to be adjustable. In the two battery from the overcharging, so its monitor view the value of
previous circuit (3.1) of HCVR, if we want to compensate the battery voltage (Vbat.) and comparison this value with
transistor’s VBE drop, we should modify the circuit by reference value (Vcut.) that set by the user. When the battery
connecting diode in forward biased in the GND terminal (pin voltage exceeds the reference value, the circuit will give
3) of the IC voltage regulator, this diode have a voltage drop command to stop the charging. The flow chart of figure (3.2)
approximately of 0.7V opposite to VBE. This is easily below, explain briefly the operation of the circuit. This process
modification to get the properly output voltage. Now can be achieved by using op-amp. as comparator, and control
explaining the main practical parts of the system. [7] the charger unit by using relay with its driving circuit. So we
have design the circuit by using (LM741) op-amp and use it as
(a) Charger Unit a comparator as shown in figure (3.3).
In the beginning of designing my system, I have designed
the charger unit, to charging the Sealed-Lead Acid
rechargeable battery, and supplying the connected load in the
same time. So the “Charger Unit” works as Battery charger
and D.C. power supply for the load. We used a simple circuit
to build the charger unit contains the following stages: Voltage
rectifier, Filters, Voltage regulator and Voltage control circuit.
The Entering voltage to the charger unit is taken from simple
(50Hz) voltage transformer and then rectifying to get the D.C.
voltage. Obtained voltage from the rectifier contains many
ripples, so it should be filtered from the unwanted ripples.
The rectification obtained by using four diodes and then we
used capacitors for filtration purpose. The voltage regulator
that used here is the “high current voltage regulator” but it
modified to control the voltage by using potential resistor to Fig.3.3: Configuration of using
get “Variable High Current Voltage Regulator”. (LM741) as comparator.
Fig.3.2: Flow charts explain the

work of overcharging protection
unit.
We can obtain variable value of (Vbat.) by using potential

resistor that connected across the battery (positive terminal)
and GND, whenever the mid pin will form the (Vbat.) of the
op-amp. When (Vbat. ≥ Vcut.), the circuit will operate the relay
and stop the contacting of the battery with the charger unit.
The relay operates through driving circuit connected directly
from the op-am output terminal. LED connected in series with
(1KΩ) resistor and the two are connected in parallel with the
output of the op-am, to give indication when the battery fully
charging. When the circuit stops the charging, the voltage of
the battery will drop immediately and (Vcut) will be greater
than (Vbat.), then overcharging circuit will turn off the relay
and the charging start again. This may be form a problem,
because the relay turning (on/off) in very fast time according
Fig.3.1: block diagram of the charger unit
121
to the time of dropping and increasing of battery voltage due converter. This A/D appears likely memory locations or I/O
to stop and start charging, this will lead for oscillation in the ports to the microprocessor and no interfacing logic is needed.
relay operation, so we connected a capacitor across the base of After converting the voltage of the battery to digital signal the
the driving transistor to absorb and reduce this oscillation. result from the ADC will be 8-bits binary number. Because of
The following circuit diagram figure (3.4), illustrate the parallel port not capable of reading more than 5-bits, we used
overcharging protection circuit. in this case the “Nibble mode”. Nibble mode is the preferred
way of reading 8 bits of data without placing the port in
reverse mode and using the data lines. Then it “switches” to
the other nibble and reads its. Software can then be used to
construct the two nibbles into a byte (8-bits binary number).
The only disadvantage of this technique is that it is slower. It
now requires a few I/O instructions to read the one byte, and it
requires the use of an external IC. Nibble mode uses a Quad 2
line to 1 line multiplexer to read a nibble of data at a time. So
the obtained binary number (8-bits) divided into two groups
by using quad 2 line to 1 line digital multiplexer (74LS157).
We can select the group of data to be read by using one line
Fig.3.4: circuit diagram of the overcharging unit from the parallel port, and controlling this line by the software.
The multiplexer divide the 8-bits into two groups, Group “A”
that represent the (LSB) of binary number (Do, D1, D2 and D3)
The previous two circuits are merged, charger unit and
and Group “B” represent the (MSB) of binary number (D4, D5,
overcharging protection to get complete circuit contain
D6 and D7).[9]
charger unit with overcharging protection. Figure (3.5) shown
The operation of the 74LS157, Quad 2 line to 1 line
below, clear the complete circuit of charger unit and including
multiplexer is quite simple. It simply acts as four switches.
the overcharging protection circuit.
When the A/B input is low, the “Group A” inputs are selected,
e.g. (Do) pass through to (P1), (D1) passes through to (P2) etc.
When the A/B is high, the “Group B” inputs are selected. The
other lines that are interfaced with the P.C. are:
• P5: Status signal of the A.C. source \ input to P.C.
• L2: control signal of Load (2) \ output from P.C.
• L3: control signal of Load (1) \ output from P.C.
And the lines (P1, P2, P3 and P4) are the output of the
multiplexer to the P.C. and the line (L1) is the control line of
the multiplexer from the P.C. the circuit of the P.C. Interfacing
Unit shown in figure (3.7).
IV. SOFTWARE &PROGRAMMING

Because Visual basic cannot directly access the hardware on a
system so the external DLL file must add to the Visual Basic
Fig.3.5: complete circuit diagram of charger unit and overcharging protection program which make this mission possible. In our project, we
unit use the “inpout32.dll” file that created previously which
(c) P.C. Interfacing Unit provide the Inp & Out instructions but they can’t be used at
The P.C. has been used to display the level of charge any program unless they are declared either at the code
(LOC) in a software interface, also control the load from the window or at a VB module file that has type (.bas) by writing
software and build sub-program to turn off the load with new VB module with the following code:
selected value of LOC, the sub-program represent the fault
protection unit but by using the software. This unit contains Public Declare Function Inp Lib "inpout32.dll" _
the components that prepare the system data to be acceptable Alias "Inp32" (ByVal PortAddress As Integer) As Integer
to the P.C, converting the analogue voltage (battery voltage) to Public Declare Sub Out Lib "inpout32.dll" _
a digital signal (Binary number) of 8-bits and then dividing Alias "Out32" (ByVal PortAddress As Integer, ByVal Value As
this binary number into two groups (LSB) and (MSB) before Integer)
writing the binary to the P.C. through the parallel port. The
process of converting the analogue voltage into digital signal After this the using of the Out & Inp instructions become
obtained by using 8-bit analogue to digital converter available in any visual basic program that direct access the
(ADC0804), it is CMOS 8-bit successive approximation A/D hardware. Interfacing my system with the P.C. and controlling
122
Fig.3.7: circuit diagram of P.C. Interfacing unit
it by the software interface depending on the device signals Status Register = (10000111)2 – (11111111)2
that controlled by the software or the signals that sent by the = (135)10 – (255)10
device. The signals are transmitted through the Parallel Port, Now, to read the full byte of the ADC that represents the
so we can classify the signals into two parts, Status signals and Battery Voltage, we should read the two groups of data (A and
Control signals. The status signals will reading through Status B) by controlling the multiplexer as following.
port of the parallel port and stored temporary in the Status
register till the next reading is taken and stored overwrite the Reading LSB (Group A):
old reading and so on. The reading process in our software First, selecting Group (A) to be out by the
divided into continues “periods” and each period divided into multiplexer by send digit (0) to its control line (~A\B), and
three “Frames”. Each frame having different reading then the because this line connected by using the (Strobe) line, and
others. First frame read the A.C. signal to check if the A.C. since this line is inverted, so we write digit (1) to this line and
source available or not, second frame read Group (A) the LSB reading the status port to obtain LSB as shown below.
of the ADC result byte and the third frame read Group (B), the
Out Base + 2, (1)
MSB of the ADC result byte.[10]
A = Inp (Base + 1)
LSB = (A-135)/8
Here we obtained the LSB in a decimal Value, its value varied
according to the ADC result between (0)10 to (15)10.
Reading MSB (Group B):

Fig.4.1: status signal reading periods and frames First, selecting Group (B) to be out by the multiplexer
by write digit (1) to strobe line and reading the status port to
The readings of frame 1 (4-bits) and frame 2 (4-bits) will obtain MSB as following.
accumulate to form the byte (8-bits) that represents the ADC Out Base + 2, (0)
output signal. The condition of monitoring the level of battery B = Inp (Base + 1)
is the absence of A.C source and the battery on-load. There are MSB = (B-135)*2
two modes for operating the device, either in presence of A.C.
source or in absence of A.C. source. Because the Busy line Now we obtained the MSB in a decimal Value, its value
(Bit 7) is connected to the A.C. line is normally inverted, the varied according to the ADC result between (0)10 to (240)10.
line will give digit (0) in the status register when A.C. source As results of reading the two groups of the ADC output Byte,
is available and digit (1) when the A.C. source is not available. now we can easily accumulate them.
When A.C. source is available, P.C. Interfacing unit will be ADC output Byte = MSB + LSB
out of working, (this is design considerations in the device).
Since the reversed bits (Bit 0 and Bit 1) and IRQ always give The final result of the ADC output Byte will vary between (0)
digit (1) and when P.C. Interfacing Unit off state and so the 10 to (255)10. Practically this variation represents the variation
multiplexer is off, all outputs of multiplexer are open circuit, of the battery voltage between (0V to 12.2V). The step voltage
and showed in high state to the status port, so the value of by can be determined as following:
status register will be as following: Step Voltage = 12.2/255= 0.04784 V
Status Register = (01111111)2 By knowing the step voltage, let us determine the variation of
= (127)10 the ADC output Byte with respect to working voltage range of
When A.C. source is not available, P.C. Interfacing unit will the battery.
be working and the status register will be varied according to Minimum Value = 9.8/0.04784 = (205)10 approximately
the bits values of the outputs of multiplexer. Maximum Value = 12.2/0.04784 = (255)10 approximately
123
By the above calculation, we find that the variation of the VI. SUGGESTION FOR FUTURE WORK
ADC output Byte is between (205)10 to (255)10. According to The main future work is replacing the relay in overcharging
this variation we can display the LOC by using graphical way protection unit that disconnecting the fully charged battery
according to these results. Also we can display the battery from the charging unit by another switching component, (e.g.
voltage according to the received data. The other part of the Thyristor) and modifies some parts of the circuits to satisfy the
software is the Load control, controlling the loads that new switching component and its operation and the following
connected to the device can be achieved by using the Data points may notice. For the interfacing with P.C., I suggest
port. By assuming that X1and X2 are registers so if we want to using another modern port for interfacing, (e.g. USB port) to
Turn ON Load (1) X1=0 perform high speed in transferring the data. The ADC in the
Turn ON Load (2) X2=0 system convert the battery voltage into digital signal, the
Turn OFF Load (1) X1=1 resolution of the ADC is covered the battery voltage as a
Turn OFF Load (2) X2=2 whole, so I suggest to obtaining only the drop voltage of the
normal working of the battery and then convert the obtained
Then the controlling command will be: voltage range that relatively small by using the ADC, this will
provide high accuracy and more than that used in my system.
Out (Base + 0), (X1+X2) The system designed for monitoring only the voltage variation
Finally, to obtain the function of Fault Protection Unit by of the battery, I suggest to add circuits for monitoring the
using the software, we build up sub-program contains current and temperature of the battery to provide full working
instructions and conditions depends upon the obtained LOC. data about the battery and obtaining very accurate LOC
The conditions that included inside the sub-program is the monitoring. If the voltage and time are specified, the time of
critical selected values of shutting down Load (1) and Load charging can be obtained easily by specifying the battery
(2), if the LOC drop to any of critical values of Load (1) or capacity (Ah). Also, we can operate the device remotely by
Load (2), the program will automatically turn OFF the load using wireless link for receiving and sending the data. This
when its critical selected value be equal or greater than LOC achieved by interfacing each device with microprocessor, its
value and this process done by changing the values of the data transferred by using wireless techniques.
registers X1 and X2. For example, if the critical selected value
for Load (1) is (30%) and the current LOC is (70%), the value REFERENCES
of X1 will be equal (0), but when the discharging continue and
[1] D. Muhan Kumar ,Lead –Acid battery charger with
the LOC drop to value equal or less than (30%), the value of
voltage analyzer, University of Technology, Baghdad, Iraq,
X1 will be (1). All calculations and processes that explained
March 2003
above occurring during one period and repeated continuously
[2] B. Gore and B. Holbrook , Lead-Acid charger with
till the user interrupting the software. The software works and
voltage analyzer system , Department of electrical and
repeats itself in (1 sec.), so the Monitoring frequency is (1 Hz).
computer engineering , Mississipi State University , USA ,
November 2003
V. CONCLUSIONS [3] Jaycar Electronics Reference Data Sheet, Choosing a
After completing the implementation the used circuits, the rechargeable battery, PDF form available by the link:
device operated and tested under many loads in the college http://www.jaycar.com.au/images_uploaded/rechar
laboratories. Also the software was tested and operating the [4] Wikipedia the free encyclopedia, Successive
device, managing the loads and monitoring the LOC during approximation ADC, May 2009.
the discharging of the battery. Operating the device and [5] D.C. To D.C. Convertor, Is Available in white paper in:
charging the rechargeable battery, not required problem was http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DC_to_DC_converter
appeared. This heat was resulting from the power transistor [6] The radio amateur of Norwich, The adjustable voltage
that used in the charging unit according to the voltage drop in regulators 1998, Is available in white paper from :
the CE junction (VCE) and the current flowing through http://www.rason.org/Projects/regulater/regulator.htm
collector (IC). This problem can be fixed by using heat-sink [7] John O Conner , Comparing methods to determine the
and cooling fan. The mechanism of disconnecting the battery helth of battery system , Thomas Leonard and Gene Bohensky
from the charging unit when the battery fully charged is by comp., Btech Inc. ,2004
using magnetic relay is not good reliable for frequently using [8] Mohannad Jabbar Mnati, (Position Control for flexible
and continuous oscillation. The accuracy of the LOC obtained Joint Maipulator using Artificial Neutral Network), University
software gives an accuracy depending on the ADC resolution of Technology, Department of Electrical & Electrionics
(number of bits), so it’s better to use higher ADC resolution to Engineering, 2005.
get very high and exact value from LOC. The using of [9] Interfacing the Standard Parallel Port, IEEE 1284 (1994)
software interface, gives the ability for shutting down the PDF form available by the link:
connected loads at any selected LOC or at any instant. The www.beyondlogic.org/spp/parallel.pdf
device works at rating A.C. voltage (200-250) V, frequency of [10] A tutarial on creating DLLs with visual C++ , 2000,
(40-50) Hz and we can operate and charge Sealed Lead-Acid PDF available by the link: http://www.logix4u.net
Batteries of 12V and capacity of (500mAh to 20Ah).
124
Harmonic Current Compensation By A Single-

Phase Shunt Active Power Filter Based On Least
Compensation Current Control Method
Mohammad Sadegh Golsorkhi1 , Hadi Binandeh1, Javad Shokrollahi Moghani1, Gevork B. Gharehpetian1,2 and
Hossein Hosseinian1
1-Electrical Engineering Department, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
2- Power System Secure Operation Research Institute, , Tehran, Iran
Abstract—In this paper a single phase Active Power The simplest one is to use electronic filters of band-pass
Filter(APF) based on least compensation current control type [5]. However, it is only applicable in the situation
method is presented. Despite it’s simple implementation this where the load currents are periodic and unchanged in
technique shows quicker dynamic, better stability and higher phase and magnitude. Furthermore, the output of the
reliability compared with existing control methods. Simulation electronic filter is very sensitive to the frequency and the
results using MATLAB are presented to verify theoretical variation of component parameters. Therefore, it is
predictions and demonstrate effectiveness of the proposed unpractical in most applications. In other methods, the
control method. current reference ∗ is achieved by subtracting the active
current component from the measured load current
( ), as follows:
∗
I. INTRODUCTION = − = − sin (1)
Power electronics equipment is used widely in industrial, In (1), can be measured, while the sinusoidal function
commercial and residential applications. As a byproduct, comes from the AC line voltage. To determine the
these appliances generate harmonic and reactive current in magnitude of the active current component, several
the utility system that cause EMI pollution to other loads different approaches have been reported. One of them is to
in the system. Conventionally, passive LC filters have let the product of the load current and a sinusoidal
been used to eliminate line current harmonics and improve function (sin ) passes a low-pass filter, thus in the
the convertor power factor. However, these passive LC output of the filter, an estimation of the magnitude of the
filters based on resonant principle have many active current component can be obtained. Other
disadvantages, such as their inability to compensate approaches are based on either the balance of the average
randomly generated harmonic currents, large size, tuning voltage of DC capacitor or the calculation of the real
problems and parallel resonance. To solve these power consumed by the load. All proposed methods for
problems, Active Power Filters (APF) have been single-phase active power filter have the common
suggested [1]–[2] and considered as a possible solution for problems of the time delay in determining the current
reducing current harmonics and improving the power reference and lack of desirable precision [8].
factor. The performance of active power filters is based on
methods used to obtain the current reference and the One of the presented methods which has mitigated the
control laws to generate the compensation current. In deficiencies in previous methods is referred as ‘Least
recent years, the instantaneous power theory [3]–[2] have Compensation Current Control Method [8]. The novelty
been used in three-phase active power filters to obtain the of the proposed method in this paper is to utilize the
current reference without any time delay, which is very aforementioned method along with a new control loop
important for a an effective compensation. which results in reducing the steady state error to zero and
improving the dynamic response of the system.
However, methods based on the instantaneous power
theory require complex circuitry to implement the The concept of ‘Least Compensation Current Control
transformation, e.g. four to six high-precision analog Method’ is explained and expanded in detail in section II .
multipliers are used in each phase. This makes the circuit The proposed control loop method is presented in section
sensitive to component parameter variations [4]. In III. Finally, the simulation results using MATLAB are
addition, these methods are only suitable for three phase presented and compared with the results in [8].
circuits. For single-phase active power filters, different
methods to determine the current reference required by the
active power filter have been proposed [4]–[5], [6]–[7].
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 125

specified amount will lead to increase in rms current.
Hence, when the filter rms current reaches its minimum,
II. LEAST COMPENSATION CURRENT CONTROL then A=A* is satisfied and the source current is equal to
METHOD the load current active component, i.e., ( ) [8].
For systems supplying non-linear loads, e.g., rectifiers, III.THE PROPOSED ACTIVE POWER FILTER
motor derives and etc, the instantaneous power can be de-
composed into three components of active , reactive and The block diagram of the proposed active power filter is
ripple power. shown in figure 1. An H-bridge type single-phase inverter
has been connected through an inductor to the network.
Assuming a pure sinusoidal voltage source, as follows: Hysteresis Current Control (HCC) method has been
utilized along with negative feedback to generate
( )= (2) compensation current that follows the current reference.
The current reference is calculated by subtracting the load
The load current can be as well decomposed into three current from its fundamental component. In order to
components each of which corresponding to the power calculate the fundamental component of the load current,
components: the load active current component ( ) least compensation current method is used, which will be
which is sinusoidal and in phase with source voltage, the discussed in more detail in this section.
load reactive current component ( ) and the load
harmonic current component ( ) ,i.e.:
( )= ( )+ ( )+ ( ) (3)
where,
( ) = A∗ sin (4)
The active power filter should supply the load reactive and
ripple components. Therefore, the filter reference current
(the current that the filter current must follow) is
calculated, as follows:
∗( )= ( )+ ( )= ( )− ( ) (5)
Assuming a pure sinusoidal current at source side and Figure1. The proposed APF block diagram
applying the KCL at PCC, the filter current is determined
by the following equation: In order to minimize the filter rms current, the filter rms
current variations in Δt period shall be calculated, where
( )= ( )− ( ) = ( ) − A sin (6) Δt is an arbitrary sampling period .In as much as
calculating the filter rms current is highly time-
Applying the Fourier series expansion to the load current consuming, the integral of the absolute value of current is
and substituting it in eq.6. , the rms value of the filter calculated in one period, as given in Eq.9.
current is obtained, as follows:
∆ = ( + ∆t) − ( )
= ∫ [∑ ( sin + cos )−
∆
sin ] (7) = | ( ) |dt − | ( )|dt
( ∆)
in eq.7 can be decomposed into three components ∆ ( ) ∆

including ripple, reactive and active currents as given in = | ( ) |dt − | ( )|dt
eq.8:
= [| ( )| − | ( − )|] ∗ ∆t (9)
= ∫ {[∑ ( sin + cos )] +
( cos ) + [(A − A∗ ) sin ] } (8) From eq.9. it is apparent that calculating ∆ through a
time delay and an adder circuit is feasible. Figure 2 shows
the block diagram of the proposed control method.
Eq.8 indicates that the least filter rms current will be
obtained for A=A* and the A’s deviation from the
126
inductor = 5mH , filter DC link voltage =
400v , hysteresis dead band = 0.1 and PI controller
parameters = 10 , = 11000 .
To study the transient response fluctuations and the steady

state error, the simulation is carried out for two cases. In
the first case, the load current is increased from 10A to
20A . The load current, the filter current and the source
current have been depicted in Fig.3. In the second case,
the load current decreases from 20Ato 0A. The load
current, the filter current and the source current of this
case have been depicted in Figure4.
Ultimately, the proposed method response in this paper is

compared with the response of[8]. Also, The average
power system is compared. The mentioned comparisons
can be seen in Fig.5.
Figure2. Active power filter controller block
Comparing the two methods, in the proposed method the
dynamic response is faster and more importantly, the
As illustrated in Fig.2. by Using the rms current variations
steady state error is far more satisfactory, as it decays to
and a PI controller , the load active component will be
zero. The mentioned advantages of this method are mostly
achievable . Utilizing a PI controller in the control loop
due to the effective and subtle use of the PI controller.
not only provides a zero steady state error, but also
Moreover, the dynamic response is adequately fast and as
improves the dynamic response and reduces its
well as maintaining the advantages of the Least
fluctuations, compared with the control method mentioned
Compensation Current Control method.
in [8].
If, in the period of Δt , the active component of the load 30
current increases , due to the fact that the source reference 20

data 1
current (A*) is constant, the filter active component will 10
increase accordingly, which is of course undesirable.

Is
Therefore, in the positive cycle, [ ( ) − ( − )] is -10
positive and in the negative cycle, it is negative. Since it is -20
desirable for the active power filter to provide only the -30
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
reactive and harmonic currents (and not the active one), time(s)
the source reference current (A*) should be increased
proportional to the load increase. To effectively carry out 30
this task, the feedback coefficient shall be positive in the 20
positive cycle and shall be negative in the negative cycle.

10
IL
The same strategy is adopted for a load decrease.

0
-10
-20
To discriminate between positive and negative voltage -30
source cycles, a zero crossing comparator should be used. 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
time(s)
0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
The comparator’s output will further be used to assign the 30
feedback coefficient value. The [ ( ) − ( − )], after 20
being multiplied by the feedback coefficient will further 10
be passed to a PI controller to give the source current

If
amplitude variations (ΔA*). These variations will then be -10
applied to an integrator to calculate the source current -20
amplitude. -30
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
time(s)
IV. SIMULATION RESULTS Figure3. Source, load and filter current for a step change of load current
from 10 A to 20
In order to verify the proposed control method, the active
power filter has been simulated by MATLAB software.
The simulation parameters are, as follows:
Source RMS voltage = 220v , frequency = 50Hz ,

source impedance = 50μH , = 0.1Ω , filter
127
30 implemented by using a chip microcontroller. In addition,
20 it has low sensitivity to circuit parameter variations and
10 calculations errors, higher precision and faster transient
response. In comparison to the Least Compensation
Is
-1 0 Control method proposed in [8], it enhances the dynamic

-2 0
response and more importantly reduces the steady state
-3 0
error to zero.
0.1 0 .1 2 0 .1 4 0 .1 6 0 .1 8 0 .2 0 .2 2 0 .2 4 0 .2 6 0 .2 8 0 .3
time(s)
REFERENCES
30
20
[1] J.W. Dixon, “Control system for three-phase active
10
filter which simultaneously compensates power factor and
unbalanced loads,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 42,
IL
0
pp. 635–641, Dec. 1995.
-10
-20
[2] S. D. Round and R. M. Duke, “Real-time optimization
-30
0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.3 of an active filter’s performance,” IEEE Trans. Ind.
time(s)
Electron., vol. 41, pp. 278–284, June 1994. vol. 10, July
1995.
30
20
[3] H. Auagi et al., “Instantaneous reactive power
10
compensation comprising switching devices without
energy components,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Applicat., vol. 20,
If
-10 pp. 625–630, May/June 1984.

-20
-30
0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.3
time(s)
[4] J. S. Tepper, J. W. Dixon, G. Venegas, and L. Moran,
Figure4. Source, load and filter current for a step change of load current “A simple frequency independent method for calculating
from 20 A to zero the reactive and harmonic current in a nonlinear load,”
IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 43, pp.
1 0 00
Pfilte With P Controller
5 00 [5] T. Maeda and T. Watanabe, “A hybrid single-phase

0
active filter for high order harmonic compensation in
converter-fed high speed trains,” in Proc. IEEE PCC-
-5 00
Nagaoka’97, 1997, pp. 711–717.
-1 0 00
-1 5 00
[6] J. C.Wu and H. L. Jon, “Simplified control method for
the single-phase active power filter,” IEE Proc. Electron.
0 0 .0 1 0 .02 0.0 3 0 .0 4 0 .05 0 .0 6 0 .0 7 0.08 0 .0 9 0.1
time(s)
2500 Power Applicat., vol. 143, no. 3, pp. 219–224, May 1996.
Pfilter With PI Controller
2000
[7] H. L. Jou, J. C. Wu, and H. Y. Chu, “New single-phase

1500
1000
500
active power filter,” IEE Proc. Electron. Power Applicat.,
0 vol. 141, no. 3, pp. 129–134, May 1994.
-500
-1000
[8] Luowei Zhou and Zicheng Li, "A Novel Active Power
Filter Based on the LeastCompensation Current Control
-1500
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
time(s)
Method", IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER
Figure5. Average active power of the filter. (a) the APF proposed in ELECTRONICS, VOL. 15, NO. 4, JULY 2000 655.
[8]. (b) the presented APF. Steady state error reaches to zero in b,
while it reaches 500wat in a.
V. CONCLUSION
In this paper, a single phase APF with a new control

method based on compensation current minimization has
been presented. The advantages of the proposed method
are its simple and reliable control circuitry, which can be
128
Design of a Bridgeless PFC with Line-Modulated

Fixed Off-Time Current Control and Zero-
Voltage Switching
Rasool haghi*, Mohammad Reza Zolghadri**, Vahidreza Nasirian***, Negar Noroozi****
Center of Excellence in Power System Management & Control, Department of Electrical Engineering, Sharif University
of Technology, Tehran, Iran
*rasoolhaghi@ee.sharif.edu
**zolghadr@sharif.edu
*** vahid_nasirian@ee.sharif.edu
****nenoroozi@gmail.com
Abstract—In this paper, the Line-Modulated Fixed Off-

Time method is used as the current control strategy for a
Power Factor Corrector (PFC) pre-regulator. A zero voltage
switching PWM (ZVS-PWM) auxiliary circuit is configured
to perform ZVS in the switches. Soft commutation of the
main switch is achieved without additional current stress. A
significant reduction in the total conduction loss is achieved,
since the circulating current for the soft switching flows only
through the auxiliary circuit and a minimum number of
switching devices are involved in the circulating current
path .The proposed rectifier uses a single converter instead
of the conventional configuration composed of a four-diode (a)
front-end rectifier followed by a boost converter. A 250W,
with an input ac voltage of 90-265 Vrms, output voltage of
400 Vdc and switching frequency of 100 kHz is designed and
simulated to verify the system performance.
Keywords— power-factor correction; bridgeless rectifier;

Line modulation; Continuous Conduction Mode; zero-
voltage-switching (ZVS)
I. INTRODUCTION
Recently there have been increasing demands for high
power factors ac-to-dc converters for using in the IT
industries and communication systems. To satisfy THD (b)
standards like as IEC 1000-3-2, conventional PFC
rectifiers have been widely used [1]. Conventional Figure 1. (a) Conventional PFC converter. (b) Conventional
bridgeless PFC.
PFC, Which is usually controlled by pulse-width-
modulation (PWM) method, composed of a full bridge can be combined in order to introduce bridgeless PFC
ac-to-dc diode rectifier which is followed by a boost with reduced conduction losses, as shown in Fig. 1(b).
converter as shown in Fig. 1(a) [2]. Conventional This combination decreases the conduction losses by
rectifiers encounter excessive peak input current and total reducing the number of semiconductor components in
harmonic distortion (THD) which reduces power factor current path.
(PF) to about 0.5–0.7 [3]. To achieve higher power Two methods of current controlling PFC power supply
density, higher PF and cheaper ac-to-dc power supplies, based on boost topology are recently in use: the Fixed-
engineers are continuously tried to minimize the ac-to-dc Frequency (FF) PWM and the Transition Mode (TM)
converter losses, minimize its component count, and PWM [6] (fixed ON-Time, variable frequency). The first
reduce the size of components like filter inductance and method employs average current mode control, a
capacitance. Increasing the switching frequency would relatively complex technique requiring sophisticated
result components with lesser size. However, the controller IC's and a considerable component count. The
switching losses and electromagnetic interference noises second one uses the simpler peak current-mode control,
(EMI) will be occurred. Therefore, reducing switching which is implemented with cheaper controller IC's, much
losses with employing soft-switching techniques is fewer external parts and is therefore much less expensive.
unavoidable. Moreover, the rectifier and the PFC stages With the first method the boost inductor works in
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 129

Continuous Conduction Mode (CCM), while Transition
Mode (TM) makes the inductor work on the boundary
between continuous and discontinuous mode, by
definition [7]. In this area where the TM/CCM usability
boundary is uncertain, third approach that couples the
simplicity and affordability of TM operation with the
high current capability of CCM operation can be a
solution to the dilemma. Generally speaking, FF PWM is
not the only alternative when CCM operation is desired.
FF PWM modulates both switch ON and OFF times
(their sum is constant by definition), and a given
converter will operate in either CCM or DCM depending
on the input voltage and the loading conditions. Exactly
the same result can be achieved if the ON-Time is only
modulated and the OFF-time is kept constant, in which,
the switching frequency will not be fixed anymore. This
is referred to as "Fixed OFF-Time" (FOT) control [7,8].
The most severe limitation of FOT control seems to be
the trade-off between operating frequency and distortion Figure 2. Proposed zero voltage transition converters.
of the line current waveform pointed out in the available too. Lr1 and Lr2 provide soft switching at turn-
"Operating frequency and TOFF selection" sub-section. on, and in order to provide soft switching at turn-off, the
As a matter of fact, if TOFF is selected for an operating auxiliary switch S3 is turned on for a fixed time to provide
frequency above 60-70 kHz, on the top of the sinusoid at soft switching for the main switches without any extra
minimum line voltage (90 Vac), the harmonics of the line current and voltage stresses. The bridgeless PFC operation
current may exceed the THD standards at maximum line is symmetrical positive and negative input half cycles.
voltage (265Vac) .
B. Proposed converter operation
In this paper, the Line-modulated Fixed Off-Time
procedure is used as the current control strategy in which The bridgeless PFC operation is symmetrical in positive
TOFF is modulated to be a function of the instantaneous and negative half cycles. Therefore, one cycle of operation
is explained in this paper.
line voltage[7].
Converter operation and the zero voltage transition 1) Subinterval 1
auxiliary circuit topology are explained in the next The boost diode D1 is conducting the load current to the
section. The elimination of turn-off losses is explained in output and converter is behaving as a simple PWM Boost
Section III. Fixed Off-Time Current control strategy Converter during this subinterval. Interval ends when
(FOT) and The improved FOT are explained in Section controller turns on S3.
IV. The design procedure is discussed in Section V, the 2) Subinterval 2
simulation results from a 250W prototype, with switching This interval begins after turning S3 on, and due to the
frequency of 100 kHz are given in Section VI which existence of resonant inductors, this switch always turns
verify the feasibility of the design procedure and on at zero current. Lr1 slows down the turn-off di/dt
advantages of the proposed ZVS circuit topology. The through the boost diode D1. The current slowly starts
proposed converter is a suitable alternative for single- diverting from D1 to the auxiliary circuit, which begins to
phase, two stage power factor correction circuits. resonate. This interval ends when the current in D1 reaches
zero and D1 turns off at zero current.
II. ZERO VOLATGE SWITCHING CIRCUIT TOPOLOGY
3) Subinterval 3 [t2-t3]
A. Auxiliary circuit In this mode S3, D3 and D7 are conducting. This mode is
Fig. 2 shows the power stage of proposed bridgeless finished when the voltage across Cs1 reaches zero, and the
single-phase ZVS converter. The circuit in the dotted box current through S3 is reversed. At the end of the interval
is the proposed auxiliary circuit which provides soft the current in the resonant inductor Lr1 is returned to zero.
switching for the main switches. The converter shown in 4) Subinterval 4 [t3-t4]
Fig. 2 is basically a simple boost topology having a boost In this mode S3, D3, D7 and the anti-parallel diode of S1
diode D1, input inductor Lboost, switch S1 and output are conducting. The current flowing through Lr1
capacitor Co across a load Rload. It also has an auxiliary decreases linearly until reaches IL and main switch S1 is
circuit consisting of resonant capacitors Cr1 and Cr2, just about to start conduction. This is the ZVS interval
resonant inductors Lr1 , Lr2 , feed-forward capacitors C1 during which S1 must be turned on. The current in
and C2 , diodes D3 , D4 , D5 , D6 , D7 , D8 and auxiliary auxiliary circuit decreases below the input current and the
switch S3. The capacitors Cs1 and Cs2 shown across S1 and difference of the two currents starts flowing through
S2 are the parasitic capacitance of the switches and can be switch S1. This interval lasts at t4 and at this moment the
increased by an external capacitance, if necessary. current in the auxiliary circuit becomes zero.
This topology provided soft-switching (ZVS) while the 5) Subinterval 5 [t4-t5]
desirable features of conventional PWM converters are - In this interval S1 and D8 are conducting. The auxiliary
circuit current reverses and begins the negative part of the
130
resonant cycle. Diode D7 prevents this current from where:
flowing through S3 and so the current is passed through Fsw : Switching frequency.
D8 creating a ZVS turn-off condition across S3. Auxiliary Tf : Fall Time.
switch S3 should be turned-off in this interval. At the Is-peak : Peak main switch S1 current.
same time diode D3 diverts this current through capacitor VO : The net voltage appearing across S1.
C1 which starts to charge. If C1 is charged less than the When the MOSFET S1 is turned off in proposed PFC, the
output voltage then D4 will not conduct. Later on, it will voltage across the switch rises very slowly until the
become clear that in such a case an attenuated voltage stored energy in the capacitor C1 is totally transferred to
will appear across S1 at turn-off instead of zero voltage. the load so when the current of the switch decays to zero
6) Subinterval 6[t5-t6] the voltage across the switch is much less than VO .This
can reduce significantly the turn-off switching losses. The
In this interval D4, D8 and S1 are conducting. This interval current and the voltage of S1 in the proposed converter are
ends at instant t6 at which the auxiliary current reduces to shown in Fig.4.
zero. D4 and D8 turn off at zero current. In the proposed method, the value of the turn-on
7) Subinterval 7[t6-t7] switching power losses is nearly zero and the turn-off
In this interval S1 is conducting. The converter behaves switching power losses is reduced significantly Therefore
like a PWM boost converter in the charging state and the maximum efficiency is achieved.
auxiliary circuit is inactive. This interval ends when main
switch is turned-off. IV. CURRENT CONTROL STRATEGY
8) Subinterval 8[t7-t8] Fig. 5. shows a block diagram of a FOT-controlled PFC.
In this interval S1 is turned off under ZVS conditions, and The PWM latch output Q activates a timer for generating
capacitor Csl begins to charge until its voltage equals the turn off time, TOFF. At the end of this turn off time, S1
output voltage. The capacitor C1 causes voltage across S1
and S2 are being turned on and the next switching cycle
to rise slowly because the net voltage appearing across S1
starts. If Toff is large enough such that the input inductor
is the difference of output voltage, VO, and voltage across
current can return to zero, the converter will operate in
C1. After t8 the converter is in the same state as in first
discontinuous conduction modes (DCM), otherwise the
interval and another switching cycles begins.
system will operate in continuous conduction modes
III. REDUCTION TURNED OFF LOSSES (CCM). The DCM mode typically occurs with large
inductor current ripple at light input current. If the boost
As mentioned before, ZVS techniques eliminate the turn-
based PFC is controlled with FOT procedure, DCM and
on switching losses. Fig.3 shows the approximated
waveforms of the current and the voltage of a MOSFET CCM modes alternate in a line half-cycle. The difference
during turn off process. The turn-off switching losses can between the simple converter controller and the proposed
be estimated from Fig.4 as: zero-voltage-switching controller is in the presence of
two monostables, a gate driver, and an OR logic in order
1 to drive the auxiliary switch. The phase angle
ploss = Vo I S − peak FswT f (1) θ t ∈ (0, π / 2) , during which the operation changes from
2
DCM to CCM, is defined as the "transition angle"[9].
Fig. 6. shows the inductor current, the MOSFET current
sinusoid at minimum line voltage (90 Vac), then at
maximum line voltage (264Vac), Ton of the switch may
not satisfy the turn on time limits of the PFC controller. In
this case even a trade-off seem to be impossible to find.
An improved FOT current control strategy can overcome
this problem. The procedure behind is to Toff variable and
a function of the instantaneous input voltage, so that at all
condition satisfy the Ton(min) limits of PFC controller.
The circuit that implements line modulation fixed off time
Figure 4. MOSFET current and voltage during soft turn off (LM-FOT) control is shown in fig. 7, where Toff is made a
function of the instantaneous line sinusoid at minimum
line voltage (90 Vac), then at maximum line voltage
(264Vac), Ton of the switch may not satisfy the turn on
time limits of the PFC controller. In this case even a trade-
off seem to be impossible to find. An improved FOT
current control strategy can overcome this problem.The
procedure behind is to Toff variable and a function of the
instantaneous input voltage, so that at all condition satisfy
the Ton(min) limits of PFC controller.The circuit that
implements line modulation fixed off time (LM-FOT)
Figure 3. MOSFET current and voltage during hard turn off control is shown in fig. 7, where Toff is made a function of
the instantaneous line voltage.
131
Figure 5. Block diagram of an FOT-controlled PFC
Figure 6. Inductor, switch and diode currents in a CCM-FOT- Figure7. Circuit implementing LM-FOT control
controlled PFC stage [9].
V. DESIGN PROCEDURE
With the addition of R2 and T, as long as the voltage on The design procedure and example of the ZVS-PWM
the ZCD pin during TOFF is above VMULT+VBE, C is Bridgeless PFC is described as follows. Design for the
discharged through R1 and R2. As VZCD (t) falls below rest of the power circuit is not covered as it is very simple
VMULT+VBE, T is cut off and C is discharged through R1 and already covered extensively in the literature. The
only. In this modification with a correct designing of R1 specifications of the prototype converter are given in
and R2 it is possible to modulate Toff with instantaneous Table I. Some important terms used in design are as
line voltage so that at total line voltage it is always fallow:
TON>TONmin.
The switch ON time can be estimated as fallow:
V in ( RMS ) min
K min = 2 . (6)
V out
L Δ iL . (3)
T on =
V in Vin ( RMS ) max
K max = 2 . (7)
Where: Vout
߂iL : Inductor current ripple
Vin : instantaneous line voltage K min
L : boost inductance TOFF min = . (8)
The Inductor peak current and switching frequency can f sw max
be obtained from the following equations:
2 Pin 0
Ipk max = . (9)
2 Pin 4V out − 2 π V in k minVout
I Lpk = + T OFF .(4)
V in 2π L
6K r
Δ I LPK = I PK max . (10)
2 V in 8 − 3K r
F SW = sin θ . (5)
T OFF V out
132
Vout
Lboost = (1 − K min ) TOFF min . (11) TABLE I.
Δ I Lpk SPECIFICATIONS OF CONVERTER IN THE DESIGN EXAMPLE
Output power
250 W
Where:
Output voltage Vo 400 V
Δ I in . (12)
Input voltage Vin 90-265 V
K r = max( ) Switching frequency 100 kHz
I in _ pk
A. Calculation of Resonant Inductor Lt: VI. SIMULATION RESULTS

Resonant inductor Lr has to be large enough to limit the To verify the feasibility of the proposed converter a
boost rectifier turn-off di/dt to less than 100 A/ ns but also prototype switching at 100 kHz, with same specifications
not too large because than the resonant cycle length Tr will as used in the design example, is simulated by PSPICE.
also be too large and this leads to larger conduction losses The waveforms of the input voltage and current of the
in the auxiliary circuit. So Lr is chosen such that boost ZVS-PWM PFC at the related 250 W are shown in Fig.8,
diode D1 turns-off at three times its rated reverse recovery
in which the waveforms of the input voltage and current
time as in [10]. Assuming the of selected boost diode to be
are almost in phase and the measured power switching
30 ns, Lr is found according to:
condition is satisfied for S1 and S2 in all condition. The
3 .t rr .V 3 . 30 ns . 280 commutation waveforms of main switch are shown in
= 6 . 4 μ H . (13)
pk
Lr = =
I C1 3 . 93 Fig. 9. These figures show soft switching for all
semiconductor devices as discussed the previous sections.
Where Vpk is the peak voltage across Lr according to (20). It can be seen that turns on with ZVS and turns off at
reduced voltage. Table II is compared the new ZVS-
V pk = V o − V C 1 (min) . (14) Bridgeless boost and the conventional hard switching
PWM boost rectifiers operating, at nominal input voltage
and nominal output power. For the conventional PWM
B. Calculation of Resonant Capacitors Cr andCb : boost rectifier, it can be seen that the major power
It is concluded that Cr/Cs should be greater than 1 to dissipation comes from the switching losses. The
reduce the peak voltage stress across S1 as well as the efficiency as a function of the output power is shown in
auxiliary circuit rms current. Although this gives a lesser Fig. 10. (The loss of control circuit has not been reckoned
value of ZVS turn-on interval an adequate interval may in).
still be obtainedby choosing Cr/Cs=3 soft switching can
be achieved when the following relation is satisfied: VII. CONCLUSION
In this paper, a ZVS-PWM boost rectifier is presented
V 400 and realized. The main advantage of the introduced
Rr = 0 . 21 o = 0 . 21 = 22 . 57 . (15)
I in 3 . 722 topology is the soft switching of all semiconductor
devices without any extra voltage and current stress on
I rpp the main switch. Line-modulated Fixed-Off-Time control,
I in = I in _ pk − = 22 . 57 . (16) has been used. Simulation results confirm the possibility
2 to use such a structure and there will be a 2.7% increase
in the efficiency of the converter in its rated power input
Lr 6 μH voltage and nominal output power. For the conventional
Cr = 2
= = 12 nF . (17) PWM boost rectifier, it can be seen that the major power
(Rr ) 509 . 33
dissipation comes from the switching losses. The
efficiency as a function of the Output power is shown in
Cr
= 3 ⇒ C 1 = 4 nF . (18) Fig. 10.
C1
TABLE II.
COMPARISON OF LOSSES IN HARD SWITCHED BOOST TOPLOGY AND
I rpp PROPOSED TOPOLOGY
I in = I in _ pk − = 22 . 57 . (19)
2 Type of losses Hard switched
Proposed topology
Lr 6μH Main switches 17.56 W 8.6 W

Cr = = = 12 nF . (20)
auxiliary switch - 1.1 W
(Rr )2 509 . 33
All diodes 2.63 W 2.63 W
Cr Resonant Inductor
= 3 ⇒ C 1 = 4 nF . (21) Lt
- 0.9 W
C1 Efficiency 92.1% 94.8%
133
[4] L. Huber, Y. Jang, and M. Joovanovic, “Performance evaluation
of bridgeless PFC boost rectifiers,’’ IEEE Trans. Power
Electron., vol. 23, no. 3, pp.13381–1390, may. 2008.
[5] R. Srinivasan and R. Orugantti, “A unity power factor converter
using half-bridge boost toopology,” IEEE Trans. power.
Electron, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 4887–500. may. 1998.
[6] Koen De Gussemé , Van de Syype , Alex P. M. Van den Bossche
and Jan A. Melkebeek, “
“Input-Current Distortion of CCM
Boost PFC Converters Operaated in DCM” IEEE Trans. Ind.
Electron, vol. 54, no. 2, pp. 8558–865. Apr. 2007.
[7] C. Adriana, AN1792 applicaation note, “design of fixed-off-
timecontrolled PFC pre-reggulator with the L6562”, 2003
STMicroelectronics.
Figure 8. Input current and voltage
[8] R. Beiranvand, B. Rashidian,, M. Zolghadri, and S. M. Alavi,
“Design and implement of thee PFC Stage of the Ion Implanter's
Filament and Arc Power Suppplies,” ICEE 2009, Vol.3, pages
25-32.
[9] J. Bazinet and J. O’Connor, “Analysis and design of a zero
voltage transition power facctor correction circuit,” in Proc.
IEEE Appl. Power Electron .Conf.,
C 1995, pp. 503–509.
[10] Mao, H., Rahman, O.A., Bataarseh, I., “Zero-Voltage-Switching
DC-DC converter with syncchronous rectifier”, IEEE Trans.
Power. Electro, Vol. 23, No. 1, 1 pp. 369-378, 2008.
(a)
(b)
Figure 9. Simulation resulta) Voltage across main
switches S1, S2.b) Current through main
m switches
Figure 10. Efficiency with relation to

t output
power(Vin=80,Vin=150,Vin=2265)
REFERENCES
[1] C. M. Wang, “A novel zero-voltage-swittching PWM boost
rectifier with high power factor and low conduction losses,”
IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 52, no. 2, pp. 427–435, Apr.
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[2] Mohammad Mahdavi and Hosein Farzaneehfard, “Zero-
Current-Transition Bridgeless PFC Withoutt Extra Voltage and
Current Stress” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron, vol. 56, no. 7, pp.
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[3] M. Kazerani, P. D. Ziogas, and G. Joos, “A novel active current
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i power factor
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134
Nine-Level SHE-PWM VSC Based

STATCOM for VAR Compensation
Phee Kuan Jin, Mohamed S.A.Dahidah Christian Klumpner
The University of Nottingham, Malaysia The University of Nottingham, UK campus/Department
Campus/Department of Electrical and Electronic of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Engineering, Semenyih, Selangor, Malaysia. christian.klumpner@nottingham.ac.uk
kuan.jinphee@nottingham.edu.my
mohamed.dahidah@nottingham.edu.my
Abstract—— The paper presents a nine-level selective relatively low switching frequencies. There are three
harmonic elimination pulse width modulation (SHE-PWM) distinct multilevel topologies i.e. diode-clamp, flying
cascaded voltage source converter based STATCOM capacitor and cascaded converter. The cascade converter
system. The structure allows direct connection to the grid has drawn more interest lately as research shows its
without the need of any step-up transformers. The converter
is controlled with the SHE-PWM technique which provides
remarkable advantages over its counterparts. The simple
an elimination to lower order harmonics to improve output repetitive modular structure of the converter allows high
waveforms and furthermore, allowing the use of smaller modification flexibility and greatly simplifies control
filters. The control methods used for voltage, stress balance designs. The topology also permits easy troubleshooting
and dc voltage regulation are also described in the paper. and packaging [6].
The operations and the performance of the STATCOM for
reactive power (VAR) compensation are validated by The rapid advancement in switching controls and
simulation studies using SIMULINK/MATLAB software power electronic valves also greatly contributes to the
which confirm the theoretical predictions. development of high performance STATCOM. With
more advanced modulation techniques and higher power
Keywords — Multilevel Converter; Pulse Width and frequency switching devices, higher quality output
Modulation; STATCOM; Selective Harmonic Elimination;
Controls;
voltage with reduced total harmonic distortion (THD) can
be delivered at minimal switching losses. This allows for
I. INTRODUCTION the use of smaller and less expensive filters for
STATCOM applications. Incidentally, with the
The ever rising demand on power utilities and the implementation of multilevel converters, a good
increasing complexity of loads has inevitably spurred compromise can be made between the switching losses
various issues in the power distribution and transmission and the desired THD. Many researchers have taken
systems [1]. Ongoing research is essential to curb these advantage of this available margin to extend the optimal
imminent problems by enhancing the controllability of level of the STATCOM performance.
reactive power (VAR) to maximize power transfer
capacity; minimize power transmission losses; increase The objectives of this paper is to introduce a SHE-
system’s stability margins; extract maximum return-on- PWM nine-level converter based STATCOM which is
investment from the infrastructure and support the connected at the point of common coupling (PCC) of a
voltage profile along long distances [2]. The traditional 240V,50Hz AC system. The proposed STATCOM
VAR compensation technologies such as thyristor eliminates the need of coupling transformers and large
controlled inductive and capacitive banks are rather size filters and also demonstrates a better THD as
sluggish and its rating is dependent upon the line voltage. opposed to the conventional staircase SHE or carrier
The more advanced static VAR compensator (ASVC) based PWM counterparts at equivalent switching
consisting of several multi-pulse converter connected in a frequencies [7], [8]. The theoretical findings are validated
cascade manner through zigzag transformers is also through simulation study using SIMULINK/MATLAB
proven to be impractical despite of its enhanced harmonic software where the dynamic response of the system is
performance and power rating. The transformers used are tested with a step change in the load. The paper is
uneconomical and contribute to almost half of the total organized as follows: Section II describes the system
losses in the system. The technology also is deemed to be configuration, operation and the converter controls.
unreliable due to the magnetizing and surge overvoltage Section III addresses the voltage control, voltage
problems caused by saturation of the transformers in regulation and the capacitor voltage balancing issues
transient states [3]. associated with such systems. Section IV shows the
simulation results and finally, a conclusion is drawn in
Multilevel converter based STATCOM technology is Section V.
slowly replacing the ASVC due to its inherent good
harmonic performance and its extensibility of its power II. SYSTEM CONFIGURATION AND OPERATION
capability [4],[5]. The multilevel converter eliminates the
need of bulky transformers or high power devices and its The proposed STATCOM system is applied to perform
modulation frequency is not restricted by the voltage power factor correction (PFC) at PCC with various
sharing dilemma and moreover, is able to achieve much inductive loads controlled with circuit breakers. The
faster response time as compared to ASVC. Near proposed compensator aims to achieve unity power factor
sinusoidal voltage output can be synthesized with (PF) to boost the power capacity of the utility, maintain
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 135

voltage regulation and to reduce the overall transmission does not need step up transformers or high rating
losses. The cascaded SHE-PWM multilevel converter is semiconductor devices to withstand the high DC voltages
able to operate in a self regulating manner where its [11]. As depicted in Fig. 4, a near sinusoidal waveform is
capacitors will be recharged with the controlled flow of generated with six switching instants for each IGBT
active power from the grid. device in one fundamental cycle. The number of
switching per device is carefully planned to achieve equal
stress distribution within each cell as illustrated in Fig.5.
This structure provides a simple platform to balance out
the overall current stress and to implement the voltage
balancing controls for the converter as described in the
preceding sections.
Figure 1. Basic block of the STATCOM system
Overall, the STATCOM acts as an added source to the

system operating at line voltage with power relations
governed by (1) and (2) with θd being the phase shift
between VT and VC. As shown in Fig.1, the converter is
connected in parallel to the system through a coupling
inductor LC. In order to compensate for the reactive
power drawn by the load, both the load current IL and the
converter current IC are measured and then the reference
reactive component Icq* and the actual current Icq will be
extracted using the synchronous d-q reference frame to
achieve decoupling control [9],[10]. Forming a close loop
feedback and implementing a proportional and integral
(PI) controller along with the measurement of terminal
voltage VT, the reference voltage VC* is computed (i.e.
Fig.2). The cascaded multilevel converter needs to Figure 3. The structure of a 9-level cascaded converter with M=4
provide this voltage in order for Icq to be able to track the
reference current Icq*. An accurate tracking signifies the
complete VAR compensation rendering PCC at power
factor equivalent or near to one.
sin (1)
cos (2)
Figure 4. Synthesized waveform for one complete period with

1 .
Figure 2. Reference voltage computation for compensation
A. The Cascaded Multilevel Converter

Fig.3 shows the proposed nine-level cascaded
converter consisting of four H-bridges at one leg with
each bridge capable of producing three voltage Figure 5. The 1 2 gating signal for the generation of 1 with
levels V , 0, V . An N-level cascade converter requires 3 1 and 4 2
separately connected DC sources (SCDC) for
each phase to synthesize a three-level output waveform
with 4 1 levels in the line to line voltages of B. SHE-PWM Modulation Technique
the three phase systems. By simply stacking of more In general, there are two main voltage control methods
cells, the THD performance and the power rating will for VSCs. The first scheme utilizes only one modulation
increase proportionally as N increases. This configuration index (MI) and the output voltage is controlled by
136
varying the capacitor voltages. The phase shift θd is the
only control variable thereby controls are incomplex.
However, the response time is relatively slow due to the
charging and discharging of the capacitors. The proposed 1 1
STATCOM uses the second approach whereby it fixes
the capacitors at reference voltage and varies the
modulation index to control the voltage. The latter
scheme enables almost instantaneous change in the output
voltage and is able to provide excellent dynamic … 1
response. The proposed SHE-PWM control advances the
conventional staircase SHE [12] for voltage control.
There is more than one switching instant per cycle thus (3)
allowing even more significant low order harmonics to be
eliminated while keeping the switching losses at bare
minimum. This scheme also provides a much wider 0 1 1
operating range of modulation indices. In this paper,
twelve switching angles (i.e. K=12) per quarter period
with a distribution ratio of 3-3-3-3 are chosen to construct
the nine-level SHE-PWM line to neutral output voltage
waveform. As the theory of SHE suggests, this allows K- 1
1 non-triplen low order harmonics to be eliminated
(5th,7th,11th…..35th) while controlling the fundamental at
pre-defined value. However, in the case of staircase SHE where (4)
the number of eliminated harmonics is equivalent to M-1.
The triplen harmonics are left uncontrolled as they will be • M=number of dc sources
automatically cancelled in the line to line output voltages. • 5,7,11 … , 3 1
The spectrum of the line to line voltage is shown in Fig.6 • , ,…,
where it can be clearly seen that all triplens and the odd • …
number of harmonics up to the 35th order are eliminated. • K1 ,K2,…,K3 are number of angles per quarter cycle
at H-bridge cell 1,2,…,M respectively
• (total number of angles
per quarter cycle)
• αi is the ith switching angle
TABLE I
Switching trajectory solution for nine-level waveform with a
distribution ratio of 3/3/3/3
Figure 6. Line to line output voltage of the nine-level converter and

its associated spectrum for 1 .
These switching angles are calculated offline for a certain III. STATCOM SYSTEM CONTROL
range of modulation index and stored in a lookup table
for quick online implementation [13]. The set of In an ideal STATCOM which purely supplies or
equations that need to be solved are shown in (3) and (4). absorbs reactive power, the converter current and voltage
Computations are based on the assumption that the is exactly phase shifted by 90 degrees. The capacitor
voltages across all the DC-link are equal. With the given voltages are expected to remain constant and balanced as
reference VC*, the MI can be computed to supply the there is no exchange of active power. However, this is
appropriate switching angles to the converter to generate not usually the case in practical applications due to the
losses in the capacitor and switches. A mechanism is
the desired output voltage. The MI is defined as required to provide a sufficient phase shift θd between VT
where VC* is the desired fundamental voltage. The dc bus and VC in order to channel some active power from the
voltages of the converter are assumed to be at 1p.u. Table system to the STATCOM to recharge its capacitors and to
I shows the lookup table with the calculated angles in sustain its voltage at a reference value. The converter also
radians for each MI with a resolution of 0.01. suffers from capacitor voltage unbalance and unequal
switching device stress associated with the different
operating cycle of each H-bridge cell. The pulse rotation
scheme is proposed to overcome these problems and to
provide an easy means for phase shift control.
137
A. Voltage Balancing Control B. Voltage Regulation
From Fig. 3, it is obvious that the first level capacitor As mentioned earlier, the converter has to draw a
c1 is most often connected to the system followed by c2, certain amount of active power from the system in order
c3 with c4 being bypassed a major portion of the cycle. to regulate the voltage across its capacitors. This can be
Therefore, the charging/discharging of capacitors vary easily achieved by using a PI controller that is set to
accordingly from c1 being charged/discharged the most deliver the precise phase shift θd needed for regulation.
and c4 being the least. This phenomenon will create The gains, KP and Ki are tuned to achieve zero steady
voltage unbalance among the capacitors resulting in state error with minimal rise time. In typical STATCOM
difficulties in control. The pulse rotation scheme as applications, a small lagging phase shift is usually
depicted in Fig. 7 rotates the switching pulses P1-P4 required to sustain the capacitor charges. In Fig.9, the
every half cycle over the four H-bridge cells to balance phase shift θd is added to the synchronized AC system
out the duty cycle of each H-bridge cell. The half cycle signal θT generated using a phased-locked loop (PLL) to
rotations are accomplished by performing zero-crossing produce a final reference triangular modulation waveform
detection of the reference signal with a count-up counter with phase angle θC. This waveform will serve as a VC
and a multiport selector as shown in Fig. 8. The reference for voltage regulation as well as to generate the
capacitors c1-c4 will be equally charged and balanced PWM switching based on the offline calculated angles
over 4 half cycles. This scheme will also simplify the from the lookup table.
design process for voltage regulation. Consequently, the
unequal power device stress among the H-bridge cells
will also be mitigated.
Figure 7. The waveforms showing the pulse rotation scheme over 4 half cycles with 1 .
TABLE II.
SIMULATION STUDY PARAMETERS
System AC voltage 240V(rms)/50Hz
VAR rating Qc/Current rating I 1Kvar/2.4A(rms)
Coupling inductor, Lc 27.5mH (0.15pu)
AC resistance,R 1.5Ω (0.026pu)
DC voltage Vd/ regulation factor ε 56.25V/±5%
Voltage regulation gains (Kp and Ki) 0.02/0.75
Current regulation gains(Kp and Ki) 10/370
Figure. 8 The zero crossing detection mechanism for pulse rotation
IV. SIMULATION RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

√2
The proposed SHE-PWM nine-level cascaded (5)
converter based STATCOM is simulated with
SimPowerSystems toolbox in the SIMULINK/ MATLAB The dynamic performance of the proposed STATCOM
environment. Table II shows the system parameters used system is demonstrated with a step change introduced at
for the simulation study. The required DC capacitance for 2 to validate the response. The computed reference
each H-bridge is calculated using (5) for the worst case voltage along with the required modulation index is
scenario to minimize the ripples. Using the parameter illustrated in Fig.10. Shown in Fig.11 are the single phase
values from the table, the calculated capacitance is waveforms taken at phase-a before the STATCOM is
3.84mF and therefore the total capacitance amounts to connected to the system The load current ILa is equals to
46.08mF. the source current ISa and both lags the terminal voltage
VTa due to inductive nature of the load. The PF ranges
∆ √2
within 0.4-0.6. Fig.12 shows the waveforms after the
∆ STATCOM is connected. The source current ISa is now in
138
phase with the terminal voltage VTa and the current
magnitude is observed to be lower than before. The
converter current ICa is approximately 90 degrees leading
VTa and its magnitude is proportionate with the required
demand. The PF at PCC is approximately one. Also
observed is the response time which takes about 1-2
cycles to reach steady state. The STATCOM system
managed to aid the utility by maximizing system capacity
and reducing transmission losses by supplying the
required reactive power demanded by the load(s).
Figure. 12 Waveforms after the STATCOM is connected
Fig.13 portrays the frequency spectrum of the source

current ISa showing the lower order harmonics being
rather superficial and the computed THD to be well
below 5%. Also shown in Fig.14 are the measurements
of the active power P and the reactive power Q of the
system. It is shown that the average reactive power QS
drawn from the source is approximately zero which
signifies that the STATCOM is able to fully compensate
Figure. 9 Modulation control diagram of the system
the reactive power required by the load(s). It is also noted
that the STATCOM absorbs a small amount of active
power PC from the grid for voltage regulation. Fig.15
shows that the supplied reactive current Icq is consistently
tracking the reference reactive current Icq*. The added
lagging phase shift θd is also shown in Fig.16 in radians
and showed to increase linearly with system losses. The
second plot shows the phase-a capacitor voltages c1-c4
which are successfully regulated at =56.25V within
Figure. 10 The computed reference voltage and the modulation index
±2% deviation. The voltage regulation performance also
corresponds to the other 2 phases which are not shown in
this paper.
Figure. 13 The frequency spectrum of the source current
Figure. 11 Waveforms before the STATCOM is connected
139
waveforms are also validated for the SHE-PWM and are
shown to be free from low order harmonics within the
selected bandwidth and having good THD values. The
system is also demonstrated to be independent because
the dc capacitor voltages can be self maintained at
reference voltage without any coupling of other dc
sources. These features are desirable and applicable for
any Flexible AC Transmission (FACT) applications.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author would like to thank Sridhar R. Pulikanti for
his valuable discussion. This work was financially
supported by Ministry of Science, Technology and
Innovation, Malaysia (MOSTI) under project number
03-02-12-SF0092
REFERENCES
Figure. 14 Power measurements at (a) PCC (b) Converter side
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[3]. Datta, R., et al. Multipulse Converter - Topology and
Control for Utility Power Conversion. in IEEE Industrial
Electronics, IECON 2006 - 32nd Annual Conference on.
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[4]. Kuan Jin, P. and M.S.A. Dahidah, Recent Advances in
Multilevel Voltage Source Converters Based STATCOM
Technology. IREE, 2009. Vol. 4. n. 6: p. pp. 1164-1181.
[5]. Fang Zheng, P. and L. Jih-Sheng, Dynamic performance and
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[6]. Peng, F.Z., J.W. McKeever, and D.J. Adams. A power line
conditioner using cascade multilevel inverters for
Figure. 15 Plot showing the reactive currents and distribution systems. in Industry Applications Conference,
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[7]. Agelidis, V.G., A.I. Balouktsis, and M.S.A. Dahidah, A
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Elimination PWM Strategy: Analysis and Experimental
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[8]. McGrath, B.P. and D.G. Holmes, Multicarrier PWM
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[9]. Draou, A., Instantaneous active and reactive power
measuring method in three phase systems. Leornado
Electronic Journal of Practices and Technologies Jan 2005.
[10]. Yun, X., et al. A novel STATCOM based on hybrid cascade
multilevel inverter. in Industrial Technology, 2008. ICIT
Figure. 16 (a) added phase shift (b) Capacitor voltages c1-c4 for 2008. IEEE International Conference on. 2008.
phase-a [11]. Jih-Sheng, L. and P. Fang Zheng. Multilevel converters-a
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[12]. Fang Zheng, P., et al. A multilevel voltage-source converter
V. CONCLUSION system with balanced DC voltages. in Power Electronics
Specialists Conference, 1995. PESC '95 Record., 26th
A new multilevel cascade converter STATCOM Annual IEEE. 1995.
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proposed. The proposed system eliminates the need for Elimination PWM Control for Cascaded Multilevel Voltage
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switching losses. The STATCOM is validated through
simulated results and it is shown to deliver relatively
good response for VAR compensation. The output
140
A High Efficiency Microcontroller-Based Step-up

Push-Pull DC-DC Converter for PV Inverter
Sharulnizam Mohd Mukhtar Abd Rahman Mohd Saad Noor Hasnizam Hanafi
School of Electrical System Engineering Engineering Centre School of Electrical System Engineering
Universiti Malaysia Perlis Universiti Malaysia Perlis Universiti Malaysia Perlis
Perlis, Malaysia Perlis, Malaysia Perlis, Malaysia
Email: sharul@unimap.edu.my Email: abd.rahman@unimap.edu.my Email: hasnizam@unimap.edu.my
Abstract—This paper presents a high-efficiency, microcontro-

DC-DC Converter HF Transformer Inverter
ller-based, step-up push-pull DC -DC converter for photovoltaic
inverter. A simple, effective algorithm suitable to be implemented
Solar Panel Load
in a single 8051 microcontroller has been developed in order to
control the power stage of the converter. The high-frequency
planar transformer has been used to raise the input voltage to HV DC Link
the level required by the inverter and to provide isolation. Power

Figure 1. Block diagram of a PV systems
stages are driven by a single, high-speed 8051 microcontroller.
The proposed converter has been successfully developed and is
capable of generating 400 VDC output voltages for photovoltaic
inverter. switches are used to switch the input DC voltage through the
Index Terms—Push-pull converter, Microcontroller-based, Pla- center-tapped high-frequency (HF) transformer.
nar transformer Pulse width modulation (PWM) control is required to main-
tain a constant 400 VDC output with a varying 20-28 VDC
I. I NTRODUCTION
input. By adjusting the duty cycle (D) of the square wave pulse
ROWING demand for energy has lead to a depletion
G of fossil fuels and an increase in their prices. This has
created a need to develop other energy sources. There are
to the switches M1 and M2, the output voltage can be held
constant with a varying input voltage and can be calculated as
follows:
several popular alternative energy sources such as: bio-fuel,
fuel cell, hydropower, wind as well as solar cell [1]. Among
Z T
2 V
these, photovoltaically generated solar energy offers the best Vout = in dt, [V olt] (1)
T 0 Ns
return on investment and sustainability compared to other Np
types of alternate energy sources. It is inexhaustible alternative Solving for t:
and environmentally friendly. A typical block diagram of a PV
system is depicted in Fig. 1. The main limitation of photo- Vout Np T
voltaic electricity is the low voltage that solar panels produce, t= (2)
2Vin Ns
which must be increased to suitable levels with a converter
before sending it to the DC-AC inverter. This converter is Therefore, the duty cycle (D) of the proposed DC-DC
controlled by a microcontroller. The microcontroller is also converter is obtained by,
used to provide the switching signal to the DC-AC inverter, a Vout Np
detailed discussion of which is beyond the scope of this paper. D= (3)
2Vin Ns
II. D C - DC C ONVERTER D ESIGN C ONSIDERATION Switches M1 and M2 are switched alternately through a
In the literature, difference DC-DC converter topologies center-tapped transformer and will create a quasi-square wave
option can be found in [2]–[8]. Among the proposed topolo- output. The HF planar transformer is used to step-up the
gies for DC-DC converter, the push-pull converter are most primary voltage and also to provide the galvanic isolation
suitable topology in this proposed converter. The converter has between input voltage and output voltage. Then bridge rectifier
advantages such as high voltage conversion ratio and low input is used to rectify voltage output from the output of the trans-
current ripple. It is also has two ground-referenced switches, former. The DC output voltage is smoothed by the use of LC
which is easier to drive. The main limitation of this topology network circuit. This converter is controlled by a high speed
are the switches rating must be twice the input voltage [9]. 8051 microcontroller by switching two Metal Oxide Silicon
A push-pull converter makes use of a transformer to isolate Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET) devices. HF transformers
the input from the output circuit. Fig. 2 shows a DC-DC push- are employed to allow a low voltage to be boosted to 400VDC
pull converter with a full-wave rectifier in the output side. Two output voltage.
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 141

Lo
T1
D1 D2 Ro
Co
D3 D4
Vdc C1
M1 M2
Gate µcontroller
Driver
Figure 2. Schematic of the proposed converter

Figure 3. PCB winding patterns
Feedback signal to a microcontroller is provided by reduc-

ing the output voltage to a reasonable range and compared
it with reference voltage. The duty cycle of the PWM signal
have been determined by difference value of converter output
voltage and the reference voltage. Thus the regulating of the
400 VDC of output voltage is accomplished by modifying the
value of duty cycle calculated for the difference value of the
output voltage.
III. HF T RANSFORMER D ESIGN
To overcome the problem of transformer core saturation
[10] due to flux imbalance and leakage inductance, planar Figure 4. Construction of the planar transformer
transformers are used in the proposed converter.
A planar transformer can be constructed as a stand-alone
transformer with stacked Printed Circuit Board (PCB) layer
The current density for a conventional HF transformer
and insulator sheets or multilayer PCB. The winding layer also
design should have a low value to minimize the skin and
can be integrated into the PCB of the converter [11]. The main
proximity effect in the distribution of current in a copper wire
advantages of using this planar transformer are: low profile,
[x].
excellent thermal characteristics, low leakage inductance and
excellent repeatability of (parasitic) properties [10]. A PCB For this transformer prototype, wire current density, J, was
with a stadium-style winding is shown in Fig. 3. set at 20 A/cm2 to minimize the copper loss. Ap = 4.30 cm4
The designing of the HF transformer is based on an area was obtained for Pt = 1.223 kW, Bm = 0.2 T, f =25 kHz and
product (Ap ) approach. Ap is the product of the window Ku =0.07. Therefore, a combination of E/PLT58/15/50 was
area, Wa , and the core cross-section, Ac . The power handling selected. The dimensions of the core are shown in Figure.
capability of the core, Pt , is related to its Ap by the following 5. The Ap that has been calculated for the core of this
equation: combination is 4.188 cm4 .
Faraday’s law is still used to calculate the required number
Pt (104 ) of turns for the primary and secondary windings and could be
Ap = , [cm4 ] (4)
Kj Ku Bm Jf expressed as:
where Pt is the apparent power handling capability , Kf
is the waveform coefficient, Bm is the maximum core flux Vout (104 )
N= , [turns] (5)
density, f is the operating frequency, J is the wire current Kf f Ac Bac
density and Ku is the utilization factor, which defines the
maximum space that may be occupied by copper in the The prototype of the HF planar transformer is built from
window. four pieces of the double layer PCB (Fig. 4).
142
58.4 ±1.2
50 min. Start
8.1
±0.2
58.4 ±1.2
6.5 ±0.13 10.5 Initialization
±0.13
4.1 ±0.13
Load initial value for timer0 and timer1

Enable timer interupt
38.1 ± 0.8 38.1 ±0.8

YES Process timer0
Timer0 interupt?
interupt
CBW413 CBW414
R0.64 ref. typ. R0.81 ref. typ. R0.64 ref. typ.
NO
Figure 5. Dimension outline for E/PLT58/15/50 planar core YES Process timer1
Timer1 interupt?
interupt
NO
Compare Vout with Vref
YES
Vout = Vref?
NO
NO
Vout > Vref?
YES
Reduce duty cycle Increase duty cycle
Load new timer0 value

into timer0 register
Figure 6. Symmetrical layout of the PCB Figure 7. Implemented algorithm
Timer0 ISR
IV. PCB L AYOUT C ONSIDERATIONS
Because of high power levels involved in this converter, the
YES
parasitic elements must be reduced to the lowest level possible. R0 = 1?
Transformer core saturation can be avoided by preventing a
NO
difference value across the two primary windings of the trans-
Compliment output1 Compliment output2
former. Hence, PCB layout must be designed as symmetrically
as possible. A perfect symmetry of the PCB layout will lead to
a proper functionality of the push-pull converter. Fig. 6 shows Load new timer0 value
from register
the symmetry layout of the converter.
V. D RIVING C IRCUIT AND PWM S IGNAL C ONTROL Return
A IR2110 from International Rectifier has been selected to

drive the push-pull MOSFET. This driver is a high-voltage, Figure 8. The flowchart of the switching signal generation algorithm for the
DC-DC push pull converter
high-speed power MOSFET and IGBT driver with indepen-
dent high and low side referenced output channels [12].
For the PWM control signal a new, simpler algorithm is
proposed in this paper. A single high-speed 8051 microcon- The algorithm is based on the value of the converter output
troller is used to provide switching signal and control to voltage. It is scaled down and fed to the input pin of the
this converter. The implemented switching signal generation comparator in the microcontroller. The comparator reads the
algorithm of the converter is shown in Fig. 7. The selected mi- voltage coming from the converter output and compares it with
crocontroller for the prototype was a DS89C420. Digital PWM reference voltage. When the output voltage falls below the
has been produced without the need of a Compare/Capture reference voltage a new duty cycle value is loaded into timer0
/PWM (CCP) module. The timer service routine shown in Fig. of the microcontroller. This adjusts the PWM duty cycle to
8 has been used to produce switching signal for the converter. regulate the output voltage at the desired value.
143
MOSFET voltage
[20V/div.]
[200V/div.]
[200V/div.]
HF transformer output
time[10µs/div.]
time[10µs/div.]
(a)
Figure 9. Waveform of MOSFET voltage and HF transformer output voltage
[10V/div.] [200V/div.]
time[10µs/div.]
(b)
time[2.5µs/div.]
(a) Figure 11. Experimental waveform signal for (a) Rectifier diode voltage
without snubber circuit and (b) Rectifier diode voltage with snubber circuit
100
95
[10V/div.]
Efficiency %
90
85
time[2.5µs/div.]
80
(b) 0 200 400 600 800
Output Power (W)
Figure 10. Experimental waveform signal for (a) MOSFET voltage without
snubber circuit and (b) MOSFET voltage with snubber circuit
Figure 12. DC-DC converter efficiency with 24V input
VI. E XPERIMENTAL R ESULTS

and 500 W output (Fig. 12).
A prototype of the system has been built and tested. Based
VII. C ONCLUSION
on the microcontroller switching strategy, the input and output
signals for the push-pull DC-DC converter are shown in Fig. The topology of the microcontroller-based, DC-DC push-
9. Small leakage inductance in the transformer caused a small pull converter was presented. The proposed DC-DC push-pull
ringing across the MOSFET. Fig. 10 shows the MOSFET’s converter with the HF planar transformer offers many advan-
voltage waveform with and without the connection of the tages over a conventional DC-DC converter. It is capable of
snubber circuit. The effects of the snubber circuit at the delivering high output power with reduced size. A high-speed
rectifier bridge output are shown in Fig. 11. A maximum 8051 microcontroller has been employed to implement the
efficiency of more than 90% has been measured at 24 V input control scheme for DC-DC converter. It showed that a standard
144
high-speed microcontroller without the CCP module found
on many low-cost microcontrollers has performance benefits
when compared to generating a switching signal using other
higher-cost signal processing such as digital signal processing.
This converter shows good performance and efficiency due to
the use of a planar transformer. The use of the microcontroller
makes the power state and control circuit very simple and
allow the modification of the system.
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[3] Q. Zhao and F. Lee, “High-efficiency, high step-up dc-dc converters,”
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145
A New Method for Determining Multiple

Harmonic Source Locations in a Power
Distribution System
Masoud Farhoodnea, Azah Mohamed, Hussain Shareef
Department of Electrical, Electronic and Systems Engineering
Universiti Kebangsaan, Malaysia
Bangi, 43600, Selangor, Malaysia
Email: masoud702001@yahoo.com
Abstract— This paper presents a new technique for applied in HSE for optimizing the number of
identifying the locations of multiple harmonic sources in a measurements in a system needs to have prior knowledge
distribution system using independent component analysis about harmonic sources and their locations. Another
and mutual information theory. Independent component concern with HSE is that this technique needs many
analysis is applied for estimating the current profile of harmonic measurements of voltage, real and reactive
injected harmonic currents caused by the harmonic sources, powers which are costly for large systems. In [8],
while the mutual information theory is for estimating the independent component analysis (ICA) has been applied
location of harmonic sources. To verify the accuracy of the for locating the multiple harmonic sources. In this method,
proposed method, numerical simulations were made in measured voltages at the selected buses which are
locating multiple harmonic sources in the IEEE 34 bus determined by the measurement placement technique are
radial distribution system. Results showed that the proposed used for estimating the impedance matrix of the system,
method can accurately estimate the locations of multiple and current traces of the harmonic sources. The minimum
harmonic sources without prior knowledge of the network electrical distances between the estimated impedance
parameters. matrix and the actual impedance matrix are then obtained
for estimating the location of harmonic sources. However,
Keywords—Harmonic distortion; Harmonic source location; this method is not completely practical because it needs to
Power quality determine the actual impedance matrix of a system at each
harmonic frequency. This paper presents a new method
I. INTRODUCTION based on ICA and mutual information (MI) theory to
In harmonic study, it is important to identify the identify the location of multiple harmonic sources in a
source of harmonics to solve the problems related to distribution system. In this method, ICA is used to
harmonic distortion. Harmonic source localization in reconstruct or estimate the harmonic currents produced by
power system is one of the approaches used to address the harmonic sources while the MI theory is used for
determining the locations of harmonic sources,
the attribution of responsibility between customers and
respectively. Unlike the previous methods, in this method
utilities for harmonic distortion in a power system. In only voltage measurements are made at all buses and there
practical radial distribution systems, harmonic sources is no need for other kinds of measurements such as real
can be located upstream and downstream relative to a and reactive powers. In addition, it is assumed that there
monitoring point which is usually at the point of common are no prior information about the system parameters,
coupling (PCC). With regards to this, different single harmonic impedance matrix and characteristics of
point approaches can be found in the literature, for harmonic sources and estimation will be done completely
locating the source of harmonics and determining the blindly. This assumption is important in the deregulated
share of utility and customer harmonic distortion at the power systems where complete power system
PCC [1-4]. All of these methods focus on single point information, load behavior and utility response is not
strategy for locating harmonic source at the PCC. Such known because of economic and security restrictions.
methods cannot work in practical systems because II. INDEPENDENT COMPONENT ANALYSIS
harmonic sources exist and spread at various points in a
power network. Hence, several methods have been Basically, ICA is a statistical technique that transforms
the observed signals into a linear transform of source
developed for the purpose of locating multiple harmonic
signals that are statistically independent from each other.
sources in a distribution system. To separate the source signals from the observed signals,
Most of these multiple point approaches are based on certain assumptions are considered such that the
harmonic state estimation (HSE) technique [5-7]. The independent components are statistically independent, all
HSE based methods require complete knowledge about but one source signals must have nongaussian
the system parameters at different harmonic frequencies, distributions and the number of observations should be
which are usually unknown in practice. In addition, the greater or equal to the number of sources [9]. Assuming
measurement placement technique which is widely
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 146

there are N sources and M measurements, then the linear ~
X = ED −1 / 2 E T X (5)
mixing model of ICA can be written as
where D and E are the diagonal matrix of eigenvalues
x j = a j1s1 + a j 2 s2 + ... + a jn sn (1) and the orthogonal matrix of eigenvectors, respectively
for all j = 1,2,..., M which are obtained from the covariance matrix of the
observed vector, X .
The matrix representation of (1) is III. MUTUAL INFORMATION THEORY
X = AS (2) Another approach for ICA estimation, inspired by
where, information theory is minimization of MI. Using the
concept of entropy defined for continuous random
S (t ) = [ s1 (t ), s2 (t ),..., sn (t )]T : N-dimensional vector of variables, the discrete form of entropy is derived as,
unknown source signals. N
T
X (t ) = [ x1 (t ), x 2 (t ),..., x m (t )] : M-dimensional vector H ( y ) = −∑ p( y ) log p( y ) (6)
y =1
of observed signals.
A : M × N full column coefficient matrix aij called as The entropy in (6) can be interpreted as a measure of
the mixing matrix. uncertainty of the events with probability function, p. In
fact, the entropy of a random variable can be defined as
the degree of information that the observation of the
Here X and S are M × T and N × T matrices whose variable gives. To determine uncertainty about variable
column vectors are observation vectors and sources, and T
is the number of observations. In ICA, the objective is to Α in subsequence of trials in which Β occurs, the
conditional entropy is used [12]. Assuming random
find estimates of the S and A from the available
variables Α and Β consisting of the Ν elements of
observations X . The unknown source matrix S can be
estimated as: ai and bi for i = 1,2,..., N , the conditional entropy can be
(3) defined as:
S est = WX
N
where, H ( Α bi ) = −∑ p (ai bi ) log p (ai bi ) (7)
Sest : estimate of the sources S with N × T dimension. i =1
W : N × M separating matrix which is the pseudo inverse Assuming that Β is the average of H ( Α bi ) , the
of the mixing matrix A . conditional entropy of variables Α and Β can be written
as:
For estimating the ICA model given by (3), the ICA N
algorithm with maximization of nongaussianity of the H ( Α Β) = ∑ p (bi ) H ( Α bi ) (8)

i =1
source signal has been applied [10]. Based on this
approach, the entropy of a random variable which is The mutual information, I of variables Α and Β can
related to the information that the observation of the be obtained as:
variable gives, is considered. I ( Α, Β) = H ( Α) − H ( Α Β) , I (Α, Β) ≥ 0 (9)
To determine the independent components,
maximization of the estimated negentropy is necessary. Equation (9) is symmetric and can be interpreted as the
By maximizing the sum of N one unit contrast functions information about Α contained in Β and vice versa. If
and taking into account the constraint of decorrelation, an Α and Β are independent, their MI will be zero. In
optimization problem is obtained as follows: addition, MI is a better function for measuring
n dependency between two random variables rather than the
Maximize ∑ J (w
i =1
T
i x) correlation function [13]. The reason is that MI is able to
measure general dependency between two variables, while
under constraint { }
E ( wkT x)( wTj x) = δ jk (4)
the correlation function can only measure linear
dependency between them.
where wi for i = 1,2,..., N are the rows of the separating IV. APPLICATION OF ICA AND MUTUAL INFORMATION
matrix, W which is inverse of coefficient matrix, A . THEORY FOR HARMONIC SOURCE LOCALIZATION
In this section, the procedure for estimating the location
For maximizing the contrast functions in (4), the of multiple harmonic sources is described. Firstly,
FastICA algorithm [11] is applied. Before implementing consider the system equation under non-sinusoidal
ICA, the observed vector X is preprocessed by centering condition which is written in matrix form as:
and whitening [9]. By centering, the mean of vector X is V h = Z hI h (10)
subtracted and transformed to zero-mean variable, while where V , Z and I are the bus voltage, impedance and
by whitening; the observed vector X is transformed bus injected current vectors, respectively and h is the
~
linearly to a new vector X that its components are harmonic order of the frequency.
uncorrelated and their variances equal unity. In whitening,
we consider,
147
If voltage, V and impedance, Z are known, then the
harmonic current I can be solved using (10). Applying
ICA to (10), the mixing matrix, A represents the
admittance matrix, Z in the harmonic domain; the
estimated signal, S represents the bus injected current
vectors and X represents the harmonic voltage
measurement vectors. From (10), the injected harmonic
currents generated by the harmonic sources at the
respective buses have a relationship with the bus voltages.
By using the MI theory, the produced harmonic current at
each bus has maximum MI with its own bus voltage and
the MI between these harmonic current and other bus
voltages is reduced due to the current division between
branches.
The procedure in implementing the proposed method
using ICA and MI theory for estimating the location of
multiple harmonic sources is summarized as follows:
I. Measure harmonic voltages at all buses.
II. Reconstruct current traces of the harmonic
sources using the fast ICA algorithm. Figure 1. IEEE 34 bus test system
III. Compute MI between the extracted current traces
and bus voltages.
increasing the number of samples or duration of sampling
IV. Determine the location of harmonic sources time [18].
based on the computed MI.
To identify the location of harmonic sources, the MI
V. SIMULATION RESULTS theory has been applied to calculate the pair-wise MI
between the estimated current trends and bus voltage for
To validate the performance of the proposed method, each harmonic frequency. The result of the MI is shown in
the IEEE 34 bus radial distribution system is chosen as the Table 3 in which each column and row represents the
test system [14]. The test system as shown in Figure 1, has estimated current and the harmonic bus voltage at
three harmonic sources containing the 5th, 7th, and 11th individual harmonic frequency, respectively. The
harmonic orders placed at bus 15, 25, and 33. It is intersection between each column and row represents the
assumed that all loads are with constant power factor and computed MI between the three estimated currents at each
the harmonic loads are modeled as harmonic current harmonic frequency, and the specified bus harmonic
injection sources with spectrums given in [15]. voltage.
Prior to estimating multiple harmonic sources using As shown in Table 3, the bold MI values imply that the
ICA, the harmonic load flow algorithm for radial systems related bus has the greatest MI between the estimated
introduced in [16-17] has been programmed using the harmonic currents and voltages and therefore this bus is
Matlab codes for simulating harmonic power flow and identified as the location of harmonic source. For
generating harmonic voltage measurements. Harmonic example, the MI of 2.45 between the first estimated
bus voltages are calculated by solving the linear system current of the 5th harmonic order (first column) and the
equation in (10) for each harmonic frequency of interest. harmonic voltage at bus 25 (25th row) has the greatest
Here, 500 voltage samples have been created for each of value in the related column. This implies that the location
the 34 buses to determine the harmonic measurement of harmonic source is at bus 25. From the Table, it is
vector, X. The Fast ICA algorithm programmed in Matlab obvious that harmonic source locations are located at bus
is used for reconstructing the harmonic currents produced 15, 25, and 33 because the MI values are high at these
by the harmonic sources at bus 15, 25, and 33. buses. Thus, the harmonic source locations at bus 15, 25
To validate the accuracy of the ICA algorithm for and 33 have been correctly identified by the proposed
extracting the harmonic current traces, correlation method using ICA and MI theory.
coefficients between the actual and the reconstructed
current signals have been computed as shown in Table 1.
From the table, it is clear that all the correlation
coefficients are in the acceptable range because their
TABLE I.
values are all close to 1. This implies the matching of high CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS BETWEEN THE ACTUAL AND THE
accuracy between the estimated and the actual harmonic RECONSTRUCTED SIGNALS
currents. Table 2 shows the mean square error of the Harmonic order Bus 15 Bus 25 Bus 33
signals so as to quantify the difference between the 5 9.9568 9.9447 9.8661
estimated and the actual harmonic currents. The result of 7 9.9814 9.9504 9.8906
Table 2 shows that the Fast ICA algorithm can reconstruct
signals with high accuracy in which the mean square error 11 9.9567 9.9449 9.8661
of the estimated and the actual harmonic currents is less
than 0.002. To achieve better accuracy in results with less
mean square error and better correlation coefficient, the
performance of the ICA algorithm can be improved by
148
TABLE II. identify the location of harmonic sources. The results
MEAN SQUARE ERROR BETWEEN THE ACTUAL AND RECONSTRUCTED
SIGNALS
from the case study confirm that the proposed method can
Harmonic accurately identify the location of multiple harmonic
Bus 15 Bus 25 Bus 33 sources in the 34 bus radial distribution system.
order
5 2.66E-03 2.41E-03 2.57E-03
7 2.58E-03 2.31E-03 2.56E-03
11 2.28E-03 2.43E-03 2.72E-03
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[14]S. F. Mekhamer, S. A. Soliman, M. A. Moustafa, and M. E. El-
A new technique for locating multiple harmonic
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BIOGRAPHIES
Masoud Farhoodnea received his B.Sc

degree in Electrical Engineering from the Azad
University of Najaf Abad, Esfahan, Iran in
2005. He is currently pursuing his Master
degree in Electrical Engineering at the
Department of Electrical, Electronic and
Systems Engineering, Universiti Kebangsaan
Malaysia.
Azah Mohamed received her B.Sc from

King’s College, University of London in 1978
and M.Sc and Ph.D from Universiti Malaya in
1988 and 1995, respectively. She is a professor
at the Department of Electrical, Electronic and
Systems Engineering, Universiti Kebangsaan
Malaysia. Her main research interests are in
power system security, power quality,
distributed generation and artificial
intelligence. She is a senior member of IEEE.
Hussain Shareef received his B.Sc with honor

from IIT, Bangladesh, MS degree from
METU, Turkey, and Ph.D from Universiti
Teknologi, Malaysia. He currently is a faculty
member at the Department of Electrical,
Electronic and Systems Engineering,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. His current
research interests are power system
deregulation and power quality.
150
Directional High-Resistance Earth Fault Detector

Based on Zero-Sequence Components and
Wavelet Transform
Amin Samanfar Behnam Mahamedi
Electrical Engineering Depatrment Deputy of Supervision on Transmission Grid Security
Khoramabad Azad University IGMC
Khoramabad, Iran. Tehran, Iran.
Email: mohghoco@yahoo.com Email: mahaamedi@igmc.ir
Abstract—Distance relays are subject to fail to detect some It is clear that in the zero-sequence-based method,
earth faults since the fault resistance is usually much more transients on the voltage and current following a high-
in the earth faults rather than the ph-ph faults. Typically a resistance fault are not used and the steady-state condition
traditional zero-sequence-based method is used to detect a of faults is considered. If we are able to capture these
high-resistance earth fault. However, this method fails to transients then high-resistance earth fault will be detected.
detect some high-resistance earth faults. On the other hand, To detect transients wavelet transform may be the best
it may trip under normal conditions where there is a little solution one has ever seen. Therefore, high-resistance
unbalance. This paper introduces a new method utilizing faults can be detected by using wavelet transform.
both zero-sequence components and wavelet transform to However, to determine the directionality of earth faults the
detect high-resistance earth faults. This method does not angle between zero-sequence current and zero-sequence
trip under normal conditions due to unbalancing whereas it voltage is still used. In this paper a new method using both
is very sensitive to high-resistance earth faults. It will be wavelet transform and zero-sequence components is
shown by using proper simulations that the proposed presented to detect high-resistance faults. The proposed
method is fast and reliable. method is not sensitive to unbalancing occurring under
normal conditions. On the other hand, it is very sensitive
Keywords—High-resistance earth fault; Wavelet Transform to high-resistance earth faults. The simulations carried out
(WT); Zero-sequence components by software MATLAB® will show that this method
reliably detect high-resistance earth faults regardless of
I. INTRODUCTION fault resistance and fault location.
Distance relays are not able to detect high-resistance
faults since there are not only some limits to extend II. DETECTION METHODOLOGY
resistive reach of protective zones but also there are some The proposed method is based on the zero-sequence
high-resistance earth faults with large fault resistance up components and wavelet transform. Hence, it is necessary
to 300 Ohms. Since then, researchers have studied and to take a glance to each of these methods.
applied many existing and emerging techniques to high-
resistance earth fault detection. These include statistical A. Zero-sequence-based Method
hypothesis tests, inductive reasoning and expert systems, Typically in the high-resistance fault detection method,
neural networks, third harmonic angle of fault currents, single phase-to-earth faults are considered since fault
wavelet decomposition, decision trees, fuzzy logic and resistance is usually much more in the earth faults rather
others [1]-[3]. The most common method is using of zero- than ph-ph faults. Fig. 1 shows the equivalent circuit
sequence components. This method makes use of the fact based on the symmetrical components theory when a
that after fault inception the magnitude of zero-sequence forward single phase-to-earth fault occurs at the m
current and zero-sequence voltage will considerably percentage of the line related to the relay R. Based on Fig.
increase. To distinguish the directionality of the fault the 1 fault current is equal to:
angle between these zero-sequence components is used.
However, under normal conditions there is a little E eq (m ) (1)
unbalance which presents zero-sequence components. IF =
Z1eq (m ) + Z 2 eq (m) + Z 0 eq (m) + 3R f
Hence, under this condition if the directionality is met
then the relay will trip. This is completely undesired in
power systems. Therefore, the setting values for zero- Where, Eeq(m) is the equivalent voltage seen from the
sequence current and zero-sequence voltage should be set fault point. Also Z1eq(m), Z2eq(m) and Z0eq(m) are
more than their values under normal conditions. On the respectively equivalent positive-sequence impedance,
other hand, when a high-resistance earth fault occurs equivalent negative-sequence impedance and equivalent
remotely enough to the relay it is possible that zero- zero-sequence impedance seen from the fault point.
sequence components still remain under the set values Equation (1) explicitly shows that current decreases
imposed by the some unbalances. In this case this method when fault resistance increase. Since the zero-sequence
fails to detect the high-resistance earth fault.
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 151

V0 = − Z 0S ⋅ I 0 (3)
Equations (2) and (3) say that the magnitude of zero-

sequence voltage also decreases when fault resistance
increases.
Fig. 2 shows the equivalent circuit based on the
symmetrical component theory when a single phase-to-
earth fault occurs in reverse direction. According to Fig. 2,
the relationship between zero-sequence current and zero-
sequence voltage will be as (4):
V0 = (Z 0 R + Z 0 L ) ⋅ I 0 (4)
Therefore, for forward and reverse faults the angle

between zero-sequence voltage and zero-sequence current
will respectively be equal to (5) and (6):
∠V0 − ∠I 0 = ∠ − Z0S (5)
∠V0 − ∠I 0 = ∠(Z 0 L + Z 0 R ) (6)
Considering (5) and (6), since the angle between zero-

sequence voltage and zero-sequence current for a forward
Figure 1. Equivalent circuit based on the symmetrical components fault considerably differs from the one for a reverse fault
theory after a Ph-E fault inception caption then the directionality of faults can be distinguished by
this method. However, the magnitude of zero-sequence
current measured by the relay is equal to a percentage of components must be more than a specified value to
fault current then we will have: measure the angle. Although this may be a limit in
electromechanical relays, but in the numerical relays it is
1 (2) not a restrictive consideration. It means that the numerical
I0 ∝
RF relays can still measure the angle when the zero-sequence
components are of small value. What causing zero-
Considering Fig. 1, we can find (3) which relates the sequence-based method fails to detect some high-
zero-sequence voltage to zero-sequence current for a resistance faults is the threshold values forced by the little
forward single phase-to-earth fault: unbalancing under normal conditions. The threshold
values must be more than the values under normal
conditions. On the other hand (2) says that if a resistance
fault is more than a specified value then the magnitude of
Z1S
1 2
Z1R
the zero-sequence voltage and zero-sequence current
Z1L
might become less than the threshold value. However, the
F1 relay can measure the angle between the two zero-
R sequence components.
ES ER
B. Wavelet-Based Method
Wavelet-based methods make use of transients getting
on a specified signal after fault inception. There are
1 2
Z2S Z2L Z2R different methods for detecting transients by using wavelet
transform. The difference between the methods is related
F2 to the signal chosen for WT and the kind of mother
R
wavelet. In [4], the author performs WT with mother
3RF
wavelet db4 to detect transients getting on the signal
voltage. The reason for selecting the voltage signal to
track transients is because faults give rise to more
1 2 transients in the voltage than in the currents. Typically
Z0S Z0L Z0R WT-based methods require high sampling frequency to
F0 detect high-resistance faults. In [4] the sampling frequency
R I0 is equal to 40.96 kHz which is relatively high in numerical
V0 relays technology. Reference [5] proposes a new wavelet-
based method requiring 1 kHz sampling frequency for
detecting faults.
On the contrary of zero-sequence-based method, a
wavelet-based method is not sensitive to steady-state
Figure 2. Equivalent circuit based on the symmetrical components condition of fault and only reacts under transients.
theory after a reverse Ph-E fault inception
152
Furthermore, there are no transients under normal B D
conditions even when there is an unbalance. Therefore, L2
wavelet-based method is immune to unbalancing. On the
other hand, due to transients associated with faults this
method is sensitive to the occurrence of high-resistance L1
earth faults. However, a WT-based method should use a RB RD
complementary criterion to distinguish the directionality Ph-E
of faults.
Fig. 4. Simulated system
C. Proposed Detection Method
The proposed method makes use of zero-sequence-
TABLE I.
based as well as WT-based methods. In this method DIFFERENT CASES CONSIDERED FOR A FAULT
transients caused by a high-resistance fault are detected by
WT. The angle between zero-sequence current and zero- Fault
Fault distance to Fault distance to
Case resistance
sequence voltage is used to distinguish the directionality relay RB (km) relay RD (km)
(Ohm)
of fault. Since fault detection is based on transients then 1 5 58 100
on the contrary of zero-sequence-based method there is no 2 5 58 300
need to set the magnitude of zero-sequence components. 3 15 48 100
What is required is that the magnitude of zero-sequence 4 15 48 300
components would be in the accuracy range of the relay 5 25 38 100
such that the angle between them can be measurable. As 6 25 38 300
the accuracy of the phasor measurement in the numerical 7 35 28 100
relays is high (about milli Volt) so in the proposed method 8 35 28 300
practically there is no limit to measure the angle. It means 9 45 18 100
that high-resistance faults which do not cause the 10 45 18 300
11 55 8 100
threshold zero-sequence current and zero-sequence
12 55 8 300
voltage needed for zero-sequence-based method operation
can be easily detectable. In this system, at the first the operation of zero-
Transients will be damped following fault inception sequence-based method in detecting high-resistance earth
time. On the other hand, to measure the angle between faults at substations B and D will be studied for different
zero-sequence current and zero-sequence voltage it is fault resistances and different fault points. Table I shows
required that transients decay and the signals reaches its the different cases considered for a high-resistance earth
steady-state situation. Therefore, in the proposed method, fault occurring on line L1. A resistance 100 Ohms is
the wavelet-based signal indicating the occurrence of a considered as it is common for high-resistance earth fault
high-resistance fault must be latched for a specified period studies [3], [4]. Since the maximum expected fault
until the directionality-detection signal based on zero- resistance is up to 300 Ohms then it is also used to
sequence components would become active. The resultant evaluate zero-sequence-based method and the proposed
signal based on AND combination of the two signals is method.
used as a directional high-resistance fault flag. This is Generally, the settable parameters in zero-sequenced-
better interpreted by Fig. 3 in which TH is a holding time. based method (Directional Earth Fault (DEF) function) are
residual current and residual voltage. Therefore, we
III. SIMULATION RESULTS present the simulation results of zero-sequence-based
Fig. 4 shows the simulated system. In this system the method by residual current and residual voltage instead of
distributed model of a 230 kV double-circuit line in Iran zero-sequence current and zero-sequence voltage.
transmission power system (Line Behbahan to Residual components are related to zero-components as
Dogonbadan) is modeled by software MATLAB®. To below:
model the equivalent sources at the end of the line,
software DIgSILENT® has been utilized. The CT and VT I residual = 3 ⋅ I zero−sequence (7)
ratio in substation Behbahn (B) and Dogonbadan (D) are
as follows:
Vresidual = 3 ⋅ Vzero−sequence (8)
1000
CTRatio B =
1 Table II and Table III show for all cases the result of
zero-sequence-based method measured by the relay RB
800 and RD. In these tables, θ is the angle defined in (5) and
CTRatio D =
5 (6).
Due to some unbalances under normal conditions, as
VTRatio B = VTRatio D =
230 discussed in section II, the residual current is typically set
0.11 as 200 Amperes in 230 kV and 400 kV transmission
system of Iran. Considering the CT ratio the threshold
values at relay RB and RD is equal to:
1
I B = CTRatio B ⋅ 200 = ⋅ 200 = 0.2 [A]
1000
Fig. 3. Proposed method logic
153
TABLE II.
ZERO-SEQUENCE PARAMETERS MEASURED BY RELAY RB
Case Residual current (A) Residual voltage (V) Θ (°)
1 1.46 12.23 -101.1
2 0.50 4.26 -101.1
3 1.24 10.86 -100.1
4 0.43 3.84 -100.1
5 1.03 9.62 -100.8
6 0.36 3.44 -100.8
7 0.83 8.43 -100.6
8 0.29 2.92 -100.6
9 0.63 7.31 -100.4
10 0.22 2.64 -100.4
11 0.44 6.25 -100.2
12 0.15 2.27 -100.2
TABLE III.
ZERO-SEQUENCE PARAMETERS MEASURED BY RELAY RD
Case Residual current (A) Residual voltage (V) Θ (°)
1 1.96 6.18 -103.4 Fig. 6. Faulty phase voltage and corresponding d1 coefficients
2 0.67 2.20 -103.4 measured by relay RD for fault case 2
3 3.18 7.63 -103.3
4 1.10 2.72 -103.3 TABLE IV.
5 4.40 9.07 -103.6 MAXIMUM ABSOLUTE VALUE OF WAVELET COEFFICIENTS AT LEVEL 1
6 1.53 3.24 -103.6 MEASURED BY RELAY RB AND RD AFTER FAULT INCEPTION TIME
7 5.61 10.55 -103.9 Behbahan (B) Dogonbadan (D)
8 1.95 3.80 -103.9 Case
d1 max t max d1 t max
9 6.87 12.12 -104.2
10 2.38 4.32 -104.2 1 2.48 0.1008 3.71 0.1012
11 8.18 13.80 -104.4 2 1.65 0.1012 2.14 0.1012
12 2.81 4.90 -104.4 3 3.82 0.1004 2.19 0.1018
4 2.28 0.1004 1.22 0.1018
5 4.96 0.1004 3.17 0.1012
5
I D = CTRatio D ⋅ 200 = ⋅ 200 = 1.25 [A] 6 3.08 0.1004 2.05 0.1012
800 7 7.51 0.1004 6.36 0.1004
8 4.66 0.1004 3.95 0.1004
If the measured residual current in each substation is 9 3.18 0.1012 3.66 0.1012
less than the above corresponding values, then the high- 10 2.20 0.1012 2.28 0.1008
resistance fault will not be detected. However the 11 4.91 0.1004 4.67 0.1008
directionality of faults can be determined. For case 12, the 12 3.04 0.1004 2.91 0.1016
residual current measured by RB is less than its setting
value (0.2 Ampere). Therefore case 12 is not detected by As explained in section II, in the proposed method a
relay RB. For the same reason, case 2 and case 4 is not high-resistance fault is detected based on transients of
detected by relay RD. For some practical cases, residual voltage captured by WT. However, it is possible to use
voltage is set as 5 Volts. If this is considered, as can be another signal for transient detection. In the proposed
seen in Table II and Table III, there will be more cases method sampling frequency has been chosen as 10 kHz.
which cannot be detected by the relays based on zero- The wavelet coefficients of level 1 with mother wavelet
sequence components. db4 have been used to detect transients. Mother wavelet
db4 has been chosen since it has given good performance
for power system transient analysis [6], [7]. For case 2,
faulty phase voltage and wavelet coefficients measured by
relay RB and RD are respectively shown in Fig. 5 and Fig.
6. Table IV presents the maximum absolute value of
coefficients at level 1 for all cases after fault inception
time. Also the time in which these coefficients captured
are shown for all cases.
As shown in Table II and Table III, in the zero-
sequence-based method case 12 is the worst case for relay
RB and case 2 is the worst for relay RD. However, in these
cases the value of residual current and residual voltage is
in the accuracy range of the relays. Therefore the angle
between V0 and I0 can still be measured.
On the other hand, since under normal conditions the
wavelet coefficients are measured around of 5×10-5 Volts
then Table IV merely shows that wavelet-based method
detects all fault conditions shown in Table I. There is no
Fig. 5. Faulty phase voltage and corresponding d1 coefficients
matter where fault locates and how much fault resistance
measured by relay RB for fault case 2
154
is. Therefore the proposed method can detect any high- resistance earth fault nevertheless the angle between zero-
resistance fault as well as detect its directionality. sequence components can still be measured for such
Here, it is worthwhile to comment about the data faults. Since fault inception accompanies with transients,
window width used in the proposed method. The duration wavelet transform is used to detect a high-resistance earth
of mother wavelet db4 is 7 samples. On the other hand, fault. Base on these two principal concepts, the proposed
duration of wavelet at level m is related to mother wavelet method uses the feature of zero-sequence-based method
duration as below: and wavelet-based method simultaneously to present a
new directional earth fault function. The advantages of the
duration ( m) = (duaration of mother wavelet ) × 2 m (9) proposed method are several. The first is that this method
is immune to unbalancing occurs under normal conditions.
On the other hand it is very sensitive to high-resistance
Also, the duration of wavelet at level m is calculated as faults. Furthermore, as there is no need to magnitude of
follows: zero-sequence components, setting of the proposed
method is completely easy.
1 (10)
t duration = duration (m ) ×
f sampling
REFERENCES
Substituting (9) in (10) we will have: [1] Daqing Hou, ‘‘Detection of High-Impedance Faults in Power
Distribution Systems,’’ in Proc. 6th Power Systems Conference:
Advanced Metering, Protection, Control, Communication, and
2m (11) Distributed Resources, 2007, pp. 85-95.
t duration = (duration of mother wavelet) ×
f sampling [2] A. Mechraoui and D. W. P. Thomas, ‘‘A new principle for high
resistance earth fault detection during fast power swings for
distance protection,’’ IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 12, no. 4, pp.
Using (11) we can obtain the duration of daughter 1452---1457, Oct. 1997.
wavelet used in the proposed method: [3] L.L. Lai, E. Styvaktakis, A.G. Sichanie, “Wavelet transform for
high impedance fault identification,” in Proc. 4th International
conference on Advances in Power System Control, Operation and
21
t duration = 7 × = 1.4 [ms] Management, 1997, pp. 188-191.
10 × 103 [4] S. M. Brahma, “Distance relay with out-of-step blocking function
using wavelet transform,” IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 22, no. 3,
Therefore, the data window width needed in the pp. 1360-1366.
proposed method is equal to 1.4 milli seconds. Also the [5] B. Mahamedi, “A novel scheme for detecting power swings based
WT is performed every 0.2 milli seconds. on wavelet transform,” unpublished.
[6] S. Santoso, E. J. Powers, W. M. Grady, and P. Hofmann, ‘‘Power
IV. CONCLUSION quality assessment via wavelet transform analysis,’’ IEEE Trans.
Power Del., vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 924---930, Apr. 1996.
This paper at the first presents the deficiencies of [7] A. Osman and O. P. Malik, ‘‘Transmission line distance protection
traditional zero-sequence-based method in detecting high- based on wavelet transform,’’ IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 19,
resistance earth faults. It is illustrated that although zero- no. 2, pp. 515---523, Apr. 2004.
sequence-based method cannot detect some high-
155
Harmonics Mitigation and Power Factor

Correction with a Modern Three-phase Four-Leg
Shunt Active Power Filter
Izzeldin Idris Abdalla*, K. S. Rama Rao**, N. Perumal***
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
31750 Tronoh, Malaysia
E-mail: * izzeldin_abdalla@yahoo.com, ** ksramarao@petronas.com.my, *** Perumal@ petronas.com.my
Abstract— In this paper a compensating system using elements and power switches are the main components of
four-leg shunt active power filter (SAPF) in a three-phase VSI. An isolation transformer and an interface inductor
four-wire distribution network which will be able to are mandatory when APFs are implemented on power
mitigate harmonics, absorb or generate reactive power, and networks. The parameters of VSI plays a very important
improve the power factor on supply side, is presented. Two role in the operation of APF mentioned as in [4], [13],
control approaches based on p-q theory and load current [14]. The APF unlike the passive filter is small in size,
detection using phase locked loop (PLL) are proposed. To flexible, applicable for different voltage level networks,
validate the compensation performance of SAPF the superior in filtering performance, and has minimum cost
distribution network with nonlinear loads is simulated using and operating losses [15].
MATLAB/Simulink software. Simulation results have Actually APF is applied to the medium voltage level
proved and validated the performance of SAPF minimizing networks and for use in high voltage level network, it
the total harmonics distortion (THD) and neutral current. should be connected via a three-phase transformer for the
purpose of protection and design cost minimization [16].
Keywords—harmonics mitigation, nonlinear loads; total Also APF has high efficiency of approximately
harmonic distortion THD; three-phase four-leg SAPF;
three-phase four-wire system; voltage source inverter. 94.4 % [17] and deal with lower-order harmonics such as
5th, 7th, 11th, 13th which are generated by the nonlinear
loads [9], [17]. Actually, in several areas power is
I. INTRODUCTION distributed through three-phase four-wire system and
The increasing use of power electronic equipments in a traditional APF is inadequate for harmonics
distribution network which represent nonlinear loads compensation and power factor correction. To overcome
have caused many power quality disturbances such as this shortage, a three-phase four-wire shunt active filter
harmonics pollution, unbalanced load currents, and (SAPF) has been introduced in the 1980s [18]-[22].
reactive power problems. As a result poor power factor, Basically there are two main kinds of three-phase,
weakening efficiency, over heating of motors and four-wire SAPF depending on their connection to the
transformers, malfunction of sensitive devices etc. [1]-[4] neutral wire. In the first type the neutral wire is connected
are encountered. to the midpoint of supply by means of a capacitor divider.
Conventionally, a passive power filter which consists In the second type the neutral wire is connected to the
of passive elements is used to provide harmonic filtering additional fourth leg as shown in Fig. 1 [23]-[25]. The
as an economical and effective filtering device. However three-phase four-leg inverter topology is superior over
it has shortcomings such as fixed compensation three-wire type, in mode of operation of power switches,
performance, bulk in size and resonance troubles number and compensation performance.
[5]-[9]. Important types of passive power filters and their
configurations are discussed in [5]. To overcome the
shortcomings of passive power filters and to mitigate the
power pollution in networks caused by the nonlinear
loads, an active power filter (APF) was established in
around 1970s [10]-[13]. APFs are previously not
implemented in power net works, because of
unavailability of high speed power switching devices.
Recently the power electronic development spurred the
interest in IGBTs, MOS-FETs etc [11] and then APFs are
developed incorporating power electronics technology to
support the needs of industry. Shunt, series, and hybrid
configuration are the three main types of three-phase,
three-wire active power filters and their merits and de-
merits are discussed in [5].
A voltage source inverter (VSI) is the heart of an active
power filter. Various kinds of VSI classified according to
their power converter types, operation modes, and phase
numbers are presented in [13], [14] . Basically dc storage Figure 1. VSI based three-phase, four-leg SAPF
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 156

The two instantaneous compensation strategies for By applying KCL at the point of common coupling the
three-phase four-wire system using SAPF, first eliminates source currents are as in (1).
the instantaneous reactive source-current components, iq,
and then eliminates the instantaneous zero-sequence of is = iinv + iL (1)
reactive source-current, iq0 and zero-sequence current, i0. Applying KVL, the sum of instantaneous voltages of
The SAPF may not totally compensate the neutral current the network, load and the inverter output voltages are as
as reported in [26]. A three-phase four-wire SAPF based in (2), (3) and (4) respectively.
on p-q theory is proposed utilizing a sliding window for d is
calculation of dc component of active power [27], v s − v B = R s is + L s (2)
dt
supported by experimental results for good dynamic
response of the SAPF. A three-dimensional space vector d iL (3)
v B − v L = R L iL + L L
modulation based on neural network, and validated by dt
analytical analysis, simulations on a four-leg voltage d iin v
source inverter, is proposed in [28]. The well known p-q v B − v in v = R in v iin v + L in v (4)
theory was implemented using DSP controller for a three- dt
phase four-wire SAPF to compensate source currents in
the network system in [29] . The SAPF has shown best
results under various load conditions, but has a limitation Using Clark transformation, the source voltages and
regarding the harmonic distortion. A simple control load currents are transformed from a-b-c coordinates to
technique for three-phase four-leg inverter supplying a α − β − 0 coordinates, as in (5) and (6) respectively.
medium voltage level unbalanced load is reported in [24].
The inverter controlled method was easy and prevents ⎡1 / 2
⎡ v0 ⎤ 1/ 2 1 / 2 ⎤ ⎡ vsa ⎤
employment of complex procedure as claimed by the ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
authors. A three-dimensional space-vector pulse width ⎢ vα ⎥ =
2
3 ⎢ 1 −1 / 2 − 1 / 2 ⎥ ⎢⎢ vsb ⎥⎥
modulation, SVPWM which is controlled by a closed- ⎢ vβ ⎥ ⎢ 0 3/2 − 3 / 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ vsc ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ (5)
loop PI current adjustment is being used as a control
algorithm for a four-leg SAPF in [23]. The results of
SAPF satisfying the goals of three-phase currents ⎡ i0 ⎤ ⎡1 / 2 1/ 2 1 / 2 ⎤ ⎡ i La ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
balancing, THD minimization, and approximately zero
⎢ iα ⎥ =
2
⎢ 1 −1 / 2 − 1 / 2 ⎥ ⎢⎢ i L b ⎥⎥
neutral current are established. 3
⎢ 0
This paper concentrates on the three-phase four-leg
⎢ iβ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ 3/2 − 3 / 2 ⎥⎦ ⎣⎢ i L c ⎦⎥
(6)
SAPF which is adoptable to compensate harmonics and
neutral current, generate or absorb reactive power, as well The zero-sequence instantaneous power, p0 is
as improving the power factor. This paper also proposed represented as an additional power in three-phase four-
two kinds of controllers, based on p-q theory, introduced wire system, as in (7)
earlier in [30], and load current detection using PLL. The
two controllers are developed in MATLAB and tuned to p =v i
. 0 0 0 (7)
control a three-phase four-leg SAPF. The mitigation of Then the active, reactive and zero-sequence instantaneous
harmonic current components is accomplished by powers are expressed in matrix form as in (8).
injecting compensation currents at the point of common
coupling (PCC) with the same magnitude and opposite ⎡ p 0 ⎤ ⎡ v0 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ i0 ⎤
⎢ p ⎥= ⎢0 vα
⎥⎢ ⎥
v β ⎥ ⎢ iα ⎥
phase of distorted components. ⎢ ⎥ ⎢
⎢⎣ q ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 − vβ v α ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ i β ⎥⎦
(8)
II. MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF SAPF
The total instantaneous active power, p3Ф of the three-
A single line diagram configuration of the three-phase phase, four-wire system is expressed as sum of
four-wire system, nonlinear loads, and three-phase four- instantaneous active and zero sequence power as in (9).
leg SAPF, is shown in Fig. 2.
p3φ = p + p0 = vα iα + vβ iβ + v0i0 = va ia + vb ib + vc ic (9)
The instantaneous active and reactive powers include AC
and DC components and are expressed as in (10)
p = p + p , q = q + q , p 0 = p 0 + p 0 (10)
The DC components, p , q are the average active and
reactive powers originating from the fundamental
component of the load current. The AC components, p ,
q , are the oscillating or ripple active and reactive power
resulting from harmonics, ph, qh and negative sequence
component of the load current. After successful
compensation the AC component of active power, and
two components of reactive power, will be eliminated or
exist in small value. At that time the source current is
Figure 2. Distribution network with shunt active power filter sinusoidal, and in-phase with the source voltage and the
157
power factor will be very close to unity [9], [31]-[33]. The control circuit is implemented using equations (5)
The active and reactive power are represented in terms of up to (17). AC component of active power can be
α − β component voltages and currents as in (11) obtained by extracting the dc component using a high-
pass filter.
⎡ p ⎤ ⎡ vα v β ⎤ ⎡ iα ⎤ In the second proposed control strategy only the load
⎢ q ⎥ = ⎢ −v vα ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ iβ ⎥⎦ current is detected by PLL to generate the reference
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ β (11) currents. The current control circuit, shown in Fig. 4
The inverse of the matrix in (11) results as in (12) consists of the hysteresis current control block and the
load current detection based reference current calculation.
⎡ iα ⎤ ⎡ vα vβ ⎤ ⎡ p ⎤
The inverter receives the gating signals from the
⎢i ⎥ =
1
Δ ⎢ −v vα ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ q ⎥⎦ hysteresis current control block as shown in Fig. 4.
⎣β⎦ ⎣ β (12) The reference neutral current is maintained by using
Δ = vα2 + v β2 (17). The proposed load current detection control strategy
where
Separating active and reactive parts, requires less effort than the controllers proposed by other
researchers.
⎡ iα ⎤ ⎧⎪ ⎡ vα − v β ⎤ ⎡ p ⎤ ⎡ vα − v β ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤ ⎪⎫
⎢i ⎥ = +
1
⎨⎢ ⎬
⎣β⎦
Δ
⎩⎪ ⎣ v β vα ⎥⎦ ⎣⎢ 0 ⎦⎥ ⎢⎣ v β vα ⎥⎦ ⎣⎢ q ⎦⎥ ⎭⎪
⎡ iα p ⎤ ⎡ iα q ⎤
≅ ⎢ ⎥+⎢ ⎥
⎣ iβ p ⎦ ⎣ i β q ⎦ (13)
The first part current components of (13) are expressed as
in (14) and (15)
iα p = vα * p / Δ , iα q = − v β * q / Δ
(14)
iβ p = vβ * p / Δ, iβ q = vα * q / Δ Figure 4. Control circuit using load current detection strategy
(15)
The three-phase reference currents are obtained as in (16)
and (17), respectively. IV. SIMULATION AND RESULTS
⎡ i fa * ⎤ ⎡1 / 2 1 0 ⎤ The parameters of the distribution network for
⎢ *⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎡i f α * ⎤ simulation are obtained from reference [9]. A three-phase
i
⎢ fb ⎥ = 2
3 ⎢ 1 / 2 − 1 / 2 3 / 2 ⎥ ⎢ *⎥ diode rectifier and three single-phase diode rectifiers
⎢ i fc * ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢⎣ i f β ⎥⎦ connected to the phases ‘a’, ‘b’ and ‘c’ of distribution
⎣ ⎦ ⎣⎢1 / 2 − 1 / 2 − 3 / 2 ⎦⎥ (16) network are considered as loads as shown in Fig. 5.
i*fn = i*fa + i*fb + i*fc (17)
III. THE PROPOSED CONTROL STRATEGIES

For the complicated control algorithm of three-phase
four-leg SAPF, engineers seek the most simple and
effective control method. This paper has developed and
extended p-q theory introduced in [30] to control three-
phase four-leg SAPF. In the first proposed control
strategy, the current control circuit, shown in Fig. 3
consists of the hysteresis current control block and the p-
q theory based reference current calculation block. The
inverter receives the gating signals from hysteresis
current control block.
Figure 5. Simulink model of the three-phase four-leg SAPF
The proposed control schemes and the power circuit of

a four-leg SAPF is simulated using MATLAB/Simulink
7.8 software package. Simulation of the distribution
network without compensation and with the proposed
compensation control topologies are carried out. Figs.
6(a) to 6(h) represent simulation results of voltages and
currents of source and load without compensation. Fig.
6(i) shows the harmonic spectrum of source current for
phase ‘a’ and the THD is observed to be equal 39.73%.
Similar harmonic spectrums are obtained for phases ‘b’
Figure 3. Control circuit using p-q theory-based compensation strategy
158
and ‘c’. Fig. 7(a) to 7(g) show the simulation results of Source voltage and current of phase b
the network using SAPF based on p-q theory and 200
V, A
hysteresis current controller, and Fig. 8(a) to 8(f) 0
represents the results using SAPF based on load current -200
detection and hysteresis current control method. With 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
both the compensation methods, the voltage and current Time (s)
of the source are observed to be sinusoidal. As shown in (g)
Figs. 7(f) and 8(e) the phase ‘a’ source current and source
voltage are observed to be sinusoidal, and are also in Source voltage and current of phase c
phase. For phases ‘b’ and ‘c’, similar results are obtained. 200
V, A
Thus, it can be seen that the developed SAPF with both 0
compensation methods has successfully improved the -200
source power factor close to unity. The simulation results 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
of harmonics spectrum of source currents by the two Time (s)
proposed control strategies, as seen in Figs. 7(g) and 8(f) (h)
for phase ‘a’, proved the ability of SAFP for THD
minimization. Also it is observed that the neutral current Fundamental (50Hz) = 75.04 A , THD= 39.73%
is reduced and approach nearly to zero as shown in Figs.
Mag (% of Fund.)
30
7(e) and 8(d).
20
Source voltages 10
Voltage (V)
200
0
0 0 10 20 30 40
Harmonic order
-200
(i) harmonics spectrum of phase ‘a’ source current
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
Time (s) Figure 6. simulation results of the system without SAPF
(a)
Source voltages
Source currents
Voltage (V)
200
100
Current (A)
0
0
-200
-100
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 Time (s)
Time (s) (a)
(b)
Source currents
Load currents 100
Current (A)
100
Current (A)
0
0
-100
-100 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 Time (s)
Time (s) (b)
(c)
Load currents
100
Current (A)
Source neutral current

100
Current (A)
0
0
-100
-100 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
Time (s) Time (s)
(d) (c)
Active f ilter comp. current

Load neutral current
100 50
Current (A)
Current (A)
0 0
-100 -50
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
Time (s) Time (s)
(e) (d)
Source voltage and current of phase a Source neutral current

50
Current (A)
200
V, A
0
0
-200 -50
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 Time (s)
Time (s)
(e)
(f)
159
Source voltage and current of phase a Source neutral current
Current (A)
200 5
V, A
0 0
-200 -5
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
Time (s) Time (s)
(f) (d)
Fundamental (50Hz) = 82.96 A , THD= 4.17%

Source voltage and current of phase a
3
Mag (% of Fund.)
200
V, A
2 0
-200
1
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
0 Time (s)
0 10 20 30 40
Harmonic order (e)
(g) harmonic spectrum of phase ‘a’ source current
Fundamental (50Hz) = 82.17 A , THD= 0.58%
Figure 7. Simulation results of the system with SAPF controlled by p-q
Mag (% of Fund.)
8
theory and hysteresis current control
6
Source currents 4
100
Current (A)
2
0
0
0 10 20 30 40
-100 Harmonic order
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
(f) harmonics spectrum of source current phase a
Time (s)
(a) Figure 8. Simulation results of the system with SAPF controlled by load
current detection
Source currents
Current (A)
100
0 The THD of the source currents in phases ‘a’, ‘b’ and

‘c’ are, 4.17 %, 4.19 % and 4.15 % respectively, when
-100
SAPF is used by p-q theory based hysteresis current
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
Time (s)
controller, and 0.57 %, 0.58 % and 0.57 % respectively,
(b) when SAPF is controlled by the load current detection
based hysteresis current controller, as reported in Table 1.
Active f ilter comp. current The amplitudes of source current harmonics with and
without compensators are also listed in Table 1 and the %
Current (A)
50
0 THD is observed to be within the prescribed limit of 5 %

as recommended by IEEE-519.
-50
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
Time (s)
(c)
TABLE I.
HARMONICS ORDER AND THD BEFORE AND AFTER COMPENSATION
Case Phases Fund. 3rd 5th 7th 9th 11th 13th 15th 17th 19th THD%
A A A A A A A A A A
Without Compensation a 75.04 24.23 16.91 2.44 1.81 1.94 1.09 0.49 0.8 0.36 39.73
With SAPF using p-q a 82.96 0.15 2.41 2.35 0.02 0.5 0.49 0.04 0.17 0.14 4.17
controller b 82.99 0.18 2.44 2.32 0.02 0.43 0.37 0.05 0.1 0.08 4.19
c 82.54 0.14 2.44 2.32 0.07 0.45 0.41 0.07 0.13 0.13 4.15
With SAPF using load a 82.17 0.13 0.16 0 0.07 0.09 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.58
current detection b 82.13 0.11 0.14 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.04 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.58
based controller c 82.14 0.11 0.16 0.02 0.04 0.1 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.02 0.57
presented. Simulation results have proved the validity of

V. CONCLUSIONS reactive power compensation, power factor correction
and minimization of harmonics by the SAPF. The neutral
Two control schemes, a p-q theory based hysteresis current is minimized and THD is shown to be within the
current control and a load current detection based prescribed limits of IEEE-519 standards. Furthermore it
hysteresis current control, for three-phase four-leg SAPF is proved that the three-phase source currents are
in a three-phase four-wire distribution network are sinusoidal and are in phase with source voltages
160
validating the good performance of SAPF in three-phase, Based on a Combination of Thyristor Binary Compensator, and
four-wire distribution system with non-linear loads. a PWM-IGBT Active Power Filter," October, vol. 50, 2003,
pp. 982-989.
[17] A. Unsal, Annette R. Von Jouanne, and V.L. Stonick, "A DSP
ACKNOWLEDGMENT controlled resonant active ÿlter for power conditioning in three-
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support phase industrial power systems," Signal Processing, vol. 82,
2002, pp. 1743 - 1752.
provided by Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, [18] C.A. Quinn, N. Mohan, and H. Mehta, "A Four-Wire, Current-
Malaysia. Controlled Converter Provides Harmonic Neutralization in
Three-phase, Four-Wire Systems," Electrical Engineering,
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161
Risk Based Protective Devices Placement in

Distribution Networks with DG
S.A.M. Javadian M.-R.Haghifam
Tarbiat Modares University
Islamic Azad University-Islamshahr Branch
Tehran, Iran
Islamshahr, Iran
haghifam@modares.ac.ir
javadian@ieee.org
Abstract—The presence of distributed power generation type and location of DG, in some cases coordination is
causes the researches in this area to be considered more lost completely and in other cases the coordination range
daily. One of the most interesting topics is this area is the diminishes [15]-[18]. Regarding the influence of DGs on
protection of distribution networks that are connected to protection of distribution systems, so many researches
distributed generators. Up to now, many papers have been have been performed so far as well as some researches
published in this area, and in each paper some conflicts that concerning how to tackle the resultant problems of
DGs may make in the operation of protection system in applying DGs [19]-[26].
distribution networks have been investigated. Also, some A new protection scheme for distribution systems in
solutions have been presented in some other works. In this presence of DGs is proposed in [1]. In the proposed
paper, a new method for optimal placement of circuit
scheme, system’s protection is carried out through a
breakers (CBs), which are one of the main protective devices
computer-based relay which is installed in sub-
in distribution networks including DG, has been presented.
transmission substation. The relay determines system’s
In the proposed method, risk analysis is used to optimize the
status after it receives the required network data, and in
location of circuit breakers on the distribution feeders. This
method has been implemented on a typical distribution
the case of fault occurrence it diagnoses its type and
network and its results have been presented. location using some trained MLP neural networks, and
finally issues the proper commands for protection devices
Keywords—Distribution Network; Distributed Generation; to clear the fault and to restore the network [1].
Protection; Risk Analysis On the other hand, the field of risk analysis has
assumed increasing importance in recent years given the
I. INTRODUCTION concern by both engineers and scientists in the most
technical issues. Risk analysis encompasses three
Radial distribution networks are the most conventional interrelated elements: risk assessment, risk perception and
configurations of distribution systems. In such networks, risk management [27].
feeders are extended from distribution substations towards
lateral feeders, in such a way that all service area is Risk assessment encompasses studies that estimate the
supplied through feeders. In general, the main advantages chances of a specific set of events occurring and/or their
of radial configuration are its simplicity and its low cost potential consequences. Scientists and engineers need to
[1]-[3]. In radial configuration, the number of provide the users of these data with a picture of what we
disconnecting devices reduces and design of a protection know regarding the nature of a particular risk and the
system is not complicated. Conventional configuration of degree of uncertainty surrounding these estimates. They
distribution systems has always been based on the fact that also have to be sensitive to their role as assessors of these
there is no distribution generation in network [4]-[6]. But estimates [28].
in recent years, some issues like environmental and Traditional risk assessment focuses on losses that are
geographical restrictions of generation units, increasing often measured in monetary units. Risk perception is
trend of load growth in distribution systems and the concerned with the psychological and emotional factors
necessity for constructing new power plants as its that have been shown to have an enormous impact on
consequence, tendency toward applying clean energies behavior [29].
and independence from fossil fuels, have caused In developing risk management strategies for reducing
distributed generation to draw attention to a great extent. future losses there is a need to incorporate the data from
Presence of DGs in distribution networks, like many other risk assessment studies and the factors that have been
technologies, has some disadvantages along with so many shown to influence risk perception. Since a number of
advantages it can have [7]-[10]. Among advantages of studies indicate that people have difficulty processing data
DGs one can mention improvement in power quality and regarding uncertain events, this poses challenges as to
reliability and reduction of loss, meanwhile using DGs how one can effectively communicate information on the
leads to complexity in operation, control and protection of risk to the public. The use of exceedance probability
distribution systems. Injection of DGs currents to a curves can indicate the uncertainties surrounding a
distribution network results in losing radial configuration particular risk [30].
and consequently losing the existing coordination among Following, the proposed protection scheme in [1] is
protection devices [11]-[14]. The extent at which described first, and then, the suggested method for optimal
protection coordination is affected depends on the size,
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 162

placement of protective devices is explained. For B. Fault Location recognition algorithm
explanation of the proposed method, a sample distribution In [1], through offline calculation, 4 MLP neural
network including one DG is considered and all steps of networks are trained with the proper input data which is
the risk based method are implemented on it. Then, the gathered by system modeling and performing short circuit
simulation results of the method on a typical distribution calculations in different locations and with various fault
network have been presented. impedances. Then, in case of a fault occurrence, through
II. THE PROTECTION SCHEME online calculation, the accurate type and location of the
fault are determined by the main relay.
The general idea of the proposed scheme is based on In order to determine the fault type, only the 3 phase
dividing the distribution system into several zones. Zoning current of the main source is used. At this point, there is
is done through considering locations and generation no need to ANN and it can be determined with
capacities of DGs along with network loads. After normalizing 3 phase output current of the feeding
network zoning and determining zones’ boundaries, some substation.
switches which are capable of operating repeatedly and
quickly and are also able to receive remote signals, are After recognizing the fault type, its location should be
placed between each two zones of the system. These determined. In [1], MLP neural network is used for
switches must also be equipped with check- specifying exact location of the fault.
synchronization relays. To implement the protection After recognizing fault type by its corresponded unit,
scheme, it is required to place a computer-based relay the trained neural network of this kind of fault is activated
with high processing power and large storage capacity in and receives the input data which has been prepared by
supplying substation (sub-transmission substation) of the the input data preparation program. The output of the
distribution network. The computer-based relay installed neural network will be the fault distance from all DGs and
in sub-transmission substation holds the main the main source. [1]
responsibility of system protection and operates through
C. Fault Isolation Method
steady monitoring of the currents flowing through some
specific points of network. The specific points of network To achieve the maximum load restoration in [1],
that their currents must be measured and monitored disconnection signal is sent to all circuit breakers placed
continuously are: in faulty zone and its downstream zones after diagnosis of
1. All currents flowing through all DGs and main location and type of the occurred fault. Also, to cut off
supplying source; supply of faulty zone in the case that there are DGs inside
that zone, relay sends disconnection command to all DGs
2. Currents flowing through isolating switches of inside that zone. In this condition, faulty zone faces power
zones; cut thoroughly, its electrical connection with other parts of
3. Currents flowing through all network laterals network is cut off, and upstream zones continue their
excluding those laterals containing DGs; synchronous operation with the global network. It is
In addition to the currents that are measured online and obvious that upstream zones are supplied through main
the relay is provided with them continuously, the source and their own DGs. Downstream zones, are
following data must also be provided and stored in relay’s supplied through island operation of their DGs, if they
memory as permanent specifications of network: have any, otherwise their supply is disconnected. To
1. Technical specifications of all network’s equipment perform re-closing operation, the switch that links zone of
such as distribution substations, transmission lines, fault to upstream network is used and the operation is
existing protection devices and DGs; coordinated with the characteristics of the faulty lateral’s
fuses through software process done by central relay
2. Estimated hourly load curve for all loads of network; installed in sub-transmission substation. To carry out this,
3. All data regarding network zoning and the locations relay reinvestigates network status after each re-closure
of isolating switches; attempt and in the case that fault still exists, re-opens the
4. All data regarding operation of relay for different circuit breaker and if fault is cleared, restores the network.
faults; To restore the network, relay sends re-closing signal first
to zones isolating circuit breakers as well as synchronizing
A. Network Zoning Approach signal from the beginning to the end of feeder, and then
In [1], For applying the zoning procedure in the brings back DGs located in the faulty zone to network. [1]
distribution system, it is considering one zone for each
DG, starting from the beginning of feeder, and each zone D. Load Shedding Procedure
extends to the end of feeder as long as the DG within that When network load is higher than average load and a
zone is capable of supplying average load of that zone. fault occurs in system in this situation of network, as its
When average load of substations located in the zone result some zones go into island operation due to the
exceeds generation capacity of zone’s DG, zone border disconnection signal issued by relay in addition to
finishes, and two circuit breakers are installed in the consequent opening of some of circuit breakers, it is
beginning and in the end of zone points. In the case that required to perform load shedding operation during zones
there exists a second DG located within the supplying island operation. [1]
limit of first zone’s DG, and as long as zone’s average In the protection scheme, it has been proposed that to
load does not exceed generation capacity of first DG, determine the load difference in each zone, summation of
while moving towards end of feeder, the second DG is the active and reactive powers flowing through zones
regarded within the same zone and zone border extends as isolating switches at the time exactly before occurrence of
far as the zone’s average load does not exceed summation fault.
of two DG’s capacity. [1]
163
PL   PCBi , QL   QCBi (1) Lj: the total load that will face power cut by outage
of line j;
When for each zone ΔPL and ΔQL are known out of (1), In Fig. 1 a very simple distribution networks is
it is possible to determine shortage or excess of load illustrated which has only one DG and is being used for
regarding generation capacity of each zone. Then, using describing the proposed method for optimal CB placement
estimated hourly loads curves of the zone, fault time, ΔPL in distribution network. For more clarifications, all steps
and ΔQL, and loads degree of importance, load shedding of the suggested method are implemented on this network
can be done to the extent at which the balance between and the results are derived.
generation and consumption in each zone is maintained. As it can be seen in Fig. 1, this distribution network has
Of course this operation is needed to be done in the zones one DG which, in parallel with the distribution
that face overload at time of fault occurrence. In the case transformer, is feeding loads L1 to L4. To protect this
that at time of fault occurrence loads within the island network, CB1 and CB2 have to be installed in order to cut
zone are lower than generation capacities of zone’s DGs, the injected short circuit current of the upstream network
relay issues no disconnection signal in order zone’s and the DG. But, in order to permit the DG to operate in
frequency control system decreases generation of DGs to its island mode in case of fault occurrence in the network,
have nominal system frequency. It must be mentioned that one of circuit breakers CB3 , CB4, or CB5 can also been
when load shedding is needed to be performed as well as installed. In order to performing risk analysis in this
determining which loads have to be shed, relay sends network, it is assumed that the probability of occurring
disconnection command to load break switch of the fault on the line connecting buses B1 and B2 is P1.
relevant distribution substation. [1] Similarly, P2, P3, and P4 are assumed for the probability of
occurring fault on the lines connecting buses B2-B3, B3-B4,
III. THE PROPOSED METHOD FOR CB PLACEMENT and B4-B5, respectively. Also, it is assumed that the
Deliberating the previously presented approach for generation capacity of the DG is 1.5 MW, and all loads of
zoning the network, it can be concluded that considering the network has the power consumption of 1 MW.
the average load for zoning may not be the optimum way. A. Calculating the risk in case of selecting CB3
For example, in the peak load situation, if a fault happens,
most of the loads which are located in DG zones may face Using CB3 for separating the protection zones from
power outage while they could be supplied through other each other, the configuration of the network and its
zones of the network. On the other hand, the fault protection zones will be the same as Fig. 2.
occurrence in the minimum load situation may reduce the Considering the protection algorithm in this system,
power generation of DGs considerably. after a permanent fault occurrence on the line connecting
In order to optimize the protection scheme, first, it busses B1 and B2, the protection relay will send
should be calculated that how many CBs is required, and disconnection command to CB1 and CB3 to isolate the
then, the optimum location of CBs should be determined. fault zone (zone1) from other parts of the network. So, L1
According to the presented protection scheme in [1], the will face power outage. On the other hand, zone2 will be
number of CBs which are needed to be installed in the still supplied through DG in its island mode. But, because
distribution network should be at last equal to the number the power consumption of the zone is more than its power
of DGs. generation, the load shedding algorithm of the protection
relay will shed L2 and L3 to maintain the balance between
In this paper, risk analysis has been used for optimizing generation and consumption in zone2. As a result, in this
the number and location of CBs. In the proposed method, situation, loads L1, L2, and L3 will face power outage with
for each solution of CBs’ location, the total risk of the the probability of P1. So, the system risk can be calculated
system is calculated. Then, with comparison of system’s as follows:
total risk in all solutions and finding the solution in which
the system risk has the least value, the optimum protection R11=P1(L1+L2+L3) (3)
system for the distribution network can be determined.
For calculation of protection system risk, the In case of fault happening on the other lines of the
probability of each fault multiple by its damage should be network, the protection relay will send disconnection
calculated. Then, by summation of system risk for each command to CB2 and CB3 to isolate the fault zone (zone2)
fault, the total risk of the network can be derived. In this from other parts of the network. So, loads L2, L3, and L4
paper, for calculating the damage of each fault, the total will face power cut. Therefore, the system risk can be
load that will be face power cut in case of that fault's calculated as follows:
occurrence is considered. This can be presented as
follows: R12=P2(L2+L3+L4)+ P3(L2+L3+L4)+ P4(L2+L3+L4) (4)
n
Ri   Pj .L j (2) Total risk of the system can be calculated by
summation of R11 and R12 as follows:
j 1
Where:
Ri: the risk of protection system in situation i;
Pj: the probability of fault happening on the line
number j of the network; Figure 1. A Sample Distribution network
164
Considering the protection algorithm in this system,
after a permanent fault occurrence on the line connecting
busses B4 and B5, the protection relay will send
disconnection command to CB2 and CB5 to isolate the
fault zone (zone2) from other parts of the network.
Therefore, L4 will face power outage. In this situation,
Figure 2. Distribution network configuration and its protection zones other loads of the network will supply from the upstream
in case of selecting CB3 network. So, the system risk can be calculated as follows:
R1=R11+R12=P1(L1+L2+L3)+[(P2+P3+P4)(L2+L3+L4)] (5) R32=P4.L4 (9)
B. Calculating the risk in case of selecting CB4 In case of fault happening on the other lines of the
Using CB4 for separating the protection zones from network, the protection relay will send disconnection
each other, the configuration of the network and its command to CB1 and CB5 to isolate the fault zone (zone1)
protection zones will be the same as Fig. 3. from other parts of the network. So, loads L1, L2, and L3
Considering the protection algorithm in this system, will face power cut. In this situation zone2 of the system
after a permanent fault occurrence on the lines connecting will operate as an island and supply L4 by DG. Therefore,
busses B1-B2 or B2-B3, the protection relay will send the system risk can be calculated as follows:
disconnection command to CB1 and CB4 to isolate the
fault zone (zone1) from other parts of the network. So, L1 R31=P1(L1+L2+L3)+P2(L1+L2+L3)+P3(L1+L2+L3) (10)
and L2 will face power outage. On the other hand, zone2
will be still supplied through DG in its island mode. But, Total risk of the system can be calculated by
because the power consumption of the zone is more than summation of R31 and R32 as follows:
its power generation, the load shedding algorithm of the
protection relay will shed L3 to maintain the balance R3=R31+R32=(P4.L4)+[(P1+P2+P3)(L1+L2+L3)] (11)
between generation and consumption in zone2. So, the
system risk can be calculated as follows: Performing this procedure and calculating the total
protection system’s risk for each network configuration,
R21=P1(L1+L2+L3)+P2(L1+L2+L3) (6) and after that, comparing these values and selecting the
minimum value, means the optimal placement of the
In case of fault happening on the on the lines required protection CBs for designing the proper
connecting busses B3-B4 or B4-B5, the protection relay protection system in the network.
will send disconnection command to CB2 and CB4 to These calculations are done for the distribution network
isolate the fault zone (zone2) from other parts of the shown in Fig. 1 with different values of fault probability
network. So, loads L3 and L4 will face power cut. for network’s lines and its result is tabulated in table I.
Therefore, the system risk can be calculated as follows: As it can be seen in table 1, the probability of
distribution lines has as important role as load profile and
R22=P3(L3+L4)+ P4(L3+L4) (7) generation capacity in the optimal location of protective
devices in distribution network.
Total risk of the system can be calculated by
summation of R21 and R22 as follows: IV. CASE STUDY
A 17-bus, 20 kV distribution network with four 3MVA
R2=R21+R22=[(P1+P2)(L1+L2+L3)]+[(P3+P4)(L3+L4)] (8) diesel generators is considered as a test system for
simulation. Single line diagram of this network is
C. Calculating the risk in case of selecting CB5 illustrated in Fig. 5. The technical data of the equipments
Using CB5 for separating the protection zones from are given in the Appendix. For simulation of distribution
each other, the configuration of the network and its network, DIgSILENT Power Factory 13.2 software
protection zones will be the same as Fig. 4. application is used.
For placement of CBs in this network, there are 16
locations that have the possibility of installing CB. These
locations are on all distribution lines of the network.
Because there are 4 DGs connected to the network, at last,
4 CBs can be installed. But, the protection system with
less than 4 CBs may have lower risk. So, the previously
Figure 3. Distribution network configuration and its protection zones explained method for risk analysis should be done for all
in case of selecting CB4 cases of protection system with 4 CBs, protection system
with 3 CBs, protection system with 2 CBs, and protection
system with only 1 CB.
These calculations have been done by considering the
value of 0.01 for the probability of fault occurrence on all
lines of the network and its output results are presented in
table II.
Figure 4. Distribution network configuration and its protection zones
in case of selecting CB5
165
TABLE I. value and the best solution. So, by calculation of the total
RISK ANALYSIS RESULTS FOR THE SAMPLE NETWORK OF FIG.1
risk of the system in each solution and minimizing it, the
Probability Values R1 R2 R3 Optimum Choice
optimum location of protective devices can be derived.
These calculations were performed for a typical
P1=P2=P3=P4=0.01 0.12 0.1 0.1 CB4 or CB5 distribution network and its results were presented.
P1=P2=P4=0.01 , P3=0.02 0.15 0.12 0.13 CB4
V. APPENDIX
P1=P2=P3=0.01 , P4=0.02 0.15 0.12 0.11 CB5
For each load a three-step hourly load curve is
P2=P3=P4=0.01 , P1=0.02 0.15 0.13 0.13 CB4 or CB5 considered, which is shown in Fig. 7. The peak load for all
loads is 1 MW and the power factor for all of them and in
P1=P3=P4=0.01 , P2=0.02 0.15 0.13 0.13 CB4 or CB5
every time is 0.92 (lag).
All the distribution conductors used in simulation are
HYENA with 500m length and technical information
1 mentioned in table III.
Technical data of DGs is presented in table IV.
10 2
11 3
1
G
~
G1 4
10 2
5 12
11 3
6 13
G
~
G1 4
7 14 CB1
16 8 15 5 12
G
~
17 9 G3 6 13
G
~
G
~ CB2
G2 G4
7 14
Figure 5. Single Line Diagram of Simulated Network
Table II.
Risk Analysis Results For Simulated Distribution Network 16 8 15
Minimum G
Situation Optimum Location of CB(s) ~
Risk Value
17 9 G3
Network with 4 CB 0.98 B2-B10, B5-B6,B5-B12, B8-B16
Network with 3 CB 0.91 B2-B10, B6-B7, B5-B12 G G
~ ~
Network with 2 CB 0.87 B6-B7, B5-B12 G2 G4
Network with 1 CB 1.23 B5-B6
Figure 6. Optimum Network Configuration for minimum risk of
protection system
As it can be seen in table II, the minimum risk value is
for the network with 2 CBs when these CBs installed on
lines connected buses 6 to 7 and 5 to 12. The network
configuration in this situation as well as protection zones
are shown in Fig. 6.
CONCLUSION
A new method for optimum placement of protective
circuit breakers in distribution networks based on risk
analysis has been presented in this paper. In the proposed
method, based on the previously presented protection
scheme, the installation location of protective devices is
calculated with the goal of minimizing the total risk of the
system. The simulation results prove that previously ideas
about placement of protection CBs may cause different
risks for the network which usually are not the minimum Figure 7. Hourly load curve of the simulated feeder's loads
166
TABLE III. [12] IEEE Standard for Interconnecting Distributed Resources with
TECHNICAL DATA OF DISTRIBUTION LINES Electric Power Systems, IEEE Std. 1547, July 2003.
[13] IEEE Standard Conformance Test Procedures for Equipment
Conductor Name Type A Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric Power
HYENA ACSR 126 mm2 Systems, IEEE Std. 1547.1, June 2005.
R (Ω) 0.303 [14] IEEE Guide for Monitoring, Information Exchange, and Control
of Distributed Resources Interconnected with Electric Power
X (Ω) 0.3383 Systems, IEEE Std. 1547.3, Nov. 2007.
Technical R0 (Ω) 0.4509 [15] S. Conti, A.M. Greco, N. Messina, U. Vagliasindi, “Generators
Data Control System in Intentionally Islanded MV Microgrids,”
X0 (Ω) 1.5866
International Symposium on Power Electronics, Electrical Drives,
In (A) 250 Automation and Motion, SPEEDAM 2008, pp. 399-405.
[16] J. Oyarzabal, J. Jimeno, J. Ruela, A. Engler and C. Hardt, “Agent
TABLE IV. based Micro Grid Management System,” 2005 International
TECHNICAL DATA OF DGS Conference on Future Power Systems, 18 Nov. 2005, pp. – 6.
[17] A. Dimeas, N. Hatziargyriou, “A Multi Agent System for
Machine Type IEC 909 Salient Pole Series 1 Microgrids,” IEEE Power Engineering Society General Meeting,
6-10 June 2004 pp.55 – 58, Vol.1
Voltage (kV) 20 X'd (pu) 0.256
[18] Lin Wang, Helen Cheung, Alexander Hamlyn, Cungang Yang,
Pn (MW) 2.4 X"d (pu) 0.168 Richard Cheung, “Network-Integrated Protection and Control
PFn 0.8 X0 (pu) 0.1 Strategy for Power Distribution Systems,” 2007 Large
Engineering Systems Conference on Power Engineering ,10-12
Connection YN X2 (pu) 0.2 Oct. 2007 Page(s):39 – 43.
Xd (pu) 1.5 R0=R2 (pu) 0 [19] H. Wan, K.P.Wong, C.Y.Chung, “Multi-agent Application in
Protection Coordination of Power System with Distributed
Xq (pu) 0.75 Rstr (pu) 0.504
Generations,” Proc. 2008 IEEE Power Engineering Society
General Meeting, 20-24 July 2008, pp.1-6.
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[1] S.A.M. Javadian, M.-R. Haghifam, N. Rezaei “A Fault Location for Distribution Feeders with Distributed Generators,” DPRT
and Protection Scheme for Distribution Systems in presence of 2008, 6-8 April 2008, Nanjing, China, pp. 2558-2563.
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Society General Meeting, 26-30 July 2009, Calgary, Alberta, Medium Voltage Distribution Networks with Distributed
Canada, pp.1-8. Generation,” Transmission and Distribution Conference and
[2] P. P. Barker, R. W. de Mello, "Determining the impact of Exposition, Latin America, 2008 IEEE/PES, 13-15 Aug. 2008
distributed generation on power systems: part1-radial distribution pp:1 – 8.
systems," IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 15, pp. 486–493, Apr. [22] R. Tamizkar, S.A.M. Javadian, M.-R. Haghifam, “Distribution
2000. System Reconfiguration for Optimal Operation of Distributed
[3] R. C. Dugan, T. E. McDermott, "Operating conflicts for Generation,” International Conference on Clean Electrical Power
Distributed Generation interconnected with Utility Distribution (ICCEP2009), 9-11 June 2009, Capri, Itally, pp. 217-222.
Systems," IEEE Industry Applications Magazines, 19-25, [23] S.A.M. Javadian, A. M. Nasrabadi, M.-R. Haghifam, J.
Mar/Apr. 2002. Rezvantalab,”Determining Fault's Type and Accurate Location in
[4] K. Kauhaniemi, L. Kumpulainen, "Impact of distributed Distribution Systems with DG Using MLP Neural Networks,”
generation on the protection of distribution networks," International Conference on Clean Electrical Power (ICCEP2009),
Developments in Power System Protection, Eighth IEE June 9th – 11th ,2009, Capri, Itally, pp. 284-289.
International Conference , 5-8 April 2004, Vol.1, pp. 315 - 318. [24] S.A.M. Javadian and M.-R. Haghifam, P. Barazandeh, “An
[5] A. Girgis, S. Brahma, "Effect of Distributed Generation on Adaptive Over-current Protection Scheme for MV Distribution
Protective Device Coordination in Distribution System," Power Networks Including DG,” Proc. ISIE08 - IEEE International
Engineering, LESCOPE'01. 2001 Large Engineering Systems Symposium on Industrial Electronics, 30th June to 2nd July 2008,
Conference, 11-13 July 2001, pp. 115 – 119. Cambridge, UK, pp. 2520-2525.
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on Distribution System Protection," Power Engineering Society protection scheme on a real distribution system in presence of
Summer Meeting, 2002 IEEE Vol.1, pp.103-105. DG,” Proc. PowerCon 2008 and 2008 IEEE Power India
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Conference and Exposition, IEEE PES 10-13 Oct. 2004, Vol.1 pp. reconfiguration scheme for distribution for distribution networks
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System Capabilities,” Proc. 2008 IEEE Power Engineering Networks,” 9th International Conference on Probabilistic Methods
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System for Distribution Networks including DG,” The 9th IET [28] A. D. Janjic, D. S. Popovi., “Selective Maintenance Schedule of
International conf. on Developments in Power System Protection, Distribution Networks Based on Risk Management Approach,”
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[10] Farzanehrafat, S.A.M. Javadian, S.M.T. Bathaee, M.-R. pp. 597-604
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[11] N. Rezaei, M.-R. Haghifam, “Protection scheme for a distribution [30] M.-R. Haghifam, H. Falaghi, O. P. Malik, "Risk-based distributed
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Systems, Volume 30, Issue 4, May 2008, pp. 235-241.
167
New Wind Turbine Grounding System to

Reduce Step & Touch Voltage
H. Kazemi Karegar M. Arabi
Electrical and Computer Dept. Electrical and Computer Dept.
Shahid Beheshti University (SBU) Shahid Beheshti University (SBU)
Tehran, Iran. Tehran, Iran
H_kazemi@sbu.ac.ir ma.arabi@mail.sbu.ac.ir
Abstract—Step and touch voltage are two main - Integral approach [5]
parameters of a grounding system. Common way to reduce - Differential approach [6,7]
these two factors is using distributed mesh network under
ground of substation, but wind turbines grounding system
are different and limited area. In this paper, the wind The first one enables the calculation of the electric
turbine grounding system will be analyzed and step and potential by using the integral equations and the second
touch voltage will be obtained. For this purpose, CYM one uses the finite element method (FEM) for determining
software is used analyze a real grounding wind turbine. It ground potential
will be shown that the traditional method has some In this paper the problems of traditional wind turbine
problems and to solve them a new grounding system will be grounding system will be shown. For this purpose, CYM
proposed.
software is used. Maximum permissible step and touch
voltage will be obtained for a real wind turbine. The detail
Keywords—Grounding System, Step Voltage, Touch of grounding system will be simulated in model. At the
Voltage, CYME GRD Software, Wind Turbine. end, a new grounding system will be proposed.
I. INTRODUCTION II. WIND TURBINE GROUNDING SYSTEM
Using renewable energy is considerably increasing over A wind turbine is consisting of much electrical
the world. It shows that the average increase was 31.7 % equipment mounted in steel structures. All steel structure
during 2008-2009 and it is predicted that 190000 MW and grounding system are in touch with each other.
wind turbines will be installed at the end of 2010 [1]. Traditionally, the grounding system consists of copper
Normally, wind turbines are installed a wide area, rods mounted. Therefore, the grounding system of a wind
whereas they are quite tall, lightning strikes are quite turbine includes the steel structures and the copper rods.
possible. Hence, grounding system of wind turbines are Each wind turbine includes the following main
important. In addition, wind turbines’ service men are components as shown in Fig.1:
normally working inside wind turbines when they are
All the electrical equipments are grounded by a
working. Under this circumstances, step and touch voltage
grounding system connected to the foundation of the wind
of grounding system should be considered to prevent any
turbine.
damage.
The foundation of a wind turbine is made of a steel ring
Any grounding system must be designed to meet a
mounted in concrete. The steel ring is connected to metal
number of requirements [2, 3, and 4].
bars in concrete and the four copper rods where placed at
each corner of the foundation.
- Under steady state of fault conditions, living bodies Four copper rods connected by a copper wire make the
do not expose to unsafe condition. earthing loop. This earthing loop is connected to the steel
- Under fault condition, the retain voltage does not ring and used as earthing system of a wind turbine. Fig. 2
exceed to a danger level. shows the earthing system of a wind turbine.
Provide a low resistance to facilitate the operation of As stated before, all electrical system and their bodies
electrical protection. are connected to the earthing system. Fig. 3 presents a
The grounding system of a wind farm must be designed view of earthing connections in a wind turbine.
based on the soil resistance, wind turbines arrangement
and connections of wind turbines to the power system.
There are two basic approaches to analysis the
grounding systems:
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 168

Steel bars in concrete reinfo
force the steel ring. Fig. 4
Bllade shows the foundation of a wind turbine.
Gearbox Steel ring

Concrete Steel bars
Generator
Fig. 4 Foundation of
o a wind turbine.
Nacelle
Tower As can be seen in fig. 4, thhe foundation of the wind
turbine acts as a part of thee grounding system. The
Fig. 1 Main components of a winnd turbine. earthing resistance of the foundation is mainly depended
on the bottom steel bars placced near the ground. The
Copper rod concrete thickness between thee steel bars and ground is
roughly 15 cm.
The information of the fouundation, copper wires and
rods shown in fig. 5 are as below
w:
- Diameter of steel reinforcee in concrete: 20 mm

- Distance between steell reinforces in concrete:
200mm
- Mesh loop in concrete: 200*200 mm
Copper wire - Foundation dimension: 7*7*2 m
Steel ring
Ground level
Fig.2 The earthing system of a wind turbine. 180 cm
Blade and earthing wire

200*200 mm
Mesh loop for
Generator
Bottom grading
Fig. 5 Dimension of
o the foundation.
Main panel III. M STATEMENT

PROBLEM
People near wind turbine aree proposed to two types of

chocks:
Fig.3 Earthing connections in a winnd turbine. - Step voltage
- Touch voltage
For lightning protection, a copper wire is installed The maximum touch voltaage should be less than
inside the blade. One end of the wire isi connected to the permissible gradient potential and
a the effective grounding
nacelle and the other end is connected to a pin on the top system should provide safe conditions
c for people near
of the blade. wind turbine.
When lightning strikes to one of thhe blades, then its Safe condition will be obbtained if the grounding
energy will be transferred to the earth by
b the copper wires resistance of wind turbine be low. It is difficult for wind
and the wind turbine tower. In this case, the earth turbines, because their groundding systems are small in
resistance must be lower than 10 ohms. compare with power substationns. Another reason is about
169
the location of wind turbines. If they are installed near
mountains, then grounding resistance of earth is high.
Usually, analytical formula are used for analyze of
grounding system in power system. Those formulas are
suitable for large grounding system, but for small one,
their accuracy is limited.
So it is important to analyze the wind turbine grounding
system by another way.
The equations of the ground potential at point A(x, y ,z)
for an element j is according to the expression (1).
Vj = f j (X A ,YA , Z A , X j ,Yj , Z j ,δ )
⎧⎡( X − X )2 + (Y − Y )2 ⎤ −0.5 ⎫
⎪ Ai j Ai j
⎪
I j ⎪⎢⎣+ (Z Ai − Z j )2 ⎥
⎦ ⎪ (1)
= ⎨ 2 −0.5
⎬
4πδ ⎪ ⎡( X Ai − X j ) + (YAi − Yj ) ⎤ ⎪
2
+
⎪ ⎢⎣+ (Z Ai + Z j )2 ⎥ ⎪
⎦ ⎭
⎩
Where:
Fig. 6 Two-dimensional scheme of Wind Turbine Grounding System.
X A , YA , Z A Location of point A
X j Yj Z j
, , Location of element j
Ij
Current of element j
δ Soil special resistance
Vj
Ground potential
CYM software analyzes grounding system based on the

equation (1). In next section, it will be shown that the
traditional grounding system of wind turbine could not
provide safe conditions for people.
IV. CASE STUDY
A 660 kW wind turbine produced by VESTAS

Fig. 7 Three-dimensional scheme of Wind Turbine Grounding
company is used for simulation. According to figures 2 & System.
5, the two and three dimensional scheme is shown in Fig.
6 and Fig. 7.
The obtained results are shown in Fig. 10. In this case
According to figures 6 & 7, touch voltage is obtained
the maximum permissible step voltage was increased to
and depicted in Fig. 8.
240.55 volt and the maximum permissible touch voltage
It is shown that the maximum permissible step voltage step was increased to 338.96 volt.
is 262.48 volt and maximum permissible touch voltage is
However, the touch voltage is above the maximum
188.66 volt. As can be seen from Fig. 8, the touch voltage
permissible touch voltage. Therefore, it is necessary to
is above the maximum permissible touch voltage.
find another way to disrate the touch voltage under the
There are two main methods to reduce the step and maximum permissible voltage.
touch voltage:
Another way is to use surface layer where is shown in
- Spreading grounding system Fig. 11. The special grounding resistance is about 3000
- Using surface layer ohm-meter and its thickness is about 30 cm.
Spreading grounding system is shown in Fig. 9. A As can be seen, the touch and step voltage are lower
meshed network is spreading around the turbine than permissible ones. Hence, this way is a suitable way to
underground. The mesh is 0.5 meter underground with reduce the step and touch voltages.
dimension of 18*12.5 m.
170
Fig. 8 Step and Touch Voltage of Wind Turbine Grounding System. Fig. 11 Step and Touch Voltage of Using Surface Layer.
V. CONCLUSIONS
Traditional wind turbine grounding systems produces
some problems. The grounding system was analyzed by
CYM software and showed that the step and touch
voltages were above the permissible step and touch
voltages. Two ways were proposed. One of them was
spreading grounding system and another way was using a
high resistive surface layer. The second method was
successful and disrated the step and touch voltages beyond
the maximum permissible touch and step voltages.
REFERENCES
Fig. 9 Spreading Grounding System. [1] L.H. Hansen, F. Blaabjerg, H.C. Christensen, U. Lindhard, P.H.
Madsen and K. Eskildsen, “Generators and power electronics
Technology for Wind Turbines”, IECON'01, The 27th annual
conference of the IEEE industrial electronic society, 2001, pp.
2000-2005.
[2] M.I. Lorentzon, N.D. hatziargyriou and B.C. Papadias, “Analysis
of Wind Turbine Grounding System”, 10 the Mediterranean
Electro technical Conference, MElecon 2000, Vol. III, pp. 936-
941.
[3] IEEE Std 1094-1991, “IEEE recommended Practice for the
Electrical Design and Operation of Wind farm Generation station”.
[4] ANSI/IEEE Std 1021-1988, “IEEE recommended Practice for
Small Wind energy Conversion systems”.
[5] M. Kurtovic and S. VujeviC, “Potential of earthing grid in
heterogeneous soil”, International Journal for Numerical Methods
in Engineering, vol. 31, pp. 677-688, 1991.
[6] M. KurtoviC and S. VujeviC, “Numerical modeling of the
earthing grid”, Computational Methods in Engineering, Advance
and Applications, vol. 1, pp. 869-874, 1992.
[7] H. Kazemi Karegar, H. Askarian, “Formulate and calculate a new
method for wind turbines grounding”, 20 the International Power
System Conference, PSC2006, pages (6), 2006.
Fig. 10 Step and Touch Voltage of Spreading Grounding System.
171
Voltage Stability Analysis in Conversion of

Double Three-Phase to Six-Phase Transmission
Line
Masoud Aliakbar Golkar Reza Shariatinasab Mohsen Akbari
Electrical Engineering Dept. Faculty of Engineering Electrical Engineering Dept.
K. N. T. University of Technology Birjand University K. N. T. University of Technology
Tehran, Iran. Birjand, Iran. Tehran, Iran.
Email: Golkar@eetd.kntu.ac.ir Email: Shariatinasab@ieee.org Email: Mohsenakbari@ee.kntu.ac.ir
Abstract—In recent years, problems regarding the voltage Three-phase line can be easily converted to a six-phase
stability have been of vital importance at EHV and UHV line using conversion transformers, which make the
level because of its sensitivity to active and reactive power required 60° phase shift at six-phase operation side [10].
changes. Beside, conversion of three-Phase Double-Circuit NYSEG (New York State Energy Electric and Gas
(3PDC) to six-Phase Single-Circuit (6PSC) line is known as Corporation) HPO demonstration project is a major step
a well method to increase the power transfer capability. The forward in promoting this technology and in
voltage stability problem has received little attention in case demonstrating the technical and environmental benefits
of 6PSC systems. In this paper, an investigation of voltage of HPO transmission [11]. Some of these potential
stability has been carried out in conversion of an existing benefits over three-phase system are as well: smaller
3PDC to a 6PSC transmission line considering conversion structure [11], lower insulation requirement [2], better
transformers reactance. The results show that by this stability margin [7], better voltage regulation [10, 11] and
conversion, improvement in power transfer capacity is increased power transfer under faulted conditins [12].
gained for long 6PSC lines, but a 3PDC line has the better
performs from reactive power view for voltage stability and
In [13], it was found out that the use of six-phase
the minimum line length at which the power transfer
transmission can be a cost effective solution. In other
capability is limited by voltage stability concern is words, the cost penalty is not excessive, particularly if
dramatically decreased in 6PSC line. Moreover, the physical constraints exist.
reactance increase of conversion transformers worsens the However, several drawbacks of 6PSC lines have been
aforementioned problems. A comparison of 3PDC and implied in some papers. Based on their relatively recent
6PSC systems presented in the paper and other economical consideration, algorithms for analysis and protection are
and practical factors can be studied for planning, not well established. Because, the additional phases
development and design of future transmission network. obviously complicate line analysis especially in the case
of faults. HPO structures tend to include higher electric
Keywords — Power Transfer Capability; Static Analysis; field strength beneath the line [14], which could also be a
Voltage Stability; 3PDC; 6PSC political drawback in light of the recent public interest in
fields near power transmission lines.
I. INTRODUCTION Voltage Stability is a relatively recent and challenging
Electricity is considered as the driving force for a problem in Power Systems. It is gaining in importance as
country, which is undergoing rapid industrialization. the trend of operating power systems closer to their limits
Traditionally, the need for increasing power transmission continues to increase [15]. Therefore, it is important to
capability and more efficient use of right of way (ROW) include the voltage stability limit in the line loadability
space has been accomplished by the use of successively curve [16].
higher system voltages. Constrains on the availability of Line loadability curves have been a valuable planning
land and planning permission for overhead transmission tool for the three-phase systems since their publication by
lines have renewed interest in techniques to increase the St. Clair [17]. In this study, influence of voltage stability
power carrying capacity of existing ROWs. High phase limit on line loadability is illustrated. Reactive power
order (HPO) transmission, using more than three phases requirement to have the stable voltage is discussed and
(6, 12 and more phases), was conceived as a means for typical static analysis as P-V curves (a common method
increasing the power transfer capability of existing ROW to study the voltage stability) is investigated.
space [1]. A review of the literature reveals that no work has so
Among the HPO, six-phase transmission is appeared to far been reported regarding the effect of conversion
be the most promising solution to the need to increase the transformers reactance on converted lines. Results of
capability of existing transmission lines [2-7] and at the such study are reported in the present paper. Moreover,
same time, it responds to the concerns related to 6PSC line was often considered as a compact line shown
electromagnetic fields [6-9]. in Fig. 1. But the most applicable and simple scheme can
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 172

be conversion of an existing 3PDC transmission line to Equations needed in order to calculate the inductance
6PSC line at the same structure and configuration. and capacitance of a 6PSC line are established in
appendix. By using the mentioned equations, inductance
and capacitance of 3PDC line converted to 6PSC line is:
L=1.16481 mH/km and C=0.00955 μF/km
As a result, in conversion of a 3PDC line to 6PSC line,
the line inductance would be increased while the line
capacitance would be decreased.
III. VOLTAGE STABILITY
Figure 1. Six-phase compact structure [4] Voltage stability is becoming an increasing source of
concern in secure operation of present-day power
In the present paper, a comparison of power systems. A power system at a given operating state and
transmission capability, voltage stability and shunt subject to a given disturbance is “voltage stable” if
compensator in conversion of a 3PDC transmission line voltages near loads approach post-disturbance
to a 6PSC line, considering the reactance of conversion equilibrium values. Voltage instability is the absence of
transformers, are studied. voltage stability, and results in progressive voltage
decrease (or increase) [19].
II. DETERMINING THE SELECTED LINE INDUCTANCE Note, the rotor angle stability is seldom a reason for
& CAPACITANCE the restriction of power transfers due to stronger power
To compare the electrical parameters between 3PDC systems and development of equipment technology
and 6PSC line, the typical transmission line of 345kV compared to past decades, while the power system
shown in Fig. 2 was studied. Conductor diameter and blackouts occurring all over the world have in the past
bundle spacing are 3.623 cm and 45.72 cm, respectively. years mainly been voltage collapses. Voltage collapse is
the catastrophic result of a sequence of events leading to
11.0m
a low-voltage profile suddenly in a major part of the
power system [20].
The changes of system configuration, such as loss of
7.0m 16.5m generation and line tripping, may cause instability of
system voltage owing to the inability of the network to
6.5m
12.5m meet the demand for reactive power [21].
A. Basic Circuit Model for Study
Figure 2. Typical configuration of 345kV line conductors
The basic circuit model for considered analysis is
Equations of the inductance and capacitance for represented on single phase basis by positive sequence
transposed 3PDC line are available in [18]: parameters as shown in Fig. 4. In the system to simplify
calculations, the voltage phase angle at the receiving end
was seen as reference, and voltage magnitude at the
L = 2 × 10 −7 Ln
GMD
GMR L
(H m) (1) sending end (VS) is constant.
2πε0
C=
GMD
(F/m ) (2)
Ln
GMRC
Where, GMD and GMR are Geometric Mean Distance

and Geometric Mean Radius in configuration, respectively.
The inductance and capacitance of aforementioned Figure 4. The circuit model for voltage stability study
3PDC line were calculated using (1) and (2):
Equations of sending end voltage and current are [18]:
L=0.44909 mH/km and C=0.02543 μF/km
Similarly, selected 3PDC line conversion to 6PSC line VS′ = VR′ Cosθ + jZ 0 I R Sinθ (3)
was studied. The most common 6PSC line transposition
is roll transposition [10], shown in Fig. 3. In this
transposition type, each phase locates in each position up VR′
IS = j Sinθ + I R Cosθ (4)
to one sixth of total line length. Z0
Where, IS and IR represent the current at sending and

receiving end, respectively. Also, Z0 and θ are surge
... impedance and line electrical length, respectively.
Using Kirchhoff voltage law:
Figure 3. Six-phase line configuration with roll-type transposition VS′ = VS − jX t I S (5)
173
VR′ = VR + jX t I R (6) other words, generated power is equal to load demand
plus losses [19].
Where, Xt is conversion transformer reactance. Assuming constant sending end voltage, P-V curves
At the receiving end: for transmission line with 300km length, Fig. 4, and
345kV are shown in Figs. 5-7, on the basis of rated
voltage and 1000MVA power for unity, 0.85 lag and 0.95
P − jQ lead power factors.
IR = (7)
VR From Figs. 5-7, it is observed that for each load power
factor the maximum power at the receiving end is found
Where, P and Q are active and reactive power of load. out higher for 6PSC system.
Using above equations and then simplifying them: Thus it can be concluded that at long 6PSC line (here
300km), maximum power at the receiving end will be
progressively enhanced maintaining the voltage stability
⎛ X ⎞
VS = VS e jδ = VS (Cosδ + jSinδ ) = VR ⎜⎜ Cosθ − t Sinθ ⎟⎟ at various power factors of the load.
⎝ Z0 ⎠
Q ⎜ ⎛ X
2 ⎞
+ 2X t Cosθ − t Sinθ + Z 0 Sinθ ⎟
VR ⎜⎝ Z0 ⎟
⎠
⎛ 2 ⎞
+ j
P ⎜ 2X t Cosθ − X t Sinθ + Z 0 Sinθ ⎟ (8)
VR ⎜ Z0 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Equalising real and imaginary parts of (8) separately,

power flow equations are stablished:
VS V R
P= Sinδ (9) Figure 5. Receiving end voltage profile for varying active power at
⎛ X ⎞ 2
⎜ Z0 − t ⎟ Sinθ + 2X t Cosθ unity power factor for a 300km line
⎜ Z 0 ⎟⎠
⎝
⎛ ⎛ X ⎞⎞
VR ⎜VS Cosδ − VR ⎜⎜ Cosθ − t Sinθ ⎟⎟ ⎟
⎜ Z0 ⎟
⎝ ⎠⎠
Q= ⎝ (10)
⎛ 2 ⎞
⎜ Z 0 − X t ⎟ Sinθ + 2X t Cosθ
⎜ Z 0 ⎟⎠
⎝
There are five common combinations that can be used
to form a three to six-phase conversion transformer
which are Y-Y & Y-Y inverted, Δ-Y & Δ-Y inverted,
diametrical, double-Δ and double-Y [10]. In this paper, Figure 6. Receiving end voltage profile for varying active power at
the Δ-Y & Δ-Y inverted connection was selected. One of 0.85 lag power factor for a 300km line
each pair of transformers has reverse polarity to obtain
the required 60° phase shift. Parameters of conversion
transformers are the same and available in Table I.
TABLE I.
PHASE CONVERSION TRANSFORMERS DATA
Three-phase rated power (MVA) X (p.u.)
600 0.06
B. Static Analysis
Voltage stability studies are frequently undertaken
through the use of static analysis. Generally, voltage
stability is a dynamic phenomenon not a static one.
However, static analysis may be used as done in this Figure 7. Receiving end voltage profile for varying active power at
paper. A common use of this is the development of P-V 0.95 lead power factor for a 300km line
curves. Static analysis (also referred to as load-flow or
steady-state analysis) reveals equilibrium points of a C. Loadability Curve Included Voltage Stability
system under study. The power flow equations employed Constrains
in static analysis assume constant system frequency; in
Using (8), when Q=0:
174
2 6PSC line neglecting conversion transformers
2 2 ⎛ Xt ⎞ reactance: 616.479km
VS = VR ⋅ ⎜ Cosθ − Sinθ ⎟⎟
⎜ Z0
⎝ ⎠ 6PSC line considering conversion transformers
2 reactance: 524.138km
P 2 ⎛⎜ ⎞
2
X
+ ⋅ 2X t Cosθ − t Sinθ + Z 0 Sinθ ⎟
2 ⎜
(11) The above values reveal that increasing reactance of
VR ⎝ Z0 ⎟ conversion transformers impairs the line loadability and
⎠
voltage stability.
The power delivered to the load as a function of Fig. 8 shows the power transfer capability as a function
receiving end voltage can be solved using (11) as: of line length considering voltage stability limit for
345kV transmission line, on the basis of 1000MVA
2 2
power. The load angle 44° (the corresponding stability
VS − m 2V R margin is 30%) and voltage drop of 5% were selected in
P= ⋅ VR (12) this study.
n
Where:
Xt
m = Cosθ − Sinθ (13)
Z0
2
Xt
n = 2X t Cosθ − Sinθ + Z 0 Sinθ (14)
Z0
Since VS is constant, and m and n can not change, VR is

the only variable that can vary.
Using P-V curves, the maximum power that can be Figure 8. Loadability curve of 345kV 3PDC and 6PSC line
considering voltage stability
transmitted is reached when dP/dVR=0, which can be
determined as:
It is evident from Fig. 8 that power transfer capability,
for the length higher than 160km, is greater for 6PSC line
2
VS compared to its 3PDC counterpart.
Pmax_Vstab = (15)
2mn Compensation of line charging by shunt compensator
can mitigate Ferranti effect, and as a result it can enhance
The above limit is called voltage stability limit of power the minimum line length at which power transfer
transmission. The voltage corresponding to (15) is: capability is limited by voltage stability concern.
D. Optimal Reactive Power for Voltage Stability
VS
Vnose = (16) The determinant of the Jacobian [18] for load flow
m 2 equations (P and Q) in a lossless network, when VS is
constant, is given by:
Note, when the line length increases, the open circuit
voltage increases accordingly because of the line charge.
This is the well-known Ferranti effect. This effect leads Δ[J ] =
n
1
(
2
2 2
VS VR − 2mVSVR Cosδ ) (19)
to the increase of nose point voltage Vnose. When this
happens, it becomes impossible to operate the system as
any operating point with acceptable voltage level will be With ΔJ=0 at voltage stability limit, the receiving end
below the nose point, which is an unstable case. The line voltage can be written as:
length at which the nose point will move above the
sending end voltage can be determined using the VS = 2mVR Cosδ (20)
following condition:
Substituting (20) in (10), the value of reactive power at
Vnose = VS (17) the limiting stage of voltage stability is given by:
Substituting (16) in (17) and solving it, it is obtained: Qlim = m VR Cos (2δ )
2
(21)
n
X 2
Cosθ − t Sinθ = (18)
Z0 2 Where, Qlim represents the limiting value of reactive
power transfer in a transmission system and it is critical
The minimum line length at which power transfer value for voltage collapse.
capability is limited by voltage stability concern using A study of Qlim with respect to VR has been carried out
(18) was calculated for: employing (21) and it is illustrated in Fig. 9 for a 345kV
3PDC line: 624.639km transmission line with 300Km length, on the basis of
rated voltage and 1000MVA power.
175
It is observed that the reactive power limit at 6PSC line lower voltages, the rating is decreased at 6PSC line
is higher than 3PDC line at each point of receiving end compared to 3PDC line for different power factors.
voltage. Thereby, with conversion of a 3PDC to 6PSC The same analysis has been carried for variation of
line with 300km length, the rating of the devices required length of transmission line shown in Fig. 11, for different
from the view point of compensation is gradually power factors (0.85 lag, 0.95 lead and unity) in both
increased. This also implies that the even in configurations. Here, it was assumed that compensation
uncompensated mode, 3PDC line performs well from the is done to fix the load voltage at nominal value, i.e. P=Pa
voltage stability view point since its requirement of and Q=Qa. Also, Load was assumed equal to 100MVA.
reactive power is gradually reduced.
Figure 10. Shunt compensator capacity for different voltages and power
Figure 9. Reactive power limit profile for 3PDC & 6PSC lines factors at voltage stable states for a 300km line
(300km length) to have the voltage stability
E. Shunt Compensation
Shunt capacity support at voltage stability limit using
(9) and (10) was obtained and it is illustrated by the
following equation:
2 ⎛ nP ⎞ ⎛ nQ ⎞
VS − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − ⎜⎜ mVR + ⎟
⎝ VR ⎠ ⎝ VR ⎟⎠
YSH = (22)
nVR
Equation (22) provides a relationship for the

magnitude of YSH at the receiving end for getting a stable Figure 11. Shunt compensator capacity for varying line length with
voltage state under set of specified operating conditions. different power factors at nominal voltage of receiving end
The modeling of loads is essential in voltage stability From Fig. 11, it is concluded that in long lines, shunt
analysis. The voltage dependence and dynamics of loads compensator rating is increased at 6PSC line as compared
require consideration in these studies. The voltage to 3PDC line for different power factors.
dependence of loads is usually modeled with an exponent
or a polynomial model. The exponent load model is It should be note that the capacitance of 6PSC line is
presented [15, 22] as: decreased and inductance is increased. Furthermore, the
phase voltage of 6PSC line is increased upto √3 times
α β
than to 3PDC line while line current is decreased; so
⎛V ⎞ ⎛V ⎞ charging the line is increased and the loss of line is
P = Pa ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ , Q = Qa ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (23) decreased. This results less decreased voltage drop and
V
⎝ o⎠ ⎝ Vo ⎠ more compensation capacity in 6PSC transmission line.
Where P is active load, Q is reactive load, V is load IV. CONCLUSIONS
voltage, Vo is nominal voltage of load, α is exponent of Six-phase transmission is conceived as a technique to
active load, β is exponent of reactive load and Pa and Qa increase the power transfer capability of existing ROW
represent the active and reactive load at nominal voltage space. In this paper, it was found out that conversion of
of load. Here, load was assumed as a mixed type load. an existing 3PDC to a 6PSC transmission line results in
The typical value for the exponents for this load type is line inductance increment and capacitance decrement.
[22]: α=2.16 and β=0.76. Also, in this study, voltage stability as a recent
Fig. 10 exhibits the shunt compensator capacity at challenging subject was analyzed. It was shown that in
different load voltages for different power factors (0.85 6PSC line conversion, for the lengths about higher than
lag, 0.95 lead and unity) in both configurations. Line 160km, maximum power at the receiving end will
length is assumed equal to 300km and load is 100MVA. progressively enhance maintaining the voltage stability at
From Fig. 10, it is observed that the shunt compensator various power factors of the load. However, the
rating for voltage dependent load is increased at 6PSC minimum line length at which power transfer capability
line to fix the load voltage at nominal value, but in much is limited by voltage stability concern is dramatically
176
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177
Design of Output Feedback Controller for PSS

and TCSC by GA to improve the Damping of
Power System Oscillations
Abolfazl Jalilvand Mohammad Reza Safari Tirtashi
Electrical Engineering Department Electrical Engineering Department
Zanjan University Zanjan University
Zanjan, Iran Zanjan, Iran
ajalilvand@znu.ac.ir m_rezasafar123@yahoo.com
Abstract— This paper focuses on designing of output can have various roles in the operation and control of
feedback controller for PSS and TCSC based on genetic power systems, such as scheduling power flow;
algorithm (GA) in order to damp the Low Frequency decreasing unsymmetrical components; reducing net loss;
Oscillations (LFO). For this purpose a Single Machine providing voltage support; limiting short-circuit currents;
Infinite Bus (SMIB) system with TCSC located at the mitigating sub-synchronous resonance; damping the
terminal of generator has been considered. To earn the power oscillation and enhancing transient stability [4].
optimum values of the gains of the output feedback In the other hand, Power System Stabilizers (PSSs) are
controller for PSS and TCSC, the GA has been used. At the most cost effective devices used to damp low
first, for normal loading condition, the system with and frequency oscillations. For many years, conventional PSS
without proposed controllers has been simulated while the
(CPSSs) have been widely used in the industry because of
input power of generator has been changed suddenly.
their simplicity [5]. Modern control theory has been
Finally, the robustness of these controllers has been
applied to the PSS design in recent years. These include
evaluated by applying previous disturbance in input power
optimal control, adaptive control; variable structure
of generator for three loading conditions (light, normal,
heavy). The simulation results show that the system
control and H∞ control [6]. In general, for the simplicity
composed with proposed controllers has outstanding of practical implementation of the controllers,
operation in fast damping of oscillations of power system. decentralized output feedback control with feedback
signals available at the location of the each controlled
Keywords—Stability; Output feedback; Power system; GA device is most favorable [7].
In this paper the designing of output feedback
I. INTRODUCTION controller for PSS and TCSC based on GA in order to
damp the Low Frequency Oscillations (LFO) has been
Since 1960s, low frequency oscillations have been done. In normal loading condition, the optimum gains of
observed when large power systems are interconnected by output feedback controllers have been earned while the
relatively weak tie lines. These oscillations may sustain input power of generator has been changed suddenly.
and grow to cause system separation if no adequate Thereafter, the dynamic response of generator has been
damping is available [1]. Nowadays the importance of represented for three loading conditions with previous
power system design and its operation with high disturbance. Simulation results show that the TCSC based
efficiency, maximum reliability, and security has to be controller is better than PSS based controller.
considered more than ever before. The difficulties in
rights of way for transmission line expansion lead to the II. MODEL OF SYSTEM
use of maximum capacity of the line and therefore,
providing voltage stability even in the normal conditions A synchronous machine with an IEEE type-
and related considerations become more difficult [2]. ST1excitation system connected to an infinite bus through
a transmission line has been selected to demonstrate the
The system control is traditionally achieved through the derivation of simplified linear models of power system for
use of mechanical devices, with slow response times. dynamic stability analysis [8]. Fig. 1 shows the model
Recently introduced Flexible AC Transmissions Systems consists of a generator supplying bulk power to an infinite
(FACTS) devices have faster response times with more bus through a transmission line, with a TCSC located at
flexible operating characteristics. One of the commonly its terminal.
used FACTS devices is the Thyristor Controlled Series Vt
Capacitor (TCSC), which offers fast, smooth and flexible Id , Iq Re Xe
Vb < 0
control of the line impedance. It is cheaper and has a Gen TCSC
simpler design compared to the Unified Power Flow
E'q < δ
Controller (UPFC). Furthermore, it can respond to the Infinite Bus
demand of power system operation more rapidly and Figure 1. Single machine-infinite bus system model with TCSC.
smoothly than the traditional series compensators [3]. It
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 178

The equations that describe the generator and excitation ΔΡe = Κ 1Δδ + Κ 2 ΔΕ ' q + Κ 3 ΔX T csc (13)
system have been represented in following equations:
ΔVt = Κ 4 Δδ + Κ 5 ΔΕ ' q + Κ 6 ΔX T csc (14)
δ = ω0 (ω − 1) (1)
where Κ1 , Κ 2 ,…, Κ 6 are linearization constants.

ω = (Ρm − Ρe − D (ω − 1) / Μ (2)
IV. GENETIC ALGORITHM
E 'q = (Ε fd − (Χ d − X 'd )id − Ε 'q ) / τ ' do (3) GA is a kind of heuristic searching algorithm based on
mechanics of natural selection and natural genetics. The
global solutions can be found for both linear and nonlinear
E fd = ( K A (Vref − Vt + U pss ) − E fd ) / TA (4) formulations. The optimal solution searching process is
independent of the form of the objective function, and will
where not be trapped in the rapid descending direction
introduced by local minima. In other words, the solution
Ρe = Vtd Ι d + Vtq Ι q (5) of a complex problem can be started with weak initial
estimations and then be corrected in evolutionary process
of fitness. GA evolves into new generations of individuals
Vt = Vtd + jVtq (6) by using knowledge from previous generations. GA
generally includes three fundamental genetic operators of
reproduction, crossover and mutation. These operators
Vtd = Χ q Ι q (7) conduct the chromosomes toward better fitness. In this
paper the real code GA is used [9].Mutation rate = 0.8 and
Cross over rate = 0.35 are used to get the best results of
Vtq = Ε ' q − Χ ' d Ι d (8) GA. More detail of proposed GA is shown in Fig. 2.
where δ is the rotor angle, ω is the rotor speed, Pm is the Start

mechanical input power, Pe active power, E' q the
A Chromosome with two
internal voltage, E fd the excitation voltage, and Vref is
parameters is determined
the reference voltage. The constant values of these
equations have been represented in Table I. Initial population is
III. MODEL OF SYSTEM constructed randomly
A linear dynamic model is obtained by linearizing the
P = 0.8 Fitness function
nonlinear model round an operating condition ( e ,
is calculated
Q e = 0.28
). The linearized model of power system as
shown in Fig. 1 is given as follows: Cross over operator is
Reproduction applied with PC rate
Δδ = ωo Δω (9)
Mutation operator is
ΔΡm − ΔΡe applied with PM rate
Δω = (10)
Μ
Selection operator chooses the best
ΔΕ fd − ( Χ d − Χ' d )Δi d − ΔΕ' q chromosome s witch their size is equal to
ΔΕ ' q = (11) number of chromosome s initial population
τ ' do
ΔΕ fd = ( K A (ΔVref − ΔVt + U pss ) − ΔE fd ) / TA (12) No

Reach the end?
TABLE I Yes
SYSTEM PARAMETERS
The best individual is selected
Synchronous machine [p.u] Excitation system δ
transmission line [p.u] End
Xd=1
Xq=0.6 KA=10 Figure 2. Genetic Algorithm flow chart.
X'd=0.3 TA=0.05
D=0
M=8 Xe=0.6
τ'do=5.044 Re=0
179
V. SIMULATION RESULTS T2=0.0136. It is clearly seen that by using the proposed
A power system can be described by a linear time controllers, electromechanical damping characteristics of
invariant (LTI) state-space model as follows: the system is improved and TCSC based controller has
outstanding performance on damping the power system
oscillations. The robustness of the controllers was tested
X = AX + BU (15) by applying the proposed controllers to a number of
operating conditions. Fig. 5 and Fig. 6 show the system
Y = CX (16) dynamic response for a six-cycle fault disturbance for
rotor speed variation, rotor angle variation and terminal
where X, U and Y are state, input and output vectors, voltage variation for the following 3 loading conditions
respectively. A, B and C are constant matrixes. for PSS based and TCSC based controllers respectively.
The aim of designing of output feedback controller is to a) Nominal loading:Pe=0.8 p.u. and Qe=0.28 p.u. ;
move the eigenvalues of power system to the left hand b) Heavy loading: Pe=1 p.u. and Qe=0. 5 p.u. ;
side of the complex plane. The structure of output c) Light loading:Pe=0.6 p.u. and Qe=0.15 p.u. ;
feedback controller is as follow:
It can be observed that the proposed controller gives
U = −HY (17) very good damping profile over a range of operating
conditions.
where H is the gain vector and Y is the output vector.
-3
x 10
3
In this paper the output vector Y is [Δω ΔVt ]T . The
TCSC
PSS
2
Objective function has been used in this paper is
None
rotor speed variaton

conventional
demonstrated in (18). 1
t sim 0
fitness = ∫ t * dw dt (18)
-1
0
-2
where tsim is the simulation time and dω is the speed
deviation. -3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Therefore, the design problem can be formulated as the time(s)
following optimization problem: (a)
Minimize fitness 0.2
TCSC
Subject to: PSS
None
rotor angle variation
0.1 conventional
h1min<h1< h1max (19)
h2min<h2< h2max (20) 0
Typical range of the optimized parameters is h1: [0-

300] and h2: [0-10] for TCSC while h1:[-300-0] and -0.1
h2:[0-10] for PSS. The GA has been run 20 times and the
best average and the worst final fitness values for PSS and -0.2
TCSC based controller are shown in Table II. Table III 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
shows the best parameters found in the 20 runs of GA. time(s)
Optimized parameters have been earned when the input (b)
power of generator has been changed10% at t=1 (s) for six 0.03
cycle, and the operating condition is Pe=0.8 and Qe=0.28. TCSC
PSS
The eigenvalues of power system with and without
terminal voltage variation
0.02 None
proposed controllers have been shown in Table IV. The conventional
dynamic response of rotor speed variation, rotor angle 0.01

variation and terminal voltage variation for TCSC and
PSS based controller and without controller are shown in 0
Fig. 3 at the nominal operating point following 10%
-0.01
disturbance on mechanical generator power input at t=1
(s) for six-cycle fault duration. Moreover, for comparison -0.02
purpose and showing the performance of TCSC-based
controller, the dynamic responses of generator for -0.03
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
conventional PSS based controller are shown in Fig. 3 too. time(s)
In this case, conventional PSS has the Lead-Lag controller (c)
as shown in Fig. 4, where KA=10, TA=0.05 and Tw=10.
The best parameters found in the 20 runs of GA for Figure 3. System dynamic response for a six cycle fault disturbance.
(a) rotor speed variation, (b) rotor angle variation, (c) terminal voltage
conventional PSS controller are: K=31.39, T1=0.4012, variation
180
TABLE II TABLE III
WORST, AVERAGE AND BEST FITNESS OPTIMIZED VALUES
controller Worst fitness Average fitness Best fitness controller H1 H2

TCSC 278 3.51
TCSC 2.36e-4 1.86e-4 1.37e-4
-4 -4 -4 PSS -261.46 6.69
PSS 12e 9.68e 7.37e
-4
x 10
1 8
normal
Vt − light
+ KA
2 3 6 heavy
rotor speed variation

+ 1 + sT A
Vref E fd
4
U pss sTw ⎛ 1 + sT1 ⎞
K ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 4
1 + sTw ⎝ 1 + sT2 ⎠ Δω 2
Lead - Lag PSS

0
Figure 4. Conventional PSS controller.
-3
-2
x 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1.5 time(s)
normal
light
(a)
1 heavy
rotor speed variation
0.03
normal
0.5 0.025 light
heavy
0.02
0
0.015
-0.5
0.01
-1 0.005
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
time(s) 0
(a)
-0.005
0.08 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
normal time(s)
light
0.06 heavy
(b)
-3
0.04 x 10
4
normal
0.02 2 light
heavy
0
0
-2
-0.02
-4
-0.04 -6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
time(s) -8
(b) -10
0.03
normal -12
light 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0.02 heavy time(s)
0.01 (c)
Figure 6. System dynamic response for a six cycle fault disturbance
0 with normal, light and heavy loading for TCSC based controller. (a)
rotor speed variation, (b) rotor angle variation, (c) terminal voltage
-0.01 variation
-0.02 TABLE VI
EIGENVALUES OF THE SYSTEM
-0.03
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
time(s) TCSC PSS Without controller
(c) -1.1716±i0.8846 -1.9812±i8.2804 +0.1224±i5.2048
-21.4153 -8.1810±i5.8881 -18.4996
Figure 5. System dynamic response for a six cycle fault disturbance -17.0103 -2.0697
with normal, light and heavy loading for PSS based controller. (a) rotor
speed variation, (b) rotor angle variation, (c) terminal voltage variation
181
VI. CONCLUSION
In this paper, the output feedback controller has been
designed for PSS and TCSC by GA to improve the
stability of power system. SMIB system which TCSC is
located at the terminal of generator has been considered to
evaluate the proposed controllers. To achieve the optimum
values of the gains of the output feedback controller for
PSS and TCSC, the genetic algorithm has been used.
Dynamic response of generator has been presented with a
10% disturbance in input power of generator. Simulation
results showed that TCSC-based controller is superior to
PSS based controller.
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182
Coordination of HVDC-links to increase dynamic

stability margins
Robert Eriksson, Magnus Perninge, and Lennart Söder
Royal Institute of Technology (KTH)
Stockholm, Sweden
Abstract—The main contribution of this paper is a new method compensating control. HVDC power modulation control is
for adaptively coordinating the power modulation of multiple usually designed to provide the modulated power proportional
HVDC-links in a power system, to enhance the total transfer to the frequency difference between the rectifier and the
capacity. This in turn may lead to a more active electricity
market. inverter ac system to damp the power oscillation between
The increase in transfer capacity is obtained by an adaptive them. The HVDC controllers are usually separately tuned for
coordinated modulation control of multiple HVDC-links in the a particular mode with the well-known phase compensating
system. The control method is based on maximizing the distance control design [3].
to the bifurcation surface by adjusting the feedback gain of the Earlier research papers concerning HVDC power modula-
HVDC-links modulation controllers.
Index Terms—coordinated control, bifurcation surface, trans- tion control design tune the controller based on a linearized
fer capacity, HVDC, stochastic nodal loading. model of the system at one specific operational point [9]–[11].
The gains are in these cases kept constant whatever happens
I. I NTRODUCTION in the system although the operating point changes.
Due to the intensive use of transmission networks, power Power system stability limits are often approximated by
system security [1] has become one of the most important bifurcation surfaces [12]. As the margin to instability the
issues in power system operation. There is a conflict of interest distance to the bifurcation surface is normally used. Therefore,
between the market perspective, where a large capacity to much emphasis has been put on finding the distance from
transfer power through the electric power grid is requested, a given operating point to the bifurcation surface [13]–[15].
and the security perspective, where secure operation is the When tuning the control parameters of the HVDC-links a
main objective. reasonable objective would thus be to increase the distance
Low frequency oscillations have become a serious bottle- to the bifurcation surface. Since detailed forecasts are often
neck, limiting power transfer [2]. There are obvious ways of available for the near future it seems reasonable to tune the
preventing inter area oscillations. For example, more power control parameters of the HVDC-links in order to increase the
lines can be built which leads to an increase in transfer maximal possible loading along the forecasted load path. The
capacity. Also, the stress on the transmission grid can be adaptive control will thus act to keep the system operating
reduced by generation rescheduling. In systems containing point stable as far as possible when the injected power travels
multiple controllable devices, such as HVDC-links, these can along the forecasted path in injected power space.
be utilized in a coordinated manner to dampen oscillations. Tuning the control parameters in order to enhance transfer
This in turn will allow the system operator to transfer more capacity has not been performed in the proposed way before.
power through the system corridors. The optimization problem that arise when attempting to
All synchronously connected generators participate in inter- maximize the distance to the bifurcation surface by tuning the
area oscillations to different degrees [3]. For large syn- controller gains for the HVDC-links has an objective function
chronously interconnected systems inter-area oscillations are whose derivative is not easily computable. Therefore, a Particle
a global problem. For each mode, these generators can be Swarm Optimization (PSO) method is used [16].
classified into two groups swinging against each other. The The article is arranged in the following way. First the power
use of Power System Stabilizers (PSS) is the most common system model used in the article is presented in Section II.
way to improve system damping [3], the use of HVDC power Here, we show how the HVDC-link is incorporated in the
modulation is another effective approach [4]–[6]. In addition, power system model. Then the linearization of the power
various FACTS devices can be used [7]. As more devices system equations including the HVDC-links is explained in
are used to improve damping, coordinated strategies must be Section III. In Section IV the definition of stability of systems
employed in the controller design [8]. of differential equations is given. Then, in Section V, the
The weak damping problem belongs to small signal stability, optimization problem of tuning the parameters of the HVDC-
thus, a linear model representation of the power system links is given. It is then shown in Section VI how this problem
dynamic behavior is enough [3]. is solved using a PSO algorithm. Then in Section VII a
In the existence of HVDC-links, the most commonly used numerical example, on the well known Western System Coor-
method in HVDC power modulation control is the use of phase dinating Council (WSCC) 3-machine, 9-bus system extended
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 183

by two HVDC-links, is performed. Here, we first find an
optimal setting for the control parameters of the active power sTw X i
modulation through the HVDC-links, given a forecasted load- ∆PHV DCi = Cjk (ωj − ωk ) (5)
1 + sTw
path. Then the increase of stability is estimated in a Monte j<k
Carlo simulation. sTw 1 + sT2 X Con1i

∆QHV DCiCon1 = Cjk (ωj − ωk )
1 + sTw 1 + sT1
j<k
(6)
II. P OWER S YSTEM M ODELING sTw 1 + sT2 X Con2i
∆QHV DCiCon2 = Cjk (ωj − ωk )
1 + sTw 1 + sT1
j<k
HVDC-links of voltage source converter type are assumed
(7)
to be installed in the system. This means the reactive powers
at both ends as well as the active power are controllable. Each for i = 1, . . . , NHVDC ,
HVDC-link consists of an ideal rectifier, inverter, and line. where
The generators are modeled by the one axis model with ∆PHV DCr is the modulation of HVDC-link j,
an Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR), this modelling is C = (Cjk i
) is the NHVDC × Ngen × Ngen -tensor with HVDC
described by the following equations, for each of the Ngen modulation controller gains, here, for each i, the only
generators: elements of the matrix (Cjki
)j,k that are nonzero are located
above the diagonal,
Tw is the wash-out filter parameter,
T1 and T2 are the lead-lag filter parameters,
δ̇ = ω (1) NHVDC is the number of HVDC-links in the system.
1 Eq0 U
ω̇ = (Pm − sin(δ − θ) − Dω) (2)
M x0d Clearly, there must be some restriction on the parameters
1

xd xd − x0d
i
Cjk . A reasonable way of ensuring that a small change in
E˙q0 = 0 Ef − 0 Eq0 + U cos(δ − θ) (3) frequency does not lead to an unacceptable change in active
Tdo xd x0d
power running through the HVDC-link is using the following
1
E˙f = (−Ef − KA (Uref − U )) (4) constraints:
Te X
i
|Cjk iCon1
+ Cjk | ≤ C̄i , i = 1, . . . , NHVDC (8)
where j<k
δ is the rotor angle, X
ω is the rotor speed deviation,
i
|Cjk iCon2
+ Cjk | ≤ C̄i , i = 1, . . . , NHVDC . (9)
Eq0 ∠δ and U ∠θ are the voltage phasors at the internal and j<k
terminal buses, Here C̄i is a constant specific to HVDC-link i. This constant

0
Tdo is the d-axis transient open-circuit time constant, will have the the unity [p.u./(rad/s)] and thus tell us how much
Pm is the mechanical power applied to the generator shaft, power that is allowed to flow through the HVDC-link per
D is the generator’s shaft damping constant, difference of angular frequency of the generators.
M is the generator inertia, Also, to avoid stress of the HVDC-links higher frequencies
xd is the d-axis synchronous reactance, are filtered out wash out filter. The filter parameter, Tw , is
x0d is the d-axis transient reactance, For the loads, no restrictive assumptions have to be made.
Ef is the constant generator field voltage, We can, for example, use the frequently adopted so called ZIP-
Uref is the set-value of the connecting terminal bus voltage, model. Here, the load characteristics of load k are modeled as
KA is the AVR gain,
Te is the exciter time constant.
PL,k = P0,k + P1,k Uk + P2,k Uk2 + Pf,k θ̇k , (10a)
In order to allow the HVDC-links to dampen oscillations QL,k = Q0,k + Q1,k Uk + Q2,k Uk2 + Qf,k θ̇k . (10b)
in the system, we assume that the controller of each link
If we collect the time-varying demand parameters into a vector
has information about the angular frequency ωk , for each
Γ(t), then the following system model is obtained
generator in the system. This can be obtained by having
Phasor Measurement Units (PMU) [17], [18]. A lead-lag ẋ = f (x, y) (11a)
type damping regulator has been applied on VSC-HVDC, 0 = g(x, y, Γ(t)). (11b)
which provides a 90deg leading phase shift on the interested
frequency range. This 90deg leading phase is essential for Here the function f represent the system dynamics, g is the
reactive power damping, which make sure the damping effect power miss-match function including the HVDC-links, x is
is in phase with the machine speed. The power modulation of the vector containing the dynamic variables, i.e. δ, ω, Eq0 ,
the HVDC-links is then performed in the following way: Ef and ωfilt . Here, ωfilt is the filter state vector. The vector y
184
contains all the variables which are not directly governed by Assumption 1. (11) varies quasi-statically.
any differential equations, namely the voltage magnitude and
angle in each node. We assume that at time t = 0, the present That is, it is assumed that Γ(t) varies slowly enough that
demand, Γ(0), is known, or at least there is an estimate of the system (11) is well approximated by keeping Γ constant while
present system loading. The vector function Γ(t) is a stochastic the dynamics of the system act. By this assumption it is enough
process and we assume that a forecast, m(t), has been made to move the bifurcation surface to enhance transmission limits.
of future demands. This forecast will then be used to enhance Let αi (t) be the real parts of the eigenvalues, λi (t), of
the transmission limits by controlling the parameters Ki is the the system Jacobian matrix (12) corresponding to the loading
HVDC-links. level m(t). To maximize the distance along the forecasted path
m(t) to the bifurcation surface we need to solve the following
III. S YSTEM LINEARIZATION
optimization problem:
The system is linearized around its present operational point.
The linearized system can be described as follows: max inf{t > 0 : max αi (t) > 0} (14a)
K∈Rm i
X
∆ẋ = [fx + fy (gy )−1 gx ]∆x. (12) 1
|Cjk iCon1
| + |Cjk | ≤ C̄1
k>j
where
..
fx , fy , gx and gy are the partial derivatives of f and g with . (14b)
respect to x and y, respectively. X NHVDC NHV DC Con2
|Cjk | + |Cjk | ≤ C̄NHVDC
k>j
IV. S TABILITY
The constraints to this problem defines a convex region in Rm .
The Lyapunov’s first stability method is the fundamental However, the gradient of the objective function is not readily
analytical basis for power system small-signal stability as- computable. This calls for the use of a genetic algorithm to
sessment. It is based on eigenvalue analysis and provides solve the problem.
valuable information of the behavior of the system. Each
eigenvalue λi is associated with a mode of the system. VI. S OLVING (14) USING A PSO ALGORITHM
Real eigenvalues represent non-oscillatory modes, where a The PSO method is a simple stochastic method that can
negative eigenvalue corresponds to decaying mode, while a be used to find the global optimum of an objective function.
positive eigenvalue relates to aperiodic instability. Complex The method uses a number of different “particles” that move
eigenvalues are associated with system oscillatory modes, the around in the feasible domain, in our case they will move in the
pair of complex eigenvalues with negative real parts indicate domain defined by the conditions to (14). Each particle has a
a decreasing oscillatory behavior, and those with positive real mass and a speed. The motion is then directed by changing the
parts result in an increasing oscillatory behavior. The damping speed of each particle in a stochastic manner. More precisely,
ξi of the i:th mode is defined as follows: in the most simple setting, by letting zi,j and vi,j be the
jth component of the position and the velocity of particle i
−αi respectively,
ξi = p (13)
α2i + βi2 vi,j ← c0 vi,j + c1 r1,j (gj − zi,j ) + c2 r2,j (hi,j − zi,j ), (15)
where zi,j ← zi,j + vi,j , (16)
αi is the real part of λi ,
βi is the imaginary part of λi . where the cl ’s are a constants, gj is the jth component of
the present global best position, hi,j is the jth component of
V. E NHANCING THE TRANSMISSION LIMITS BY ADAPTIVE the historically best position of particle i, and the rl,j ’s are
CONTROL independent U (0, 1) random variables. Hence, every particle
When the load increase, the domain of attraction of the has a deterministic tendency to keep moving in the direction of
operating point will decrease. If the load-increase continue its present motion and stochastic tendencies to move towards
there will eventually come a time when the system becomes the present global best and the optimum along the particles
unstable. By controlling the parameters of the HVDC-links, own path. There are a multitude of variations of (15) used to
the point where instability occur can be pushed towards a enhance the convergence properties of the PSO algorithm. As
higher loading level. This will allow the system operator to an example, [15] presents a modified guaranteed convergence
use the cheaper production units to a larger extent. PSO (MGCPSO) algorithm used to search for the distance
To enhance the transmission limits we will try to move the to the saddle-node bifurcation surface in injected-power space.
bifurcation boundary further away from the present operating
point along m(t). The argument that lies behind the use of To apply PSO to our problem we first compute the equi-
bifurcations boundaries as power system stability boundaries librium points of (11) along m(t) for a number of times ti .
is given in [19] by: Then we initialize the optimization by putting a number of
particles on the boundary to the feasible domain. The value
185
of the objective function is then given by the smallest ti for path is,
which one of the eigenvalues to the system Jacobian matrix has 1 1Conv1 1
|C12 | + |C12 | + |C13 |+
a positive real part. If during optimization one of the particle
leaves the feasible domain then we can push it back by moving
1Conv1
+|C13 1
| + |C23 | + |C231Conv1
| ≤ 2, (18a)
it to the closest part of the boundary of the feasible domain. ..
.
2 2Conv2 2
|C12 | + |C12 | + |C13 |+
VII. N UMERICAL EXAMPLE 2Conv2
+|C23 2
| + |C23 2Conv1
| + |C23 | ≤ 2. (18b)
If we assume that C231
= C122
= 0, i.e. no power is transferred
The objective is to estimate the difference between the
from node 4 to node 7 just because of a difference in phase
loadability of a non-controlled system and a system with
angle between Generator 2 and Generator 3, and that C13 1
=
adaptive control. This is done by comparing the predicted time
C13 , we get the following,
2
of bifurcation ζ, which is the time that m(t) hit the bifurcation
surface. Hence, 1
|C12 1Conv1
| + |C12 1
| + |C13 1Conv1
| + |C13 | ≤ 2, (19a)
1
|C12 | + 1Conv2
|C12 | + 1
|C13 | 1Conv1
+ |C13 | ≤ 2, (19b)
ζ = inf{t > 0 : min αi (t) > 0}. (17) 1
|C12 | + 1Conv1
|C12 | + 1
|C13 | 1Conv2
+ |C13 | ≤ 2, (19c)
i
1
|C12 | + 1Conv2
|C12 | + 1
|C13 | 1Conv2
+ |C13 | ≤ 2, (19d)
A. Test Power System 2
|C23 | + 2Conv1
|C23 | + 2
|C13 | 2Conv1
+ |C13 | ≤ 2, (19e)
The test system in this case study is the well-known 9-bus
2
|C23 | + 2Conv2
|C23 | + 2
|C13 | 2Conv1
+ |C13 | ≤ 2, (19f)
system [20], the system is depicted in Figure 1. The system 2
|C23 | + 2Conv1
|C23 | + 2
|C13 | 2Conv2
+ |C13 | ≤ 2, (19g)
2
|C23 | + 2Conv2
|C23 | + 2
|C13 | 2Conv2
+ |C13 | ≤ 2, (19h)
1
C13 − C132
= 0. (19i)
In this case we have three variables in our optimiza-
tion problem which we can put into a vector, K =
1 2 1 1Conv1 1Conv2 1Conv1
(C12 , C23 , C13 , C12 , C12 , C23 ,
1Conv2 1Conv1 1Conv2
C23 , C13 , C13 ).
We assume that the load characteristics is constant power
and not frequency dependent. The reactive power is assumed
to be a deterministic function of the active power, hence the
dimension of Γ(t) is 3. For the frequency control we assume
the following model for the mechanic power applied to the
generator shaft of Generator 1,
Ṗm,1 = −KG ω1 , (20)
where KG = 0.04 in this example.
B. Bifurcation analysis
Assume that P0 = (1.25, 0.9, 1) [p.u.], Q0 =
(0.5, 0.3, 0.35) [p.u.] and that we have a forecast m(t) =
P0 + t(0.01, 0.01, 0.01) [p.u.], where t is given in seconds.
Fig. 1. The 9-bus system with two HVDC-links.
The real part, αi , of the eigenvalues of (12) is plotted in
Figure 2 as a function of time. Here K = (0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0),
consists of three generators connected to nodes A, B, and C which means that the HVDC-links are not used to increase
and three loads connected to nodes 2, 4 and 6. In addition, stability in the system. As can be seen in the figure, for
two HVDC-links are connected between nodes 1 and 3 and K = (0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0), the first time that the real part of one
between nodes 3 and 5. The power can go either through the of the eigenvalues of the system Jacobian (12) is ζ = 109.5,
AC lines or through the HVDC-links. However, of importance this corresponds to a total active power increase of 3.29 p.u.
in this case study is the value of controllability of the HVDC- before the bifurcation surface is reached. This means that if
link therefore there is the steady-state power flow through the Assumption 1 is valid, the System Operator (SO) has 109.5
HVDC-links kept to zero. It is assumed that physical reasons seconds to act before the system becomes unstable, if the load
dictate that for this system K̄A1 = K̄A2 = 2. Hence, the follows the forecasted path.
constraints of the optimization problem that we have to solve For this forecasted load path, solving the optimization
when adapting the the parameters K to the forecasted load- problem (14) with the constraints given in (19), we found
186
0.5 0.5
0 0
−0.5 −0.5
α
α
−1 −1
−1.5 −1.5
−2 −2
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
t t
Fig. 2. Real part of the eigenvalues for K = (0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0). Fig. 4. Real part of the eigenvalues for K = (0, 0, 0, 2, 2, 2, 2).
that, in this case, K = (0, 0, 2, 0, 0, 0, 0) is the optimal setting an incumbent forecasted load-path. The arising optimization
for the control of the HVDC-links. In Figure 3 we have set problem is then solved using a Particle Swarm Optimization
K = (0, 0, 2, 0, 0, 0, 0) and plotted the αi as a function of (PSO) method. The results are then compared in a Monte
time, when the load increase along the forecasted load-path. Carlo simulation on the popular Western System Coordinating
In this case the load can be increased 3.90 p.u. along the Council (WSCC) 3-machine, 9-bus system extended by two
HVDC-links. The simulation shows that a great enhancement
0.5
of the transfer capacity is achieved by the proposed method.
By using the proposed method in power system operation more
0
electric power can be allowed to flow through the system. This
will in turn yield a more flexible energy market.
−0.5
R EFERENCES
α
−1
[1] IEEE/CIGRE Joint Task Force on Stability Terms and Definitions.
Definition and Classification of Power System Stability. Power Systems,
−1.5 IEEE Transactions on, 19(3), 2004.
[2] J. Xiao, X. Xie, Y. Han, and J. Wu. Dynamic tracking of low-frequency
oscillations with improved prony method in wide-area measurement
−2
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 system. In Power Engineering Society General Meeting, 2004. IEEE,
t
2004.
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188
Exact and Efficient Approach in

Static Assessment of Available Transfer
Capability (ATC)
Mostafa Eidiani Hossein Zeynal, Alimorad Khajeh Zadeh and
Faculty of Engineering Khalid Mohamed Nor
Islamic Azad University of Bojnourd Centre of Electrical Energy Systems (CEES)
Bojnourd, Northern Khorasan, Iran Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM)
info@eidiani.ir 81310 Skudai, Malaysia
http://www.eidiani.ir hzeynal@gmail.com
Abstract—: this paper suggests an exact approach to with the continuation method. It was shown in [4] that the
deal with static assessment of Available Transfer NR-S method is computationally feasible as a means to
Capability (ATC). It caters an expanded Newton determine the saddle node bifurcation point in AC/DC
Raphson-seydel (NRS) to see the problem from systems.
different point of view. Conventional Newton Having all the advantages of NR-S, this paper tends to
Raphson (NR) method has the singularity problem find a better and more reliable method to deal with the
over its Jacobian matrix and thus could fail to get the analysis of voltage and ATC. Toward that, an expanded
solution. Continuation Power Flow (CPF) method is a NR-S method is introduced and then derived in such a
very powerful method that can get the solution way that the computational time of analysis gets
without having the singularity problem. The CPF improved. It is showing that this proposed method is
method is improved here using the new CPF-GMRES accurate and faster than old-fashioned NRS method used
method. NRS commonly recognize as an old method in [4-8] and converges for all the systems even in
but it is fast and accurate. All in all, the expanded unstable states. In [3], EDOJ method uses voltage
NRS method is reliable and faster than CPF-GMRES stability constraint as upper limit of transient stability, in
and even NRS. The proposed approach is other words, static ATC uses as upper limit of dynamic
demonstrated on practical 350 bus network in IRAN ATC.
(Khorasan region). For sake of comparison, a Generalized minimum
Keywords—Voltage Stability, Static ATC, NRS, MATLAB, residual (GMRES [9-16]) method is modeled here which
DIgSILENT Power Factory Software, ATC is one of the Krylov subspace methods for solving a set
of linear equations with a nonsymmetrical coefficient
matrix. It has a good performance on the convergence
I. INTRODUCTION characteristics in comparison with other iterative methods
Available Transfer Capability (ATC) and Voltage and is suitable for the CPF method. Though in [16] was
instability have been intensive subject of research over shown that computational time of CPF had been
the past few years [1]-[5]. With the advances of improved by the help of GMRES. GMRES comes to the
bifurcation theory of nonlinear systems, several types of CPF calculation at the initial point at the start up and
bifurcation were studied in AC power systems [6-8]. For greatly accelerate the solution. Thereby the time and
the steady state power system model saddle node robustness of the standard CPF method is improved by
bifurcation phenomenon was identified by characterizing using the new CPF-GMRES method. This paper finally
the static point of voltage collapse of the power network compares Expanded NRS with CPF, CPF-GMRES and
[1, 2]. To locate the saddle node bifurcation point, the NRS methods.
continuation method and the Newton Raphson-Seydel (or This paper organized as follow: section II, the
point of collapse) methods have originally been GMRES , CPF-GMRES methods are discussed. Then in
developed and applied to conventional AC system section III, the numerical implications of the NRS
analysis [1, 2]. Since the determinant of Jacobian matrix method is demonstrated. In section IV, an expanded NRS
may exhibit large discontinuities, therefore, the Jacobian method is derived and finally in section V, test system
determinant method is inadequate to predict the critical results are given.. Finally the conclusion of the paper
point. In [3], the Estimation of the Determinant of arrives in section VI.
Jacobian matrix (EDOJ) is used for computing VSA
(Voltage Stability Analysis) index. In [4-8], the NR-S
method was extended to HVDC systems and compared
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 189

II. INEXACT NEWTON METHOD A. GMRES Methodology
In general, the sparse linear system with sparse As the part of comparison, the CPF-GMRES method
matrix A can be formulated as follows: [12, 16] [16] should be modeled and then examined. The aim is to
Ax = b (1) find out the capabilities of GMRES particularly in large
The GMRES method attempts to solve the above sparse matrices. Although, the algorithm had been shaped
linear system by minimizing the residual r defined by: in MATLAB codes and performed over several large
r (x ) = b − Ax (2) sparse matrices [16] but as of part of this research the
basic algorithm supposed to be surveyed again. The same
In fact, GMRES is a member of the family of Krylov
procedure goes to the CPF method. Both algorithms are
subspace iterative methods, which produces a sequence
shown in Figure 2 [16]. Having done all the tests, these
x k of approximations to the solution x = A −1b of recently two methods get combined to form the new
linear system (1). Through Krylov subspace the candidate method which is then called the CPF-GMRES method
linear system solution x is updated. [16]. This method has the ability of reducing the
The Krylov subspace iterations can be described as: computational time compared to the conventional CPF
x k ∈ x 0 + K k (r0 , A ), k = 1, 2,… (3) method.
Where x 0 is the initial estimation of the solution to
(1) and K k ( r0 , A ) is the kth Krylov subspace: 1.Input : x 0 ,b , m ,tol
r0
K k (r0 , A ) = span (r0 , Ar0 ,..., A k r0 ) (4) 2.Solve r0 = b − Ax 0 , k = 0, p = r 2 ,v 1 =
p
In particular, GMRES creates a sequence x k that
minimizes the norm of the residual at step k over the kth errtol = max(abstol , reltol b 2 ),
Krylov subspace as follows: g = p (1,0,0,...) ∈ R m +1
b − Ax k 2 = min b − Ax 2 (5)
x k ∈x 0 + K k ( r0 , A ) 3.While p k > errtol And k < m Do
At step k , GMRES applies the Arnoldi process to a a) k = k + 1
set of k orthonormal basis vectors for the kth Krylov
b )v k +1 = Av k
subspace to generate the next basis vector. When the
norm of the newly created basis vector is sufficiently c ) Do j = 1,..., k
small, GMRES solves the following (k + 1) × k least i. h j , k = v Tk +1v j
squares problem:
ii. v k +1 = v k +1 − h j , k v j
g k − H k y k 2 = mink g k − H k y 2 (6)
y ∈C End Do
Where H k is a (k + 1) × k upper Hessenberg matrix d ) hk +1, k = v k +1 2
of full rank k and g k = r0 e1 with standard basis v k +1
e )v k +1 =
vector e1 ∈ℜk +1 . hk +1, k
To solve the least squares problem, a Modified Gram- f ) Apply and create givens rotations
Schmidt procedure is used. The restarted GMRES i. If k > 1apply Q k −1 to the k th column of H
algorithm [12, 16] is described in Figure 1 to clarify the
flow of methodology. As of mentioned in [16], an ii. v = hk2, k + hk2+1, k
forward difference approximation would be used to
compute the directional derivatives in GMRES. hk , k h
iii. c k = ; s = k +1,k ;
Moreover, It is seen that the Jacobian matrix is only used v k v
where matrix vector multiplications is required, so it is h k , k = c k hk , k − s k hk +1, k ; hk +1, k = 0;
possible to avoid the cost of creating the Jacobian matrix. iv. g = G k (c k , s k ) g
However, serving the forward difference approximations
to the directional derivatives will involve calculation of g ) p = ( g ) k +1
the nonlinear power flow mismatch at each iteration of END While
GMRES algorithm. In terms of floating point operations,
the forward difference GMRES algorithm is not as 4.Set ri , j = hi , j for 1 ≤ (i , j ) ≤ k
competitive as the original GMRES algorithm, as the Set (w )i = ( g )i for 1 ≤ i ≤ k
Jacobian is relatively timely inexpensive to create
because building the Jacobian matrix requires a ample Solve the upper triangular system Ry k = w
amount of memory resource and it can be avoided by the 5. x k = x 0 +V k y k
forward difference scheme. This approach becomes
worthwhile especially when the undergoing system is Figure 1. Algorithm of the GMRES method
large and available memory is small.
Figure 1 the procedure shows how the residual can be
minimized. The GMRES method actually is designed to
190
solve non-symmetric linear systems [9]. The most III. THE NRS METHOD
popular form of GMRES is based on a modified Gram- As the Newton Raphson (NR) method necessitates
Schmidt orthonormalization and through the restarts it the inversion of the load flow Jacobian at each iteration
leads to control storage requirements. By the way, if and mostly diverges numerically near the saddle node
restarts are invalid, GMRES (like any orthogonalizing bifurcation point because the Jacobian matrix becomes
Krylov subspace method) will converge in no more than singular [3]. So this method should be modified in order
steps (assuming exact arithmetic). Therefore it hinders to get the reliable results close to this point. The direct
the practical application of this method when is large; method proposed by Seydel [17] to compute the
such that the required memory storage and computational bifurcation points in single-parameter nonlinear algebraic
time in the absence of restarts look prohibitive. Indeed, equations is proven to be remarkably effective in power
the successful application of GMRES (m) attains system applications [4-8].
depended upon the decision of when it should restart; that Study of the bifurcation of load flow equations
is, the choice of m. represent that node injections are parameters and searches
1.Input System data : λ ,e k , σ are followed in the direction of the changing parameter.
Thus the power flow equation f (x) is extended as
2.Solve (Fx , Fλ ) with:
equation (7),
⎧ CPFMethod: Newton method
⎨
⎩CPF-GMRES:GMRESmethod ⎧f (x ) − y 0 − p ∗ α = 0
⎪
3.While error _ max > tol Do ⎪ ∂f
⎨( − λ I )v = 0 (7)
⎡ F Fλ ⎤ ⎡ dx ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤ ⎪ ∂x
a) ⎢ x ⎥⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ ⎪⎩ v = 1
⎣ e k ⎦ ⎣d λ ⎦ ⎣ ±1⎦
⎡x ⎤ ⎡x 0 ⎤ ⎡ dx ⎤ Where x(n × 1) are system variables (voltage
b)⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ 0 ⎥ +σ ⎢ ⎥
⎣λ ⎦ ⎣λ ⎦ ⎣d λ ⎦ magnitude and phase angle), y0 is the initial node
While error _ correcor > tol Do ∂f
injection, J = (n × n ) is the power flow Jacobian, λ
⎡ F (x ) ⎤ ∂x
⎢λ − η ⎥ = 0 is any eigenvalue of J and v is the eigenvector
⎣ k ⎦
associated with λ [7]. p stands for the search direction
End While
and α is the scaled search parameter. Whenever α
End While changes it is translated that the node injection is
Figure 2. Algorithm of the CPF and CPF-GMRES methods [16] changing.
The so-called Newton-Raphson-Seydel method builds
Unfortunately, there have seen examples where the based on the Newton-Raphson method to eq. (7) with
method stagnates and convergence takes place only at the
values of λ ∈ [−ε 1 , ε 2 ] according to ε1 , ε 2 > 0 , and
nth step. For such systems, any choice of less than n fails
to converge. when λ = 0 it will correspond to the saddle bifurcation
In Figure 2 [16] the CPF algorithm is depicted. Initial points [4-8].
point was determined by solving the base case load flow. It is alluded that the Jacobian matrix of eq. (7)
After choosing the step size, σ the predicted solution includes the first and second order derivatives of f ( x) ,
was computed. From the predicted solution, the i.e. the Jacobian and Hessian matrix of f ( x) . They are
continuation parameter, e k were selected and then the indeed the keys in development of an exact NR-S. So
corrected solution calculated by the slightly modified there are 2n equations in eq. (7) and the same number of
Newton Raphson method. In this sense, an additional unknown variables. With the unknown variables denoted
equation is applied under the Jacobian matrix where η is as X = [ x, v, α ] and F ( X ) which previously draw in
denoted as an appropriate value for the kth element of y. eq. (7). According to the Newton method following
Figure 2 also showed the algorithm [16] which mixed equations are derived as [7]:
the CPF method to the GMRES method. The standard
CPF method merely uses the Newton method to get the X ( r +1)
= X ( r ) + ΔX (r )
(8)
initial point which is certainly time consuming. By Such that:
incorporating the Newton method with the GMRES
method, the time taken to find the initial point would be
reduced and thus let the overall time of the CPF method ΔX (r )
= [FX (X (r )
)]−1.F (X (r )
) (9)
meet a nosedive. The GMRES method basically solves
Ax = b equations in the routine of the Newton method
[16].
191
FX (X ) =
⎡ ∂f ⎤ IV. THE EXPANDED NRS METHOD
⎢ 0 −p ⎥
⎢ ∂x ⎥ The eq. (10) can be corrected through the expansion
⎢∂ f
2
∂f ⎥ (10) of the 2nd partial derivatives. Towards that a
⎢ 2 ∗ diag(v 1 ,v 2 ,...,v n ) −λ ∗I 0 ⎥ computational tool, Maple-11, was served to determine
⎢ ∂x ∂x ⎥ the second-order derivatives.
⎢ v′ ⎥
⎢ 0 0 ⎥ If eq. (10) can be written as:
⎣ v ⎦
⎡ ⎤
Where v is evaluated with Euclidean norm and the ⎢J 0 − p ⎥⎥
⎢
eq. (10) . Observing eq.(10) and (11) implies they are FX (X ) = ⎢ H J −λ ∗I 0 ⎥ (12)
rather approximate and therefore their accurate versions ⎢ ⎥
⎢0 v′
will be derived in section 4. 0 ⎥
⎢⎣ v ⎥⎦
∂2f We have:
H 2
∗ diag (v 1 ,v 2 ,...,v n ) =
∂x
∂ ∂
⎡ ∂ f1
2
∂2f 1 ⎤ H = ((J − λ ∗ I ) ∗v ) = (J ∗v )
⎢ 2 ∗v 1 ... ∗v n ⎥ ∂x ∂x
2
⎢ ∂x 1 ∂x n ⎥ (11)
⎢ ... ... ... ⎥ ⎡ J 11 ... J1n ⎤ ⎡v 1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ∂ ⎢
⎢∂ f n
2
∂2f n ⎥ = ( ⎢ ... ... ... ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ ... ⎥⎥ ) =
⎢ 2 ∗v 1 ... ∗v n ⎥ ∂x
⎢⎣ ∂x 1 ∂x n2
⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ J n 1 ... J nn ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣v n ⎥⎦
Or:
∂2f i ⎡ J 11 * v 1 + J12 ∗v 2 + ... + J1n ∗v n ⎤
H ij = ∗v j ∂ ⎢ ⎥)
∂x 2j = ( ... (13)
∂x ⎢ ⎥
In most cases, it is neglected the exact calculation of ⎣⎢ J n 1* v 1 + J n 2 ∗v 2 + ... + J nn ∗v n ⎦⎥
eq.(10) and (11) and chiefly preferred to use only the first
partial derivatives which mostly causes weak accuracy . ⎡ n ⎤
The proposed method however goes to derive the exact ∑
⎢ J 1k ∗v k
⎢ k =1
⎥
⎥
⎡ ∂g 1
⎢
⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎢ ∂x 1
g
...
∂g 1 ⎤
∂x n ⎥
formulation by 2nd order derivations and deep expansion ∂ ⎢ ∂ ⎥
= ⎥= ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ... ... ⎥
over conventional NR-S.
∂x ⎢ n
... ⎥ ∂x ⎢ ... ⎥ = ⎢ ... ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎣⎢ g n ⎦⎥ ⎢ ∂g n ∂g n ⎥
∑
⎢ J nk ∗v k
⎢⎣ k =1
⎥
⎥⎦
⎢⎣ ∂x 1
...
∂x n ⎥⎦
Therefore:
n
gi = ∑J
k =1
ik ∗v k (14)
n n
∂g i ∂J ik ∂2f i
H ij =
∂x j
= ∑ ∂x
k =1 j
∗v k = ∑ ∂x
k =1 j ∂x k
∗v k (15)
∂f i
J ik = (16)
∂x k
∂J i 1 ∂J ∂J
H ij = ∗v 1 + i 2 ∗v 2 + ... + in ∗v n
∂x j ∂x j ∂x j
(17)
∂
= (J i 0 ) ∗v
∂x j
Figure 3. Khorasan Region, Sarasary Iran and Turkmenistan
Network [19]
192
Such that: and the vertical axis shows the ratio in which time taken
for each method over the proposed Expanded NR-S i.e
J i 0 = [J i 1 J i 2 ... J in ]1∗n (18) (CPF/Expanded NR-S). It is simply seen that the
proposed algorithm possesses less computational time to
perform both ATC and VSA evaluations. In addition, as
By substitution we have:
predicted before, the GMRES-CPF has better
performance compared to classical CPF and even NRS
H =
because of well-arranging the initial point at early stage
⎡ ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎤ of standard CPF But it still unable to beat Extended NR-
⎢ ∂x (J10 ) ∗v ∂x 2
(J10 ) ∗v ...
∂x n
(J10 ) ∗v ⎥
S. The robustness of the proposed algorithm can be
⎢ 1 ⎥
⎢ ∂ ⎥ revealed where variety of system states applied and then
⎢ ∂x (J 20 ) ∗v ... ... ... ⎥ (19) examined. Seeing Figure 4 demonstrates how the
⎢ 1 ⎥ algorithms behave especially when system stability is
⎢ ... ... ... ... ⎥
⎢ ⎥ threaten by critical operating conditions. The proposed
⎢ ∂ ∂ method has an extra supreme merit of ensuring the
(J ) ∗v ... ... (J n 0 ) ∗v ⎥
⎢⎣ ∂x 1 n 0 ∂x n ⎥⎦ convergence in reliable manner even in onerous condition
n ∗n
where other methods seemed unreliable and in some
Or: cases tended to be diverged.
The Expanded NRS provides better way in dealing with
⎡ ∂ ∂ ⎤ voltage stability and ATC analysis and it is distinguished
H =⎢ (J ) ∗v ... (J ) ∗v ⎥ (20)
⎣ ∂x 1 ∂x n ⎦ n ∗n from existing methods as of performing both analyses in
Or: faster and forever reliable sounds. Most of conventional
methods suffer from lack of reliability in some critical
∂2f i ∂2f i
H ij = ∗v 1 + ... + ∗v n (21) capricious circumstances where the system stability may
∂x j ∂x 1 ∂x j ∂x n push in shaky region and risk of system collapse
Comparing eq.(21) and eq. (11) clarifies that the therefore come across. Another issue with these methods
matrix (20) is more accurate. Applying the exact H will is how quick they could converge to the solution; it turns
lead the NR-S method perfectly converting to the to be an important factor not only for current system
expanded NR-S and it will be purposely used in next evaluation but when the ATC is served in other vital
section. system assessments.
Furthermore, the voltage bifurcation surface is
depicted in Figure 5 in an increasing manner. Figure 5
V. ASSESSMENT OF STATIC ATC shows the resulting curve at bus number 100 in 350-bus
The proposed algorithm was implemented in the system. From the graph, it shows that the Expanded NR-
ATCT (ATC Toolbox with Matlab) and then tested on a S method produces the identical result as of the other
real practical 350 bus system (Khorasan region in Iran), methods. There is no difference in term of the original
Figure 3, a real system is chosen to examine how reliable solution thus it testifies that the Expanded NR-S method
the algorithm (Expanded NRS) can treat. can converge to the accurate result. It also shows that
As briefly expressed in earlier sections, for sake of Expanded NRS method is capable to generate the full λ-
comparison, the three methods were explained and V curve as the standard CPF does. The convergence and
therefore modeled in MATLAB codes except the CPF robustness properties of the Expanded NRS also have
which implemented in DIgSILENT Power Factory [18]. been proven accordingly.
The Figure 4 demonstrates the behavior of each algorithm
in sense of computational time taken to perform static VI. CONCLUSION
VSA and ATC analysis. To ease the comparisons, the In this paper an Expanded NRS is proposed which
time taken by each method is mounted on our proposed offered better way in assessment of static ATC and it has
Expanded NR-S, Figure 4, and two analyses (ATC, VSA) shown tremendous results even in unstable conditions.
conducted over the 350-bus system. The results compared the time taken for standard CPF,
The discussion may go through Figure 4 where the time CPF-GMRES, NRS and Expanded NRS methods for
taken for proposed Expanded NR-S method, NRS, 350-bus system and were demonstrated that Expanded
GMRES-CPF and classical CPF were taken, looking at NRS is more reliable and faster than CPF-GMRES and
the analysis for ATC shows that the proposed method NRS. Albeit proposal of GMRES-CPF found to be
arrives the solution in shorter time than other methods. qualitive way to deal with ATC and VSA but it is lame to
The horizontal axis represents the mode of analysis ATC beat Expanded NR-S. GMRES-CPF is however
(NRS / Expanded NRS) (CPF/ Expande d NRS) (CPF-GMRES/ Expanded NRS)
1.1
1.05
1
0.95
A TC 1 A TC 2
193
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[16] H. Hizam, J. Jasni., N. Aziz, "Determination of proximity to static
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[18] DIgSILENT Company, www.digsilent.de
and speed of convergence. Having judgmental sound, the [19] www.IGMC.ir
traditional NR-S method has also been a great
methodology and it blossomed the assessment of ATC
particularly where the system imposed by instability
occurrences. NR-S arrives forever to the final solution
but always with the protracted pattern of movement. All
in all, the proposed Expanded NR-S is outshone to the
CPF, GRMES-CPF and NR-S and offers a practical
method with higher performance to evaluate two
important analyses of Voltage stability and ATC. As a
part of advancement, the dynamic aspect of those
analyses would be accommodated for further
development.
REFERENCES
[1] E.G. Carpaneto, G. Chicco, R. Napoli and F. Piglion, "A NR
method for steady state voltage stability assessment", Proc. Bulk
Power Sys. Voltage Phenomenon Voltage Stability and Security,
pp. 341-345, 1991.
[2] K. Iba, H. Suzuki and etc. "Calculation of critical loading with
nose curve using Homotopy continuation method", IEEE Trans.
On Power System, Vol. 6, pp. 584-590, 1991.
[3] M. Eidiani and M.H.M. Shanechi, "FAD-ATC, A New Method for
Computing Dynamic ATC", International Journal of Electrical
Power & Energy Systems, Vol. 28, Issue 2, PP: 109-118, Feb.
2006.
[4] C.A. Canizares, F.L. Alvarado and etc., "Point of collapse
methods applied to AC/DC power system", IEEE Trans. On
Power Sys., Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 673-683, May 1992.
[5] C.A. Canizares and F.L. Alvarado, "Point of collapse and
continuation methods for large AC/DC system", IEEE Trans. On
Power Sys., Vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 673-683, Feb 1993.
[6] S. Ayasun, C.O. Nwankpa and H.G. Kwanty, "Numerical issues in
the location of singularity-induced bifurcation points", Proc. of
IEEE PES Winter Meet., NY, pp. 707-712, Feb. 1999.
[7] Y.K. Fan, D. Niebur, and C.O. Nwankpa, "Saddle-node
bifurcation of voltage profile of small integrated AC/DC power
system", Proc. of the IEEE Summer Power Meeting, Seattle, pp.
614-619, July 2000.
[8] S. Ayasun, C.O Nwankpa and H.G. Kwanty, "A novel method to
compute singular points of differential-algebraic power system
model", Proc. of the American Conf. Arlington, pp. 3563-3564,
June 2001.
[9] Y. Saad, M.H. Schultz, "GMRES: A generalized minimal residual
algorithm for solving nonsymmetric linear systems", SIAM
Journal, Vol. 7, pp. 856-869, 1986.
194
TCPS Controller Design Using Fuzzy Logic

Controller for Power System Stability Enhancement
M.Reza Safari Tirtashi Kazem Mazlumi Ahmad Rohani
Electrical Engineering Department, Zanjan University, Iran
m_rezasafari123@yahoo.com, kmazlumi@znu.ac.ir, rohani@znu.ac.ir
Abstract-In this paper, a Fuzzy Logic Controller (FLC) is disturbance in either of the areas, as well. Phase shifters also
proposed for Thyristor Controlled Phase Shifter (TCPS) to provide series compensation to augment stability. The high-
improve power system dynamic performance. The FLC has been
designed for the TCPS which is located at the terminal of the speed responses of phase shifters make them attractive for use
generator in order to damp the Low Frequency Oscillations in improving stability [5]. Due to the characteristics of power
(LFO). From the first, for normal loading condition, the system transmission systems, the FACTS Compensator control
with proposed controller has been simulated while the input algorithm must be designed resorting to control methods
power of generator has been changed suddenly, then the dynamic capable to deal with system non-linearities and unknown
responses of generator have been presented with and without
controller. Thereafter, for two states viz normal loading disturbances [6].
condition and heavy loading condition, to show the robustness of In this paper a Fuzzy Logic Controller (FLC) has designed
proposed controller, the system with previous disturbance has for TCPS to damp power system oscillations when the input
been simulated, then the dynamic responses of generator have power of generator has been changed suddenly. The remainder
been shown. The effectiveness of the proposed controller is of the paper is organized as follows. Section II describes the
demonstrated by simulation results.
modeling of proposed system and the TCPS connected in the
I. INTRODUCTION distribution system. Power system linearized model is
For economic and ecological reasons, the building of new presented in Section III. The design of the proposed FLC is
transmission lines and expansion of existing transmission detailed in Section IV. The computer simulation results are
systems are becoming more and more difficult. In this new presented and discussed in Section V. Finally Section VI
situation, it is necessary to utilize the existing power concludes this paper.
transmission system at its maximum capacity to meet II. MODEL OF PROPOSED SYSTEM
increasing demand of electrical energy [1]. Flexible AC
A synchronous machine with an IEEE type 1 excitation
Transmission System (FACTS) controllers are potent tools to
System connected to an infinite bus through a transmission
achieve this Goal. In the steady state, FACTS controllers help
Line has been selected to demonstrate the derivation of
in controlling and increasing the power flow through a line.
simplified linear models of power system for dynamic stability
However, the other important aspect of these controllers is
analysis. Fig. 1 shows the model consists of a generator
their use during large disturbances like faults because of their
supplying bulk power to an infinite bus through a transmission
capability to improve the transient stability condition of a
line, with a TCPS located at its terminal. The equations that
power system [2], also FACTS controllers are capable of
describe the generator and excitation system have been
controlling the network condition in a very fast manner and
represented in following equations:
this feature of FACTS can be exploited to improve the
stability of a power system [3]. Some of the FACTS devices δ = ωD (ω − 1) (1)
are Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM), Static
Var Compensator (SVC), Unified Power Flow Controller Ρm − Ρe − D (ω − 1)
(UPFC), Inter-phase Power Flow Controller (IPFC), Static ω = (2)
Synchronous Series Controller (SSSC), Convertible Series Μ
Compensator (CSC), Thyristor Controlled Series Compensator E fd − ( Χ d − X d′ )id − Eq′
(TCSC), Thyristor Controlled Phase Shifter (TCPS), Super E q′ = (3)
′
τ do
conducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES).The devices
may be connected so as to provide either series compensation
or shunt compensation depending upon their compensating
strategies [4]. TCPS is a device that allows dispatchers to
change the relative phase angle between two system voltages,
thereby helping them to control real power transfers between
the two interconnected power systems. It attenuates the
frequency of oscillations of power flow following a load Fig. 1: Single machine-infinite bus system model with TCPS
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 195

−Κ Ε TABLE I
1
E fd = Ε fd + VR (4) SMIB AND TCPS PARAMETER VALUES
ΤΕ ΤΕ
H = 2.37 s; T'do = 5.9 s; D = 0;
Synchronous Machine
VR =
1
ΤΑ
[
Κ ΑVref − Κ ΑVt − Κ ΑVΕ − VR ] (5)
Xd = 1.7; Xq = 1.64; X'd = 0.245;
KA = 400; TA = 0.05;
Excitation System KF = 0.025; TF = 1;
⎛ − Κ ΕΚ F ⎞ ⎛ ΚF ⎞ ⎛ −1 ⎞ KE = -0.17; TE = 0.95;
VΕ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟Ε fd + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟V R + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟V E (6) Transmission Lines Xe = 0.4; Re = 0.02;
⎝ ΤΕ ΤF ⎠ ⎝ ΤΕ ΤF ⎠ ⎝ ΤF ⎠
TCPS Parameters Kc = 1; Tc = 0.15;
Where Operating Condition Vt = 1; Vb = 1; Pe = 0.9; Qe = 0.17;
Ρe = Vtd Ι d + Vtq Ι q (7) IV. FUZZY LOGIC CONTROLLER
Vt = Vtd + jVtq (8) In 1965, Zadeh proposed Fuzzy logic; it has been
effectively utilized in many field of knowledge to solve such
Vtd = Χ q Ι q (9) control and optimization problems [7]. FLC is a good mean to
control the parameters when there isn't any direct and exact
Vtq = Ε ′q − Χ ′d Ι d (10) relation between input and output of the system, and we only
have some linguistic relations in the If-Then form [8]. The use
C1Ι d + C 2 Ι q = Vb sin(δ ) + C3 Ε′q (11) of fuzzy logic has received increased attention in recent years
because of its usefulness in reducing the need for complex
C 4 Ι d + C 5 Ι q = Vb cos(δ ) − C 6 Ε ′q (12) mathematical models in problem solving [9]. In power system
area, it has been used to stability studies, load frequency
Solving (11) and (12) simultaneously, Id and Iq expressions control, unit commitment, and to reactive compensation in
can be obtained. C1…C6 are constant. δ is the rotor angle, Vb distribution network and other areas. Fuzzy control system is
the infinite bus voltage, ω the rotor speed, Pm the mechanical made from different blocks such as numeral quantity converter
input power, Pe active power, E'q the internal voltage, Efd the to fuzzy quantities (fuzzifier interface) block, the fuzzy logical
excitation voltage, and Vref is the reference voltage. The decision maker section, knowledge base section, and defuzzier
constant values of these equations have been represented in interface block.
Table I. In the inference engine, the fuzzy AND operation is
III. POWER SYSTEM LINEARIZED MODEL implemented by the “min” operator, fuzzy OR operation is
implemented by the “max” operator. The centroid defuzzi-
fication scheme has been used here for obtaining the output
nonlinear model round an operating condition (Pe = 0.9,
(Uc), which is a supplementary Signal of the TCPS control
Qe = -0.17). The linearized model of power system as shown
scheme. By controlling the Uc, φ is controlled (Fig. 2).
in Fig. 1 is given as follows:
Consequently the relative phase angle between generator and
Δδ = ωD Δω (13) infinite bus is controlled. Then the active power flow between
generator and infinite bus is controlled. The following steps
ΔΡm − ΔΡe are involved in designing the fuzzy TCPS controller [10]:
Δω = (14)
Μ 1) Choose the inputs to the FLC. As shown in Fig. 2, only
ΔΕ fd − ( Χ d − Χ ′d )Δi d − ΔΕ' q two inputs, the generator speed deviation (Δω) and generator
ΔE q′ = (15) speed derivative deviation (Δŵ), have been employed in this
′
τ do study. The symbol Uc has been synonymously used to
−Κ Ε 1 represent the output or decision variable of FLC.
ΔE fd = ( )ΔΕ fd + ( )ΔV R (16)
ΤΕ ΤΕ 2) Choose membership functions to represent the inputs in
1 fuzzy set notation. Triangular functions are chosen in this
ΔVR = ( )[Κ Α ΔVref − Κ Α ΔVt − Κ Α ΔV E − ΔV R ] (17) work. Fuzzy representations of generator speed change,
ΤΑ
acceleration, and output variable have been illustrated in
−Κ Ε Κ F Κ −1 Fig. 3. Similar membership functions for the other inputs and
ΔVE = ( )ΔΕ fd + ( F )ΔVR + ( )ΔVΕ (18)
Τ ΕΤF ΤΕ ΤF ΤF the fuzzy TCPS output are also defined. The proper range for
each membership functions and the number of them can be
ΔΡe = Κ 1 Δδ + Κ 2 ΔΕ ′q + Κ 3 ΔΦ (19) defined based on designer experiments and the system
configuration.
ΔVt = Κ 4 Δδ + Κ 5 ΔΕ ′q + Κ 6 ΔΦ (20) 3) A set of decision rules relating the inputs to the output
are compiled and stored in the memory in the form of a
K1, K2, …, K6 are linearization constants.
“decision surface”. The decision surface is provided in Fig. 4.
196
V. SIMULATION RESULTS
Kc
1 + sT c
The performance of the TCPS controller (with FLC
strategies) for stabilization of synchronous generator is
evaluated by computer simulation studies. The SMIB system
was tested with the FLC for various operating conditions. The
system data is given in the table I. The transient performance
of the rotor speed variation, rotor angle variation, terminal
voltage variation, and internal voltage variation are compared
Fig. 2: Model of TCPS controller with FLC
in Figs. 5 and 6, for the nominal operating point following 5%
disturbance on mechanical generator power input for a six-
(a) Degree of membership
1 1 2 3 4 5
cycles fault duration. It is clearly seen that with the inclusion
0.8
of FLC on TCPS controller, electromechanical damping
0.6 characteristics of the system is improved.
0.4 The robustness of the controller was tested by applying the
0.2 fuzzy strategy to a number of operating conditions. Fig. 7
0 shows the system dynamic response for a six-cycle fault
disturbance for rotor speed variation, rotor angle variation,
-5 -2.5 0 2.5 5
Generator speed deviation -4 terminal voltage variation, and internal voltage variation for
x 10 the following 2 loading conditions;
(b) Degree of membership
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
a) Nominal loading: Pe = 0.9 p.u. and Qe = 0.17 p.u.;
0.8
b) Heavy loading: Pe = 1.1 p.u. and Qe = 0.25 p.u.;
0.6
It can be observed the fuzzy control scheme gives very
0.4 good damping profile over a range of operating conditions
0.2 even for severe fault conditions.
0 -3
x 10
-0.015 -0.01 -0.005 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 1.5
Generator speed derivative deviation FLC
1 None
(c) Degree of membership
(a) rotor speed variation
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0.8 0.5
0.6
0
0.4
0.2 -0.5
0
-1
-0.04 -0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
Fuzzy logic controller output
-1.5
Fig. 3: Membership functions of inputs and output 0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (s)
0.04 FLC
0.03 None
Fuzzy controller output
(b) rotor angle variation
0.06 0.02
0.04 0.01
0.02 0
0
-0.01
-0.02
-0.02
-0.03
Spe 0.01 5
ed d 0 -0.04
er iv 0 vi ati on
a t ive -4
dev -0.01 p ee d de x 10 0 3 4 1 2 5
iatio -5 S
n Time (s)
Fig. 5: system dynamic response for a six cycle fault disturbance. (a) rotor
Fig. 4: Decision surface of proposed FLC speed variation, and (b) rotor angle variation.
197
-3 -4
x 10 x 10
5
FLC Heavy
4 Normal
(c) terminal voltage variation
None 4
(a) rotor speed variation

3
2 2
1
0
0
-1 -2
-2
-4
-3
0 1 2 3 4 5
-4 Time (s)
0 1 2 3 4 5 -3
Time (s) x 10
20
-3 Heavy
x 10
4 Normal
15
(b) rotor angle variation

FLC
(d) internal voltage variation
None
2 10
0 5
-2 0
-5
-4 0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (s)
-3
x 10
-6 5
0 3 1 4 2 5 Heavy
4
Time (s)
(c) terminal voltage variation
Normal
Fig. 6: system dynamic response for a six cycle fault disturbance. (c) terminal 3
voltage variation, and (d) internal voltage variation
2
1
VI. CONCLUSION
0
In this paper, a fuzzy logic controller has been proposed for
-1
TCPS to improve the power system damping. Analysis was
-2
carried for TCPS equipped with FLC controller. The proposed
controller has been applied and tested on SMIB power system -3
under 5% disturbance in input power of generator and -4

0 1 2 3 4 5
different loading conditions (normal, heavy). It has been Time (s)
observed that the damping of a SMIB power system can be x 10
-3
2
significantly enhanced with proposed controller and Effective
Heavy
damping control for wide ranges of operation demonstrates the 1
Normal
(d) internal voltage variation
robustness of recommended controller. 0

REFERENCES -1
[1] S. Hameed, B. Das and V. Pant, “A self-tuning fuzzy PI controller for
-2
TCSC to improve power system stability,” International journal of
Electric Power Systems Research, pp. 1726-1735, 2008. -3
[2] D. Chatterjee, and A. Ghosh, “TCSC control design for transient
stability improvement of a multi-machine power system using trajectory -4
sensitivity,” International journal of Electric Power Systems Research,
pp. 470-483, 2007. -5
[3] S. Panda, and N. Padhy, “Comparison of particle swarm optimization
and genetic algorithm for FACTS-based controller design,” -6
0 1 2 3 4 5
International journal of Applied Soft Computing, pp. 1418-1427, 2008. Time (s)
[4] R. Jayabarathi, M.R Sindhu, N. Devarajan , and T.N.P. Nambiar, Fig. 7: system dynamic response for a six cycle fault disturbance with normal,
“Development of a Laboratory Model of Hybrid Static Var light and heavy loading. (a) rotor speed variation, (b) rotor angle variation, (c)
Compensator,” IEEE conference, 2006. terminal voltage variation, and (d) internal voltage variation
198
[5] R.J. Abraham, D. Das and A. Patra, “Effect of TCPS on oscillations in [8] M. Joorabian, M. Razzaz, M. Ebadi, and M. Moghaddasian, “Employing
tie-power and area frequencies in an interconnected hydrothermal power Fuzzy Logic in Damping Power System Oscillations Using SVC,” IEEE
system,” IET Gener. Transm. Distri., pp. 632-639,2007. International Conference on Electrical Engineering, pp. 1-5, Mar. 2008.
[6] Tso SK, Liang J, Zeng QY, Lo KL, Zhou XX, “Coordination of TCSC [9] H. N. Ng, M. M. A. Salama and A.Y. Chikhani, “Classification of
and SVC for stability improvement of power systems,” Proceedings of capacitor allocation techniques,” IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 15,
the fourth international conference on advances in power system control, No. 1, pp. 387-392, 2000.
operation and mangement, pp. 371-376, 1997. [10] H.A.Toliat, J. Sadeh and R. Ghazi, “Design of augmented fuzzy logic
[7] Zadeh, L., “Fuzzy sets”, Information and Control, 8, 1965. power system stabilizers to enhance power system stability,” IEEE
Trans. Energy Conversion, vol. 11, No.1, pp. 97-103, 1996.
199
NEW STRUCTURE FOR HIGH SPEED AND

VARIABLE SPEED WIND TURBINE BASED
SWITCHED RELUCTANCE GENERATOR
H. Kazemi Karegar, M.Yazdi, A.Siadatan
Department of Electrical Eng.
Faculty of Electrical & Computer Eng.
Shahid Beheshti University G.C.
Evin, Tehran, IRAN
h_kazemi@sbu.ac.ir,a_siadatan@sbu.ac.ir
Abstract- This paper presents a new structure for a variable operation in high speed wind. Small wind turbines often
high speed and variable speed wind turbine based on a 12/8 have direct drive generators, direct current output, aero
switched reluctance generator (SRG). SR machines have a elastic blades, bearings with long lifetime, and vane to point
robust and simple structure because they have no windings or into the wind.
permanent magnets on the rotor, so they are capable of
There are technical and economical challenges in
working at high speed applications and rough conditions. A
SRG can be used as a reliable stand-alone generator due to connection with installation, operation and maintenance for
several reasons such as high power density, low maintenance, wind turbines [2]. In order to having more economical wind
high robustness, and high efficiency. In this paper, basic turbines there is a trend to opt more robust and reliable
equations of two operation modes of SRG are extracted. The systems. Robustness and reliability are very important to the
simulation results of the output waveforms of SRG used as high economic operation of the wind turbines. On the other hand,
speed stand-alone generator are presented. The impacts of Selecting wind generator that can make wind generation
variations in wind speed are discussed. more economical is one of the most significant challenges
Index terms—Switched reluctance generator, wind energy, that exist in generating electricity from the wind. Usually
variable speed, stand-alone generator.
Induction generators, permanent magnet (PM) generators,
I. INTRODUCTION and field wound synchronous generators are used for wind
generation. The majority of wind turbines are based on
Wind energy is one of the renewable energy sources that
doubly-fed induction generators (DFIG). However, Because
can play a crucial role in controlling the air pollution by
of their limited rotor converter rating, DFIGs may have
reducing the carbon dioxide [1]. The danger of green house
serious problems with over currents during voltage dips [3].
gas emissions has been accepted by international
Also this generator has other drawbacks such as winding
community. Therefore finding the procedures and policies is
losses and low efficiencies. In addition, DFIG must use the
very critical to control this danger. Due to many reasons
multi stage gearbox that is unreliable and expensive.
such as slight green house effect compared with any other
Therefore there is a trend to use direct drive systems such as
energy sources, taking short time for construction, having
permanent magnets or field wound synchronous generators.
long work life, and having low cost and maintenance,
For small wind generators, the permanent magnet generators
electricity generation from wind has become more popular
are the very common choice. These generators have better
worldwide.
torque density than field wound generators. However, PM
Large-scaled wind turbines have disadvantages such as
generators require high torque to run [4]. Field wound
difficulty to install that need very tall and expensive cranes
synchronous generator needs to use brushes to excite the
and difficulty to transport that Transportation can amount to
field winding of machine. Hence the presence of brushes in
20% of equipment costs nowadays. Large-scaled turbine
this generator leads to more maintenance cost of the system.
requires gear box to convert wind speed to high speed of
To overcome the mentioned problems about induction
rotor. On account of large size of large-scaled wind turbines,
generator, PM generator, and field wound synchronous
it’s not possible to install them at all places. On the other
generator, switched reluctance machine is being investigated
hand, small wind turbines that they have small size and they
as a best solution for such applications.
produce small MW have many advantages such as easy
Switched reluctance machine has robust and simple
transportation from manufactory to target place, easy
structure because it has no windings or permanent magnets
installation in every where e.g. near any load center and easy
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 200

on the rotor, so it is capable of working at high speed recently with the advance in power electronic devices these
application and at rough condition. The main advantages of problems can be removed by accurate control of driving
switched reluctance machine are high efficiency, simple circuit.
topology, no starting torque required to start and robustness.
Switched reluctance machine innately is a variable speed
machine. The variable speed operation in wind generation
leads to extract extra energy from the wind stream and to
decrease the mechanical stresses within the system [5-12].
Recently, many studies on switched reluctance machine
in various applications such as wind generation have been
made. In [2] the application of switched reluctance generator
in direct drive wind turbine was discussed. The test results
confirm high efficiency of switched reluctance machine from
full load to part loads, which is very important for wind
generation. In [13] switched reluctance machine was
considered as complementary wind power generation in grid
connection. The experimental results have shown that the
switched reluctance generator in terms of constant speed is
stable and at variable speed condition works well. Also many Fig. 1. Basic configuration of the three phases 12/8 SRM.
studies have been made on controlling of SRG for wind
generation application in order to reduce its drawbacks [14]. In this machine energy conversion is based on inductance
This paper presents a new structure for high speed wind variation. The tendency of the rotor to move toward the
turbine based on switched reluctance generator for using in direction that the inductance of the excited phase is increased
one-phase application e.g. in areas where are far from the produces torque in switched reluctance motor. The tendency
electricity network. Section II presents SRG operation of rotor to resist changing the position where the inductance
principles. In this section, a brief description of SRG energy of excited phase is maximized produces power in switched
conversion is presented, and the basic equations of two reluctance generator. The SRG is compatible with all
operation modes of the SRG, exciting and generating modes, applications that need variable-speed operation because it
is extracted. Section III presents simulation results for the has the switched nature. In motoring mode of switch
wind turbine base SRG. This section discusses the impact of reluctance machine during the time that a rotor pole move
changes in the wind speed and the impact of changes in the toward a stator pole increasing inductance of its related
DC voltage on the generator output power, output voltage, phase, the winding of this phase is on. If this action is being
output voltage ripple, and output power ripple. The done continually with the other phase, rotor begins to
simulation results confirm that switched reluctance generator rotation and torque is produced. In generating mode of
is suitable for such application. switch reluctance machine, generally when a rotor pole is
aligned with a stator pole the phase related to that stator pole
II. SWITCHED RELUCTANCE GENERATOR OPERATION become turn on to resist moving rotor and this action saves
PRINCIPLES energy in magnetic field and produce power. Therefore it is
essential for this machine to have a driving system that can
Switched reluctance machine that is attended worldwide identify the rotor position and can switch on or off proper
recently has very simple structure that causes low phase in according to rotor position.
manufacturing cost. Fig. 1 illustrates a basic configuration of As mentioned above, the SR machine has a set of
the 12/8 and three phases SRM that used in this paper. The windings on its stator while there is no winding on rotor, so
phase windings of machine are placed on stator poles and this machine should be have a drive system to turn on and
there is no winding or magnet on rotor poles. This doubly off stator’s phases in particular time that is determined by
salient structure gives several advantages such as high rotor position so that this machine be able to do its
efficiency and no electric losses in rotor, small moment of anticipated duty and energy conversion is done continuously.
inertia, fast response, low manufacturing cost and ability to By use of this approach, stator’s phase winding acts as a
work in high speed and high temperature operation all field winding during the period that the winding is excited
because of the lack of winding in rotor poles, and high and acts as an armature winding during the period that the
reliability because of the independency of each phase winding is off and produces electrical energy in this period.
winding of the machine of the others. However the switched Fig. 2 illustrates the relation between phase inductance of
reluctance machine has few disadvantages such as acoustic SRM and rotor position angle θ .
noise and torque ripple due to its salient pole structure that
201
La, Lb and Lc show the inductance of windings of phase
A, B and C, respectively and resistor r is winding resistance
of each phase. In Fig. 3, the two transistors per phase turn on
and turn off simultaneous. In a SRG at each moment, there is
only one phase that is turned on by turning on the two
transistors across it. Therefore at each moment there is only
one phase that is connected to DC power supply. When the
two transistors across one phase are turned on and the phase
is excited by DC power supply, the electrical energy of DC
power supply and mechanical energy of prime mover are
converted into magnetic field energy in phase winding.
When the switches are turned off, the magnetic field energy
of this phase is supplied to the resistance load through
Fig. 2. Idealized phase inductance versus rotor position curve freewheeling diodes. Hence each phase of a SRG has two
operation modes, exciting mode that the phase is connected
to the DC source and generating mode that the phase is
As shown in Fig. 2 to use SRM as a generator, the phases separated from DC source and is connected to load, and the
should be turn on at the negative slope of the phase stored energy in the windings of the phase is supplied to load
inductance profile i.e. when dL dθ < 0 . This point can be [14]. Fig. 4(a) shows equivalent circuit of one phase of SRG
confirmed by attention to SRM’s torque formula in (1). when the switches of this phase are turned on and the DC
1 dL power supply excites the windings of the phase. Equations
τ = i2 (1) (2) - (5) describe the dynamics of one phase of SRG for Fig.
2 dθ
4(a).
The equation indicates that in the region of dL dθ < 0 the
VDC = e ph + r.i ph (2)
torque is negative, so using the machine in this region is
consistent with generator operation. As mentioned above,
SRM needs a drive system that identifies rotor position and Where eph is the voltage across the phase and iph is the
then switches proper phase on or off corresponding to rotor current that flows through the phase.
position. The basic schematic of a three-phase asymmetric
dϕ ph
bridge converter used in the drive system in this paper for e ph = − N ph (3)
switched reluctance generator is shown in Fig. 3. dt
Where ϕ ph is the phase flux and Nph is the number of

windings of the phase. Because ϕ ph = L ph .i ph ,
d ( L ph .i ph ) di ph dL ph
e ph = − N ph = − N ph .( L ph + i ph .ω m ) (4)
dt dt dθ
Substituting (4) in (2)
dL ph di ph
VDC = − N ph .i ph .ωm − N ph .L ph + r.i ph (5)
dθ dt
Where d θ dt = ω m and ω m is the rotational speed of rotor.

Equation (5) is the basic voltage of one phase if the phase is
Fig. 3. Basic schematic of three phase converter for switched reluctance turning on. The first term on the right hand of (5) is the back
generator EMF that the generated electrical power is proportional to
this term. Fig. 4(b) shows equivalent circuit of the same
phase of SRG when the switches are turned off. In this case
202
the inductance current that can’t be zero immediately flows can reduce output voltage ripple and thereby current ripple
through freewheeling diodes and supplies resistance load. and power ripple. However, capacitor amount selection is an
Equations (6) - (8) describe the dynamics of the phase of important point because there is a tradeoff between higher
SRG for Fig. 4(b). current load and lower ripple. Although higher capacitor
amount can reduce output waveform ripple, it can result in
e ph = r.i ph + RL .i ph (6) attract (pull) more output current into capacitor branch and
lessen load current and load power.
Substituting eph from (3) into (6), TABLE I
dϕ ph SRG DRIVE SYSTEM PARAMETERS

N ph = r.i ph + RL .i ph (7)
dt
Number of Stator 12 Number of winding per pole 30
Substituting ϕ ph from (4) into (7), pole
Number of rotor pole 8 Arc of stator pole (degree) 14

dL ph di ph
N ph .i ph .ω m + N ph .L ph = r.i ph + RL .i ph (8)
dθ dt Maximum
inductance (mH)
45 Arc of rotor pole (degree) 16
Minimum inductance 5 Turn on angle (phase A) 1

(mH)
Resistance per phase 1 Turn off angle(phase A) 14

(ohm)
Fig. 4. Operation modes of the phases of SRG. (a) Exciting mode. (b)
Generating mode.
Fig. 5. SRG wind turbine system

III. SIMULATION RESULTS
In this paper a switched reluctance generator for using in
high speed wind turbine in wind generation is simulated. As
mentioned in part I, this kind of turbines has many
advantages such as small size and high power density. Also
it is very useful and easy to use this stand alone turbine in
area where is far from electricity network. The parameters of
the SRG drive system simulated in this study is shown in
Table I. Fig. 5 shows the SRG based wind turbine connected
to one-phase network. As seen in the figure a capacitor is
used for reducing voltage ripple. Fig. 6 shows the simulation
results of output waveforms of SRG without using the
capacitor at DC voltage 60 volt, revolution speed 500 r.p.m,
and load resistance 50 ohm. In the figure, the phases current Fig. 6. The waveforms of SRG without using capacitor at the output
ia, ib and ic, and load current, load voltage, load power and terminal
source current are shown. Using capacitor in output terminal
203
In this study the acceptable voltage ripple about 8% is
selected that result in capacitor amount about 0.3 uF. In Fig.
7 the phases current, load current, output voltage, and load
power are shown. As mentioned, it is obvious that the load
current in the case with capacitor become more less than that
in the case without capacitor. Fig. 8 shows variations of
output voltage, output power, output voltage ripple and
output power ripple when the value of the DC voltage is
varied from 10v to 100v and rotor speed is 500 r.p.m. As we
can see in the figure, the variations of ∆Vripple and ∆Pripple are
far smaller that the variations of Vout and Pout. Also the
variations of Vout and ∆Vripple are linear while the variations
of Pout and ∆Pripple are not linear. Fig. 9 shows the variations
of output voltage versus the variations of rotor speed at four
Fig. 9. Variation of output voltage versus rotor speed for various value of
values of DC voltage. Fig. 10 shows the variations of output DC voltage
voltage, output power, output voltage ripple and output
power ripple versus the variations of rotor speed. In this case
the value of DC voltage is considered 60v. As seen in Fig.9
and Fig. 10, this generator can produce approximately fix
output voltage and output power while the speed of rotor is
changed.
Fig. 7. The waveforms of SRG with using capacitor at the output terminal
Fig. 10. Variation of output voltage, output power and the ripple of these
signals versus rotor speed for DC voltage 60 volts.
IV. CONCLUSION
This paper has presented a new structure for high speed
and variable speed wind turbine based a 12/8 switched
reluctance generator (SRG). The basic equations of two
operation modes of the SRG, exciting and generating modes,
is extracted. Using these equations, the SRG in high speed
and variable speed wind turbine system is simulated. This
simulation extract output waveforms of the system such as
phases current, output voltage, output current and output
power in two case of presence and absence of terminal
capacitor. Furthermore, this study examines the impact of
variation in wind speed in range of 400 r.p.m to 600 r.p.m
Fig. 8. Variations of the output voltage, output power and the ripple of and the impact of variation in DC voltage of converter in
these signals versus various value of DC voltage for rotor speed 500 r.p.m. range of 10 v to 100 v, on the output signals of the generator
204
such as output power, output voltage, output voltage ripple,
and output power ripple. The simulation results verify that
SRG has reasonable and interesting features to be used as a [14] Augusto Fleury , Darizon Alves de Andrade, Felippe dos Santos e
generator especially as a stand-alone that this paper focuses Silva, Jose Luis Domingos, “Switched Reluctance Generator for
on it. complementary Wind Power Generation in Grid Connection”, IEEE
International Conference on: Electric Machines & Drives, Volume: 1
page(s): 465 – 470,may 2007.
V. REFERENCES
[15] A. Takahashi, H. Goto, K. Nakamura, T. Watanabe, and O.
[1] M. Nassereddine J. Rizk M. Nagrial, “Analysis and performance o f a Ichinokura, “Characteristics of 8/6 Switched Reluctance Generator
Switched Reluctance Generator for wind energy conversion”, pp.56- Excited by Suppression Resistor Converter”, IEEE transactions on
64,2006 Magnet, vol. 42, no. 10, Oct.2006.
[2] M. A. Mueller, “Design and Performance of a 20kW, 100rpm,

Switched Reluctance Generator for a Direct Drive Wind Energy
Converter”, IEEE International Conference on Electric Machines and
Drives, page(s): 56-63, 2005.
[3] Y. He, J. Hu and Z. Rende, “Modelling and Control of Wind-Turbine

Used DFIG Under Network Fault Conditions” Proceedings of the
Eighth International Conf. on Electrcal Machines and Systems, vol. 2,
pp. 986-991, Sept. 2005.
[4] M. Nassereddine, J. Rizk, and M. Nagrial, “Switched Reluctance

Generator for Wind Power Applications”, World Academy of Science,
Engineering and Technology 41 2008.
[5] David A. Torrey, “Switched Reluctance Generators and Their

Control”, IEEE transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol. 49, no. 1,
Feb. 2002.
[6] "Alireza Siadatan, Ebrahim Afjei", A Stepped Two-Phase Configuration

for Switched-Reluctance Motor with High Starting Torque, Majlesi
Journal of Electrical Engineering, pages: 51-57, Vol. 4, No. 1, 2010.
[7] "E.Afjei, A.Seyadatan, H.Torkaman", A New Two Phase Bidirectional

Hybrid Switched Reluctance Motor/Field-Assisted Generator, Journal
Applied Sciences, Pages: 765-770, 2009.
[8] "Afjei.E, Siadatan .A.R", A novel two phase hybrid switched reluctance
motor/field-assisted generator: Concept, simulation, and experimental
confirmation, International Journal of Engineering, Transactions B:
Applications, Pages 357-368, Volume 22, Issue 4, 2009.
[9] "E. Afjei , B. Mazloomnezhad, A. Seyadatan", A Novel Two Phase

Configuration for Switched Reluctance Motor with High Starting
Torque, SPEEDAM 2008, ITALY, 2008.
[10] "A.Siadatan, E.Afjei, M.Asgar", Comprehends and Survey Two Type

of Two Phase Switched Reluctance Motor Configuration, PSC2008,
IRAN, 2008.
[11] "A.Siadatan, E.Afjei, M.S.Toulabi", A New Hybrid Two Phase

Switched Reluctance Motor/Generator, EPE2009, Barcelona, SPAIN,
2009.
[12] "A.Siadatan, M.S.Toulabi, E.Afjei", Magnetostatic Analysis of a Field

Assisted Switched Reluctance Generator, ICEAA2009, Torino,
ITALY, 2009.
[13] "E. Afjei, A. Siadatan and S. Ataei", New Hybrid Reluctance Motor/
Field-Assisted Generator, Speedom 2008, ITALY, 2008.
205
FEA-Based Design and Parameter Optimization

Study of 6-Slot 5-Pole PMFSM with Field
Excitation for Hybrid Electric Vehicle
E. Sulaiman*, T. Kosaka** and N. Matsui**
* University Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Johor, Malaysia. Email: erwan@uthm.edu.my
** Nagoya Institute of Technology, Nagoya, Japan. Email: kosaka@nitech.ac.jp
Abstract—Permanent magnet flux switching machine researches and developments of non- or less-rare-earth
(PMFSM) with additional coil excitation has several magnet machines would be very important [7-8].
attractive features compared to interior permanent magnet As one example of the successfully developed HEV,
synchronous machines (IPMSM) conventionally employed the historical progress in the power density of main
in HEVs. The variable flux control capability and robust traction motor installed on TOYOTA HEV has showed
rotor structure make this machine becoming more that the power density of each motor employed in LEXUS
attractive to apply for high speed motor drive system RX400h ’05 and GS450h ‘06 has been improved
coupled with reduction gear. This paper presents an approximately five times and more, respectively,
investigation into design possibility and parameter compared to that installed on Prius ’97 [9]. On the other
optimization study of 6-slot 5-pole PMFSM with hybrid
hand, although the torque density of each motor has been
excitation for traction drives in HEVs. The design target is
hardly changed, a reduction gear has enabled to elevate
the motor with maximum power more than 123kW and
the axle torque necessary for propelling the large vehicles
maximum power density more than 3.5kW/kg. A reduction
of permanent magnet material for a given torque
such as RX400h and GS450h. As one of effective
requirement and an extension in speed and torque ranges
strategies for increasing the motor power density, the
are chosen as the optimization indices. The designed motor
technological tendency to employ the combination of a
enables to keep the same power density in existing IPMSM high-speed machine and a reduction gear would be
installed on a commercial SUV-HEV. accelerated.
In other circumstances, Permanent Magnet Flux
Keywords — Permanent Magnet Flux Switching Machine Switching Machines (PMFSM) has been a popular
(PMFSM); Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV); Field Excitation; research topic due to its high power density and robust
Finite Element Analysis. rotor structure [10-12]. With both permanent magnets and
armature windings located at the stator and robust single
I. INTRODUCTION piece rotor similar to that of the switched reluctance
machine, PMFSM have the advantages of easy cooling of
With ever increasing concerns about environmental
all active parts, and better suitability for high speed drives
protection and energy conservation, the use of Hybrid
compared to conventional PM machines.
Electric Vehicle (HEV) for road transportation is
becoming increasingly attractive. To enable HEV to To provide further attractive characteristics, a new
directly compete with gasoline vehicles, an electric motor structure of 6-slot 5-pole PMFSM with additional
installed on HEV aims to pursue high efficiency, high excitation has been proposed by the author as illustrated
power density, high controllability, wide speed range and in Fig. 1. The additional excitation coils are also located
maintenance-free operation [1-3]. at the stator side which gives extra advantage to the
machine as a secondary flux sources. On the other hand,
Over the past decade, many automotive companies the additional excitation on the stator can improve
have been commercializing HEV in which Permanent
maximum torque and maximum power with the
Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM) using rare-earth
assistance of variable flux control capability [13]. Fig. 2
magnet has been employed as the main traction drives. illustrates the direction of flux paths caused by permanent
This is due to the restriction of motor size to ensure magnet and mmf of excitation coil in this machine. The
enough passenger space and the limitation of motor
presence of excitation coil makes these types of machines
weight to reduce fuel consumption [4-6]. However, a
more attractive in terms of modulating the permanent
dramatic increase in usage of the rare-earth magnet would magnet flux. Basically, the principle of this machine is
cause serious problems such as increasing in the price of similar to 12-slot 10-pole machine discussed in [14-17].
the rare-earth magnet, security and undersupply.
This type of machine is classified into hybrid excitation
Moreover, according to the report released by Mineral
machines (HEM) which are also becoming more popular
Resource Information Center affiliated to Japan Oil, Gas over the years [18-20].
and Metals National Corporation, an increase in annual
usage of rare-earth magnet, Nd2Fe14B, have brought about After some design refinements and improvements
the price-up of rare-earth metals not only Neodymium especially on the rotor radius and field excitation slot
(Nd) but also Dysprosium (Dy) and Terbium (Tb) which are area, this machine is capable to operate at desired
indispensable to provide the rare-earth magnet with high performance. However, the final design of 6-slot 5-pole
coercivity as the additives. Therefore, the continuous PMFSM with field excitation shown in Ref [13] has
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 206

Stator yoke Permanent Magnet Excitation coil obtain 0% permanent magnet demagnetization at high
thermal condition as high as 180C° with better torque-
speed characteristics and power production. In addition, a
comparison between the rotor mechanical strength, the
loss and the efficiency for both condition are also
predicted.
II. DESIGN RESTRICTION AND SPECIFICATIONS FOR
HEV APPLICATIONS
Armature Coil
The design restrictions and target specifications of the
proposed machine for HEV applications are listed in
Shaft Table I. The table includes the available and estimated
specifications of the IPMSM for LEXUS RX400h [21].
The electrical restrictions related with the inverter are set
Rotor to be much severe. Assuming that only a water cooling
system is employed as the cooling system of the machine,
the limit of the current density is set to the maximum of
20Arms/mm2 for armature winding and 20A/mm2 for
excitation coil. The outer diameter and the stack length of
main part of the target machine are identical with those of
IPMSM. Initially, the permanent magnet weight of the
design machine is set to 1.0kg and the parameter
Fig. 1. 6-slot 5-pole Permanent Magnet Flux Switching Machine optimization is made to realize the target performances.
(PMFSM) with additional field excitation Then, the volume of permanent magnet is reduced to
0.5kg and the same method of optimization is treated to
Excitation flux the machine.
Since the rotor structure is mechanically robust to rotate
at high speed because it consists of only stacked soft iron
sheets, the target maximum operating speed is elevated up
to 20,000r/min. The target maximum torque 210Nm is
determined from a realization of comparable maximum
axle torque with the present IPMSM via reduction gear
with ratio of 4:1. The maximum power and the target
motor weight to be designed are set to be more than
123kW and less than 35kg, resulting in that the proposed
machine promises to achieve the maximum power density
of 3.5kW/kg similar with the estimate of IPMSM.
Commercial FEA package, JMAG-Studio ver.9.1,
Permanent magnet flux released by Japan Research Institute is used as 2D-FEA
Fig. 2. Flux paths of permanent magnet and excitation coil in 6-slot-5- solver for this design. The permanent magnet material is
pole machine NEOMAX 35AH whose residual flux density and
TABLE I
PMFSM DESIGN RESTRICTIONS AND SPECIFICATIONS FOR HEV
APPLICATIONS.
Items IPMSM PMFSM
RX400h
Max. DC-bus voltage inverter (V) 650 650
Max. inverter current (Arms) Confidential 240
Max. current density in armature Confidential 20
winding, Ja (Arms/mm2)
(a) flux density contour (b) flux density vector Max. current density in excitation NA 20
winding, Je (A/mm2)
Fig. 3. Permanent magnet demagnetization for rotor position at 50° Stator outer diameter (mm) 264 264
electrical during high temperature (180C°) Motor stack length (mm) 70 70
Shaft radius (mm) 30 30
limitation of operating in high thermal condition resulting Air gap length (mm) 0.8 0.8
in permanent magnet demagnetization as high as 11.9% Permanent magnet weight (kg) 1.1 1.0 / 0.5
as shown in Fig. 3. (estimated)
Maximum speed (r/min) 12,400 20,000
This paper presents an investigation into parameter
Maximum torque (Nm) 333 > 210
optimization study of 6-slot 5-pole PMFSM with field Reduction gear ratio 2.478 4
excitation for traction drives in HEV having permanent Max. axle torque via reduction gear 825 > 840
magnet volume of 1.0kg and 0.5kg respectively. Some (Nm)
design refinements based on 2D-FEA are conducted to Max. power (kW) 123 > 123
improve the drawback of originally design machine. Power density (kW/kg) 3.5 > 3.5
Moreover, the parameter optimization study is treated to
207
TABLE II
dominant parameter to improve the maximum torque. The
PERMANENT MAGNET DEMAGNETIZATION AT SEVERAL obtained torque characteristic versus D1 is shown in Fig.
COMBINATIONS OF HAG-PM, HE-PM AND D4 6. The torque is maximized when the rotor radius reaches
Hag-pm (mm) 5.0 6.0 7.0 88.2mm. Then, keeping D1 = 88.2mm, the rotor pole
D4 (mm) 15.0 14.0 13.0 depth D2 and the rotor pole width D3 are adjusted. Fig. 7
He-pm (mm) 1.0 1.0 1.0 illustrated the torque vs. rotor pole width, D3 for various
T (Nm) 191.9 178.7 168.9 rotor pole depths D2. The torque is maximized when D2 is
r/min 5890 6031 6260 38.2mm and D3 is 18.5mm, respectively.
pf 0.62 0.59 0.58 The third step of the design is done by changing the
P (kW) 118.4 112.9 110.7
excitation slot parameters D4, D5 and D6. Initially, the
D 1.43% 0% 0%
excitation slot area Se is determined according to
variations of D4, D5 and D6 while keeping the rotor shape
parameters and the slot area of armature winding Sa
D6 constant. Fig. 8 demonstrates the torque vs. D5 for
D4
Se different D4 and D6. The maximum torque is obtained
PM
D2 when D4 is 12.0mm, D5 is 35.3mm and D6 is 9.4mm,
respectively.
Then, the fourth step is carried out to the armature slot
185
Torque [Nm]
D5
D3 Sa D8 180
Shaft
175
D1 D7
170
Fig. 4. Design parameters of D1 to D8 for 6-Slot 5-Pole PMFSM
165
He-pm 160
155
D4
86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93
Excitation Rotor radius, D1 [mm]
Hag-pm slot area, Se
Fig. 6. Torque versus rotor radius D1 characteristic
Permanent
Magnet
182.0
Torque [Nm]
181.5
Air 181.0
180.5
Stator body
180.0
179.5
Fig. 5. Additional parameters defined between permanent magnet, D2=43.2
D2=43.2
179.0
inner stator body and inner excitation slot area D2=38.2
D2=38.2
178.5 D2=33.2
D2=33.2
coercive force at 20C° are 1.2T and 932kA/m, 178.0
respectively. The electrical steel, 35H210 is used for rotor 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
and stator body. Rotor pole width, D2 [mm]
Fig. 7. Torque versus rotor pole width, D2 for various rotor pole
III. DESIGN PARAMETERS AND PROCEDURES depth, D3
Initially, design free parameters D1 to D8 are defined as
189.5
shown in Fig. 4. However, since the demagnetization is
Torque[Nm]
located at the upper and lower edges of permanent magnet 189.0 D5=34, D
D5=34.3, 6=8.4
D6=8.4
D5=34, D
D5=34.3, 6=9.4
D6=9.4
as shown in Fig. 3, two additional design free parameters D
188.5 5=34, D
D5=34.3, 6=10.4
D6=10.4
i.e., height between air gap and permanent magnet, Hag-pm D5=35, D
D5=35.3, 6=8.4
D6=8.4
and height between excitation coil and permanent magnet, 188.0 D5=35, D
D5=35.3, 6=9.4
D6=9.4
He-pm are defined as illustrated in Fig. 5. The 0% D5=35, D
D5=35.3, 6=10.4
D6=10.4
demagnetization is predicted by changing Hag-pm, He-pm, 187.5 D5=36, D
D5=36.3, 6=8.4
D6=8.4
and D4 while keeping other parameters constant. It is 187.0 D5=36, D
D5=36.3, 6=9.4
D6=9.4
found that the combination of 6.0mm of Hag-pm, 1.0mm of D5=36, D

D5=36.3, 6=10.4
D6=10.4
He-pm and 14.0mm of D4 give 0% demagnetization at 186.5

maximum torque-power of 178.7Nm and 112.9kW 186.0
respectively as shown in Table II. 11.0 11.5 12.0 12.5 13.0
Then, the second step is carried out by updating the Permanent magnet height, D4 [mm]
rotor parameters, D1, D2 and D3 while keeping the other Fig. 8. Torque versus permanent magnet height, D4 for various
parameters constant. Since the torque increases with the excitation coil pitch, D5 and stator outer core thickness, D6
increase in the rotor radius, D1 is considered as the
208
area Sa with keeping all parameters discussed above density condition.
constant. The necessary armature slot area Sa is In effort to use less-rare-earth magnet, the volume of
determined by varying armature coil height, D7 and permanent magnet from the final design above, is reduced
armature coil width, D8 to accommodate integer number to 0.5kg by reducing the permanent magnet width while
of turns, Na for armature coil. The plot of torque versus Na keeping the Hag-pm and He-pm constant. The performance of
is depicted in Fig. 9. The torque and power obtained is the machine with various permanent magnet volumes
well balanced when Na is 16 turns, D7 is 27.0mm and D8 ranging from 1.0kg to 0.4kg is depicted in Fig. 10. From
is 13.0mm, respectively. the figure, the machine having permanent magnet less
This design method is treated repeatedly from step 1 to than 0.4kg is suffered with much demagnetization as high
step 4 until the target torque and power are satisfied. The as 83%. Therefore, the minimum 500g of permanent
final maximum torque and power achieved are 211.7Nm magnet is selected as initial design for the next design
and 123.1kW respectively which met the target motor.
requirements. All design parameters are adjusted with The initial torque and power obtained at this condition
keeping the permanent magnet volume of 1.0kg and air are 186.7Nm and 110.7KW with 23% demagnetization
gap length of 0.8mm constant under the maximum current which is far from the target requirements. Similarly, the
same parameter optimization method discussed above is
treated to get optimum torque and power of the new
Power (kW)
Torque (Nm)
200 140
195 design machine. The final optimum torque achieved is
130
202.9Nm with 130.5kW power.
190 120 At the end of the design stage, the corners circled in Fig.
185
110 5 are designed for the flux to flow smoothly and to ensure
180 high mechanical strength of the rotor. The comparison
100
175 T
Torque between both designs parameters appear in Table III. The
170 Power
P 90 final design of the machines is shown in Fig. 11. The
165 80 estimated weight of the former machine is 26.2kg and the
latter is 26.7kg respectively. It is obvious that the design
160 70
with fewer magnets has larger stator and rotor volume to
12 13 14
15 16 17 18 keep the same performances.
No. of armature coil turn, Na
Fig. 9. Torque and power versus number of turns of armature coil IV. DESIGN RESULTS AND PERFORMANCE BASED ON
FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
220 100%
Demagnetization
Torque [Nm]
90% A. Torque and Power versus Speed Characteristics

210 80% The torque and power versus speed curves of both
70% designed motor are plotted in Fig. 12. For the design with
200 60% 1.0kg magnet, the maximum torque obtained at base speed
50% 5,556r/min is 211.7Nm and the corresponding power
190 Torque 40% reaches 123.1kW with the power factor of 0.64. The
Demagnetization 30% average power of 131.7kW is achieved between 5,000 -
180 20% 7,000r/min. The maximum torque density and power
10% density are 8.1Nm/kg and 5.2kW/kg, respectively.
170 0% On the other hand, for the design with 0.5kg magnet,
0.30 0.50 0.70
0.90 1.10
PM weight [kg] TABLE III
Fig. 10. Torque and demagnetization ratio versus permanent magnet FINAL DESIGN PARAMETERS
weight Details PMFSM PMFSM
1.0kg 0.5kg
D1 Rotor radius (mm) 85.6 87.2
D2 Rotor pole depth (mm) 37.6 37.2
D3 Rotor pole width (mm) 14.7 17.46
D4 Permanent magnet length (mm) 13.8 8.9
D5 Excitation coil pitch (mm) 35.3 36.3
D6 Stator outer core thickness 10.4 12.4
(excitation side) (mm)
D7 Armature coil height (mm) 29.26 28.71
D8 Armature coil width (mm) 12.0 12.98
Hag- Distance between air gap and 4.5 5.6
pm permanent magnet (mm)
He- Distance between excitation coil 0.3 0.5
pm and permanent magnet (mm)
Na No. of turns of armature coil 16 15
D Demagnetization ratio (%) 0.0 0.0
ATe Excitation coil ampere turn (AT) 4501.5 4461.3
Sa Armature coil area (mm2) 349.1 327.3
Se Excitation coil area (mm2) 375.1 343.2
T Torque (Nm) 211.66 202.9
Fig. 11. Final design with 0.5kg permanent magnet P Power (kW) 123.1 130.5
209
the maximum torque obtained at base speed 6,140r/min is in this machine has 0% demagnetization even if it is
202.9Nm with the power factor of 0.68. The operated at higher temperature as high as 180°C.
corresponding power reaches 130.5kW which is much
higher than the target 123kW power. The average power C. Rotor Stress Prediction at 20,000rpm
of 135.5kW is achieved between 5,000 - 7,000r/min. The The mechanical stress prediction of the rotor structure
maximum torque density and power density are 7.6Nm/kg at the maximum speed 20,000r/min is executed by
and 5.1kW/kg, respectively, which meet the target centrifugal force analysis based on 2D-FEA. The stress
requirement for the HEV drive. distribution of the rotor is illustrated in Fig. 14. The
maximum principal stress for each design are 92.2MPa
B. Magnet Demagnetization at High Temperature and 107.4MPa, respectively, which is lower than the
The demagnetization of permanent magnet in this original design and much smaller than 300MPa being
machine is defined as the ratio of the volume of allowable as the maximum principal stress in
permanent magnet demagnetized to the total volume of conventional electromagnetic steel. This is a great
permanent magnet. The knee point on the advantage of PMFSM with robust rotor structure that
demagnetization curve for NEOMAX 35AH is referred to makes it applicable for high-speed application compare to
identify whether an element of permanent magnet is IPMSM.
demagnetized or not. Fig. 13 illustrates the flux density
contour diagram and flux density vector diagram of D. Motor Loss and Efficiency
permanent magnet for rotor position 50° electrical. The Fig. 15 demonstrates specific frequent operating points
calculated results show that the permanent magnet used of motor under urban-traffic driving situation of HEVs
250 160
Power [kW]
noted as No. 1 to No. 6 for both condition. The motor
Torque [Nm]
140
efficiency under these operating points should be as good
200 as possible because it plays an important role for
120 improving the fuel consumption of vehicles. Motor
150 100 efficiency in this section is calculated by 2D-FEA
80 considering copper losses in armature winding and iron
100 losses in all laminated cores. The detailed loss analysis
60
Series1 (1.0kg)
Torque and motor efficiency of this machine are listed in Table
50
Torque
Series3 (0.5kg) 40 IV. In the table, Pi is the iron loss, Pc is the copper loss,
Power
Series2 (1.0kg)
20 and Po is the total output power.
Power
Series4 (0.5kg)
0 0 At frequent operating points from No. 1 to No. 6 under
0 4000 8000 12000 16000 20000
relatively low load condition, the proposed machine
Speed [r/min] achieves high efficiency as much as 94.36% to 96.29%.
The efficiency is slightly degraded for the machine with
Fig. 12. Torque and power versus speed characteristics 0.5kg permanent magnet because of increasing in rotor
and stator volume. Even though the motor efficiency of
the latter design is 0.13% - 1.38% lower than that of the
former design, the proposed machine can still work at
high efficiency as much as 96.11%. The overall
250
Torque [Nm]
200
Series1(1.0kg)
Torque
Torque
Series3(0.5kg)
150
(1) (2) (3)
100
(4) (5) (6)
(a) PM=1.0kg (b) PM=0.5kg 50
Fig. 13. Flux density contour and vector diagram of permanent magnet
0
0 2500 5000 7500 10000 12500 15000 17500 20000
Speed [r/min]
Fig. 15. Frequent operating points for the target HEV drive
TABLE IV
LOSS AND EFFICIENCY OF THE DESIGNED MOTOR OVER OPERATING
POINT SHOWN IN FIG. 15.
PM=1.0kg PM=0.5kg
No.
Pc (%) Pi (%) Po (%) Pc (%) Pi (%) Po (%)
92.2MPa 117.4MPa 1 2.62 1.67 95.71 2.89 1.69 95.42
2 1.32 2.39 96.29 1.46 2.43 96.11
3 0.88 3.02 96.10 0.97 3.06 95.97
(a) PM=1.0kg (b) PM=0.5kg 4 2.48 1.89 95.63 3.10 2.54 94.36
5 1.25 2.65 96.10 1.56 3.53 94.91
Fig. 14. Principal stress distribution of rotor at 20,000r/min 6 0.83 3.32 95.85 1.04 4.38 94.58
210
performances of the proposed machine based on finite TABLE V
element analysis are summarized in Table V. PERFORMANCE OF PMFSM WITH HYBRID EXCITATION
Items IPMSM PMFSM
V. CONCLUSIONS PM weight (kg) 1.1 1.0 0.5
Max. speed (r/min) 12,400 20,000 20,000
In this paper, the design studies of 6-slot 5-pole Max. torque (Nm) 333 211.7 202.9
PMFSM with field excitation for HEV application have Max. power (kW) 123 123.1 130.5
been presented. The method of finding the maximum Reduction gear ratio 2.478 4 4
performance of the machine was clearly demonstrated Max. axle torque via
825 846.8 811.6
which has met the target specifications. The reduction gear (Nm)
demagnetization of permanent magnet at high temperature Max. power @6-7kr/min 123 131.7 135.5
(kW)
has also been solved by the proposed method. The goal of
Rotor mechanical stress NA 92.2 117.4
this research for an extension in speed and torque ranges (MPa)
has been accomplished. The proposed machine has also PM demagnetization factor NA 0.00 0.00
reduced the volume of permanent magnet approximately at 180°C (%)
by 50% of that used in existing IPMSM for LEXUS Motor efficiency over most NA > 95 > 94
RX400h while keeping the power density intact. of operating region (%)
Motor weight (kg) > 30 26.2 26.7
REFERENCES Power density (kW/kg) 3.5 5.0 5.1
Torque density (Nm/kg) NA 8.1 7.6
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211
Analysis of Energy Savings for Rewinding

and Replacement of Industrial Motor
M. Hasanuzzamana,c, N. A. Rahimb,c and R. Saidura,c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, b Department of Electrical Engineering
a
c Centre of Research UMPEDAC, Level 4, Engineering Tower, Faculty of Engineering

University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Email: hasan@um.edu.my / hasan.buet99@gmail.com
Abstract— This study analyzed and estimated economic in Table 1. In Malaysia, electrical motor consumes about
viability of introducing high efficiency motors compared to 48% of the industrial energy consumption. Electric
the rewind and standard motor in the industrial sector. motors are responsible for consuming about 40% of
Efficiency of a motor is degraded when it is rewound. This electricity worldwide. In Malaysia, the bulk of electricity
analysis identified that it is better to rewind a larger motor consumption in the industrial and commercial sectors is
compared to a smaller motor. It has been found that a high
by electric motors [6]. Activities and processes in
efficiency motor can save an average 5.5 % of energy
compared to a standard motor. In addition, payback period industries are heavily dependent on electric motors for
has been found to be reasonable when a motor is operated at compacting, cutting, grinding, mixing, fans, pumps,
50 % load. It has been estimated that 67,868 MWh/year materials conveying, air compressors and refrigeration.
energy and 4,343,531 US$/year bill can be saved for Motors are also used widely in the commercial sector for
introducing high efficient motors. The present study found air conditioning, ventilation, refrigeration, water
that rewind motors of larger size and high efficiency motors pumping, lifts and escalators etc. Energy losses in a large
are economically viable. number of industries are prevailing in and potential
energy efficiency improvements are imminent.
Keywords—Energy savings; Industrial motor; Rewinding
NOMENCLATURE Table 1 Electrical motor energy usages for selected

countries
AES = Expected annual bill savings (US$)
c = Average energy cost (US$/kWh) Country Motor Energy usage Reference
Eee = Energy-efficient motor efficiency rating (%) (%)
Erd = Rewind motor efficiency (%) US 75 [7]
Estd = Standard motor efficiency rating (%) UK 50 [8]
L = Load factor (percentage of full load)
EU 65 [9]
hp = Motor rated horsepower
hr = Annual operating hours Jordan 31 [10]
0.746 = Conversion factor from horsepower to kW Malaysia 48 [11]
Turkey 65 [12]
I. INTRODUCTION Slovenia 52 [13]
The industrial sector is the largest energy user around Canada 80 [14]
the world. The electrical energy consumption in Malaysia
India 70 [15]
has increased sharply in the past few years [1]. Energy
demand in industrial section increased by 262% between China 60 [16]
1990 and 2007 [2]. Industrial sector uses about 48% of Korea 40 [17]
total industrial energy usage [3]. Electric motors have
Brazil 49 [4]
broad applications in industry, business, public service
and household electrical appliances, powering a variety Australia 30 [4]
of equipment including wind blowers, water pumps, South Africa 60 [18]
compressors and machine tools. In industrially developed
and large developing countries, electric motors account
for a considerable proportion of total national power A motor’s function is to convert electrical energy to
consumption [4, 5]. The induction motor is the main mechanical energy for performing useful work. Even
driven system in the modern industrial society. Electrical though standard motors operate efficiently in the typical
motors consume about 30-80% of total industrial energy range of 83- 92% but the energy-efficient motors perform
of a few selected countries around the world as presented significantly better. Efficiency gains from only 92% to
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 212

94%, results in a 25% reduction in losses. Since motor Annual energy savings attained by replacing rewind
losses result in heat rejection into the atmosphere and the motors with high energy efficient motors can be
reduction of those losses can significantly retard cooling estimated by using the Equation as following:
loads on an industrial air conditioning system. Motor
energy losses can be segregated into five major areas, ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
each of which is influenced by design and constructions AES = hp × L × 0.746× hr × ⎢ − ⎥ ×100 (2)
[19]. ⎣ Erd Eee ⎦
A common cause of motor failure is the problem with
the motor windings, and the solution often is to rewind Annual bill savings associated with the above energy
the old motor. Because it is economical in terms of initial savings can be calculated as:
cost, rewinding of motors is very common particularly for
motors of higher horsepower. However, the motor Savings = AES × c (3)
rewinding process often results in a loss of motor
efficiency. It is generally cost effective to replace motors A simple payback period for different energy saving
under 20 horsepower with new high-efficiency motors
strategies can be calculated by using Equation (4).
rather than rewind them. When deciding to buy a new
motor or rewind the old one, it is wise to consider the
Simple payback period = Incremental cost (4)
cost difference between the rewind and a new high-
efficiency motor and relevant energy costs to operate it. Annual dollar savings
A paperboard plant with 485 motors where an average of
3 motors were repaired per month, of which about 70 % Input data needed to estimate energy savings and payback
required rewind or replacement [20]. period for different strategies are shown in Tables 3-5.
A robust and efficient induction motor usually converts
90-95% of input electrical power into mechanical work. B. Motor Efficiency and Rewind Cost
However, the huge amount of energy they use, a minor Motors operate at maximum efficiency when they are
change in efficiency will have a major impact on its fully loaded. Efficiency drops dramatically below 70%
operating cost. A High Efficiency Motor (HEM) uses loading. Over sizing is often done as a means to ensure
specific materials to reduce core and copper losses. greater reliability [24]. A motor needs to be rewind for
Therefore, it generates less heat and requires smaller and two reasons: when the excess heat damage the insulation
more energy efficient cooling fans [21]. so that electricity passes from winding to winding
without going through all of them or when the winding
In the literature a number of works were reported about has been detached at a place not near the end of the coil.
use of high efficiency motors to reduce energy Efficiency of a motor is degraded when it is rewound.
consumption and energy savings of motors. However, Most studies of the effects of rewinding of motor found
there is no detailed work on the cost effectiveness of that some degradation of efficiency occurs each time
rewind motors. Aim of the present study is to analyze the when a motor is rewound. The available studies are
energy consumption, energy savings, bill savings and characterized by some samples and varied methods.
payback period of the rewind of motors, standard and high
However, the findings specify that the degradation of
efficiency motors with different capacities and loading
operation. efficiency associated with rewinding falls in the range of
1% to 2% [25]. According to a recent study by the Green
Motor Practices Group, properly planned and performed
II. METHODOLOGY rewinds cause no efficiency loss in electric motors.
A. Formulation of Energy Savings, Bill Savings and
Table 2 Motor rewind practices [25]
Payback Period
The primary goal of a motor manufacture is to reduce
Motor hp Failed Motor Rewound
production costs while preserving available power. A
(% )
motor can be made more efficient by improvements in
design: magnetic cores with plates made of ferrosilicon 1-5 20
alloys, better-filled slots using more copper, larger rotor
conductors and improvements in air-gaps, core heads, 6-20 61
fans and bearings, and in the dimensional design. High-
efficiency motors typically cost 10–25% more than 21-50 81
standard ones [22]
Annual energy savings attained by replacing standard 51-100 90
efficient motors with high energy efficient motors can be
100-200 91
estimated by using the following Equation [23]:
>200 95
⎡ 1 1 ⎤
AES = hp × L × 0.746× hr × ⎢ − ⎥ ×100 (1)
⎣ Estd Eee ⎦
213
can ensure that the rewound motor meets original
efficiency [24].
Table 4 Efficiency of standard, rewind and high

efficiency motors at different loads
Figure 1 Efficiency reduction of rewind motor [26]
Figure 2 Relationship between motor loading and

efficiency [4] Table 5 Input data for motor energy consumption, energy
and bill savings [28]
Table 3 Typical motor efficiency and cost [27]
Parameters Value
Average usage hours 6000
Average electricity cost 0.064
(US$/kWh)
Table 6 Increment price of high efficiency motor over

standard motor [11]
Motor hp Increment price (US$)

1 24
2 25
3 27
4 60
5.5 65
7.5 91
15 147
20 197
Performance improvements, increased power density, 25 246
reliability and efficiency come from advances in 30 257
materials and craftsmanship. Better resins and insulating 40 231
tapes improve thermal dissipation. Automated coil 50 281
forming technology and precise application of insulating
60 574
tapes ensure consistent coil duplication for improved
installation and operation. A qualified service provider 75 518
214
A larger motor is better to rewind compared to a smaller Table 8 for different motor sizes and loads. Replacing a
motot as shown in the Table 4. Green motors practices failed motor instead of rewinding saves energy in a
group members investigated the rewind motor efficiency number of ways. The market assessment found that
that is shown in Figure 1 [26]. Based on the investigation, industrial end users rewind 40% of the motors that fail
the best fitted equation is used to calculate efficiency of each year and the percentage of motors repaired increases
rewind motor and shown in the Table 3. Efficiency of with horsepower capacity of the motor [25]. According to
standard, rewind and high efficiency motor at the the energy savings analysis; using high efficiency motor
different loading operation are calculated using Figure 4 can save energy but increase the initial cost to buy the
[4] and shown in Table 4. Increment price of a high new motor that is shown in Table 8. The amount of saved
efficiency motor is calculated based on Table 6 [11] and energy is increased with increasing the motor load.
shown in Table 9. Payback period analysis shows that payback period
increases with the horsepower of the motor. It is also
Table 7 Average electric motor life [29] found that payback period decreases with increasing the
percentage of load. It is better to rewind larger
Motor hp Average Life Life Range horsepower motor. Table 2 shows that about 81 % of
(year) (year) more than 20 horsepower motor is being rewound and the
Less than 1 12.9 10-15 percentage is increased with increasing the horsepower.
1-5 17.1 13-19

B. New Standard Efficient Motor or High Efficient Motor
5.1-20 19.4 16-20
Energy savings, bill savings and the payback period
21-50 21.8 18-26 associated with energy savings as a result of using a high
efficiency motor have been estimated and presented in
51-125 28.5 24-33 Table 9 for different motor sizes and loads. According to
the energy savings analysis; using high efficiency motor
Greater than 29.3 25-38
can save energy and shown in Table 8. The amount of
125
saved energy is increased with increasing the motor
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION horsepower and operating load. Payback period analysis
shows that the payback period is less than 2 years even
A. Failed Motor Rewind or Replace though the motor is operated at 50 % load. It is also
Energy savings, bill savings and the payback period found that payback period decreases with increasing the
associated with energy savings as a result of using a high percentage of load. Table 7 shows that the average motor
efficiency motor have been estimated and presented in life is more than 12 years.
Table 8 Energy and bill savings, payback period for high efficient motor over failed rewound standard motor at
different loads
Energy Savings (kWh/year) Bill Savings (US$/year) Payback Period (year)

Increment
Motor Load Load Load
Price Load Load Load Load Load Load
HP (100 (100 (100
(US$) (50 %) (75 %) (50 %) (75 %) (50 %) (75 %)
%) %) %)
5 45 1855 2643 3154 85 122 145 0.5 0.4 0.3
7.5 145 2541 3620 4320 117 167 199 1.2 0.9 0.7
10 138 2744 3909 4665 126 180 215 1.1 0.8 0.6
15 275 3813 5433 6483 175 250 298 1.6 1.1 0.9
20 375 4873 6942 8284 224 319 381 1.7 1.2 1.0
25 578 4956 7060 8425 228 325 388 2.5 1.8 1.5
30 740 5490 7820 9332 253 360 429 2.9 2.1 1.7
40 1070 7020 10,001 11,935 323 460 549 3.3 2.3 1.9
50 1345 8188 11,664 13,919 377 537 640 3.6 2.5 2.1
60 2650 9199 13,104 15,638 423 603 719 6.3 4.4 3.7
75 3180 12,202 17,383 20,744 561 800 954 5.7 4.0 3.3
215
Table 9 Energy and bill savings, payback period for high efficient motor over standard motor at different loads
Increme Energy Savings (kWh/year) Bill Savings (US$/year) Payback Period (year)
Motor nt
HP Price Load Load Load Load Load Load Load Load Load
(US$) (50 %) (75 %) (100 %) (50 %) (75 %) (100 %) (50 %) (75 %) (100 %)
5 63 1459 2078 2480 67 96 114 0.9 0.7 0.5
7.5 80 2020 2878 3435 93 132 158 0.9 0.6 0.5
10 97 2090 2977 3552 96 137 163 1.0 0.7 0.6
15 132 2955 4210 5023 136 194 231 1.0 0.7 0.6
20 167 3819 5440 6491 176 250 299 1.0 0.7 0.6
25 202 4110 5854 6986 189 269 321 1.1 0.7 0.6
30 237 4591 6540 7805 211 301 359 1.1 0.8 0.7
40 306 5964 8496 10,138 274 391 466 1.1 0.8 0.7
50 376 7051 10,045 11,987 324 462 551 1.2 0.8 0.7
60 446 8041 11,455 13,670 370 527 629 1.2 0.8 0.7
75 550 10,990 15,656 18,683 506 720 859 1.1 0.8 0.6
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217
Static Eccentricity Fault Diagnosis in Switched

Reluctance Motor
H.Torkaman, E.Afjei, H.Amiri
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Shahid Beheshti University, G.C., Tehran, Iran.
Abstract— In this paper a novel view of airgap magnetic field Some novelties in this paper differentiate it from previous
analysis of Switched Reluctance Motor under static eccentricity researches, which are: comprehensive static eccentricity
to provide the precise fault diagnosis based on three- analysis in SRM, implementation of the faulty SR motor
dimensional finite element method is presented. Analytical model in three dimensional FEM considering the end effects
nature of this method makes it possible to simulate reliable and and axial fringing fields in SRMs modeling.
precise model by considering the end effects and axial fringing This paper is organized as follows: Section II briefly
effects. The results of the three-dimensional finite element explains the SRM modeling with finite element method and
analysis of 6/4 switched reluctance motor such as flux linkages, geometrical parameter of implemented motor. Definition of
terminal inductance per phase and mutual inductance for static eccentricity in motor operation is presented in Section
various eccentric motor conditions are obtained and analyzed.
III. The three dimensional finite element results of the motor
These results present useful information regarding to the
profiles under normal and static eccentricity are obtained and
detection of static eccentricity.
analyzed in Section IV. Section V concludes this paper.
Index Terms—Switched Reluctance Motor, Static Eccentricity,
Fault Analysis, Finite Element Method. II. SWITCHED RELUCTANCE MOTOR MODELING
A three dimensional finite element analysis is being used
to determine the magnetic field distribution in and around the
I. INTRODUCTION motor. In order to present the operation of the motor and to
The switched reluctance motor (SRM) has many determine the static torque at different positions of the rotor,
advantages over other types of motors used in a growing the field solutions are obtained. The field analysis is based on
number of applications in various industries such as hybrid the T − Ω method.
electric vehicle, air compressor, power steering, washing In the three dimensional finite element analysis, a
machines starter-generators and fuel pumps. The SRM has a tetrahedral or hexahedral (rectangular prism) element, with
simple structure and is robust. It requires low maintenance, dense meshes at places where the field variations are being
has high torque to weight ratio, and requires relatively easy changed rapidly has been used.
speed control circuitry[1, 2]. One of the common faults that
can be produced in this machine is eccentricity. Eccentricity For the present study, it has been assumed that each stator
exists in a motor when there are uneven air-gaps between the phase is excited with four-node tetrahedral blocks of current.
Also, in this analysis, the usual assumptions such as the
stator and rotor poles.
magnetic field outside of an air box in which the motor is
In [3] effect of dynamic eccentricity on Unbalanced placed considered to be zero.
Magnetic Pull (UMP) utilizing transient 2D-FE has been
done. They presented a linear analytical model for SRM in In order to represent the motor operation and determine
[4]. The variation of main characteristics of the motor which the characteristics at different rotor positions, the analysis
includes a 44 degree rotation of the rotor to analyze SRM
are caused by dynamic and mixed eccentricity are assessed
behavior from unaligned to aligned position. The plots of
by FEM in [5]and [6], respectively. In [7] dynamic response
of motor under static and dynamic eccentricity is studied magnetic flux throughout the motor and parameters have
using coupled 2D-FE with Matlab-Simulink. It has been been computed, compared, and elaborated.
shown in [8] that the torque increased within occurrence of The motor specifications used in this study are shown in
dynamic eccentricity. Table I.
Static eccentricity in different types of parallel and series
stator winding is analyzed in [9] by coupled 2D-FE with TABLE I
external circuit. Static and dynamic eccentricity by 2D-FE SR MOTOR (6/4) DIMENSIONS
are analyzed in [10] and [11] respectively. Parameter Value
The effects of static eccentricity on vibration is assessed in Stator core outer diameter 72 mm
[12]. In [13] noun-uniformity of airgap in static eccentricity, Rotor core outer diameter 40.5 mm
concentricity, and elliptical rotor are evaluated utilizing two Stack length 35 mm
Length of airgap 0.25 mm
dimensional Finite Element (2D-FE). They discussed in Shaft diameter 10 mm
overall torque as a diagnostic index [14]. Two dimensional Rotor pole arc 32°
FE coupled with quasi Newton-Raphson method are used in Stator pole arc 28°
[15] to analyze dynamic eccentricity. Number of turns 120
Although there have been some of publications to analyze
the static eccentricity in this motor, almost there is no In this study, the stator and rotor cores are made up of
literature discussing the effect of static eccentricity on the non-oriented silicon steel laminations and, each phase
performance of SRM utilizing 3D-FEM and this paper is an winding consists of 120 turns with a current magnitude of 2.5
attempt to achieve this purpose. A.
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 218

III. STATIC ECCENTRICITY
In static eccentricity the rotational axis of the rotor is same Fig. 2 shows the flux-linkage of coil one in phase A,
to its symmetrical axis but has been displayed with respect to utilizing 3-D FEM and the variation of rotor position in
the stator symmetrical axis [16]. The non-uniformity of air healthy motor as well as the motor with various static
gap is time invariant when static eccentricity exists; eccentricities.
therefore, the distribution of air gap does not change when
the rotor rotates. Static eccentricity fault is due to deviation
of concentricity of e.g.: stator housing, end shields, bearing
housing [17]. The degree of static eccentricity is defined as 55
follows:
F l u x L i n k a g e C o i l 1 (m W b )
⎛r⎞ 45
ε S = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ × 100 (% ) . (1)
⎝g⎠
35 40%
Where ε S is the degree of eccentricity between the stator 30%
and rotor axes, g is the radial air gap length in the case of 25 20%
uniform air gap in healthy motor and r is the displacement 10%
of the rotor in the horizontal direction to the excited stator Healthy
poles in aligned position. Due to inherent eccentricity, more 15
than 10% eccentricity is considered in this paper and caused
by collision of the rotor and stator poles, the relative 5
eccentricity of more than 40% is not considered in this study.
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44
IV. Numerical Analysis Rotor Position(Deg)
As mentioned before, to study the effects of static Fig. 2: Flux-Linkage in coil one of phase A for 3-D FEM.
eccentricity on the switched reluctance behavior, the motor is
simulated utilizing 3-D finite element analysis. As shown above the flux-linkage peaks at about 44
Distribution of flux density in the healthy motor and the degrees, correspond to the rotor pole located completely
motor with 40% static eccentricity utilizing 3-D FE analysis aligned with the related stator pole. Also Fig. 2 illustrates
are shown in Fig. 1. The reduction of air gap length and that with an increase in the static eccentricity, flux-linkage of
consequently reduction of its related magnetic reluctance coil one of the excited phase will increase. It is observed that
causes an increase in the flux density. flux-linkage of the coil one in phase A has 14%, 11%, 7.2%
As shown, the magnitude of flux density obtained in the and 3.7% variations with 40%, 30%, 20% and 10%
core of coil one in phase A in faulty motor, shows eccentricity compared with healthy motor, respectively as
considerable increase when compared to the healthy motor. shown in Table II.
TABLE II
PERCENTAGE OF VARIATION OF FLUX-LINKAGE IN COIL ONE OF PHASE A
IN ECCENTRIC MOTOR TO HEALTHY MOTOR FOR 3-D FEM.
Degree 10% Ecc 20% Ecc 30% Ecc 40% Ecc
0 0.275 0.481 0.598 0.793
4 0.223 0.452 0.662 0.912
8 0.334 0.647 1.163 1.531
12 0.765 1.489 2.532 3.284
16 2.188 4.717 7.176 9.232
20 3.371 6.784 10.124 13.291
24 3.683 7.323 10.790 13.894
28 3.479 7.194 10.563 13.733
32 3.168 6.449 9.663 12.520
a) 36 2.731 5.391 7.864 10.213
40 2.124 4.220 6.189 8.013
44 1.919 3.756 5.509 7.172
The inductance has been defined as the ratio of each phase

flux-linkage to the exciting current (λ / I). Since the
inductance is directly proportional to the flux-linkage, then
the resulting inductance values for phase A have 14%, 11%,
7.2% and 3.7% variations with 40%, 30%, 20% and 10%
eccentricity compared with a healthy motor, respectively.
This procedure results the same outcomes for other coils in
different phases.
The mutual inductance is defined as the ratio of flux-
linking that phase to the exciting current in the other phase.
b) According to this definition the mutual inductance values for
Fig. 1: Flux density for 3-D FEM in (a) healthy motor and (b) motor with 40% phases B and C for healthy motor as well as the motor with
eccentricity.
219
various eccentricities using 3D FEM have been analyzed increase from 37% for 10% eccentricity to a peak value of
(Fig. 3). 64% for 40% eccentricity (in average value from unaligned
to aligned position). These variations are due to the changes
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44
in mutual flux-linkages of each coil in that phase.
0.00
Consequently, with FEM analysis concluded the variations in
Mutual Inductance in Coil 2 (mH)
-0.01 airgap lengths due to static fault have a noticeable effect on

-0.03 the flux linkage in faulty phase and mutual inductance in
-0.04 other phases of the motor for fault detection.
-0.05
-0.06 Healthy
V. CONCLUSION
-0.08 10% This paper analyzes, simulates and identifies the
-0.09 20% performance of switched reluctance motor under static
-0.10 30% eccentricity during operation period utilizing 3D-FEM.
-0.11 40% Afterwards, the results were compared with those obtained
-0.13
from healthy motor. For this purpose, the effects of static
eccentricity on flux density, flux linkage, terminal
Rotor Position(Deg)
inductance, and mutual inductance profile in SRM with 3-D
Fig. 3: Mutual Inductance in coil two of phase B for 3-D FEM. FEM were evaluated.
The different values of flux densities obtained in excited
The absolute variations of mutual inductances for phases B stator poles and the corresponding rotor poles under static
and C are presented in Table III and Table IV, respectively eccentricity show side pull created by the unbalanced force
for the motor carrying the rated current of 2.5 A. Table III hence result in more stress, noise and vibration. The
shows with an increase in eccentricity, the value of mutual computed results show that motor with 10%, 20%, 30% and
inductance of phase B increases from 27% for 10% 40% static eccentricity has 3.7%, 7.3%, 10.8% and 13.9%
eccentricity to a maximum of 54% for 40% eccentricity (in maximum increase in flux linkage as well as inductance of
average value from unaligned to aligned position). phase A (faulty phase). Also, the mutual inductance values of
the phase B obtained for eccentric motor with 10% to 40%
TABLE III
eccentricity are 44% up to 76% higher. By comparison of the
PERCENTAGE OF VARIATION OF MUTUAL INDUCTANCE IN COIL TWO OF flux linkage patterns in excited phase for the healthy and
PHASE B IN ECCENTRIC MOTOR TO HEALTHY MOTOR FOR 3-D FEM. eccentric rotor cases, the fault can be diagnosed, in other
Degree 10% Ecc 20% Ecc 30% Ecc 40% Ecc words; flux linkage and mutual inductance were introduced
as a fine diagnostic index for detection the static eccentricity
0 4.68 8.10 12.50 16.73
in SRM.
4 4.63 8.66 13.35 17.84
8 2.63 7.66 14.70 19.48 VI. REFERENCES
12 5.01 12.70 20.92 26.91 [1] H. J. Chen, D. Q. Jiang, J. Yang et al., “A New
16 21.56 35.94 45.76 52.10 Analytical Model for Switched Reluctance
20 32.31 48.93 58.54 65.03 Motors,” IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, vol. 45,
24 38.36 55.45 64.91 70.69 no. 8, pp. 3107-3113, August, 2009.
28 42.02 59.22 68.45 74.01 [2] H. Torkaman, and E. Afjei, “FEM Analysis of
32 44.47 61.37 70.55 75.97 Angular Misalignment Fault in SRM Magnetostatic
36 44.87 62.09 70.98 76.35 Characteristics,” Progress in Electromagnetics
40 43.63 61.13 70.44 76.06 Research, vol. 104, pp. 31-48, 2010.
44 42.85 60.00 69.80 75.70 [3] I. Chindurza, D. G. Dorrell, and C. Cossar, “Non-
invasive fault diagnosis for switched-reluctance
TABLE IV machines with incorrect winding turns, inter-turn
PERCENTAGE OF VARIATION OF MUTUAL INDUCTANCE IN COIL THREE OF winding faults and eccentric rotors,” in Fifth
PHASE C IN ECCENTRIC MOTOR TO HEALTHY MOTOR FOR 3-D FEM. International Conference on Power Electronics and
Degree 10% Ecc 20% Ecc 30% Ecc 40% Ecc Drive Systems, PEDS, 2003, pp. 485-490.
0 5.50 8.09 13.31 17.74 [4] I. Chindurza, D. G. Dorrell, and C. Cossar,
4 5.29 10.08 15.05 20.19 “Vibration analysis of a switched-reluctance
8 3.98 10.68 18.87 24.77 machine with eccentric rotor,” in Second
12 8.58 20.92 32.80 41.03 International Conference on Power Electronics,
16 39.56 58.45 68.84 75.06 Machines and Drives,PEMD, 2004, pp. 481-486.
20 51.57 68.99 77.48 82.60 [5] H. Torkaman, E. Afjei, and H. Amiri, “Dynamic
24 57.09 73.55 81.17 85.42
Eccentricity Fault Diagnosis in Switched
Reluctance Motor,” in 20th International
28 59.55 75.29 82.48 86.51
Symposium on Power Electronics, Electrical
32 59.85 75.37 82.48 86.49
Drives, Automation and Motion (SPEEDAM),
36 57.72 73.77 80.93 85.13
Pisa, Italy, 2010, pp. 519-522.
40 52.88 69.86 78.02 82.69
[6] E. Afjei, and H. Torkaman, “Airgap Eccentricity
44 48.57 65.72 74.54 79.76 Fault Diagnosis in Switched Reluctance Motor,” in
1st Power Electronic & Drive Systems &
Similarity, Table IV illustrates that with increasing Technologies Conference, PEDSTC, Tehran, Iran,
eccentricity, the mutual inductance value for phase C will 2010, pp. 284-289.
220
[7] J. R. Briso-Montiano, R. Karrelmeyer, and E. [13] N. K. Sheth, and K. R. Rajagopal, “Effects of
Dilger, “ Simulation of Faults by means of Finite nonuniform airgap on the torque characteristics of a
Element Analysis in a Switched Reluctance switched reluctance motor,” IEEE Transactions on
Motor,” in Multiphysics Conference, Frankfurt, Magnetics, vol. 40, no. 4, pp. 2032-2034, 2004.
2005, pp. 1-6. [14] N. K. Sheth, and K. R. Rajagopal, “Variations in
[8] D. G. Dorrell, I. Chindurza, and C. Cossar, “Effects overall developed torque of a switched reluctance
of rotor eccentricity on torque in switched motor with airgap nonuniformity,” IEEE
reluctance Machines,” IEEE Transactions on Transactions on Magnetics, vol. 41, no. 10, pp.
Magnetics, vol. 41, no. 10, pp. 3961-3963, 2005. 3973-3975, 2005.
[9] J. Li, D. Choi, and Y. Cho, “Analysis of Rotor [15] P. Heidrich, and R. Hanitsch, “Simulation of a
Eccentricity in Switched Reluctance Motor With Completely Controlled Switched Reluctance Drive
Parallel Winding Using FEM,” IEEE Transactions with Eccentric Rotor Using a Time-Stepping
on Magnetics, vol. 45, no. 6, pp. 2851-2854, 2009. Technique Realised Outside Numerical Field
[10] J. Faiz, and S. Pakdelian, “Finite-Element Analysis Calculation Programs,” IEEE Transactions on
of a Switched Reluctance Motor Under Static Magnetics, vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 1565-1568, 1996.
Eccentricity Fault,” IEEE Transactions on [16] S. Nandi, H. A. Toliyat, and L. Xiaodong,
Magnetics, vol. 42, no. 8, pp. 2004-2008, 2006. “Condition monitoring and fault diagnosis of
[11] J. Faiz, and S. Pakdelian, “Finite Element Analysis electrical motors-a review,” IEEE Transactions on
of Switched Reluctance Motor under Dynamic Energy Conversion, vol. 20, no. 4, pp. 719-729,
Eccentricity Fault,” in 12th International Power 2005.
Electronics and Motion Control Conference, EPE- [17] D. G. Dorrell, and C. Cossar, “A Vibration-Based
PEMC, 2006, pp. 1042-1046. Condition Monitoring System for Switched
[12] S. Ayari, M. Besbes, M. Lecrivain et al., “Effects Reluctance Machine Rotor Eccentricity Detection,”
of the airgap eccentricity on the SRM vibrations,” IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, vol. 44, no. 9,
in International Conference Electric Machines and pp. 2204-2214, 2008.
Drives, IEMD, 1999, pp. 138-140.
221
A New Double Layer per Phase Configuration for

Switched Reluctance Motor
E.Afjei, H.Torkaman, B.Mazloomnezhad
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Shahid Beheshti University, G.C., Tehran, Iran.
Abstract- This paper presents a new configuration for switched Multilayer SR motor [8] consists of three magnetically
reluctance motor, which has no direct windings on the stator independent layers or phases. Each layer comprises of a
poles. The motor has three different layers and each layer has
only one concentric winding. The magnetic field passes through stationary part and a rotating piece known as stator and rotor,
a guide to the rotor then the stator and finally completes its respectively. The stators and the rotors have eight salient
path via the motor housing. To evaluate the motor poles with 60 degrees angular shift between each
performance, two types of analysis, namely the numerical consecutive pole. The term "isolated phase" or multilayer is
technique and the experimental study have been utilized. In the derived from the fact that the motor itself has been composed
numerical analysis, the finite element analysis is employed,
whereas in the experimental study, a proto-type motor has been of three isolated sections. Each rotor section has a 150
built and tested. angular shift in position from the next phase, whereas in the
stator phase there is no shift. This motor has eight stator
Index Terms- Switched Reluctance Motor, Double Layer
Motor. poles as well as eight rotor poles, which will be engaged in
the torque production mechanism.
I. INTRODUCTION This paper presents a new configuration in switched
reluctance motor as well as experimental and numerical
Variable speed brushless motors are gaining considerable results obtained for the new motor with and without using a
attention for different high performance applications centrifugal switch for the fast advancement in firing time.
requiring low cost and maintenance. The switched reluctance This paper is organized as follows: section II explains the
motor is one of the challengers for low cost and simple new configuration design of proposed SRM. The SRM
structure in variable speed drive applications [1-3]. modeling with finite element method is presented in section
The reluctance machine has begun to realize its potential III. The experimental results are obtained and analyzed in
in the new era of power electronics and computer-aided section IV. Section V concludes this paper.
electromagnetic design. The machine development has
matured to the point that its impact is now evident in the
industry. SR Generator (SRG) is also an attractive solution II. THE NEW CONFIGURATION DESCRIPTION
for worldwide increasing demands for electrical energy. It is In design procedure of the generators, for achieving
low cost, fault tolerant with a rugged structure cooling, maximum output voltage as well as power for a certain
geometric versatility, durability, higher permissible rotor machine volume, a new construction in their geometries are
temperature and operates with high efficiency over a wide considered. The proposed motor consists of three
speed range [4]. magnetically independent modules, where each module is
In general, there are four distinct types of switched known as a layer.
reluctance motors: namely, regular doubly salient cylindrical A complete assembly of the motor is shown in Fig. 1. The
[5], disc-type [6], multi-layer [7, 8], and linear motors [9, stator and the rotor poles are placed in two parts around the
10]. magnetic guide and the windings are stationary wrapped on
This classification stems from the general shape of the the reels over the guide. When the stator poles are aligned
motor. The regular cylindrical type of SR motor has salient with the rotor poles, the magnetic flux produced by the coils
poles on both stator and rotor and the windings are wrapped travels through the guide to the rotor and then to the stator
around the stator poles. Currents in the stator circuits are poles, and finally closes itself through the motor housing.
switched on and off in accordance with the rotor position. In This path produces the minimum reluctance, which
order to increase the torque especially in small diameter corresponds to the maximum inductance for the motor.
fractional horsepower motor, the rotor is placed outside of The stators and the rotors have four salient poles with 90ο
the stator. angular shift between in each layer for every consecutive
Direct current motors with disc rotors are widely used and pole. Each rotor section from one layer to the next one has a
is has been proposed for SR motors as well. The need for 30 ο angular shift in position. The simulated motor with one
disc type arises in applications where the spacing is of the end open is shown in Fig. 1. In this figure the shapes of the
primary concern. The production of torque requires a rotor and the stator laminations for one layer are clearly
sufficiently thick rotor relative to the air gaps where as the shown.
minimum reluctance, which corresponds to the maximum
inductance, has been optimized.
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 222

in it. Fig. 3 shows the outward going flux density arrows for
the front layer of phase A.
Fig. 1. 3D view of the SR motor assembly
Fig. 3. Flux density arrows (front view)

III. NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
The design of the motor becomes complicated due to The flux generated by the field coil travels through the shaft
complex geometry and material saturation. The reluctance to the front layer and then to the motor housing to the back
variation of the motor has an important role on the layer.
performance; hence an accurate knowledge of the flux Fig. 4 shows the flux linking the field coil number1
distribution inside the motor for different excitation currents belonging to phase A. As the rotor poles move into
and rotor positions is essential for the prediction of motor alignment with the stator poles, the flux linkage increases.
performance. The maximum flux linkage is 192 mWb at full alignment
The motor can be highly saturated under normal operating while the minimum flux linkage is 152 mWb at the
conditions. To evaluate properly the motor design and beginning of rotor/ stator poles alignment.
performance a reliable model is required. The finite-element
technique can be conveniently used to obtain the magnetic 200
vector potential values throughout the motor in the presence
of complex magnetic circuit geometry and nonlinear
Flux Linkage Coil1 (mWb)
190
properties of the magnetic materials. These vector potential
values can be processed to obtain the field distribution, 180
torque, and flux leakage.
The stator and rotor cores are made up of M-27 non- 170
oriented silicon steel laminations [11].
Fig. 2 show the magnetic flux density for aligned case 160
when the machine operates as a motor and each layer is

operating independently. 150
0 2 4 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32
Rotor Position(Deg)
Fig. 4. Flux linkage vs. rotor position in phase A
IV. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

The motor has been fabricated and tested for performance
and functionality in the laboratory (Fig. 5).
In Switched reluctance motors, each individual phase
excitation must be synchronized with the rotor position
which necessitates the need for a position sensing scheme. In
general there are two types of rotor position sensing method
namely, direct and indirect.
In the direct position sensing method usually, a
Fig. 2. Flux density shadow in aligned position mechanical shaft position transducer, such as opto-couplers
with a slotted disk, Hall-effect sensors and embedding
As expected the rotor poles as well as the stator poles are
permanent magnets within the teeth of the slotted disk, or a
in full saturation and the magnitude of flux density reaches
high precision encoder is mounted on the motor housing to
2.1 T in them.
The two layers belonging to phase A are in full saturation produce the necessary and accurate rotor position
while the other two phases have much smaller flux densities. information for the proper motor operation.
The motor shaft has also showing a magnitude of about 1 T
223
1.2
0.8
Torque (P.U.)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1.75 2.3 2.75
Current (A)
Fig. 7. Torque vs. current characteristic
(a)
V. CONCLUSION
In this paper a novel dual-layer per phase SR motor
(DLPSRM) was introduced, simulated and then fabricated in
the laboratory. The motor parameters numerically calculated
and experimentally measured and tested. The main objective
of this paper namely, introduction of a new motor
configuration with sufficient space for proper coil windings
was achieved. The ease in construction of the motor and also
using isolated geometry makes it possible to build the motor
in any shapes or configurations. The experimental analysis
shows the functionality of the motor in its new configuration,
meaning, it has the ability and the potential of becoming a
motor comparable with other types of electric motor in the
(b) industry. The rotor inertia for this motor is higher than
regular SR motor.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Fig. 5. a) The actual motor assembly (stator and machine housing) b) The
complete motor assembly This work was supported by vice-presidency of research
and technology of Shahid Beheshti University.
Using a motor assembly, the dynamic torque for the motor
versus speed has been measured by loading the motor. The
torque-speed characteristic of the motor is shown in Fig. 6. REFERENCES
The power curve fitting has been used for the data points. [1] M. Rekik, M. Besbes, C. Marchand et al., “High-speed-
The torque-speed characteristics of the motor are like a series range enhancement of switched reluctance motor with
dc motor. Fig. 7 shows the torque versus current under continuous mode for automotive applications,” European
different loads. As seen from Fig. 7, the torque is Transactions on Electrical Power, vol. 18, no. 7, pp. 674-
proportional to the square of motor current which resembles 693, 2008.
the dc series motor. [2] E. Afjei, and H. Torkaman, “Comparison of Two Types
of Dual Layer Generator in Field Assisted Mode Utilizing
1.2 3D-FEM and Experimental Verification,” Progress in
Electromagnetics Research B, vol. 23, pp. 293-309, 2010.
1
[3] E. Afjei, and H. Torkaman, “Comparison of Two Types
0.8 of Hybrid Motor/Generator,” in 20th International
Torque (P.U.)
Symposium on Power Electronics, Electrical Drives,

0.6 Automation and Motion (SPEEDAM), Pisa, Italy, 2010,
pp. 982-986.
0.4
[4] T. J. E. Miller, Electronic control of switched reluctance
0.2 machines: Newnes, 2001.
[5] R. Krishnan, Switched reluctance motor drives: modeling,
0 simulation, analysis, design, and applications: CRC,
1000 3000 2001.
Speed (RPM)
[6] E. Afjei, and E. al., “A Novel Disc Type Reluctance
Fig. 6. Torque vs. speed characteristic Motor,” International journal of engineering, vol. 10, pp.
11-17, 1997.
[7] F. Daldaban, and N. Ustkoyuncu, “Multi-layer switched
reluctance motor to reduce torque ripple,” Energy
224
Conversion and Management, vol. 49, no. 5, pp. 974-979,
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[8] E. Afjei, and H. Toliyat, “A Novel Multilayer Switched
Reluctance Motor,” IEEE Transaction on Energy
Conversion, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 217-221, 2002.
[9] N. S. Lobo, S. Hong, and R. Krishnan, “Comparison of
Linear Switched Reluctance Machines for Vertical
Propulsion Application: Analysis, Design, and
Experimental Correlation,” IEEE Transactions on
Industry Applications, vol. 44, no. 4, pp. 1134 – 1142,
2008.
[10] S. M. Jang, J. H. Park, D. J. You et al., "Dynamic
characteristics analysis of linear switched reluctance
motor." pp. 529-534.
[11] Magnet CAD package, "User manual," Infolytica
Corporation Ltd., 2007.
225
Linear Generator Models in Simulink Block

S.A.Zulkifli*and M.Z.Ahmad**
* Univeristy of Liverpool, Department of Electrical Engineering and Electronics, Liverpool,L69 3BX, UK
** University Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Fakulti Kejuruteraan Elektrik and Elektronik, Parit Raja, Batu Pahat,
Johor Malaysia
Abstract- This paper introduces the model of linear proportional to the outputs of the linear generator.
generator in 3 phase analysis and in dq transformation. The
linear generator is used to compare the synchronous
generator because the source of the input is changing from
torqueto the force. As known, force flows along the direction
of the moving object. This linear generator model will use
speed as the moving source to generate electricity at the
output terminal. The model of the linear generator has been
modeled in a simulink block diagram in MATLAB. Matlab
program has been used because of its simplicity and it is
easy to assemble the model. The output can be change from
un-control to control source by connecting the power
electronics devices such as dc-dc converter, rectifier and
inverter after the linear generator model. At the end of this
paper it shows the results for both models that can be used
to understand more about the linear generator generation. Figure 1. Linear Machine
Keywords- Linear machine, Matlab, Simulink
I. Introduction
Electric generation from a renewable energy has

become one of the demand sources for future. It is to
reduce the carbon emission in the air. Currently the
generation is based on the synchronous generator
machine, which is connected to the wind turbine or at the
hydroelectric damn. Synchronous generator is suitable for
torque application and when the source is changed to the
force the linear generator can be used. As been known,
torque is a rotating element while force has a direction.
Due to this different input to the generator, synchronous
generator can be changed to linear generator by change
the stator and rotor into flat mode.
The linear generator is a device that drives a
linear motion load without using gears, screws or
crankshafts; where it can overcome the problems with the Figure 2. Armature Equivalent Circuit
stiffness, mass friction and backlash. The linear generator
is shown in Fig. 1. Linear synchronous generator is used Due to this concept, the energy recovery from
to generate current and voltage when the force applies on the linear generator can be observed independently or in
the rotor while the stator creates an electromagnetic field. other meaning, the kinetic energy from moving object can
When the rotor moving along the stator the be changed to the electric output using this linear
electromagnetic field generates the voltage. Linear generator. To understand more clearly about the linear
generator has a different topology with the rotary generator, the concept of synchronous generator has been
machine but has similar working principle. The concept implemented. The analysis of linear generator is same
of linear motors is base on the travelling magnetic field [1, with the synchronous generator where the linear
2]. This travelling magnetic field generates when the dimension and displacements are replaced the angle and
rotor moves horizontal while the stator current flowing in force replaced the torque [1]. Due to this statement, the
the armature. Due to the advantage of the horizontal model of the linear generator can be modeled in two
move, the source of the rotor is the force where it models where,
proportional to the speed. As the result the speed will be
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 226

• 3 Phase Analysis System where; z =distance and β =wavelength. By simplify Eq.
• dq transformation (Vector Oriented Method) 3, the ω can be written as,
θ w = ωt
Both models are used to determine the outputs
2πz
generate using linear generator during braking. The dq = ωt
model of the synchronous machine is introduced as the β
reference for the dq linear generator in reduces the 2πz (4)
complexity of the three phase analysis of the system. In =ω
βt
this paper the linear generator has been modeled in both
2πV
methods to understand the ability to change the energy =ω
from the speed, which is the force to the electrical energy. β
II. Linear Generator Models where,

z =distance
A. Linear Generator- 3 Phase Analysis β =wavelength.
As known, the linear generator can be modeled V=speed of the moving linear machine.
as a synchronous generator [7]. All the parameters are the
same but the difference is only to the phase angle ( θ ). In Eq. 4 shows the relationship between the torque
a synchronous generator the ( θ ) is based on the torque in in synchronous generator to the speed in linear generator.
the rotating part while for the linear movement the ( θ ) is It indicates, the model of the synchronous model can be
based on the horizontal moves of the linear generator. used for the linear model. By apply Eq. (2,3,4) the model
Consider the system is in a balanced condition. Fig. 2 of the linear generator can be modeled using Simulink
shows the armature equivalent circuit in a balanced Block Diagram in the MATLAB and it is shown in Fig. 3.
system. Fig. 3 shows the outputs of the linear motor
After several simplifications and modifications, (Vabc). This Vabc is proportional to the ω and relates to
Eq. 1 shows the flux linkage of the components, one is the speed of the machine. To understand these outputs
for field current if and the other is due to armature current practically, the synchronous generator can be connected
ia , to the flywheel in order to behave likes the linear
λa = ( L + M )ia + Laf i f generator where the flywheel operates as a speed input.
(1) The power generates from the machine can be calculated
λb = ( L + M )ib + Lbf i f
by Pgen = V abc I abc in generator or by Pgen = FeV in
and the mutual inductance between the field coil Mf and
the position θ w is given by, linear generator. From Eq. 2, if the losses of the R and
(L+M) is small and can be ignored, the power equation
Laf = M f cos(θ w ) can be written as,
Lbf = M f cos(θ w − 120 0 ) ⎡ δ ⎤
⎢− Riabc − ( L + M ) δt iabc + ωM f i f sin(θ w ) abc ⎥ I abc = FeV
Lcf = M f cos(θ w + 120 0 ) ⎣ ⎦
[ωM f i f sin(θ w ) abc ]I abc = FeV
For the complete system, Eq. 2 shows the voltages at the
terminal Vabc with the internal impedance R+L of the
machine and it given by, Fe represents the 3 phase force shown in Eq. 5
δ ⎡ sin(θ w ) ⎤ ⎡ia ⎤
Va = − Ria − ( L + M ) ia + ωM f I f sin(θ w ) ω
δt Fe = M f i f ⎢⎢sin(θ w − 120 0 ) ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ib ⎥⎥ (5)
V
δ ⎢⎣sin(θ w + 120 0 )⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ic ⎥⎦
Vb = − Rib − ( L + M ) ib + ωM f I f sin(θ w − 120 0 ) (2)
δt
δ Eq. 5 is used to model the block diagram of the
Vc = − Ric − ( L + M ) ic + ωM f I f sin(θ w + 120 0 )
δt force generation in the 3 phase analysis. This force is
where, proportional to the current generates at the terminal and it
Laf, Lbf, Lcf are inductance at field winding, is not proportional to the speed. From this relationship, it
θ w is a phase shift, explains that, the current at the terminal is higher when
the speed is zero. This explains that the current and the
L is inductance at stator,
speed cannot be controlled but the control parameter is
M is the mutual inductance for the stator and rotor.
the force. The force has a vice verse concept with the
speed, the force will be maximum when the speed is zero.
From Eq. 2, it shows the outputs are included the
It proves this during the braking, the vehicle tries to stop
ω (rotation speed) and θ w (phase angle). The equation high force need to be used.
related to these parameters is shown in Eq.3
2πz
θw = = ωt (3)
β
227
the three phase reference frame it caused the time varying
parameters of the inductance ( L) and mutual inductance
(M) to be considered. In other words, the simulation of
sinusoidal waveforms requires a very small integration
step even in the steady state operation, which could create
computational problems (long simulation time and
insufficient memory for storing simulation history in the
workspace).
The linear generator is modelled in a dq
reference frame where the relationship between a set of
dq and the corresponding set of three phase abc variables
is provided by equation below,
T
⎡ cos( ω t ) − sin( ω t ) ⎤
⎡d ⎤ 2 ⎢ 0 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ cos( ω t − 120 ) − sin( ω t − 120 ) ⎥
q
⎣ ⎦ 3 (7)
⎢⎣ cos( ω t + 120 0 ) − sin( ω t + 120 0 ) ⎥⎦
[ ]
X dq = T [X abc ]
and the inverse transform of Eq 7 is given by,

⎡a ⎤ ⎡ cos(ωt ) − sin(ωt ) ⎤
⎢b ⎥ = ⎢cos(ωt − 120 0 ) − sin(ωt − 120 0 ) ⎥ ⎡d ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢q ⎥
⎢⎣ c ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣cos(ωt + 120 0 ) − sin(ωt + 120 0 )⎥⎦ ⎣ ⎦ (8)
[X abc ] = T −1 [X dq ]
Figure 3. Linear Motor Simulink block diagram Assume there is loss less and the equation can be simplify
to ,
As been explained, the force will be used as the ⎡ cos(ωt ) ⎤
δ ⎢
input for the linear generator to determine the electric Vabc = M f i f cos(ωt − 120 0 ) ⎥⎥ (9)
output and also to determine the speed of the input. Eq. 6 δt ⎢
⎢⎣cos(ωt + 120 0 )⎥⎦
shows the relationship between the force and the speed.
δV In Eq 7 and 8, the synchronous machine in dq coordinate
F = ma = m (6) frame can be establish in the following equation,
δt
T
where, ⎡ ⎡ cos(θ w ) ⎤ ⎤
m is the mass of the vehicle ⎢ −1 ⎡Vd ⎤ δ ⎢ 0 ⎥⎥
⎢T ⎢V ⎥ = M f i f δt ⎢cos(θ w − 120 ) ⎥ ⎥
a is the acceleration ⎢ ⎣ d⎦ ⎢⎣cos(θ w + 120 0 )⎥⎦ ⎥⎦
⎣ (10)
Eq. 6 can be modeled in simulink block to ⎡ cos(θ w ) ⎤
T
represent the force structure. In here the outputs can be ⎡Vd ⎤ δ ⎢

selected as speed, distance or acceleration. The outputs ⎢V ⎥ = M i
f f ⎢ cos(θ w − 120 0 )⎥⎥
⎣ q⎦ δt
will be the parameters to the input of the linear machine ⎢⎣cos(θ w + 120 0 )⎥⎦
model for 3 phase analysis and dq transformation. where,
⎡ − ω sin(ωt ) ⎤
B. Linear Generatorr - Dq Transformation ⎡Vd ⎤ ⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎡d ⎤
⎢V ⎥ = M f i f ⎢− ω sin(ωt − 120 )⎥ ⎢ ⎥
q
The model of the linear synchronous generator ⎣ q⎦ ⎢⎣− ω sin(ωt + 120 0 )⎥⎦ ⎣ ⎦
has also been designed using dq transformation for
⎡ 1.5 sin(ωt − ωt ) ⎤ ⎡d ⎤
having faster simulation time. The dq model is based on = M f i f ω⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
[8]. Dq transformation is used for three phase converter ⎣− 1.5 sin(ωt − ωt )⎦ ⎣ q ⎦
analysis and for controller design where the rotating ⎡ δ −1 ⎡id ⎤ ⎤ δT −1 ⎡id ⎤ δ ⎡id ⎤
frame has the same angular frequency of the fundamental ⎢ T ⎢ ⎥ ⎥T = T ⎢ ⎥+ ⎢ ⎥
frequency of the linear generator ( θ w ). This concept is ⎣⎢ δt ⎣iq ⎦ ⎦⎥ δt ⎣iq ⎦ δt ⎣iq ⎦
much easier to analyse and develop because all the time- ⎡0 − ω ⎤ ⎡id ⎤ δ ⎡id ⎤
=⎢ ⎢ ⎥+ ⎢ ⎥
varying state variables become dc time invariant and only
⎣ω 0 ⎥⎦ ⎣iq ⎦ δt ⎣iq ⎦
one operating point needs to be defined and considered
[8]. In 3 phase analysis, by writing the circuit equation in
228
R- armature phase resistance; C. Power Electronics System
L+M- self and mutual impedance;
ω -linear speed;
Vdq-armature d and q axis of terminal voltage;
Idq-armature d and q axis of terminal current;
if- field winding terminal current
After several manipulations in Eq.10, the final equation

can be written a ,
⎡Vd ⎤ ⎡ 1.5 sin(ωt − ωt ) ⎤ ⎡d ⎤

⎢V ⎥ = − M f i f ω ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ (11)
⎣ q⎦ ⎣− 1.5 sin(ωt − ωt )⎦ ⎣ q ⎦
Figure 4. Power Electronics Component
Eq. 11 shows the outputs of the terminal linear
generators are consist of Vd and Vq. As seen, both of
The power electronics models are used to
these outputs are proportional to the ω where the
change the kinetic energy produces by the speed to the
equation contain of speed refer to Eq 4. For the maximum
electrical energy at the terminal of the linear generator.
power output, it is easy to ignore the self and mutual
The electrical power is generated at the terminal of the
inductance, the full power to the terminal voltage of the
linear generator is meaningless if no further connection
linear generator can be written as,
has been implemented. To make sure the output can be
modified and used, several power electronics components
Vd = − Rid = 0 can be used where connects directly to the terminal
(12)
Vq = − Riq + 1.5ωM f i f output of the linear generator. The output can be control
when applying the uncontrolled rectifier, dc-dc converter
where R is resistance in the linear generator such as boost converter and the inverter.
The uncontrolled rectifier is the most effective
To model the block diagram of the dq model, the and easiest solution for ac-dc conversion compares to 3
dq transformation function needs to be considered. This is phase controllable IGBT rectifier [4] in-term cost
because, it changes the three phase components value to reducing. This will make the power factor correction able
the dc components with the rotating angle follow the to permit the amount of the harmonics injection if
speed of the force generated in the machine. In this paper connected to the utility grid [6]. This rectifier does need
the dq model has been developed in a MATLAB the controller where it provides a stable contribution
simulink environment. The power for dq components also energy [3]. The power can only flow from the generator
can be calculated by referring to Eq. 13 where it consists to the load. Because of the uncontrollable action at the
of speed and current information. The power equation is rectifier, so the controllable action has to be designed at
shown as below, the dc-dc converter.
Boost converter has been selected to control the
P = Vd i d + Vq i q output with varying input. This can be achieved by
maintain the boost output. By maintain the boost output
=
3
2
[− Rid2 − Riq2 + 1.5ωM f i f ] (13)
voltage at a certain level refer to the reference value
hopefully this reference can be used for low voltage or
high voltage supply. By adding the storage elements also
Eq. 14 shows the force is generated by the will help in capture this energy. In other applications, this
machine in dq analysis. It shows that the force is related converter can act as maximum power tracking which act
to iq component where it is proportional to the magnitude as a changer or vibrator to change the instantaneous
of the input in the dq imaginary frame. power for the linear generator to the constant power from
in the dc link. Fig. 4 shows power electronics parts with
9 ωM f i f the rectifier and boost converter as a medium conversion.
Fe = iq (14)
4 V
III. Simulation Results
Linear Generator Results - 3 Phase Analysis and dq

Transformation
In this section, the results for both models will

be explained to determine the effectiveness of the models.
For the first simulation result, it shows that the outputs
from the 3 phase model and dq model are consist of
229
velocity, distance, force, terminal voltage and current at Fig. 5 shows the output of the linear generator in
the linear generator terminal. a 3 phase model. The simulation was run for about 35
seconds. The first two graphs, represent the current and
voltage waveform where it is different from each other.
When the current is maximum the voltage is minimum.
This is due to the effect of the load which is shown in
Fig.4. The acceleration graph shows the negative sign
because, the linear generator is slowing down from high
speed to zero speed. This has been proven by the speed
and acceleration waveforms. For the real and reactive
power the generation only involves the real power (blue)
because only the resistive load has been used as a dummy
load. For the real and reactive power outputs, the total
time to capture the power is less then 30 seconds or less
then 20% of the speed. The peak power can be captured
when the acceleration is started to give constant
deceleration. By applying the speed controller on the
linear machine the output generation can be maximize.
Fig. 6 shows the simulation result of the same
linear machine but in dq model design. This model has
been developed in dq transformation. For dq
transformation the total time to complete the simulation
just takes less then a minute compared to the 3 phase
analysis model which is more then 10 minutes.
From both results the linear generator can be
applied during braking. For example the distance needs to
be covered to reduce the speed of the linear machine from
67m/s to zero is about 2km. It means that, the linear
generator with 2km long is required to capture the energy
Figure 5. 3-Phase Linear Machine Model Output when the vehicle starts to brake on this speed. The peak
power can be captured when the acceleration is started to
give constant deceleration. The simulation can run for
more or less then 35 seconds, by change the load at the
terminal voltage of the linear generator.
As a conclusion for this first simulation, the
linear generator is one prominent device that able to
collect the energy from the vehicle braking and transfer it
to the electrical energy. It proves that by transform the 3
phase system to dq system the result can be collected in a
shorter time without giving any effects to the outputs.
The main contribution form this is the power from the
speed can be changed to electrical output by using several
power electronics devices with proper modeling of the
linear machine.
For the second part of the simulation results, the
results show that the current and voltage that are
generated can be controlled to the desired value. This will
be explained in the next paper. Fig. 7 and 8 show the
output with different control topologies at the boost
converter. Fig.7 is when the PI controller is used to
generate the PWM signal for the switching process at the
boost converter. This result shows that after 5 seconds the
voltage is increased dramatically and tries to follow the
desired output before the controller stabilize and is
continued to generate the output after the output for the
terminal voltage has been stopped at 30 seconds. The dc
voltage is maintain at 2700V where this is the reference
value of the dc reference.
For Fig.8, it uses a current voltage controller to
Figure 6. Dq Linear Machibe Model Output
control the voltage and current. By compare from Fig.7
230
the output increases from 0 until 20s. After 20s the output [3] Z.Nie, P.C.J. Clifton, and R.A. McMahon, “Wave energy emulator
and ac/dc rectifier for direct drive wave energy converters”, In
is maintained at the desired value where it same with Fig.
Power Electronics, Machines and Drives, 2008. PEMD 2008. 4th
7. After that, the output will be maintained at the IET Conference, pages 71-75, April 2008.
reference value until the simulation is stopped. [4] S-H Song, S-I Kang, and N-K Hahm. “Implementation and control
of grid connected ac-dc-ac power converter for variable speed
wind energy conversion system”. In Applied Power Electronics
Conference and Exposition, 2003. Apec’03. Eighteenth Annual
IEEE, volume 1, pages 154-158, Feb 2003
[5] K.Sundareswaran and V.T.Sreedevi. “Boost converter controller
design using queen-bee-assisted ga.” Industrial Electronics, IEEE
Transactions 56(3):778-783, March 2009.
[6] S.Wall and R.Jackson. “Fast controller design for single-phase
power factor correction systems”. IEEE Transactions on
Industrial Electronics, 44(5):654-660, Oct 1997
[7] Q-C Zhong, "Ground-operated energy recovery system for landing
aircraft," Sustainable Power Generation and Supply, 2009.
SUPERGEN '09. International Conference on , vol., no., pp.1-5,
6-7 April 2009
[8] J. J.Grainger. Power Systems Analysis, Mc Graw Hill New
York,1994
Figure 7. Boost with PI control
Figure 8. Boost with Current Voltage Control
IV. Conclusion
For the conclusion, the linear generator can be

modeled in both techniques and connect to the power
electronics modules to change form kinetic energy to
electric energy. Both techniques give the same results at
the terminal voltage but in different time to finish the
simulation. By using the dq transformation or dc
component analysis the time taken for the simulation to
finish is less then the three phase model. It is concluded
that by reducing the number of phases for analysis, faster
time simulation can be achieved.
V.References
[1] S.D.Umans, A.E Fitzgerald, C. Kingsley.Jr. Electric Machinery-

Fifth Editions in SI units. McGraw Hill, 1992
[2] Z. J. Piech, J F.Gieras. Linear Synchronous Motors-Transportation
and Automation Systems, CRC Press. 2000
231
Analysis of Transfer Capability by Markov Chain

Monte Carlo Simulation
Magnus Perninge Lennart Söder
School of Electrical Engineering School of Electrical Engineering
Royal Institute of Technology Royal Institute of Technology
Stockholm, Sweden Stockholm, Sweden
Email: magnus.perninge@ee.kth.se
Abstract—Adequate security margins are normally applied In [4] simulations to determine the NTC over one of the
in power systems by keeping a pre-defined set of transfer critical Sections in the Swedish power system was performed.
limits through certain transmission corridors in the system. This Here, voltage stability was assumed to be the critical security
will protect the transmission lines from overheating causing a
violation of the thermal stability limits of the system. However, constraint, and a defining contingency was considered. It was
for other security limits such as, voltage stability, and lower shown that one very important factor was the distribution
voltage limits at specific nodes, the distribution of the injected of the load amongst the nodes on the consumer side of the
power amongst the nodes of the system will also be of importance. considered section. To fully be able to evaluate the risk of
In this article we propose a method for generating samples of voltage instability for a given allowed transfer we will thus
the injected power at all nodes given a set of transfers through
specified corridors of the power system. It is then showed how the have to consider the stochastic placement of the injected power
method can be used to evaluate the risk of violating the system amongst the nodes in the system and not only the transfers
stability limits induced by keeping a specific set of transfer limits. through the critical sections.
The method can be used in power system short-term planning
when setting the limits for trading and transfer between the In this article we propose a method for evaluating the
different nodes of the power system.
Index Terms—Power system security, active power transfer
probability of violating power system security constraints
limit, Markov chain Monte Carlo, voltage instability, stochastic given a set of transfers through a given set of critical sections
nodal loading. in the system. Here, the losses are approximated by the second
order Taylor expansion of the loss function in injected power
I. I NTRODUCTION around the maximum likelihood of the constrained injected
powers. The method assumes that the transfers over some
Due to the intensive use of transmission networks, power sections in the system are known and that the probability
system security [1] has become one of the most important distribution of the injected powers is known. One possible
issues in power system operation. There is a large conflict implementation of the method is if the System Operator (SO)
of interest between the market perspective, where a large of a power system wants to know what risk the system will
capacity to transfer power through the electric power grid is run of e.g. voltage instability if the transfer through a critical
required, and the security perspective, where secure opera- transmission corridor is increased to a certain level. One
tion is the main objective. To satisfy both objectives to the simplification assumed in this paper is that the fact that the
largest possible extent an adequate balance between security load is a stochastic process and not a single random variable
and capacity is preferable. To maintain secure operation, the is neglected. This will make computation easier.
flows over certain sections in the system is measured and
actions are taken when these flows exceed a predefined limit, The presentation is structured as follows. In Section II a
called Net Transfer Capacity (NTC) [2]. When determining mathematical description of the problem is given. In Sec-
an efficient NTC one has to consider fluctuations in the Total tion III we propose a choice for the point around which the
Transfer Capacity (TTC) as the system conditions vary, and Taylor expansion of the losses is to be made. Section IV is
uncertainties in system parameters. devoted to derivation of the probability distribution of the
In [3] a confidence bound for the Transmission Reliability injected power given that the transfers in the system should
Margin (TRM), a margin that is kept to be able to maintain be the set values and assuming the second order expansion
secure operation under system parameter random fluctuations of the losses. Then, in Section V, we show how to, using
and other parameter uncertainties, is calculated. This paper Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC), generate outcomes
assumes that the parameters can be chosen in a way that makes from the probability distribution found in Section IV. In
them independent. Then sensitivity analysis, combined with Section VI a numerical example where the proposed method
the central limit theorem, is used to obtain a confidence bound is implemented in the IEEE 9-bus system with one critical
for the TRM. section is given.
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 232

II. P ROBLEM FORMULATION where f is a vector of power mismatch, and λ is a vector in
injected power space, we can extract
Consider the simple power system depicted in Fig. 1.
Assume that the joint probability distribution of x = u(λ). (6)
Hence, we get the losses W (x) = W (u(λ)) as a function
3 of injected power λ. Unfortunately, u cannot easily be found,
Gen 1 so an explicit expression for the active power losses, PL , is
hard to find. However, it has been shown [5] that a second
1 order Taylor expansion of the losses is in many cases a very
close approximation of the actual losses. Write λ = λ0 + ∆λ.
A second order Taylor series expansion of PL around λ0 is
given by
2 PLSO (λ) = W + Wλ ∆λ + 21 ∆λT Wλλ ∆λ, (7)
P23
where W and its derivatives are to be evaluated at λ0 . The
4 5 vector Wλ , and the matrix Wλλ are given by
W λ = W x uλ , (8)
3 and
Wλλ = Wx uλλ + uTλ Wxx uλ (9)
To find the matrix uλ and the tensor uλλ , we differentiate (5)
Load B Load A first once to get
Fig. 1. The one-line diagram of the simple system used to explain the fx uλ + fλ = 0, (10)
problem which the article aims at solving.
which implies that
uλ = −fx−1 fλ (11)
PD1
PD = (1) and then again to get
PD2
is known, where PDi is the active power demand in Load i. fx uλλ + uTλ fxx uλ + fλλ = 0, (12)
Assume that the transfer P12 is monitored and we wish to from which uλλ can be deduced.
know the probability distribution of
Two questions now arise:
PD | P12 = K. (2)
1) What is a good choice of λ0 ?
If losses are neglected this problem is reduced to PD | PD1 + 2) What is the resulting probability distribution of PD
K
=
SO
PD2 = K. However, when trying to keep adequate transfer PD | PD1 + PD2 + PL (PD ) = K?
limits, losses can be vital. Hence, we are searching for
III. A GOOD CHOICE FOR λ0
2
Expanding the loss function around the most probable
X
PD | PDi + PL (PD ) = K, (3)
i=1
operating point seem reasonable. Hence, if we denote by f PD
the probability density function of PD , then the solution to
where PL : R2 → [0, ∞) is the active power losses in the
system. max fPD (λ) (13)
λ∈Rn
The active power losses, south of node 2, can be written as s.t. f (x, λ) = 0, (14)
the sum of injected power, n
X
5 5 λi + W (x) = K, (15)
X X
PL = Vi Vk (Gik cos(δik ) + Bik sin(δik )). (4) i=1
i=2 k=2 will be a good choice for λ0 . Here f is the set of power
flow equations where the known parameters such as e.g.
Now, assume x = (V1 , . . . , VN , δ1 , . . . , δN )T . Hence PL
voltages at PV-buses are set to their known values, and
can be written PL = W (x), where at normal operation n
λi + W (x) = K assures that the transfer through the
P
W ∈ C ∞ (RN × [0, 2π)N → [0, ∞)). Now, through the load
i=1
flow equations, corridors have the correct value.
f (x, λ) = 0, (5)
233
The second order Taylor expansion PLSO of PL around λ0 Hence, if the (n − 1)-dimensional random vector Z is given
is then given by the distribution
PLSO (y) = W + Wλ (y − λ0 ) + 21 (y − λ0 )T Wλλ (y − λ0 ), (16) fZ (z) =
fPD (LK (z))
=
π(z)
, (29)
C C
where all instances of W and its derivatives is to be evaluated
where the normalization constant C is chosen such that
at λ0 . Z
IV. T HE DISTRIBUTION OF K
PD fZ (z)dz = 1, (30)
Rn−1
The random variable PD
K
is living on the (n − 1)-Manifold
d d
n then LK (Z) = PD
K
, where = denotes equality in distribution.
λ(i) + PLSO (λ) = K}.
X
ΛK = {λ ∈ Rn : (17)
i=1
V. S IMULATION
A point y on the surface ΛK will thus fulfill To estimate the system security we want to compute the
X probability of violation of the system constraints,
y (i) + W + Wλ (y − λ0 ) Z
+ 21 (y − λ0 )T Wλλ (y − λ0 ) = K. (18) pF = P(1E ) = fPDK (y)dy, (31)
E
Since where P is the probability measure of the random variable
(i)
X
λ0 + W = K, (19) PDK
, and E is the set of non-allowed operating points. One
this implies that of the obstacles faced when trying to calculate pF is the
unknown constant C. Finding the normalization constant C
A(y − λ0 ) + 21 (y − λ0 )T Wλλ (y − λ0 ) = 0 (20) by computing the integral
where
Z
(i) π(z)dz (32)
A(i) = Wλ + 1. (21) Rn−1
From (20) we see that the the hyperplane passing through λ0 will in general be complicated and a Monte Carlo method
with normal has to be used. However, for most cases the only reason
nF = A/kAk (22) for seeking the distribution of PD K
is to be able to generate
n outcomes of the injected power for a given set of transfers. If
is where PD | PDi + PLFO (PD ) = K lives, where PLFO is we chose to generate these outcomes using a Markov chain
P
i=1
a first order Taylor expansion of the active power losses. We Monte Carlo method [6] the computation of C can be omitted.
also note that nF is the normal to ΛK at λ0 . Let {ai }i=1
n−1
be In this section we will present the Markov chain Monte Carlo
orthonormal vectors in R such that nF ⊥span{a1 , . . . , an−1 }.
n method, and show how this method can be used to calculate
Hence, every vector y ∈ Rn can be written pF .
y = λ0 + Bw, (23) A. Markov chain Monte Carlo and the Metropolis-Hastings

algorithm
where
B = [nF a1 ··· an−1 ] , (24) Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) is a method for
generating samples from random variables having complicated
for some w ∈ Rn . Hence, probability distributions such as PD K
. The samples Yi gen-
erated using MCMC forms an ergodic Markov chain whose
0 = ABw + wDw = kAkw (1) + wDw, (25)
asymptotic distribution is the distribution from which we try
where to generate samples. The value E[h(Y∞ )] is then estimated
D = 21 B T Wλλ B. (26) using the fact that
For every {w , . . . , w }, Equation (25) is a second degree

(2) (n)
1 X
N
polynomial in w (1) . Hence, w (1) can be written as a function E[h(Y∞ )] = lim h(Yi ). (33)
N →∞ N
of {w(2) , . . . , w(n) }, say i=1
The most common way of generating the samples Yi is by

w(1) = g(w(2) , . . . , w(n) ). (27)
the Metropolis-Hastings algorithm suggested by Metropolis et
Here, due to physical reasons, g should be taken to be the so- al. [7] and later extended by Hastings [8]. Given that Yi−1 = x
lution which is closest to the first order approximation, i.e. the we generate a proposal y for Yi from a distribution q(x, ·).
solution for which w (1) is closest to zero. A parametrization When a proposal y has been generated from q(x, ·) it is
of ΛK is given by LK : Rn−1 → ΛK defined by accepted with probability
LK (z) = λ0 + g(z)nF + [a1 ··· an−1 ] z (28) α(x, y) = min(1, r(x, y)), (34)
234
Gen 1
where,
π(y)q(y, x)
r(x, y) = . (35)
π(x)q(x, y)
If y is accepted then Yi = y, and if y is not accepted then 1
Yi = x. This means that unlike ordinary acceptance-rejection
(A-R) algorithms a sample is generated in each step. The
crucial feature of (35) is that we have a ratio between two -P41 4 Section A
π-values, so that the normalization constant C need not be
computed. The distribution q(x, ·) should be chosen such that
Yi can take all values for which π has a density. One way 6 5
of making this hold is to let q(x, y) be a the distribution
function of a N (x, σ)-distributed random variable. The choice Load B Load A
of q also affect the convergence rate of the distribution of Yi
to its asymptotic distribution. It can be shown that using the
Metropolis-Hastings algorithm to generate the Yi s, yields Yi
to be an ergodic Markov series with asymptotic distribution
π/C. Gen 3 Gen 2
B. Estimating pF
One way of estimating pF is as follows. We first solve
3 9 8 7 2
min
n−1
kzk (36) Load C
z∈R
s.t. LK (z) ∈ E, (37) Fig. 2. The one-line sketch of the power system used in the numerical
example. Here, node 1 is the slack node, and Section A is the section over
which can be solved using e.g. Particle Swarm Optimization which the transfer is measured to be K p.u. Hence, −P41 = K p.u.
(PSO) [9]. An example of where PSO is used to solve a
problem of this type is in [10] where a modified PSO-
algorithm is used to find the distance, in parameter space, from and
an operating point to the saddle-node bifurcation surface. Let
1 26 9
R0 > 0 be the optimum to this problem. Now we start at some C= , (39)
20 9 17
Y0 and generate the sequence {Yi }. If kYi k < R0 , we know
that LK (Yi ) ∈
/ E and no power flow calculations will have
and PD3 = 1 p.u. The reason that the injected power in
to be performed. Since generating a new sample, Yi , given
one node is chosen to be deterministic is to increase the
Yi−1 , is much faster then evaluating whether LK (Yi ) ∈ E
pedagogical value by allowing a more visual presentation.
this procedure will save a lot of computational effort.
In Fig. 3 the bifurcation boundary Σ and the curve where
VI. N UMERICAL EXAMPLE PD | − P41 = K takes its values is plotted (both lying in the
In this section a numerical example will be given. The PD1 PD2 -plane) together with the probability density function
aim of the numerical example is to show how the method fPD |−P41 =K .
described in this paper can be applied by looking at a simple
system. The system that we have chosen for the numerical
example is the IEEE 9-bus system depicted in Fig. 2. This
system has 9 nodes where nod 1 is a slack node, node 2 and
node 3 are generator nodes, and node 4-9 are PQ-nodes. The fPD |−P41 =K
generators in nodes 2 and 3 have reactive power consumption
limits Q̄G2 = 1.4 p.u., and Q̄G3 = 1 p.u. respectively. The 5
consumption is located in nodes 5, 6, and 8. Hence, if we 4

assume that the reactive power is a deterministic function of m Σ
the active power, the load-space will be three-dimensional, 3
PD2
i.e. n = 3. 2
0
0.5 1
1
The aim of the numerical example is to estimate the 1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5 0
probability of voltage instability when the transfer through PD1 4
4.5
Section A is K = 4 p.u., (PD1 , PD2 ) is N (m, C)-distributed,

Fig. 3. The region in injected power space where −P41 = K, together with
where the density fPD |−P41 =K and the saddle-node bifurcation surface Σ.
2
m= , (38)
2
235
3
A. Parametrizing ΛK
To find λ0 we chose the point where fPD |−P41 =K obtains 2
its maximal value. This gives us λ0 = [2.7208 2.5370]T . 1
The objective is thus to estimate the surface under the curve

fPD |−P41 =K in the allowed operating region. One minus this 0
number will then be used as an estimate of the probability

of voltage instability given the transfer −P41 = K. The first −1
order expansion of PL in λ around λ0 is given by, −2
Wλ = [0.1321 0.1601] . (40) −3

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 1000
The normal to ΛK at λ0 is thus given by the fact for ∆λ ∈ i
T λ0 Λ K , X Fig. 4. The sequence {Yi }10000

i=0 generated using σ = 0.1.
∆λ(i) + Wλ ∆λ = 0. (41)
3
Hence,
0.6984 2
nF = . (42)
0.7157
1
The matrix Wλλ in the second order expansion of PL at λ0

is
0
0.1680 0.1021
Wλλ = . (43) −1
0.1021 0.1983
Now, let w = [u v]T be such that w + λ0 ∈ ΛK , then −2

u u −3
+ 12 [u v]Wλλ (44)
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 1000
([1 1] + Wλ ) = 0. i
v v
The vector Fig. 5. The sequence {Yi }10000
i=0 generated using σ = 1.

0.7157
a1 = . (45) 4
−0.6984
3
together with nF forms a orthonormal basis for R2 . If [s t]

is the [a1 nF ]-coordinates of w, then, letting 2
(46)
1
R = [a1 nF ] ,
0
we get
−1
s
k[1 1] + Wλ kt + 12 [s t]RT Wλλ R = 0. (47)
t −2
From (47) we find hw, nF i given hw, a1 i for every point w ∈ −3

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 1000
i
ΛK . The relation t = g(s) given by (47) is then used in the
map LK : R → ΛK as in (28). Fig. 6. The sequence {Yi }10000
i=0 generated using σ = 10.
B. Simulation
To start of the Markov chain in our MCMC simulation From these figures it is clear that using a too small σ will
we choose Y0 = λ0 . We then generate a proposal V for Y1 make the chain move slowly, hence the convergence is slower,
from a N (Y0 , σ)-distribution. By the symmetry of the normal and using a too large σ will result in many proposals being
distribution we have that q(x, y) = q(y, x) in this case. Hence, rejected which is not good either. Using MCMC with σ = 1
our r is simply, we got the estimate pF = 0.02. Hence, if the system operator
π(V ) fPD (LK (V )) lets the transfer through Section A reach 4 p.u. the probability
r(Y0 , V ) = = . (48) of system failure is estimated to be around 2%.
π(Y0 ) fPD (LK (Y0 ))
To decide whether to accept V for Y1 we generate an outcome VII. C ONCLUSION
of a random variable U that is uniformly distributed on [0, 1] In this paper a method for analyzing the probability of
an accept V if r(Y0 , V ) ≥ U . This procedure is then repeated violating power system security constraints given a transfer
to generate a Y2 from Y1 and so on. In Fig. 4, Fig. 5, and Fig. 6, limit is proposed. As in-signals to the proposed algorithm is
outcomes of {Yi }10000
i=0 generated using σ = 0.1, σ = 1 and the transfer into the area and probability distribution of the
σ = 10 respectively are plotted. unconstrained nodal loading is assumed. The losses are then
236
approximated by the second order Taylor expansion of the loss
function in injected power around the maximum likelihood
of the constrained nodal loading. To estimate the probability
of violation of the security constraints, Markov Chain Monte
Carlo Simulation is used to generate outcomes of the injected
power given the set of transfers in a Monte Carlo Simulation.
The method can be used in off-line power system security
assessment.
R EFERENCES
[1] IEEE/CIGRE Joint Task Force on Stability Terms and Definitions. Def-
inition and Classification of Power System Stability. IEEE Transactions
on Powr Systems, 19(3), 2004.
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elsystemet. Master’s thesis, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), may
2009.
[5] L. Söder. Estimation of reduced electrical distribution losses depending
on dispersed small scale energy production. In Proceedings of 12th
Power Systems Computation Conference, 1996.
[6] S. Asmussen and P. W. Glynn. Stochastic Simulation. Springer, 2007.
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Equations of state calculations by fast computing machines. J. Chem.
Phys., 21:1087–1091, 1953.
[8] W.K. Hastings. Monte Carlo sampling methods using Markov chains.
Biometrica, 89:731–743, 1970.
[9] R. C. Eberhart and J Kennedy. A new optimizer using particle swarm
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voltage instability with particle swarm optimization algorithm. Euro.
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237
Economic Viability of Distributed Energy

Resources Relative to Substation and Feeder
Facilities Expansion
M. F. Akorede*, H. Hizam*, I. Aris*, M. Z. A. Ab. Kadir*, and E. Pouresmaeil**
*Electrical & Electronic Engineering Department, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia.
**CITCEA, Polytechnic University of Catalonia, Barcelona, Spain.
E-mail: makorede@ieee.org
Abstract— Distributed energy resources have numerous Given the ever-increasing customer demand for electric
benefits, of which is transmission network upgrade deferral. power energy, the need for system improvements is
This application is particularly important where there are inevitable in the electric power industry. Over the past
constraints in upgrading of the existing or construction of decades, high electricity demand and insufficient capacity
new generation units and transmission circuits. This paper have resulted in blackouts, equipment failures, high peak
presents a cost comparison of the central plant option and prices, etc [2]. Unfortunately, economic and
DG in meeting additional load demand. The economic environmental constraints have restricted upgrading of the
analysis for a twenty-year planning horizon is carried out in existing or building of new generation and transmission
this study using present worth factor. The results obtained and distribution (T&D) facilities. Given this scenario, it
with a 30-bus test radial distribution network using becomes imperative to look for an alternative generation,
MATPOWER show the economic viability of DG when in form of DG, to supplement the traditional central plants
compared with upgrading the existing substation and feeder in order to meet the required power demand. Fortunately,
facilities, especially when incremental load is considered. this option would not only solve the constraint problem, it
has also been proved to be economically more viable even
Keywords—Distributed energy resources, worth factor, than expanding the existing system facilities to serve
power loss, distributed generation, central generation additional load demand.
NOMENCLATURE
Usually T&D planners look carefully at long-term
power demand during the design and try to forestall any
CDGiv DG investment cost ($/MW) initial load growth requirements. This is often done by
CF cost of fuel ($/MMBtu) building T&D facilities with considerable margin,
Fk overall objective function at node k typically of 50 % in excess of the existing load to cater for
i, k, y bus indices the future load growth [3]. However, the current trend in
LN number of load level the demand for electric energy in many countries today
NB number of system buses may soon consume the tolerance provided. This creates an
NL number of load buses where DG can be placed incentive for DG applications, to tackle the problem.
NDG number of DG units The focus of this paper is to present the comparative
t future year cost analysis between DG installation and expansion of
Td time duration (hrs) the existing substation and T&D facilities. The results
PDij active power demand at node i at load level j obtained using a 30-bus radial distribution test system for
20 year planning horizon shows the cost effectiveness of
PDGk DG active power injected at node k DG over that of system upgrading. All the results
PLt total network power loss at tth year presented in this paper are produced with the aid of
α annual load growth rate MATPOWER [4] run in MATLAB environment.
I. INTRODUCTION
Distributed energy resources (DER) systems are small- II. BETWEEN DG AND CENTRAL GENERATION
scale power generation technologies that could be
Distributed generation (DG) refers to the application of
employed to provide an alternative or a supplement to the
small sized generators ranging from a few kilo watts to a
conventional central generating plants. DER is usually
few hundreds of mega watts, usually connected to the
connected to the utility grid at the customer site via a point
distribution/sub-transmission network of a power system.
of common coupling (PCC). DER is a superset of
DG could either be connected to the utility system at the
distributed generation (DG) units and energy storage
site of the customer or isolated from the grid, to be run in
technologies [1]. Energy storage technologies such as
stand-alone applications. Presently most types of DG
batteries, flywheels, pumped storage, etc, are required for
utilise the traditional power generation paradigms such as
those renewable energy sources that are stochastic in
diesel, combustion turbines, low-head hydro or other
nature.
rotating mercenary. However, fuel cells and renewable
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 238

power generation technologies, which include wind, solar, threat that requires urgent actions. On the contrary, most
geothermal, biomass, etc, are also used for DG in addition. DG units emit very low pollutant, while some produce
DG fundamentally differs from the conventional central zero pollutant. Therefore adopting DG technologies in the
plant in the approach of power generation and delivery to generation of electric energy would greatly improve the
the end users. quality of air.
On the other hand, central generation whose primary F. Increased Power Reliability
energy sources include water (hydro-power plants), fossil
fuels, and nuclear elements is still currently used DG can avoid or reduce power outages associated with
worldwide to produce the bulk of electric power. the grid that can result in operational downtime. This can
Generation is normally in a remote area, and transported be achieved in both modes of DG connection – parallel
to the load centres via wires system. The capacity of these and roll-over modes. Industrial and commercial customers
central generators ranges from 150 MW to 800 MW [3]. whose services require a high level of electric power could
The large stations, both in terms of physical size and find solace in this application by investing in DG.
facilities requirements often make site selection and
procurement a big challenge. Usually, one or more
generating units are clustered together at a generating III. PRESENT WORTH ANALYSIS
plant. This operation results in economies of scale since Present worth analysis is a method of measuring and
fuel loading, switching equipment, and other facilities are comparing values, costs and savings that occur at different
shared, thus lowering the unit cost of generation. times on a consistent and equitable basis [3]. Present
However, this conventional means of generating worth factor is a decision making tool, which represents
electricity has adverse effects on the environment. the value of money in one year to come based on today’s
DG has a number of benefits over the conventional assessment. In other words, the value of money at any
central power plants. However, it comes along with a few future time can be converted to its equivalent present
challenges required to be mitigated as it connects to the worth. For example, the present worth of one hundred
grid. A few relevant benefits vis-a-vis the conventional USD as a function of the next twenty years with an annual
system are briefly discussed in this work as follows. discount rate of 9 %, computed from eqn (1), is plotted
and shown in Fig. 1. 1
A. Higher Plant Efficiency γt = (1)
The thermal efficiency of the existing large central (1 + dr ) t
power plants is in the range of 28 to 35 %. This is against
that of DG of between 40 and 55 %. In fact, efficiencies of where γt is the present worth factor at tth future year, and
higher than 80 % could be achieved when a microturbine dr is the annual discount rate.
for example, is run in combined heat and power (CHP) It is worthy to mention that distribution planners
applications [5]. This is possible with high technology of usually plan with constant-value dollars by assuming
better performance in DG. there is no inflation in the future years, while computing
the present worth values.
B. A Shrinking Economy of Scale
While large modern generators have a fuel economy 100
advantage over small modern ones, technological 90
advancement has greatly improved smaller generator 80
designs more than larger ones. The reasons for this
70
improvement range from technological advancement in
fuel conversion, shifts in fuel prices, automation and 60
control [3].
$
50
40
C. DG Avoids T&D Costs
30
The fact that DG is closer to the customer makes it to
20
have an economic hedge over the central generation and
its associated T&D system, by eliminating the need for 10
new T&D lines. T&D is often known for its significant 0
cost and it is also mostly responsible for a good deal of the 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10111213141516171819
service reliability problems experienced by customers. Year
Fig. 1 Value of $100 as a function of future years
D. Modularity Advantage
Most DG units are factory-assembled, built to a
common design, as against the central station plants that
IV. A CASE STUDY
are usually custom-designed and built on site. The
advantages of modularity of power generation units are The system obtained from [6] is an 11 kV distribution
easy and fast installation, to meet the immediate need of system having 29 load buses and 1 source bus. It has a
the customer. main feeder and three laterals as shown in Fig. 2.
Although the load composition of the distribution system
E. Environmental Impact Reduction is not stated, the loads have been modelled in this work as
Presently most central generation units run on fossil composite loads consisting of 46 % constant power, 31 %
fuels, the by-products of which are greenhouse gases that constant current and 23 % constant impedance. This is
can cause climate change. This is a serious environmental done to reflect the real life scenario load modelling of
distribution systems. The test system is slightly modified
239
to have basecase active and reactive power capacity of The following system bound constraints are considered in
6.220 MW and 3.858 MVar respectively. Assuming an this study:
annual load growth rate, α of 1.7 % at a constant power bus voltage constraint:
factor across all load buses, using eqn (2), the present min
Vi ≤ Vi ≤ Vi
max
∀ i ∈ {1, 2, 3, ..., N B } (7)
13 14 15 16
feeder power flow constraint:
max max
28 29 30 Siy ≤ S iy , and S yi ≤ S yi ∀ i & y ∈ {1, 2, 3, ..., N B } (8)
DG power generation limit:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
NL NB
∑ PDG k ≤ 0.3∑ PDi

j
for j = 1 to L N (9)
k =1 i =1
17 18 19 20 21 The DG capacity is limited to 30 % of the maximum

feeder load demand to avoid power quality or voltage
22
regulation problem [7] which could arise as DG
penetration level goes higher.
23
B. DG Investment Cost Calculation
27 26 24
Although cost alone cannot be sufficient for complete
25 evaluation of DG, reliability and power quality are also
essential components of decision making; it is often the
Fig. 2 30-Bus Radial Test System primary consideration, since the goal in most planning
situations is to select the lowest cost option that meets the
loading would have grown by 40 % over a period of target reliability and power quality levels [3]. To carry out
twenty-year planning horizon. At this loading condition, it a fair evaluation, it is crucial to include a comprehensive
is found that the system under study has been over- assessment of all costs involved, both for every DG
stretched. This is evidenced in the voltage limit violations alternative and for any T&D options to which they are
pronounced in buses 23 to 27, though not shown. being compared.
t 0
PD = PD (1 + α ) t ∀ t ∈ {1, 2, 3, ..., T p } ( 2) Generally speaking, costs are characterised in two ways
–fixed and variable costs. Fixed or initial costs in this wise
where Tp is the horizon planning period. include DG purchase, land purchase and preparation,
electrical installations, etc costs. They are put under
purchase and installation cost in this study. On the other
A. Problem Formulation hand, variable or continuing costs are those costs
The objective in this study is to minimise the system associated with the units that are available and in service.
power loss as DG units connect to the grid. Minimising Examples of these are tax, fuel, repairs, labour, etc costs.
the active power loss is considered in this paper as They vary with the amount of usage. Both fixed and
maximising the difference between the active power loss variable costs are termed investment cost of DG, which is
of the network without and with DG installation on the formulated and presented in eqn (10).
Tp Tp NL
system. The expression for the network active power loss
+ ∑ γ tTd C DG + ∑ γ t C F ) ∑ PDG k (10 )
iv pc & in O & M &T
C DG = (C DG
on line m at zeroth year (basecase year) is presented in eqn t =1 t =1 k =1
(3).
On the other hand, the overall cost of T&D expansion
(V )
N B -1
PL =
0
∑G m =1
m (i, y ) i
2 2
+ V y − 2ViV y cos(δ i − δ y ) (3) in the conventional central power generation includes
substation and feeder expansion cost, operation and
where Gm(i,y) is the conductance of line m, which connects maintenance, tax, additional energy purchase as well as
bus i to bus y, Vi is the bus i voltage magnitude, and δi is the power loss cost. The market data used in this study is
the voltage angle at bus i. With an annual load growth presented in Table I.
TABLE I.
rate α, and a loss rate constant β, the total power loss at tth THE MARKET DATA USED IN THE STUDY
year in the system is given by eqn (4).
t 0
DG Substation & Feeder
PL = PL (1 + α ) βt ∀ t ∈ {1, 2, 3, ..., T p } (4) Expansion
Cost Rate Cost Rate
Equation (5) represents maximising the difference Purchase M$0.45/MW [8, Substation $10/MWh
between the active power losses of when DG is not placed 9] Expansion [11]
and when placed in the network at j load level over the Installation M$0.985/MW Feeder $1/MWh
planning period, Tp. [9] Expansion [11]
max ΔP t = O&M&T $5/MWh [9] O&M&T $3/MWh
L [3]
( )
L N NB NL
(1 + α ) βt ∑∑∑ Td PLi − PLk
j j Energy $109/MWh [9] Grid Energy $120/MWh
DG (5) Cost [9]
j =1 i =1 k =1
Fuel $4.44/MMBtu
It should be noted that maximising a function f(x) is [10]
synonymous to minimising –f(x), hence eqn (6) is Fuel Heat 12MMBtu/MWh
obtained from eqn (5). [3]
t Fuel 86,400
Let Fk = min(- Δ P L ) = Quantity MMBtu/yr
( )
LN NB NL
(1 + α ) βt ∑∑∑ Td PLk
j j
DG − PLi (6 )
j =1 i =1 k =1
240
V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION constraint. This paper has presented the relative benefits
Without DG, the overall system power loss at 140 % of DG to the conventional power generation method.
basecase loading is 0.7697 MW. Using eqn (6), the Some of the benefits briefly covered in the literature
change in power loss is computed when a DG unit of 2.6 include higher system efficiency, modularity advantage,
MW is placed in each of the load buses. This size was environmental impact reduction, increased power
obtained using the grid search method using reliability, to mention but a few. In the work, an economic
MATPOWER package, bearing in mind the system and analysis for a twenty-year planning horizon was carried
DG capacity limit constraints. The results are plotted in out using present worth factor. The results obtained using
Fig. 3. From the figure, it is visible that the optimum DG MATPOWER package showed the economic viability of
location is bus 24, since the highest change in power loss DG when compared with upgrading of the substation and
is recorded there with DG connection. feeder facilities, especially when incremental load growth
is put into account.
0.4
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
0.35 The first author acknowledges with gratitude, the
0.3 financial support in form of Graduate Research
0.25 Fellowship, received from Universiti Putra Malaysia.
Fk (MW)
0.2 REFERENCES
0.15
[1] “IEEE Application Guide for IEEE Std 1547, IEEE Standard for
0.1 Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric Power
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0 [2] Authur D Little, “Distributed Generation: Understanding the
Economics” White Paper retrieved June 2010 from
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Bus Number http://www.tilburguniversity.nl/tilec/events/conferences/03112005
/reading.html/little.pdf
Fig. 3 Variation in Power Loss due to DG Connection
[3] H. Willis and W. Scott, Distributed power generation: planning
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To calculate the annual energy loss cost, three load [4] R. Zimmerman and D. Gan, "Matpower," Ithaca, NY, Power
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conditions. This is presented in Table II. The results in this
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table are obtained using the market data of Table I. generation: The importance of system performance”, Energy
In the same vein, Tables III and IV are presented to Policy, 2006; 34:2677-89.
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than expanding substation and feeder facilities to meet the radial distribution systems including voltage dependent load
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TABLE II.
ANNUAL ENERGY LOSS COST CALCULATION
Load Level 80 % (light) 100 % (normal) 140 % (peak)

Duration (hrs) 1,700 4,200 1,300
Wt DG No DG Wt DG No DG Wt DG No DG
Power Loss 0.1411 0.2454 0.2172 0.3854 0.4225 0.7696
(MW)
Energy Loss 239.87 417.18 912.24 1,618.68 549.25 1,000.48
/ yr (MWhr)
Energy Loss 26,145.83 50,061.60 99,434.16 194,241.60 59,868.25 120,057.60
Cost/ yr ($)
Total Energy With DG 185,448.24
Loss Cost Without DG 364,360.80
per yr ($)
241
TABLE III.
20-YEAR COST EVALUATION FOR SUBSTATION & FEEDER EXPANSION
Year Substation & Operation & Additional Energy Loss Annual Cost ($) PWF Annual
Feeder Maintenance Energy Cost ($) Discounted Cost
Expansion Cost & Tax Cost Purchase Cost ($)
($) ($) ($)
0 4,118,400.00 56,160.00 2,246,400.00 364,360.80 6,785,320.80 1.000 6,785,320.80
1 0.00 56,160.00 2,246,400.00 364,360.80 2,666,920.80 0.916 2,443,353.92
2 0.00 56,160.00 2,246,400.00 364,360.80 2,666,920.80 0.839 2,238,528.55
3 0.00 56,160.00 2,246,400.00 364,360.80 2,666,920.80 0.769 2,050,873.62
4 0.00 56,160.00 2,246,400.00 364,360.80 2,666,920.80 0.705 1,878,949.72
5 0.00 56,160.00 2,246,400.00 364,360.80 2,666,920.80 0.645 1,721,438.13
6 0.00 56,160.00 2,246,400.00 364,360.80 2,666,920.80 0.591 1,577,130.67
7 0.00 56,160.00 2,246,400.00 364,360.80 2,666,920.80 0.542 1,444,920.45
8 0.00 56,160.00 2,246,400.00 364,360.80 2,666,920.80 0.496 1,323,793.36
9 0.00 56,160.00 2,246,400.00 364,360.80 2,666,920.80 0.455 1,212,820.30
10 0.00 56,160.00 2,246,400.00 364,360.80 2,666,920.80 0.417 1,111,150.07
11 0.00 56,160.00 2,246,400.00 364,360.80 2,666,920.80 0.382 1,018,002.81
12 0.00 56,160.00 2,246,400.00 364,360.80 2,666,920.80 0.350 932,664.05
13 0.00 56,160.00 2,246,400.00 364,360.80 2,666,920.80 0.320 854,479.20
14 0.00 56,160.00 2,246,400.00 364,360.80 2,666,920.80 0.294 782,848.56
15 0.00 56,160.00 2,246,400.00 364,360.80 2,666,920.80 0.269 717,222.69
16 0.00 56,160.00 2,246,400.00 364,360.80 2,666,920.80 0.246 657,098.20
17 0.00 56,160.00 2,246,400.00 364,360.80 2,666,920.80 0.226 602,013.93
18 0.00 56,160.00 2,246,400.00 364,360.80 2,666,920.80 0.207 551,547.34
19 0.00 56,160.00 2,246,400.00 364,360.80 2,666,920.80 0.189 505,311.36
Total 57,456,816.00 30,409,467.74
TABLE IV.
20-YEAR COST EVALUATION FOR 2.6 MW DG UNIT
Year Purchase & Operation & Fuel Cost ($) Energy Loss Annual Cost PWF Annual
Installation Maintenance & Cost ($) ($) Discounted
Cost ($) Tax Cost ($) Cost ($)
0 3,731,000.00 93,600.00 997,401.60 185,448.24 5,007,449.84 1.000 5,007,449.84
1 0.00 93,600.00 997,401.60 185,448.24 1,276,449.84 0.916 1,169,445.57
2 0.00 93,600.00 997,401.60 185,448.24 1,276,449.84 0.839 1,071,411.42
3 0.00 93,600.00 997,401.60 185,448.24 1,276,449.84 0.769 981,595.44
4 0.00 93,600.00 997,401.60 185,448.24 1,276,449.84 0.705 899,308.70
5 0.00 93,600.00 997,401.60 185,448.24 1,276,449.84 0.645 823,920.01
6 0.00 93,600.00 997,401.60 185,448.24 1,276,449.84 0.591 754,851.14
7 0.00 93,600.00 997,401.60 185,448.24 1,276,449.84 0.542 691,572.27
8 0.00 93,600.00 997,401.60 185,448.24 1,276,449.84 0.496 633,598.05
9 0.00 93,600.00 997,401.60 185,448.24 1,276,449.84 0.455 580,483.78
10 0.00 93,600.00 997,401.60 185,448.24 1,276,449.84 0.417 531,822.07
11 0.00 93,600.00 997,401.60 185,448.24 1,276,449.84 0.382 487,239.64
12 0.00 93,600.00 997,401.60 185,448.24 1,276,449.84 0.350 446,394.54
13 0.00 93,600.00 997,401.60 185,448.24 1,276,449.84 0.320 408,973.47
14 0.00 93,600.00 997,401.60 185,448.24 1,276,449.84 0.294 374,689.39
15 0.00 93,600.00 997,401.60 185,448.24 1,276,449.84 0.269 343,279.33
16 0.00 93,600.00 997,401.60 185,448.24 1,276,449.84 0.246 314,502.36
17 0.00 93,600.00 997,401.60 185,448.24 1,276,449.84 0.226 288,137.76
18 0.00 93,600.00 997,401.60 185,448.24 1,276,449.84 0.207 263,983.29
19 0.00 93,600.00 997,401.60 185,448.24 1,276,449.84 0.189 241,853.68
Total 3,708,964.80 16,314,511.74
242
Reactive Power Allocation in Pool Based Power

System Utilizing Proportional Sharing Method
Mohd Herwan Sulaiman Mohd Wazir Mustafa Omar Aliman
Authors Name/s per 1st Affiliation (Author) Authors Name/s per 2nd Affiliation (Author)
School of Electrical System Engineering Faculty of Electrical Engineering Faculty of Electrical & Electronic Engineering
line 1 (of Affiliation): dept. name of organization line 1 (of Affiliation): dept. name of organization
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
Universiti Malaysia Perlis Universiti Malaysia Pahang
line 2: name of organization, acronyms acceptable Johor, Malaysia line 2: name of organization, acronyms acceptable
Perlis, Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia
line 3: City, Country wazir@fke.utm.my line 3: City, Country
mherwan@unimap.edu.my omaraliman@ump.edu.my
line 4: e-mail address if desired line 4: e-mail address if desired
Abstract—This paper proposes an approach of reactive power The circuit theory approach also has been proposed in [3,
allocation with considering the transmission losses, which is 4]. In [3], the concept of superposition theorem is used.
based on manipulation of proportional sharing principle. After However, the tracing methodology is only applied in small test
power flow solution is computed, the equivalent transmission line system (4-bus and 6-bus systems). If the method is tested using
model is introduced by integrating shunt admittances into nearby larger system, the results may be varied and not accurate,
buses. The loss at each line is removed and attributed to the especially for reactive power tracing. In [4], the introduction of
sending end bus and treated as a virtual load. This situation will y-bus matrix partition into generator-generator, generator-load,
make the system lossless. Then the distribution matrix is used to load-generator and load-load sub-matrices is proposed to trace
trace the contribution of individual generators to loads and
the cost of reactive power in ancillary service market.
losses. In this paper, 5-bus system and 25-bus equivalent system
of southern Malaysia are used to show the effectiveness of the The modification technique of [1] is proposed in [5]. The
proposed method. The comparison with other method is also modification is made by introducing a decoupled power flow to
given. overcome the losses problem. This method also introduces an
equivalent model of a line for reactive power tracing. However,
Keywords- Deregulation; Proportional Sharing Method; the actual contributions from generators to lines and loads have
Transmission Loss Allocation been ignored. The incorporation of Artificial Neural Network
[6] and Genetic Algorithm [7] also has been proposed in the
I. INTRODUCTION literature to overcome power tracing problem.
Since the introduction of deregulation in power system This paper proposes a reactive power allocation method
industry, a lot of issues have been emerged that has drawn a that uses the convention that has been used in [1]. The
great attention of many researchers and power engineers to manipulation of distribution matrix is used to trace the reactive
explore. Power system deregulation opens the border among power losses. The concept of reactive power allocation method
utilities. The old picture of vertically integrated utilities has is presented in the next following sections.
changed to an unbundled picture of generation, transmission
and distribution in deregulated environment. One of the major
issues is power tracing problem. With the separating of these II. EQUIVALENT TRANSMISSION MODEL
entities, it is necessary to find the capacity usage of different Before proceed to the concept of PSM for reactive power
transaction happening at the same time. Even though the real tracing, the equivalent π model of a line is introduced.
power is a main commodity, the reactive power in the system Although the transmission losses of reactive power depend on
also plays a vital role to make the system stable and reliable. line charging, it is also possible to displace the reactive powers
Thus, this paper emphasizes on the reactive power-flow tracing GQi and GQj produced by shunt admittances Bsh/2,i-j into nearby
algorithm due to the fact that the deregulation may also require buses as follow [5]:
pricing of reactive power transmission.
In the last decades, several power flow tracing algorithms GQi = Vi 2 Bsh / 2,i − j (1)
have been proposed in literature [1-7]. The concept of
proportional sharing principle (PSM) is proposed in [1]. This GQj = V j2 B sh / 2,i − j (2)
method has a drawback in handling the transmission losses by
introducing fictitious nodes on every lossy branch. This will
cause the distribution matrix becoming larger. The tracing where Vi id the voltage at sending end and Vj is the voltage at
method namely proportional tree method (PTM) has been the receiving end of the line. Fig. 1 shows this equivalent
proposed in [2]. This method uses searching technique for the model of line i-j.
paths and routes from any generator to any load. The technique
is basically adopted the concept of [1].
This work was supported by Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia

under Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS)
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 243

where Gi, GQk and Qsh are original generator at bus i,
displacement reactive power produced by shunt admittance
and number of shunt admittance at bus i respectively.
Figure 1. Equivalent model of line i-j.
From Fig. 1, it can be seen that line i-j has the reactive power
absorption due to reactance Xi-j as follows:
Loss i − j = I i2− j X i − j (3)
where Ii-j is the current through the line i-j. To make the system
lossless, each of reactive losses is attributed to its sending end
and treated as virtual loads.
III. PROPORTIONAL SHARING METHOD

This paper will manipulates the PSM that has been proposed
in [1] by introducing virtual load concept, where the loss in
each transmission line is removed and attributed to the sending Figure 3. Rective power flows in MVar after applying equivalent model line
end bus after equivalent transmission line is applied in the test
system. Once the lossless system is obtained, the contribution Fig. 4 shows the lossless system of this test system. It can
of reactive power of individual generators to loads can be be seen that the loss at each transmission line has been
obtained by using PSM. The virtual load and displacement attributed to the sending end bus and treated as additional
reactive power concepts are illustrated by 5-bus system power load.
network depicted in Figs. 2 -4.
Figure 4. Lossless system with attributed losses to the sending end bus
(virtual load)
After the lossless system is constructed, PSM is applied,

where the distribution matrix, A is created as follows:
Figure 2. 5-bus system with voltages and reactive power flows in MVar [5] ⎧ 1 for i= j
⎪ Q
It can be observed from Fig. 2, buses 1 and 2 are the PV
bus, while buses 3, 4 and 5 are PQ bus. This system consists of
[A] = ⎪⎨− c ji = − j−i for j ∈αi (5)
⎪ Qj
six transmission lines connected to each other. This test
⎪⎩ 0 otherwise
system can be obtained in [5]. Fig. 3 shows the test system
after introducing equivalent π model of line. It can be seen that
the integration of the generators with the reactive powers by where Qj is representing the total reactive power flow through
shunt admittances and the contribution of charging megavars bus j, αi is the set of buses supplying directly to bus i and |Qj-i|
to the loads. The integration of generators, Gi(int) for each is the magnitude of reactive power flow (after loss is removed)
generator can be obtained as follows [5]: in line j-i. From matrix A, the shares of generators to loads,
QGi(int)Dk can be calculated as follows:
Gi (int) = Gi + ∑G
n∈Qsh
Qk , n (4)
244
QGi (int)
∑ [A ] .Q
n
Gi (int) −1
QDk = ik Dk (6) By applying equation (6), the contribution of reactive power
Qi k =1 from integrated G1 to load bus 3, QG1(int)D3 is (20.698/20.698)
x 0.7218 x 3.044 = 0.2197 MVar and the contribution of
reactive power from integrated G2 to load bus 3, QG2(int)D3 is
where A-1 is inversion of matrix A, QDk is load at bus k and Qi (34.639/34.639) x 0.2782 x 3.044 = 0.8469 MVar. To obtain
is reactive through power of bus i. To obtain the contribution the original contribution of reactive power from both
of original reactive generator to each load, the following generators G1 and G2 to load 3, equation (7) is used. The
expression is used: same procedures can be used to compute the generators’
Gi Gi Gi (int) contributions to load buses 4 and 5 as well. Table 1 shows the
QDk = .QDk (7) result for the reactive power tracing for this test system using
Gi (int) proposed method together with the method that has been
To obtain the contribution of individual generators to line proposed in [3].
losses, equations (6) and (7) are used, since the losses now are It can be seen that the total result at column 4 in Table 1 is
treated as virtual loads. same with the reactive load demand after displacement
reactive power is applied (refer to Fig. 3). By referring to
IV. RESULT AND DISCUSSION column 7, the result of actual or original contribution from
generators is displayed. For load 3, only 2.24 MVar is
A. 5-Bus System contributed from generators 1 and 2, while about 0.804 MVar
Bialek [1] has proposed PSM for power tracing is supplied by shunt admittances from lines 1-3 and 1-4 for G1
methodology. The same convention is followed with simple and lines 2-3, 2-4 and 2-5 for G2. The results show the
manipulation of distribution matrix, A-1 to suit the reactive conformity of reactive power tracing with the equivalent
power flow tracing purpose. In order to verify the veracity of transmission model and also the reactive power solution.
this approach, a numerical calculation is performed for 5-bus Comparison with [3] shows discrepancies with the proposed
system shown in Fig. 2. After lossless system is constructed method. This situation has been expected since the effect of
together with application of displacement megavars, the line charging megavars that have been taken into account in
matrix A is formed as follows: proposed method. By referring back to the Fig. 3, the loads are
changing due to line charging megavars as introduced in
⎡ − 14.608 − 1.324 ⎤ equivalent model of a line. While in [3], the load demand is
⎢1 0
20.24 16.202
0 ⎥ maintain and the technique is adapting superposition technique
⎢ − 5.632 − 14.878 − 11.186 ⎥ into the power tracing. However, by using this technique,
⎢0 1 ⎥ sometimes the contribution of individual generators can be
20.24 16.202 26.008 ⎥
A=⎢ − 14.822 ⎥
exceeding the generation of that generator itself. Thus, the
⎢0 0 1 0
veracity of [3] can be argued.
⎢ 26.008 ⎥ B. 25-Bus Equivalent System of Southern Malaysia
⎢0 0 0 1 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ In order to show the proposed method is not limited to two-
⎣⎢0 0 0 0 1 ⎦⎥ generator system only, the test system of 25-bus equivalent
system of southern Malaysia is used as shown in Fig. 5. This
system consists of 12 generators that deliver power to 5 loads
And inverting the matrix A yields: at buses 13, 14, 16, 17 and 18 through 37 transmission lines.
⎡1 0 0.7218 0.0817 0.4113⎤ Table II shows the result of contribution of generators 1 to
⎢0 1 0.2782 0.9183 0.5887⎥⎥
12 to load buses 13, 14, 16, 17 and 18 respectively. From this
⎢ table, it can be observed that the sums of reactive power
A −1 = ⎢0 0 1 0 0.5699⎥ contributed by each generator obtained are different with the
⎢ ⎥ load demand from load flow analysis which is tabulated in
⎢0 0 0 1 0 ⎥ Table III. This is due to the effect of shunt admittances, Bsh/2,i-j
that exist at several transmission lines (equivalent transmission
⎢⎣0 0 0 0 1 ⎥⎦ model) that also give some contributions to the reactive load
TABLE I.
REACTIVE POWER CONTRIBUTION FROM INDIVIDUAL GENERATORS TO LOADS IN MEGAVOLT AMPERE REACTIVE (MVAR) FOR 5-BUS SYSTEM
Bus ID Proposed Method Superposition technique [3]
G1 G2 Total G1 G2 Total G1 G2 Total
(int) (int) (int)
3 2.197 0.847 3.044 1.541 0.699 2.24 2.136 7.864 10.0
4 1.324 14.88 16.20 0.929 12.27 13.20 8.091 11.917 20.008
5 10.698 15.31 26.01 7.504 12.63 20.13 12.393 17.634 30.027
245
demand. This situation is also same for the loss tracing result 1 1.05 9.88 0 0 100.42 76.74
that tabulated in Table V. The total loss for some of the result 2 1.05 8.60 0 0 82.48 72.02
at some particular line is lower than the converged line 3 1.05 8.60 0 0 82.48 72.02
4 1.05 9.35 0 0 89.36 75.86
solution as tabulated in Table IV. For example, the reactive
5 1.03 11.19 0 0 82.48 32.95
loss at line 21-22 is 1.2137 MVar. While in Table V, the 6 1.05 9.16 0 0 68.74 60.75
summation of generators’ contributions result at this line is 7 1.04 10.34 0 0 68.74 37.75
1.1784 MVar. This means that about 0.0353 MVar are 8 1.05 19.33 0 0 82.48 31.78
contributed by shunt admittances in the system. However, 9 1.05 16.99 0 0 68.74 28.70
from Tables II and V, the total contribution from each 10 1.05 10.50 0 0 89.36 64.20
generator to loads and line losses compute the same value of 11 1.05 10.50 0 0 89.36 64.20
each generator’s output. This shows the veracity of the 12 1.05 10.83 0 0 96.23 64.73
13 0.99 5.54 17.1 10.60 0 0
proposed method.
14 0.98 4.26 205.2 127.17 0 0
15 0.99 4.61 0 0 0 0
16 0.99 5.05 383.04 237.39 0 0
17 0.91 -1.05 171 105.98 0 0
18 0.89 -2.93 222.3 137.77 0 0
19 0.99 5.85 0 0 0 0
20 0.99 5.35 0 0 0 0
21 1.00 6.21 0 0 0 0
22 1.00 5.87 0 0 0 0
23 0.99 5.52 0 0 0 0
24 0.99 5.22 0 0 0 0
25 0.97 4.04 0 0 0 0
TABLE IV.
CONVERGED BRANCH DATA FOR 25-BUS EQUIVALENT SYSTEM OF SOUTHERN
MALAYSIA AFTER APPLYING EQUIVALENT TRANSMISSION MODEL
From To From Bus Injection To Bus Injection Loss
Bus Bus (MW) (Mvar) (MW) (Mvar) (Mvar)
22 19 8.5504 3.734 8.55 3.7304 0.0036
Figure 5. Single line diagram for the 25-bus equivalent system of south 22 19 8.5504 3.734 8.55 3.7304 0.0036
Malaysia 23 20 75.609 13.5395 75.5721 13.3037 0.2359
23 20 75.609 13.5395 75.5721 13.3037 0.2359
. 20 25 55.227 29.2638 55.0191 27.5518 1.712
20 25 55.227 29.2638 55.0191 27.5518 1.712
TABLE II. 21 22 150.6166 79.7966 150.4682 78.5829 1.2137
ANALYSIS OF GENERATORS CONTRIBUTIONS TO LOADS USING PROPOSED 21 24 151.0139 87.5518 150.5621 83.8278 3.724
METHOD 22 24 133.3673 79.6837 133.0991 77.4653 2.2184
24 25 56.3306 32.7034 56.1309 31.0589 1.6445
Supplied Proposed Method
24 25 56.3306 32.7034 56.1309 31.0589 1.6445
By
15 14 82.4825 62.571 82.2549 61.6008 0.9702
Load Bus ID
15 14 82.4825 62.571 82.2549 61.6008 0.9702
(MVar) 13 14 16 17 18 19 13 8.55 5.3649 8.55 5.2988 0.0661
G1 0 0 64.1241 0 0 19 13 8.55 5.3649 8.55 5.2988 0.0661
G2 0 61.5 0 0 0 20 14 20.3451 2.2762 20.3451 1.884 0.3922
G3 0 61.5 0 0 0
20 14 20.3451 2.2762 20.3451 1.884 0.3922
G4 0 0 65.0064 0 0
21 16 31.1323 14.7061 31.1323 13.9435 0.7626
G5 0.7314 0 6.1396 8.9974 4.0721
21 16 31.1323 14.7061 31.1323 13.9435 0.7626
G6 0 0 52.4819 0 0 21 16 31.1323 14.7061 31.1323 13.9435 0.7626
G7 0.9266 0 7.7785 11.3991 5.159 21 16 31.1323 14.7061 31.1323 13.9435 0.7626
G8 0 0.6175 0 0 6.9731 24 17 85.5 66.9236 85.5 52.988 13.9356
G9 0 0.7984 0 0 9.0156
24 17 85.5 66.9236 85.5 52.988 13.9356
G10 1.6028 0 13.454 19.7164 8.9233
25 18 111.15 89.2137 111.15 68.8845 20.3293
G11 1.6028 0 13.454 19.7164 8.9233 25 18 111.15 89.2137 111.15 68.8845 20.3293
G12 1.587 0 13.322 19.5229 8.8357 2 15 82.4825 72.0244 82.4825 62.4687 9.5557
Total 6.4506 124.416 235.761 79.3522 51.9021 3 15 82.4825 72.0244 82.4825 62.4687 9.5557
Actual 10.5976 126.97 237.387 105.976 137.769 1 16 100.4193 76.7403 100.4193 64.1241 12.6162
4 16 89.356 75.858 89.356 65.0064 10.8516
5 21 82.4825 32.9529 82.4825 24.897 8.0558
TABLE III. 6 16 68.7354 60.7505 68.7354 52.4819 8.2686
CONVERGED BUS DATA FOR 25-BUS EQUIVALENT SYSTEM OF SOUTHERN 7 21 68.7354 37.7498 68.7354 31.5429 6.2069
MALAYSIA 8 23 82.4825 31.7828 82.4825 10.5215 21.2612
9 23 68.7354 28.7009 68.7354 13.6034 15.0974
Bus Voltage Load Generation
ID 10 21 89.356 64.199 89.356 54.5581 9.6409
Mag. Ang. Real Reactive Real Reactive
11 21 89.356 64.199 89.356 54.5581 9.6409
(p.u) (p.u) (MW) (MVar) (MW) (MVar)
12 21 96.2296 64.7345 96.2296 54.0227 10.7118
246
TABLE V.
REACTIVE POWER ALLOCATION FROM INDIVIDUAL GENERATORS TO LINE LOSSES IN MEGAVOLT AMPERE REACTIVE
Line ID Supplied By
G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6 G7 G8 G9 G10 G11 G12
22 19 0 0 0 0 0.0004 0 0.0005 0 0 0.0008 0.0008 0.0008
22 19 0 0 0 0 0.0004 0 0.0005 0 0 0.0008 0.0008 0.0008
23 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0916 0.1185 0 0 0
23 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0916 0.1185 0 0 0
20 25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.2806 0.3628 0 0 0
20 25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.2806 0.3628 0 0 0
21 22 0 0 0 0 0.1336 0 0.1693 0 0 0.2928 0.2928 0.2899
21 24 0 0 0 0 0.4099 0 0.5194 0 0 0.8983 0.8983 0.8895
22 24 0 0 0 0 0.2202 0 0.279 0 0 0.4825 0.4825 0.4778
24 25 0 0 0 0 0.1396 0 0.1769 0 0 0.306 0.306 0.303
24 25 0 0 0 0 0.1396 0 0.1769 0 0 0.306 0.306 0.303
15 14 0 0.4843 0.4843 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
15 14 0 0.4843 0.4843 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
19 13 0 0 0 0 0.0046 0 0.0058 0 0 0.01 0.01 0.0099
19 13 0 0 0 0 0.0046 0 0.0058 0 0 0.01 0.01 0.0099
20 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0643 0.0831 0 0 0
20 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0643 0.0831 0 0 0
21 16 0 0 0 0 0.0839 0 0.1063 0 0 0.1839 0.1839 0.1821
21 16 0 0 0 0 0.0839 0 0.1063 0 0 0.1839 0.1839 0.1821
21 16 0 0 0 0 0.0839 0 0.1063 0 0 0.1839 0.1839 0.1821
21 16 0 0 0 0 0.0839 0 0.1063 0 0 0.1839 0.1839 0.1821
24 17 0 0 0 0 1.1831 0 1.499 0 0 2.5927 2.5927 2.5672
24 17 0 0 0 0 1.1831 0 1.499 0 0 2.5927 2.5927 2.5672
25 18 0 0 0 0 0.6009 0 0.7613 1.029 1.3303 1.3167 1.3167 1.3038
25 18 0 0 0 0 0.6009 0 0.7613 1.029 1.3303 1.3167 1.3167 1.3038
2 15 0 9.5557 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 15 0 0 9.5557 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 16 12.6162 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
4 16 0 0 0 10.8516 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
5 21 0 0 0 0 8.0558 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
6 16 0 0 0 0 0 8.2686 0 0 0 0 0 0
7 21 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.2069 0 0 0 0 0
8 23 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 21.2612 0 0 0 0
9 23 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 15.0974 0 0 0
10 21 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9.6409 0 0
11 21 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9.6409 0
12 21 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10.7118
Total 12.6162 10.524 10.524 10.8516 13.012 8.2686 12.487 24.1922 18.8868 20.503 20.5025 21.4668
International Review of Electrical Engineering (IREE), vol. 3, pp. 691-

698, 2008.
V. CONCLUSION [3] J.-H. Teng, "Power flow and loss allocation for deregulated transmission
systems," International Journal of Electrical Power & Energy Systems,
This paper has presented a novel method for reactive power vol. 27, pp. 327-333, 2005.
tracing problems by incorporating a concept of proportional [4] C. Wen-Chen, C. Bin-Kwie, and L. Chung-Hsien, "Allocating the costs
sharing principle. The convention of [1] is extended for of reactive power purchased in an ancillary service market by modified
reactive loss tracing algorithm where the concept of equivalent Y-bus matrix method," Power Systems, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 19,
pp. 174-179, 2004.
transmission line model and virtual load are proposed. The
[5] M. Pantos, G. Verbic, and F. Gubina, "Modified topological generation
proposed method is simple and accurate. The results of the test and load distribution factors," Power Systems, IEEE Transactions on,
cases that have been presented in this paper show the vol. 20, pp. 1998-2005, 2005.
effectiveness and veracity of the proposed method. [6] M. W. Mustafa, S. N. Khalid, H. Shareef, and A. Khairuddin, "Reactive
power transfer allocation method with the application of artificial neural
network," Generation, Transmission & Distribution, IET, vol. 2, pp.
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[1] J. Bialek and D. B. Tam, "Tracing the generators' output," in [7] M. H. Sulaiman, M. W. Mustafa, and O. Aliman, "Transmission loss and
Opportunities and Advances in International Electric Power Generation, load flow allocations via genetic algorithm technique," in TENCON
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[2] M. W. M. M. H. Sulaiman, O. Aliman, "Power flow and loss tracing in
deregulated transmission system using proportional tree method,"
247
An Intelligent Binary Particle Swarm Optimization

for Unit Commitment Problem
Y.Pirhayati K.Mazlumi
Electrical Engineering Department, Electrical Engineering Department,
Zanjan University, Iran Zanjan University, Iran
pirhayati@znu.ac.ir kmazlumi@znu.ac.ir
Abstract—This paper presents an intelligent binary particle the simulation of a simplified social system, and has been
swarm optimization (IBPSO) scheme with the Lambda-iteration found to be robust in solving continuous nonlinear
method to solve the unit commitment problem (UCP). The UCP optimization problems. Generally, the PSO method can be
is considered as two linked optimization sub-problems: the unit- used to solve many problems of the same kind as GA methods
scheduled problem that can be solved by the BPSO method for
[4], and it can generate high-quality solutions with stable
the minimization of the transition cost, and the economic
dispatch (ED) problem that can be solved by the Lambda- convergence characteristic, requiring only a concise program
iteration method for the minimization of the production cost. code. Due to the PSO method seems sensitive to the tuning of
Problem formulation of the UC takes into consideration the some weights or parameters in this algorithm, there are many
minimum up and down time constraints, start-up cost, and researches still in progress for proving its potential in solving
spinning reserve and is defined as the minimization of the total complex power system problems [5-8]. However, the typical
objective function while satisfying all the associated constraints. PSO is designed for continuous function optimization
Problem formulation, representation, and the simulation results
problems; it is not designed for discrete function
for a ten generator-scheduling problem are presented.
optimization problems. Fortunately, Kennedy and Eberhart
proposed a modified version of PSO called Binary Particle
I. INTRODUCTION Swarm Optimization (BPSO) that can be used to solve
Unit commitment (UC) is the problem of determining the discrete function optimization problems [3,9].
optimal set of generating units that are in service during a This paper presents an intelligent binary particle swarm
scheduling period, and for how long they are in service. The optimization (IBPSO) scheme with the Lambda-iteration
unit commitment problem involves determining the economical method to solve the unit commitment problem (UCP).
operation schedule subject to a number of operation
constraints. Moreover, this problem has integer and continuous A. Objective function
variables. It is difficult to determine an economical operation The objective of unit commitment in a power system is to
schedule for this reason. The exact optimal solution can be minimize total generation cost, while observing a large set of
obtained by a complete enumeration. However, this method operating constraints. The total generation cost includes the
cannot be applied to the unit commitment problem as the production cost of the scheduled combination units and the
search space of this problem is vast. The committed units must transition cost. The transition cost is the sum of the start-up
meet the system forecasted demand and spinning reserve cost and shut-down cost, which is the cost associated with
requirement at minimum operating cost, subject to a large set changing from one combination of power-producing units to
of operating constraints. Hence, the UC problem is quite another combination. Problem formulation of the unit
difficult due to its inherent high-dimensional, non-convex, commitment must consider the system constraints and the
discrete and non-linear nature. The UC problem can be generating unit constraints. It is a complex mathematical
considered as two linked optimization problems, namely the optimization problem with both integer and continuous
unit-scheduled problem, which is a combinatorial optimization variables. In order to make the problem formulation a realistic
problem, and the economic dispatch (ED) problem, which is a representation, the UC problem can be formulated as the
non-linear programming optimization problem. The solution of following mixed
the former must satisfy the system capacity requirements,
generation limit units, and the constraints on start-up and shut-
down of the scheduled units during each planning period. The
∑∑ [ f i (Pit ) + STit (1 − uit −1 )].uit
T N
solution of the latter must perform the optimal generation F= (1)
dispatch among the operating units during each specific period t =1 t =1
of operation to satisfy the system load demand and spinning
reserve capacity [1,2]. Where N is the number of generators; T is the total
In 1997, Kennedy and Eberhart presented a new evolutionary scheduling period; Pit is generation of unit i at time t; uit is
computation algorithm, the real-coded particle swarm on/off status of unit i at time t (on = 1 and off = 0); STit is start-
optimization (PSO) [3]. This method was developed through up cost of unit i at time t. Generally, the fuel cost, fiً(Pit) per
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 248

unit is a function of the generator power output. Most A unit must be on for a certain number of hours
frequently used cost function is in the form of: before it can be shut down.
( ) ( )
t
2 Tion ≤ Tiup (7)
f i Pit = ai + bi Pit + ci Pit (2)
Where ai,, bi and ci are the unit cost coefficients. The

generator start-up cost depends on the time when the unit has Where Tiont is the continuously on time of unit i up to
been off prior to start-up. In this paper, time-dependent start-up time t, and Tiup is unit i minimum up time.
cost is simplified using Hioff defined as follows:
5) Unit minimum down time:
A unit must be off for a certain number of hours
⎧ before it can be brought online.
t off
⎪ S hi if Tidown ≤ Tioff ≤ Hi
STi = ⎨ t
(3) Tioff ≤ Tidown (8)
⎪ S ci if t
Tioff ≥ H ioff
⎩
H ioff = Tidown + Tcold i
Where Tiofft is continuously off time of unit i up to
Where Shi is hot start cost of unit i; Sci is cold start cost of time t, Tidown is unit i minimum down time.
unit i; Tcoldi is cold start time of unit i; Ti,down is minimum
down time of unit i; Tiofft is continuously off time of unit i up to
time t. II. OVERVIEW OF PARTICLE SWARM OPTIMIZATION
Particle swarm optimization (PSO), first introduced by
B. Constraints Kennedy and Eberhart, is one of the heuristic optimization
algorithms (Clerc & Kennedy, 2002) [9]. A classical PSO
1) System power balance:
maintains a swarm of particles that represent the potential
solutions to the problem on hand. The classical PSO model
N consists of a swarm of particles moving in the D-dimensional
PDt = ∑ Pit uit (4) space of possible problem solutions. Each particle embeds the
i =1 relevant information regarding the D decision variables and is
associated with a fitness that provides an indication of its
performance in the objective space. Each particle i has a
Where PDt is the system load demand at time t. position Xi = (xi1, xi2, . . ., xiD) and a flight velocity Vi = (vi1,vi2,
. . .,viD). Moreover, a swarm contains each particle i own best
2) System spinning reserve requirement: position Pbesti = (pbesti,1,pbesti,2, . . .,pbesti,D) found so far and a
To maintain system reliability, adequate spinning global best particle position Gbest = (gbest1,gbest2, . . .,gbestD) found
reserves are required. In this paper, the spinning among all the particles in the swarm so far. In essence, the
reserve is 10% of the load demand by (5). trajectory of each particle is updated according to its own
flying experience as well as to that of the best particle in the
N
swarm. The standard PSO algorithm can be described
∑ uit .Pi max ≥ PDt + PRt (5)

i =1 k +1
v id k
= ω.v id (
+ c1 .ξ1k . pbest id
k k
− x id) ( )
+ c 2 .ξ 2k . gbest dk − x id
k
(9)
Where PRt is spinning reserve at time t.

k +1 k k +1
x id = x id + v id i=1,2,...,n ; d=1,2,…,D (10)
3) Generation power limits:
Each unit has output range: Where x is a inertia weight factor; c1 is a cognition weight
factor; c2 is a social weight factor; ξ1 and ξ 2 are two random
Pi min ≤ Pi (t ) ≤ Pi max (6) numbers uniformly distributed in the range of [0,1]; vidk is the
dth dimension velocity of particle i at iteration k; xidk is the dth
dimension position of particle i at iteration k; pbestidk is the dth
Where Pimin and Pimax are the minimum and maximum dimension of the own best position of particle i until iteration k;
generation limit of unit i, respectively. gbestdk is the dth dimension of the best particle in the swarm at
iteration k.
4) Unit minimum up time:
Suitable selection of inertia weight w in (11) provides a
balance between global and local exploration and exploitation,
249
and on average results in less iterations required to find a (IBPSO) to solve UCP. In the new method, mutation point
sufficiently optimal solution. As originally developed, w often (MP) is obtained with an intelligent method.
decreases linearly from about 0.9 to 0.4 during a run. In
general, the inertia weight w is set according to the following An individual in the IBPSO method is a bit string which
equation [11]. starts its trip from a random point in the search space and tries
to become nearer to the global best position and previous best
position of itself. The process of generating a new position for
wmax − wmin a selected individual in the swarm can be represented by the
w = wmax − × iter (11) following equation:
itermax
Where itermax is the maximum iteration number (generation)

and iter is the current iteration number.
k +1
vid ( k
= ω1 ⊗ pbest id k
⊕ xid ) (
+ ω 2 ⊗ gbest dk ⊕ xid
k
) (13)
The particle swarm works by adjusting trajectories through

manipulation of each coordinate of a particle. However, many k +1
x id k
= x id k +1
+ v id i=1,2,…,n ; d=1,2,…,D (14)
optimization problems are set in a space featuring discrete,
qualitative distinctions between variables and between levels of
variables. In the binary version of the PSO, the trajectories are Where ⊕ denotes ‘‘XOR” operator; ⊗ denotes ‘‘AND”
changes in the probability that a coordinate will take on binary operator; + denotes ‘‘OR” operator; x1 and x2 are two random
value (0 or 1). Therefore, the main difference between the binary integer numbers uniformly distributed in the range of
original PSO and the BPSO is (12) replacing (10). [0, 1]. As it is clear from the (13) and (14) in IBPSO method,
the proposed binary PSO has all major characteristics of the
k +1 k +1 k +1
real-valued PSO. Only the neighborhood in the IBPSO method
if (rand () < S (vid )) then x id = 1 else xid =0 (12) contains all particles and inertia weight is zero. The comparing
position of time in decision process of IBPSO is shown in
where S( v) is a sigmoid limiting transformation function fig.1. In this method only the decision variables has placed on
( S( v) = 1 / ( 1 + e-v ) ) , and rand() is a quasi-random number the boundary of 0-1 can change.
selected from a uniform distribution in [0,1].
III. INTELLIGENT BINARY PARTICLE SWARM OPTIMIZATION
A. Binary particle swarm optimization for unit-scheduling

1) Binary particle swarm optimization
The original version of PSO operates on real values. Fig. 1. Comparing position of time in decision process of IBPSO.
However, the unit-scheduled problem of UCP is a discrete 2) Structure of individual for UCP
optimization problem with 0–1 decision variables representing Before using the proposed binary PSO to solve UCP, the
on/off status of units, which determines on/off status of representation of a particle is defined. A particle is also called
generating units in each time period of planning horizon. So it an individual. Hence, we defined each unit on/off (or 1/0)
must extend the real-valued PSO to handle discrete space of the status as a gene, all available unit status at each hour make up a
UC schedule. A clever technique for creating a discrete binary sub-chromosome, and there are T sub-chromosomes over the
version of the PSO introduced by Kennedy and Eberhart (1997) time horizon T comprising an individual. An individual would
in 1997 uses the concept of velocity as a probability that a bit display the unit commitment schedule over the time horizon T.
takes on a one or a zero. Binary PSO can be used to solve unit- The on–off schedule of the units is stored as an integer-matrix
scheduled problem of UCP. But a drawback of binary PSO U with dimension N×T. A matrix representation of an
(Kennedy & Eberhart, 1997) for solving UCP is that the individual in the population is shown as follows:
particle’s position xi,d update equation has a non-standard
form. In Kennedy and Eberhart (1997), by comparing the new ⎡ u11 u12 " u1T ⎤
particle’s velocity vi,d with a random number the new value for ⎢ 1 ⎥
u u 22 " u 2T ⎥
xi,d becomes 0 or 1. U =⎢ 2
⎢ # # # # ⎥
Another drawback is the non-monotonic shape of the ⎢ 1 ⎥
2
changing probability function of a bit (from 0 to 1 or vice ⎢⎣u N uN " u TN ⎥⎦
versa). The probability function has a concave shape that for
some bigger vi,d values the changing probability will decrease. where uit is unit on/off status of unit i at time t (uit =1/0 for
This seems to be an unusual probability function because a on/off).
higher changing probability is expect as the velocity increases.
3) Initialization individual
Moreover, the sigmoid function used to limit the vi,d values
In the initialization process, a set of individuals is created at
between 0 and 1, makes the problem nonlinear. In order to
random. For the complete M population, the candidate solution
overcome the shortcomings of the binary PSO for solving
of each individual Uj (j = 1,2, . . .,M) is randomly initialized.
UCP, this paper proposes a new intelligent binary PSO method
250
The position uit of each particle Uj is generated using a uniform violating the minimum up and down time and spinning reserve
distributed random function, which generates either 0 or 1 and constraints until no unit can be decommitted. So in this
they are equally likely. process, the spinning reserve and minimum up and down time
constraints must be checked before decommitting a unit.
B. Priority list for unit-scheduling Lambda-iteration method for ELD problem
Priority list is created according to each unit parameters. With the feasible UC schedule, classical equal lambda-
Cost per produced unit, of a unit at its maximum output power iteration method is used to solve the ELD problem in this
usually is less than that at other output power levels. So, it is paper. The ELD procedure is stopped when the tolerance,
expected to run a unit at its maximum output power. In this which indicates that the sum of all online units output minus
paper, priority list is based on fuel cost obtained from the the load demand, is less than the value given beforehand. Once
average fuel cost of each unit operating at its maximum output the optimal values of Pi(t) are found, the total generation
power. The average full-load cost of a unit is defined as the production cost is computed by adding the operating cost of all
cost per unit of power ($/MW) when the unit is at its full units over the time horizon T. The total start-up cost is
capacity. When the fuel cost of unit is given by (2), α can be calculated by adding the startup costs of those units that
expressed as: change their states from 0 to 1.
f i (Pi max ) αi F. Implementation of BPSO for solving UCP

αi = = + bi + ci .Pi max (15)
Pi max Pi max The procedures of the proposed BPSO method for solving
UCP are shown as follows:
The units are ranked by their α parameters in ascending order.
Step 1: Initialization individuals in the swarm as in Section
Thus, the priority list of units will be formulated based on the A.
order of αi, in which a unit with the lowest αi will have the
highest priority to be dispatched. Step 2: Calculate priority list of units according to each unit
parameters as in Section B.
C. Spinnig reserve constraints repairing
Step 3: Modify units’ status of individuals in the swarm
The obtained primary unit-scheduling may not satisfy the satisfying spinning reserve constraints as in Section
spinning reserve constraints. Therefore, the spinning reserve C.
violations are repaired by heuristic search. The amount of Step 4: Repair each particle in the swarm for minimum up/
excessive spinning reserve at each hour is calculated by (16). down time violations as in Section D.
N Step 5: Decommit units of each particle in the swarm to

t
R = ∑ u it Pi max − PDt − PRt (16) reduce excessive spinning reserve due to minimum
up/down times repairing as in Section E.
i =1
Step 6: Solve ELD problem using equal lambda-iteration
method as in Section F.
D. Minimum up and down time constraints repairing
Step 7: Calculate the evaluation value of each particle using
Since the obtained unit schedule may not satisfy the the objective function (1) and evaluate each particle
minimum up and down time constraints, a heuristic search in the swarm. Compare each particle’s evaluation
algorithm is required to repair any violations of these
value with its own best position Pbest. The particle
constraints. The continuously on/off times of the unit i up to
hour t are calculated by (17): who owns the best evaluation value among Pbest is
set to be a global best particle position Gbest.
Step 8: Modify the velocity and position of each particle in
the swarm using (13) and (14).
⎧ Tion
t −1
+ 1 if u it = 1 ⎧T t −1 + 1 if u it = 1
⎪ ⎪ ioff Step 9: If the maximum iteration number is reached, then go
⎨
⎪ 0 if u it = 0
, ⎨
⎪ 0 if u i = 0
t
(17) to step 10. Otherwise, increase the iteration number
⎩ ⎩ and go back to step 3.
Step Stop and obtain the optimal solution of UCP is
10: obtained from the particle that generated the latest
E. Decommitment of excess units Gbest.
Repairing the minimum up and down time constraints can lead
to excessive spinning reserves, which is not desirable due to IV. NUMERICAL EXAMPLES
the high operation cost. We use a heuristic search algorithm In order to verify the feasibility and effectiveness of the
based on a priority list to decommit the redundant units due to proposed IBPSO method for solving UCP, the proposed
the minimum up and down time repairing, thereby reducing IBPSO method is tested on a basic system of 10 units which is
the operating cost. Starting from the committed units with the shown in Table I. Fig. 2 shows the generation-load curve, Fig.
lowest priority list (the highest average operating cost), the 2 shows the convergence and Fig. 3 shows personal best
algorithm determines units that can be decommitted without variation of BPSO. The best total cost obtained is $573913.
251
The simulation results for commitment schedule are shown in TABLE II. COMMITMENT SCHEDULE
Table II. Unit Time (24 hour)
1500 1 111111111111111111111111
1400 2 111111111111111111111111
1300 3 111111111111111111111111
4 000000001111100000111110
Load (MW)
1200
5 000111111111111111111000
1100
6 000000011111111111111100
1000
7 111111111111000000000000
900 8 000000000001111111111000
800 9 000000000111000000000000
700 10 000000000011100000000000
0 5 10 15 20 25
hour
Fig. 2. Generation-load curve V. CONCLUSIONS
This paper has been presented an improved binary particle
TABLE I. UNIT PARAMETER swarm optimization (IBPSO) scheme with the Lambda-
iteration method to solve the unit commitment problem
Unit1 Unit2 Unit3 Unit4 Unit5 (UCP). The unit commitment problem is one of the most
Pimax 455 455 130 130 162
difficult optimization problems in power systems as the search
Pimin 150 150 20 20 25
space is vast. The initial populations are often generated
ai 1000 970 700 680 450
randomly. However, to obtain feasible initial solutions, initial
bi 16.19 17.26 16.60 16.50 19.70 populations have been generated based on load data. Hence
ci 0.00048 0.00031 0.002 0.00211 0.00398 feasible initial solutions have been obtained. Constraints,
Tion 8 8 5 5 6 output range and operation costs vary with each unit. Units
Tioff 8 8 5 5 6 have been classified into several groups based on minimum
h-costi 4500 5000 550 560 900 up/down time constraints. The operation schedule of small
c-costi 9000 10000 1100 1120 1800 units has been determined by numerical calculation based on
c-s-houri 5 5 4 4 4 the cost characteristic. Other unit schedules have been
ini state 8 8 -5 -5 -6 determined by the IBPSO.
Unit6 Unit7 Unit8 Unit9 Unit10
Pimax 80 85 55 55 55
Pimin 20 25 10 10 10 REFERENCES
ai 370 480 660 665 670 [1] G. Wang and S. M. Shahidehpour, “Ramp-rate Limits in Unit
Commitmentand Economic Dispatch Incorporating Rotor Fatigue
bi 22.26 27.74 25.92 27.27 27.79
effect,” IEEE Trans, on power system, vol, 9, No. 3, pp. 1539-1545,
ci 0.00712 0.00079 0.00413 0.00222 0.00173 August 1994
Tion 3 3 1 1 1 [2] S. J. Wang, S. M. Shahidehpour, D. S. Kirschen, S, Mokhtari, and G. D.
Tioff 3 3 1 1 1 Irisarri, “Short-term generation scheduling with transmissation and
environmental constraints using augmented lagrangian relaxation,” IEEE
h-costi 170 260 30 30 30
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c-costi 340 520 60 60 60 [3] J. Kennedy, R.C. Eberhart, "A discrete binary version of the particle
c-s-houri 2 2 0 0 0 swarm Algorithm". In Proceedings of theconference on systems, man,
ini state -3 -3 -1 -1 -1 and cybernetics, Piscataway, NJ (pp.41044108).
[4] Kazarlis, S.A, Bakirtzis, A.G., and Petridis, V. “A Genetic algorithm
solution to the unit commitment problem,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst,
5 1996, 11, (1), pp. 83-92.
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6.3 [6] Montway, A.H., Abdel-Magid, Y.L., and Selim, S.Z., “Asimulated
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6.2 [7] Li,c., Johnson,R.B., and Soboda, A.J., ”A new unit commitment
method,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., 1997, 12, (1), pp. 113-118.
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0 100 200 300 unit commitment problem,” Elsevier journal. 2008.10.047., in press.
Fig. 3. Convergence of IBPSO
252
Bacterial Foraging-Based Solution for Optimal

Capacitor Allocation in Distribution Systems
S. M. Tabatabaei*, B. Vahidi*, S. H. Hosseinian* and S. M. Madani**
*Department of Electrical Engineering
Amirkabir University of Technology (AUT)
Tehran, Iran.
**Department Electrical Engineering
Isfahan University of Technology (IUT)
Isfahan, Iran.
Abstract—This paper proposes a novel methodology for the function. In some papers, reducing active power losses is the
optimal location and sizing of shunt capacitors in radial only purpose of capacitive compensation [2], [3], [5], [17]
distribution systems. The optimization problem includes and the aim of [8]-[10] is to improve voltage regulation.
maximizing capacitor saving function, minimizing active power
This paper employs a new integer-code optimization
losses, and voltage profile improvement. The installation node
is selected by Loss Sensitivity Analysis in a step by step algorithm of evolutionary computation, known as bacteria
procedure. An evolutionary algorithm known as bacteria foraging algorithm (BFA) [42], to solve capacitor allocation
foraging algorithm (BFA) is utilized for solving the multi- problem. BFA has been recently introduced [43] and is
objective multivariable optimization problem and the optimal further applied for: harmonic estimation problem in power
size of capacitor for selected nodes is determined. The systems [44], optimization of both real power losses and
proposed approach is applied to 34-bus distribution system as
voltage stability limit [45], optimization of active power
a test study and the results are compared with previous
method. The results show that this method provides more filter design for load compensation [46] and better solution
economical solution by reducing power losses and total for the unit-commitment problem [42]. The algorithm is
required capacitive compensation. based on the foraging behavior of E. coli bacteria which
exist in human intestine.
Keywords—Bacterial foraging; capacitor allocation; cost-benefit; A new objective function which is a combination of
distribution system; losses reduction active power losses and capacitor saving function is defined.
The results show that the proposed algorithm can lead to a
I. INTRODUCTION more beneficial solution compared with previous works.
T HE installation of shunt capacitors on radial distribution

feeders is commonly used to improve power flow
control, system stability enhancement, power factor
Generally, the optimal installation of shunt capacitor has
significant economic advantages in radial distribution
networks.
correction, managing voltage profile, and reducing active Capacitor allocation contains two main steps; selection of
power losses in distribution networks. installation bus and determining the size of optimal
In order to obtain the optimum design, it is necessary to capacitor to obtain the best result in objective function.
consider economic criteria in capacitor allocation procedure. The installation bus can be determined by sensitivity
Many approaches have been presented for optimal analysis. Afterwards, the bacterial foraging algorithm would
capacitor allocation in power distribution networks that can determine the optimal size of the capacitor in each bus.
be categorized to 4 groups based on solution method [1]. In The organization of this paper is as follows. Section II
[2]-[10] the problem has solved by analytical methods. discusses the bacterial foraging optimization. Section III
These methods consider unrealistic assumptions. The describes the developed bacterial algorithm to improve
feeders are assumed to have a constant conductor size and bacterial algorithm results. Sensitivity analysis for locating
uniform loading. The authors of [11]-[16] have used proper bus for placing capacitor is described in section IV.
numerical programming methods. The assumed objective Section V demonstrates the proposed objective function
functions in these works can take into account the voltage which considers power losses and capacitor saving function.
and line loading constraints, discrete sizes of capacitors, and The numerical results for a test case study are presented in
physical locations of nodes simultaneously. Heuristic Section VI.
methods are also used to obtain the optimum solution [17],
[18]. Heuristic algorithms use fast and practical strategies II. BACTERIAL FORAGING OPTIMIZATION
which reduce the search space and can lead to an optimal The idea of BFA is based on the fact that natural
solution that is close to global optimum in most cases, but selection tends to eliminate animals with poor foraging
the results produced by these algorithms are not guaranteed strategies and favor those having successful foraging
to be globally optimal. AI-Based methods are recently strategies. After many generations, poor foraging strategies
utilized to find the optimal solution for capacitor allocation are either eliminated or reshaped into good ones. The E. coli
problem [19]-[41]. bacteria that are present in our intestines have a foraging
These works use different objective functions. In [18]- strategy governed by four processes, namely, chemotaxis,
[30], [37]-[41] the authors, attempt to maximize saving
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 253

swarming, reproduction, and elimination and dispersal [42]. other cells, but not too close to them.
"S" is the total number of bacteria." p" is the number of
A. Chemotaxis:
parameters to be optimized which are present in each
This process is achieved through swimming and bacterium position. d attract , ωattract , hrepelent and ωrepelent
tumbling. Depending upon the rotation of the flagella, the
bacterium decides what direction it should move (tumbling) are different coefficients that are to be chosen judiciously.
and if the new location of bacterium after moving is better, C. Reproduction
the bacterium will begin to swim in the same previous
The S r = S / 2 least healthy bacteria die and the other
direction (swimming).
healthiest bacteria each split into two bacteria, which are
Suppose that we want to find the minimum of J (θ ) , θ ∈ ℜ p
placed in the same location. This makes the population of
Assume that θ is the position of a bacterium and bacteria constant.
represents the amount of the food at θ the position J (θ ) < 0 ,
D. Elimination and Dispersal:
J (θ ) = 0 and J (θ ) > 0 representing that the bacterium at
It is possible that in the local environment, the life of a
location θ is in nutrient-rich, neutral, and noxious population of bacteria changes either gradually by
environments, respectively. consumption of nutrients or suddenly due to some other
To represent a tumble, a unit length random direction, say influence. Events can kill or disperse all the bacteria in a
φ (i ) , is generated. This will be used to define the direction region. They have the effect of possibly destroying the
of movement after a tumble. In particular chemotactic progress, but they also have the effect of
i i assisting in chemotaxis, since dispersal may place bacteria at
θ ( j + 1, k , l ) = θ ( j , k , l ) + C (i )φ (i ) (1)
better locations. Elimination and dispersal prevents bacteria
where θ ( j , k , l ) represents the ith bacterium at jth
i
from being trapped in local optima. For each elimination-
chemotactic, kth reproductive, and lth elimination and dispersal event each bacterium in the population is subjected
dispersal step. C (i ) is the size of the step taken in the to elimination-dispersal with probability ped . To keep the
random direction specified by the tumble. If at number of bacteria constant, if we eliminate a bacterium,
simply disperse one to a random location on the
θ i ( j + 1, k , l ) , the cost of J (i , j , k , l ) is lower than at
optimization domain.
θ i ( j , k , l ) , then another step of size C (i ) in the direction
φ (i ) will be taken and bacterium will begin to swim in the III. IMPROVED BACTERIAL FORAGING
OPTIMIZATION ALGORITHM
direction φ (i ) . This swim is continued as long as it
One of challenges in using of BF algorithm is the
continues to reduce the cost, but only up to a maximum appropriate selection of its parameters including
number of steps N s .This represents that the cell will tend to S , N c , N s , N re and N ed . The speed of convergence differs
keep moving if it is headed in the direction of increasingly for different combinations of above parameters. So to
favorable environments. achieve the fastest convergence the algorithm should be run
B. Swarming: for number of times for different values of S , N c , N s , N re
It is always desired that the bacterium that has searched and N ed . A similar condition exists for selection of
the optimum path of food should try to attract other bacteria parameters relating to swarming effect;
so that they reach the desired place more rapidly. Swarming d attract , ωattract , hrepelent and ωrepelent . Improper values for
makes the bacteria congregate into groups and hence move
as concentric patterns of groups with high bacterial density. these parameters may cause excessive attraction or repellent
Let of bacteria. So these parameters will also affect the
convergence of the algorithm. Furthermore some
{
P ( j , k , l ) = θ i ( j , k , l ) | i = 1, 2,..., S } modifications are applied to the BF algorithm suggested in
Mathematically, swarming can be presented by: [46] in order to expedite the convergence. The modifications
S are discussed in the following.
J cc (θ , P (i , j , k )) = ∑ J cc
i
(θ ,θ i ( j , k , l )) i
1) In [43], the health of bacterium i, J health is defined as
i =1
the sum of bacterium costs in the chemotactic steps.
S ⎡ ⎛ P 2 ⎞⎤
= ∑ ⎢ −d attract exp ⎜ −ωattract ∑ θ m − θ mi
i =1 ⎣⎢
⎜
⎝ m =1
( ⎟⎥
⎟⎥
⎠⎦
) (2)
If health of bacteria is defined by this method, it may not
retain the best bacterium for the next generation. In this
study, as suggested in [45], the minimum value of all the
S ⎡ ⎛ P 2 ⎞⎤
+ ∑ ⎢ −hrepelent exp ⎜ −ωrepelent ∑ θ m − θ mi
i =1 ⎢⎣
⎜
⎝ m =1
( ⎟⎟ ⎥
⎠ ⎥⎦
) bacterium chemotactic costs is used for evaluating the
bacterium health. This speeds up the convergence, in
reproduction stage. The least healthy bacteria die and the
where J cc (θ , P (i , j , k )) , due to the movement of all the other healthiest bacteria first are moved to their minimum
cells, is a time varying cost function that is added to cost value locations found in their chemotactic life time and
J (i , j , k , l ) so that the cells will try to find nutrients, avoid then each split into two bacteria which are placed at the
same location.
noxious substances, and at the same time try to move toward
254
2) For swarming, the distances of all the bacteria in a new J last = J (i , j + 1, k , l ) and then
chemotactic stage is evaluated from the global optimum
bacterium until that point and not the distances of each let θ i ( j + 1, k , l ) =
bacterium from the rest of the others, as suggested in [45]. θ i ( j , k , l ) + C (i )φ (i ) and use
The flowchart of the bacterial foraging algorithm is shown
in Fig. 1. this θ i ( j + 1, k , l ) to compute the
The algorithm is discussed here in brief [42]. new J (i , j + 1, k , l ) as did in f.
Step 1: • Else, let m = N s . This is the end
Initialization: First following variables must be chosen.
of the while statement.
1) S : Number of bacteria to be used in the search.
2) p : Number of parameters to be optimized.
3) N s : Swimming length.
4) N c : Number of chemotactic steps.
5) N re : Number of reproduction steps.
6) N ed : Number of elimination and dispersal events.
7) Ped : Probability of elimination and dispersal.
8) C (i ) : Unit length runs for every bacterium.
9) The values of d attract , ωattract , hrepelent and ωrepelent
10) Initialize values for θ i , i = 1,..., S .
Step 2:
Iterative algorithm for optimization:
1) Elimination-dispersal loop: l = l + 1
2) Reproduction loop: k = k + 1
3) Chemotaxis loop: j = j + 1
a. For i = 1,..., S , take a chemotactic step for
bacterium as follows.
b. Compute J (i , j , k , l ) . Let
J (i , j , k , l ) = J sw (i , j , k , l ) + J cc (θ i ( j , k , l ), P ( j , k , l ))
(i.e., add on the cell-to-cell attractant effect
for swarming behavior).
c. Let J last = J sw (i , j , k , l ) to save this value
since we may find a better cost via a run.
d. Tumble: Generate a random vector with each
element Δ m (i ) , m = 1, 2,..., p a random
number on [-1 1].
e. Move:
Δ(i )
Let φ (i ) = ,
T
Δ (i )Δ(i )
θ i ( j + 1, k , l ) = θ i ( j , k , l ) + C (i )φ (i )
This results in a step of size C (i ) in the
Figure1. Flowchart of the bacterial Foraging Algorithm
direction of the tumble for bacterium i .
f. Compute J (i , j + 1, k , l ) , and then let h.Go to the next bacterium (i + 1) if i ≠ S (i.e.,
J sw (i , j + 1, k , l ) = go to b) to process the next bacterium.
J (i , j + 1, k , l ) + J cc (θ i ( j + 1, k , l ), 4) If j < N c , go to step 3. In this case, continue
P ( j + 1, k , l )) chemotaxis, since the life of the bacteria is not
g. Swim: over.
i. Let m = 0 (counter for swim length). 5) Reproduction:
ii. While m < N s a) For the given k and l , and for each i = 1,..., S ,
i
• Let m = m + 1 . let J health = min j ∈{1,...,N c +1}{J sw (i , j , k , l )}
• If J sw (i , j + 1, k , l ) < J last (if be the health of bacterium i . Sort bacteria in
doing better), let
255
order of ascending cost (hhigher cost means V. PROBLEM FO
ORMULATION
lower health). This work discusses the capacitor placement problem of
b) The S r bacteria with the higghest J health values distribution systems. The prooposed approach formulates
die and the other S r bacteriia are moved to the capacitor placement techniquue using a multiobjective
i mathematical programming moddel with two objectives:
location with cost equal too J health and then —maximizing saving function;
split (the copies that are madde are placed at the —reduce active power losses.
same location as their parentt).
A. Capacitor Saving Function
6) If k < N re , go to step 2. In this case, we have not
The first goal is to determinee the optimal size of capacitor
reached the number of specified reproduction steps,
to be installed at the chosen node
n for the most economic
so we start the next generation in the chemotactic
savings.
loop.
The savings function, S maximized
m by this capacitor
7) Elimination-dispersal: For i = 1,...,S , with
sizing algorithm is given by [188]:
probability ped , eliminate annd disperse each Nc
bacterium. To do this, if you elim minate a bacterium, S = K P ΔL P + K E ΔL E − ∑ K C (Qci )Qci (3)
simply disperse one to a randoom location on the i
optimization domain. where ΔLP , ΔLE are the loss reductions in peak demand
8) If l < N ed , then go to step 1; othherwise end. and energy due to capacitor innstallation, QC is the size of
capacitor in kVAr. K P , K E annd K C are the costs of peak
IV. LOSS SENSITIVITY ANA
ALYSIS demand, energy and capacitors per
p kVAr respectively.
The Loss Sensitivity Analysis (LSA) iss used to determine B. Loss Reduction
the candidate nodes for placement of capaacitors in proposed
method. The estimation of these canndidate nodes can Flowing large amount of reeactive power in distributed
lines will cause significant acctive power losses in power
significantly reduce the size of the seaarch space for the
optimization procedure. networks. This reactive pow wer can be supplied in
consumption points by adding shunt capacitors in suitable
Consider a distribution line connected bettween two buses as
shown in Fig. 2. buses and reducing reactive pow wer flow in lines.
For calculating the active poower losses of the system and
also observing system conditionns such as voltage magnitude,
a fast and reliable method of load flow for radial distributed
system has been developed [47]].
C. Objective Function
The purpose of this paper is to
t reduce active power losses
Figure 2. A simple two bus distribution system
in network and to maximize savving function. Therefore, the
proposed objective function is defined as a combination of
The Loss Sensitivity Factor is defined by ΔPloss ΔQeff
these two goals. So, the objectivve function is define as
which can be determined by load flow w and perturbation F = 1 / S + λ × PLoss (4)
method [38]. Ploss is power loss of sysstem and Qeff is
where S is saving function and λ is the power loss
effective reactive power in system. coefficient.
Candidate node selection using Loss Sensitivity Factor: This objective function is i minimized by bacterial
The Loss Sensitivity Factors ( ΔPloss ΔQeff ) are calculated foraging algorithm and the sizes of the capacitors have been
from the base case load flows and the values
v are sorted in chosen.
descending order for all the buses of the given system. A The procedure of new capaacitor allocating is repeated
bus position vector, ‘busposition’, is used
u to store the until no additional savings frrom the installation of new
respective ‘end’ buses of the lines. This vector is sorted in capacitors is achieved. The flow
wchart of proposed method is
descending order of the values of ( ΔPloss ΔQeff ). The shown in Fig. 3.
descending order of ( ΔPloss ΔQefff ) elements of
N OF METHOD
VI. APPLICATION
“busposition’ vector will determine the coompensation bus.
The proposed LSA factor is very useful u in capacitor The described method is appllied to an 11kV, 34-bus,
radial distribution system [18], [29]
[ and [38]. Single line
placement. Then, the sizing of capacitor at the selected bus
diagram of the system is shown in Fig. 4.
is determined by bacterial foraging based b optimization
The peak power is 5.4 MV VA, with an average power
algorithm.
factor of 0.85. The supposed values
v for the coefficients in
This sensitivity analysis procedure is updated
up in each step
of placing capacitors in the distribbution system by (4) are K P =150 $/kW, K E = 0.07 $/kWh. The results of
considering capacitor or capacitors that pllaced in the system. the proposed algorithm and [18]] are shown in Table I.
This procedure continues until new capacitor in the system
doesn't satisfy our objective functions anyy more.
256
more saving is obtained which is $15391.5 for each year that
is $222.5 per year more than heuristic method implemented
in [18].
Figure 4. Distribution network configuration
VII. CONCLUSION
In this paper, a new evolutionary algorithm known as
BFA is implemented for solving the capacitor allocation
problem. This new integer-code algorithm provides better
results than former works that their purpose is to reduce
power loss of network or improve the capacitor saving
function. Definition of a new objective function that
combines both loss reduction and power saving
improvement with using BFA leads to more beneficial
results compared with previous works.
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258
Clonal Selection Based Artificial Immune

System to Solve the Unit Commitment Problem
in Restructured Electricity Sectors
K.Lakshmi S.Vasantharathna C.Muniraj
Dept. of Electrical Engg. Dept. of Electrical Engg. Dept. of Electrical Engg.
K.S.R College of Technology Coimbatore Institute of Technology K.S.R College of Technology
Tiruchengode-637215, India. Coimbatore-641014, India. Tiruchengode-637215, India.
E-mail: klakshmi01@gmail.com E-mail: svrathnacit@gmail.com E-mail: c.muniraj@gmail.com
Abstract—This paper addresses Clonal Selection based multipliers and added to the objective function. The
Artificial Immune System (AIS) for solving the non-linear relaxed problem is then decomposed into more
combinatorial sub-problem of Profit Based Unit manageable sub-problems for individual units and solved
Commitment (PBUC) in restructured electricity markets. by dynamic programming. The multipliers are updated
Here an objective is made to schedule the generators through a sub-gradient method based on violations of
economically in order to maximize the profit of Generation system constraints. The convergence criterion is satisfied
Companies (GENCO’s) based on forecasted information if the duality gap is within the limit. Genetic Algorithm
such as power demand and prices. In the proposed method, (GA) approach has been employed successfully to solve
the objective function is represented as deemed antigen and the unit commitment problem [5]. A new unit
the solutions obtained are deemed antibodies. If an antibody commitment scheduling algorithm using GA [6] with
fits the antigen best, then this antibody is deemed the specific mutation operators has been investigated. A
optimum solution. Encoding of continuous operating time parallel GA [7] based on the constraint handling technique
shortened the code length and hence the searching speed of has been used to solve the unit commitment problem. For
algorithm has been improved greatly. Simulations are large size unit commitment problem, a new strategy [8]
carried out to evaluate the performance of the proposed for representing chromosomes and encoding the search
technique. The results of 10 generating units - 24 hours space has been proposed. The hybrid methods are claimed
IEEE test system are compared with the other existing to accommodate more complicated constraints and to have
methods like LR-GA and LR-EP. The test results shown better quality solutions. The robustness of Genetic
that Artificial Immune algorithm having well global algorithm was demonstrated by comparison with LR
searching performance and is an efficient algorithm to solve method in different utilities [9] to solve the traditional unit
Unit Commitment Problem in restructured electricity commitment problem. The main disadvantages of GA are
markets. longer computation time and less guaranteed convergence.
The natural Immune System is an intricate biological
Keywords—Artificial Immune System, Lagrange Relaxation, system, which accounts for resistance of a living body
Profit Based Unit Commitment, Restructured electricity
against harmful foreign entities [10]. The main purpose of
markets.
the immune system is to recognize all cells (or molecules)
I. INTRODUCTION within the body and categorize those cells as self or non
self. When an antigen invades the body, only a few of
Now-a-days, the optimal operations and planning of these immune cells can recognize the invader’s peptides.
power systems are ranked high among the major tasks in
This recognition stimulates proliferation and
the electric power generation. This is because new market
mechanisms have changed the economics of power differentiation of the cells produce matching clones (or
generation. Deregulation and restructuring of the antibody). This process, called clonal expansion,
electricity supply industry is one of the most important generates a large population of antibody-producing cells
global energy developments of the last century. In the past, that are specific to the antigen. The clonal expansion of
utilities had an obligation to serve their customers [1-3] immune cells results in destroying or neutralizing the
with all demand and spinning reserve must be completely antigen [11]. It also retains some of these cells in
met, but this is not necessary in the restructured system. immunological memory, so that any subsequent exposure
GENCO’s can now consider a schedule that produces less to a similar antigen leads to a rapid immune response
than the predicted load demand but creates a maximum (secondary response). These biological principles of
profit. This scheduling is referred as Profit Based Unit clone generation, proliferation and maturation are
Commitment (PBUC) problem. It is much more difficult mimicked and incorporated into an algorithm invariably
to solve than traditional Unit Commitment Problem
(UCP). The Lagrange Relaxation (LR) method is a referred as Artificial Immune System. The original
mathematical tool for mixed-integer programming Artificial Immune System (AIS) algorithm is based on
problem. With the application [4] of this method in unit three major immunological principles, which are hyper-
commitment, system constraints are relaxed by Lagrange mutation, receptor edition and cellular memory. These
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 259

characteristics enable the assessment of multiple optima where
using local and global search. It works on the principle of PF - profit of GENCO
pattern recognition (distinguishing antibody and antigen) RV - revenue of GENCO
and clonal selection principle, implemented to TC - total operating cost over the schedule horizon of
accomplish learning and memory acquisition tasks. In GENCO
natural Immune System, receptors present on the Cit(Pit) - production cost of unit i at hour t
antibodies are responsible for antibody–antigen
Pit - output power from unit i at hour t
interaction. In these interactions, different antibodies
have different affinity towards an antigen and the binding SPt - forecasted power price at hour t
strength is directly proportional to this affinity [12]. AIS Sit - startup cost of unit i at hour t
effectively exploit these interactions and the Uit - ON/OFF status of unit i at hour t
corresponding affinity is suitably mapping in to fitness N - number of generating units
(objective function) evaluation and constraint T - scheduled time horizon (24 hrs)
satisfaction. These ideas are further emulated and thereby ai,bi, ci – the cost function coefficients of unit i
harnessed into learning, memory and associative retrieval
HSC – Hot Start Cost of unit i
to solve the optimization problems.
CSC – Cold Start Cost of unit i
In this paper, a profit based unit commitment problem CSH – Cold Start Hours of unit i
in restructured electricity markets using a Clonal
Selection based Artificial Immune System has been B) Constraints:
proposed. This approach uses the features of AIS, which The objective function is subjected to the following
can provide a near global optimum solution. Finally, to constraints.
ensure the optimality, this algorithm incorporates an 1) Load demand constraints
augmented Lagrangian function to find a solution within In PBUC problem, it is not necessary to schedule the
a short time. generating units to meet the load demand and reserve.
Therefore, power generation may be less than the demand
and reserve, which allows more flexibility in unit
II. PROFIT BASED UNIT COMMITMENT PROBLEM
commitment schedule.
N
Profit Based Unit Commitment (PBUC) Problem is one ∑P U
of the optimization problems in restructured electricity i =1
it it
≤ PD t
; 1≤ t ≤ T (5)
markets. This problem determines the generating unit
schedules for maximizing the profit of Generation where
Companies subject to all prevailing constraints such as PDt – load demand at hour t
load demand, spinning reserve and market prices. The 2) Spinning reserve constraints
term profit is defined as the revenue obtained from sale of
energy with market price minus total operating cost of the N
generating company. The PBUC can be mathematically ∑ R X ≤ SR

i =1
it it t
; 1≤ t ≤T (6)
formulated by the following equations:
A) Objective function: where
It is the maximization of profit of generation Rit – reserve generation of unit i at hour t
companies. Xit - ON/OFF status of unit i at hour t
max PF = RV − TC (1) SRt - forecasted reserve at hour t
maxPF = ∑∑ ⎧⎨ (P ⋅SP )U −(C (P ) + S )U ⎫

N T
it it t it it it it it ⎬ (2) 3) Generator constraints

⎩ ⎭
i = 1 .....,
min max
i =1 t =1
P i
≤ P i
≤ P i
, N (7)
The total operating cost, over the entire scheduling where
period is the sum of production cost and startup/shutdown Pimin – lower bound on the output power of unit i
cost for all the units. Here, the shutdown cost has been Pimax – upper bound on the output power of unit i
taken equal to 0 for all units.
4) Minimum up/down time constraints
Production Cost
The power production cost of the committed units is
Ton i
≥ Tup i
, i =1,....., N (8)
given in a quadratic form in (3).
2 Toff ≥ Tdown , i =1,....., N (9)
C it ( Pit ) = ai + bi Pit + ci Pit
i i
(3)
where
Startup Cost Ton i - duration for which unit i is continuously ON
The startup cost is a function of the down time of unit i Toff i - duration for which unit i is continuously OFF
{
as given in (4).
Tup i - unit i minimum up time
HSC , if DT ≤ CSH (4)
Tdown i - unit i minimum down time
S it
=
CSC , Otherwise
260
III. OVERVIEW OF ARTIFICIAL IMMUNE SYSTEM population set is evaluated. Clone the individuals
In recent years, several researchers have developed in the population (fixed number of clones for
computational models of the biological immune system each antibody), giving rise to a temporary
[13] that attempt to capture some of its features, such as population of clones.
clonal selection. The cells that play key role in the Step 3: The population of clones undergoes maturation
biological immune system operation are called B cells. process through genetic operation i.e. mutation
These cells have molecules attached to their surfaces (mutate inversely proportional to affinity). The
called antibodies. Each B cell produces a single type of affinity of each mutated clone is evaluated.
antibody, which is relatively specific for an antigen. The Step 4: A new population of same size as the initial
primary purpose of an antibody is to recognize and bind population is selected from the mutated clones
to an antigen for marking it to be eliminated by other based on their affinity.
cells of the immune system. Those B cells, whose The new population will undergo the same process as
antibodies recognize best and bind the antigen, are cloned stated in steps 1- 4. This procedure is repeated until the
into a number of copies. This process is called solution is converged to an optimum value.
proliferation or cloning. Now, in order to further improve
the affinity between the antibody and an antigen, all the B A. Encoding, initialization and cloning
cells undergo a process called affinity maturation. This
process is primarily accomplished by employing hyper- A population of antibodies is initialized by using
mutation, in which random changes are introduced into binary strings and each encoding given a solution to
the genes responsible for the antigen---antibody PBUC problem. That is, the power outputs of each
interactions. Occasionally, one such change leads to an generating unit are normalized and coded to l bit, making
increase in the affinity of the antibody towards the it possible to compose a string. S strings are randomly
antigen. These higher affinity variants are then selected to selected to form the initial population. Inequality
enter the pool of memory cells. This information is used constraints on the generated output are satisfied
for determining the number of clones for antibodies. automatically in the process of normalizing and encoding
Hence, the natural immune system is also a source of the initial chromosomes.
inspiration for developing intelligent methodologies
toward problem solving [14]. The few computational Unit 1 Unit 2 …….. Unit N
models developed that have been based on immune
system principles are Immune Network Models, Negative XXXX XXXX …….. XXXX
Selection Algorithms, Clonal Selection Algorithm and
Somatic Hyper-mutation etc. Fig.1. Encoding and Initialization
In this paper, clonal selection algorithm has been used
to solve the PBUC problem in restructured electricity Normalization of variables is obtained by using the
markets. This Algorithm is used to describe the basic following equation.
features of an immune response to an antigenic stimulus. ⎛ min
⎞
The clonal selection algorithm reproduces those Pi = ⎜
⎜
Pi
max
− Pi
min
⎟
⎟
(2 l
−1 ) (10)
individuals with higher affinity and selects their improved ⎝ Pi
− P i ⎠
matured offsprings. This characteristic makes the clonal In order to search the solution completely, affinity is
selection algorithm suitable for solving complex calculated via fitness or objective values. The individuals
optimization problems. When the clonal selection with the highest profit, lowest total operating cost and
algorithm is implemented for solving the PBUC problem, minimum error has the highest fitness. After calculating
the following few adaptations have to be made: the fitness value for each antibody, each of the antibodies
from initial pool is copied into a fixed number of clones
¾ The affinity of an antibody refers to the to generate a temporary population of clones. This
evaluation of the objective function. population of clones is made to undergo maturation
¾ All antibodies are to be selected for cloning. process through hyper mutation mechanism.
¾ The number of clones generated by the antibodies
is equal. B. Hypermutation
The hypermutation is carried out via fitness based

IV. IMPLEMENTATION OF CLONAL SELECTION ALGORITHM hypermutation rate. Larger hypermutation rate is set for
FOR SOLVING PBUC PROBLEM lower fitness clones and vice versa [15]. That is, the
As indicated before, this paper is based on the clonal probability of hypermutation of each clone is inversely
selection principle, modeling the fact that only the highest proportional to its fitness. This is followed by their fitness
affinity antibodies to the antigens will proliferate. evaluation and penalty in case of any constraint violation.
Implementation of clonal selection algorithm for solving The mutation rate is not taken uniform but kept inversely
PBUC problem is according to the following procedure: proportional to the fitness value of a given clone (binary
flip mutation has been utilized with the probability of
Step 1: Initial population is generated randomly. mutation varying from 0.035-0.010). Consequently,
Step 2: The affinity (fitness) value of each antibody in the
261
clones with higher fitness are made liable to undergo TABLE II. SYSTEM DATA FOR 10 UNIT 24-HOUR SYSTEM
mutation to a lesser extent as compared to those with Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5
lower fitness. Thereafter the mutated clones are decoded Pmax(MW) 455 455 130 130 162
into their real values followed by the evaluation of Pmin(MW) 150 150 20 20 25
corresponding fitness. This is repeated till all the clones a($/hr) 1000 970 700 680 450
b($/MWhr) 16.19 17.26 16.60 16.50 19.70
from the temporary clonal population are endured to c($/MW2hr) 0.00048 0.00031 0.002 0.00211 0.00398
mutation [16]. Finally, tournament selection is done to Min up(hr) 8 8 5 5 6
select same number of mutated clones as the initial Min
8 8 5 5 6
population size. This completes the first iteration of the down(hr)
clonal selection algorithm. In the next iteration, this new Hot Startup
4500 5000 550 560 900
Cost($)
population is made to undergo cloning and hypermutation Cold Startup
as discussed above and likewise. 9000 10000 1100 1120 1800
Cost($)
Cold Start
5 5 4 4 4
C. Stopping criteria Hours(hr)
Initial
8 8 -5 -5 -6
status(hr)
There are various criteria available to stop a stochastic Unit 6 Unit 7 Unit 8 Unit 9 Unit 10
optimization algorithm such as tolerance, number of Pmax(MW) 80 85 55 55 55
function evaluations and maximum number of Pmin(MW) 20 25 10 10 10
generations. In this paper, stopping criteria is chosen as a($/hr) 370 480 660 665 670
b($/MWhr) 22.26 27.74 25.92 27.27 27.79
maximum number of generations subjected to a
c($/MW2hr) 0.00712 0.00079 0.00413 0.00222 0.00173
maximum of 100 generations. Min up(hr) 3 3 1 1 1
Min
3 3 1 1 1
down(hr)
V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Hot Startup
170 260 30 30 30
Cost($)
The applicability and validity of the clonal based AIS Cold Startup
technique for practical applications has been tested on 10 340 20 60 60 60
Cost($)
generating units, 24-hours test system [5]. The required Cold Start
2 2 0 0 0
system data for solving the profit based unit commitment Hours(hr)
problem are given in Table I and Table II. Initial
-3 -3 -1 -1 -1
status(hr)
TABLE I. FORECASTED DEMAND AND SPOT PRICE

The optimal scheduling (each generating unit status) of
PBUC by the proposed approach is given in Table III.
Forecasted Forecasted
Hour
Demand (MW) Spot Price($/MW-hr) TABLE III. OPTIMAL UNIT SCHEDULE OF PBUC BY THE
1 700 22.15 PROPOSED METHOD
2 750 22.00
3 850 23.10 Unit Schedule of PBUC
4 950 22.65 Hr U
U1 U2 U3 U4 U5 U6 U7 U8 U9
10
5 1000 23.25
6 1100 22.95 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
7 1150 22.50 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
8 1200 22.15 3 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
9 1300 22.80 4 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
10 1400 29.35 5 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
11 1450 30.15 6 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
12 1500 31.65 7 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
13 1400 24.60 8 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
14 1300 24.50 9 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
15 1200 22.50 10 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
16 1050 22.30 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
17 1000 22.25 12 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
18 1100 22.05 13 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
19 1200 22.20 14 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
20 1400 22.65 15 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
21 1300 23.10 16 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
22 1100 22.95 17 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
23 900 22.75 18 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
24 800 22.55 19 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
20 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
21 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
22 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
23 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
24 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Software programs were developed using MATLAB 7.6
software package and the system configuration is Pentium
262
IV processor with 250 GHz speed and 2 GB RAM. Initial characteristics and good computation efficiency. Hence,
status in Table-II indicates the status of generators of this results shows that Artificial Immune System is a
concerned GENCO before starting the scheduling hour. promising technique for solving complicated optimization
+8 means the generator is committed for the last 8 hours problems in power system.
before starting of the Ist hour of scheduling time.
Similarly, -3 indicate the number of hours the generator
has been de-committed. From Table III, it can be seen that REFERENCES
GENCO can now select to sell power less than the
[1] G. Sheblé and G. Fahd, “Unit commitment literature synopsis,”
forecasted demand, if it gives more profit. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, vol.9, no.1, pp.128–135,
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The profit and CPU time obtained by the proposed [2] Suri Vemuri, Leo Lemonidis, “Fuel constrained unit
commitment”,IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol.7, no.1, pp.410-/415,
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[3] R. Baldick, “The generalized unit commitment problem,” IEEE
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[4] J.F. Bard, “Short-term scheduling of thermal generators using
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Method Profit (p.u) CPU time(p.u)
Conventional LR [5] K.Lakshmi and S.Vasantharathna,” A Profit Based Unit
1.0 1.0 Commitment Problem in Deregulated Power Markets”, IEEE
Method
LR-GA 1.021 1.1 Third International conference on Power systems proceedings,
LR-EP 1.032 1.08 IIT Kharagpur, 2009.
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[7] K.S. Swarup, S. Yamashiro, “Unit commitment solution
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From the Fig.2, it is clear that the proposed AIS vol.17, pp. 87-/91 February 2002.
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traditional Unit Commitment. approach for solving the unit commitment problem”, IEEE Trans.
Power Syst., vol.12, pp. 661-669, May 1997.
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Optimization Methods and Applications - A Survey”, IEEE
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[12] B. K. Panigraphi, Salik R. Yadav, Shubham Agarwal, M.K.
Tiwari, “A clonal algorithm to solve economic load dispatch,”
Electric Power Systems Research 77, 2007, pp. 1381–1389.
[13] Dipankar Dasguptha, Nii Attoh – Okine, “Immunity – Based
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[14] T.K.A. Rahman, Z.M. Yasin, W.N.W. Abdullah, “Artificial
immune based for solving economic dispatch in power
systems”,IEEE National Power and Energy Conference
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Fig.2. Comparison of Profit by the proposed method with PBUC & UC [15] Leandro N. de Castro and Jonathan Timmis, “Artificial Immune
Systems:A New Computational Intelligence Approach,” Springer,
UK, 2002.
[16] A. Wood and B. Wollenberg, Power Generation, Operation, and
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VI. CONCLUSION
[17] T. Back, Evolutionary Algorithms in Theory and Practice. New
In this paper, a new optimization approach of using York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1996.
clonal selection based Artificial Immune System was
proposed. In order to prove the effectiveness of the
proposed algorithm, this method was applied to Profit
Based Unit Commitment problem with 10 generating
unit, 24 hour system. The results obtained by the
proposed method were also compared to those obtained
by conventional LR method, Hybrid Genetic Algorithm
and Hybrid EP methods. The comparison shows that AIS
performed better than the other existing methods. The
AIS algorithm has superior features, including high
quality optimal solution, stable convergence
263
Practical Mitigation of Voltage Sag in

Distribution Networks by Combining Network
Reconfiguration and DSTATCOM
Nesrallh Khelef, Student Member, IEEE *, Azah Mohamed, Senior Member, IEEE ** , Hussain Shareef ***
* UKM University/Department of Electrical Engineering, Bangi, Malaysia. Email: nesrullahsalman@yahoo.com
** UKM University/Department of Electrical Engineering, Bangi, Malaysia. Email: azah@eng.ukm.my
*** UKM University/Department of Electrical Engineering, Bangi, Malaysia. Email: shareef@ eng.ukm.my
Abstract— Voltage sag is considered as one of the most steady state, some utilities use distribution network
common power quality problems. It may cause sensitive reconfiguration. Network reconfiguration can also be an
equipment to malfunction and process interruption. This effective approach for power utilities to mitigate voltage
paper presents the application of network reconfiguration sags [8]. It can be done by placing the voltage sag sources
and DSTATCOM to mitigate voltage sags in power as far away as possible from the main power supply [9].
distribution networks. The proposed method first reinforces In this paper, network reconfiguration is investigated
the system voltage profile during voltage sag by network and presented as a feasible method for mitigating voltage
reconfiguration. Then DSTATCOMs are placed directly to sag in distribution systems. After illustrating that a major
partially mitigated nodes in order to obtain complete part of voltage sag problem can be solved by network
mitigation of voltage sag problem. The simulation results
reconfiguration, application of DSTATCOM is
show that it is effective to incorporate network
investigated to overcome the remaining part of voltage sag
reconfiguration and DSTATCOM to overcome voltage sag
problem in practical distribution systems. problem. Finally, the effect of the incorporation of the
network reconfiguration and the installation of
DSTATCOM devices are presented.
Keywords — -: voltage sag , distribution network,
reconfiguration, DSTATCOM.
II. NETWORK RECONFIGURATION FOR VOLTAGE SAG
I. INTRODUCTION MITIGATION
Voltage magnitude is one of the major factors that The reconfiguration process may reinforce the network
influence the quality of power supply. Loads at against voltage sags by increasing the line impedance
distribution systems are usually subjected to frequent during short circuit conditions. A brief overview of
voltage sags due to various reasons and it is highly network reconfiguration to reinforce against voltage sag
unacceptable for some sensitive loads in high-tech propagation is presented below. For this, consider a
industries. Voltage sag is defined as a decrease in rms typical distribution system shown in Fig. 1. In the system,
voltage or current between 0.1 and 0.9 pu. at the power if Vsub is the substation voltage, Vmain is main source
frequency for durations of 0.5 cycle to 1 min. [1]. voltage and Zs is the Theveninn’s impedance of the source
Currently a lot of research work is under way to solve the and Zi is the impedance of the feeder i, the substation bus
problem of voltage sags in distribution systems. Most of voltage during a fault at bus i can be derived as:
these research works focus on installing voltage sag
mitigation devices. The static synchronous compensator
(STATCOM) is a shunt-connected reactive compensation Vsub = ( Zi /( Zi + Zs ))Vmain . (1)
equipment which is capable of generating and absorbing
reactive power. Its output can be varied so as to maintain From (1) it can be seen that Vsub can be improved by
specific parameters of electric power system such as the finding another higher impedance route between
voltage profile [2]. The reactive power compensation by substation and bus i. For example, if Zn > Zi , the bus i
DSTATCOM is acceptable in the presence of linear and can be supplied through feeder n by closing tie switch
nonlinear loads. It also has the ability to mitigate balance SWn and opening sectionalizing switch Si shown in Fig. 1.
and unbalance voltage sags [3]. The installation of these This change in configuration will increase substation bus
equipments can completely mitigate voltage sag and it voltage magnitude. After reconfiguration, the new
may significantly reduce the number of sensitive substation voltage Vsub1 can be written as:
equipment failures. It also has the capability to mitigate
voltage sag for some up and downstream buses [4, 5]. Vsub1 = (Zn /( Zn + Zs))Vmain . (2)
The DSTATCOM can also be used to compensate for a
load-induced voltage sags [6].
Although, this change in network configuration
Some other research works focus on utility efforts in improves the voltage magnitude during the fault,
finding feasible solutions to mitigate voltage sags. Since sometimes it may cause unacceptable voltage drop in the
the faults are considered as one of the main causes of lines and hence inadequate nominal voltage at various
voltage sags, utilities try to prevent faults and modify the buses during steady state operation. This means that the
available fault clearing practice in power systems [7]. To network configuration must be done in such a way that it
reduce line losses and bus voltage profile improvement in
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 264

S1 Z1 1 Vsub1 Z1 IL
S1 VL
Load
Substation
Substation
P1 + jQ1
S2 Z2 SW1 1
Ish DC
Vmain Link
SW2 Energy
2 VSC Storage
Main Source
Si Zi
i Zs
Sn Zn
Zs Fault
Sn Zn SWn i Fault
n
SWn
Figure 2. DSTATCOM as a shunt compensator
n
Figure 1. Typical distribution system

V sub1 VL IL
Z th
does not violate the limits of system voltage profile at Is

steady state. If one considers above condition, the network Load
reconfiguration can only partially improve the voltage I sh P L + jQ L
profile during voltage sags. Therefore, supplementary

voltage sag mitigation techniques are needed in order to
obtain the optimal solution.
Figure 3. Circiut diagram of DSTATCOM connection
III. DSTATCOM FOR VOLTAGE SAG COMPENSATION
DSTATCOM is considered as one of the most famous The voltage sag correction by the DSTATCOM
type of shunt compensation custom power devices that depends on the short circuit level of the load bus. When
may be used in the field of power quality improvement. the angle between shunt injected current Ish and load bus
These devices are connected directly at load buses in voltage VL is kept 90º, the desired voltage correction can
parallel as shown in Fig. 2. It injects a current Ish to correct be achieved without injecting any active power into the
the voltage sag at the load bus by adjusting the voltage system. On the other hand, when the value of Ish is
drop across the Theveninn’s equivalent impedance (Zth ) minimized, the same voltage correction can be achieved
seen from the coupling point. The value of Ish can be with minimum apparent power injection into the system.
controlled by adjusting the output voltage of the voltage In case where no real power injection from the
source converter (VSC). The circuit diagram of the system DSTATCOM is required, the entire load active power (PL)
shown in Fig. 2 can be reduced to the circuit shown in Fig. must be provided by the system source. The active power
3 for further analysis. According to the Fig. 3, the shunt flow through the Theveninn’s impedance Zth as shown in
current Ish can be written as [10]: Fig. 3 can be written as:
Ish∠η = IL∠ −θ −Vsub1 / Zth∠(δ + β ) + VL / Zth∠ − β . (3) PL = (Vsub1VL / Zth ) cos(β − δ ) − (VL2 / Zth ) cos β (8)
From (8), the angle δ can be expressed as:
Where IL is the load current, θ is the load power factor
angle, VL is the load bus voltage and Vsub1 is the system
δ = β − cos−1[(VL /Vsub1 ) cos β + Zth PL /Vsub1VL ] (9)
voltage during fault, η is the angle of shunt injected Here, the feasible value of δ is achieved if:
current Ish and β and δ are the angles of Zth and Vsub1,
respectively. [(VL / Vsub1 ) cos β + Z th PL / Vsub1VL ] ≤ 1 (10)
Load current and power factor angle can be derived Equation (10) can be rewritten as:
from power expression respectively as:
IL = {(PL + QL) / VL}* (4) Vsub1 ≥ (VL cos β + Z th PL / VL ) (11)
Thus, when the substation voltage magnitude satisfies

θ = tan −1 (Q L / P L ) (5) (11), the DSTATCOM can correct the voltage sag without
injecting any active power into the system. For such a
Furthermore, from Fig. 3 the Theveninn’s equivalent case, the injected complex current and apparent power of
impedance of the system can be obtained as: the DSTATCOM can easily be found from (3) and (7),
respectively. Note that the injected apparent power will
Z th = Z sub 1sub1 (6) have only the reactive component.
For a given load current, the magnitude of the injected
Where Zsub1sub1 represents the diagonal element apparent power of the DSTATCOM depends on the
corresponding to Zsub1 in the Z-matrix of the system. Now magnitude of the injected current. When the magnitude of
the injected power of the shunt compensator can be the injected current is minimized, the DSTATCOM can
expressed as [10]: correct the voltage sag with minimum apparent power
injection into the system. Thus the condition of minimum
apparent power injection is:
S sh = V L I sh* . (7)
∂I sh / ∂δ = 0 . (12)
265
G R ID
An analytical expression of Ish can readily be obtained 47
from (3), and the solution of (12) provides the other value
of the voltage angle δ1 as [10]: 45 46 43 44
7 5 3 1 2 4 6 8
21
28 17 20
−1
δ1 = tan [(ZthIL sin(β −θ))/(VL + ZthIL cos(β −θ ))]
15
(13) 37
34 1
2 7
16
SW 18
22
29 8 19 SW
33 3 12 23
5 9 SW
24
Thus for a given load, the value of δ1 can be easily
Fau lt
38 13
30 4 10 25
6
found from (13). Once the value of δ1 is known, the 42 26
SW
31 11 14
39
complex current and apparent power injection of the 35 SW SW
27
40
DSTATCOM can again be obtained from (3) and (7), 41
36
respectively. 32
IV. PROPOSED VOLTAGE SAG MITIGATION METHOD Figure 4. A practical distribution system.
The proposed method can be divided to two stages; the
first stage is concerned with network reconfiguration,
while the second stage involves the mitigation of voltage respectively. The substations 43 and 44 are fed by
sag problem by installing DSTATCOM devices. The 132/11KV, 30MVA, while the substations 45 and 46 are
proposed method can be summarized by the following fed by 132/33KV, 45MVA and bus 47 is the swing bus.
steps. The six tie switches (SWs) between buses 4-41, 11-41, 4-
10, 7-16, 19-23 and 12-23 may be used as alternatives to
• Run short circuit analysis for all system buses in change the configuration of the system under
order to appoint which buses causes high level of voltage contingencies. By applying the first step of the proposed
sag propagation in the distribution system and identify the methodology, bus 8 is considered as the most sensitive
neighborhood of these buses as weak areas. bus in the propagating the voltage sag, where most
• Run the load flow and short circuit analysis number of the system buses are affected due to the fault at
according to the appointed weak area for the system and this bus. Therefore bus 8 is considered as the weak bus of
record the voltage magnitude of all system buses. the system. The appointment of the weak area is the
• Apply network reconfiguration process using the significant step in the network reconfiguration.
available tie switches in order to place the weak area as far The curve with triangles in Fig. 6 shows the voltage sag
away as possible from the main substation. distribution of the system buses before reconfiguration.
Note that 68% of the whole system is affected by this
• Run the load flow and fault analysis for the fault. Based on these results the configuration of the
system after reconfiguration process and record the system must be changed in order to place the weak area as
voltage magnitudes of all the system buses. far away as possible from the main substation to reduce
the fault current and sag propagation. The reconfiguration
• Repeat the first step to search for more effective process has been done and it does not violate the limits of
weak area that may be obtained by reconfiguration system voltage profile at steady state. Fig. 5 shows the
process. system after reconfiguration, where the process can be
• Classify the buses in already reconfigured summarized as a change in the power supply routes to
distribution network according to voltage magnitudes. A weak area representing the buses 4, 8,9,10 and 11. This
bus is said to be completely mitigated if the bus voltage is area is supplied by substation 43 through feeder 1 before
> 0.9 p.u. If the bus voltage is between 0.7 and 0.9 p.u it is reconfiguration. To change the previous configuration,
classified as a partially mitigated bus and the remaining weak area buses can be supplied through the substation 41
busses are classified as hardly affected buses (Vbus< 0.7 by closing the tie switches (SWs) 11-41, 4-41 and 4-10
p.u). and opening the sectionalizing switches (Ss) 7-8, 3-4, 44-
• Represent the system by looking from each of the
GRID
above classified buses as Thevinnen’s impedance in series
with bus voltage as Thevinnen’s source. 47
• Develop a simplified system model for
simulation using Matlab Simulink where the load bus is 45 46 43 44
considered as the common coupling point (PCC). 7 5 3 1 2 4 6 8
21
15 17 20
• Use DSTATCOM with an energy storage source 28 34 34
1 16
18
at PCC considering both partially mitigated and hard 7 SW
37 2 19
29 SW
affected buses and record the voltage of bus with and 33 5
3
8
12
SW
23
38 24
without coupling the DSTATCOM. 6 Fault
9
13
25
4 10
30 42 14 26
V. SIMULATION RESULTS 39 35 11
27
31 41
A. Simulation Results of Network Reconfiguration 40 36
32
A practical distribution system is shown in Fig. 4. The Figure 5. A practical distribution system after
system is composed of 47 buses and 42 lines supplied by a reconfiguration.
132KV sub transmission system through four substations
which are connected to buses 43, 44, 45 and 46
266
120
100 TABLE II.

CHANGES SHORT CIRCUIT ANALYSIS AND TOPOLOGY AFTER NETWORK
Voltage Magnitude. %
80 RECONFIGURATION
60 System Status System Buses

Open Switches
during fault
40
Before Rec. No. of Sag
20 After Rec. buses Affected
Ss SWs
under Area
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
sag
No. of Buses 4-41, 11-
32
41, 13-23,
Figure 6. System buses voltages magnitudes during voltage Before all
Non 19-23 10- 68.08 %
sag due to faulted bus No. 8 Before and after reconfiguration. Reconfiguration < 0.65
13, 13-23
p.u
7, 43-20 and 10-11 respectively. By this way the faulted After
bus (bus 8) is placed further away from the main power Reconfiguration 15,
3-4, 7-8
source as shown in Fig. 5. The short circuit analysis 13-23, 8 of
20-43
19-23 and them > 31.9 %
simulation results show that there is no weak area after 44-7
13-23 0.80
network reconfiguration can affect the system more than 10-11
p.u
50%.The curve with circles in Fig. 6 shows the voltage
magnitudes of the system buses obtained by the fault may need other technique to overcome their voltage sag
analysis of the reconfigured system for the same fault at problem.
bus 8.
It is obvious from the results that the reconfiguration
process affects the voltage profile of a large number of the
system buses and provides complete mitigation for the
most number of system buses while leaving few busses TABLE III.
partially mitigated. Buses in the weak areas are still under CLASSIFICATION OF SYSTEM BUSES ACCORDING TO VOLTAGE
severe voltage sag. MAGNITUDE
The results of reconfiguration can be analyzed through System Voltage magnitude of system buses during a fault at bus
the Tables I to IV. Table I changes in steady state Status 8
condition before and after reconfiguration. Note that this 0.6< Vbus < 0.7< Vbus. >
Vbus < 0.6
change causes total system losses to increase from 2003.9 0.7 Vbus.< 0.9 0.9
kW to 2275 kW. Although this is the disadvantages of 28,
reconfiguration, the sag affected area during short circuit 29,30,3
1, 32,
analysis is reduced from 68.1% to 31.9% as shown in 1,2,3, 33, 37,
Table II. Table III shows the classification of buses 4,5,6,7,8,9,
15,16,17,18, 38,39,
according to the bus voltage magnitudes. According to the 10,11,12,13,
19,20,23,24, 40, 41,
Before 14 21,22 and
voltage magnitudes shown in Table III the voltage sag Rec. 35
25,26, 27,34, Non 42,45,
problem is completely solved for 32 buses while 15 Total=14
36,43 and 44 46,
remaining buses still suffers voltage sag after Total=18 and 47
buses
reconfiguration. From these 15 buses nine of them can be buses Total=
15
classified as partially mitigated buses and the other five buses
buses experience severe voltage sag where Vbus < 0.6 pu.
The voltage magnitudes of system buses which observe a 1,2,3,5,
little and hard voltage sag are listed in the Table IV. From 6,7,12
the tables it is obvious that the voltage sag problem is 30,31,32,3
to 29,
solved completely for the most number of buses after 34,35,
4,8,9,10, 11 3,37,
reconfiguration. However, the buses listed in Table IV 36,43,
After and 41 38,39,40
Non 44,45
Rec. Total=6 and 42
,46 and
buses Total=9
TABLE I. 47
buses
CHANGES IN STEADY STATE CONDITION AFTER Total=
RECONFIGURATION 32
buses
System Status Steady
state Percentage of voltage
system magnitude at substation
losses 43
(kW)
62.267
Before 2003.9 101.47
(during
Reconfiguration (pre-sag)
sag)
101.97 101.198
After 2203.3
(pre-sag) (during
Reconfiguration
sag)
267
TABLE IV. 1.4 BUS-40
SYSTEM BUSES NEED OTHER TECHNIQUE FOR VOLTAGE SAG 1.2

MITIGATION
1
Voltage (pu)
Voltage Voltage
Bus No. magnitude Bus No. magnitude 0.8
(p.u) (p.u)
0.6
4 0.385 33 0.827 Sag 0.82 pu.
8 Fault 37 0.899 0.4 Compensation 0.97 pu.
9 0.051 38 0.869
0.2
10 0.084 39 0.865
11 0.525 40 0.829 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Time(s)
30 0.892 41 0.527
Figure 8. Voltage sag and compensation magnitudes at
31 0.82 42 0.855 bus No. 40.
32 0.773
1.4
BUS-4
1.2
B. Simulation Results Of DSTATCOM Compensation
1
The voltage sag problem in buses identified in Table IV
can be tackled by using DSTATCOM devices. These
Voltage (pu)
0.8
devices can inject the required current into the system to 0.6
compensate the partially mitigated bus voltage magnitude.
A Matlab Simulink model of the DSTATCOM shown in 0.4
Sag 0.38 pu.
Fig. 7 is used to simulate the impact of these devices to 0.2 Compensation 0.95 pu.
further mitigate the voltage sag.
0
In the controller of the DSTACOM a similar control 0 0.1 0.2
Time(s)
0.3 0.4 0.5
algorithm developed in [10] is used. The voltage profile

Figure 9. Voltage sag and compensation magnitudes at
before and after installing the DSATCOM at bus no. 40 is bus No. 4.
shown in Fig. 8. The propagation of voltage sag during a
fault at bus 8 affects bus 40’s voltage magnitude and TABLE V.
decreases to 82.9% of its nominal value. However, after
compensation its voltage magnitude rises up to 97% for THE ALREADY AFFECTED SYSTEM B USES WITH DSTATCOM FOR
same fault. This shows that DSATCOM can effectively VOLTAGE SAG MITIGATION
mitigate the voltage sag for partially affected buses.
Voltage Voltage
Fig. 9 is plotted to illustrate the performance of Magnitude (p.u) Magnitude (p.u)
Bus
DSATCOM when installed at a hardly affected buses such Bus No. With With
With- No. With-
as bus 4. Notice that this voltage sag is also mitigated out
D-
out
D-
completely. In the same manner the simulation were STAT STAT
carried out for all buses which are identified to install 4 0.385 0.95 33 0.827 0.95
DSATCOMs. The results of the simulation are listed in 8 Fault Fault 37 0.899 0.96
9 0.051 0.90 38 0.869 0.965
Table V. The results show that all the buses are
completely mitigated after applying DSTATCOM as a 10 0.084 0.90 39 0.865 0.983
shunt compensation device. 11 0.525 0.96 40 0.829 0.98
30 0.892 0.98 41 0.527 0.96
31 0.82 0.98 42 0.855 0.95
32 0.773 0.961
The summery of the simulation results are also shown

in Fig. 10. In Fig. 10, the plot with solid line represents the
result of combining network reconfiguration and
DSTATCOM. The capability of combining the network
reconfiguration and the application of DSATCOMS can
be clearly seen from this figure.
Figure 7. Simulink model of DSTATCOM
268
120
100
REFERENCES
Voltage Magnitude % 80
[1] IEEE Standard, 1159-1995, Recommended Practice For
Monitoring Electric Power Quality, IEEE press, New York, 1995.
60
[2] E. Nasr , S. H. Hosseinian, P. Hasanpor, “Optimal placement of
multiple STATCOM for voltage stability margin enhancement
40 Before Rec.
After Rec.
using particle swarm optimization,” Springer-Verlag. Electr. Eng,
20 Rec. & STAT Vol. 90, pp.503–510, July 2008.
[3] H. Nasiraghdam, A. Jalilian, “Balanced and Unbalanced Voltage
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Sag Mitigation using DSTATCOM with Linear and Nonlinear
No. of Buses Loads,” Int. J. of Elec. Com. Sys. Eng. V. 1 No. 2, pp 86-91
Spring 2007.
Figure 10. System buses voltages magnitudes during voltage [4] Huweg A. F . S. M. Bashi, “Application of inverter based shunt
sag before reconfiguration, after reconfiguration and device for voltage sag mitigation due to starting of an induction
DSTATCOM compensation. motor load,” C I R E D 18th International Conf. on Electricity
Distribution Turin, 6-9th June 2005
[5] M.H. Haque, “Compensation of distribution system voltage sag by
DVR and DSTATCOM,” PPT 2001, IEEE Porto Power
VI. CONCLUSIONS Technique Conf., Porto, Portugal. 10-13th September 2001.
The simulation results show that the application of the [6] Sensarma, P.S. Padiyar, K.R. Ramanarayanan, V, “Analysis and
proposed method is efficient and feasible for improving performance evaluation of a distribution STATCOM for
the bus voltage profile during voltage sag. The first stage compensating voltage fluctuations,” IEEE Trans. On Power
delivery V. 16.2. pp 259-264, April 2001.
of solution is achieved by placing the voltage sag sources
[7] Sang Y. Y,Jang H. O, Mitigation of voltage sag using feeder
as far as possible away from the main power supply. transfer in power distribution system, Power engineering society
Although the losses are significantly higher after summer meet., IEEE vol. 3 PP 1421 - 1426. Summer 2000
reconfiguration (~10%), the system become more stable [8] Chen S.L, Hsu S.C, Mitigation of voltage sags by network
especially in case of high frequency of voltage sag. reconfiguration of a utility power system. IEEE power engineering
Although the first stage involves just a change is society transmission and distribution conf., Vol. 3, PP 2067 - 2072
switching status, it solves majority of the problem and Asia Pacific, 6-10 Oct. 2002
reduces the required number of DSTATCOM devices for [9] N. Salman, A. Mohammed, H. Shareef , Reinforcement of power
complete mitigation. By the installation of DSTATCOM distribution network against voltage sags using graph theory,
IEEE Student Conf. Research and Development (SCOReD 2009),
devices directly to the partially mitigated buses as well as UPM Serdang, Malaysia 16-18 Nov. 2009,
other hardly affected buses the problem of voltage sag can [10] S.V Ravi Kumar , S. Siva Nagaraju, “Simulation of DSTATCOM
be completely solved for the whole system. and DVR in power systems,” ARPN J. of Eng. Applied Sciences,
Vol. 2, No. 3, pp 7-13, June 2007.
269
Maximum Loss Reduction by an Improved

Reconfiguration Method and Capacitor
Placement
V. Farahani*, S. H. H. Sadeghi*, H. Askarian*, S. H. Hosseinian*, and K. Mazlumi**
* Amirkabir University of Technology/Electrical Engineering, Tehran, Iran. Email: v_farahani@aut.ac.ir
** ZanjanUniversity/Electrical Engineering, Zanjan, Iran. Email: kmazlumi@znu.ac.ir
Abstract—Network reconfiguration and capacitor placement Genetic algorithm the branch that must be opened at each
have been widely employed to reduce power losses and to loop is specified precisely by a simple method and it is
maintain voltage profiles within permissible limits in unnecessary to calculate power loss reductions of all
distribution systems. Reconfiguration method that is possible branch exchanges in determining an optimal
employed in this paper is based on an improved simple branch exchange. Therefore the proposed simplified
branch exchange method of single loop that is performed in branch exchange algorithm for network reconfiguration in
a previous work. In this paper a joint optimization [7] has very high computing efficiency, so the overall
algorithm is proposed for combining this improved method computing efficiency of the joint optimization algorithm is
of reconfiguration and capacitor placement, therefore guaranteed in [7].
maximum loss reduction is obtained. Discrete Genetic
In [7] and [12] loops selecting sequence for branch
algorithm is used to optimize the location and size of
exchange are optional. In [13] the proposed method in [7]
capacitors and the sequence of loops selecting, in fact the
for reconfiguration has been improved by optimizing the
capacitors size have been considered as discrete variables.
The proposed algorithm is effectively tested on a real life 77-
loops selecting sequence. In this paper a joint optimization
bus distribution system.
algorithm is proposed for combining the proposed method
of reconfiguration in [13] and capacitor placement for
Keywords — Capacitor placement; Discrete Genetic maximum loss reduction. Therefore in each iteration of
algorithm; joint optimization; Loss reduction;
Genetic algorithm not only capacitor modes are selected,
Reconfiguration
but also loops selecting sequence are determined. Discrete
Genetic algorithm is used to optimize location and size of
I. INTRODUCTION capacitors and sequence of loops selecting, in fact the
capacitor sizes have been considered as discrete variables.
Capacitors have been generally used to compensate The proposed algorithm is tested on a region of real life
reactive power and therefore reduction of power losses 77-bus distribution network of the city of Sirjan in Iran
and control the voltage profiles. The benefits of and its effective performance on loss reduction compared
compensation depend on location and size of the added whit the proposed method in [7] is confirmed.
capacitors. There are many previous works on capacitor
placement problems [1] and [2]. II. COMPUTATIONAL PROCEDURES
Power distribution systems typically have tie and In this paper discrete Genetic algorithm is used to
sectionalizing switches whose states determine the optimize the location and size of capacitors and the
topological configuration of the network, the state of sequence of loops selecting.
switches must maintain the radial structure of the system.
The configuration of distribution network affects the A. Overview of Genetic Algorithm
power loss and therefore distribution companies wish to The Genetic algorithm is a global search technique for
find the optimal network configuration. So there are many solving optimization problems, which is essentially based
works about network reconfiguration [3-6]. on the theory of natural selection, the process that drives
Although capacitor placement and network biological evolution. Following are the important
reconfiguration have an inherent coupling relationship, but terminology in connection with the Genetic algorithm:
in most previous studies capacitor placement has been
handled without network reconfiguration or network • Individual: An individual is any point to which
reconfiguration has been handled without capacitor objective function can be applied. It is basically the
placement. There are few articles about network set of values of all the variables for which function is
reconfiguration and capacitor placement [7] and [8-12]. going to be optimized. The value of the objective
In [12] the state of capacitors and branch exchange at function for an individual is called its score. An
each loop are specified by ant colony search algorithm, so individual is sometimes referred to as a genome and
in primary iterations which algorithm has not yet the vector entries of it as genes.
converged, the branch that must be opened at each loop
isn’t the optimal branch, but in [7] in all iterations of
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 270

• Population: It is an array of individuals. For example,
if the size of the population is 100 and the number of
variables in the objective function is 3, population
can be represented by a 100-by-3 matrix in which
each row correspond to an individual.
• Generation: In each iteration, the Genetic algorithm
performs a series of computations on the current Figure 1. Produced chromosomes of Genetic algorithm
population to produce a new population by applying
Sequence of loop selecting
Genetic operators. Each successive population is
called a new generation. 4 8 3 5 1 10 6 2 7 9
• Parents and children: To create the next generation,
n m
the Genetic algorithm selects certain individuals in
Inverse the sequence
the current population, called parents, and uses them
to create individuals in the next generation, called Figure 2. Crossover of loops selection sequence optimization
children.
Following three Genetic operators are applied on
parents to form children for next generation:
1) Reproduction - Selects the fittest individuals in the
current population to be used in generating the next
population. The children are called Elite children.
2) Crossover - Causes pairs of individuals to exchange
Genetic information with one another. The children Figure 3. Mutation of loops selection sequence optimization
are called Crossover children.
3) Mutation - Causes individual Genetic representations
to be changed according to some probabilistic rule.
The children in this case are called Mutation
children.
In this paper, capacitor sizes have been considered as
discrete variables. Fig. (1) shows the produced
chromosomes of Genetic algorithm. In Fig. (1), n is the Figure 4. A simple single loop distribution network [7]
number of buses and m is the loops number of distribution
network and i, j, k are less than the m. In n-first
chromosomes, each chromosome can has L+1 modes that
L is the number of available capacitors in the industry
which are given in Table I. m-next chromosomes indicate
the different permutations of loop selecting. The crossover
and mutation of capacitors selection gens and loops
sequence gens is performed separately. The procedure of
crossover and mutation of loop sequence gens, are
respectively illustrated in Fig.(2) and Fig. (3) which n,m,i
and j are randomly selected. Also crossover and mutation
TABLE I.
AVAILABLE 20KV CAPACITORS IN INDUSTRY AND THEIR INSTALLATION
AND PURCHASE COSTS [14]
Mod MVA Mod MVA Figure 5. A real life 77-bus distribution system
Kb Ki Kb Ki
e R e R
1 0 0 0 11 0.225 1409 130
2 0.05 429 40 12 0.25 1522 130
3 0.07 519 40 13 0.265 1799 145 B. Objective Function
4 0.1 648 65 14 0.275 1838 170 This paper discusses the reconfiguration and capacitor
5 0.125 761 65 15 0.29 2115 185 placement of distribution systems for cost reduction until
6 0.15 1077 105 16 0.3 1951 170 two next years, with considering the assumption of
7 0.17 1167 105 17 0.315 2228 185 constant load patterns and the network structure will
8 0.175 1190 105 18 0.325 2057 195 remain constant until two next years. Objective function
9 0.195 1280 105 19 0.335 2318 185
contains cost of energy losses and cost of installed
10 0.2 1296 130
capacitors until two next years whit considering bus
voltage limits and maximum current limits of branches
of capacitor selection gens are performed according to the
during peak load.
prevalent procedure of genetic algorithm that we have
already mentioned above.
271
Total cost of capacitors is equal to cost of purchase and In Fig. (4) let branches {j,…,n} in the tie switch
cost of installation. Useful life of capacitors is assumed associated loop be denoted by Set L and others {k,…,m}
twenty years [14], so cost of installed capacitors until two by set R. Equation (5) has been used for determining the
next years is assumed that equals to summation 2/20 optimal branch exchange in a loop in [7].
capacitors purchase cost and whole capacitor installation
cost.
At each optimization problem, objective function
⎧ ∑ Pi ri − i∑
⎪ P = i ∈L ∈R
Pi ri
should be defined. Equation (1) illustrates the proposed
objective function in this paper. This objective function
⎪ s
⎪
∑ ri + rs .
i ∈L ∪ R
(1)
aims at minimizing the total cost due to capacitor ⎨
placement and energy losses until two next years with ⎪ ∑ Q i ri − i∑ Q i ri
constraints that include limits on voltage (2), maximum ⎪Q s = i ∈L ∈R
permissible carrying current of conductors (3) and size of ⎪

⎩
∑ ri + rs
i ∈L ∪ R
installed capacitors Table I.
Where Pi+jQi is the power transferred in branch i, ri
N
Fobj = 2 × 8760 × K p × L L F × L max + ∑ ⎜ K i + ⎛ K b ⎞ .(1) and rs respectively are the resistance of the branch i and
n =1 ⎝
10 ⎟⎠ resistance of tie switch s.
To find the branch where the power flow matches the
V min ≤ V i ≤ V max . (2) optimal transfer load Ps+jQs, the rules are derived from
the sign and magnitude of the optimal transfer load, as
I l ≤ I max( l ) . (3) follows:
1) If Ps+jQs<(Pn+jQn)/2, or Ps+jQs<(Pm+jQm)/2, the
Where
Kp annual cost per unit of power losses which equals START
to 0.0773$/kWh;
Random selection of chromosomes
LLF Loss factor of distribution network that equals to by Genetic algorithm
the ratio of average power losses at duration of two
years and power losses at time of peak load;
Lmax power losses at time of peak load; Read values of
chromosomes from .txt
Ki the capacitor installation cost; File and apply them
Kb the capacitor purchase cost;
Vmin minimum permissible bus voltages which is equal Implementation of network
reconfiguration algorithm
to 0.95 p.u.;
Write value of
Vmax maximum permissible bus voltages which is equal Chromosomes Implementation of
Module of DIGSILENT
load flow calculation
to 1.05 p.u.; in .txt file
Imax(l) maximum permissible carrying current of

Constraints are No
conductors which is specified at Table V. satisfied?
Mutation
Yes
Loss factor of the used network which is shown in Fig. Calculation of total loss
(5) equals to 0.657. Table I indicates the available 20kV Cross Over
Put great value for
objective function
capacitors in industry and their installation and purchase Calculation of objective
function
costs. Genetic algorithm chromosomes are produced
among the mode column of Table I. There will be no Reproduction
Write value of objective
capacitor in relevant bus if its chromosome is equal to function in .txt file
mode 1.
III. NETWORK RECONFIGURATION Read values of objective

function from .txt File
Based on the ideas presented in [15] and [16], branch
exchange algorithm is further simplified according to
system parameter features in the capacitors optimization No
Result is converged?
process in [7]. In section A the simple branch exchange
method for single loop reconfiguration, that is totally from Yes
[7], is shortly represented. Output optimization results
Module of MATLAB
A. A Simple Branch Exchange Method [7]
STOP
In a radial distribution network, when a tie switch is
closed, a loop is formed and a sectionalizing switch in the Figure 6. Flowchart of the proposed joint optimization algorithm.
loop should be opened to restore the radial structure of
the system.
real power loss in the loop is already a minimum.
272
The tie switch should keep open status. in this paper we use this improved method of
2) If Ps+jQs>0, in set L, the branch with the power flow reconfiguration and capacitor placement with a joint
being closest to Ps+jQs is to be opened. optimization algorithm for maximum loss reduction.
If Ps+jQs<0, in set R, the branch with the power flow IV. JOINT OPTIMIZATION FOR CAPACITOR PLACEMENT
being closest to Ps+jQs is to be opened. AND NETWORK RECONFIGURATION
From the above analysis, it is obvious that it is
unnecessary to calculate power loss reductions of all DIGSILENT programming language (DPL) has been
possible branch exchanges in determining an optimal used for calculation of the objective function and
branch exchange in the proposed method [7]. algorithm Genetic has been implemented by the
MATLAB software. Advantage of using DPL for
B. Improved Network Reconfiguration
calculation of objective function is the precise elements
For network reconfiguration with several tie switches, model and the exact loss calculation in DIGSILENT
in [7] tie switches are one by one selected and branch software. The main optimization procedure of capacitor
exchange at each matched loop is performed according to placement with network reconfiguration for loss
the proposed method for reconfiguration of single loop in reduction can be stated using a flowchart shown in Fig.
previous section. (6). As indicated in Fig. (6), in each Genetic iteration
In [7] sequence of the loops selecting is optional. Loops after capacitor placement, network reconfiguration based
selecting sequence affects the optimal configuration and
on the proposed algorithm in [13] is performed and then
value of objective function according to (1) is calculated.
TABLE II. The Genetic population size and number of maximum
RESULTS OF NETWORK RECONFIGURATION FOR CASES 1, 2 AND 3 generation and crossover probability are respectively
Case 1 Case2 Case3 100, 2000 and 0.1. To demonstrate the performance of
the proposed joint optimization algorithm, the following
Branches that must
Branches that must
Branches that must

switches selecting
switches selecting
switches selecting
Sequence of tie
Sequence of tie
Sequence of tie
three cases are studied.

be opened
be opened
be opened
1) perform capacitor optimization first, and then carry

out network reconfiguration based on proposed
method in this paper.
2) perform capacitor placement and network
Line8 Line8 Line10 26_J36 Line2 16_17 reconfiguration simultaneously based on the network
Line9 60_J16 Line3 J20_J21 Line3 67_J18
Line2 16_J32 Line8 20_21 Line8 Line8
reconfiguration method proposed in [7].
Line10 Line10 Line5 31_J37 Line10 Line10 3) perform capacitor placement and network
Line3 63_64 Line1 60_J17 Line5 Line5 reconfiguration simultaneously based on the network
Line7 6_J28 Line7 J26_J27 Line1 Line1 reconfiguration method proposed in this paper.
Line4 70_71 Line4 70_71 Line7 6_J28
Line1 61_J17 Line9 Line9 Line6 J9_J10
Line5 Line5 Line6 J8_J9 Line4 70_71 Results of capacitor placement for cases 1,2 and 3 are
Line6 J8_J9 Line2 16_J32 Line9 59_J15 given in Table III. It can be seen from Table III that cost
of capacitors in case 3 are less than case 2, because in
TABLE III. case 3 network reconfiguration has more contribution in
RESULTS OF CAPACITOR PLACEMENT FOR CASES 1, 2 AND 3
loss reduction compared with the case 2, also in case 1
case 1 2 3 cost of capacitors is more than other cases, because in
Total placed capacitor (kvar) 7.7 5.675 5.81 case 1 capacitor placement is performed separately for
loss reduction.
Cap. cost until two next years($) 10241.3 7901.8 6370
Results of network reconfiguration for cases 1, 2 and 3
are given in Table II, of course sequence of loops
TABLE IV.
OPTIMIZATION RESULTS OF DIFFERENT CASES selecting in case 2 is optional and constant in all iteration
of Genetic algorithm.
Case1 Case2 Case3
As indicated in Table IV, in case 3 the benefit in two
Loss (kw) 166.407 172.048 165.882
years and loss reduction are more than other cases. Case 1
Vmax(p.u.) 0.999 0.998 0.998
has more effective performance compared with the case 2,
Vmin(p.u.) 0.996 0.991 0.994
because of its improved method of reconfiguration.
Vaverage(p.u.) 0.997 0.995 0.996
Fobj($) 158368.9 161050.8 154030.3 V. CONCLUSION
Loss Reduction (kw) 58.35 52.709 58.875
Benefit in 2 years ($) 41699.1 39017.25 46037.73 In this paper, the proposed method of network
reconfiguration in [13] that is based on the [7], is
so the loss of network, therefore obtained configuration in employed with capacitor placement for maximum loss
[7] isn’t the optimal configuration and it can be improved reduction. Therefore a joint optimization algorithm is
by optimization of loops selecting sequence. Therefore in proposed for combination of the capacitor placement and
[13] loops selection sequence of reconfiguration are improved network reconfiguration, because
optimized and its effective performance is confirmed. So implementation of capacitor placement or network
273
TABLE V. TABLE VII.
LINES TYPE DATA OF USED DISTRIBUTION NETWORK DATA OF LOADS DURING PEAK LOAD
I Rated DC resistance X Diameter Name Length (km) Type Name Length (km) Type
Name
(KA) (Ω/km) (Ω/km) (mm) main-1 0.62 DOG 36-37 0.26 DOG
DOG 0.278 0.2723 0.3847 14.15 main-J1 0.984 DOG 16-17 0.067 DOG
FOX 0.147 0.7827 0.4373 8.37 75-J40 0.397 MINK 16-J32 0.029 DOG
MINK 0.174 0.5441 0.4094 10.98 76-J40 0.084 MINK 9-J30 0.068 MINK
WEZEL 0.134 0.905 0.3897 7.77
77-J40 0.319 MINK 10-J30 0.093 MINK
15-J32 0.293 DOG 8-J29 0.195 MINK
TABLE VI.
28-29 0.044 DOG 13-14 0.411 MINK
DATA OF LOADS DURING PEAK LOAD
7-J28 0.014 DOG 13-Dec 0.237 MINK
Name I(A) P.F Name I(A) P.F Name I(A) P.F 17-J33 0.052 DOG 12-J31 0.015 DOG
1 197 0.75 27 253 0.75 53 50 0.8 31-J36 0.121 DOG 11-J31 0.291 MINK
2 273 0.8 28 268 0.75 54 117 0.8 31-J37 0.046 DOG 6-J27 0.056 MINK
3 228 0.8 29 114 0.8 55 170 0.85 26-J35 0.152 DOG 6-J28 0.266 MINK
4 234 0.75 30 253 0.75 56 120 0.8 26-J36 0.146 DOG 5-J27 0.161 MINK
5 177 0.85 31 44 0.85 57 220 0.8 19-20 0.137 FOX 4-J24 0.354 DOG
6 185 0.8 32 171 0.85 58 336 0.75 19-J33 0.059 FOX 4-J26 0.052 DOG
7 218 0.75 33 271 0.75 59 320 0.75 74-J38 0.035 DOG 3-J24 0.041 WEZEL
8 294 0.8 34 312 0.75 60 210 0.75 22-J38 0.27 MINK 2-J24 0.164 DOG
9 130 0.85 35 249 0.8 61 40 0.85 72-J21 0.166 FOX 2-Jan 0.455 DOG
10 240 0.8 36 30 0.8 62 84 0.8 73-J21 0.115 MINK 43-J6 0.144 FOX
11 160 0.8 37 12 0.85 63 109 0.8 34-35 0.097 FOX 65-66 0.049 MINK
12 28 0.8 38 233 0.8 64 40 0.85 33-34 0.143 DOG 65-J18 0.05 MINK
13 259 0.8 39 222 0.8 65 11 0.8 33-J37 0.019 DOG 67-68 0.058 MINK
14 217 0.75 40 45 0.75 66 53 0.75 32-J37 0.023 WEZEL 67-J18 0.014 MINK
15 245 0.75 41 404 0.8 67 206 0.75 27-28 0.048 DOG 56-J13 0.025 DOG
16 154 0.8 42 14 0.85 68 111 0.85 27-J36 0.118 DOG 47-J12 0.131 FOX
17 83 0.85 43 195 0.75 69 182 0.8 29-30 0.086 DOG 18-J20 0.145 MINK
18 221 0.75 44 188 0.75 70 50 0.8 25-J35 0.241 FOX 18-J40 0.212 MINK
19 42 0.85 45 235 0.75 71 200 0.75 24-J35 0.101 DOG 69-J20 0.314 FOX
20 244 0.75 46 300 0.75 72 150 0.75 23-24 0.19 DOG 70-71 0.137 MINK
21 173 0.8 47 357 0.75 73 130 0.75 23-J33 0.243 DOG 70-J20 0.144 MINK
22 53 0.8 48 20 0.8 74 420 0.75 20-21 0.029 FOX 71-J21 0.328 MINK
23 209 0.8 49 140 0.8 75 156 0.75 60-J17 0.034 MINK 60-J16 0.354 MINK
24 224 0.75 50 95 0.8 76 170 0.8 61-J17 0.023 MINK 36-J1 0.234 DOG
25 125 0.8 51 27 0.85 77 181 0.75 62-J17 0.717 MINK J1-J2 0.625 DOG
26 246 0.75 52 185 0.8 - - - 68-J20 0.142 MINK J13-J14 0.18 DOG
64-J18 0.09 MINK J14-J15 0.115 DOG
reconfiguration alone for loss reduction cannot get better 63-64 0.095 MINK J21-J38 0.074 MINK
solution results. Discrete Genetic algorithm is employed 63-J16 0.096 MINK J26-J27 0.14 MINK
for the proposed joint optimization algorithm. Objective 59-J15 0.268 MINK J26-J32 0.414 DOG
function is proposed for minimizing the total cost due to 59-J16 0.153 MINK J28-J29 0.212 MINK
capacitors placement and energy losses until two next 58-J15 0.022 DOG J28-J31 0.04 MINK
years with considering the constraints of voltage and 57-J14 0.105 MINK J29-J30 0.122 MINK
carrying current of conductors. Obtained result confirmed 55-J13 0.24 DOG J3-J4 0.053 DOG
the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm. 54-55 0.046 DOG J4-J5 0.116 DOG
53-54 0.151 DOG J5-J6 0.069 DOG
APPENDIX 53-J12 0.201 DOG J6-J7 0.509 DOG
49-J10 0.226 MINK J7-J8 0.21 DOG
Data of line types and loads during peak load, are
51-J11 0.168 FOX J8-J12 0.068 DOG
respectively indicated in Table V and Table VI. Also
52-J11 0.155 MINK J8-J9 0.044 FOX
Table VII indicates the lines data of used distribution
50-J10 0.161 FOX J9-J10 0.104 FOX
network. 50-J11 0.155 FOX Line1 0.123 DOG
48-J9 0.045 FOX Line10 0.123 DOG
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44-J7 0.024 DOG Line2 0.123 DOG
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Proc. 1995 Northcon 95 IEEE Technical Application Conf., pp.
225–230. 42-J5 0.091 DOG Line5 0.123 DOG
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System Using Genetic Algorithm,” International Journal of 2006 he was a Visiting Professor at the University of Wisconsin,
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Abyaneh, Isfahan on March 20, 1953. He
[6] Y. J. Jean and J. C. Kim, “An efficient simulated annealing
received the B.S. and M.S. degree both in Iran
algorithm for network reconfiguration in large-scale distribution
systems,” IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 1070–1078, in 1976 and 1982 respectively. He also
Oct. 2002. received another M.S. degree and Ph.D. from
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and capacitor placement for loss reduction of distribution the Department of Electrical Engineering, AUT, Iran, working in the
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[10] D. Jiang and R. Baldick, “Optimal electric distribution systems from the Electrical Engineering Department of
switch reconfiguration and capacitor control,” IEEE Trans. Power Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran,
Syst., vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 890–897, May 1996. Iran, in 1985 and 1988, respectively, and the
[11] C. T. Su and C. S. Lee, “Feeder reconfiguration and capacitor Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from
setting for loss reduction of distribution systems,” Elect. Power Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne,
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[12] Chung-Fu Chang, “Reconfiguration and Capacitor Placement for Professor in the Electrical Engineering
Loss Reduction of Distribution Systems by Ant Colony Search Department in Amirkabir University of
Algorithm” IEEE Trans. on Power Syst., vol. 23, no. 4, pp. 1747- Technology (AUT), Tehran, Iran. His special fields of interest include
1755, Nov. 2008. transient in power systems, power quality, and restructuring and
deregulation in power systems. He is the author of four books in the
[13] V.farahani, S. H. H. Sadeghi, H. askarian, and K.mazlumi, “An
field of power systems. He is also the author and the coauthor of over
improved reconfiguration method for maximum loss reduction
using discrete genetic algorithm,” in Proc. 4th International Power 100 technical papers.
Engineering and Optimization Conference (PEOCO), Malaysia,
Jun. 2010. Kazem Mazlumi was born in Tehran, Iran in
1976. He received the B.S. degree in electrical
[14] Table of distribution equipments price, distribution company of engineering from Amirkabir University of
Tehran regions, 2008.
Technology, Tehran, Iran, in 2000, the M.S.
[15] M. E. Baran and F. F.Wu, “Network reconfiguration in degree from Sharif University of Technology,
distribution systems for loss reduction and load balancing,” IEEE Tehran, Iran, in 2003. He is currently pursuing
Trans. Power Del., vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 1401–1407, Apr. 1989. Ph.D. degree at Amirkabir University of
[16] J. Y. Fan, L. Zhang, and J. D. McDonald, “Distribution network Technology. His current research interests
reconfiguration: Single loop optimization,” IEEE Trans. Power include power system protection and
Syst., vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 1643–1647, Aug. 1996. reliability and power quality.
BIOGRAPHIES
Vahid Farahani was born in Arak, Iran in
1986. He received the B.S. in electrical
engineering from Amirkabir University of
Technology, Tehran, Iran in 2008. Currently
he is M.Sc. student at Amirkabir University of
Technology, Tehran, Iran.
His main fields of research are harmonics in
power system, distribution system analysis and
optimization and loss reduction of power
distribution systems. He has authored a book.
Seyed Hosien Hesamedin Sadeghi (M’92–

SM’05) received the B.S. degree in electrical
engineering from Sharif University of
Technology, Tehran, Iran, the M.S. degree in
power engineering from the University of
Manchester Institute of Science and
Technology, Manchester, England, and the
Ph.D. degree in electronic systems engineering
from Essex University, Colchester, U.K., in
1980, 1984, and 1991.
In 1992, Dr. Sadeghi was appointed as a Research Assistant Professor at
Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN. During 1996-1997, and 2005-
275
Analysis of Wave Propagation in Time Domain

Reflectometry Circuit Simulation Model
Y.H Md Thayoob1, S. Sulaiman2, A. Mohd Ariffin3
Department of Electrical Power Engineering, College of Engineering, Universiti Tenaga National (UNITEN), 43000 Kajang,
Selangor, Malaysia.
1
yasmin@uniten.edu.my
2
suhailas@uniten.edu.my
3
azrula@uniten.edu.my
Abstract-Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) has been commonly A functional block for TDR system is shown in Fig. 1.
used for testing and diagnosis of faults along a transmission line. A pulse generator provides the required pulse signals which are
It involves the sending of an electrical pulse along a cable and sent to the cable under test. The incident pulse from the Pulse
using an oscilloscope to observe the reflected pulses. In this
paper, the experimental set up based on Time Domain Generator enters the Test cable on the input side of the Test
Reflectometry technique is developed using PSpice circuit cable at point 1 as shown in Fig.1. If there is an impedance
simulation software. From the PSpice circuit simulation, the mismatch between the coaxial cable and cable under test, Z0
incident and reflected pulses at various nodes are obtained. In a reflected pulse is generated. The reflected pulse travels along
order to determine the wave propagation in a Test cable, the the coaxial cable, and will be measured at point 2 [4]. On the
actual reflected pulse from the Test cable need to be evaluated. other hand, the pulse that travels into the Test cable is reflected
However, in practice the actual reflected pulses cannot be
obtained directly from the Test cable but must be measured from
back into the test cable due to the open end at ZL, and will be
the oscilloscope. Therefore, in this paper, the relationship between recorded by the oscilloscope at point 2. Hence, there will be
the actual reflected pulses from the Test cable to the reflected multiple reflections with diminishing amplitudes as the pulses
pulses measured from an oscilloscope is established by using the continue to travel back and forth.
electrical circuit analysis and transmission line theory. Moreover, Notice that the actual information on the Test cable of the
the characteristic impedance of the Test cable can be computed TDR system in Fig. 1 is shown by the reflected pulse at point 1
accurately from this relationship.
but the point of measurement in practice is at point 3 which is
Keywords-transmission line; test cable; time domain the oscilloscope. Therefore, in this study, an experimental set
reflectometry; transmission coefficient; reflection coefficient up based on the Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) technique
is developed using PSpice circuit simulation software to
establish the relationship between the actual reflected pulse at
I. INTRODUCTION the Test cable and the measured pulse at the oscilloscope.
Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) as a type of Hence, the actual information of the Test cable can be then
reflectometer has been used by electrical engineers since the determined by using this relationship.
1930s for testing the characteristics of transmission lines and Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) is also a well known
diagnosing faults [1]. TDR are used in all phases of a cabling method for determining the general characteristics of
system’s life, from constructions to maintenance and fault impedance variations in a transmission line. Therefore, the
finding. This is an electrical measurement technique that is detailed analysis on the incident and reflected pulses obtained
generally used to determine the spatial location and nature of from the PSpice circuit simulation in this study can also be
various objects [2]. The TDR works on the same principle as used to characterize the impedance of the Test cable.
radar. In cables, it involves sending of an electrical pulse along
a cable and using an oscilloscope to observe the reflected Vi Vr Vr
pulses caused by changes in the electrical characteristics of the 1
2
cable. Pulse Coaxial Cable Cable under Test ZL Open
Generator Z0
An impedance mismatch in a test cable will lead to changes
in the voltage reflection amplitude. This is due to the 3
irregularities along the cable itself which may cause small local Oscilloscope
changes in the cable characteristic impedance [3]. Therefore,
TDR technique has been recommended for locating the
irregularities along a cable.
Figure 1. Functional block for TDR system.
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 276

II. THEORY OF SIGNAL TRANSMISSION AND REFLECTION IN In practice, a low source voltage of the TDR system was
TRANSMISSION LINE applied to measure the incident and reflected waves of the Test
In general, when a uniform plane wave encounters the cable. The PSpice circuit simulation, as shown in Fig. 4 is used
boundary between two different media, it splits into two waves in this work to model the TDR equivalent circuit and to obtain
which are a reflected wave that propagates back to the first the incident and reflected waves due to impedance mismatch at
medium and transmitted wave that proceeds into the second the junctions of the test cable. All the cables in the circuit in
medium. This theory is analogous to the transmission and Fig. 4 are lossless cables and the time delay for each of the
reflection in a transmission line where the transmission and cable is set as 5ns/m.
reflection of voltage and current waves may occur at the
junctions between different transmission lines or at the
termination of transmission lines with a load [5]. In TDR
measurement, it is described in terms of a reflection Incident Transmitted
J
coefficient, ρ and transmission coefficient, τ as shown in Fig.2. 1
Reflected
As illustrated in Fig. 1, the incident pulse, Vi (from pulse
generator) is sent into the transmission line, Z0. If the
transmission line is terminated in an arbitrary load impedance,
ZL, which is different from characteristic impedance of the Z0: Cable under Test J: Junction between Z0 and ZL
transmission line, Z0, a reflected signal, Vr (from the load) ZL: The circuit termination
exists [6]. The occurrence of the transmission and reflection

coefficient due to impedance mismatch between Z0 and ZL is Figure 2. The transmission and reflection coefficient
demonstrated in Fig. 2.
The reflection coefficient, ρ is the ratio of the reflected pulse
amplitude, Vr , to the incident pulse amplitude, Vi and can be
expressed as [7]:
(1)
In addition, the transmission coefficient, τ can be given by:

2
1 1 (2)
Figure 3. Proposed schematic drawing of the measuring test set-up
In TDR measurement technique, the termination at the Test
cable is made to be an open end [3], so ZL is set as infinity.
Thus, this causes the reflection coefficient, 1 as shown in
(3). For that reason, the reflected wave is equal to the incident
wave with the same polarity [8].
∞
1 (3)
∞
III. TDR CIRCUIT MODEL
The circuit model of TDR system in this study consists of

the pulse generator, connector, coaxial cables and the Test
cable. As shown in Fig. 3, a pulse generator is used to generate
a pulse with amplitude of 10V and 40ns pulse width. In this
TDR circuit model, coaxial cable 1, T1, is connected to coaxial
cable 2, T2, and coaxial cable 3, T3, via a connector which is
modeled by R1, R2 and R3. The characteristic impedance of T1, Vg: Pulse generator R1, R2, R3: Impedance of connector
T2 and T3 are described by Z1, Z2 and Z3. All coaxial cables, T1: Coaxial cable, length=2m R1= R = R3 =16.67Ω
pulse generator (Rg) and oscilloscope (ROSC) have 50Ω T2: Coaxial cable, length=10m Rg: Impedance of pulse generator
impedance, while the impedances of the connector named as T3: Coaxial cable to Oscilloscope, Ropen: : High ohmic value
R1, R2 and R3 are 16.67Ω each. The termination of the Test length=1.4m
Cable is represented by impedance, ROPEN and is set to a high TTEST : Test cable, length=30m Rosc : Impedance of oscilloscope
ohmic value in order to depict the open end condition of the
TDR system [7], as shown in Fig. 3. Figure 4. PSpice Circuit Model for Time Domain Reflectometry System.
277
Notice that in the field measurement test set-up, the actual (10)
incident and reflected pulses from the Test cable are not taken
directly from node 6 but measured at node 8 (refer to Fig. 4). Where RB is formed by parallel combinations of (R2+Z2) and
Since the measured pulses are extracted at another point other (R3+Z3) such as
than node 6, it is important to establish a relationship between // 33.335Ω (11)
the measured pulses at node 8 to the actual pulses of interest at Thus, V4i becomes
node 6 [3]. This relationship can be obtained by identifying 0.67 (12)
and validating the incident and reflected pulses at various Similarly, the pulse voltage at node 5, V5i is given by
nodes in PSpice simulation using theoretical circuit analysis 0.75 (13)
and transmission line theory.
Since coaxial cable 2, T2 is an ideal line, the incident pulse,
V5i’ that travels along T2 can be obtained from the voltage at
IV. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS node 5, V5i:
A. The Incident Pulses ′ (14)
A wave that travels through a transmission line in the When the pulse, V5i’ leaves T2, the pulse is transmitted and
direction from source to load is known as an incident wave. In propagates along TTEST, and known as V6i’ which is given by
Fig. 5, the incident pulse is generated by the pulse generator (15)
and travels along cables T1, T2, T3 and the Test cable. Hence,
2
the incident pulse is named separately as it travels through Where
different cable medium such as V2i’, V5i’, V6i’ and V7i’. V1i,
V2i, V4i, V5i and V7i are waves at the respective nodes in the
circuit while V3i and V8i are the waves that are being If there is impedance mismatch between Z2 and ZTEST
transmitted after travelling through the cables T1 and T3 then 1 and thus, V6i’ is determined by
2
respectively. (16)
The voltage of the pulse amplitude at node 1, V1i is obtained
from the pulse generator
At node 7, the pulse voltage V7i is obtained by using the
(4)
voltage divider between Z3 and R3 such as
Then, the pulse amplitude at node 2, V2i is obtained by
using the voltage divider between the pulse generator 0.75 (17)
impedance, Rg and coaxial cable 1, Z1. With Rg = 50Ω and Z1
= 50Ω: Then, the incident pulse, V7i’ that travels along coaxial cable 3,
0.5 (5) T3 which is a lossless cable can be obtained from the voltage at
node 7, V7i:
Since the coaxial cable 1, T1 is an ideal or lossless line, the (18)
incident pulse, V2i’ that travels along, T1 can be obtained from When the pulse V7i’ that propagates in T3 leaves T3, then there
the voltage at node 2, V2i. will be a voltage at node 8, V8i which is the transmitted voltage
(6) that is calculated using transmission coefficient, :
When the pulse V2i’ that propagates in T1 leaves T1, it sees the ' (19)
following impedance: 2
Where
// (7)
Where RA is formed by the series combinations of R1 and Since ROSC = Z3, there is no impedance mismatch between
(R2+Z2) in parallel with (R3+Z3). With R1 = R2 = R3 = 16.67Ω ROSC and Z3. Hence 1 and the amplitude of pulse V7i’ is
and Z1 = Z2 = Z3 = 50Ω, hence RA = 50 Ω. transmitted to V8i without reflection:
Since RA= Z1, there is no impedance mismatch between RA (20)
and Z1. Therefore the transmitted pulse, is formed by the
transmission coefficient, : From (13) to (20), it can be shown that:
' (8) 0.75 (21)
2 By substituting V5i’=V8i into (16), the relationship between the
Where 1 actual incidence pulse going into the Test cable, V6i’ and the
Hence, the amplitude of pulse V2i’ is transmitted to V3i measured incidence pulse going to the oscilloscope, V8i can be
without reflection: obtained which is
' (9) 2
(22)
The pulse voltage at node 4, V4i is given by
278
Fig. 5 and Fig. 6 show the PSpice simulation results at Node If there is impedance mismatch between ZTEST and Z2
4 and Node 8 of the circuit in Fig. 4 for 21Ω. From then, 0.
the results, 3.33 and 2.5V as indicated in the When the pulse V5a” that propagates in T2 leaves T2, it sees
figures. Hence, these values are in accordance to the the following impedance:
relationships obtained in (21). As such, equation (22) which // 50Ω (25)
relates the measured incident pulse, to the actual incidence Then, there will be a transmitted pulse, V5a at node 5 formed by
pulse going into the Test cable, can be used in the actual the transmission coefficient, :
laboratory or field measurement in order to know the actual " (26)
incidence pulse going into the Test cable. 2
Where
Since RC = Z2, there is no impedance mismatch between
RC and Z2. Hence 1 and the amplitude of pulse V5a” is
V4i
transmitted to V5a without reflection:
V4i = 3.333 V
V4a = -0.681V " (27)
V4b = 1.389 V
The voltage at node 4, V4a can be obtained by using the
following impedance:
V4b
// 33.335Ω (28)
Using voltage divider, the voltage at node 4, V4a is:
0.67 (29)
Similarly, the pulse voltage at node 7, V7a is given by
V4a
0.75 (30)
Figure 5. Pulse at node 4, splitting point obtained from PSpice simulation

The pulse, V7a” that travels along coaxial cable 3, T3 which is a
lossless line can be obtained directly from the voltage at node
7, V7a.
" (31)
V8i
V8i = 2.5V When the pulse V7a” that propagates in T3 leaves T3, then there
V8a = -0.511V
V8b = 1.041 V
will be a transmitted voltage at node 8, V8a measured by the
oscilloscope which is formed by transmission coefficient, :
" (32)
2
V8b
Where
Since R0SC = Z3, there is no impedance mismatch between ROSC
and Z3. Hence 1 and the amplitude of pulse V7a” is
transmitted to V8a without reflection:
V8a
" (33)
From (30) to (33), it can be shown that
0.75 " 34
Figure 6. Pulse at node 8, measured by oscilloscope obtained from
PSpice simulation The PSpice simulation results in Fig. 5 and Fig. 6 show the
reflected pulse and its value due to the impedance mismatch
B. The Reflected Pulses due to impedance mismatch between T2 between T2 and TTEST for the circuit in Fig. 4 at Node 4 and
and Test Cable Node 8 as indicated by V4a and V8a with 21Ω. From
In Fig. 4, when the incidence pulse, V5i’ propagates along the simulation results in Fig. 5 and Fig. 6, 0.681 and
T2, arrives at the junction between T2 and TTEST, the reflected 0.511V. Hence, these reflected pulses and their values
pulse, V5a” is generated due to the impedance mismatch are in accordance to the equation shown in (34) where
between T2 and TTEST. Thus, the reflected pulse, V5a” that 0.75 0.75 x 0.681V 0.511
travels in the coaxial cable 2, T2, can be obtained by using the Notice that the impedance of the Test cable, used in
reflection coefficient, : this simulation is less than the impedance of T2. Hence, the
reflected pulse, V5a” that travels in the coaxial cable 2, T2,
" (23) caused by the impedance mismatch between T2 and TTEST can
be obtained by using the reflection coefficient, in (24) which
Where, 24 resulted in a negative value since .Therefore, the
reflected pulse " is a negative voltage as well as the pulse at
Node 4 and Node 8 as indicated by V4a and V8a in Fig. 5 and 6.
279
C. The Reflected Pulses due to Open End 8 or V8b which is measured by the oscilloscope, without
When the incident pulse, V6i’ in Fig. 4 enters the Test cable, reflection:
the reflected pulse, V6b” is produced due to the open end of the " (47)
Test cable, which is also the termination of the TDR system. In this study, the PSpice simulation results as shown in Fig.
The amplitude of the incident pulse, V6i’ was already discussed 5 and Fig. 6 are taken from Node 4 and Node 8 as indicated by
earlier and shown in (16). The reflected pulse, V6b” which V4b and V8b with 21Ω. Hence, the relationship between
propagates along TTEST is given by the pulse voltage for V4b and V8b need to be established in
" (35) order to validate the simulation results.
Where, From (44) to (47), it can be shown that:
0.75 " 48
Since ROPEN = ∞, 1 and thus, the reflected pulse, V6b” The simulation results in Fig. 5 and Fig. 6 showed that,
is equal to the incident pulse, V6i’ and with the same polarity: 1.389 and 1.041V. Hence, these reflected pulses
" (36) and their values are in accordance to the equation shown in
When the pulse V6b” leaves TTEST, there is an impedance
(48).
mismatch between TTEST and T2. Thus, a transmitted pulse
Furthermore, in actual TDR field or laboratory measurement,
named as V5b” that travels to T2 is produced:
the reflected pulses are usually measured at the oscilloscope
" " (37)
2 which is at node 8 in this simulation set up as shown in Fig.4.
Where Hence, the measured pulse that is measured by the
oscilloscope will be used in order to obtain the actual reflected
Hence, V5b” becomes
2 pulse that travels in the Test cable for the characterization of
" " (38) the cable. As such, it is necessary to establish the relationship
between the actual reflected pulses in the Test cable at node 6,
When the pulse V5b” that propagates in T2 leaves T2, it sees the
6 "in Fig. 4, to the measured reflected pulses at node 8,
following impedance:
which is at the oscilloscope. From (38), (41), (43) and (48) it
// 50Ω (39)
can be deduced that:
Then, there will be a transmitted pulse, V5b at node 5 formed
by the transmission coefficient, : " (49)
" (40)
2
Also, by combining (22) and (49), the relationship between the
Where actual pulses at the Test cable to the pulses measured at the
oscilloscope can be obtained:
Since RE = Z2, there is no impedance mismatch between RE "
and Z2. Hence 1 and the amplitude of pulse V5b” is (50)
2
transmitted to V5b without reflection:
With ZTEST = 21Ω:
" (41)
"
When V5b leaves R1, it then sees the following impedance: 2.4
// 33.335Ω (42)
Hence, a voltage divider relationship between RF and R2, gives Hence, the amplitude of the actual pulses at the test cable is 2.4
the voltage at node 4 named V4b as times larger than the measured pulses at the oscilloscope.
Furthermore, substituting the values of and from the
0.67 (43)
PSpice simulation results in Fig. 6 for ZTEST = 21Ω into (50),
At node 7, the pulse voltage V7b is obtained by using the the following is obtained:
voltage divider between Z3 and R3 such as "
1
0.75 (44)
This is because the Test cable that is used in this study is an
The incident pulse, V7b” that travels along coaxial cable 3, T3 ideal or lossless cable. Hence, the reflected pulse that enters the
can be obtained directly from the pulse voltage at node 7, V7b. Test cable, V6b” due to the open end of the Test cable
" (45) termination is equal to the incident pulse of the Test cable, V6i’
When V7b” leaves T3, it then sees ROSC. Then, there will be a as described in (35) and (36). However, in actual field or
transmitted pulse, V8b at node 8 formed by a transmission laboratory measurement, the Test cable is usually a lossy cable
coefficient, : and therefore, the ratio of V6b” to V6i’ is less than 1 which is
" (46) due to the attenuation in the cable. This value will also vary
2
Where according to the different types of Test cable and the defects in
the cable or its termination.
Since the impedance between T3 and ROSC matches, 1. Furthermore, notice that in (50) which relates the actual
Hence, the amplitude of the pulse V7b” is transmitted to node pulses at the Test cable to the pulses measured at the
oscilloscope can only be applied if the impedance of the Test
280
cable, ZTEST is known. Hence, it is necessary to know the TABLE 1.
impedance of the test cable when using TDR measurement for COMPUTED CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE OF THE TEST CABLES
cable testing and diagnosis.

Measured pulses from
ZTEST oscilloscope at Node 8 ZTEST
D. Test Cable Characteristic Impedance Evaluation (model) (computed)
From the TDR measurement, it is actually possible to V8i V8a
compute the characteristic impedance of the test cable for both 21 Ω 2.5 V -0.511 V 20.982 Ω
the lossless and lossy cable [8,9]. This can be obtained by 25 Ω 2.5 V -0.417 V 24.985 Ω
using the analysis of the incident and reflected pulses due to 27 Ω 2.5 V -0.374 V 26.970 Ω
the impedance mismatch at the junction before the test cable. 34 Ω 2.5 V -0.238 V 34.001 Ω
In this study, it refers to the analysis of the results conducted in
Part B which is due to the reflected pulses caused by the
impedance mismatch between the coaxial cable, T2 and the V. CONCLUSION
Test cable, TTEST as shown in the circuit model in Fig. 4. From
(23), it can be deduced that: In this paper, the experimental set up based on Time Domain
" Reflectometry technique is presented using PSpice circuit
1 simulation software. The values of the incident and reflected
51 pulses at various nodes from the experimental circuit model
"
1 have been derived using electrical circuit analysis and
In actual field or laboratory measurement, the incident and transmission line theory and further validated with the values
reflected pulses are usually measured at the oscilloscope which obtained from the Pspice simulation. The relationship between
is at node 8 in the circuit model in Fig.4. Hence, the the measured pulses at node 8 and the actual pulses of the Test
relationship between the pulse amplitude at node 8 with the cable at node 6 have been obtained successfully. Such
pulses for and ", need to be established. From (21) it relationship is vital since it can provide detail information on
was shown that: the wave propagation characteristics of the Test cable.
52 Furthermore, it was illustrated that the TDR measurement
Also from (27), (29) and (34), it can be shown that: circuit can be used to measure the characteristic impedance of
a Test cable. Hence, the analysis of wave propagation in TDR
" 2 53 circuit using Pspice circuit simulation model carried out in this
Hence, by substituting (52) and (53) into (51), the study have provided a very good understanding on the
characteristic impedance of the Test cable, can be application of TDR technique for cable testing and diagnostics.
computed from the measured pulses at the oscilloscope given
by and in this simulation study as below:
REFERENCES
2
1 [1] C.P. Nemarich, “Time domain reflectometry liquid level sensors”, IEEE
(54) Instrumentation & Measurement Magazine, Dec. 2001, pp.40-44.
2
1 [2] C. Furse and R Haupt, “Down to the wire: The hidden hazard of aging
aircraft wiring,” IEEE Spectrum, pp. 35-59, 2001.
[3] J.M. Atkinson, “Introduction to Time Domain Reflectometry” Granite
Furthermore, in this study, the values of the characteristic
Island Group, Gloucester, MA, 2002.
impedance of the Test cable were varied for the circuit model [4] G. Mugala, “Determination of the Propagation Constants of Shielded
in Fig. 4 and the amplitude of the pulses at the oscilloscope at Medium Voltage Cables”, Sate of the Art Report, AA-EEA-9903, Kungle
node 8, and were recorded from the PSpice simulation Tekniska Hogskolan (KTH), March, 2000. pp. 18-19.
[5] U.S. Inan and A.S. Inan, “Electromagnetic Waves”, First Edition, USA
results. Table 1 shows some of the values of that were Prentice-Hall, Inc., 2000.
used in the circuit model and the measured pulses for and [6] V. Dubickas “On-line time domain reflectometry diagnostics of medium
for each . The values of the measured and voltage XLPE power cables” Licentiate Thesis, Sweden 2006.
[7] Agilent Technologies, “Time Domain Reflectometry Theory”,
were used to compute the values of using (54). Table 1 Application Note 1304-2.
also shows that the values of used in the circuit model [8] K.S. Kwak, T. Choe, J.B. Park, T.S. Yoon “Application of time-
are in agreement with the computed values from (54). Hence, it frequency domain reflectometry for measuring load impedance”, IEICE
Electronics Express., Vol. 5, No. 3, 2008 pp. 107-113
can be deduced that the TDR measurement circuit can also be [9] G.M. Hashimi, R.Eriksson and S.A. Qureshi, “Determination of
used to find the characteristic impedance of a Test cable. velocities of propagation in three phase medium voltage cables using
time domain reflectometry measurements”, AUPEC 2004.
281
Steady-State Behavior of Distributed Energy

Resources in Unbalance Radial Active
Distribution Networks
Mohammad Hossein Ashourian, Abdullah Asuhaimi Mohd Zin, Ahmad Safawi b. Mokhtar, Zaniah bt Muda
Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM, Skudai, Johor, Malaysia
Email: h.ashourian@fkegraduate.utm.my, abdullah@fke.utm.my, safawi@fke.utm.my, zaniah@fke.utm.my
Abstract—Unbalance radial active distribution network DER units. In general, a DERs unit can be connected to a
(URADN) is the combination of unbalance radial distribution network by one of three interfaces, including
distribution network and distributed energy resources asynchronous generators, synchronous generators and
(DERs) such as micro sources, wind turbines, fuel cell, electronic converters [15].
photovoltaic system, etc. Regarding to unbalance structure,
When DERs in active distribution network act as PV
different kinds of DERs models and bidirectional power
flow, some network parameters such as amplitude voltage, node, they will be helped to improve unbalance voltage.
percent unbalance voltage, and power losses of network will [16] Proposed a definition on unbalance voltage and
alter accordingly. The complexity of URADN will be more some effects of it on utilities. An unbalanced voltage can
when different kinds of DERs are allocated. So investigating cause increased losses in motor loads and abnormal
the behavior of DER models in URADN is necessary. A operation of sensitive equipment‘s. To decrease this
suitable power flow analysis will provide a platform to unbalance voltage problem, three-phase four-wire
analyze these behaviors in steady state condition. This paper inverter connected distribution units can be used [17].
offers suitable models for URADN components such as This system is controlled such that it delivers a small
loads, lines, DERs and so on according to their structure
amount of negative-sequence current into the grid to help
and operation. Moreover appropriate method for handling
DERs such as PV and PQ nodes will be proposed in a Power decreasing unbalanced voltage [18].
flow program which is developed using MATLAB® for two As discussed above, DERs in unbalanced radial
practical case studies. The results are shown and compared distribution network have significant effect on power
in an abbreviated manner. flow analysis and may improve parameters of network
such as unbalanced voltage, system losses and so on.
Although, various researches have been done in this field,
Keywords: unbalanced radial active distribution networks, there are less examination to study the interaction of
distributed energy resources, power flow power between DERs and unbalanced radial distribution
network that is named URADN, generally.
The remaining of the paper is structured as follow. In
I. INTRODUCTION sections I and II provide prepared models and an
unbalance radial load flow based of forward-backward
Active distribution network (ADN) is emerged by the sweep method with handling PV nodes that discussed in
integration of distributed energy resources (DERs) in [3,4,13], which many literatures used this method for
distribution network leading to bidirectional power flow handling DERs in ADNs. In section III, a definition of
in network [1]. Reduction of environment pollution, percentage unbalance voltage is explained. In section IV,
increasing the overall efficiency of the plan and
numerical results of power flow analysis with handling
improving overall power quality and reliability are some
DERs as PQ and PV nodes on two practical unbalanced
advantages of DERs [2].These DERs are such as micro
radial distribution systems and the behavior of these
sources, wind turbines, fuel cell, photovoltaic system gas
models on URAND are presented and discussed. Finally
turbines, micro turbines, etc.
in the last section is the conclusion
In order to fulfill evolutionary ADNs for flexible and
.
smart operation and control power flow analysis is an
important and necessary tool. Due to structure of more II. ACTIVE DISTRIBUTION NETWORK MODELING
ADNs such as a radial network structure, an unbalanced
Here, component models of ADN are going be discussed.
distributed load and unbalance operation, an extremely
The ADN can be divided into series components and
large number of branches/nodes and high penetration of
shunt components. The series component may be
DERs, a suitable method three- phase unbalanced radial
introduced by lines, transformers, and voltage regulators.
power flow solution has to be addressed. Some works
Shunt components also are spot and distributed load,
have been proposed to satisfy some of these features [3-
capacitor banks and DERs. Models for some series and
10]. Handling DERs as PV and PQ models in power flow
shunt components are discussed in the [6-7]
study are discussed in [11-13]. In [14], the developed
comprehensively.
model accommodates both PQ and PV modes for
operation of directly-coupled and electrically-coupled
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 282

In this part, a review of some models which may be used Table I.
in the power flow procedure for URADN will be A brief description load models
Delta Connection Wye connection
discussed briefly.
1. Line Model
Constant Power (PQ): Constant Power (PQ):
The important step in modeling unbalance distribution
network is line modeling. A precise model of line (both ph ph S
ph ph
m S
ph n
overhead and underground) in three-phase unbalance IL m


ph ph
 ( mph ph   mph ph )
IL
ph n

m
 ( mph n   mph n )
V m
m
V
ph n
m
distribution network, which is shown in Fig.1, is

developed by Kersing [6]. The series impedances of a
one line, nm is replaced by a 3×3 matrix (1). In this Constant Impedance : Constant Impedance:
matrix, the shunt admittances of the line are neglected
2
because we can model them as shunt capacitors.it is V
ph  ph
2
ph n V m
ph n
necessary to take into account rows and columns will be Z

ph  ph

m
 ( mph ph ), Z m

ph n
 ( mph n ),
m
S
ph  ph
m
S m
zero when corresponding phases are absent in two-phase ph  ph V

ph n
or single-phase line. ph  ph V m IL
ph n

m
 ( mph n   mph n )
IL  ( mph ph   mph ph ) ph n
m

m ph  ph Z
Z
m
m
Constant Current: Constant Current :
ph ph ph n
IL m
 IL mph ph  ( mph ph   mph ph ) IL m
ph n
 IL m  ( mphn   mphn )
Fig.1. Three-phase line segment model

5. DERs Modeling
Structures of DERs are introduced by PQ and PV models

 Z aa, nm Z ab, nm Z 
ac, nm (1) in power flow study. Designating real and reactive power
Zabc, nm   Z Z Z  constrains PQ model at DER nodes which will prepare a
 ba, nm bb, nm bc, nm

 Z ca , nm Z cb , nm Z 
cc , nm
Constant power factor and specifying real power- voltage
(PV) will make fixed voltage at DER nodes within
It is noted the effects of ground or neutral line is limited reactive power. In the same way, constant PQ-
considered in Eq. (1). load with current injecting into node is substituted by PQ
model and since in radial power flow handling PV model
2. Load Models cannot be in the direct manner and need some
In distribution system, loads can be modeled as: constant supplementary procedures, PV model is represented by a
real and reactive power (constant PQ), constant current, compensation current injected by the DER that is a
constant impedance, and any combination of these which function of the terminal voltages.
each of them maybe wye or delta connections with one, It should be noted that identifying the appropriate PQ
two or three-phase structure. A comprehensive and PV models for each DER in power flow study need
description of all types of loads with mathematical to be recognized its connection to network (direct or
modeling is taken into account in [6, 7]. Table .I depicts a indirect) beside of its operation. DERs can be connected
summary of model equations of various lumped loads. to network by means of induction generators or
In adding to spot loads which introduced in Table I, it synchronous generator or static power converter
should be noted that distributed loads can also model as interfaces.
spot loads. In [6] shows how distributed loads can be Induction generators which are connected to network
represented with lumped loads. without power electronic interfaces (directly) can be
modeled as PQ nodes. Some induction engines and wind
3. Transformer Models turbines are in this group. Synchronous machines which
Delta-grounded wye, ungrounded Wye-delta, Grounded depend on either regulating excitation voltage type or
wye-grounded wye, delta-delta and open wye-open delta fixed excitation voltage type may be modeled by PV and
transformers used in unbalance distribution network are PQ node respectively. Gas turbine and some internal
modeled in [7]. combustion engines, which are connected directly to
network, are located in this category. Fuel cells,
4. Capacitor Models photovoltaic systems, micro-turbines and more wind
Capacitors in unbalance distribution network can be turbines use a mixture of both power electronic utility and
modeled as constant impedance loads. electrical machine or only by means of power electronic
utility to inject power into the network. Power electronic
interface, which are inverters, rectifiers or AC/AC
283
converters, use both independent P, Q control and Step3: Forward Sweep
independent P, V control interface. Based on the control Upgrading nodal voltage calculate in forward sweep.
strategy which is used in converter it can be defined as Despite backward sweep, starting from the first layer and
PQ and PV nodes. Flexible and high speed control active moving towards the last layer, the voltage at m th node
and reactive interaction power between DERs and connected to nth node is:
network is significant feature of power electronic
interface that improve power quality in ADNs. Fig.2 k
k
 k

 V ma 
 
V 
na  Z aa, nm Z ab, nm Z ac, nm  I
linema 

shows a combination of DERs in distribution network. 

V mb




V nb



 Z ba, nm Z bb, nm Z bc, nm I

linemb


 V 
mc  V
 
nc
 Z Z Z   I 
linemc 
 ca , nm cb , nm cc , nm  (4)
The iteration will be stopped when the voltage

mismatches at each node for all phases are less than a
convergence criterion.
k ( k 1)
V mi
 V mi
 i= a, b, c (5)
Where ε is chosen10-4 .
Step4: Handling DERs as PV Node

Fig.2.Combination of micro sources At PV node, it is considered to hold voltage node at
in distribution network [15] specific value .For this purpose, appropriate reactive
current will be injected to node by DERs and it means
DERs should prepare a proper reactive power according
III. LOAD FLOW PROCEDURE to this reactive current injection. A compensation-based
The procedure to study load flow for URADN needs to method can be used for this purpose. As described in
follow several steps. Before starting the main power-flow literatures [2,12], the design of control of DERs for either
steps, the networks should be recognized. Reading power electronic interface or electric machine is based
network data, identifying all nodes beyond all the on active power–frequency (P−f) droop control and the
branches, constructing PV node sensitivity matrix ZV are reactive-power–voltage (Q−V ) droop control then the
some of these cases which were introduced by effect of P on  V can be neglected approximately.
Shirmohammadi and Gosh in [4,5]. After this, load-flow With assuming and considering the amplitude of all
study without considering PV node will be done. These voltage nodes are close to 1 per unit so it can be written
steps within kth interaction for mth node are shown as as:
follow:
I  Q (6)
Step 1: Nodal Current Calculation
X V  Q   | V | (7)
According to the different types of loads and shunt
capacitors and DERs (as constant PQ), the nodal current
will be calculated by (K-1) stage of voltage as: Where Q is vector of reactive power injected and  | V |
is vector mismatch at PV node with 1×n dimension for
*
each phase defined as:
 
k  S mi 
IL mi
 ( k 1) 
i = a, b, c (2) k
 Vmi  V mi , specified  V mi ,calculated
k
i = a, b, c

 Vmi

 . (8)
Step2: Backward Sweep Where Xv is an n×n positive sequence sensitivity

In backward sweep the current flowing through each reactance accordance to positive sequence voltage for PV
branch is calculated by the load current and charging nodes .The diagonal elements of Xv are equal to sum of
current of each node which is evaluated in nodal current positive sequence reactance of all line sections between
PV node m and root node, and off diagonal element Xmn
calculation. is sum of common positive sequence reactance paths
between n and m PV nodes and the root node. The

k M
Ilin e mi  ILkji i = a, b, c (3)
compensative reactive power is
j 1
Where M is set of nodal currents directly connected to m Qm( k,i) comp  Qm( k,i)  Qm(k,i) i=a, b, c
node with one line and starting from the line section in (9)
the last nodes and moving towards the root node.
284
Which Q act as lagging generator at  | V | >0 and case study networks is compared to show the effect of
leading generator when  | V | < 0.However, the allowable DERs as PQ and PV models on URADN networks.
reactive power which should be generated by DERs is
arranged according to their limits which is summarized in
Table II.
Table II.
Regulation reactive power based on the generator limits
(k ) (k )
Qm ,i new  Qm,i comp if QG( k,i) min  Qm(k,i) comp  QG( k,i) max
Fig.3: Single line diagram of case I

Qm( k,i) new  QG( k,i) max if (k )
QG (k )
,i max  Qm,i comp
(k ) (k )
,i new  QG ,i min
(k ) (k )
Qm if Qm ,i comp  QG ,i min
i = a, b, c
Where QG max and QG min are maximum and

minimum ability of generated reactive power by DER at
PV node. If mismatch voltage PV node is greater than the
PV node voltage convergence criterion, after updating
reactive power which has been described in step 4, return Fig.4: Single line diagram case II
to step 1, 2 & 3. This algorithm will continue till the
convergence of all PV nodes reach. 1. Power flow analysis without DERs
In this part, amplitude voltage nodes, percent unbalance
voltage, and total real losses are calculated. The results
IV. VOLTAGE UNBALANCE power flow analyses are shown in Table III and Table IV
which results are the same as case-study references.
The uneven distribution of single-phase loads,
asymmetrical transformer winding impedances, open wye
Table III.
and open delta transformer banks, asymmetrical
transmission impedances many other causes may make a
Result load-flow case I without DERs
voltage unbalance in ADN. The voltage unbalance in
%
percent is defined by the National Electrical node number lVal lVbl lVcl
unbalance voltage
Manufacturers Association (NEMA) in Standards 1 1 1 1 0
Publication no. MG 1-1993: 2 0.9874 0.9891 0.9879 0.09
3 0.9854 0.9886 0.9863 0.19
Percent unbalance voltage = 4 0.9823 0.9839 0.9830 0.08
5 0.9820 0.9836 0.9828 0.08
Maximum Deviation from Average 6 0.9792 0.9807 0.9801 0.07
Average of Three ph ase −to −phase voltages
× 100 (10) 7 0.9786 0.9802 0.9795 0.08
8 0.9728 0.9738 0.9734 0.04
NEMA standard defines that induction machine and 9 0.9659 0.9659 0.9657 0.01
10 0.9562 0.9554 0.9550 0.07
utilities may be derated when the voltage unbalance goes 11 0.9549 0.9542 0.9533 0.08
beyond 1.0% 12 0.9547 0.9537 0.9535 0.07
13 0.9543 0.9534 0.9521 0.11
14 0.9544 0.9538 0.9528 0.07
V. SIMULATION RESULTS AND ANALYSIS 15 0.9527 0.9512 0.9513 0.10
16 0.9533 0.9514 0.9521 0.10
To verify the unbalance radial load flow program, two 17 0.9536 0.9533 0.9523 0.05
18 0.9537 0.9531 0.9521 0.08
test systems (19-node and 25-node unbalance radial
19 0.9515 0.9497 0.9504 0.10
distribution network) are used and developed in
MATLAB®. The 11kV with base 1 MVA, 19-node Total Real Losses =13.46 (kW)
network is named as case I and the 4.16 kV with base 30
MVA, 25-node network is named as case II. The load 2. Power flow analysis with DERs as PQ models
and line data for two case-study networks are given in
Since the favorable voltage range is between 0.95 and
[19,20] which the single line diagram of them are shown
in Fig.3 and Fig.4. The result of power flow analysis 1.05 p.u, it is observed violation at node 19 in case I and
without DERs, with DERs as PV and PQ models for two at many nodes in case II of this rate. To show the
285
behavior of DER as PQ model, a wye connected DER is 3. Power flow analysis with DERs as PV models
installed in node 15 with P=50kW & Q=24kVAR for To show significant behaviour of DERs as PV models in
each phase at case I and two wye connected DERs are URADN, initially, phase (a) of load at node 19 in case I
is missed and a unbalnce wye load is added to node 10 in
introduced on node 15 with P=150 kW & Q=72 kVAR
case II which is explained below.
and on node 12 with P=200 kW & Q=96kVAR. It can be Phase a S=50+30i k
seen from Fig.5 and Fig .6 that voltage profile for each Phase b S=40+30i k
node significantly improved. There is not significant Phase c S=0
effect on unbalance voltage due to symmetrical structure Fig.7and Fig.8 show the results. Total real losses are
of DER as PQ model. Total real losses for case I is 12.64 and 162.4 kW for two case I and case II
decreased to 3.75 kW and for case II to 64.7 kW. respectively.
Table IV.
Result load-flow case II without DERs
Node
lVal lVbl lVcl % unbalance voltage
Number
1 1 1 1 0
2 0.9702 0.9711 0.9754 0.32
3 0.9632 0.9644 0.9698 0.41
4 0.9597 0.9612 0.9673 0.47
5 0.9587 0.9602 0.9664 0.48
6 0.9549 0.9558 0.9614 0.42
7 0.9419 0.9428 0.9492 0.48
8 0.9528 0.9537 0.9595 0.43
9 0.9358 0.9366 0.9437 0.53
10 0.9314 0.9318 0.9395 0.56 Fig. 7: voltage profile and percent unbalance voltage
11 0.9294 0.9296 0.9376 0.57 after adding load in case I
12 0.9284 0.9283 0.9365 0.58
13 0.9287 0.9287 0.9368 0.58
14 0.9359 0.9369 0.9433 0.49
15 0.9337 0.9348 0.9414 0.5
16 0.9408 0.9417 0.9482 0.49
17 0.9347 0.9359 0.9420 0.47
18 0.9573 0.9586 0.9643 0.44
19 0.9524 0.9544 0.9599 0.45
20 0.9548 0.9563 0.9620 0.44
21 0.9537 0.9548 0.9605 0.43
22 0.9518 0.9524 0.9585 0.44
23 0.9564 0.9583 0.9647 0.51
24 0.9544 0.9565 0.9631 0.53
25 0.9520 0.9546 0.9611 0.54
Total Power Loss =150.12 kW
Fig.8: voltage profile and percent unbalance voltage after

missing phase a of load in case II
In case I, one DER at node 15 and in case II, two DERs at

node12 and node 15 which are modeled as PV are
installed to maintain the positive sequence voltage at 1
p.u. The PV node voltage convergence criterion is
defined 10-3 Active power constant and reactive power
Fig. 5: Voltage profile case I with DER as PQ model limitations of DERs are shown in table V.
Table .V
DERs in case I and case II modeled as PV node
Case I P=50kW, Qmin=20kVAR,Qmax=150KVAR (node15)
P=150kW ,Qmin=70kVAR, Qmax=550kVAR (node 15)

Case II
P=200kW,Qmin=100KVAR, Qmax=600 kVAR (node 12)
The result is depicted in Fig. 9 and Fig.10 with DERs as

Fig. 6: Voltage profile case II with DER as PQ model PV models.
286
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287
Impact of Static Load on Voltage Stability of an

Unbalanced Distribution System
Sugunesan Gunalan Agileswari K. Ramasamy Renuga Verayiah
Electronics & Comm. Dept. Electronics & Comm. Dept. Electrical Power Dept.
Universiti Tenaga Nasional Universiti Tenaga Nasional Universiti Tenaga Nasional
Selangor, Malaysia Selangor, Malaysia Selangor, Malaysia
Email:nesn05@gmail.com Email:agileswari@uniten.edu.my Email:renuga@uniten.edu.my
Abstract—Static load which is known for three different as non-equilateral conductor spacing of three-phase over-
characteristics i.e. constant power, constant current and head and underground line segment [2].
constant impedance shows a different voltage profile be-
Radial distribution system is one of the power systems
cause both of their real power and reactive power vary dif-
ferently as the voltage varies except for constant power. This that may suffer from voltage instability. This is due to the
paper will analyze the impact of each load characteristic high power losses as the resistance to reactance ratio is
individually and also as combination on voltage stability of high [3]. Voltage instability is due to inability of power
an IEEE 34 Bus Distribution System by increasing the load system to maintain steady-state voltage at all buses fol-
demand, and also transient analysis i.e. creating a single lowing a disturbance, increased in load demand or change
phase-to-ground fault i.e. on phase a and balanced three in operating condition given initial operating condition
phase fault. The most suitable load to study the voltage sta- [4]. The main factor that causes voltage instability is ina-
bility is also proposed. It was found that, with constant pow- bility of distribution system to meet the reactive power
er loads, the reactive power demand increases significantly
when load real power and reactive power increases by 25%.
demand [5]. Load stability also known as voltage stability
Constant current loads and combination loads, on the other as they are main driving force into voltage instability [6].
hand, the reactive power demand increases but only slightly Hence, analyzing the load can determine the voltage sta-
and the demand is even lesser when with constant imped- bility of a distribution system.
ance loads. However, as the load real power and reactive Load models can be classified into static (“snap-shot”
power increases by 50%, constant power loads causes vol- with respect to time) and dynamic (time varying). Static
tage collapse whilst constant current loads and combination models are based on the steady-state method representa-
loads turn out to be the next in the order followed by con-
stant impedance loads. In transient analysis, during the
tion in power flow networks. Static load models represent
single phase fault, with combination loads, phase b voltage load as a function of voltage magnitude. Dynamic models
increases drastically but only small increment observed in involve an alternating solution sequence between a time-
phase c voltage. During the three phase fault, phase b vol- domain solution of the differential equations describing
tage is slightly higher than phase c voltage followed by electromechanical behavior and a steady-state power flow
phase a voltage. As comparison to combination loads, con- solution based on the method of phasors [7]. Static load
stant power loads causes lesser three phase voltages. After also known as voltage dependent load can be modeled
the fault was cleared, a smooth voltage waveform obtained either by exponential or as polynomial model. Both mod-
in the period of retaining back to the same pre-fault voltage, els express the characteristics of the load at any instant of
however, distortions in the voltage recovering waveform
seen when dynamic load included in the system. Constant
time as algebraic functions of the bus voltage magnitude
power load is found to be the suitable load to study the vol- and frequency at any instant. This load can be further
tage stability. divided into different load characteristics i.e. constant
power, constant current and constant impedance. These
Keywords—Static load; Voltage stability; IEEE 34 Bus Dis- loads can be individually modeled by specifying the ex-
tribution System; Demand; Transient; Fault; Dynamic load ponent value as will be described in the next section. An
alternative model to represent these types of load charac-
I. INTRODUCTION teristics would be polynomial model. This model is also
Distribution system is one of the most complex systems known as “ZIP model” as it is composed of constant im-
in power system domain. Distribution systems are gener- pedance (Z), constant current (I) and constant power (P)
ally unbalanced. It is served by substation which is radial components [8].
or weakly meshed either in balanced or unbalanced [1]. Constant power load such as electric motors or regu-
Balanced distribution system consists of three-phase lat- lated power supplies, the real and reactive power are al-
erals with the loads being equally distributed among the ways constant as the voltage changes. When the voltage
three phases. Unbalanced distribution system, on the oth- decreases, amount of current drawing increases which
er hand, is a mixture of three-phase, two-phase and sin- increases the voltage drop. Constant impedance load such
gle-phase laterals. The loading of distribution feeder is as incandescent lighting or resistive water heaters, the
also unbalanced as they are large number of unequal sin- impedance is always constant as the voltage changes and
gle-phase loads. An additional unbalanced is introduced the power varies with the square of the voltage magni-
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 288

tude. When the voltage decreases, the current draw also d) Shunt capacitors
drops hence the voltage drop decreases. In constant cur- e) Unbalanced loading with both “spot” and “dis-
rent load, the current is constant as the voltage changes tributed” loads. Distributed loads are assumed to
and the power varies directly with the voltage magnitude. be connected at the center of the line segment
As the voltage decreases, the current draw stays constant
Loads are consisting of combination of different load
so the voltage drop also does not change [9]. Despite that,
characteristics i.e. constant power, constant current and
constant current load represent aggregate behaviour of a
constant impedance loads.
mixture of constant impedance and constant power loads
and 50/50 mixture of constant power and constant imped- A. Static Load Modeling
ance loads looks very much as this load [10]. Loads are modeled as active and reactive power con-
Many papers have been published on static voltage sta- nected at the bus and centre of the line section. Static
bility of using different types of load characteristics. loads or the voltage dependency of loads have been rep-
However, most of the research has focused on system resented by the exponential model as described below:
such as balanced IEEE Test System and simple power
system. Besides that, the transient analysis of using dif-
(1)
ferent load characteristics also has been discussed in
many papers but most of them are with balanced system.
Some papers have discussed the behaviour of constant
(2)
impedance load and compare with induction motor.
However, no works have been published of analyzing this
unbalanced distribution system by varying the load de- where P and Q are active power and reactive power of the
mand, and also transient analysis with different types of load respectively in the considered bus when the voltage
load characteristics to study the voltage stability of this magnitude is V. The subscript 0 indicates initial operating
distribution system. conditions. The exponents “a” and “b” can be 0, 1, or 2,
Therefore, this paper aims to investigate the each load to represent constant power, constant current, or constant
characteristic on voltage stability of an IEEE 34 Bus Dis- impedance characteristics, respectively [8].
tribution System individually, i.e. constant power, con- An alternative model to represent the voltage depen-
stant current and constant impedance and also as combi- dency of loads is known as “polynomial model” or “ZIP
nation. An increment of load real power and reactive model” as shown below.
power by a factor of 1.25 (125%) will be analyzed to
_ _ _
study the reactive power demand. Also, increment of load (3)
real power and reactive power by a factor of 1.5 (150%)
will be analyzed to study the stability of the distribution
_ _ _
system. Based on analysis, the suitable load to study the (4)
voltage stability of distribution system will be proposed.
In addition to that, transient analysis of the system with
combination loads and also constant power loads will be Coefficients ap to cp and aq to cq are the parameters
done to study the effect of voltage on each phase before, and general load model in the DIgSILENT introduces the
during and after the single phase-to-ground fault and ba- coefficient value for each term where the sum of the coef-
lanced three phase fault. A comparison study of static ficients of the equation is equal to one. Therefore, a small
load and then with the inclusion of induction motor in the modification was done to this model to obtain the expo-
distribution system will also be done to study the voltage nential model as described above. One of the coefficient
recovery after the fault has been cleared. The distribution values was set such that equal to one while the rest of
system is modeled using DIgSILENT software and simu- coefficients set to zero and by specifying the respective
lation results obtained for each load characteristics and exponents (e_aP/e_bP/e_cP and e_aQ/e_bQ/e_cQ) with
combination loads are systematically explained. 0,1 or 2 the inherent load behavior can be modeled [12].
II. DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM AND LOAD MODELING III. CASE STUDIES
A single line diagram of the distribution network, as Three buses were chosen for analysis i.e. bus 816, 832
shown in Fig.1 in Appendix, is used to study and analyze and 842. Bus 816 is located near to voltage regulator
the impact of the static load on voltage stability. The test whereas bus 832 and 842 are located within the load con-
system shown is actual radial system located in Arizona. centrated zone. For the purpose of analysis, voltage regu-
The system’s nominal voltage is 24.9 kV. It is character- lators were removed from the system so that the impact
ized by [11]: of different load characteristics can be seen and analyzed
easily. The distribution system was analyzed for four
a) Very long and lightly loaded different cases. Case 1 represents during normal operat-
b) Two in-line regulators required to maintain a ing condition i.e. without increment of load real power
good voltage profile and reactive power. Case 2 represents an increment of
c) An in-line transformer reducing the voltage to load real power and reactive power by a factor of 1.25
4.16 kV for a short section of the feeder (125%). Case 3 represents an increment of load real pow-
289
er and reactive power by a factor of 1.50 (150%). In each high real power and reactive power losses. This increases
case, the system was analyzed with each load characteris- the voltage drop.
tic individually i.e. model all the loads as constant power, Constant impedance load, as a result of decreases in
constant current and constant impedance and also mod- voltage, the load power also decreases as it is directly
eled the loads with combination of these load characteris- proportional to the square of voltage. This causes the cur-
tics (base case). Case 4 represents transient analysis of rent draw to drop, resulting the reactive power demand
the system with combination loads and also constant also to drop as well. Hence, the voltage drop is also found
power loads. to be lesser. Constant current load, on the other hand, also
A. Case 1 (Normal operating condition) causes the load power to decrease due to decreased in
voltage. However, as its power is directly proportional to
The impact of each load characteristic and also as
the voltage, it causes the current draw to be constant and
combination on voltage during normal operating condi-
that causes the reactive power demand also to be con-
tion i.e. without increment of load real power and reactive
stant, resulting the voltage drop to be constant.
power is shown from Fig.2 to 4.
In addition to that, similar phase b voltages obtained
when the loads are modeled as constant current or as
combination. However, there is a small difference in
phase a and phase c voltages which can be seen in Fig. 2
and 4 where the voltages are happened to be slightly
lower when modeled as constant current than by combi-
nation. As combination loads are consist of three different
types of load characteristics, and constant current load
which is also known for a mixture of constant power and
constant impedance loads resulting in similar voltage
Figure 2.Voltage vs. Bus (Phase a) profile as what can be seen from the Figs. above.
During the simulation the loading of distribution trans-
former was also observed. The transformer loading is the
same i.e. 51% when the loads are modeled as constant
current or as combination. This is because as only one
load is connected to the distribution transformer and a
similar load is also connected in the base case resulting to
the same loading percentage. On the other hand, the load-
ing decreases to 44% when the loads are modeled as con-
stant impedance. However, the loading increases to 65%
when modeled as constant power.
Figure 3.Voltage vs. Bus (Phase b) This proves that the amount of current and reactive
power drawing by constant power load is higher and in-
creases when the voltage decreases as compared to other
load characteristics and also by combination. It is also
proven that the behaviour of constant current load is a
mixture of constant power and constant impedance loads
as can be seen from the loading of distribution trans-
former where it was found to be in between constant
power and constant impedance loads.
B. Case 2 (Increment of load real power and reactive
Figure 4.Voltage vs. Bus (Phase c) power by 25%)
When the load real power and reactive power increases
It was observed that, among the three buses, bus 832
by a factor of 1.25 (125%), the voltage drop seems to be
and 842 has a lower voltage compared to bus 816. This is
greater. The voltage profile patterns are similar as in case
due to the fact that both buses are located in load concen-
1 where the voltages turn out to be lowest when the loads
tration zone. Among these loads, more voltage drop can
are modeled as constant power and highest when mod-
be observed when the loads are modeled as constant
eled as constant impedance. The voltages are found to be
power whereas lesser voltage drop can be observed when
the same when the loads are modeled as constant current
modeled as constant impedance in all the three phases
or as combination except in phase a and phase c where
and buses. This is because constant power load is inva-
constant current results in slightly lower voltages as can
riant to voltage which means it maintains a constant
be seen in Fig. 5 and 7.
power draw from the system despite the changes in volt-
age. As a result of decreases in voltage, the current draw- Simulation results also showed that the increment of
ing increases and this will demand for reactive power, load real power and reactive power increases the distribu-
however, transfer or flowing of reactive power will cause tion transformer loading. The increment of distribution
290
transformer loading is same i.e. 13% when the loads are system becomes unstable which means voltage collapse
modeled as constant current or as combination and 8% occurs. However, the power flow converges when some
when modeled as constant impedance. On the other hand, loads after bus 832 were removed from the system. This
an overloading of distribution transformer was observed confirms that load causes voltage instability or voltage
when modeled as constant power i.e. 101%. collapse.
This shows, with constant current loads and combina- Other load characteristics and also combination loads
tion loads, the reactive power demand increases slightly show slightly higher voltage drop and the voltage profile
and it is even lesser when with constant impedance loads. pattern among them, as usual, maintained as in previous
However, with constant power loads, the reactive power cases.
demand increases significantly. This causes the voltage
D. Case 4 (Transient Analysis)
drop to increase more as compared to previous case.
Single phase-to-ground fault i.e. on phase a and balanced
three phase fault were chosen to analyze this unbalanced
system. The unbalanced system becomes very unbalance
when unbalanced fault occur compared to balanced fault.
This results in big differences on each phase voltage.
Therefore, these two faults were analyzed by observing
the pre-fault, during the fault and post-fault voltages.
Faults were created along the line from bus 852 to bus
832 and fault resistance of 40 ohms was chosen as it is a
standard value used by many electric cooperatives [13].
Figure 5.Voltage vs. Bus (Phase a) For the purpose of analysis, bus 832 was chosen and
time-domain simulation was used so as can capture the
pre-fault, during the fault and post-fault voltages. Two
different cases were analyzed i.e. model the loads as
combination and also as constant power. The respective
graph during single phase fault is shown in Fig. 8 and 9.
The pre-fault phase b voltage is slightly higher than
phase c voltage when the loads are modeled as constant
power whereas in the base case it is found to be the other
way round. When single phase fault occurs at t=1 second,
it was found that phase b voltage rises drastically i.e.
Figure 6.Voltage vs. Bus (Phase b) more than 1.05 pu whereas phase c voltage increases only
slightly with the voltage within the limit. The phase a
voltage, on the other hand, does not drop to zero but to a
lower value i.e. 0.35 pu due to the fault resistance which
causes existence of voltage across the phase a and the
ground. On the other hand, the phase a, phase b and phase
c voltages are found lesser than in base case when the
loads are modeled as constant power.
During the three phase fault, as shown in Fig. 10 and
11, phase b voltage is slightly higher than phase c voltage
Figure 7.Voltage vs. Bus (Phase c)
followed by phase a voltage. These phase voltages are
found to be lesser than 0.435 pu. The only difference,
The study presented in this case clearly showed that the when the loads modeled as constant power, is that the
most critical load to the system is when it is modeled as voltage is slightly lower in each phase compared to base
constant power. It is also known, from the analysis, this case. The reasons of phase b voltage to be higher than
load has the highest tendency to cause voltage collapse phase c voltage during these faults are due to the unba-
when the load demand increases. lanced loading and untransposed lines. Besides that, the
C. Case 3 (Increment of load real power and reactive reactive power injection from both shunt capacitors lo-
power by 50%) cated on bus 844 and bus 848 is slightly higher in phase b
than phase c. After the three phase fault is cleared at
Further increment of load real power and reactive t=1.16 seconds, as shown in Fig. 12, a smooth voltage
power causes severe voltage drop and higher current waveform can be observed in the period of retaining back
drawing and reactive power demand. Inability of distribu- to the same pre-fault voltage. This is because of fixed
tion system to meet reactive power demand will result in coefficient characteristic of the static load.
voltage instability or voltage collapse as what happens in
To verify the result, 180kW/4.16kV delta-connected
this case where the power flow does not convergence
induction motor was added at bus 888 in the base case. A
when the system loads are modeled as constant power.
balanced three phase fault was used. It was observed, in
The inability of the power flow convergence shows the
291
Fig. 13, the voltage waveform tends to have some distor-
tions before it achieves to the steady-state condition. This
is due to the dynamics of motor.
Therefore, it is sufficient enough to study the impact of
static load on voltage stability in steady-state mode for
transient analysis. However, if a dynamic load is included
in the system, time-domain simulation is required.
Figure 12.Voltage vs. Time (Combination loads)
Figure 8.Voltage vs. Time (Combination loads)
Figure 13.Voltage vs. Time (With Induction motor)
IV. CONCLUSION
This paper investigated the impact of different types of
load characteristics i.e. constant power, constant current
constant impedance individually and also as combination
on voltage stability of an unbalanced distribution system
for various cases. It was found that constant power loads
Figure 9.Voltage vs. Time (Constant power loads) demanding more reactive power as the load real power
and reactive power increases by 25%. Constant current
loads and combination loads, on the other hand, the reac-
tive power demand increases but only slightly and the
demand is even lesser when with constant impedance
loads. However, with constant power loads, voltage col-
lapse occurs when the load real power and reactive power
increases by 50%. Constant current loads and combina-
tion loads, on the other hand, are considered to be the
next in the order of causing voltage instability or voltage
collapse followed by constant impedance loads.
When single phase-to-ground fault occurs i.e. on phase
a on the line from bus 852 to bus 832, the phase b voltage
Figure 10.Voltage vs. Time (Combination loads) and phase c voltage increases but the increment in phase
b voltage is more drastic as compared to phase c voltage.
However, when three phase fault occurs, phase b voltage
is slightly higher than phase c voltage followed by phase
a voltage. The results obtained for three phase fault and
single phase fault with constant power loads are similar to
that of combination loads except that the voltages are
slightly lesser. It was also known that, a system with stat-
ic loads, a smooth voltage waveform can be observed
during the period of retaining back to the same pre-fault
voltage. Therefore, steady-state analysis can be used only
if static load is used in the distribution system. However,
with induction motor or any rotating machines in the sys-
Figure 11.Voltage vs. Time (Constant power loads) tem, time-domain simulation will give a better insight to
292
the voltage recovery after the fault is cleared due to its
dynamics which cannot be seen in steady-state analysis.
Hence, among the different load characteristics, con-
stant power load is the most suitable load to study the
voltage stability of a distribution system as this load can
cause worst case scenario in terms of voltage drop as
compared to other load characteristics and also combina-
tion loads. This is because of its real power and reactive
power is independent to the voltage which causes the load
to be very much dependent on reactive power.
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APPENDIX
848
822 846
820 844
864
818 842
802 806 808 812 814 850 824 826 834 860 836
858 840
816
832 862
800 888 890
810
838
852
828 830 854 856
Figure 1. Single line diagram of IEEE 34 Bus Distribution System
293
New Islanding Detection Technique for DG

Using Discrete Wavelet Transform
Reza Shariatinasab Mohsen Akbari
Faculty of Engineering Electrical Engineering Dept.
Birjand University K. N. Toosi University of Technology
Birjand, Iran. Tehran, Iran.
Email: Shariatinasab@ieee.org Email: Mohsenakbari@ee.kntu.ac.ir
Abstract—Islanding phenomenon is a problem for to energize the distribution system. Hence, it is essential
Distributed Generator (DG) based networks leading to to detect islanding both quickly and accurately.
troubles in voltage and frequency control and other power Many techniques have been proposed to detect
quality issues. This paper describes the development of a islanding [3-14]. The important issue for the islanding
method based on Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT), in detection algorithms is the detection time. Islanding
order to detect islanding for DGs. This method detects the detection techniques can broadly be classified into two
islanding state only by evaluating the terminal current of techniques [8]:
DGs. Hence, different types of current signal in the case of
fault occurrence, load and capacitor switching and motor • Remote techniques
starting have been investigated. In order to increase the • Local techniques
accuracy of the wavelet analysis, the proposed algorithm is Remote techniques (or telecommunication based
executed for each type of current signals using different techniques) are based on the communication between
types of mother wavelets, decomposition levels, length of utilities and DGs. Supervisory Control and Data
data window and moving size of window to decide on the Acquisition (SCADA) or power line signaling scheme
best assumption of each parameter. The results of the study can be used to determine when the distribution system is
show that the proposed method can detect the islanding islanded. These techniques have better reliability but they
state within a time less than one third of a cycle with a good
are expensive to implement especially for small systems.
accuracy.
Therefore, local techniques are widely used to detect
islanding and are based on data available in the terminal
Keywords — Discrete Wavelet Transform; Distributed
of DGs. They can further be divided into passive and
Generation; Islanding
active techniques [5].
I. INTRODUCTION Passive techniques make decisions based on the
measured electrical quantities such as voltage and
During the few past decades, many advances have
frequency, etc. They do not interfere with DG operation.
been made in the field of Distributed Generators (DGs)
and there is renewed interest in it. Unlike large power However, the main problem with the passive detection
plants, DGs can be installed at or near the loads and its techniques is that, it is difficult to detect islanding when
main use is in active power generation [1]. So, reduced the load and generation in the islanded system closely
environment pollution, reduced need to construct the new match. Furthermore, special care has to be taken while
transmission lines, increased reliability, increased setting the thresholds for these parameters. If the
efficiency of the network and improved power quality are threshold is too low, then it could result in nuisance
the reasons to use them [2, 3]. tripping of DG and if the threshold is set too high,
An inevitable concomitant of the use of distributed islanding may not be detected.
generation is unintentional islanding. The unintentional The limitation of the passive detection techniques can
islanding condition is defined in [4] and occurs when “a be overcome by active techniques, which can detect
portion of the utility system that contains both load and islanding even under a perfect match of generation and
distributed resources remains energized while it is load in the islanded system and have a faster response
electrically isolated from the remainder of the utility and a smaller NDZ compared to passive approaches [8].
system, due to a fault upstream or any other disturbance” In active techniques, the specified disturbances are
[5, 6]. Failure to trip unintentional islanded DG can lead injected into the network in such a way that the response
to a number of problems for these resources and the of DG is detected whenever an islanding condition takes
connected loads, which includes power quality, safety place. The problems with these techniques are that the
and operation problems [3, 7]. perturbations are injected at predefined intervals even
IEEE 929-1988 standard [4] requires the disconnection though it is unnecessary during most operating
of DG once it is islanded and IEEE 1547-2003 conditions. Also, if islanding occurs during an interval,
standard [7] stipulates a maximum delay of 2s for then it has to wait for next perturbation to be applied
detection of an unintentional island and all DGs ceasing before it can be detected, which further elongates the
detection time [5].
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 294

Wavelet transform based techniques have been power quality assessment and modeling in power system
previously used for islanding detection in [10-14]. As [15-17].
analyzed from theoretical point of view, wavelet can be Wavelet transform is a well-suited tool for
formulated via a family of basis functions such that analyzing high-frequency transients in the presence of
signals can be described in a localized time and low-frequency components such as non-stationary and
frequency format. Moreover, employing long windows at non-periodic wide-band signals. Wavelet analysis mainly
low frequencies and short windows at high frequencies, employs the expansion and contraction of basis function
wavelet transform will be capable of comprehending time to detect simultaneously the characteristics of global and
and frequency information simultaneously. Therefore, for local of measured signal. The basis function is also called
transients in time-varying signals, they would be the mother (original) wavelet [17].
supervised more effectively using wavelet, thereby By (1), main signal is separated into two parts:
encouraging the application of such method to enhance
approximation part (a1, a2, a3, …) and detail part (d1, d2,
the detection capabilities [15].
d3, …). The approximation part is the main part of the
In [10] wavelet transform was used to process the signal and includes low-frequency components while the
negative sequence voltage and current signals. Then detail part includes transient and high-frequency
standard deviation of wavelet coefficients and change in components. This trend of detail and approximation
energy were found out to detect islanding events from continues to each level of analysis [16-18]. Fig. 1 shows
non-islanding ones. Also, standard deviation of the decomposition of main signal to different frequency
negative sequence impedance is found out for islanding levels in the analysis progress.
events. In [11] wavelet transform was applied to measured
output power of DGs and then the decomposed signal
was used to detect islanding. In [12-13] absolute value of
certain wavelet coefficient (of voltage or frequency
signal) was compared against a threshold value to detect
power islands. Also, in [14] wavelet transform is used to
analyzing of voltage in grid-connected DGs.
As drawbacks, the aforementioned methods require to
measure several electrical quantities or much time is
found out which clearly detect islanding.
This paper presents a new algorithm of local-type
methods, based on discrete wavelet transform (DWT),
with a large detection zone that detects the islanding
event on the network in a very short time. The only Figure 1. Decomposition in Discrete Wavelet Transform, DWT
parameter used in this method is the terminal current of
DGs. The result of studies shows that the proposed Frequency limitation of each decomposition level in
technique, in contrast with the current active and passive DWT depends on sampling frequency of the main signal.
methods, can correctly detect the islanding event within a Table I, shows the frequency characteristics of
time less than one third of a cycle, i.e. less than 5.5 ms decomposition levels for sampling frequency of 10 kHz.
for frequency 60 Hz. Also, it is suitable for the networks
with a large number of DGs. TABLE I.
FREQUENCY CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT DECOMPOSITION
II. DESCRETE WAVELET TRANSFORM (DWT) LEVELS IN DWT
DWT overcomes many of problems associated with Level Label Frequency (Hz)
Fourier analysis such as fixed resolution, and the d1 5000-10000
evaluation of frequencies within a specific time window d2 2500-5000
[16]. In DWT, the mother wavelet is shifted and scaled d3 1250-2500
by choosing the scale and shift parameters a=a0m and a3 0-1250
b=nb0a0m respectively, where a0 and b0 are constant
values. With a0>1, b0>1 and m, n ∈ Z, where Z is positive
integer, DWT can be written as: However, considering a signal consisting of 2M data
points, where M is an integer, DWT requires 2M wavelet
coefficients to fully describe the signal. DWT
1 +∞ ⎛ nb0 a0m ⎞ decomposes the signal into M+1 levels, where the level is
DWT(m,n) = ∑ X(k)ψ ⎜
⎜
k −
a0m
⎟
⎟
(1) denoted as j and the levels are numbered: i= -1, 0, 1, 2,
a0m k = −∞ ⎝ ⎠ 3…, M-1 [15].
Under any transient disturbance, there are some high
Where Ψ and X(k) are respectively discrete wavelet frequencies components on current waveform that is not
and measured signal functions. The value of a0 and b0 detected on a power frequency by conventional methods.
should be selected in a way that mother wavelets Furthermore, during any transient phenomenon, e.g.
constitute an orthogonal basis. For instance, this occurred islanding condition, the amplitude of current
condition is made for a0=2, b0=1. waveform is changing quickly. High frequency
The ability to provide variable time-frequency components been on the current waveform, could not be
resolution is hallmarks of wavelet transform. This discerned at power frequency while must be discerned by
transform is useful for investigation of transient states, a high frequency analysis. In the proposed method,
295
current is only parameter should be measured to detect Another important parameter in the proposed
the islanding event. algorithm is moving size of the data window. Note,
To detect the islanding state, some types of wavelet decreasing the moving size, reduces total time of
family such as daubechies, coiflet, meyer and symlet detection. So, the moving size should be decreased as
were analyzed. Considering the obtained results, a ‘Haar’ possible.
mother wavelet is selected as it requires the least Each level i consists of j = 2i wavelet translated and
decomposition levels and consequently the least detection equally spaced 2M/ j intervals apart; Thereby, increasing
time to suitably detect the islanding. the decomposition levels also increases detection time.
The ‘Haar’ wavelet identifies key features such as Hence, decomposition levels should be selected as less as
periodic time variance and the relationship with filter possible. Considering studies done, it was found out that
bank analysis. It is the simplest wavelet imaginable and third decomposition level with 20 samples as length of
certainly the earliest. The ‘Haar’ wavelet is the data window and 17 samples as the moving size of
discontinuous, and resembles a step function as below the data window is accurate leading to detect the
[16]: islanding state within maximum 52 samples i.e. 5.2 ms.
⎧ 1 0 ≤ t < 1/2
⎪
ψ Haar (t) = ⎨− 1 1/2 ≤ t < 1 (2)
⎪ 0 otherwise
⎩
III. PROPOSED ALGORITHM

The proposed algorithm is based on the study of
disturbances existed in the terminal current waveform of
DGs. Note, once the islanding event is occurred, the
transient component continues for a few cycles after the
switching operation and there will be high frequency
disturbances on the current waveform of DGs caused by
the switching operation.
In this method, after studies done by the authors for
different phenomena, the current and the third level of
detail (d3) are used to detect the islanding condition. In
the first step, the ratio of maximum current magnitude of
kth window to the previous window is calculated as
follows:
maxI t (k)
Ratio − I t (k ) = (3)
maxI t (k-1)
Where, the limitation is:
0.98 ≤ Ratio − I t (k) ≤ 1.02 (4)
If the calculated ratio satisfies (4) then there is no

problem and this means that islanding has not been
occurred. For values out of rang of (4), the following
criteria could be used to check whether the islanding
event takes place or not:
maxD3(k)
Ratio − D3(k) = (5)
maxD3(k-2)
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the proposed algorithm
Considering different studies done, threshold value
chosen for (5) is 0.02. This condition can be expressed IV. CASE STUDY
by:
The case study in this paper consists of two
Synchronous DGs (DG1 and DG2) operating on PQ
Ratio − D3(k) ≤ 0.02 (6) mode, and is a part of Iranian distribution network
located in Tehran (Fig. 3). Tables II-IV present the
If (5) is less than 0.02, then the islanding event is network data. At first, the network was simulated by
occurred and trip command should be issued for DGs. ETAP Software. After gathering the required data, DWT
Fig. 2 shows the block diagram of the proposed analysis was done using MATLAB toolbox.
algorithm.
296
disconnected, the difference between the generated and
consumed power in bus 8 will be zero, while the ratio of
the changed current in related data window for DG2 is
less than 0.98 i.e. does not satisfy (4). In the next step, the
proposed algorithm after checking (6) detects islanding
event and issues trip command for DG2.
Figure 3. Case study
TABLE II.
DATA OF DGS
DG Number P (MW) Q (MVAR)
1 3 1.25
2 1.277 0.83
TABLE III.
Figure 4. The waveform of terminal current of DG1, due to opening
LINE DATA
the breaker on line 7-8, d1-d3 are detail components of main signal
Line R (ohm) X (ohm)
1-2 0.176 0.138
2-3 0.176 0.138
3-4 0.045 0.035
4-5 0.089 0.069
5-6 0.045 0.035
4-7 0.073 0.073
7-8 0.074 0.058
7-9 0.093 0.093
2-10 0.116 0.091
10-11 0.063 0.05
11-12 0.068 0.053
10-13 0.062 0.053
TABLE IV.
LOAD DATA Figure 5. The waveform of terminal current of DG2, due to opening
Bus Number Load
P (kW) Q (kVAR) Furthermore, Figs. 6-15, show the current waveform of
1 0 0 DGs due to opening the breaker on lines 1-2, 2-3 and 2-
2 1.483 0.78 10, motor starting at bus 3 and capacitor switching at bus
3 1.047 0.783
12.
4 1.853 1.273
5 1.06 0.63 From Fig. 6, ratio of the changed current in related
6 0.79 0.573 data window for DG1 is less than 0.98 and in the next
7 1.533 0.487 step the value obtained by (5) is less than 0.02. Thus in
8 1.277 0.83 this condition, islanding would be detected. Moreover,
9 1.103 0.8 for DG2 the value of (3) is more than 1.02 and the value
10 2.237 1.797 of (5) is less than 0.02. So, islanding for both units would
11 1.15 0.31 be correctly detected, too.
12 2.153 0.923
13 1.873 0.8
In order to achieve an accurate detection algorithm, all
the cases which affect on the terminal current of DGs are
analyzed. Figs. 4 and 5, show current waveform and
related three decomposition levels using ‘Haar’ mother
wavelet for DG1 and DG2 respectively, due to opening
the breaker on line 7-8. The result of Fig. 4 for DG1
shows that there is no problem since the ratio of the
changed current in related data window satisfies (4). In
order to get a conservative result, it was assumed that the
generated power of DG2 is equal to the customer load at Figure 6. The waveform of terminal current of DG1, due to opening
the connected bus. Therefore, once the line 7-8 is the breaker on line 1-2, d1-d3 are detail components of main signal
297
Figure 7. The waveform of terminal current of DG2, due to opening Figure 10. The waveform of terminal current of DG1, due to opening
the breaker on line 1-2, d1-d3 are detail components of main signal the breaker on line 2-10, d1-d3 are detail components of main signal
Also, From Figs. 8 and 9, for DG1 the value of (3) is

less than 0.98 and the value of (5) is more than 0.02. But
for DG2 the values of (3) and (5) are less than 0.98 and
0.02, respectively. So, islanding for DG2 would be
detected while could not be correctly detected for DG1.
From Fig. 10, for DG1 the values of (3) and (5) are
less than 0.98 and 0.02, respectively. But for DG2 in Fig.
11 the value (3) is less than 0.98 and the value (5) is more
than 0.02. So again, the islanding would be correctly
detected for DG1 while could not be correctly detected
for DG2.
Beside, from Figs. 12-15 for both motor starting and
capacitor switching operations the value of (3) is less Figure 11. The waveform of terminal current of DG2, due to opening
than 0.98 and the value of (5) is more than 0.02. Hence, the breaker on line 2-10, d1-d3 are detail components of main signal
in both operations, islanding would not be correctly
detected for DGs.
Figure 12. The waveform of terminal current of DG1, due to motor

starting at bus 3, d1-d3 are detail components of main signal
Figure 13. The waveform of terminal current of DG2, due to motor

starting at bus 3, d1-d3 are detail components of main signal
298
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technique using average rate of voltage change and real power
shift,” IEEE PWRD., vol. 24, No. 2, pp. 764-771, Apr. 2009.
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Electric Power Systems, IEEE Std. 1547, 2003.
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Duran, “Passive and active methods of islanding for PV systems,”
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Sep. 2009.
[9] M. E. Ropp, and et al., “Determining the relative effectiveness of
islanding detection methods using phase criteria and nondetection
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Figure 14. The waveform of terminal current of DG1, due to capacitor pp.290-296, Sep. 2000.
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approach to islanding detection in distributed generations,”
International Conf. on Power Systems, pp. 1-6, Dec. 2009.
[11] A. Pigazo, M. Liserre, R. A. Mastromauro, V. M. Moreno, and A.
D. Aquila, “Wavelet-based islanding detection in grid-connected
PV systems,” IEEE Trans. on Industrial Electronics, vol. 56,
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[12] C. T. Hsieh, J. M. Lin, and S. J. Huang, “Enhancement of islanding
detection of distributed generation systems via wavelet transform-
based approaches,” International Journal of Electrical Power &
Energy Systems, vol. 30, No. 10, pp. 575-580, Dec. 2008.
[13] Y. H. Liu, T. S. Luor, S. J. Huang, J. M. Lin, “Method and system
for detecting stand-alone operation of a distributed generating
system,” US Patent 7342758, Mar. 2008.
[14] Y. Zhu, Q. Yang, J. Wu, D. Zheng, Y. Tian, “A novel islanding
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Figure 15. The waveform of terminal current of DG2, due to capacitor Systems, pp. 2686 – 2688, Oct. 2008.
switching at bus 12, d1-d3 are detail components of main signal [15] B. Jha, and K. R. M. Rao, “Doubly fed induction generator
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VI. CONCLUSION Science and Technology Review, pp. 63-67, 2009.
[16] I. S. Cade, P. S. Keogh, and M. N. Sahinkay, “Fault identification
In this paper a development of DWT based algorithm in rotor/magnetic bearing systems using discrete time wavelet
is described in order to detect the islanding event for coefficients,” IEEE/ASME Trans. on Mechatronics, vol. 10, No. 6,
DGs. The proposed algorithm is belonged to local pp. 648-657, Dec. 2005.
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power disturbance classification,” IEEE, Power Engineering
only parameter should be measured is the current
Society General Meeting, vol. 3, Jul. 2003.
waveform of DGs.
The studies done by the authors proved that the ‘Haar’
mother wavelet and third decomposition level with 20
samples as the length of the data window and 17 samples
in moving window is the best choice to do the proposed
DWT based algorithm.
Also, the proposed method can detect the islanding
event within a time less than one third of a cycle, i.e. 5.5
ms for grid frequency of 60 Hz. Furthermore, the
technique suggested in the paper covers defects of the
current active and passive methods. In short, it can detect
islanding with a good accuracy and also it is suitable for
the networks with a large number of DGs, even when the
load and generation in the islanded system closely match.
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299
Intelligent Optimization Techniques for Optimal

Power Flow using Interline Power Flow
Controller
Khalid. H. Mohamed* and K. S. Rama Rao**
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Bandar Seri Iskandar, 31750 Tronoh, Perak, MALAYSIA
E-mail: *Khalidoo11@yahoo.com, **ksramarao@petronas.com.my
Abstract— In this paper the control parameters of researchers have developed efficient algorithms to solve
voltage source converters used in Interline Power Flow OPF incorporating FACTS devices.
Controller (IPFC) are designed to realize optimal power The application of intelligent optimization techniques
flow in a power system with modified Newton-Raphson such as Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO), Genetic
method. The optimal control parameters are derived to Algorithm (GA) and Simulated Annealing (SA) in power
minimize the transmission line losses employing three systems is recently gaining interest. However the optimal
intelligent optimization techniques, namely Particle Swarm
design of an IPFC and minimization of the transmission
Optimization (PSO), Genetic Algorithm and Simulated
Annealing. The selected techniques are employed on IEEE line losses of a bench mark power system using the above
30-bus bench mark power system and the optimal intelligent optimization techniques is not reported in the
parameters of IPFC, the voltage profile and the published literature.
transmission line losses of power system are derived from In this paper, the problem of sizing of IPFC is
the simulations. The simulation results validate the efficacy formulated as an optimization problem, with the objective
of the three optimization techniques and PSO technique is of minimizing the transmission line losses in a IEEE
proved to be more efficient compared to the other two bench mark power system. In order to compute the active
techniques. power losses and to check the system operating
constraints such as voltage profile, a modified load flow
Keywords- Interline Power Flow Controller; Optimal Power
Flow; Particle Swarm Optimization; Genetic Algorithm; model is developed. Simulation studies are conducted on
Simulated Annealing; Modified Newton-Rapson Method the modified load flow model, based on the existing
Newton-Raphson load flow algorithm, together with an
I. INTRODUCTION intelligent optimization technique.
The recent generation of series connected Flexible AC II. INTERLINE POWER FLOW CONTROLLER
Transmission System (FACTS) controllers using Voltage
Source Converter (VSC) include Static Synchronous The IPFC proposed by Laszlo Gyugyi, et.al [6] as
Series Compensator (SSSC), Unified Power Flow shown in Fig. 1 is one of the FACTS controllers with the
Controller (UPFC) and Interline Power Flow Controller unique capability of power flow management among
(IPFC) [1]-[2]. The UPFC consisting of Static multi-lines of a substation. The IPFC employing VSCs
Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) and SSSC is provides series compensation for the selected line of the
used to control both active and reactive power in a transmission system. Through the common dc link, any
transmission line at the same time providing maximum inverter within the IPFC is able to transfer active power
real power transfer. As compared with the UPFC and to any other line and thereby facilitate the active power
SSSC, the IPFC consists of at least two or more SSSC transfer among the lines [7].
with common dc-links and all its converters are connected The main objective of the IPFC is to optimize both
in series with different lines through coupling active and reactive power flow among multi-lines,
transformers. The IPFC concept provides a solution to transfer power from overloaded to under loaded lines [8].
control power flow in multi-line transmission system at a However, it can also be utilized to compensate against
given substation. The converters within the IPFC are able reactive voltage drops and the corresponding reactive line
to transfer the active power to each other through the dc- power, and to increase the effectiveness of the
link together with independent control of reactive power compensating system against dynamic disturbances. The
of each individual transmission line [3]-[4]. The IPFC IPFC can control three power system quantities i.e.
connected to selected lines injects a voltage with voltage, active power and reactive power, independent of
controllable magnitude and phase angle. To analyze the the power flows of the two lines [9]. The IPFC with two
power flow in the transmission system, the existing VSCs connected in series with two parallel transmission
conventional Optimal Power Flow (OPF) algorithm is to line buses m and n of a power system is considered as
be modified [5] when IPFC is connected. Many shown in Fig. 1. Each VSC is represented as a voltage
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 300

source injecting sinusoidal voltage with controllable The inequality constraints of OPF problem which
magnitude and phase angle. represents the state variable limit and control variable
limit or the operation limit of the system. The operation
constraints of the system consist of the upper and lower
limits of active power generation of slack bus, reactive
power generations of generators, load bus voltage and
transmission line loading.
For the VSC of an IPFC, the operating constraint limits
are described as in (5) to (9) [12].
i. Injected voltage with controllable magnitude, Vslk, and

angle, θslk.
Figure 1. IPFC with two VSC converters V slkm in ≤ V slk ≤ V slkm ax ( k = m , n ) (5)
III. OPTIMAL POWER FLOW PROBLEM FORMULATION (6)
θ smlki n ≤ θ s lk ≤ θ smlka x ( k = m , n )
The steady state performance of a power system is
optimized by the OPF method. The active power losses ii. Line current magnitude:
considered as the objective function is subjected to a
I lkm in ≤ I lk ≤ I lkm ax ( k = m , n ) (7)
number of equality and inequality constraints. The OPF
problem is stated mathematically [10] as to minimize the iii. Power injected:
objective function F(x,u), subject to the equality
constraints g(x,u) = 0, and inequality constraints m ax
S slk = S slk (k = m , n) (8)
h(x,u) ≤ 0, where x is the set of state variables and, u is a
set of control variables. where Sslk is the complex power injected in to the line by
The main objective of OPF is to minimize the the series VSC.
transmission line losses and to keep the voltage profile iv. The circulated real power, Pslk.
within the acceptable limits [11] which can be formulated Pslk ≤ Pslkm ax ( k = m , n ) (9)
as in (1).
2 IV. IMPLEMENTATION OF OPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUES
Ploss = ( Vl Glk − Vl Vk [Glk cos θlk + Blk sin θlk ] −
2 A. Particle Swarm Optimization Technique
Vl Vslk [Glk cos θlslk + Blk sin θlslk ]) + ( Vk Glk − (1) PSO is a population based optimization technique
Vk Vl [Glk cos θ kl + Blk sin θ kl ] + Vk Vslk [Glk cos θ kslk proposed in 1995 by James Kennedy and Russell Eberhat
+ Blk sin θ kslk ]) [13], based on the behavior of bird flocking and fish
schooling. This technique uses a population of particles
where Vl = Vl ∠θl and Vk = Vk ∠θk are the voltages at the to swarm through the design space with the specified
sending end buses l and k (k = m, n), Vslk = Vslk ∠θslk velocities. The population of agents or particles tries to
simulate its social behavior in the problem space and
(k = m, n) is the series injected voltage of kth line, Glk arrive at an optimum value of fitness function. A group of
and Blk are the transfer conductance and susceptance random agents are initialized and allowed to move to
between buses l and k (k = m, n) respectively. search for optimal position with a best objective function.
The magnitude and phase angle of the injected voltage Each agent is represented by its current position and
by VSC will be determined optimally. The equality velocity and is updated over a number of generations.
constraints represent the typical load flow equations as in The modified position of each agent is a random
(2) and (3). combination of its previous velocity and current position.
Pknet − Pkcal = 0 ( k = m, n ) (2) In every step each agent’s position is updated by the best
fitness value called as Pbest. Also each agent knows the
Qknet − Qkcal = 0 ( k = m, n ) (3) best value in the group called as Gbest among the Pbest
[14]. After a specified number of iterations, the agents
Pkcal and Qkcal ( k = m, n ) are the calculated active and search points gradually reach the global optimal point
reactive powers at node k. using Pbest and Gbest. The updated velocity and position
From the operating principle of the IPFC active power of a new agent are as in (10) and (11).
supplied to one converter is equal to the active power
demanded by the other [7]-[9] and therefore this Vi k +1 = W * Vi k + C1 * rand 1 * ( Pbest i − X ik ) (10)
condition is represented as in (4). C 2 * rand 2 * ( Gbest i − X ik )
2
∑ ( Vslk Glk − Vl Vslk [Glk cos θlslk − Blk sin θlslk ] X ik + 1 = X ik + V i k + 1 (11)
k = m, n (4) where Vik is the current velocity of particle i at k
+ Vk Vslk [Glk cos θ kslk − Blk sin θ kslk ]) = 0 iteration, Vik+1 is the velocity (modified velocity) of
particle at (k+1) iteration, W is the inertia weight factor
301
which is taken as constant of 1.2, rand1 and rand2 are the inspired by evolutionary biology such as inheritance,
random numbers between 0 and 1, Pbesti is the best value selection, crossover and mutation.
found by particle i until iteration k, Gbesti is the best The procedure of a GA starts with a randomly selected
particle found in the group until iteration, k, Xik is the population of chromosomes. Each chromosome consists
current position of the particle, i at ( k+1) iteration, Xik+1 of genes or individual variables of the problem to be
is the current position (modified searching point) of the solved [17]. Based on the attributes of the problem,
particle i at (k+1) iteration, C1 and C2 are the accelerating different positions of each chromosome are encoded as
constants. The constants C1 and C2 represent the characters, bits or numbers. The position is sometimes
weighting factors of the acceleration terms that pull each referred to as genes and is changed randomly within a
particle toward the Pbest and Gbest positions. range during the process of minimization. The set of
An inertia weight in the PSO algorithm was introduced chromosomes during a stage of computations are called a
in 1998, in order to provide better control exploration population. An objective function is used to compute the
[15]. The inertia weight is used to control the impact of best of each chromosome. Through the evaluation two
the previous history of velocity, and thus to influence the basic operators such as crossover and mutation, are used
trade-off between global and local exploration abilities of to simulate the natural reproduction and mutation of
the moving agents. The inertia weight is suggested to species. The GA is based on the mechanism of natural
decrease linearly from 0.9 to 0.4 during the simulation, selection. The optimal solution is selected form a
and is formulated as in (12). population of solutions by using random process [18].
The procedure steps of the proposed GA algorithm are as
⎡W − W min ⎤ (12)
W = W max − ⎢ max ⎥ * iter follows:
⎣ iter max ⎦ i. Define the initial parameters of the system and
control parameters of GA.
where W is the inertia weight factor, Wmax is the initial
ii. Randomly generate initial population of
value of the inertia weight, Wmin is the final value of the
chromosomes of size N: X1, X2, ..., XN.
inertia weight, itermax is the maximum iteration number,
iii. Conduct load flow on the power system using
and iter is the current iteration number.
modified Newton-Raphson method.
The procedure steps of proposed algorithm to find
iv. Evaluate the fitness of each chromosome f(X1),
optimal parameters of IPFC and to minimize the
f(X2), ..., f(XN).
transmission line losses are described as follows:
v. Is the stopping criterion satisfied? Yes stop, else go
i. Set the initial parameters of the PSO and the power
to step vii.
system parameters together with the IPFC.
vi. Select pair of chromosomes for mating.
ii. Initialize ith particle of random solution with initial
vii. By using the crossover probability, create two
positions Xi and velocities Vi.
offspring by exchanging part of the two selected
iii. Compute the power flow using modified Newton-
chromosomes.
Raphson method.
viii. By using the mutation probability, change the gene
iv. Calculate the objective function, F for all particles.
values in the two offspring chromosomes randomly.
v. Calculate the personal best position of the ith particle,
ix. Replace the resulting chromosomes in the new
such that FN1 < FNi , i > 1, then set Pbest = XN1 and
population.
keep track of the overall best value (Gbest), and its
x. Check the size of the new population equal to N? No,
location.
go to step vii else go to step xii
vi. Calculate the global best position Gbest, such that the
xi. Change the current chromosome population with
best of Pbests is set as Gbest
new population
vii. Update the inertia weight as in equation (12)
xii. Check the stopping criteria if satisfied to stop else
viii. Estimate the new particle velocity and position as in
repeat from steps iv up to xii until the stopping
(10) and (11)
criterion is satisfied.
ix. If stopping criterion is satisfied, then go to the next
step else go to step ii. (The stopping criterion is good C. Simulated Annealing Technique
fitness value or maximum number of iterations, or no SA is an optimization technique proposed in 1983 by
further improvement in fitness value). Kirk-Patrick, Gelatt and Vecchi [19] to find the global
x. Print the optimal parameters of IPFC and the minimum of an objective function that may possess a
transmission line losses. number of local minima [20]. SA takes the analogy of the
The control parameters that are to be determined physical annealing of molten particles of a solid. Starting
optimally are the magnitudes and phase angles of the with high temperature the molten particles are allowed to
injected voltage of VSC of the IPFC. cool slowly until they are solidified at a low temperature.
B. Genetic Algorithm Technique This physical annealing process is used to find near-
global or global optimum solutions for combinatorial
GA was invented by John Holland in the early 1970's
optimization problems [21].
[16]. GA technique is defined as a search technique
The cooling schedule, consist of a set of control
which is used to find exact or approximate solutions to
parameters which governs the convergence of
optimization and search problems. GA is a particular
optimization algorithm. These parameters are an initial
group of evolutionary algorithms that use techniques
temperature, a decrement function for temperature, a final
302
temperature specified by a stop criterion and a finite Table II shows the results obtained from the power
length of each homogeneous Markov chain. The flow solution for the system transmission line losses
procedure steps of the proposed SA algorithm are as when IPFC is not connected.
follows:
i. Randomly select an initial solution vector of design TABLE II.
TRANSMISSION LINE LOSSES
variables, x1 in the bounded parameter space, and
calculate the objective function, f(x1). From Bus To Bus Line Losses in MW
ii. Estimate an initial temperature, T (0) = Tinit. 1-2 5.179
iii. Conduct the load flow on power system using 1- 3 3.116
modified Newton-Raphson method. Total line losses, MW 17.528
iv. Select a new solution vector, x2 and evaluate the
corresponding objective function, f(x2). Fig. 2 represents the voltage profile of all the buses of
v. Calculate the difference of the objective functions, the power system.
∆f = f(x2)-f(x1).
vi. If the difference of the objective functions, ∆f < 0,
1.1
then the solution vector, x2 is accepted, otherwise if ∆f 1.08
Voltage magnitude (pu)

> 0 accept the solution vector according to the 1.06
probability of acceptance, p(k) = e-∆f/T(k) or else go to 1.04
step viii. 1.02
1
vii. Update or set x1 = x2 and f(x1) = f(x2) and weight the
0.98
current simulated temperature with the coefficient, λ 0.96
where 0 < λ < 1, decreasing the simulated temperature 0.94
successively at every iteration, so that at the (k+1)st 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29
iteration T(k+1) = λ T(k), where k is the iteration Bus Number
without IPFC
index,
viii. Check the stopping criteria, if the current simulated
temperature is lower or equal to the final temperature, Figure 2. Voltage profile of IEEE 30-bus system without IPFC
i.e., T (k) ≤ Tfinal, and then accept the current solution
vector as being optimum, otherwise return to step iv B. Case 2: Power Flow Analysis for IEEE 30-bus
and repeat the process. System with IPFC
The power flow analysis model is simulated when the
V. SIMULATION RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
IPFC is connected between lines 1-2 and 1-3 of IEEE
Each of the optimization algorithms used in this paper 30-bus power system. Table III shows the results of the
and the power flow mathematical model are coded in injected voltage magnitudes, Vinj (p. u.) and the angles,
MATLAB. The VSCs of the IPFC installed in lines 1-2 θinj (rad) of VSCs of the IPFC and the transmission line
and 1-3 of standard IEEE 30-bus bench mark power losses. The total line losses of the IEEE 30-bus power
system are represented as voltage sources with voltage system are also presented.
magnitude and phase angle. Simulation results of the
power flow analysis model are obtained as case studies TABLE III.
(i) without IPFC, (ii) with IPFC, and (iii) with IPFC and THE CONTROL PARAMETER AND THE SYSTEM LOSSES
each optimization technique together.
Line 1-2 1-3
A. Case 1: Power Flow Analysis for IEEE 30-bus Power Vinj (p. u.) 0.046 0.046
System without IPFC Θinj (rad) 1.400 1.400
Simulation is performed on power flow analysis model Line loss (MW) 0.510 0.158
of IEEE 30-bus power system under the operating Total line losses (MW) 9.648
conditions as in Table I, such that the generators supply
as much reactive power to the system as they can before It is observed from Tables II and III that the reduction
inserting any extra reactive power source. of line losses are from 5.179 MW to 0.510 MW for the
line 1-2, and from 3.116 MW to 0.158 MW for the line
1-3 and the total line losses are reduced from 17.528 MW
TABLE I. to 9.648 MW. In other words, the transmission line losses
THE VOLTAGES OF GENERATOR BUSES are reduced by 90.15 % and 94.93 % for the first and
second transmission lines 1-2 and 1-3 respectively, and
Bus number Voltage magnitude (p. u.) the total line losses by 44.96 % for the IEEE 30-bus
1 1.060
power system when the IPFC is installed between the
2 1.043
lines 1-2 and 1-3.
5 1.010
8 1.010 Fig. 3 show the voltage profile of IEEE 30-bus power
11 1.082 system when the IPFC is installed between lines 1-2 and
13 1.071 1-3. As compared to the voltage profile in the Figure 2,
the reactive power introduced by the IPFC caused an
303
improvement in the voltage of some buses. This from the power flow analysis. Table IV presents a
improvement resulted in lower reactive power in the lines comparison of optimal values by the three intelligent
and hence reduction in the real power loss. optimization techniques.
TABLE IV.
1.1
THE IPFC PARAMETERS AND THE TRANSMISSION LINE LOSSES
1.08
Voltage Magnitude (pu)
1.06
1.04 Optimization Methods
Items
1.02 PSO GA SA
1 Line 1-2 1-3 1-2 1-3 1-2 1-3
0.98
0.96 Vinj (pu) 0.0439 0.0842 0.0812 0.0439 0.106 0.053
0.94 Θinj (rad) 1.0878 0.9820 1.1455 1.0879 0.626 1.107
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29
Bus Number Line
losses 0.026 0.012 0.026 0.012 0.108 0.053
with IPFC
(MW)
Total
Figure 3. Voltage profile of IEEE-30 bus system with IPFC line
8.789 8.789 9.181
losses
Fig. 4 represents the bus voltages of the IEEE 30-bus (MW)
power system with and without IPFC. As compared to the
voltage profile shown in Fig. 2, the reactive power As observed from Tables II and IV, the total active
introduced by the IPFC caused an improvement in the power losses of the system is reduced to 8.789 MW,
voltage of some buses. This improvement resulted in 8.789 MW and 9.181 MW, i.e. reduced by approximately
lower reactive power in the lines and hence reduction in 49.86 %, 49.86 % and 47.62 % when the PSO, GA and
the real power loss. SA methods are employed, respectively. Table V reports
a comparison of number of iterations and simulation
1.1 running time required by the three optimization methods.
1.08
1.06 TABLE V.
1.04
1.02 COMPARISON BETWEEN OPTIMIZATION METHODS
1
0.98
0.96 Optimization method
Item
0.94 PSO GA SA
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 Number of iterations 20 31 58
Bus Number Simulation running time, sec 121 131 20
Without IPFC With IPFC
It is observed from Table V that the time taken for

Figure 4. Voltage profile of IEEE 30- bus system without and with minimizing the objective function by SA technique is
IPFC
only 20 sec where as the other two techniques required
C. Comparison of Simulation Result with PSO, GA and considerably more time. Fig. 5 shows the variation of
SA Techniques of IEEE 30-bus Power System objective functions with the change in number of
The PSO, GA and SA techniques are applied iterations in each optimization technique.
independently to minimize the transmission line active
15
power losses of IEEE 30-bus power system and also to PSO
find the optimal parameters of the injected voltage 14 GA
SA
magnitudes and angles of VSCs of the IPFC. The
13
voltages of generator buses are considered same as in
O bje c tiv e F u nc tion
Table I, such that the generators supply as much reactive 12 (20,8.789)

(31,8.789)
power to the system as they can do before inserting any (58,9.181)

11
extra reactive power source. After setting the limits for
control parameters of VSCs for the injected voltage 10
magnitudes between 0.0 < Vinj < 0.15 and the angles
between -π/2 < θinj < π/2, and control parameters of each 9
optimization method, the simulation on power flow 8

analysis model is performed. The active power line losses 0 50 100
Iteration
150 200 250
are minimized using each optimization technique Figure 5. Variation of objective functions with change in iterations
subjected to the constraints on the voltage magnitudes
and angles of VSCs of IPFC. The simulation results of It is observed from Table V that the objective functions
injected voltage magnitudes and angles and the system reached a global minimum after nearly 20, 31 and 58
line active power losses of the specified lines are obtained iterations with PSO, GA and SA methods respectively.
with each optimization technique. Also the total active From the simulation results, it is also observed that, the
power losses of the IEEE 30-bus system are obtained minimum active power loss obtained by PSO and GA
304
techniques is less compared to the SA technique for the [2] S. Bhowmick, B. Das, and N. Kumar, "An advanced IPFC model
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Modeling and Evaluation of the Power System

Protection Using Petri Nets
Ahmad Ashouri Abolfazl Jalilvand Reza Noroozian Amir Bagheri
Electrical Engineering Department
Zanjan University
Zanjan, Iran
Abstract—In this paper, Petri nets have been used for relays and happening of several faults, are the other
modeling of the protection systems of power system. By this difficulties in the monitoring of power system.
approach, the processing time of information is reduced and Nowadays, with development of computers and
the accuracy of fault detection procedure is increased. increasing their speed, different methods of modeling and
Simulation results verifies that Petri nets make possible the simulation have been widely applied in industrial works.
statistical analyzing and evaluation of protection systems Actually, with modeling and simulation, we can study an
operation. industrial system before its creation, and this is very
economical and time saving. The aim of modeling is to
Keywords—Petri nets; Modeling; Faults; Protection system; study and evaluate a reference system. Selection of an
Monitoring appropriate model is very determining. Therefore, we
should know the model well. Model is any description of
I. INTRODUCTION a system and it states the behavior of system. One of the
Fault detection in power system is a process in which modeling methods is the use of Petri nets. Petri nets
the faulted sections of system are diagnosed based on the provide the possibility of studying the entire system or in
data acquired by the relays and breakers stored in SCADA parts of sections [3-4].
system. Occurring serious faults in power system, many Petri-nets were invented by Carl Adam Petri in 1962
warning information is sent to the control center by the [5]. Most of his works was in the field of information
protection devices of power system. In these cases, it is system. Then specific groups were composed in Germany
necessary for the operators to accurately and quickly and other countries to develop the researches about the
diagnose the reason and location of the fault and also the applications of Petri nets.
faulted elements. The accuracy and quickness of the fault In this paper, modeling of protection systems of power
diagnosis depends on the operator's experience. As the system is proposed. By using the Petri-nets the
power system becomes more complex, especially while manipulating time of the data is decreased and also the
several faults or improper operation of protection devices accuracy of detection process is increased. Also, the
occurs, the information to be manipulated will be such hierarchical monitoring of power system will be possible.
much that human will not be able to deal with it. In these
situations, the operators will need more of reliable II. THE BASIS OF PETRI NETS THEORY
information and computer based methods, so that, some of
these tasks are automated to assist the human operator. Petri-nets models are proper for description of
The appropriate fault detection methods can obtain operations which happen regularly and successively in a
effective information of fault for the dispatching agents given time. In this section, the theory of Petri nets is
and guarantee the stable and reliable operation of power introduced briefly.
system [1-2]. A. Structure of Petri nets
The modern power system is a large scale dynamic A Petri net is composed of four parts: a set of places, a
system. Construction of mathematical models for dealing set of transitions, an input function and an output function.
with many of problems in power system is not always The input and output functions are described by places
possible. In the other words, these problems can not be and transitions. Also, the input and output functions are
solved only by using the existing mathematical methods. bridges between transitions and places and relate them.
With increasing the complexity of power systems and Structure of a Petri net like C is a foursome as
improving its automation, the system's operators need C = ( P, T , I , O) which [6]:
more of quick access to reliable information and
computer-aided methods, so that, some of these tasks are
automated to assist the human operator. In recent years, P = { p1 , p 2 , … , p n } , n ≥ 0
(1)
several intelligent methods such as expert systems, fuzzy T = {t1 , t 2 ,…, t m } , m≥0
sets, neural networks, genetic algorithm etc. have been
used for this purpose. However, the fault detection in
power systems, in viewpoint of its required speed and P ∩ T = Φ , i.e. the set of places and transitions are
accuracy, has been still remained unsolvable. disjoint.
Furthermore, the hidden faults resulted from I : T → P ∞ : The input function is a mapping from
malfunction of circuit breakers and incorrect warnings of transitions to the bags of places which are specified as
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 306

input places to transitions and P ∞ shows the bags of Transitions firing vector U |T |×1 shows that which
places. transition or transitions of t1,t2,…,tm have been fired. The
O : T → P ∞ : The output function is a mapping from transitions firing vectors of the Petri net of Fig. 1 are
transitions to the bags of places which are specified as U1 = [1,0]T and U 2 = [0,1]T . The dynamic behavior of
output places to transitions. this Petri net can be expressed as (4).
There are two nodes in the graph of a Petri net. A circle
O indicates a place, a vertical line | or a rectangular M 1 = M 0 + CU (4)
expresses a transition. Also by using a number of directed
arcs (arrows) from the places to transitions and other
directed arcs from the transitions to places, the places and MODELING THE OPERATION OF PROTECTION
III.
transitions are connected to each other [4]. The graph of a SYSTEM BY PETRI NET
simple Petri net is shown in Fig. 1. In this figure, p1, p2, p3 Consider Fig. 2, this figure depicts a power system with
are the places and t1, t2, t3 are the transitions. The black two buses (Bus1 and Bus2) connected to each other via a
point in place p1 is a token. The structure of Petri net is long transmission line L1. For protection of this system, a
static and its dynamic characteristics are determined by number of switching devices and relays have been
the firing of transition and the motion of tokens. The considered which are shown by C1, C2, C3 and C4.
firing of transition transmits the tokens from the input
places of transition to its output places. A. Petri net model for the protection system of
transmission line L1 in fault condition
B. Matrix description of Petri nets
When a fault occurs in a transmission line, the circuit
In addition to graphical methods, the structure of Petri breakers automatically function and open the switching
nets and the procedure of firing its transitions can be also devices in different areas to detach the faulted area from
described and evaluated by matrix operations. The the power system to prevent from spreading of
matrices used for this aim are the structure matrix C, the disturbance resulted from the fault throughout the power
marking vector M and the transition firing vector U. The system. In such a manner, the rest of power system is
structure matrix is used to show the topology of a Petri guarded against the damages. The circuit breakers are
net. The dimension of this vector is equal to | P | × | T | controlled locally by the relays. The relays survey the line
and is defined as (2), where | P | and | T | are the number variables (current and voltage) and are responsible for
of elements of P and T sets respectively. opening the circuit breakers when these variables reach to
their boundary values [3]. The relays also take the
responsibility of sending the information about operation
⎧ − w( p, t ) if ( p, t ) ∈ F of power system through the communication cables to the
⎪ control center.
C ( p, t ) = ⎨ w( p, t ) if (t , p) ∈ F (2)
⎪ 0 otherwises Fig.3 depicts the Petri net which models the behavior of
⎩ transmission line protection system in the condition of
fault. This model is composed of 14 places and 13
where w(p,t) is the weight of arc from the place P to the transitions. All the arcs connected between the places and
transition T, and F is the set of arcs. ( p, t ) ∈ F means that transitions have the weight of 1. The place L1 indicates the
there is a relation between p and t. For example the transmission line L1 and the token inside it shows the
structure matrix for the Petri net shown in Fig. 1, is as occurring of fault in L1.
following: C3 T1
C1 F1 C2
t1 t2 R L1 S
T2
p1 ⎡− 1 0 ⎤ C4
C = p2 ⎢⎢ 1 − 1⎥⎥ (3)
Bus 1 Bus 2
p3 ⎢⎣ 0 1 ⎥⎦
Figure 2. Two-bus power system with a fault in transmission line L1
The marking vector M | P|×1 indicates the state of marking RL1Rm

P3
C1
(number of tokens in places). 1 in this vector shows the PC 1
number of tokens in the related place and 0 means that P1 RL1Rp
there is no token in the place. The initial state of marking C2
RL1Sm PC 2
is shown by M0. For the Fig. 1, the initial state of marking F1 P4
t2
is as: M 0 = [1,0,0]T .
L1 P9
RL1Sp P5
p1 t1 p2 t2 p3 P2
T1s
P7 C3
PC3
C4
t1 PC4
P6 T2 s P8
Figure 1. Graph of a Petri net.
Figure 3. The Petri net model for the behavior of protection system of
transmission line L1
307
The transition F1 indicates the effect of fault in the RL1Rm
P3
transmission line L1. The places P1 and P2 represent the C1
PC 1
change in the line variables which are sensed by the P1 RL1Rp
relays. Transitions RL1Rm and RL1Rp respectively are the C2
main and primary backup relays of the receiving end of RL1Sm
P4
PC 2
F1 t2
line L1 related to circuit breaker C2. Transitions T1s and T2s
are the secondary backup relays of circuit breaker C2 L1 P9
which are respectively related to the circuit breakers C3 RL1Sp P5
P7 C3
and C4. Transition t1 is the likelihood of failure in P2
T1s
PC3
functioning of the relays RL1Sm and RL1Sp; and the C4
transition t2 models the likelihood of failure in circuit t1 PC4
breaker C2. For the sake of simplification, the likelihood P6 T2 s P8
of failure in circuit breaker C1 has not been considered.
Figure 4. Firing of transition F1 and the effect of fault in formation of
The places P5 and P6 represent the sense of fault by the
tokens in P1 and P2
relays T1s and T2s. the places P3, P4, P7 and P8 exhibit the
trip commands to the relays. For example, when there is a After firing F1, in agreement with (4), the marking
token in place P3, it means that one of the relays RL1Rm or
RL1Rp have functioned and this corresponds to the firing of vector M 1 will be as M 1 = [0,1,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0]T
transition RL1Rm or RL1Rp. Transitions C1, C2, C3 and C4 The existence of tokens in P1 and P2 means that the line
represent the circuit breakers. The places PC1, PC2, PC3 variables (current and voltage) have been changed and the
and PC4 respectively show the trip of circuit breakers C, relays have sensed them. In this way, the relay RL1Rm, in
C2, C3 and C4; and the place P9 expresses the function of case it is not failed (which is a probable event), will send
secondary backup protection due to the failure of circuit the trip command to the circuit breaker; which in this
breaker C2. The structure matrix for the Petri net model of model, is like the firing of its namesake transition i.e.
Fig. 3 is as follows: RL1Rm. Contemporary with this event, in case the relay
F1 RL 1 Rm RL1 Rp RL1 Sm RL1 Sp t1 C1 C2 t2 T1 s T2 s C3 C4 RL1Sm is not failed, which in turn is a probable case, this
L1 ⎡− 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ⎤ relay will send the trip signal to its corresponding circuit
P1 ⎢ 1 −1 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ breaker, which in this model, equals to the firing of
P2 ⎢ 1 0 0 −1 −1 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ⎥ transition RL1Sm. As a consequence, the transitions firing
⎢ ⎥
P3 ⎢ 0 1 1 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 ⎥ vector will be as U 2 = [0,1,0,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0]T , and
⎢
P4 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 − 1 − 1 0 0 0 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ according to (4), the new marking vector will be as:
P5 ⎢ 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 − 1 0 0 0 ⎥
P ⎢ 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 −1 0 0 ⎥ M 2 = M 1 + CU 2 = [0,0,0,1,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0]T
C L1 = 6 ⎢ ⎥
PC1 ⎢ 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 ⎥
This indicates that each of places P3 and P4 has a token,
PC2 ⎢ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ and respectively means the receiving of trip commands by
P9 ⎢ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ the circuit breakers C1 and C2 from their related relays.
P7 ⎢ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 − 1 0 ⎥
This situation has been depicted in Fig. 5.
P8 ⎢ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 − 1⎥
⎢ ⎥ When the trip command is sent to the circuit breakers
PC3 ⎢ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 ⎥
C1 and C2, in case none of them is failed, they will trip,
⎢
PC4 ⎣ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 ⎥⎦
which in the model this corresponds to firing of their
The marking vector and also the transition firing vector namesake transitions i.e. C1 and C2. In this case, the firing
are defined as below: transitions vector will be as:
U 3 = [0,0,0,0,0,0,1,1,0,0,0,0,0]T ; and as a result, the
M = [L1, P1, P2 , P3 , P4 , P5 , P6 , PC1, PC2
(5) marking vector will be as:
, P9 , P7 , P8 , PC3 , PC4 ]T M 3 = [0,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,1,0,0,0,0,0]T
The existence of tokens in places PC1 and PC2
U = [F1, RL1Rm, RL1Rp, RL1Sm, RL1Sp , t1, respectively means the tripping of circuit breakers C1 and
(6) C2. Such a condition has been shown in Fig. 6.
C1, C2 , t2 , T1s ,T2s , C3 , C4 ]T
RL1Rm
P3
C1
PC 1
According to (5), the initial marking vector is
P1
as M 0 = [1,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0]T . Thus, the transition RL1Rp
C2
RL1Sm PC 2
F1 is active and it has the condition of firing, because its F1 P4
t2
only input place has a token and the weight of its
connecting arc from its input place is 1. In accordance L1 P9
RL1Sp P5
with (6), the transition firing vector will be: P7 C3
T1s
U 1 = [1,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0]T . Therefore, F1 is fired and P2 PC3
C4
consequently, each one of its output places will have a t1 PC4
token. This situation is illustrated in Fig. 4. P6 T2 s P8
Figure 5. Firing of transitions RL1Rm and RL1Sm
308
RL1Rm
P3 IV. PETRI NET MODEL FOR THE OPERATION OF
C1
PC 1 PROTECTION SYSTEM OF BUS2 IN CONDITION OF FAULT
P1 RL1Rp Petri net model for the protection system of Bus2 is
C2 shown in Fig. 9. In this figure, Bus2 indicates the bus 2,
RL1Sm PC 2
F1 P4 and the token inside it indicates the occurrence of fault.
t2
The place P1 shows the change in the bus variables which
L1 P9 are sensed by the relays. The transition Rm2 indicates the
RL1Sp P5
T1s
P7 C3 main relay of bus 2. Transitions T1s and T2s are the
P2 PC3 secondary backup relays of bus 2 related to the circuit
t1
C4
PC4
breakers C3 and C4 respectively. The transition RL1Rs is the
P6 secondary backup relay in the sending end of line L1 and
T2 s P8
is related to the circuit breaker C1. Transitions t1 and t2
Figure 6. Firing of transitions C1 and C2 respectively model the failure in functioning of Rm2 and
C2. The transitions P2, P3 and P4 are respectively the
Since in this condition, no transition has the representatives of fault sense by the relays T1s, T2s and
qualifications of firing, the model has reached to the RL1Rs. Each of the places P5, P6, P7 and P8 respectively
steady state condition and the transitions firing vector is as represent the receipt of trip commands by the circuit
U 4 = [0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0]T ; and the marking vector, breakers C1, C2, C3 and C4 from their related relays. The
description of dynamics of this model is similar to the
confirming to M 4 = M 3 + CU 4 , is as Petri net model of transmission line L1.
M 4 = M 3 = [0,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,1,0,0,0,0,0]T
V. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF PETRI MODELS BASED
Fig. 7 shows the steady state model of Petri net for the ON SIMULATION RESULTS
transmission line of power system shown in Fig. 2. In this
figure, the existence of tokens in places PC1 and PC2 As an example, we suppose the Petri net model of Fig.
respectively indicates the trip of circuit breakers C1 and 10, which is the modified model of Fig. 3, to statistically
C2. Now, we suppose that the main relay of circuit breaker analyze the behavior of protection system of transmission
C1, i.e. RL1Rm, fails in functioning; In this condition, the line L1. In this model, the number 40 in place L1
relay RL1Rp, which is its first backup protection, will order represents the number of faults occurred in line L1. To
the trip command. This has been shown in the model by a confine the firing of transitions RL1Rp, RL1Sp, t1 and t2, the
parallel transition with the transition RL1Rm. When the places P2, P4, P5 and P8 have been considered as the input
transition RL1Rp fires, the transitions firing vector is as places and the tokens inside them have been considered to
control the firing of these transitions. For example, the
U 2 = [0,0,1,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0]T and as a result, the transition RL1Rp, which represents the backup relay of line
marking vector will remain unchanged as the state that L1 at the receiving end, through the 40 faults, it does not
RL1Rm is not failed, i.e. M 2 = [0,0,0,1,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0]T . function in some cases, which here it has been considered
8 cases. For this sake, the number of tokens in place P2 is
This condition is shown in Fig. 8. considered 8.
RL1Rm PC2
P3 C2
C1 P5
PC 1
t2
P1 RL1Rp P6 P9
C3
C2 Rm 2 PC 3
RL1Sm PC 2
F1 P4 C4
t2 Bus2 F2 P1 PC4
P2
P7
L1 P9 T1s
RL1Sp P5
T1s
P7 C3
P2 P3 T2 s
PC3 t1
RL1Rs
C4 P4 P8 C1
t1 PC4 PC1
P6 T2 s P8
Figure 9. Petri net model for the protection system of Bus2
Figure 7. Steady state condition of Petri net model
RL1Rm
RL1Rm P1 P6 C1
P3 PC 1
C1
PC 1 C2
P7
P1 RL1Rp 8
RL1Rp
P2
C2 t2
RL1Sm PC 2 F1 PC 2
F1 P4 RL1Sm P8
t2 40 5
L1 P11
L1 P9 RL1Sp P 9
RL1Sp P5
P7 P3 P4
5 T1s C3
T1s C3 PC3
P2 PC3
C4 P5 2 t1 PC4
t1 PC4 P10 T2 s C4
P6 T2 s P8
Figure 10. Statistical analysis of Petri net model of the protection
Figure 8. Firing of transitions RL1Rp and RL1Sm system behavior in the condition of fault in line L1
309
After execute, the Petri net model of Fig. 10 is 2
transformed to the steady state condition of Fig. 11. It can RL1Rp
Activity Time (steps)

be seen from Fig. 11 that because the circuit breaker C1 1.5
has been assumed to be sound (it has no failure), it has
functioned correctly in 40 cases; but for the circuit breaker 1
C2, the possibility of failure in functioning, and the
secondary supporting protection have been taken into 0.5
account; so, according to Fig. 11, trough the 40 faults, in
33 faults it has functioned correctly; in 5 cases the circuit 0
breaker has been failed and in 2 cases, the main relays and 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Activation
Steps
their first backups have been failed. It should be 1
0
mentioned that these numbers are dependent on the initial -1
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
marking vector of places and can be set according to the Steps
statistical data of protection system operation. The Figure 13. The bar chart of transition RL1Rp
statistical data of transitions and places RL1Rm, RL1Rp,
RL1Sp, t1, t2, C2, P2, and PC2 is illustrated by the bar charts 2
in Figs. 12-19. RL1Sp

The bar chart of the transition RL1Rm is depicted in Fig. 1.5
12. Since the fixed type execute has been used in Petri-
net, and its parameter is 1, therefore each turn of its 1
activity has taken a step, and the vacant locations means
not functioning in that step. The bars in the lower part of 0.5
these figures show the activeness of transitions in which
the numbers 0 and 1 represent respectively the firing and 0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
non- activeness of transition; and -1 means that the
Activation
Steps
transition is in delay due to the regulation of its parameter 1
0
which after this delay, the transition fires; here none of -1
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
transitions has not been regulated in the stage of delay. Steps
Fig. 18 depicts the bar chart of place P2, and the height of
Figure 14. The bar chart of transition RL1Sp
bars shows the number of tokens in each stage.
2
t1
RL1Rm
C1
P1 P6
1.5
40 PC 1
P7 C2
RL1Rp 1
P2
t2
F1
33 PC 2
RL1Sm P8 0.5
L1 5 P11
RL1Sp P 9 0
P3 T1s C3 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
P4
Activation
7 PC3
Steps
1
0
P5 t1 7 PC4
-1
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
P10 T2 s C4
Steps
Figure 11. Steady state condition of Petri net model Figure 15. The bar chart of transition t1
2 2
RL1Rm t2
1.5 1.5
1 1
0.5 0.5
0 0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Activation
Activation
Steps Steps
1 1
0 0
-1 -1
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Steps Steps
Figure 12. The bar chart of transition RL1Rm Figure 16. The bar chart of transition t2
310
2
C2
[3] A. Ashouri, A. Jalilvand, and R. Noroozian, “Fault Diagnosis
Modeling of Power Systems Using Petri Nets”, 4th IEEE
1.5 PEOCO2010, Shah Alam, Malaysia, June 2010.

[4] A. ashouri “Modeling and Diagnozis of Faults in Power Systems
1 Using Petri Nets”, M.Sc. Thesis, Zanjan University, Iran, 2009.
[5] C. J. JIANG, Petri Net Theory and its Application, Beijing:
Higher Education press, 2003.
0.5
[6] J. Peterson, Petri Net Theory and Modeling of Systems, Prentice-
Hall, N. j., 1981.
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 [7] G. Ribichini, and P. Messina. “Un toolbox per la progettazione la
simulazione el' Analisi di Rti di Petri Temporizzate”, Universita
Activation
Steps
1
0 Degli Studi Pisa, Facolta di Ingegneria, 7 Marzo 2002.
-1
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Steps
Figure 17. The bar chart of transitionC2
9
P2
8
Place Content (tokens)
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Steps
Figure 18. The bar chart of transition P2
PC2
30
Place Content (tokens)
25
20
15
10
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Steps
Figure 19. The bar chart of transition PC2
VI. CONCLUSION
In this paper, a new approach based on Petri nets was
proposed for modeling of the power system protection
systems. This approach provides the possibility of
hierarchically monitoring of power system. In this
method, the model of protection systems performance has
been formulated using Petri nets and by deductions of
protection system data. The deduction procedure can be
presented graphically in the form of Petri nets and
executed by matrix operations. In these models, the
uncertainty in functioning of the relays and circuit
breakers has been considered.
REFERENCES
[1] Y. Sun, H. Jiang and D. Wang, “Fault synthetic recognition for an
EHV transmission line using a group of neural networks with a
time-space property”, IEE Proc. Of Generation Transmission
Distribution, vol. 145, No.3, pp. 265-270, May 1998.
[2] P. M. Anderson, Power System Protection, New York: McGraw-
Hill: IEEE Press, 1999.
311
Condition Monitoring of Electrical Supply

Voltage Quality to Electrical Machines using
RBF Neural Network
Harapajan Singh*, Manjeevan Seera**, and Ahmad Puad Ismail*
*
Department of Electrical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA, P. Pinang, Malaysia. Email: harapajan@gmail.com
**
School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia, P. Pinang, Malaysia.
Abstract— Three phase electrical machines are normally appearing in the mains supply due to voltage disturbances
exposed to lowered levels of supply voltage quality of undervoltage, overvoltage, voltage unbalance and
conditions which can appear simultaneously due to voltage voltage waveform distortions which can cause higher
disturbances of overvoltage or undervoltage, voltage levels of power losses to occur in the machines and
unbalance and voltage waveform distortions. These voltage
consequently result in higher windings temperature [1,2].
disturbances can cause effects of seriously overheating
winding insulation resulting in degradation and reduced The higher windings temperature makes the insulation
lifespan of the machines. The supply of electrical power system to degrade at a faster rate than normal. For most
with proper rated voltages and acceptable voltage insulation materials an 8–11 K increase in temperature
waveforms can significantly improve the satisfactory can result in a twofold reduction of the insulation system
operation and life span of the machines. The proper lifespan. Voltage disturbances appearing in the mains
application of supply voltage quality levels can reduce the supply may cause premature insulation failure of
downtime and operating expenses of the electrical machines, electrical machines [3]. Damage to electrical machines
thus improving return of investment on assets managed by due to premature insulation failure can be identified with
the organization. In this paper, a control methodology for
the use of proper test equipments to determine if
the early detection and classification of the electrical voltage
supply condition in electrical machines based on radial corrective action needs to be taken.
based function (RBF) neural networks is presented. The The supply voltage quality problem to electrical
condition of the supply voltage quality to electrical machines machines normally occurs in weak power supply systems
is diagnosed and classified using RBF neural networks. It having a comparatively high value of power supply
will be shown that the developed method is simple in dealing impedence. In weak power systems, significant voltage
with any supply voltage condition to detect and allows for variations of undervoltages as well as overvoltages can
the ease in classification of the supply voltage pattern. Test occur during changes of load current in electrical power
results for the classified patterns have shown that the system. Both active and passive non-linear electrical
method used for this classification scheme able to correctly
machines connected to a power system normally
identify supply voltage conditions, and the adopted RBF
neural network condition monitoring based method is produces distorted current waveforms which
efficient. consequently produces voltage waveform distortions.
Distribution lines in power system having different values
Keywords — RBF neural network; voltage unbalance; of line impedences can produce voltage unbalances. In
overvoltage; condition monitoring; undervoltage; voltage summary, electrical machines in power systems may be
waveform distortions exposed to different voltage disturbances of overvoltage
or undervoltage, voltage waveform distortions
I. INTRODUCTION (harmonics) and voltage unbalances [4-6] which can
An electrical power system delivers electrical power to appear simultaneously at the same time. The increasing
satisfactorily operate electrical machines connected to the number of malfunctions and failures in electrical
system. Electrical machines are the most popular machines due to the lowered level of supply voltage
machines used in commercial and industrial conditions has provoked the development of several
environments due to their reliability, robustness and power control standards. The National Authorities has
simplicity of its construction. However the issue of published the Institution of Electrical and Electronics
proper supply voltage quality which is of extreme Engineers IEEE Standard [7], International
importance for the operation and lifespan to the machines Electrotechnical Commission IEC Standard [8], National
is normally not well addressed in real life. The delivery Electrical Manufacturer Association NEMA Standard [9]
of electrical power supply with the proper voltage and similar national standards. One of the several
magnitude and waveshape to electrical machines allows objective of these standards is to provide guidelines on
the machines to operate satisfactorily for its designed the voltage profiles that should be kept within certain
lifespan and even to longer lifespan. Electrical machines practical limits. NEMA standard has established that
are sensitive to lowered levels of supply voltage quality machines shall operate successfully for permissible level
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 312

of voltage deviation, voltage unbalance, and voltage waveform distortions which may be happening
harmonics total harmonics distortion (THD) to be kept simultaneously [14-15]. This paper deals with the
within ±10%, 5%, 5% respectively under running monitoring of the voltage supply quality data to the
conditions at rated load currents as set out in Table I. electrical machine for the diagnosis and classification of
lowered levels of voltage quality conditions which may
TABLE I occur simultaneously using RBF neural networks.
NEMA standard permissible level of voltage supply condition
Conditions are detected before they become serious to
allow for the optimization of maintenance activities
Voltage supply conditions Permissible level (%)
Voltage deviation (overvoltage) +10 during planned shutdowns which can be carried out to
Voltage deviation (undervoltage) −10 avoid unscheduled outages.
Voltage harmonics (THD) 5
Voltage Unbalance 5
II. METHODOLOGY
When different voltage disturbances appear at the Electrical machines normally experience any one or a
same time in electrical machines, these various combination of the following five types of voltage supply
simultaneous disturbances may cause an extremely high condition which include
windings temperature rise, even if the voltage quality i) Normal voltage
fulfils the requirements of the national standards. The ii) Overvoltage
maximum permitted deviation for lowered voltage value iii) Undervoltage
(90% nominal voltage) combined with harmonics iv) Unbalance voltage
observed in an electrical machine was about 60 K higher v) Voltage harmonics
than in the nominal work conditions [10].
There is a real important need for the early
identification and classification of the lowered levels of
supply voltage quality condition being delivered to
electrical machines, thus enabling corrective action to be
taken by correcting the voltage supply condition and
improving the operational performance and lifespan of
electrical machines There are several reliable methods of
power quality condition monitoring for the machines
using soft computing tools. Artificial neural networks
ANN are widely used to monitor different forms of
Fig. 1. Flow chart of inputs to outputs
uncertainties and ambiguities often encountered by
electrical machines in real life. Integration of artificial
In this section, a proposal to diagnose and classify the
neural networks with other soft computing tools has led
above conditions of the supply voltage delivered to the
to the generation of more powerful, intelligent and
electrical machines using RBF neural networks is
efficient systems [11]. Back propagation neural networks
proposed. The condition monitoring system consists of
BPNN are the most well known neural networks but
(1) input data (2) feature extraction component (3) pattern
provide a high complexity in the detection and
recognition component (4) output condition as shown in
classification. For this project we decided to use the
Figure 1.
Artificial Neural Network called Radial Basis Function
RBF neural networks. RBF neural network is approached
A. Input data
by viewing the design as a curve-fitting (approximation)
problem in a high dimensional space. Radial basis
Three voltage sensors for each of the three phases of
functions were first introduced by Powell to solve the real
the power supply can be used and the sensory signal
multivariate interpolation problem [12]. This problem is
patterns collected as input to the feature extraction
currently one of the principal fields of research in
component.
numerical analysis. In the field of neural networks, RBF
were first used by Broomhead and Lowe [13]. RBF are
B. Feature extraction component
powerful techniques for interpolation in multidimensional
space. A RBF is a function which has built into a
In order to analyze the relationship between the signal
distance criterion with respect to a centre. In a neural
network, the hidden units form a set of “functions” that pattern and the supply condition, it is first important to
compose a random “basis” for the input patterns extract the features of the three phase supply voltage
patterns. The feature extraction process transforms the
(vectors). These functions are called radial basis
input voltage signal patterns from its original form to a
functions.
form suitable for extracting the supply voltage condition.
The use of RBF neural networks are suitable for the
For feature extraction, both time series analyzer and
purpose of reliable power quality identification and
classification in electrical machines due to voltage frequency analyzer is used. The time series analyzer was
used for transforming the three phase supply voltages
harmonics and/or unbalance, as well as overvoltage or
signal features for obtaining the unbalanced voltage
undervoltages, unbalanced voltages and voltage
313
condition. MATLAB, the mathematical programming ….., wN) and passed to the summation which adds up the
language, was used as the tool for the supply voltage weighted values and presents this sum as the output of the
signal processing. Matlab M-file editor was used to network. For classification problems, there is one output
extract the percentage unbalanced voltages from the three and a separate set of weights and summation unit for each
phase supply voltage. The frequency analyzer was used of the monitored conditions–normal voltage, overvoltage,
for transforming the three phase supply voltages signal undervoltage, unbalance voltage and voltage harmonics
features for obtaining the voltage harmonics THD. Fast THD.
Fourier Transform FFT algorithm was used to obtain the
harmonic frequencies of the voltage waveform and
Matlab M-file editor to extract the voltage THD.
C. Pattern recognition component
Having extracted the features of the supply voltage

conditions, the RBF neural network was used to classify
the three phase voltage supply patterns. The basic
architecture of RBF neural networks consists of three
layers is shown in Figure 2. RBF network consist of
three major parts which is input layer, hidden layer and
output layer. The input data is the feature extraction
component data fed into the input layer. The input layer Fig. 2. Structure of a typical RBF neural networks
passes it to the hidden neurons which are the
computational units in the hidden layer. The output layer G. Gaussion Function
of the neural network combines the output linearly from
the hidden neurons. Gaussian Function was used as it is the most used in
practical applications. Gaussian Function is suitable not
D. Input Layer only in generalizing a global mapping but also on refining
local features without much altering the learned mapping.
The r.m.s voltage for all the three phases of the power Gaussian Function tends to be local in its response and is
supply the extracted components of the unbalanced more biological plausible than other functions. Further
voltage and voltage harmonics THD were applied to the more, compared with other types of functions such as thin
input layer. There is one neuron in the input layer for plate spline function, Gaussian Function is more flexible
each predictor variable. In the case of categorical to be adjusted in terms of the function position and shape.
variables, N-1 neurons are used where N is the number of For a Gaussian Function based RBF networks, four types
categories. The input neuron (or processing before the of parameters need to be determined. There are the
input layer) standardizes the range of the values by number of hidden units, the center positions for all hidden
subtracting the median and dividing by the interquartile units, the width values for Gaussian Function, and the
range. The input neurons then feed the values to each of connections weights between the hidden units and the
the neurons in the hidden layer. output nodes. Many algorithms have been designed to
determine these parameters. Figure 3 shows the Gaussian
E. Hidden Layer function.
This layer has a variable number of neurons and the

optimal number is determined by the training process.
Each neuron consists of a radial basis function centered
on a point with as many dimensions as there are predictor
variables. The spread (radius) of the RBF function may
be different for each dimension. The centers and spreads
are determined by the training process. When presented
with the x vector of input values from the input layer, a
hidden neuron computes the Euclidean distance of the test
case from the neuron’s center point and then applies the Fig. 3. Gaussian Function
RBF kernel function to this distance using the spread
values. The resulting value is passed to the summation The normal distribution, also called the Gaussian
layer. distribution, is an important family of continuous
probability distributions, applicable in many fields. Each
F. Output Layer/Summation Layer member of the family may be defined by two parameters,
location and scale, the mean ("average", μ) and variance
The value coming out of a neuron in the hidden layer is (standard deviation squared) σ2, respectively. The
multiplied by a weight associated with the neuron (w1, w2, standard normal distribution is the normal distribution
314
with a mean of zero and a variance of one. Carl Friedrich B. Unbalanced voltage
Gauss became associated with this set of distributions
when he analyzed astronomical data using them, and For the unbalanced voltage experiments, the three
defined the equation of its probability density function. It phase unbalance voltage parameters limit was set in
is often called the bell curve because the graph of its accordance with NEMA standards at 5%. The following
probability density resembles a bell. experiment limit values were set for:
The importance of the normal distribution as a model 1. Acceptable unbalance voltage limit (Condition1):
of quantitative phenomena in the natural and behavioral 0.1 – 5.0%
sciences is due to the central limit theorem. Many 2. Not acceptable unbalance voltage limit (Condition 4):
psychological measurements and physical phenomena 5.1% and more.
(like noise) can be approximated well by the normal 10 sets of input data voltages were used with different
distribution. While the mechanisms underlying these values of three phase unbalance voltages V1, V2 and V3
phenomena are often unknown, the use of the normal shown in Table III.
model can be theoretically justified by assuming that
many small, independent effects are additively TABLE III
contributing to each observation. Input Data Voltages
Set 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
V1 370 450 400 320 460 350 439 350 430 359
III. EXPERIMENTS V2 200 344 340 400 400 360 449 442 460 400
V3 100 200 359 439 400 380 460 450 441 360
To be able to recognize and classify the five voltage
quality conditions, experiments were carried out using all C. Voltage harmonics THD
the three phases of the supply voltages (v1, v2, v3) which
are detected, the features extracted and input to the For the voltage harmonics THD experiments, the three
pattern recognition component for classification using phase voltage harmonics THD parameters limit was set in
RBF neural network. The RBF neural network program accordance with NEMA standards at 5%.
permits the generation of data for the classification of 1. Acceptable voltage harmonics THD (Condition 1): 0
normal voltage and the four lowered levels of voltage – 5.0%
conditions which can affect the operation of the 2. Unacceptable voltage harmonics THD (Condition 5):
machines. Outputs from RBF neural network consists of 5.1% and more
supply voltage conditions at 1- normal state, 2 -
overvoltage, 3- undervoltage, 4- unbalanced voltage and 3 sets of typical input voltages with undistorted and
5- voltage harmonics THD. Experimental tests were distorted waveforms were used for the experiment as
carried out for the five operating conditions using the shown in Figure 4 (a), (b) and (c) and input THD values
internationally recognized three phase rated supply shown in Table IV. Figure 4 (a) shows the voltage
voltage of 400V, 50 Hz which delivered within waveform of an undistorted voltage waveform and Figure
acceptable limits ensures satisfactory operation and 4 (b) and (c) shows the voltage waveform distorted due to
lifespan of electrical machines. the distorted currents flowing in the electrical machines.
A. Normal voltage, Overvoltage and Undervoltage
For the normal voltage, overvoltage and undervoltage

experiments, the three phase voltage parameters limit was
set in accordance with NEMA standards.
1. Normal voltage (Condition 1): 360.0V – 440.0V.

2. Overvoltage (Condition 2): 440.1V and more
3. Undervoltage (Condition 3): 359.9V and less
10 sets of input data voltages were used with different
values of three phase balanced voltages V1, V2 and V3
shown in Table II. Fig. 4(a). Sinusoidal undistorted voltage waveform
TABLE II
Input Data Voltages
Set 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
V1 206 294 352 406 400 386 450 450 460 400
V2 206 294 352 406 400 386 450 450 460 400
V3 206 294 352 406 400 386 450 450 460 400
315
Fig. 4(b). Sinusoidal distorted voltage waveform with THD 4.8%
Fig. 5. Plot of Voltage Condition
B. Unbalanced voltage
Detailed evaluation of the measurement results can be

easily carried out to highlight the unbalanced voltage
Fig. 4(c). Sinusoidal distorted voltage waveform with THD 5.9% conditions VC (1 for acceptable and 4 for not acceptable).
Figure 6 shows a plot of the acceptable and not
TABLE IV acceptable unbalance voltage conditions in compliance
Input THD Values with NEMA standard. Table VI shows the unbalance
voltage in percentage VU as well as the VC of the three
Set 1 2 3
THD 0.4 4.8 5.9
phases of the power supply for the 10 sets of experiment
data.
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION TABLE VI

Input Data Voltages
Results obtained from the experiments carried out
validated the simplicity and ease of the use of RBF neural Set 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
VU% 65.6 39.6 9.2 17.2 9.5 4.6 2.4 15.5 3.7 7.2
network for the early recognition and classification of the VC 4 4 4 4 4 1 1 4 1 4
five supply voltage conditions to enable the supply
voltage condition to be corrected for improvement of the
performance of electrical machines.
A. Normal voltage, Overvoltage and Undervoltage

Condition
Figure 5 shows a plot of the 10 sets of test data for

normal voltage, overvoltage and undervoltage conditions.
The classified conditions are easily identified. Table V
shows voltage conditions for balanced voltages, however
if overvoltages or undervoltages and unbalance voltages
occur at the same time simultaneously, it can be easily
identified and classified.
TABLE V
Condition of Three Phase Data Voltages
Fig. 6. Plot of Unbalace Voltage Condition
Set 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
V1 3 3 3 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 C. Voltage harmonics
V2 3 3 3 1 1 1 2 2 2 1
V3 3 3 3 1 1 1 2 2 2 1
Detailed evaluation of the measurement results can be
easily carried out to highlight the voltage harmonics THD
conditions VC (1 for acceptable and 5 for not acceptable).
Figure 7 shows a plot of the acceptable and not
acceptable voltage harmonics THD conditions in
316
compliance with NEMA standard. Table VII shows the machines connected to the power supply. Test results for
voltage harmonics THD in percentage VU as well as the the classified patterns using RBF neural networks have
VC of the three phases of the power supply for the 10 sets shown that the method used for the voltage diagnosis and
of experiment data. classification is correct, and the adopted RBF neural
network based method is efficient.
TABLE VII
Voltage Harmonics THD Condition
REFERENCES
Data 1 2 3
THD 0.4 4.8 5.9 [1] Grancinski P, “Windings temperature and loss of life of an
VC 1 1 5 induction machine under voltage unbalance combined with over or
undervoltages,” IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversions, vol.
23, no. 2, pp. 363-371, 2008.
[2] Grancinski P, Mindykowski J, and Tarasiuk T, “A new quality of
the power quality temperature factor and its experimental
verification,” IEEE Trans Instrum Meas, vol. 57, no. 8, pp.
1651-1660, 2008.
[3] Pillay P. and Manyage M., “Loss of life in induction machine
operating with unbalanced supplies,” IEEE Trans Energy Convs,
vol. 42, no. 6, pp. 813-822, 2006.
[4] Sri R. Kolla and Shawn D. Altman, “Artificial neural network
based fault identification scheme implementation for a three-phase
induction motor,” ISA Transactions, vol.46, pp. 261-266, 2007.
[5] Mario Oleskovicz, Denis V. Coury, Odilon Delmont Felho,
Wesley F. Usida, Adriano A.F.M. Carneiro and Leandro
R.S.Pires, “Power quality analysis applying a hybrid methodology
with wavelet transforms and neural networks,” Electrical Power
and Energy System, vol. 31, pp. 206-212, 2009.
[6] J. Barros, M. de Apraiz and R.I. Diego. “On-line monitoring of
power quality for assessment of induction motor performance”,
Electrical Machines and Drives Conference, pp. 1140-1145, 2009.
[7] “IEEE Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic
Control in Electric Power Systems,” IEEE Std 519-199, 1992.
Fig. 7. Plot of Voltage harmonics THD Condition [8] “Limits for harmonic emissions in MV and HV power systems,”
IEC61000-3-6, 2008.
[9] “Information Guide for General Purpose Industrial AC Small and
V. CONCLUSION Medium Squirrel-Cage Induction,” Motor Standards NEMA MG-
1, 2008.
In this paper, the diagnosis and classification of supply [10] Fush EF, Roesler DJ, and Masoum MAS, ”Are harmonic
voltage for lowered voltage quality conditions using RBF recommendations according to IEEE and IEC too restrictive,”
neural networks is presented. The three phase supply IEEE Trans Power Deliv, vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 1775-86, 2004.
voltage is detected and classified using RBF neural [11] Sushmita Mitra and Sankar K. Pal, “Fuzzy sets in pattern
recognition and machine intelligence”, Fuzzy Sets and Systems,
networks by analyzing the voltage signal trends in the vol. 156, pp 381–386, 2005.
monitored three phase voltage data to enable for the early [12] Dan Simon, “Training radial basis neural networks with the
detection and classification of lowered voltage conditions extended Kalman filter”, Neurocomputing, vol. 48, pp. 455-475,
which can affect the health of the electrical machines. Oct 2002.
The conditioning monitoring methodology and [13] P.Venkatesan and S. Anitha, “Research Articles: Application of a
radial basis function neural network for diagnosis of diabetes
implemented scheme used is simple, interpretable and mellitus”, Current Science, vol. 91, no. 9, Nov 2006.
able to classify with ease the lowered voltage condition [14] FranciscoJurado, “Power supply quality improvement with a
which may occur simultaneously at the same time and SOFC plant by neural-network based control,” Journal of Power
can cause serious damage to electrical machines. The Sources, vol. 117, pp. 75-83, 2003.
developed method can identify and classify any supply [15] B. Cannas, G. Celli, M. Marchessi and F. Pilo, “Neural
networks for power system condition monitoring and protection,”
voltage disturbance condition which can affect the Neurocomputing, vo l. 23, pp 111-123, 1998.
operating performance and lifespan of the electrical
317
Data Transfer Rate, Central Processing Unit

Usage and Read Access Memory Usage in
Networked Control System via Industrial
Ethernet
Handy Ali Munir1,2, Nordin Saad1, Syed Alwee Aljunid Syed Junid3, Ahmad Mujahid Ahmad Zaidi4, Mohd
Zuki Yusoff1 and Asmarashid Ponniran5
1Electrical & Electronic Engineering Department, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS
Email: handyalimunir@yahoo.com
2PPKMt, 3PPKKP,Universiti Malaysia Perlis
4
Faculty of Engineering, National Defence University of Malaysia
5
Faculty of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
Abstract— Data transfer rate is the amount of data that can real-time constraints can significantly be improved by
be transferred at a time. Network Control System (NCS) appropriately configuring the devices. Besides the room
based communication system Industrial Ethernet (IE) is for accommodating control code at the local level, nodes
becoming very popular for automation system. The Fast has memory space (buffers) to store temporary real-time
Ethernet system with data rate transfer 100Mb/s is used in data for subsequent use. Storage facility at the local level,
this project. Star topology with the hub connected to a in this context, is highly desirable to meet the need for
computer and two Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) improving real-time performance [4].
are analysis for the data transfer rate performance. Real-
time communication for the system is very good without no
disconnected between the computer and PLCs. Data
transfer rate, packets speed (#/s), packets volume, sum
volume (KByte), Central Processing Unit (CPU) usage in
percentage, percentage available Read Access Memory
(RAM), available memory RAM(MByte) are analysed. It is
shown that the data flow for traffic out (speed) is greater
than traffic in (speed) for the data transfer rate between the
computer and PLCs.
Keywords—Data Transfer Rate, Networked Control System

Fig. 1. Bits, frames, packets and segments [5].
(NCS), Industrial Ethernet and Programmable Logic
Controller (PLC). Fig. 1 shows the data passes from layer to layer that is
called Protocol Data Units (PDU). At the physical layer
I. INTRODUCTION these are the bits, at the data link layer these are the
Advanced of the network technology and convergence frames, at the network layer these are the packets and at
of communications, control and computer enabled the the transport layer these are the segments.
Networked Control System (NCS) can be achieved [1]. The amount of the data can transfer at time is normally
All signal in the NCS is transmitted through shared defined either in bits per second (b/s) or bytes per second
communication channels used with the other users. (B/s). Typically, serial busses are defined in b/s and
Industrial Ethernet (IE) is the applications of IEEE 802.3 parallel busses in B/s. The more the bits that can be
standards with requirements of factory equipment and transferred and the faster of transfer will be.
network protocols [2]. The Programmable Logic Data rate transfer is defined [5]:
Controller (PLC) is a microprocessor based control system
that can be programmed to sense, activate and control an
industrial equipment which has been made possible with
the incorporation of a number of input/output (I/O)
terminals for interfacing to an industrial process. A control
routine stored in the PLC memory determines the f is clock frequency (Hz)
communication between the input and output of the PLC
[3]. T is clock period (s)
Real-time are usually reactive systems that are in
continual interaction with their environments. Control data rate transfer (b/s)
systems for real-time applications are characterized by = number of bits transmitted per operation (bits) X
their ability to support strong time constraints. Since the clocking rate,f (Hz)
processing element (controller) is close to the devices,
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 318

II. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
The specifications of the computer used for this project
are:
* Processor: Dual CPU 2.00 GHz.
* Read Access Memory (RAM): 3.00 GB
* Fast Ethernet 100Mb/s local area network (LAN)
card.
Fig. 3. Data Transfer Rate when the computer is connected to PLC 1.
Fig. 2. Local Area Network of Fast Ethernet with maximum Link

Speed to 1 Mbps.
There are three type of the connection done for the Fig. 4. Data Transfer Rate when the computer is connected to PLC 2.
real-time communication between computer and PLC as
shown in Fig. 3, Fig. 4 and Fig. 5. Star topology used for
each connections and hub are centered for the networking
between computer and PLC.
The types of the PLC used for this project are OMRON
SYSMAC CS1D-CPU65P with Fast Ethernet. RJ45 (RJ
stands for registered jack) Unshielded Twisted-Pair
(UTP) cable used to connect between the computer, PLC
and hub. IP address are set unique for each computer,
PLC 1 and PLC 2 to avoid data conflict and this is as
shown in the TABLE I.
Hub is the simplest method of redistributing data on
Fig. 5. Data Transfer Rate when the computer is connected to PLC 1 &
Ethernet. The hub has several ports and an incoming 2.
signal is rebuild and then transmitted on all the remaining
ports [6]. The hub also does not make any decisions about III. RESULT & DISCUSSION
the Ethernet frame or its contents.
Ladder diagram for the PLC 1 have 7 rungs and PLC 2
have 32 rungs. The software interface between computer
and PLC is CX-Programmer version 6.11 2005 from
OMRON.
TABLE I
IP ADDRESS (CLASS C)
node IP Adresss
Computer 192.168.0.10
PLC 1 192.168.0.2
PLC 2 192.168.0.5
Fig. 6. Data Transfer Rate when the computer is connected to PLC 1.
319
TABLE II
DATA STATISTICS FOR FIG. 6. TABLE IV
kbit/s Sum (speed) Traffic in Traffic out DATA STATISTICS FOR FIG. 8.
(speed) (speed) kbit/s Sum (speed) Traffic in Traffic out
min 74 34 40 (speed) (speed)
max 76 35 41 Min 126 60 66
mean 75.18 34.82 40.36 max 128 61 67
median 75 35 40 mean 127.8 60.91 66.91
mode 75 35 40 median 128 61 67
std 0.7508 0.4045 0.5045 mode 128 61 67
range 2 1 1 std 0.603 0.3015 0.3015
The processor of computer usage must be fewer than range 2 1 1
50% for the system to work well without errors and when
the system is ON and idle. The results from the project
had shown in the Fig. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14.
Data from the project are getting using PRTG Network
Monitor software. Time interval from the results shown is
1 minutes.
Fig. 9. Packets speed (#/s) when the computer is connected to PLC.

TABLE V
DATA STATISTICS FOR FIG. 9.
Packets speed (#/s) the computer the computer the
connected to connected to computer
PLC 1 & 2 PLC 1 connected
Fig. 7. Data Transfer Rate when the computer is connected to PLC 2. to PLC 2
TABLE III Min 182 86 102
DATA STATISTICS FOR FIG. 7. max 186 88 105
kbit/s Sum (speed) Traffic in Traffic out mean 185.2 87.36 103.9
(speed) (speed) median 185 88 104
mode 185 88 105
Min 56 28 28
std 1.168 0.809 1.221
max 57 28 29
range 4 2 3
mean 56.64 28 28.73
median 57 28 29
mode 57 28 29
std 0.5045 0 0.4671
range 1 0 1
Fig. 10. Packets volume when the computer is connected to PLC.
Fig. 8. Data Transfer Rate when the computer is connected to PLC 1 &
2.
320
TABLE VI TABLE VIII
DATA STATISTICS FOR FIG. 10. DATA STATISTICS FOR FIG. 12.
Packets volume the computer the computer the CPU usage (%) the computer the computer the
connected to connected to computer connected to connected to computer
PLC 1 & 2 PLC 1 connected PLC 1 & 2 PLC 1 connected
to PLC 2 to PLC 2
Min 10960 5170 6153 Min 28 18 20
max 11180 5307 6304 max 32 26 28
mean 11120 5247 6244 mean 30.09 21.91 22.91
median 11120 5249 6266 median 30 22 23
mode 10960 5170 6153 mode 29 18 20
std 61.23 44.43 59.63 std 1.446 2.982 2.343
range 217 137 151 range 4 8 8
Fig. 11. Sum volume (KByte) when the computer is connected to PLC. Fig. 13. Percent Available Memory (RAM) when the computer is
TABLE VII connected to PLC.
DATA STATISTICS FOR FIG. 11. TABLE IX
Sum volume the computer the computer the DATA STATISTICS FOR FIG. 13.
(KByte) connected to connected to computer Percent the computer the computer the
PLC 1 & 2 PLC 1 connected Available Memory connected to connected to computer
to PLC 2 (RAM) PLC 1 & 2 PLC 1 connected
Min 926 543 410 to PLC 2
max 944 558 420 Min 59 60 60
mean 938.3 551.5 415.9 max 59 61 61
median 939 552 417 mean 59 60.27 60.91
mode 942 556 420 median 59 60 61
std 5.255 4.967 4.036 mode 59 60 61
range 18 15 10 std 0 0.4671 0.3015
range 0 1 1
From the Fig. 6, 7 and 8 speed of traffic out is higher
than speed of traffic in. Its show that quantity of data
packets flow out from computer is greater than data
packets came inside computer. This results means that
computer communicated with the PLC with data packets
came out from computer is greater than data packets
came in when the system in stage of on and idle.
Traffic out (speed) > Traffic in (speed)
(1)
From the Fig. 6, 7 and 8 also,

Sum Data Transfer Rate when the computer is connected
to PLC 1 & 2
≈ Sum Data Transfer Rate when the computer is
Fig. 12. CPU usage (%) when the computer is connected to PLC. connected to PLC 1 + Sum Data Transfer Rate when the
computer is connected to PLC 2 (2)
Sum Data Transfer Rate PLC2 < Data Transfer Rate PLC1 <
Data Transfer Rate PLC1 & 2 (3)
From the results for Packets speed (#/s),

Packets speed (#/s) when the computer is connected to
321
PLC 1 & 2 Memory (DDR) with high performance.
≈ Packets speed (#/s) when the computer is connected to
PLC 1 + Packets speed (#/s) when the computer is
connected to PLC 2 (4)
Packets speed (#/s)PLC1 < Packets speed (#/s)PLC2 <

Packets speed (#/s)PLC1 & 2 (5)
About Packets volume,

Packets volume when the computer is connected to PLC 1
&2
≈ Packets volume when the computer is connected to PLC
1 + Packets volume when the computer is connected to
PLC 2 (6)
Fig. 14. Available Memory RAM(MByte) when the computer is
connected to PLC.
Packets volumePLC1 < Packets volume PLC2 < Packets
TABLE X
volume PLC1 & 2 (7) DATA STATISTICS FOR FIG. 14.
Available the computer the computer the
For Sum volume (KByte), Memory connected to connected to computer
RAM(MByte) PLC 1 & 2 PLC 1 connected
Sum volume (KByte) when the computer is connected to to PLC 2
PLC 1 & 2 Min 1777 1814 1832
≈ Sum volume (KByte) when the computer is connected to max 1800 1840 1850
PLC 1 + Sum volume (KByte) when the computer is mean 1790 1831 1841
median 1789 1831 1841
connected to PLC 2 (8) mode 1777 1831 1841
std 7.367 7.752 5.065
Sum volume (KByte)PLC2 < Sum volume (KByte) PLC1< range 23 26 18
Sum volume (KByte) PLC1 & 2 (9) TABLE XI
*< <* <*
Sum Data Transfer PLC2 PLC1 PLC1&
But for CPU usage (%), Rate 2
CPU usage (%) when the computer is connected to PLC Packets speed (#/s) PLC1 PLC2 PLC1&
1&2 2
≠ CPU usage (%) when the computer is connected to Packets volume PLC1 PLC2 PLC1&
2
PLC 1 + CPU usage (%) when the computer is connected
Sum volume PLC2 PLC1 PLC1&
to PLC 2 (10) (KByte) 2
From the TABLE XI, if the Sum Data Transfer Rate is
CPU usage (%)PLC1 < CPU usage (%) PLC2 < CPU usage higher, the consequence is that the Sum volume (KByte)
(%) PLC1 & 2 (11) also would become higher. From TABLE XI also, the
packet size operating in PLC 1 is larger as compared to
and Available Memory RAM(MByte), PLC 2.
Available Memory RAM(MByte) when the computer is
IV. CONCLUSION
connected to PLC 1 & 2
≠ Available Memory RAM(MByte) when the computer is From the project, equations (2), (4), (6), (8), (10) and
(12) are obtained by the experimental setup already done.
connected to PLC 1 + Available Memory
The characteristics of data transfer rate, central processing
RAM(MByte)when the computer is connected to PLC 2 unit usage and read access memory usage of NCS via
(12) Industrial Ethernet are investigated to get the optimum
results.
Available Memory RAM(MByte)PLC1 & 2 < Available
Memory RAM(MByte) PLC1 < Available Memory ACKNOWLEDGMENT
RAM(MByte) PLC2 (13) The authors gratefully acknowledge the supports of
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Universiti Malaysia
Percent Available Memory (RAM)PLC1 & 2 < Percent Perlis, National Defence University of Malaysia,
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Ministry of Higher
Available Memory (RAM) PLC1 < Percent Available Education Malaysia and Ministry of Science, Technology
Memory (RAM) PLC2 (14) and Innovation Malaysia.
The CPU usage is not approximately sum because of

the duo core technology processor with high performance
are during these experiments. The Read Access Memory
(RAM) is used for this experimental is Double Data Rate
322
REFERENCES physics experiments” IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science
Volume 51, Issue 3, Part 1, June 2004 Page(s):489 – 494
[1] Huajing Fang, Hao Ye, Maiying Zhong;” Fault diagnosis of
[4] Nitaigour Premchand Mahalik, Mechatronics, Principles,
networked control systems” Annual Reviews in Control 31 (2007)
Concepts and Applications, Mc-Graw Hill, Singapore, 2003.
55–68.
[5] William Buchanan, Distributed Systems and Networks. Singapore:
[2] Perry S. Marshall and John S. Rinaldi, Industrial Ethernet: How to
McGraw-Hill, 2002.
Plan, Install and Maintain TCP/IP Ethernet Networks, The Basic
Reference Guide for Automation and Process Control Engineers, [6] Donald J. Sterling, Jr. and Steven P. Wissler, The Industrial
2nd Edition. United States of America: ISA-The Instrumentation, Ethernet Networking Guide: Understanding the Infrastructure
Systems and Automations Society, 2005. Connecting Business Enterprises, Factory Automation and
Control Systems. United States of America: Thomson Delmar
[3] Kleines, H.; Sarkadi, J.; Suxdorf, F.; Zwoll, K.;” Measurement of
Learning, 2003.
real-time aspects of Simatic® PLC operation in the context of
323
Distributed Interactive Power System Simulator

Using Web Technology
Mamdouh Abdel-Akher1, and M. K. El-Nemr2 , and W. Abdel-Galil3
1 2 3
APEARC, Electrical Engineering Electrical Power & Machine Software Development
Department, Aswan Faculty of Department, Faculty of Engineer- Department, EtaSoft for Inte-
Engineering, South Valley Uni- ing, Tanta University, grated Solutions
versity, 81542 Aswan, Egypt 31111Tanta, Egypt 31111, Tanta, Egypt
mabdelakher@ieee.org nemr_it@yahoo.com wael.abdelgilil@etasoft.info
the web through a Web browser such as Internet Explorer

Abstract- Power-system simulator is considered an essential [1]. Increasingly, the Web is being considered as an envi-
tool for design, operation, and control of electrical power sys- ronment for providing simulation applications, and as such,
tems. The nature of power-system enforces its simulation into is an emerging area of investigation within the simulation
sophisticated mathematical models and matrix calculations.
community [2]. Nowadays, web-based simulation is used
Consequently, several research efforts were directed to devel-
op numerical techniques that include efficient mathematical for many online computer games as well as in e-learning
methods for various power system problems. Along with these [3-4]. With respect to educational activities, the WBS pro-
developments, valuable research efforts are directed to devel- vides an alternative to installing expensive simulation soft-
oped efficient single-line diagram visualization, these efforts ware packages on the student computer. In addition, it re-
emphasize many beneficial software aspects such as reusabili- duces the need to expensive laboratory equipments [5-7].
ty and extendibility of the developed applications. On this Web-based simulation can either take place on the serv-
context, several endeavors are oriented for Web-based power- er-side or on the client-side. In server-side simulation, the
system simulation. This paper introduces a Web-based appli- numerical calculations and generation of graphical output is
cation designed to provide flexible, reliable and extendable
carried out on the Web server, while the graphical user in-
power system simulator topology. The developed application
brings together the features of Web and desktop applications terface often is provided at the client-side. In the client-
together. The proposed application deploys Microsoft’s Acti- side simulation, the simulation program is downloaded
veX technology using Microsoft foundation classes (MFC). The from the server side and completely executed on the client
graphical user interface is implemented using HTML and side. The download process is generally performed in the
Java Script which has been linked to the developed ActiveX form of embedded object in Hyper Text Markup Language
control. The developed application presents a valuable tool for (HTML) script, for example using Java applets [5], Flash
power system simulation through the WEB keeping into con- animations, ActiveX or some mathematical software viewer
sideration features of the desktop applications. plug-in. The interactivity between the embedded control
and the browser application is performed using HTML
Index Terms- ActiveX Controls, Single-Line Diagrams, Power
hosted script such as Java Script, PHP, ASP, and so on.
Systems, Web-Based Simulation
Server-side simulation is scalable for many simultaneous
users, but it places fewer demands on the user computer
I. INTRODUCTION performance and Web-browser plug-ins compared to client-
side simulation. The term on-line simulation sometimes
Power system simulation is an essential, useful and po- refers to server-side Web-based simulation, sometimes to
werful tool that helps to evaluate the electrical power sys- symbiotic simulation, i.e. a simulation that interacts in real-
tem behavior for both planning and operation purposes. time with a physical system [8-9].
Electric power engineers extensively implement system In this paper, client-side scheme for web-based power
modeling and simulation techniques during analysis, design system simulator is present and a pilot application is devel-
and learning processes. Many software packages are in use oped. The application is manly involves three parts. These
today by electric utilities, researchers, and students. These modules are the mathematical model, the graphical editing
software packages lack the ability to be truly portable and control and the interactive GUI interface. The proposed
easily accessible in many ways and many sophisticated scheme separates the three parts to allow fixable extendibil-
installation process is used to distribute the software to the ity and upgradability. The power-flow analysis is selected
end users. to be developed since it is the most fundamental study for
The term Web-Based Simulation (WBS) is used to de- analyzing electrical power networks. The power-flow is
scribe the invocation of computer simulation services over
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 324

considered a good start for a comprehensive application and
at the same time it is adequate for electrical engineering
education purposes. A simple application is developed to be
suitable for educational purposes with course administrator
monitoring and control are provided as well.
TABLE I COMBINATION FOR DIFFERENT WEB TECHNOLOGIES
Fig. 1 Overall network topology
The selected servers should support the development

utilities typically, programming languages and scripts.
Therefore, certain combinations of web servers and
development tools are adopted as shown in Table I.
Sofware coulmn shows the considered utilities. The
expense of human resource and spread of utility had direct
impact on propsed utilities. The preliminary selection
would be second option. However, other considerations
may be taken into consideration later in combination with
other factors.
II. WEB TECHNOLOGY SELECTION

This software application aims to provide web based
interactive power system simulation for students, teachers,
engineers and others. The network topology is designed
platform independent for intelligent clients. The user
loginning to the system has mandatory authentication. The
simulation is performed via web components that contain
the solver. The solver contains a software libraries
necessary to construct, validate and solve the algebraic and
differential equations presenting the system. Developers
should be able to modify, update and maintain the
components remotely. Furthermore, the user should be able
to download all components and documentation from the
same machine. Hereby, the network topology – shown in
Figure 1- includes three main modules namely, servers
(Web server, backup server, database server), development
workstation and web clients
The servers provide the main storage and communication
facilities required for web-based operation. The servers
module runs three types of servers namely, file server,
database server and web server. These servers are assumed
to cover the following communication protocols; file
transfer protocol (FTP for documentation, examples,
technical articles ...etc), hybrid text transfer protocol (
HTTP for web pages) and mail protocols (SMTP, POP3):
for email accounts required for technical support, sales, Fig. 2 The overall client-server model
marketing ...etc.
325
simulations as well. Beside the clients the license manger is
the second essential component of the system. Last but not
least, the server is the software required to reply clients’
requests. The server is simply a Web server that is able to
register ActiveX controls. Actually, most of common Web
servers are able to register such control. In the current
work, the Internet Information Service (IIS), provided by
Microsoft, was deployed. The three system components are
communicating as shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 3 GUI OO Design

IV. INTERACTIVE WEB BASED SIMULATOR
The graphical system editing, numerical solver and file
III. OVERALL NETWORK APPLICATION TOPOLOGY conversion modules have been encapsulated into an
Web-based applications implement some sort of client- ActiveX control as exhhibited in Fig. 2. The control is
server topology to describe the task and rights sharing supported with sufficient attributes and methods to allow
between client and server. For the developed application Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) and hosted scripts
the client is responsible of graphical system editing and like Java Script and other to communicate with the
handling user command like creation, editing and deletion graphical system editing. The control is supported with
of power system components. On the other hand, the server TCP/IP sockets communication module to allow direct
is managing the user accounts and privileges. While communication with other application on the server
designing the application the following rules have been machine or even with a third party. The following few
taken into consideration. Minimum processing should be sections describe the main features of developed
performed on server side to reduce server requirement and application.
allow small networks to use such application on the level of A. System solver
institute or even a laboratory. The system graphical editing In this reaserch, the solver up to this stage involves only
should be independent from numerical solver for further one basic class for performing power-flow calculations.
extendibility and immerge of new algorithms and scopes of This class utilizes an enhanced current mismatch
analysis. The graphical user interface must be separated formulation for the power-flow solution [9]. In this method,
from graphical system editing to open the horizons of fancy The mismatches for PQ buses are real and imaginary
graphical user interface using Web scripts. The graphical current mismatches similar to current injection mismatches
system editing should be able to export system data to other (CIM) load flow method. The corrections of real and
software packages using slandered format. imaginary voltages are updated every iteration. The
Fig. 1 shows the overall client-server model used which mismatches for PV buses are expressed as power
aims to provide web based interactive power system mismatches and the corresponding correction is the angle of
simulation for students, teachers, engineers and others, they the PV bus. The angle is updated every iteration similar to
present the clients. The clients would use commercial web the standard Newton Raphson method.
browsers like Microsoft Internet Explorer, Firefox and B. Graphical System Editing
Opera. Recently, most Web browsers are able to deploy The graphical user interface and server components
ActiveX technology over wide range of operating systems. implements the object oriented programming. The
The users are assumed to have a basic understanding to developed classes are introduced by the Class Hierarchy
power system components and their properties. When the shown in Fig. 3. The hierarchy chart is based on a base
user requests the simulator Web page, the required ActiveX object (CBaseObj) which handles the data streaming and
controls will be downloaded and be registered to the communication contention. The main data container is the
operating system. Therefore, the Web browser should allow network class (CNetwork). The graphical user interface
the handling of ActiveX controls. On the other hand, objects are derived from the network component class
allowing ActiveX controls may put the client into risk of (CNetworkComponent). Two supplementary classes to
unsafe controls. Therefore, safe control signature is support creation of objects from retrieved data are
obtained from a trusted third parity. introduced. The index generator class (CIndexGenerator)
To allow reasonable follow-up of the application user provide sequentinal number of created object based on their
activities, the user loginning to the system has mandatory type. The object factory generator class (CObjFactory)
authentication. A separate machine should be dedicated for allocates memory for new instantiated instances based on
license management. A valid license does not only involve their types as well.
the right to perform simulation, but it extends to the C. Developed ActiveX Control
maximum number of buses to simulate and number of
326
Picture Key
Fig. 4 Developed Interactive Web Based Application
The window of the ActiveX control is the main window fully or partially transferred to file, other computer or even
for system graphical editing. It has been developed using application on the server. The internal communication be-
Microsoft Foundation Classes (MFC) and Microsoft Visual tween the HTML scripts for editing power system compo-
C++. With implementation of signing and citification me- nents and the developed ActiveX control is shown in Fig. 5.
chanisms the control is recognized as safe and harmless D. Interactive Web Based Application
components and web browsers would allow it for being The final web application is accessible through by regis-
downloaded. tered clients through web browsers such as Internet Explor-
The control acts like normal desktop application window. er as exhibited in Fig. 4. The IEEE 14 bus system is exhi-
It handles mouse events to place, move and select power bited on the window of the ActiveX control with the white
system components stored in a data structure that imple- background. The control is used to edit draw and edit
ments doubly linked lists. The user provides commands graphically the system components. Creation of new com-
such as create new object, delete and edit through methods ponents is commanded from the button to the left of the
calls invoked through Java Scripts. Similarly, file opera- control. The main components presented in the current de-
tions like open, save and export are demand via methods velopment stage are busbars, lines, generator, loads and
invocation. transformers. Each component is assigned a unique index
The user is able to edit component attributes such that on creation. Such index is the main tool for object handling
change and update electrical network variables for the de- in the data structure. The electrical attributes of each objet
veloped power system elements. Other functionalities are are shown in editable after selection in the window to the
attached with the developed GUI like drag and drop tech- right of the control.
nique to move, rotate or delete power system elements on File operation and simulation commands are provided
the drawing area as shown in Fig. 4. As explain earlier, all with buttons located to the top of the control. File opera-
data are stored into a single data structure which can be tions are supported in two formats. The first is application
327
special format including coordinates, colors, size and other
graphical information beside the electrical data of each
component. The data exchange between the solver and the
GUI is based on a specific format created specifically for
the current application.
File System
Properties
ActiveX
HTML Form
Control Fig. 6: Utility of clients’ privilege control
Method
Invocation V. SERVER SIDE LICENSE MANAGEMENT
As expressed earlier, this application is developed with
g m
Co
itin ste
the concept to be distributed tool through the Web. Hereby,

mm
Ed er Sy
two software utilities are implemented to control and moni-

an
w
ds
Po
tor the clients’ privileges and status respectively. The first

utility allows the administrator to determine the clients’
information and privileges. Such information and privileges
Client User include user name, user password, is he allowed to log into
Fig. 5: Internal communication between Web page objects the system, maximum number buses for the study electrical
network and the number of simulations to be performed
…etc. The second utility presents assistance to the adminis-
E. Features and Advantages trator to monitor the status of users’ connectivity to the ap-
The wide availability to Web components technologies, plication. Such utility would be of great importance for the
presented by technology providers like Microsoft, Apple application license management. The two developed utili-
and Sun Microsystems allow for different options. Howev- ties are shown in Fig. 6 and Fig. 7 respectively. The two
er, for ambitious Web-based computational program the utilities are developed with Microsoft VB6.0 programming
main factor that governs the technology selection are language. The more recent VB.net utilities were unem-
processing speed, compatibility with other technologies, ployed to avoid the installation of the Dot-Net framework
extendibility and upgradeability. Java technology as a plat- on several machines. The concept would allow simple
form independent may sound attractive due to its pure ob- software and hard ware configurations to run the applica-
ject oriented features that serve reusability and extendibili- tions.
ty. However, it is relatively slow in processing speed; even The integration of the Web pages and server utilities
its performance is improving gradually. Taking into consid- provides an efferent power system simulation environment.
eration the wide spread of Microsoft operating system and The flexible overall design nominates the system for up-
the rapid improvements of their technologies. Microsoft has grade to meet the more sophisticated academic and indus-
extended its ActiveX technologies to cover several technol- trial requirements. In addition, it is still possible to setup the
ogies provided by other firms on the large range connecting system on a local network with privilege control and moni-
document level to operating system kernel. The ActiveX toring facilities almost over any Microsoft operating sys-
technology is rapidly extending to be identified as a plat- tem.
form technology. ActiveX is defined by a set of integrated
technologies that enable software components in a net-
worked environment to interoperate using any program- VI. COMPATIBILITY AND SECURITY ISSUES
ming language. Hereby, the ActiveX technology has been
To keep the project ant its partners’ rights a certificate
nominated for the current project graphical user interface
file is created to allow users to obtain runtime licensing.
and communication modules. For the integration proposes
That allows the owner of the utility to control the distribu-
with solvers components and administrative tools the de-
tion and utilization policies. Another important issue that
velopment of last two items is implemented.
may cause the controller to generate safety violation alerts
328
for medium safety level browser users. Therefore, the con- [7] Y. S. Ong and H. B. Gooi, “A Web-based Power Flow Simulator for
Power Engineering Education”, IEEE power Engineering Society
troller is able to register itself as script-safe and init-safe.
Summer Meeting, vol. 2, pp. 1002-1007, 1999
The required functionality has been added to the controller [8] Sang-Seung Lee, Ho-Chul Lee, Nack-Hyun Choi, Dong-Hyeon Kim,
as described by Microsoft documentation [10]. Hereby, the Geun-Pyo Park, Song-Keun Lee, Jong-Keun Park, Seung Moon, and
controller will not produce any alerts on medium safety Yong Tae Yoon, “Web-based Power Flow Simulator for Independent
Power Distribution Systems”, Power & Energy Society General Meet-
levels whatever the functionality it performs.
ing, PES '09, IEEE, pp 1 – 6, 2009
[9] H. Chen, Claudio A. Canizares, and Ajit Singh, “Web-based Comput-
ing for Power System Applications”, North American Power Sympo-
VII. CONCLUSIONS sium (NAPS), San Luis Obispo, California, October 1999.
[10] Salah Kamel, Mamdouh Abdel-Akher, M. K. El-Nemr, “ "A New
This paper presents a flexible and extendable Web-based Technique to Improve Voltage Controlled Nodes (PV nodes) in the
Current Injection Newton-Raphson Power-Flow Analysis", Universi-
scheme for power system simulation. The enterprise confi- ties Power Engineering Conference, UPEC 2010, Cardiff, UK
guration of the scheme s presented. The developed software [11] MFC Reference, available on the “http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-
separates apart the graphical user’s commands interface, the us/library/d06h2x6e%28VS.80%29.asp
numerical solution modules and the power system interac-
tive editing. Such separation allow for unlimited upgrade
and extension for the proposed scheme. A simplified class
hierarch is introduced to meet the scheme requirements on
the client side. A simplified Web-based power system ap-
plication is developed to solve load-flow analysis for edu-
cational porous. This application is suitable for electrical
engineering educational applications and at the same time it
can be extended for industry application in online opera-
tion.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors gratefully acknowledge the contribution of
the EU-Egypt Innovation Fund (EEIF) and the contribution
of the US-Egypt Joint Science and Technolgy Fund, STDF
project no. 839 for providing research funding to the work
reported in this research.
REFERENCES
[1] Tamiel L. Veith, John E. Kobza, and C. Patrick Koelling, “World Wide
Web-based Simulation”, Int. J. Eng. Ed., Vol. 14, No. 5, pp. 316-321,
1998
[2] Peter Lorenz , Thomas J. Schriber , Heiko Dorwarth , Klaus-Christoph
Ritter, Towards a Web based simulation environment, Proceedings of
the 29th conference on Winter simulation, p.1338-1344, December 07-
10, 1997, Atlanta, Georgia, United States
[3] B. Bitzer and Hezron, “Applications of web-based learning for power
engineering in the world” Proc. of the 44th International Universities
Power Engineering Conference, (UPEC), pp. 1 – 4, 2009
[4] M. Wannous and Hiroshi Nakano, “NVLab, a Networking Virtual
Web- ased Laboratory that Implements Virtualization and Virtual
Network Computing Technologies”, IEEE Trans. On Learning Tech-
nologies, Early Access, 2010
[5] Christian Schaffner, “An Internet-Based Load Flow Visualization
Software for Education in Power Engineering” IEEE Power Engineer-
ing Society Winter Meeting, vol. 2, pp. 1415 – 1420, August 2002
[6] Kwang-Min Yang, Ki-Song Lee, Jong-Bae Park, and Joong-Rin Shin,
”The Development of on Educational Web-Based Power Flow Simula-
tor”, PO3-27, Proceeding of the International Conference on Electrical
Engineering, ICEE 2004, Sapporo Convention Center, Sapporo, July
4-8, 2004
329
Field Weakening in PMSM Model based

Predictive Control
Pavel Václavek and Petr Blaha
Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Department of Control and Instrumentation
Brno University of Technology
Brno, Czech Republic
e-mail: vaclavek@feec.vutbr.cz, blahap@feec.vutbr.cz
Abstract—Drives based on permanent magnet synchronous Iq

machines become more and more popular in many indus- MT PA
trial applications. In most application traditional control T = const
algorithms are used leading to problems with the drive MT PF
A
operation optimization. The paper presents a method of field
weakening implementation in model based predictive control
scheme.
Keywords—PMSM drive, model predictive control, field

weakening
Id
Us = Usmax Is = Ismax
I. I NTRODUCTION B
Drives based on permanent magnet synchronous ma-
chines become more and more popular in many industrial
applications. The main reason is their relatively simple
and reliable construction and good dynamical properties.
While the basic theory of PMSM control is well known,
there are still many topics witch are in the sight of many
research topics. The most important topics seem to be: Figure 1. Field weakening characteristics
• sensorless control - drive control without mechanical
quantities sensors;
• high speed operation - field weakening control; where
• high performance control and drive operation opti- ud , uq stator voltage components in rotating frame;
mization id , iq stator current components in stationary frame;
R stator resistance
Results of the first topic research were described in earlier Ld , Lq stator inductance components
authors’ papers [1], [2]. This paper deals especially with ΨM EMF constant
the second topic. It describes unified approach based on ωre rotor angular speed (electrical speed)
model predictive control, which is able to cover both p number of pole pairs
problems of high-speed control as well as the drive T produced mechanical torque
operation optimization. J moment of inertia
Classical PMSM vector control algorithm is based on
II. C ONTROL A LGORITHM the idea that according to the (2) the machine torque is
A. Vector Control controlled only by iq stator current component, while
the machine magnetic flux is produced by a permanent
The mathematical model of a PMSM drive is usually magnet only and the id stator current component is
defined in the rotating reference frame d − q by 2-phase controlled to be zero.
voltage equations [3]
Vector control become rather complicated under maxi-
mal stator voltage and current constraints (Fig. 1). In this
 
did
L d
situation so called field weakening should be considered.
ud  dt 
+ R −ωre Lq id 0
= + , The field weakening analytical solution is quite difficult
uq  diq  ωre Ld R iq ΨM ωre
Lq [4]. It can be shown, that it is possible to minimize the
dt stator current and also losses, when the relation between
(1)
3 stator current components amplitudes Iq , Id is held to be
T = p [ΨM iq + (Ld − Lq )id iq ] , (2)
2 s
ΨM
dωre p Iq = ± Id + Id2 . (4)
= (T − TL ), (3) (Ld − Lq )
dt J
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 330

The equation (4) defines Maximal torque per ampere n prediction horizon length ;
(MTPA) curve, which can be used for the machine con- P symmetrical positive definite predicted final state
trol in the region below current and voltage limitations. weighting matrix;
Similarly in the case when stator voltage limitation occurs Q symmetrical positive definite predicted state
during high-speed operation the relation between the rotor weighting matrix;
speed and stator current components can be found to R symmetrical positive definite control value
achieve maximal torque. The so called Maximal torque weighting matrix;
and constraints x ∈ X , u ∈ U solution of the MPC task
per flux (MTPF) curve can be described by
is equal to the solution of the Jn minimization problem
2 under constraints
Usmax
Iq2 = +
ωre Lq ∀j ∈ h1, ni x(k + j) ∈ X
2 2 ∀j ∈ h0, n − 1i u(k + j) ∈ X
 s 
2
(9)

1 ΨM 1 ΨM 1 Usmax 
+ − + . ∀j ∈ h0, n − 1i x(k + j + 1) =
4 Lq − Ld 4 Lq − Ld 2 ωre Lq
= Ax(k + j) + Bu(k + j).
(5)
This task can be solved easily using quadratic program-
B. Model Predictive Control ming numerical solution, but only for constraints formed
Classical vector control is based on the cascade control by polytopic sets. Following assumptions have to be made
structure with several PI and PID controllers. Proper to be able to write PMSM model as (7):
tuning of these controllers is very difficult especially when
• the terms ωre (k)iq (k), ωre (k)id (k) and id (k)iq (k)
the field weakening algorithms are considered. Moreover
will be assumed to be a measured disturbances, the
practical implementation is nearly impossible in vector
state vector will be extended to contain these values;
control scheme if power consumption constraints and
• load torque is unknown, its value will not be con-
optimization requirements are present. Model predictive
sidered to be the system input.
control can effectively deal with stator current and voltage
limitation as well as other constraints. Common assumption that the controller output is the
One of possible solutions to the above mentioned control value difference ∆u instead of u should be
problems is application of the model predictive control considered to reject unwanted control value penalization
in one of its alternatives[5], [6]. PMSM model (1) - (3) in steady state as well as to reduce steady state error.
can be easily transferred to the discrete time form Using these assumptions we can get PMSM model
# τ 1 0 0
" 
id (k + 1)
 
id (k)

id (k + 1) ud (k)
" #
Ld
iq (k + 1) =  0 1
τ Lq 0  uq (k) +  iq (k + 1)   iq (k) 
 ωre (k + 1)  ud (k)  ω (k) 
   
ωre (k + 1) 0 0 −τ Jp TL ω i (k + 1) = B u (k) + A ω rei (k) , (10)

R Lq
  re q  q  re q 
1 − τ Ld τ ωre (k) Ld 0 ωre id (k + 1) ωre id (k)
+ −τ ωre (k) L d
1 − τ LRq  (6)
−τ LΨq  id iq (k + 1) id iq (k)

Lq
2 2
τ 3p
2J (Ld − Lq )iq (k) τ 3p
2J ΨM 1 where matrix A is
id (k)
" #
Lq
iq (k) .
1 − τ R 0 0 τ 0 0

Ld Ld
L
ωre (k)  0 1−τ R
Lq
Ψ
−τ m
Lq
0 −τ d
Lq
0 
 3p2 3p2 
0 τ ΨM 1 0 0 τ (Ld − Lq )
2J 2J
This model is nonlinear due to the occurrence of the state
 
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0
variables product. In general MPC solution for non-linear 0 0 0 0 0 1
case is rather complicated task and widely used numerical (11)

methods support linear systems only. For linear system and
 1
described by the state equation τ Ld 0

 0 τ L1q 
x(k + 1) = Ax(k) + Bu(k) (7)  
B= 0 0  , (12)

 0 0 
cost function 
0 0

Jn (k) =x(k + n)T P x(k + n)+ 0 0

n−1
X which can be after augmenting previous control value
+ x(k + j)T Qx(k + j)+ (control value replaced by it difference) and speed set-
j=0 (8) point ωrew (tracking problem to be solved) to the state
n−1
X vector
+ u(k + j)T Ru(k + j) ud (k + 1) = ud (k) + τ ∆ud (k)
j=0
uq (k + 1) = uq (k) + τ ∆uq (k) (13)
where ωrew (k + 1) = ωrew (k)
331
transferred into
id (k + 1) id (k)
   
 iq (k + 1)   iq (k) 
 ω (k + 1)   ω (k) 
 re   re 
ωre iq (k + 1) ωre iq (k)
ωre id (k + 1) = A′ ωre id (k) + B ′ ∆ud (k) ,
   
 
 id iq (k + 1) 
 
 id iq (k)  ∆uq (k)
 ωrew (k + 1)   ωrew (k) 
   
 u (k + 1)   u (k) 
d d
uq (k + 1) uq (k)
(14)
where matrix A′ is
L

1 − τ LRd 0 0 τ Ldq 0
 0
 1 − τ LRq −τ ΨLm
q
0 −τ L
Lq
d
2
τ 3p

 0
 2J ΨM 1 0 0
 0 0 0 1 0

 0 0 0 0 1
 0 0 0 0 0

 0 0 0 0 0

Figure 2. Stator voltage and current limitation
 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
(15)
0 0 τ
0 way as in [7]

Ld
τ
0 0 0 Lq  P =0

2
τ 3p
2J (Ld − Lq ) 0 0 0  
qid 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0  0 qiq 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0  0 0 qωre 0 0 0 −qωre 0 0
1 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
  
0 0 1 0
 Q=0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0

0 −qωre 0 0 0 qωre 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
and 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0
 
r 0
0 0 R = ∆ud
0 0 r∆uq
 0 (18)
0 0 The model (14), cost function (8),(18) and polytopic
(16)
′
 
0
B = 0. approximation of (17) lead to the complete MPC problem
0 0 definition. The MPC design can be than performed using
0 0
 
quadratic programming [8]. The algorithm was success-
τ 0 fully verified by several authors [7] with good results.
0 τ
While the performance of the control designed as
The model (14) is well defined to be used for MPC design. shown above is rather good, it cannot provide field
It is necessary also to mention system constraints given weakening feature as the term terms corresponding with
by stator current and voltage limitations back EMF are considered to be constant during the
prediction horizon. Assume, that the quantities id , iq
u2d + u2q ≤ Umax and ωre changes only little on prediction horizon. Than
(17) approximately
i2d + i2q ≤ Imax ,
ud − Rid + ωre Lq iq ≈ 0 (19)
where Umax , Imax are maximal allowed stator voltage and
and current values. Other constraints can be considered
(maximal torque, power,...), but those defined by (17) 1
id (k + 1) − id (k) = (ud (k + 1) − ud (k)), (20)
have to be implemented always. While the limitations R
(17) are quadratic constraints, numerical methods used 1
for effective solution of quadratic programming (9) can ωre id (k + 1) = ωre id (k) + ωre (ud (k + 1) − ud (k)) =
R
use polytopic constraints only. To overcome this problem 1
many authors use an approximation of the circle with a = ωre id (k) + ωre τ ∆ud (k) =
R
polygon as shown at Fig. 2. = ωre id (k) + K∆ud (k),
Cost function (8) matrices can be constructed in similar (21)
332
minimization of the cost function. The algorithm can be
described by following steps:
1) current state vector x(k) is measured;
2) subset of control sequences Us ⊆ Un is created
using set of knowledge-based rules (eg. when the
speed error is big positive, control sequences start-
ing with action reducing drive torque are rejected);
3) for each control sequence
us = (u(k), u(k + 1), . . . , u(k + n − 1)) ∈ Us
corresponding segment of the state trajectory
xs (x(k), us ) = (x(k + 1), x(k + 2), . . . , x(k + n))
is computed using the PMSM model (6);
4) all control sequences us leading to the state trajec-
tory segment xs violating constraints (17) (or other
additional constraints) are removed from Us ;
5) control sequence minimizing cost function is
selected
usmin = arg min J(xs (x(k), us ), us , ωrew )

us ∈Us
Figure 3. Stator voltage vectors (24)
6) first value from the control sequence usmin is
applied to the electrical drive, and the algorithm is
where K = ωre R1 τ . The electrical rotor speed ωre has repeated from step 1 at the next sampling instant.
to be assumed to be constant to obtain LTI system, that
can be easily controlled using MPC scheme. Reasonable The proposed algorithm works with the original non-
assumption is to linearize the system around the nominal linear drive model. It can be easily extended with other
drive speed and to compute K value with ωre equal to the constraints as well as non-linearities (eg. saturation ef-
nominal electrical angular velocity. Similar assumption fects).
can be made also for ωre iq term. Using (21), input matrix
B ′ can be changed to III. S IMULATIONS

0 0
 The algorithms has been implemented in Matlab-
0 0 Simulink environment and tested using parameters of a
0 0
  real PMSM TGDrives drive.
 0 K
TABLE I.
(22)
 
B′ =  K 0  .

PMSM DRIVE PARAMETERS
0 0
0 0 Parameter Value Unit
 
τ 0 Stator resistance R 0.273 Ω
0 τ Stator inductance Ld 0.65 mH
Stator inductance Lq 0.7 mH
This simple change allows to make rough prediction of Magnetic flux Ψm 8.67 mVs
back-emf changes during the prediction horizon allowing Shaft momentum of inertia J 0.00005 kg.m2
MPC optimization algorithms to find solution leading to
Pole pairs number p 3
field weakening.
Maximal stator voltage Umax 7 V
Unfortunately polytopic approximation of voltage and Maximal stator current Imax 4 A
current limitation leads to high complexity of MPC con-
troller designed by quadratic programming. That is why
we are trying to design a MPC algorithm based on other
approach. The proposed method is based on the idea that A. MPC based on quadratic programming
the finite number of trajectories can be evaluated directly
without quadratic programming [5], [6]. Instead of the Model predictive controller was designed using
control value u ∈ Rn discrete voltage vectors quadratic programming and MPT toolbox. The criterion
coefficients were set to qid = 10000, qiq = 0.02, qωre =
u ∈ U = {U0 , U1 , . . . , Ur }, (23) 1200, r∆ud = 0.2, r∆uq = 0.2. Step response of the
drive with the setpoint ωrew = 100rad.s−1 can be seen at
j 2π
where U0 = 0, ∀m ∈ h1, ri Um = Umax e (m−1) are r Fig. 4. The drive was able to achieve high speed when the
assumed (Fig. 3). If the prediction horizont length is n, field weakening was needed. Stator current components
impact of all possible control sequences us ∈ U on the are shown at Fig. 5. It can be seen, that the MPC algorithm
system state has to be evaluated. In practical application, performs field weakening by setting negative value of id
some of the control sequences can be omitted using rules stator current component automatically as the drive speed
avoiding evaluation of sequences which cannot lead to increases.
333
ωre [rad s−1 ] ωre [rad s−1 ]
400
100
350
300 80
250
60
200
150 40
100
20
50
0 t[s] 0 t[s]
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0 0.01 0.02 0.03
Figure 4. MPC high-speed operation with field-weakening Figure 6. Electrical rotor speed response
id ; iq [A] iq [A]
2 3
2
1
1
0 t[s]
0 t[s] 0.01 0.02 0.03
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 −1
Figure 5. Stator current id (blue) and iq (red) response Figure 7. Stator current iq response
B. Control using finite set of voltage vectors Fig. 6. It can be seen, that the required speed is achieved
In all experiments, the cost function very quickly without remarkable overshoot.
n n
The Fig. 7 documents behavior of the iq stator current
X X component (and indirectly machine produced torque). It
J =qid id (k + j)2 + qiq iq (k + j)2 +
can be noticed, that the current limitation works well, id
j=1 j=1
n (25) current is controlled to zero while iq is controlled to its
X maximal value 4A in transient state. Significant noise in
+ qωre (ωr e(k + j) − ωrew )2
the current curve is caused by low number of switched
j=1
voltage vectors in conjunction with fast drive dynamics.
was used with qid = 10, qiq = 1, qωre = 10000. 2) Field Weakening: The second experiment is
1) Current Limitation: In the first experiment, the aimed to high-speed operation performance. The sam-
algorithm ability to control machine speed together with pling period was set to τ = 32.25µs, prediction
current limitation was tested. The sampling period was horizon length n = 3, and number of voltage vec-
set to τ = 32.25µs, prediction horizon length n = 3, tors r = 8. Drive speed step response to setpoint
and number of voltage vectors r = 8. Drive speed step ωrew = 400rad.s−1 is shown at Fig. 8. It can be seen,
response to setpoint ωrew = 100rad.s−1 is shown at that the drive cannot achieve required speed. It seems
334
ωre [rad s−1 ] ωre [rad s−1 ]
400 400
350 350
300 300
250 250
200 200
150 150
100 100
50 50
0 t[s] 0 t[s]
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
Figure 8. High-speed operation Figure 9. High-speed operation with field-weakening
to be strange because we can expect that the MPC systems. Model predictive control can be expected to be
strategy should minimize the cost function and perform widely used drive control algorithm in very near future.
field weakening enabling rotor speed increase. The reason
for this behavior is a short prediction horizon. It can be ACKNOWLEDGMENT
shown, that in the case of discrete time model, field- The research has been supported by Czech Science
weakening can lead to machine torque decrease locally. Foundation under the project GA P103/10/0647 "Intel-
Now we try to use a longer prediction horizon. ligent Electrical Drives Predictive and Robust Control
We will also use a longer sampling period and Algorithms", the Ministry of Education of the Czech
lower number of the voltage vectors to achieve rea- Republic in the frame of MSM 0021630529 Research
sonable computational complexity. The sampling pe- Intention "Inteligent Systems in Automation" and by
riod was set to τ = 125µs, the prediction horizon Freescale Semiconductor Czech Republic (former divi-
length n = 4, and the number of voltage vectors sion of Motorola).
r = 6. Drive speed response to step setpoint change
ωrew = 400rad.s−1 is shown at Fig. 9 for this case. R EFERENCES
Because of the longer prediction horizon, the algorithm [1] P. Vaclavek and P. Blaha, “Lyapunov-function-based flux and speed
can overcome local minima and the field-weakening can observer for AC induction motor sensorless control and parameters
occur. The drive can achieve higher rotor speed than in estimation,” IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol. 53,
the case with one step shorter prediction horizon. no. 1, pp. 138–145, February 2006.
[2] P. Vaclavek and P. Blaha, “PMSM position estimation algorithm
design based on the estimate stability analysis,” Proceedings of the
IV. C ONCLUSION 2009 International Conference on Electrical Machines and Systems
ICEMS, Tokyo, November 2009.
Some of the limitation of MPC design based on [3] Z. Chen, M. Tomita, S. Doki, and S. Okuma, “An extended electro-
quadratic programming were described. A PMSM control motive force model for sensorless control of interior permanent-
method based on the direct evaluation of finite num- magnet synchronous motors,” IEEE Transactions on Industrial
Electronics, vol. 50, no. 2, pp. 288–295, April 2003.
ber of discrete trajectories was proposed and proved [4] P. Vaclavek and P. Blaha, “Interior permanent magnet synchronous
in simulation. The simulation results showed important machine field weakening control strategy - the analytical solution,”
impact of a proper selection of the prediction horizon Proceedings of the 2008 SICE Annual Conference, pp. 753–757,
length. At this moment the proposed algorithm cannot Tokyo, August 2008.
[5] T. Geyer, G. Papafotiou, M. Morari, “Model Predictive Direct
be implemented easily in a real control system because
Torque ControlŮPart I: Concept, Algorithm, and Analysis,” IEEE
of extreme computational demands. Its computational op- Transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol. 56, no. 6, pp. 1894–
timization will be the subject of further research, leading 1905, June 2009.
to practical evaluation of the algorithm performance on a [6] G. Papafotiou, J. Kley, K.G. Papadopoulos, P. Bohren, M. Morari,
real machine. “Model Predictive Direct Torque ControlŮPart II: Implementation
and Experimental Evaluation,” IEEE Transactions on Industrial
Model predictive control application in PMSM drive Electronics, vol. 56, no. 6, pp. 1906–1915, June 2009.
control systems is a very promising. At this moment its [7] S. Bolognani, L. Perreti, M. Zigliotto, “Design and Implementation
practical use is limited by the model predictive control of Model Predictive Control for Electrical Motor Drives,” IEEE
Transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol. 56, no. 6, pp. 1925–
high computational demands. Nowadays we are able to 1936, June 2009.
observe very rapid development in microcontrollers tech- [8] M. Kvasnica, P. Grieder, M. Baotic, “Multi-Parametric Toolbox
nologies lowering production costs of powerful control (MPT),” 2004. Available: http://control.ee.ethz.ch/mpt/
335
Detection of Transformer Winding Axial

Displacement Using Scattering Parameter and
ANN
Maryam A. Hejazi Hasan A. Alehoseini Gevork B. Gharehpetian
Dept. of Electrical Eng. Dep. of Electrical eng. Dept. of Electrical Eng.
Amirkabir Uni. of Tech. Amirkabir Uni. of Tech. Amirkabir Uni. of Tech.
Tehran, Iran Tehran, Iran Tehran, Iran
akhavanhejazi@aut.ac.ir ali_alehosseini@yahoo.com grptian@aut.ac.ir
Abstract—The method of the on-line monitoring of In the off-line method, which means that the transformer is
transformer winding axial displacements using scattering out of operation, the transformer is switched on and off on the
parameters has been presented in this paper. In this method, the high voltage side (HV-side). Thereby, the transformer is
signature of the transformer is the scattering parameters, which usually disconnected from the power network on the low
are calculated using high frequency simulation software and voltage side (LV-side) [7]. The well-known FRA method has
saved for further analysis as a base case. The new simulations been carried out off-line. The off-line methods will not meet
can be compared with this case, to detect the axial displacement
all the needs of the transformer monitoring system.
of transformer winding. Based on simulations on the simplified
model of the transformer winding, it is shown that the proposed In the on-line method, the frequency response should be
method can discriminate between the displaced and intact measured during the operation of the transformer. The
windings. The displacement extent can be determined using stochastic transient over-voltages caused by the switching and
Artificial Neural Network. lightning can be used to determine the transfer function. This
method does not require switching of the transformer and have
Index Terms— Winding Axial Displacement, On-Line the benefit of continuous monitoring of transformer winding.
Monitoring, Transformer, Scattering Parameters, Artificial Many factors affect this method such as response of arresters
Neural Network.
and different power system topologies. The measurement
timing depends on the time of occurrence of the over voltage
I. INTRODUCTION transients [9]. This method is in the research phase and has not
T ransformer winding failures account for 19 percent of the

transformer failures [1]. Due to short circuits, mechanical
forces mainly can cause axial displacement and/or radial
been used for any transformer.
Compared to off-line methods, an on-line method has the
advantage of the stationary installation and hence an improved
deformation, which may not result in an immediate failure of reproducibility of the test. The merit of an on-line monitoring
the transformer, but the ability of transformer to resist against method over off-line methods is the prediction of the
future dielectric and mechanical stresses may be highly important fault before its occurrence.
decreased [2, 3]. In this paper, a new on-line monitoring method has been
Condition monitoring of transformers is desirable for proposed based on the simulation of scattering parameter of
increasing their availability, reducing consequential damage or the winding. This method, the same as FRA method, is based
catastrophic failure of power transformer. There are several on the comparison of results. The simulation results have
transformer mechanical damages monitoring and diagnostic shown that the scattering parameter of the winding can be
methods. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages used as a fingerprint for the detection of the winding axial
[4, 5]. In recent years, several off-line methods such as Short displacement [10].
Circuit test (SC) [2], Low Voltage Impulse (LVI) [5] and
Frequency Response Analysis (FRA) [4] have been proposed II. MONITORING BASED ON SCATTERING PARAMETER
for the detection of the winding displacement. This method is based on the measurement of the magnitude
In the short circuit test method, the short circuit reactance is and phase of scattering parameters measured by several
measured while the transformer is disconnected. In this antennas. A scheme of a model transformer which is
method, the sensitivity of the reactance to the winding
considered as an N-port microwave network is shown in Fig.1.
displacement is very low, and the type and the location of the
It is assumed that N incoming waves are transmitted through
mechanical damage in the winding cannot be determined [4]. the dielectric window on the tank of the transformer and N
In the FRA method, experimental approaches of comparison outgoing waves are received.
are: time-based, type based and construction-based. The FRA The N incoming wave complex amplitudes are usually
method can be used off-line and on-line [7, 8].
1
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 336

designated by the N complex quantities V N and the N
+ transformer and the frequency of the electromagnetic wave,
outgoing wave complex quantities are designated by the N the inner parts (core and LV winding) can be neglected and
−
only the outer surface of HV winding should be modeled.
complex quantities V N .The incoming and outgoing waves are
sorted in vectors V
+
and V − , respectively.
(a)
Fig.1: A model transformer as an N-port network
The relationship between these two vectors can be expressed

by the equation (1):
⎡ V −1 ⎤ ⎡ S11 S12 . . . S1N ⎤ ⎡ V +1 ⎤
⎢ − ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢V 2 ⎥ ⎢ S 21 S 22 . . . S2N ⎥⎢ V + 2 ⎥
⎢ . ⎥ ⎢ . . . . . . ⎥⎢ . ⎥
⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ . . . . . ⎥⎢ . ⎥ (1)
⎢
.
⎥ ⎢ . . . . . . ⎥⎢ . ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣V − N ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣S N1 S N 2 . . . S NN ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣V + N ⎥⎦
(b)
In equation (1), S is a N × N matrix with complex elements
50mm
called the "scattering matrix". It completely determines the
behavior of the network. In general, the elements of this
matrix, which are termed “Scattering parameters” or “S-
parameters”, are frequency-dependent [11]. 49.6mm
III. TEST SET-UP AND SIMULATION PROCEDURE

A simplified single-phase model of transformer, used in this
(c)
paper, is shown in Fig.2. The model is based on ideal metallic
cylinder in a metallic tank. The inner metallic cylinder LV Winding
represents the LV winding while the outer metallic cylinder
represents the HV winding. The dimensions of the model are
approximately 5 percent of a real one and presented in Fig.2. HV Winding
The antenna of the model is a rectangular aperture with the
dimensions of a standard X-band waveguide (WR90). The
excitation frequency should be between the first and second
cut-off frequencies (i.e., 6.6 and 14.7 GHz for the model) to
have a single mode of propagation.
From the electromagnetic waves point of view, if the
diameter of a hole is less than 0.1 of the wavelength, then the (d)
wave cannot enter the hole. The wavelength at the middle of Fig. 2: Simplified model of transformer a) Three dimensional view, b) Side
the band is 31mm which is greater than one tenth of the view of transformer model, c) Top view of transformer model and d) Side
distance between the high voltage winding disks in the view of winding model
reduced scales (i.e., 6mm×0.05=0.3mm). As a result,
In this research, only one rectangular aperture has been
considering the dimensions of the HV winding of a power
2
337
modeled. As a result, the S-matrix dimension is 1 × 1 .The Where, Pin is the transmitting power and Pref is the
single element of the S-matrix is easily determined by the
following equation: receiving power of the antenna [11].
− The scattering parameters are simulated for different axial
V1 positions of the winding model.
S11 = + (2)
V1 Fig.3 and Fig.4 show the magnitude and the phase of
scattering parameters over the frequency band for the
The above equation can be rewritten in the following simple
reference position (normal condition) and for four other
form versus power values:
positions which the cylinder has been shifted in steps of %
Pref 0.125 of the transformer height.
S11 = (3)
Pin
-5
-10
Magnitude of S Parameters(dB)
-15
-20
-25
-30
-35
0
-40 0.1
0.2
-45 0.3
0.4
-50
7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11 11.5 12
Frequency(GHz)
Fig.3: Magnitude of S-parameters over frequency band for reference position and for four other positions (mm).
200
150
Phase of S Parameters(Degree)
100
50
-50
0
-100
0.1
0.2
-150 0.3
0.4
-200
7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11 11.5 12
Frequency(GHz)
Fig.4: Phase of S-parameters over frequency band for reference position and for four other positions (mm)
in the system identification and modeling complex nonlinear

IV. DETERMINATION OF AXIAL DISPLACEMENT EXTENT systems, where obtaining a mathematical model is difficult
USING ANN and tiring [12]. Therefore, ANN can be used to model the
Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) have been widely used nonlinear behavior of S-parameters. In this paper, the ANN is
a four-layered multilayer perceptron (MLP) of MATLAB
3
338
Neural Network Toolbox. Levenberg–Marquardt (LM) feed TABLE I:
REAL AND ESTIMATED DISPLACEMENT
forward back propagation algorithm has been used for the
Real Estimated Error
training of ANN. MLP networks with back-propagation have Displacement Displacement Error (%)
been used successfully for many fault detection and diagnosis (mm) (mm) (mm)
applications [13, 14 and 15]. -4.6 -4.68 0.08 0.1
Different ANN topologies (different number of layers and -4.3 -4.26 0.04 0.05
number of neurons in each hidden layer) have been tested, to -4.1 -4.62 0.52 0.65
achieve good performance. The ANN with the best -3.8 -3.56 0.24 0.3
performance has 201 inputs, two hidden layers (with 15 and 8 -3.5 -3.39 0.11 0.1375
neurons) and one output. Fig.5 shows the structure of the -3.1 -2.91 0.19 0.2375
neural network. -2.8 -2.84 0.04 0.05
-2.3 -2.3 0 0
-2 -2.01 0.01 0.0125
Output
-1.7 -1.48 0.22 0.275
-1.3 -1.43 0.13 0.1625
1 neuron -1.1 -1.13 0.03 0.0375
0.1 0.163 0.06 0.075
0.4 0.331 0.07 0.0875
0.7 1.02 0.32 0.4
1 1.414 0.41 0.5125
8 neurons
1.4 1.594 0.19 0.2375
2 1.701 0.3 0.375
2.3 2.398 0.1 0.125
2.7 2.823 0.12 0.15
15 neurons
3.1 3.042 0.06 0.075
3.4 3.386 0.01 0.0125
3.7 3.762 0.06 0.075
201 neurons 4.1 3.858 0.24 0.3
4.2 4.443 0.24 0.3
Input 4.4 4.707 0.31 0.3875
4.5 4.878 0.38 0.475
4.7 4.261 0.44 0.55
Fig.5: Proposed structure of ANN
The results show that the displacement can be accurately
Different displacements have been applied to the
determined by an expert system. The displacement
transformer model (Fig.2) and the magnitude and phase of S-
determination method can be summarized, as follows:
parameters have been measured by the software for each
position. The results have been divided to the training and test Step 1: Measurement of scattering parameter of a transformer,
data.
Step 2: Developing a data bank for scattering parameters in
The ANN has been trained by 71 different training data and specified axial displacements of the transformer winding,
then the proposed ANN has been used to estimate the amount
of upward or downward displacement. The results are listed in Step 3: Training of ANN and
Table I.
Step 4: Using the trained ANN for the estimation of an
Considering the real and estimated displacement, the percent unknown axial displacement extent in a sister unit
of error ( Error (%) ) is calculated, by the following equation: transformer.
Error (mm) V. CONCLUSION

Error (%) = × 100 (4)
Winding Height
In this paper, the on-line monitoring of the transformer
winding has been investigated using scattering parameters. To
As it can be seen in Table II, the axial displacement of the show the capability of the method, the scattering parameters of
winding can be estimated with a maximum error of 0.65 %. a simplified model of transformer have been simulated by
using high frequency software in different axial positions.
ANN has been used to estimate the exact extent of the
displacement. It can discriminate between upward and
downward displacements, too.
The merits of the proposed method can be summarized, as
follows:
339
• In this method, there is not any electrical connection to the [4] Christian, J.; Feser, K.; , "Procedures for detecting winding
displacements in power transformers by the transfer function
windings. Therefore, neither the high voltage nor the low method," Power Delivery, IEEE Transactions on , vol.19, no.1, pp.
voltage windings of the transformer should be 214- 220, Jan. 2004
disconnected from the network. [5] Rahimpour, E.; Christian, J.; Feser, K.; Mohseni, H.; , "Transfer
• This method can be used for off-line and on-line function method to diagnose axial displacement and radial
deformation of transformer windings," Power Delivery, IEEE
applications. Transactions on , vol.18, no.2, pp. 493- 505, April 2003
• Transformers can be monitored in the specific intervals or [6] Chen, W., Sun, C., Yun, Y. Xie, Z. (2002) . . Int. Conf. on
continuously. Power System Technology. v3, 1966- 1969
[7] Leibfried, T., & Feser, K. (1999) .Monitoring of power
• The extent of the axial displacement can be determined by transformers using the transfer function method. IEEE Trans.
the suggested method. Power Deliv. , v. 14, 1333-1341.
• The sensitivity to displacements is higher than FRA [8] Leibfried, T., & Feser, K. (1996) .Off-line and On-line
method, because scattering parameters are measured at Monitoring of Power Transformers using the Transfer Function
Method. IEEE Int. Symp. on Electrical Insulation, 1, 34-37.
higher frequencies. [9] Leibfried, T., & Feser, K.(1994) .On-line monitoring of
• The detection accuracy of the axial winding displacement transformers by means of the transfer function method. IEEE Int.
depends on the transmitter frequency, i.e., decreasing the Symp. on Electrical Insulation, June 5-8, Pittsburgh, PA USA
wavelength enhances the sensitivity of the proposed [10] M.A. Hejazi, G. B. Gharehpetian , A. Mohammadi
“Characterization of On-line Monitoring of Transformer Winding
method. Axial Displacement Using Electromagnetic Waves” 15th
• This method cannot be affected by the power factor of the International Symposium on High Voltage Engineering, ISH 2007,
load and loading conditions. Aug. 27-31, 2007, Ljubljana, Slovenia
[11] Pozar, David M. (2005) .Microwave Engineering. (3rd ed.). John
• The antenna movement is not necessary. Wiley & Sons Inc.
[12] M.-Y. Chow, R. N. Sharpe, and J. C. Hung, “On the application
and design of artificial neural networks for motor fault detection,”
VI. ACKNOWLEDGMENT IEEE Trans. Ind.Electron., vol. 40, no. 2, pp. 181–188, Apr. 1993.
[13] P. V. Goode and M.-Y. Chow, “Using a neural/fuzzy system to
The financial support of Tehran Regional Electric Co. extract heuristic knowledge of incipient faults in induction motors:
(TREC) towards this research is hereby acknowledged. Part II-application,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Elect., vol. 42, no. 2, pp.
139–146, Apr.1995.
[14] Z. Ye, B.Wu, and A. R. Sadeghian, “Induction motor mechanical
VII. REFERENCES fault online diagnosis with the application of artificial neural
[1] Bengtsson, C.; , "Status and trends in transformer monitoring," network,” in Proc. IEEE Applied Power Electronics Conf., 2001,
Power Delivery, IEEE Transactions on , vol.11, no.3, pp.1379- pp. 1015–1020.
1384, Jul 1996 [15] A. Bernieri, G. Betta, and C. Liguori, “On-line fault detection and
[2] Xu, D.K.; Huang, J.H.; Li, Y.M.; , "On-line monitoring of diagnosis obtained by implementing neural network on a digital
winding deformation of power transformer," Electrical Insulating signal processor,” IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas., vol. 45, no. 5, pp.
Materials, 2001. (ISEIM 2001). Proceedings of 2001 International 894–899, Oct. 1996.
Symposium on , vol., no., pp.853-856, 2001
[3] Morched, A.S.; Marti, L.; Brierley, R.H.; Lackey, J.G.; ,
"Analysis of internal winding stresses in EHV generator step-up
transformer failures," Power Delivery, IEEE Transactions on ,
vol.11, no.2, pp.888-894, Apr 1996
340
Performance Comparison of MLP and RBF

Neural Networks for Fault Location in
Distribution Networks with DGs
Hadi Zayandehroodi*, Azah Mohamed*, Hussain Shareef * and Marjan Mohammadjafari**
* Department of Electrical, University kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Selangor, Malaysia
** Department of Engineering, Kerman Branch, Islamic Azad University, Kerman, Iran
h.zayandehroodi@yahoo.com, azah@eng.ukm.my, hussain_ln@yahoo.com, marjan_mohamadjafari@yahoo.com
Abstract— With high penetration of distributed generations the faulted phases and locating the faulty protective
(DGs), power distribution system is regarded as a devices. These methods, however, do not consider
multisource system in which fault location scheme must be distribution networks with distributed generation (DG).
direction sensitive. This paper presents an automated fault From a technical viewpoint, the presence of distributed
location method using radial basis function neural network
(RBFNN) for a distribution system with DG units. In the
generators in a distribution network would result in some
proposed method, the fault type is first determined by conflicts in the operation of the present network because
normalizing the fault currents of the main source and then distribution network configuration is no longer radial in
fault location is predicted by using RBFNN. Several case structure. The conventional fault location scheme is
studies have been considered to verify the accuracy of the suitable for locating faults in a system with a single
RBFNN. A comparison is also made between the RBFNN source and radial supply line or with multi-source open
and the conventional multilayer perceptron neural network loop operation. With DGs in a distribution network,
for locating faults in a power distribution system with DGs. determining the exact location of faults is becoming
The test results showed that the RBFNN can accurately complicated, as faults are fed by multi-sources. Hence,
determine the location of faults in a distribution system with
several DG units.
the existence of DGs in a distribution network poses a
difficulty in locating faults in the network. The aim of the
Keywords—Fault location; distributed generation (DG); research is to develop an accurate and automated fault
distribution network; radial basis function neural network location method for a distribution network with
(RBFNN); multilayer perceptron neural network (MLPNN). distributed generators by identifying the faulty line.
Recently, fault location methods have been
I. INTRODUCTION developed by taking into account the presence of DGs in
With increasing reliance on electricity, customers a distribution network [6]. Zhu & Lu developed a fault
want reliable power supply with reduced outage time and location algorithm for a distribution system with DGs by
operating costs. When a fault occurs in a distribution using current measurements [7, 8]. In this method, after a
network, it is important to quickly locate the fault by faulted segment is located, islands are formed involving
identifying either a faulty bus or a faulty line section in groups of DGs. To match the loads with the DGs
the network. Without locating the faulty section, no generating capability in an island, a load shedding
attempts can be made to remove the faults and restore the scheme is implemented and a mechanism is required to
power supply. Fault location in electric power reconnect the disconnected loads after faults are removed.
distribution systems still presents many challenges due to A method for finding the exact location of faults in a
its varied topological and operational characteristics. The network with DG has been developed by Conti & Nicotra
traditional methods used for locating faults in a [9]. It is based on programming and requires a
distribution network are either by visually identifying a telecommunication control system. Another fault
fault in the line, sending a pulse down the circuit and location method estimates the impedance of fault by
analyzing the reflected wave; or by using the utility measuring current and voltage at a substation [10]. In this
outage management system to identify circuit outages. To method, the fault location performance is inaccurate
locate precise fault location, voltages and currents are when the DG is located upstream of the fault section with
measured using intelligent electronic devices installed at the impact being more severe for synchronous machine
substations. The traditional fault location method has a based DG. Jiao et al. [11] proposed a fault location
drawback in which it is not able to locate faults quickly. method for a distribution network with DGs by
To solve this problem, an automated fault location using identifying the direction of an asymmetrical fault based
intelligent data interpretation system is applied. on negative sequence current scalar product. An
Several artificial intelligence techniques have been asymmetrical fault line searching and locating scheme is
developed for automated fault location in distribution then developed by combining the fault direction
systems [1-5]. The intelligent fault location methods distinguishing method with its communication system.
locate faults by calculating the fault distances, identifying The previous fault location method for a distribution
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 341

network with DGs was developed using multi layer a k dimensional input vector X, the network computes a
perceptron neural network (MLPNN) [12-14]. scalar value using,
Considering the structure and training algorithm of the m
MLPNN, it takes considerable training time and therefore Y = f(X) = w + ∑ w ϕ (D ) (1)
0 i i
it is not suitable for fast fault location. Zayandehroodi et i =1
al. proposed an automated fault location method for where w0 is the bias, wi is the weight parameter, m is the
identifying the exact faulty line in distribution network number of nodes in the hidden layer and (Di) is the RBF.
with DGs by using the radial basis function neural In this study, the Gaussian function is used as the RBF
network (RBFNN). The proposed method can increase and it is given by
network reliability and decrease the total down time of − D i2
the system [15]. φ ( D i ) = exp( ) (2)
σ 2
This paper presents an automated fault location scheme
for a distribution network with DGs using the radial basis where σ is the radius of the cluster represented by the
function neural network (RBFNN) which is considered as center node, Di is the distance between the input vector X
a better neural network model for solving engineering and all the data centers.
problems. The proposed scheme determines the fault type The Euclidean norm is normally used to calculate the
by normalizing the fault current of the main source distance, Di which is given as
whereas the distance of faults from each source is
∑ (X
k
determined by using RBFNNs. A comparison is also made Di = j − C ji ) 2 (3)
between the RBFNN and the conventional MLPNN for j =1
locating faults in a power distribution system with DGs. where C is a cluster center for any of the given nodes in
the hidden layer [17].
II. MLP AND RBF NEURAL NETWORKS The implementation procedures in the training of the
RBFNN are presented as follows:
Multilayer perceptron (MLP) neural network models
are used in most of the research applications in medicine, • Step 1: Obtain input data and target data from the
engineering, mathematical modeling, etc. [16]. In simulation.
MLPNN, the weighted sum of the inputs and bias term are • Step 2: Assemble and preprocess the training
passed to activation level through a transfer function to data for the RBFNN.
produce the output, and the units are arranged in a layered • Step 3: Create the network object and train the
feed-forward topology. MLPNN which is trained with the network until condition of network setting
standard back propagation algorithm is considered very parameters are reached.
slow. Due to the great amount of calculations required in
• Step 4: Test and conduct regression analysis.
MLPNN and low convergence speed of the back
propagation algorithm, several neural network models • Step 5: Stored the trained network. Steps (1–5)
have been developed to increase its convergence speed. are offline processes.
The radial basis function (RBF) neural network is a • Step 6: Preprocess the new input before they are
special type of artificial neural network with characteristic subjected to the trained network to obtain
topology different than the MLPNN. RBFNN is based on required data.
supervised learning and consists of three layers, namely,
input layer, hidden layer and output layer. The input layer III. IMPLEMENTATION OF FAULT DIAGNOSIS IN
feeds the input values to each of the neurons in the hidden DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS WITH DG UNITS USING
layer. This consists of neurons with radial basis activation RBFNN AND MLPNN
functions. The output layer consists of neurons with linear An important consideration in fault diagnosis of
activation function. A generic architecture of an RBFNN distribution networks is the determination of the fault type
with k input and m hidden neurons is shown in Fig.1. and location of faults occurring in its protection zone. In
this work, a sample distribution network with two DG
units is considered as a test system for simulation. The
fault currents of the main source are normalized and used
for determining the various types of faults. For
determining the fault location in a test distribution system
with DGs, RBFNN and MLPNN have been developed in
which the training data sets for the RBFNN and MLPNN
are generated by performing short circuit simulations at all
line sections considering four types of faults and creating
faults at every 100 meter of each line.
A. Test System description
To verify the performance of the proposed fault
location method using the RBFNN and MLPNN, the 22
bus, 20 kV distribution network with 2 DG units as shown
Figure 1. A generic architecture of the RBFNN
in Fig. 2 is selected as the test system. The test system
In the training of the RBFNN, the following data can be found in [15]. In the study, simulations were
computations are considered. When the network receives
342
TABLE I
FAULT TYPE CLASSIFICATION DATA
Fault type Ia Ib Ic
Ag 1 0 0
1-phase to ground Bg 0 1 0
Cg 0 0 1
AB 1 -1 0
phase to phase AC 1 0 -1
BC 0 1 -1
ABg 1 1 0
2-phase to ground ACg 1 0 1
BCg 0 1 1
3 -phase ABC 1 1 1
C. Identifying fault location Using RBFNN and

MLPNN
After identifying the fault type, its location should be

determined. In this study, RBFNN and MLPNN were
developed for the various fault types, namely, single phase
to ground fault (1Ph-G), phase to phase fault (2Ph), two
phase to ground fault (2Ph-G) and three phase fault (3Ph).
Therefore, fault currents of the main source and all DGs
Figure 2. Single line diagram of the test system are taken as the inputs for training RBFNN and MLPNN.
When a fault occurs in the distribution network, fault type
carried out by using the DIgSILENT Power Factory can be determined first by normalizing the 3-phase
14.0.516 software for generating the neural network currents of the main source. Then after recognizing the
training data. Training and testing of the RBFNN and fault type, the RBFNN and MLPNN corresponding to a
MLPNN were implemented in MATLAB. particular fault type are activated to show the exact fault
location. All procedures of the computation mentioned
In this work, the number of the input neurons is 9 which above is illustrated in Fig. 3.
consists of 3 phase short circuit currents of each source
(IS, IDG1, IDG2) and the output neuron is 3 comprising of the
fault distances from the three sources. The target/output
vector for the training is obtained from the simulation. In
the training of the neural networks, the number of
iterations is limited to 1000.
B. Identifying the fault type based on current

normalization
To identify the various fault types, the 3 phase currents
of the main source from the feeding substation are used.
The three phase output fault currents at the main source or
the feeding substation are normalized using,
I
I = (4)
normal I
max
where I is the fault current and Imax is the maximum fault
currents for each type of fault.
Based on the normalized three phase fault currents, the
fault types are classified as shown in Table 1[18]. From
the table, “1”, “-1” and “0”, indicate that a fault occurs in
the phase, a fault occurs in the phase but the short circuit
current is in the opposite direction and no fault,
respectively.
Figure 3. Implementation of the proposed fault location
343
IV. TEST RESULT AND DISCUSSION
TABLE III
To show the performance of the proposed fault location TESTING PERFORMANCE OF THE RBFNN AND MLPNN FOR LOCATING
method, a simulation of the aforementioned 22-bus system FAULTS
shown in Fig. 2 is conducted. In neural network, the mean
square error (MSE) is used to determine the accuracy of Neural network type
the neural networks. Table II shows the training
Fault
performances of the RBFNN and MLPNN for all types of No
type RBF MLP RBF MLP RBF MLP
faults. From the table it is clear that value of the MSE and
its related epoch for RBFNN is less than MLPNN for the Ds Ds DDG1 DDG1 DDG2 DDG2
same goal. Therefore, RBFNN has better performance (km) (km) (km) (km) (km) (Km)
with smaller error for identifying the fault location. 1 Ph-G 0.130 0.139 2.889 2.898 7.883 7.899
2 Ph 0.129 0.141 2.881 2.866 7.872 7.864
The various fault types have been selected randomly for 1 2 Ph-G 0.126 0.135 2.889 2.871 7.879 7.872
testing the neural networks. It is noted that each fault 3 Ph 0.128 0.131 2.879 2.860 7.875 7.865
sample occurs at a random percentage of length of Actual 0.120 2.880 7.880
distribution lines in the studied network. The different 1 Ph-G 6.366 6.378 7.361 7.365 6.367 6.378
cases of fault conditions are presented as: 2 Ph 6.357 6.379 7.363 7.369 6.363 6.369
1. Four types of fault at 120 meters of length of the 2 2 Ph-G 6.365 6.342 7.367 7.378 6.365 6.375
line 1 from the bus 1 to the bus 2 3 Ph 6.358 6.351 7.352 7.342 6.364 6.377
Actual 6.360 7.360 6.360
2. Four types of faults at 360 meters of length of the
1 Ph-G 4.843 4.869 5.848 5.868 3.149 3.132
line 13 from the bus 13 to bus 14
2 Ph 4.852 4.870 5.850 5.862 3.156 3.139
3. Four types of faults at 850 meters of length of the 3 2 Ph-G 4.856 4.864 5.851 5.830 3.155 3.159
line 18 from the bus 11 to bus 19 3 Ph 4.853 4.861 5.847 5.867 3.159 3.168
4. Four types of faults at 570 meters of length of the Actual 4.850 5.850 3.150
line 21 from the bus 21 to bus 22 1 Ph-G 7.551 7.569 8.556 8.570 0.428 0.449
2 Ph 7.557 7.567 8.557 8.537 0.432 0.445
4 2 Ph-G 7.557 7.564 8.545 8.531 0.435 0.439
Table III shows the RBFNN and MLPNN outputs for 3 Ph 7.554 7.561 8.560 8.569 0.439 0.416
various type of faults occurring in different lines of the Actual 7.550 8.550 0.430
studied network. Comparing the results shown in Table
III, it can be noted that the highest error from RBFNN and V. CONCLUSION
MLPNN are about 10 and 20 meters, respectively for the
difference between the actual and estimated distances of An automated fault location method in a distribution
fault distances from the main source (Ds) and all DGs system with DGs using RBFNN has been presented. In the
(DDG1,DDG2). From Tables II and III, it is obvious that proposed method, normalized fault currents of the main
RBFNN is faster and more accurate in determining fault source are used for determining the fault type and
location compared to MLPNN. This proves that the use of RBFNN has been developed for determining the fault
RBFNN for fault location in distribution networks with location in a test distribution system with DGs. From the
DGs can improve network reliability and decrease total case study considering 2 DG units in a test distribution
down time of the system. system, the results of the proposed RBFNN fault location
method are satisfactory. The test results also showed that
the RBFNN is more accurate in locating faults compared
TABLE II to that of MLPNN.
TRAINING PERFORMANCE OF THE RBFNN AND MLPNN
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from university of Kerman, Iran and 7 years of
experience in project manager in industrial
companies in Iran.
345
Condition Monitoring of Outdoor Polymeric

Insulators Using Wavelets and ANFIS
C.Muniraj* S.Chandrasekar,Member IEEE
Asst.Prof, Electrical and Electronics Engineering Professor, SonaPERT R&D Centre, Department of
K.S.Rangasamy College of Technology EEE Sona College of Technology
Tiruchengode, India Salem, India
c.muniraj@gmail.com chandrukvt@gmail.com
Abstract:- In the present work, laboratory based pollution down the entire system. Recent reports [3, 4] on grid
performance tests are carried out on silicone rubber disturbance in India indicate the loss of five thousand
insulator under ac voltage at different pollution levels and million rupees and 97% of interconnected generation on
relative humidity conditions with sodium chloride as a 2nd January 2001. Similar disturbances of lesser
contaminant. Multi Resolution Signal Decomposition
magnitudes were also observed during the period of
(MRSD) using Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT) is
employed to understand the time frequency characteristics December 2002 & 2005, Feb & Dec 2006, Jan/Feb 2007
of the leakage current signal. The surface conditions of the & March 2008. One of the major causes identified was
insulator such as normal conditions, short duration the pollution/contamination induced flashovers. These
discharges and long duration arc were characterized by events have amply portrayed that the performance of
using the leakage current measurement, utilizing the multi overhead transmission line string insulators and those
resolution signal decomposition technique. The process of used in outdoor substations is a critical factor which
identification of surface condition of the insulator was governs the reliability of power delivery systems.
automated using Adaptive-network-based fuzzy Inference T.Suda [5], studied the LC waveforms and frequency
system (ANFIS).
characteristics of an artificially polluted cap and pin type
insulator and classified the transition of LC waveforms
Keyword: ANFIS; Wavelet; Insulator; High voltage testing; into six stages in order to predict the flashover. B. Subba
Leakage current Reddy et al.,[6] studied the leakage current behavior on
artificially polluted ceramic insulator surface and derived
the relationship between the surface resistance and
I. INTRODUCTION leakage current. R.Sarathi et al.,[7] have shown that
In a power system, outdoor insulators play an important application of moving average technique for the trend
role in maintaining the reliability of the system. Ceramic analysis of leakage current signal could be useful to
insulators are widely used in power transmission and predict the surface condition of outdoor polymeric
distribution lines since for a long time. In recent times, insulators. S.Chandrsekar et al.,[8] have investigated the
polymeric insulators are mostly preferred because of their harmonic content in polluted porcelain insulator and
superior insulation performance, in terms of concluded that the harmonic content analysis is the
contamination endurance compared with conventional effective diagnosis tool for outdoor insulators.
ceramic insulators [1, 2]. When these insulators are Neural networks have been intensively studied in the
installed near industrial, agricultural or coastal areas, past decades. P.Clian et al.,[9], V.T.Kontargyri et al.,[10]
airborne particles are deposited on these insulators and have implemented the neural network to predict the
the pollution builds up gradually, which results in the insulator flashover. Considering the above facts, it is
flow of leakage current (LC) during wet weather important to indentify the surface condition of the
conditions such as dew, fog or drizzle. The LC density is transmission line insulators taking into account both time
nonuniform and in some areas sufficient heat is and frequency domain characteristics of LC. While
developed leading to the formation of dry bands. Voltage considering the drawbacks of simple artificial neural
redistribution along the insulator causes high electric network model [11-13], ANFIS based model will be most
field intensity across dry bands leading to the formation suitable for indentify the surface condition of polymeric
of partial arcs. When the surface resistance is sufficiently insulators. Present paper focuses on indentify the surface
low, these partial discharges will elongate along the condition of polymeric insulators by using an adaptive
insulator profile which may eventually cause the insulator neural network fuzzy inference system (ANFIS).
flashover. Pollution flashover along power line insulator
have been long standing problem for the security and
II. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
reliability of power transmission line. Considering the
recent developments in extra high voltage power A 11 kV silicone rubber insulator was used for the
transmission in India, it is imperative to predict the contamination experiments. Fig.1 shows the overall
pollution severity of insulator surface before pollution dimension of a 11 kV silicone rubber insulator used in
flashovers occur and to provide an early warning for the this study. Fig.2 shows the schematic diagram of the
operators. It is important to point out that the failure at experimental setup, where PU-Protection Unit, DSO-
any single point of the transmission network can bring Digital Storage Oscilloscope, DAS-Data Acquisition
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 346

System, PC-Personal Computer. The test insulator was original or mother wavelet. Discrete Wavelet Transform
suspended vertically inside the fog chamber (1.5 m x 1.5 is given by,
m x 1.5 m). The test voltage was 11 kVrms, 50 Hz. ⎛ t − nbam ⎞
1
Pollution tests were conducted as per IEC 60507 clean
fog test procedure [14]. Before tests, the insulator
DWTxψ (m, n) =
am
∫ x(t)ψ * ⎜⎜
⎝ a
m
⎟dt
⎟
⎠ (1)
surfaces were cleaned by washing with isopropylic This method maps continuous variable into a sequence of
alcohol and rinsing with distilled water, in order to coefficients. In the above equation x(t) is discretized
remove any trace of dirt and grease. To reproduce saline signal function and ψ(t) is the wavelet function. In this
pollution typical of coastal areas, a contamination layer process, the mother wavelet be dilated and translated
consisting of NaCl and 40g of kaolin mixed with 1 litre discretely by selecting s=am and τ =nbam where a and b
of deionized water was applied to the surface of insulator. are fixed constants with a>1 , b>0, m , n, a positive
The concentration of NaCl salt was varied to give integer. Multi resolution analysis of the Discrete Wavelet
Equivalent Salt Deposit Density (ESDD) in mg/cm2. Four Transform aims at ultimately reducing a time-scale
ultrasonic nebulizers were used to maintain the required representation of the given discretized signal x(n) at
relative humidity level inside the fog chamber. Relative various decomposition levels shown in Fig.3 Two key
humidity inside the fog chamber was measured using a functions of this approach are wavelet function and the
wall-mounted Hygrotherm instrument. scaling function and the quadrature mirror filters h,g are
introduced in the analysis. Let c0[n] be the original signal
sequence. After convolution with h and g filters, it is
decomposed into an approximation component c1[n] and
Fig. 1 Photo and Dimensions of the 11 kV composite insulator
Fig. 3 Subband decomposition of discrete wavelet transform

implementation; g[n] is the high-pass filter, h[n] is the low-pass filter
a detail component d1[n] at scale 1. Then approximation

component c1[n] is further decomposed into c2[n] and
d2[n] at the next scale and so on, which is shown in
Fig.3. This type of hierarchical decomposition can be
mathematically represented as,
Fig.2 Schematic diagram of the experimental setup
c m [n ] = ∑ h [ k − 2 n ]c
k
m −1 [ k ]
A. LC Measurement System d m [n ] = ∑ g [k − 2 n ]c
k
m −1 [k ] (2)
The leakage current was measured through a series Multi Resolution Signal Decomposition (MRSD) analysis
resistance in the ground lead. A high sampling rate data is mainly used to achieve two important properties. The
acquisition system (National Instruments, 1.25 MSa/sec) first is the localization property in time to identify any
was used in the present study. A software system characteristic change. This will appear as large
developed for this data acquisition system provides the coefficients at the time of disturbance. The second is the
user with the complete LC waveforms, which are partitioning of the signal energy into different frequency
therefore available for further signal processing. A bands. This gives an idea of the frequency content in the
Digital Storage Oscilloscope (1 GSa/s) was used to distorted signal. It is well known that Daubechies 4
visualize the leakage current waveforms. In this study, all wavelet is very much useful in identifying any transition
the signals were captured at a sampling rate of 5 kHz and in the signal due to high frequencies [8]. Therefore, in the
the data was stored in PC for further processing. present work, Daubechies 4 wavelet has been chosen for
the analysis.
III. DISCRETE WAVELET TRANSFORM The LC signals were decomposed up to 7 levels and the
corresponding frequency band of detailed components is
Wavelets are a flexible tool for the analysis of transients shown in Table 1. The standard deviation can be
and non-stationary waves [15]. It allows simultaneous considered as a measure of the energy present in the
time and frequency analysis of signals. Wavelet analysis signal with zero mean [8,19]. Therefore, the standard
involves the breaking up of a signal into shifted and deviation values (STD_MRA) are calculated for detailed
scaled versions of a single prototype function called the
347
components to identify the transient energy present in the flashover, the LC pattern almost looks like sinusoidal
signal at different level of decomposition (D1 to D7). pattern with a very high magnitude (Figure 4d) and most
Standard deviation of the nth level of detailed signal is of the high frequency components are lost in this phase.
calculated using the formula Therefore, the identification of the presence of high
TABLE I frequency components can play a major role in order to
FREQUENCY BAND OF DWT DETAILED COMPONENTS OF LC
predict flashover phenomena of insulator. From the above
Detailed components of Frequency band (Hz) observations, it comes out the importance of
DWT understanding the time-frequency characteristics LC
D1 1250-2500 pattern in order to develop better diagnostic tools for
D2 625-1250 preventive maintenance work. Gorur et al [16] identified
D3 312.5-625 that the frequency contents of the leakage current signal
D4 156.25-312.5 obtained with polymeric insulators varies during surface
D5 78.125-156.25 discharge and tracking condition.
D6 39.0625-78.125
D7 19.53125-39.0625
1 N
[d n ( j ) − μ n ]2
n
std = ∑
N n − 1 j =1 (3)
where μn is the mean of the vector dn and Nn is the length

of the vector dn. In order to understand the high
frequency distortions of the leakage current signal,
distortion ratio (DR) has been calculated as the ratio of
STD-MRA values of (D3+D4+D5) to fundamental
component D6.
IV. LEAKAGE CURRENT RESULTS AND

ANALYSIS
In this section, the development of arc on outdoor
insulators due to wet pollution is explained based on
leakage current analysis. Fig.4a shows the leakage
current signal obtained during clean dry surface condition
and all other Fig. 4b, 3c, 3d, shows the leakage current
signals obtained at 100 % relative humidity conditions
inside the fog chamber at different pollution levels.
Figure4a shows the typical leakage current signal
obtained during clean-dry surface condition of insulator
and corresponding Standard deviation plots. Under clean
surface conditions, current magnitude is very low and it is
affected by large high frequency components (see D1 to
D4 in Table 1).
From the experimental observations, it is possible to
classify the short duration discharges (which last for a
maximum of 1 cycle) and long arcs (which last for 5 to
20 cycles). Fig. 3b, Fig.3c and 3d show the typical
leakage current wave forms and the corresponding
standard deviation plots. These discharges are the
precursors for the development of long arcs which will
lead to flashover. It is observed that the magnitude of D5 Fig.4 Typical LC patterns obtained during pollution experiments
component (Table 1) is increased when compared with (a) clean conditions (b) surface discharge(c) Short duration arc (d) Long
other high frequency components in Fig. 4b. This arcs and corresponding Std_MRA plot
indicates that when the frequency of occurrence of short Similarly Jayaram et al [17] have shown that the variation
duration discharges raises the magnitude of third in third harmonic components of leakage current
harmonic component increases in the leakage current waveform and the formation of tracking path of
signal [8,19]. When there is a formation of heavy arcing polymeric insulators have a good correlation. From the
at both top and bottom surface due to the increase in above figures, it is clearly noticed that distortion ratio
pollution and relative humidity, significant increase in (DR), estimated from the wavelet analysis, increases
magnitude of the fundamental component of LC and considerably during the formation of discharges (Fig. 4-
reduction in high frequency components is noticed b,c), while a significant reduction occurs during the
(Fig.4c, and 4d). When the insulator approaches formation of long arcs (Figs. 4d). In order to understand
348
the range of variation of the distortion ratio, the tests A. Architecture of ANFIS
were repeated for several times. The variation in ANFIS is a class of adaptive networks that act as a
distortion ratio for different types of pollution level is fundamental framework for adaptive fuzzy inference
shown in the Fig. 5. systems [10]. Fig. 4 shows the ANFIS architecture.
Assume that the fuzzy inference system has two inputs x
and y and one output z. every input has two fuzzy sets
A1, A2 and B1, B2. Notice that in Fig. 7, each circle
shows a fixed node, whereas every square indicates an
adaptive node. So the rule base system has two if-then
rules of Takagi-Sugeno’s type as:
Fig.5 Variation of Distortion Ratio (%) at different condition
V. ANFIS BASED IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM

The conceptual diagram of the proposed surface
condition identification system is shown in Fig. 6. The Fig.7. ANFIS architecture
proposed system is developed using MATLAB 7.0 Rule i: if x is Ai and y is Bi, then f i = pi x + qi y + ri ,
version. For this case the input variables are, standard
deviation (STD_MRA), Dissertation Ration (DR), and i=1,2
maximum value (LCmax). By trial and error, the system B. Layer 1
was developed with three numbers of bell-shaped types
Each node in this layer is an adaptive node and outputs of
for each input variable. Suitable linguistic variables such
these nodes are given by:
as LOW (L), and MEDIUM (M) HIGH (H) assigned to
fuzzy sets of all input variables. The output variable 0, O1,i = μAi ( x), for i=1,2 or
0.5 and 1 assigned for clean, short duration discharge, O1,i = μBi − 2 ( y ), for i=3,4 (4)
and long arc condition respectively. All the combinations
of if-then-type fuzzy rules were used. Where μAi (x) and μBi − 2 ( y ) are membership
functions that determine the degree to which the given x
and y satisfy the quantifiers Ai and Bi-2
Leakage current C. Layer 2
In this layer, each node is a fixed node that determines
the firing strength of related rule.
Discrete Wavelet O2,i = ω i = μAi ( x) μBi ( y ), i = 1,2. (5)
Transform (DWT)
D. Layer 3
In this layer, every node is a circle node which computes
Std MRA , the ratio of firing strength of each rule to the sum of all of
them; the so-called normalized firing strength.
ωi
Adaptive Neuro fuzzy system O3,i = ϖ i = , i = 1,2. (6)
(ANFIS) ω1 + ω 2
E. Layer 4
Parameter Adjust
Surface condition The output of each adaptive node in this layer is:
O4,i = ϖ i f i = ϖ i ( p i x + qi y + ri ) (7)
Parameters pi, qi and ri are called as consequence
parameters.
Set value F. Layer 4
Fig.6 Proposed ANFIS model to indentify surface condition Final layer, presented with a circle node, computes the
summation of all incoming signals.
349
∑ω f i i
O5,i = ∑ϖ i f i = i
(8)
i ∑ω i
i
Thus an adaptive network has been constructed. The

proposed ANFIS-based surface condition identification
system is based upon Jang’s ANFIS [18], which is a
fuzzy inference system implemented on the architecture
of a five-layer feed forward network. Using a hybrid
learning procedure, the proposed system can construct an
input–output mapping based on both human knowledge
(in the form of if-then rules) and input–output data
observations. In the hybrid learning algorithm, in the
forward pass, the functional signals go forward till layer 4
and the consequent parameters are identified by the least Fig.9 The curve of network error convergence of ANFIS
squares estimate. In the backward pass, the error rates
propagate backward and the premise parameters are
updated by the gradient descent. The consequent The correlation between predicted value and Test values
parameters thus identified are optimal (in the consequent for three types of model are shown in Fig.10. The bells
parameter space) under the condition that the premise shaped MFs ANFIS model can give better relation
parameters are fixed. Accordingly, the hybrid approach is between test and simulated values (R2=0.99, almost
much faster than the strict gradient descent. unity). So this model can predict the surface condition of
polymeric insulators very accurately.
VI. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Using the wavelet coefficient data extracted from the
testing are used as inputs for training of ANFIS, the
system was developed with bell-shape types of MFs and
each case was trained for 500 training epochs with hybrid
learning algorithm. The step size for parameter adaptation
had an initial value of 0.01. The steps of parameter
adaptation of ANFIS are shown in Fig. 8. At the end of
1000 training epochs, the network error (Average error)
convergence curve of ANFIS was derived as shown in
Fig. 9. From the curve, the final convergence value is
0.0024. The defuzzification method selected was
weighted average method.
FFig.10 Correlation between predicted and Test values
ANFIS based system gave more accurate results. The

output of ANFIS-based model was mostly matching the
Tested values. This is because of the highly nonlinear
mapping capability and self-adaptive nature of the fine
tuning of the MFs of ANFIS. After the initial training
step of the proposed system, which is the optimization of
the consequence parameters, the system adapts such that
the surface condition index value predicting is
significantly close to the actually Tested values of the
polymer insulators. The average error to predict the
surface condition based on proposed system is 0.025.
Identification results of the ANFIS model were displayed
Fig. 8 Adaptation of parameter steps of ANFIS
by a confusion matrix. In a confusion matrix each cell
contains the raw number of exemplars classified for the
corresponding combination of desired and actual network
outputs. The confusion matrix showing the classification
results of the ANFIS model is given below.
350
Confusion matrix providing financial support under Research Promotion
Short Long Scheme to carry out this Experimental work.
output/desired Clean dur.discharge arc
Clean 16 1 0
Short dur. REFERENCES
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The test performance of the classifiers can be determined USA), 1999.
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accuracy and kappa index 2001”, No:196, pp 6-15, Electra, June 2001.
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actually positive cases. [5]. T.Suda, “Frequency characteristics of leakage current
Total classification accuracy: number of correct waveforms of an artificially polluted suspension insulator”,
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Vol.8, No.4,pp.705-709,Aug 2001.
The values of the statistical parameters (sensitivity, total [6]. B. Subba Reddy, G. R. Nagabhushana, “Study of Leakage
classification accuracy and kappa index) are given in Current Behavior on Artificially Polluted Surface of Ceramic
Table 2. As it is seen from Table 2, the ANFIS Insulator”, Plasma Science & Technology, vo1.5, No.4, pp-
indentified surface condition Clean, Short duration 1921-1926, (2003).
[7]. R. Sarathi and S. Chandrasekar, “Diagnostic study of the
discharge and Long arc with the accuracy of 94.11, surface condition of the insulation structure using wavelet
88.23, and 94.11%, respectively. All of the conditions transform and neural networks”, Electric Power Systems
were indentified with the accuracy of 92.15% (total Research, Elsevier, Vol.68, pp.137- 147, 2004.
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Insulator under Polluted Conditions”, Proceedings of
agreement with Tested level. Fifteenth National Power Systems Conference (NPSC),
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and I.A.Stathopulos, “Design of an artificial neural network
Sensitivity Total Kappa
for the estimation of the flashover on insulators”, Electric
(%) classification index
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accuracy (%)
2007.
Clean 94.11 92.15 0.942
[11]. Saleh Al Alawi, M. A. Salam, A. A. Maqrashi, and Hussein
Short duration 88.23 Ahmad , “Prediction of Flashover Voltage of Contaminated
discharge Insulator Using Artificial Neural Networks,” Electric Power
Long arc 94.11 Components and Systems, 1532-5016, Volume 34, Issue 8,
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[12]. Ahmad S. Ahmad , P.S. Ghosh, S.Shahnawaz Ahmed and
Syed Abdul Kader Aljunid, “ Assessment of ESDD on high
VII. CONCLUSION voltage insulators using artificial neural network”,Electic
In this paper, ANFIS model has been proposed to Power Systems Research, Elsevier, Vol 72, pp.131-
Indentified the surface condition of polymeric insulators 136.2004.
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based on the wavelet coefficient time-frequency Jianlin Hu, “ Contamination level prediction of insulators
characteristics of the insulator leakage current. The new based on the characteristics of leakage current”, IEEE
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the pollution flashover. So this model can provide a 1, 2010.
[14]. IEC 60507, Artificial pollution tests on high voltage
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the proposed system. The total identification accuracy of IEEE Signal Processing Magazine , pp.14-38,1991
the ANFIS model was 92.15%. We therefore have [16]. R.S. Gorur, J. Montesinos, L. Varadadesikan, S. Simmons,
and M. Shah, “A laboratory test for tracking and erosion
concluded that the proposed model can be used in resistance of HV outdoor insulation”, IEEE Trans. Dielectr.
indentify surface condition of polymeric insulators very Electr. Insul., Vol. 4, pp. 767-774 , 1997.
accurately. [17]. A. H. El-Hag, S. H. Jayaram and E. A. Cherney,
“Fundamental and Low Frequency Harmonic Components
of Leakage Current as a Diagnostic Tool to Study Aging of
ACKNOWLEDGMENT RTV and HTV Silicone Rubber in Salt Fog”,IEEE Trans.
One of the authors (S.C) would like to thank All India Dielectr. Electr. Insul., Vol. 10, pp.128-136, 2003.
[18]. J.-S.R. Jang, C.-T.Sun and E.Mizutani, Neuro-Fuzzy and
Council for Technical Education (AICTE), NewDelhi for Soft Computing: A computational approach to learning and
machine intelligence ,Prentice Hall of India, 2006.
351
Antennas Positioning for On-line Monitoring of

Transformer Winding Radial Deformation Using
UWB Sensors
Javad Ebrahimi Gevorg B. Gharehpetian Hamidreza Amindavar Maryam A. Hejazi
Electrical Eng. Dept. Electrical Eng. Dept. Electrical Eng. Dept. Electrical Eng. Dept.
Amirkabir Univ. of Tech. Amirkabir Univ. of Tech. Amirkabir Univ. of Tech. Amirkabir Univ. of Tech.
Tehran, Iran Tehran, Iran Tehran, Iran Tehran, Iran
j_ebrahimi@aut.ac.ir grptian@aut.ac.ir hamidami@aut.ac.ir akhavanhejazi@aut.ac.ir
Abstract— The application of Ultra-Wideband (UWB) Many factors affect this method such as lightning arresters
sensors is a new method for on-line monitoring of transformer and different substation topologies. The measurement timing
winding radial deformations. The measurements of received depends on the time of occurrence of the overvoltage
signals from a simplified model of the transformer winding transients [8]. This method is in the research phase and has
demonstrate the high sensitivity of the proposed method to not been used for any transformer.
detect winding deformations. The proper position of It should be mention that the off-line methods will not
transmitter and receiver antennas on the transformer tank is
an important problem for the monitoring system. This problem
meet all the needs of the transformer monitoring systems.
has been studied in this paper. But, the on-line methods do not require switching of the
transformer and can continuously monitor the transformer
Index Terms— Transformers, On-Line Monitoring, Radial winding. The other advantage of the on-line monitoring
Deformation, UWB Sensor, Antenna Positioning. method is the prediction of important faults before their
occurrence.
I. INTRODUCTION The simulations have shown that the scattering parameter
of the winding can be used as an index for on-line
T he requirement of safe and reliable operation of power
transformers leads to study and development of different
fault detection and conditions monitoring methods. The short
monitoring of winding radial deformation and axial
displacement [9, 10]. The same as FRA method, this method
is based on the comparison of results. This method is also in
circuit current can cause radial deformations and axial
the research phase and has not been used for any
displacements of transformer windings. These mechanical
transformer.
damages may not lead to an immediate failure of the
In this paper, a new on-line detection method of the
transformer, but the ability of the transformer to withstand
transformer winding radial deformation has been developed
future mechanical and dielectric stresses may be highly
using the electromagnetic waves analysis in the time
decreased[1,2].
domain. The Ultra-Wideband (UWB) signals and sensors,
There are many different transformer monitoring methods.
used for this method, have very high accuracy and more
Each method can be applied to a specific type of problem
information about the type and location of the fault.
and has its own advantages and disadvantages [3, 4]. In
recent years, several off-line methods such as Short Circuit
II. UWB SIGNALS
test (SC) [1], Low Voltage Impulse test (LVI) [5] and
Frequency Response Analysis (FRA) [3] for the detection of A UWB signal is defined to have an absolute bandwidth of
the winding deformation have been proposed. at least 500 MHz or a fractional (relative) bandwidth of
In the SC test method, the short circuit reactance is larger than 20% [11].
measured while the transformer is off-line. The sensitivity of Large bandwidths of UWB signals bring many advantages
this method to the winding displacement is very low, and the for positioning, communications and radar applications, as
type and the location of the mechanical damage in the follows [12]:
winding cannot be determined [3]. • Penetration through obstacles,
The FRA method can be used off-line and on-line [6, 7]. • Accurate position estimation,
The well-known FRA method has been carried out off-line. • High-speed data transmission and
In this method, three experimental approaches of comparison • Low cost and low power transceiver designs.
are: time-based, type based and construction-based. Also The short-pulse UWB techniques exhibit distinct advantages
model-based comparison has been presented recently for the over more conventional radar techniques. These advantages
FRA method. In the off-line FRA method, the transformer is include:
switched on and off, on the high voltage side (HV-side). • Higher range measurement accuracy and range
Therefore the transformer is usually disconnected from the resolution due to the shorter spatial extent of the
power network on the low voltage side (LV-side) [6]. transmitter waveforms,
In the on-line FRA method, it is suggested that the • Enhanced target recognition due to detection of
transient over-voltages caused by the switching and the additional information from a target’s separate
lightening can be used to determine the transfer function. elements,
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 352

• Increased radar operational security because of the II, the thickness of each sector is equal to the thickness of
extremely large spectral spreading and each disk. But their widths are different, in order to model
• Ability to detect very slowly moving or stationary different radial deformations.
targets [13].
Numerous applications of short-pulse technology were TABLE II:
SIZE OF SECTORS
developed for short-range radar sensing, metrology,
communications, and more recently, precision positioning Deformation width (cm) 0.5 1 2
Deformation thickness (cm) 2 2 2
[14].
Deformation area (cm2) 1 2 4
For communications applications, short-pulse UWB
techniques offer increased immunity to multipath
cancellation due to the ability to discriminate between direct
and time-orthogonal reflected waves. Low-pulse-rate UWB
systems have the additional advantage of having extremely
low duty cycles, which translate into low average prime
power requirements, ideal for battery-operated equipment.
For active Radio Frequency (RF) tracking and positioning
applications, short-pulse UWB techniques offer distinct
advantages in precision time-of-flight measurement,
multipath immunity for leading edge detection (i.e., first
Time of Arrival (TOA)) and low prime power requirements
for extended-operation RF Identification (RFID) tags [15].
In this research, UWB pulses have been used for on-line Deformation
monitoring of transformer winding mechanical damages, length
which can be considered as a slowly moving or stationary
target. Fig. 2: Modelling of radial deformation
III. SIMPLIFIED METHOD OF HV WINDING IV. MEASUREMENT SET-UP

The proposed method of this paper is in the development In the oil-immerged power transformers, the oil is the
phase. As a result, it is based on some assumption and propagation medium. In this paper, the propagation medium
simplified model. The simplified model of transformer HV is considered to be air and the transformer tank is not
winding with the ability of modeling the axial displacement modeled. Also, the radial deformation of only one phase of
and radial deformation has been built, as shown in Fig.1. the transformer has been studied. It is assumed that there is
This model should represent HV winding disks of not any high frequency source of electromagnetic waves in
transformers. Dimensions of the model are approximately the transformer except the transmitter.
1/3 of a real one. Disks have made from plexiglass sheets A bi-static transmitter and receiver have been used for the
which are covered by a layer of copper. They are separated measurements. Fig. 3 shows the measurement set-up.
from each other by spacers, which have equal thickness.
Table I gives the model dimensions.
Disk No.1
Disk No.2
Disk No.3
Disk No.4
Disk No.5
Disk No.6
Fig.1: Simplified transformer winding and disk numbering
TABLE I:
DISK MODEL DIMENSIONS Fig. 3: Measurement set-up
Disk Spacer
Diameter 60 cm 60 cm In this figure, d1 is the distance between the transmitting and
Thickness 2 cm 0.5 cm receiving antenna, d2 is the distance between the model and
Numbers 6 6
the center of the line connecting the antennas, d3 is the
distance between the transmitting/receiving antennas from
One of these disks has been cut in sectors with different
the model.
dimensions. These sectors can be moved in radial direction
As shown in Fig. 4, UWB pulses are radiated to the
as shown in Fig.2. The amount of the deformation is
transformer model from the transmitter every TI seconds. As
characterized by the deformation length. As listed in Table
353
the deformation occurrence (fault) in the transformer has • Measurement of deformed cases
very low frequency, for example once in a year, the time
Different radial deformations have been applied to the
interval (TI) between transmitted pulses is not an important
winding but the test set-up configuration is the same for
factor.
each antennas position.
V. ANALYSIS METHOD
Fig .4: Transmitted UWB pulses (for every TI seconds) The analysis of the measured data, to detect the radial
deformation, has two essential stages. The first stage is the
A typical transmitted pulse is shown in Fig. 5 and its selection of a window in the time axes and the second stage
parameters are listed in Table III. is the comparison of the test results with the reference
measurement using the mean absolute distance method.
A.Selection of Window Based on TOA Method.

Only a part of the received signal is related to the
transformer model and the other parts are the signals, which
are reflected from the surrounding objects of transformer
model. In the first stage, the unwanted parts of the signal
should be omitted based on TOA (time of arrival) method by
using the following steps:
Step1: In this step, the time origin should be determined.
Considering the Fig. 3, the shortest distance between the
Fig. 5: Typical transmitted pulse
transmitter and the receiver is equal to d1. The received
TABLE III: signal has the waveform as shown in Fig. 7. In this figure,
PARAMETERS OF TRANSMITTED PULSE the first peak of the signal is related to the direct line of
Maximum PRF (Pulse Repetition
sight of the transmitter and receiver. The instant of this
9.6 MHz peak determines the time of origin (T0). Based on this
Frequency)
method, for each test the time of origin of each signal can
Center Frequency (radiated) 4.7GHz
be determined.
Bandwidth (10 dB radiated) 3.2 GHz First reflection (T0)
Power consumption 6.5 Watts 400
300
Amplitude (Normalized )
200
Fig. 6 shows the timing of pulses received in the receiver. If
the test duration is Td seconds, then Nr pulses can be sent and 100
we have: 0
-100
Td -200
Nr = (1) -300
TI
-400
Td 10 12 14 16 18 20 10 12
Time (ns)
Fig.7: Selection of time origin
TI
Step2: In this step, a matrix which has the data of
received signals should be obtained.
TC TS
The sampled data of each signal, received in the test
duration time (Td), are placed in a row of this matrix. The
Fig.6: Timing of pulses received in receiver.
number of the matrix columns is equal to the number of
The total number of samples in each scan (NC) is defined, as samples in each scan (NC). The matrix has Nr rows, where
follows: Nr is the number of pulses, which have been sent in Td
seconds (test duration time). It can be said that for each
TC test set-up configuration, the test has been repeated for Nr
NC = (2)
TS times and the result of each test have been saved in a row.
Where, TS and TC are the sampling time and receiving The results of the reference case (measurement) are stored
duration time in each scan, respectively. in the matrix named w1. The received pulses for the cases
modeling the deformations, are stored in the matrix w2, w3
Two kinds of measurement have been studied in this
and wn, where (n-1) is the number of the deformations.
research:
Step 3: In this step, a representative vector is obtained for
• Reference measurements each deformed case. First, the time origin of all rows of
There is no deformation or displacement on the the matrices w1, w2, w3, …, wn should be determined.
transformer model. The results of this test have been Now, the columns of each matrix should be averaged to
stored as a normal and base case for the each position of form a representative vector for each deformed case
antennas. named, (W1, W2, W3, …,Wn).
354
Step 4: In this step, in order to decrease the size of the position. Table IV lists the parameters of the radial
matrix, the time interval related to the transformer winding deformation measurement set-up.
is determined in the received waveform. The distance
between the antenna and the winding is known (d3). So, TABLE IV:
PARAMETERS OF RADIAL DEFORMAATION MEASUREMENT
the moment of the first reflection from the transformer
SET-UP
winding is known. This time can be calculated by the
following equation: Antennas Parameters
Position d1 d2 d3 Td Ts TC TI
2d 3 − d1 No. (cm) (cm) (cm) (s) (ps) (ns) (ms)
T1 = (3)
3 × 108 1 140 50 86 10 31.79 20 50
2 120 50 78.1 10 31.79 20 50
Where, T1 is the receiving time of the first reflection 3 100 50 70.7 10 31.79 20 50
received from the model of the winding. 4 80 50 64.3 10 31.79 20 50
The timing interval of reflections (related to the winding) 5 60 50 58.3 10 31.79 20 50
6 140 40 80.6 10 31.79 20 50
can be determined (using the winding dimensions) by the
7 120 40 72.1 10 31.79 20 50
same equation. 8 100 40 64 10 31.79 20 50
The part of the pulse related to the winding can be 9 80 40 56.6 10 31.79 20 50
extracted from the received pulse for the reduction of 10 60 40 50 10 31.79 20 50
unwanted reflections (W1’, W2’, W3’, …,Wn’). 11 140 30 76.2 10 31.79 20 50
As an example, Fig. 8 shows the received pulses for the
reference and displaced winding measurements. The As an example, Fig.9 shows the reflected pulse in the case of
window, related to the winding reflections, has been the radial deformation of the winding model.
shown in this figure, too.
First reflection (T0)
300 100
200 50
Normalized amplitude
100 0
0
-50
-100
-100
-200
T1 T2 12 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8
-300
8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time (ns) 0 cm
0.5 cm
Fig.8: Received pulse can be windowed for detection of winding 1 cm
reflections 300 1.5 cm
Normalized amplitude
2 cm
2.5 cm
3 cm
B. Comparison of Waveform of Each Test With Reference 100
Case
After windowing, each pulse is compared with the reference
case. The measurement set-up surrounding objects have not -100
any movement and only the deformation has been applied to
the transformer winding. By using the Mean Absolute -300
Distance (MAD) method, the signals received in different
deformation tests (W2’, W3’, …,Wn’ ) can be compared with
6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
the signal of the reference case (W1’ ), as follows: Time (ns)
1 T2 Wk′ ( j ) − W1′( j )
MAD(k ) = ∑ , k = 2,..., n (4) 25
N j =T1 W1′( j )
where, T1 is the beginning time of the window or receiving 15
time of the first reflection from the transformer, T2 is the end
instant of the window and N is defined, as follows:
5
T −T
N= 2 1 (5)
TS -5
where, TS is the sampling time.
-15
VI. MEASUREMENT RESULTS
The measurements of the radial deformation have been -25
14 14.3 14.6 14.9 15.2 15.5
studied by using the proposed MAD index for each antenna
Fig.9: Reflected pulse for different radial deformation measurements
355
it is shown that the best position can be selected, to install
Table V gives the sum of MAD indices for radial the monitoring antennas.
deformations in each antenna position.
VIII. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
TABLE V:
SUM OF MAD INDICES IN DIFFERENT ANTENNAS POSITIONS The financial support of Tehran Regional Electric Co.
FOR RADIAL DEFORMATIONS (TREC) towards this research is hereby acknowledged.
Sum of
Antennas Positions No.
MADs IX. REFERENCES
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position No. 2 has maximum MADs for different states of Delivery, Vol. 18, No. 2, April 2003
[5] W. Chen, C. Sun, Y.Yun and Z.Xie, “Study on the Recognition of
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MAD
length (cm) Area (cm2) Slovenia
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studied by a proposed index. The measurements on a [14] G. F. Ross, “A historic review of UWB radar and communications and
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356
Time-to-Thunder Method of Lightning Distance

Determination
W.I.Ibrahim Zulkurnain Abdul Malek
Faculty of Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute of High Voltage & High Current (IVAT)
Universiti Malaysia Pahang Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
Pekan, Malaysia Skudai, Johor
wismail@ump.edu.my zulk@fke.utm.my
Abstract—The lightning strike hazards may be properly In this paper, the time-to-thunder method was used to
managed by using a lightning detector system. In this paper, determine the lightning strike distance. The method used
a system to determine the lightning strike distance from the the combinations of broadband VHF antenna and
measuring point was developed and tested. The time-to- microphone to form a single-station lightning distance
thunder method was used to determine the strike distance.
determination. In the method, the broadband antenna was
The technique was implemented using two kinds of sensors,
namely, a broadband antenna to detect the electric field, used to detect the electric field signals and the
and a microphone to detect the acoustic signal produced microphone was used to detect the acoustic signals.
when lightning strike to the ground. A simple procedure to Based on the different time delay between both signals,
find the strike distance (d) was explained. A broadband the lightning strike can be calculated.
parallel plate antenna was used to detect the electric field
signal. The acoustic signal was detected by a microphone.
The arrival time-delay between both signals was used to II. TIME –TO- THUNDER METHOD
calculate the strike distance. The LabVIEW 8.5 software
was used as a data logger to calculate the distance and to
A. Theory
save the data. The lightning distance data were recorded The method was implemented by using two kinds of
for duration from January 2010 until March 2010 using the antenna which are wire antenna used to sense the electric
developed system. The range of the lightning detection is up field wave and a microphone is used to sense the pressure
to 10 km in radius. wave produce by the thunder storm when lightning strike
to the ground. The electric field wave is propagating with
Keywords — Lightning Distance; Electric Field; Time-to-
the speed of light while the pressure wave produces by
Thunder, Antenna, Time Delay.
the thunder storm is propagating with the average speed
I. INTRODUCTION of around 350 m/s. The delay in time for the microphone
to sense the pressure wave compare with the wire antenna
Lightning discharges radiate intense electromagnetic to sense electric field wave can be used to calculate the
pulses (sferics), which have been used to detect the distance of lightning strike by the following formula by
distance of the lightning source strikes. The quest of
lightning distance [1] can be solved by means of multi- assuming the speed of electrostatic wave is very fast
station or single-station techniques. Multi-station compare with the speed of thunder storm:
techniques are the most accurate and several systems have
been developed in the past decades. An example is the d = VT ∗ TD (1)
United States National Lightning Detection Network
(NLDN), which in 1996 used 106 sensors located over the
continental United States to achieve a typical accuracy of VT is the average speed of
Where d is the distance strike,
0.5 km [2]. While, single station techniques use a single
VLF receiver and give a more convenient way to locate thunderstorm which is 350 m/s and TD is time delay
the sources. The system [3] usually a combine the between wire antenna and microphone in second.
direction finding with estimation of the distance to the
source strikes.
B. Application
The earliest single-station technique is using the ratio
In the experiment, a single-station parallel plate antenna
[4] between the electromagnetic signals and electric field
has been used to detect the electric field, while a
signals. The lightning distance also can be determined microphone has been used to detect the acoustic signal.
based on spherics field pattern [5] by analyzing the The antenna and microphone was put outside of IVAT’s
smooth-type spherics waveform or using wave laboratory for data measurement. Both signals were
impedance technique [6].The derivation technique [7] captured by oscilloscopes and the data were save using
based on delay time between arrival times of ELF and LabVIEW 8.5. The captured data were analyzed to find
VLF in slow tail atmospherics also has been used. the time delay between electric field and the acoustic
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 357

signal. Then, using the time-to-thunder method distance
estimation can be calculated.
Figure 3. Graphical user interface (GUI) for lightning distance

Figure 1. Equipment for the experiment setup Figure 1. Equipment fo determination
Figure 1. Equipment was used in the experiment to determine the
lightning distance
The lightning electric field signal was captured by
channel 1 of the TDS5104B oscilloscope (with a setting
III. MEASUREMENT AND EXPERIMENTS SETUP of 500 samples and 40 ms time scale, 100 mV trigger
level). A high trigger level prevented the program from
A. Hardware Development capturing undesirable signals such as noises, unwanted
reflections and refractions.
In the hardware development, both of these sensors
were combined to form a single-station lightning
observation system (Fig 2). A coaxial cable, (Mitti, 3C- TDS5104B
2V, 75Ω) was used to connect both sensors. The length of
the cable is same (22 meter). In the software development,
graphical user interface (GUI) program was developed
using LabVIEW 8.5 software (Fig 3). The program was
used as a data logger to save both signals. Both
developed hardware and software need to be integrated
by using a NI-GPIB Visa and a Picospoce 5000 Series
(Fig 4).
Picoscopes 5000
Parallel Plate Antenna
Figure 4. Interfacing equipment in lab
To avoid saving unnecessary data due to the long

delay time between different signal sources triggering,
the acoustic signal from the microphone was captured by
using another independent measuring instrument, namely
the PicoScope 5000 series. On the graphical user
interface (GUI) front panel, the buffer size was set to 500,
and the sample rate was set to 100 ksamples/s. The
Microphone
typical time range on the screen was therefore about 400
ms.
As for the TDS5104B oscilloscope, a USB type NI-
GPIB VISA was used as an interface between the
Figure 2. Parallel plate antenna with microphone oscillocope and the LabView enabled PC. All the
measuring equipment was placed in the control room and
was put on stand-by.
358
B. Software Development
In the software development, graphical user interface

(GUI) program was developed using the LabVIEW 8.5
software. The program was only to capture and to save
the data in the data logger. Fig.5 shown the programming
structure using LabVIEW.
Figure 7. Time delay between two signals (TOA1 & TOA2).
The programming structure (Fig.5) was applied in

LabVIEW programming. The block diagram (Fig.8)
showed the combination of electric field signal and
acoustic signal in order to determine the lightning
distance. The front panels of LabVIEW programming
was showed in Figure 3.
Figure 5. Programming flow structure
A high pass filter (HPF) facility in the LabView was

used to eliminate noise in the signals captured. The cut
off frequency was set to 2 MHz [8] for the VHF antenna.
After filtering, the signal was then resampled again (Fig.
6).
Figure 8. LabVIEW block diagram shown combination of two sensor

programming (Acoustic and microphone)
C. Detection Concept
On the lightning day, the intensity or rate of electric

field was increased in atmosphere. The parallel plate
antenna is a very high frequency antenna and it was
Figure 6. High Pass Filter on LabVIEW block diagram capable to detect the electric field the lightning distance
in short range radius. In the experiment, it was proved to
The maximum peak reading for each signal was determine the lightning strike in range of 10km (in
shown at the front panel of the GUI. By using the statistic radius).
function, the time of maximum for each signal was Lightning produces an EMF by stripping electron
determined. The program determined the time of from atom in the air. The process starts with transient
maximum for the signals from the VHF antenna and as collision of ice crystal with riming graupel pellet. Thus
well as from the microphone. The time delay can then be transferring charges within the maturing cloud as the
calculated by calculating the arrival time difference heavier (-ve) particles fall, resulting in vertical electric
between the two signals (Fig.7).This was done field (–ve) charge from the atmospheres is transfer to
automatically for each lightning strike. earth (cloud to ground).When the stepped leader hit
ground , the return stroke is triggered. The radiated field
359
of the lightning stroke will induce current in the cross Electric Field Signal
loop portion of antenna (H-field) and the sense antenna
will recognize the generated vertical field (E- field) .The
spectrum of lightning strike consist of broad range of
frequency with very fast rise time.
Voltage (V)
The electric field charge during the thunderstorm day
will induce the voltage on the antenna plate. So the
derivation of the charge Q induces of it is equal to;
∫ D.ds = ∫ pdv
s v
(2)
D = Eε o ε r Time (s)
(3) Figure 9. Electric Field Transducer Voltage Signal (15 March 2010,
15:19)
Obviously, the magnitude of the signal is dependent
Therefore equation (2) becomes, on the lightning strike intensity, and the lightning strike
distance from the measuring antenna. On average, most
of the captured electric field signals had a peak
Electric Flux Density X Area of plate= Charge on plate magnitude of 0.14V or greater.
Most of the lightning signals are quite similar. Single-
And it is mathematically expressed as, stroke and multi strokes lightning are common shapes
that can be determined from the captured signals. Fig.9.
D.S= Q until Fig.12 showed various type of lightning stroke that
consist of multiple stroke and single stroke.
From equation (3), the normal electric field becomes
Electric Field Signal
Q
En = (4)
ε oε r S
Voltage (V)
Then the voltage between the flat –metallic plate and

ground is;
d d
Q Q.d
∫
V g = − E n dx = −
0
ε o .ε r .S ∫ (− 1)dx = ε
0 o .ε r .S
(5)
Time(s)
If substitute equation (4) into (5), therefore;
Figure 10. Electric Field Transducer Voltage Signal (15 March 2010,
15:21)
V g = E n .d (6)
Electric Field Signal
Equation (6) indicates that the voltage between the
metallic plate and ground is directly proportional to the
electric field normal to the plate and it height respect to
the ground.
Voltage (V)
IV. RESULT
The lightning data was captured during January 2010

to March 2010. The shape of the lightning strike signals
and acoustic signals was showed in Fig.9 until Fig.12.
Time (s)
Figure 11. Electric Field Transducer Voltage Signal (15 March 2010,
15:21)
360
Electric Field Signal 0.07 0.36 16:08:09.98 16:08:33.23 23.3 8.2
0.1 0.23 16:11:18.55 16:11:45.92 23.4 9.6
0.07 0.3 16:16:20.17 16:16:35.47 15.3 5.4

5
Voltage (V)
0.85 0.28 16:39:29.81 16:39:47.76 17.9 6.3
0.08 0.3 16:44:35.59 16:44:58.63 23 8.1
0.09 0.27 16:48:37.95 16:48:57.20 19.3 6.7

5
Time(s)
0.11 0.3 16:50:44.84 16:51:59.45 14.6 5.1
Figure 12. Electric Field Transducer Voltage Signal (21 March
2010,16:01) 0.12 0.4 16:51:00.28 16:51:13.05 12.8 4.5
From Fig. 13 which shows a typical acoustic signal

captured, the peak magnitude is about 0.4 V. On average,
a peak magnitude of 1 V can be expected depending on
the intensity of the strike. The acoustic signal due to a
lightning strike can easily be verified by looking at the
shape of the signal.
D1=6.7km
Acoustic Signal D2=4.8km
D3=4.6km
D4=7.2km
D2 D4
D3 D1
3.3 Symbols, Units and Equations
Figure 13. Acoustic signals from microphone ( 21 March 2010, 16:17)

Figure 14. Lightning Distance Determinations on 15 March 2010.
The objective of the experiments is to find the time
delay between both sensors. The time stamp for each Fig. 14 shows a typical lightning distance calculation
sensor can be checked in the saved data file. Table 1 done. In this figure, the (0, 0) coordinate refers to the
shows a typical captured data on 21 March 2010. Based IVAT’s building where the sensors were placed. As can
on the time stamps (TOA-1 and TOA-2), the time delay be seen, D1, D2 and D3 are getting smaller with time.
and hence the lightning distance from the strike source This is because the thundercloud was then moving
can be determined, using Equation (1). towards the sensors. The calculated distance D4 can be
said due to a lightning discharge from another
TABLE 1 DATA OF LIGHTNING DISTANCE ON 21 MARCH thundercloud because the distance of the stroke was
2010 suddenly increased.
The expected time of arrival (ETA) for a particular
Vant Vmi TOA-1 TOA-2 dt Distance thundercloud can also be determined by calculating the
(V) c (microphon (km) average speed of the thundercloud movement. Based on
(V) (Antenna) e) (s)
the lightning data on 21 March 2010 (Fig. 10), the
average speed is calculated as 0.35 km.s-1.
0.08 0.27 16:01:22.37 16:01:49.87 27.5 9.6
0.09 0.36 16:02:25.86 16:02:48.55 22.7 7.9
0.09 0.35 16:03:30.25 16:03:49.58 19.3 6.8
0.09 0.35 16:04:58.81 16:05:13.87 15.1 5.3
361
Figure 15. Speed vs distance of lightning
V. CONCLUSION
The detection range of a broadband antenna is up to
10 km (in radius) for lightning detection. From the
experiment, the longest distance recorded is 9.6 km (in
radius), while the shortest path is 4.22 km (in radius)
measured from the sensors’ location at IVAT, UTM.
Based on the results, it was proven that the detection for
the broadband antenna is below 10 km (in radius), and it
can be successfully used for this time-to-thunder method
of lightning detection.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The Authors wish to thank for the support of this
research to the Institute of High Voltage & High Current
(IVAT), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia that made this
collaborative work possible.
REFERENCES
[1] V. Ramachandran, J. N. Prakash, A. Deo, and S. Kumar,
“Lightning stroke distance estimation from single station
observation and validation with WWLLN data”, Ann. Geophys.,
25, 1509–1517, 2007.
[2] K. L. Cummins, M. J. Murphy, E. A. Bardo, W. L. Hiscox, R. B.
Pyle, and A. E. Pifer, “A combined TOA/MDF technology
upgrade of the U. S. national lightning detection network,” J.
Geophys. Res., vol. 103, no. D8, pp. 9035-9044, Apr. 1998.
[3] V. A. Rafalsky, A. P. Nickolaenko, A. V. Shvets, and M.
Hayakawa, “Location of lightning discharges from a single
station,” J. Geophys. Res., vol. 100, no. D10, pp. 20829-20838,
Oct.1995.
[4] Lothar H. Runhke, Boulder, Colo. “Determining Distance to
Lightning Strokes from a Single Station. United Stated Patents
3715660, Feb.6, 1963
[5] Hepburn, F., Analysis of smooth type atmospheric waveforms, J.
Atmos. Terr. Phys., 19, 37–53, 1960.
[6] M.A Karol` And A.P Nikolaenko, Measurement of distances to
nearby Thunderstorm Discharges , Radiophysics and Quantum
Electronics, Vol.36, Nov.3-4, 1993
[7] Sao, K., and H. Jindoh, Real time location of atmospherics by
single station techniques and preliminary results, J. Atmos. Terr.
Phys., 36, 261-266, 1974
362
Limitation of Transmission Line Switching

Overvoltages
Heresh Seyedi1, Smko Golabi2 and Zaher Abam3
Abstract-- In this paper switching overvoltages of an actual another limitation method, almost generally accepted in recent
transmission line are studied. Simulations are executed using years. [5] In this approach, the circuit breaker closing instant
Electro Magnetic Transients Program. A comprehensive
switching transient study is performed for the Azerbaijan is controlled by an accurate relay. In this way, the switching is
province network in Iran. The purpose of this study is to performed at a proper instant, in order that consequent
determine the unnecessary pre-insertion resistors in the UHV overvoltages are minimized.
network, since the new policy is to use pre-insertion resistors only
For many years the common strategy, adopted by many
when crucial. Among the case studies presented in this work, in
one case pre-insertion resistor is not necessary. Also in other utilities, was to use pre-insertion resistors for all UHV
cases, it is possible to omit pre-insertion resistors, with the aid of transmission lines. However, due to the cost and reliability
some enhancement in the insulation withstand level. problems associated with pre-insertion resistors, this policy
has been revised in many countries, including Iran. In the new
Keywords: Switching overvoltages, transmission line
strategy, the pre-insertion resistor is installed only for the
switching, temporary overvoltages, pre-insertion resistor
transmission lines in which the switching overvoltages are
I. INTRODUCTION likely to exceed the insulation withstand level. In this regard, a
S witching overvoltages are among the important factors to

be considered in the design of transmission lines and their
overvoltage protective devices, particularly in the systems
comprehensive transient study was performed for the 400 kV
transmission lines in the Azerbaijan region, one of the
important utilities of the Iranian interconnected grid. A
with rated voltages above 300 kV [1], [2]. summary of this study is presented in this paper. Based on the
Traditionally, switching overvoltages of the transmission results of this work, many problems associated with the
lines are calculated in different locations of the line. This is unnecessary pre-insertion resistors may be resolved.
performed by accurate modeling of the system in an
appropriate power system transient analysis software [3], [4]. II. SYSTEM MODELING
Afterwards, maximum switching overvoltage is compared The system modeled in EMTP is shown in Fig.1. Switching
with the insulation withstand level of the transmission line. If studies are executed on the transmission lines, connected to
the maximum overvoltage exceeds withstand level, then it Tabriz 400 kV substation. Simulations are separately
must somehow be reduced. performed from both ends of the lines.
Practical switching overvoltage reduction methods may be For the transmission lines JMARTI model is used which is
classified as follows [2]: a frequency dependent model and thus suitable for switching
Pre-insertion resistor [5]-[8] transients studies [3]. All surge arresters are modeled
Intermediate surge arresters [9]-[11] appropriately based on their V-I characteristics.
Controlled switching [5], [12]-[15]
The traditional method to reduce switching overvoltages is III. PRINCIPLES OF ANALYSIS
to install pre-insertion resistors in parallel with transmission Diagram of the simulated network in EMTP is shown in
line circuit breakers. Most circuit breaker manufacturers do Fig. 1. The modeled system includes some part of the national
not recommend this method anymore, because in addition to grid and the lines under study. Principles of analysis to study
its cost and complex technology its failure rate is sometimes switching overvoltages of the transmission line are mainly
unacceptably high. Consequently using this method, reliability according to [1]. For each transmission line shown in Fig.1,
of the whole system is decreased [5]. the line circuit breaker at one end is closed while the circuit
Installation of surge arresters in one or two suitable breaker at the other end of the line is open to obtain the
locations along the transmission line is another effective maximum overvoltage [16].
limitation method. In [9], the switching overvoltages of a real The network is divided into internal and external sections.
transmission line have been reduced to the acceptable level, The former comprises of the network from switching point to
using one set of surge arresters along the line. the next substation through all possible roots. For this section,
Controlled switching or point-on-wave switching is JMARTI model is used for modeling transmission lines. The
latter is modeled by thevenin equivalent, parameters of which
1,2,3 The authors are with the Department of Electrical and are obtained by the results of the short circuit studies of the
Computer Engineering, University of Tabriz, Iran, Iranian grid.
(hseyedi@tabrizu.ac.ir ).
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 363

Fig.1. Diagram of the simulated network using EMTP
Fig.2. Diagram of the network for switching of Tabriz-Khoy3 transmission line from Tabriz side
Fig.3. Diagram of the network for switching of Tabriz-Khoy3 transmission line from Khoy3side
Fig.2 shows the network, used for switching of Tabriz-

Khoy3 transmission line from Tabriz substation side. Fig.3 420
shows the network used for switching of the same line from * 2 = 342.928 kV (1)
Khoy3 substation side.
3
The following points are included in the modeling: 3. Switching operations are performed statistically,
1. Three phase autoreclosure is modeled in switching in using the statistic switch of EMTP. For each case, 100
order that closing operation occurs at the instant of switching operations at instants of t are performed. t is a
maximum source voltage and maximum trapped charge random variable with uniform distribution. Mean and
with opposite polarities. This way, the worst case is Standard Deviation of t are according to (2) for phase A.
obtained [17]-[23].
Mean = 0.05 s
(2)
2. In the simulation results 1 p.u. is equal to: SD = 0.005 s
364
4. The transmission line under study is divided into this information, the statistical overvoltage of each section,
several sections, according to Figs. 2 and 3. Mean and Vov, is calculated and presented in Table I.
standard deviation of the overvoltages in each section are TABLE I
MAXIMUM SWITCHING OVERVOLTAGES IN STAGE A
calculated, using the results of 100 random simulations.
These should not be mixed up with the Mean and Distance
Mean SD Vov (pu)
(km)
standard deviation of the switching time, cited above.
0 1.47.55 0.1456 1.774
5. Using the Mean and SD, calculated in step 4, and
11.8 1.607 0.2066 2.0305
assuming normal distribution for the overvoltages, the
23.6 1.7575 0.2839 2.3359
statistical overvoltage in each section is calculated
35.4 1.8765 0.3219 2.5364
according to (3):
47.2 1.9035 0.3142 2.5476
Vov = Mean + 2.05 SD (3)
59 1.9145 0.3110 2.5521
6. Surge arresters, the MOV components in Figs. 2 and 3, 70.8 1.912 0.2959 2.5186
are modeled based on their V-I characteristics. 82.6 1.9015 0.282 2.4796
7. According to [1] the environmental conditions for the 94.4 1.891 0.2671 2.4386
maximum overvoltage are obtained using (4). 106.2 1.8795 0.2515 2.3951
118 1.8755 0.2063 2.2984
V = K a K sVov
m
H (4)
Ka = e 8150 In the next stage of the study, all simulations are repeated
with 100 Ω an 200 Ω pre-insertion resistors, respectively. The
pre-insertion resistor is installed parallel to the main contacts
In this equation H is altitude above sea level, Ks is a
of circuit breaker, according to Fig.5.
safety factor usually equal to 1.05 and m is derived from
the curve shown in Fig. 4.
2
M=1.137-0.0004755*MaxV+4.24e-8*MaxV
1.3
1.2
1.1
1
Fig.5. Circuit breaker model with pre-insertion resistor
0.9
m 0.8 Whenever a closing command is received by the circuit

0.7
breaker, at first the resistor contact is closed. Therefore, the
pre-insertion resistor effectively suppresses the switching
0.6
overvoltages. 8 ms after the closing operation, the main
contact is closed. The resistor is bypassed in this way.
0.5
0.4
Afterwards, the resistor contact is opened within a few
0.3
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
milliseconds. Tables, similar to Table I, are created for the
Maximum Switching Voltage
simulations with 100 Ω and 200 Ω pre-insertion resistors. The
Fig.4. Derivation of the parameter m tables are not presented here, to save space.
The results of simulations of these cases are depicted in
IV. SIMULATION RESULTS Fig.6. In this figure, the overvoltage profiles are shown for the
three cases: without resistor, with 100 Ω and finally with 200
A. Case study1: switching of Tabriz-Khoy3 400 kV line from Ω resistors.
Tabriz substation
2.6
In this case, according to Fig.2, Tabriz-Khoy3 400 kV 2.5
2.4
transmission line is under study. The line is divided into 10 2.3
2.2
sections, each 11.8 km, based on the principles, described in 2.1
ov erv oltage(p.u)
2
section III. In order to obtain the statistical parameters of the 1.9
1.8
overvoltages in all sections, 100 simulations are performed. In 1.7
each simulation, a closing operation is executed in Tabriz 1.6
1.5 no-R
substation at a random time, t. Mean and standard deviation of 1.4
1.3
R-100
R-200
the random variable, t, are selected according to (2). 1.2
1.1
First, the simulations are performed without any pre- 1
0 11.8 23.6 35.4 47.2 59 70.8 82.6 94.4 106.2 118
insertion resistor. Mean and standard deviation of the Length(km)
overvoltages in each section are listed in Table I. Based on Fig.6. Voltage profiles for case study1
365
According to the results of Fig.6, the pre-insertion resistor resistor
has effectively reduced switching overvoltages.
C. Case study3: switching of Tabriz-Ghayati 400 kV line from
TABLE II
MAXIMUM SWITCHING OVERVOLTAGES ALONG THE LINE FOR CASE 1 Tabriz substation
Switching Vov Distance In this case, according to Fig.2, Tabriz- Ghayati 400 kV
Vov (pu) Ka.Ks.Vov
type (kV) (km) transmission line is under study. The line is divided into 10
Without sections, each 34.6 km. Overvoltage profiles along the line,
2.5521 875.19 1054.95 59
resistor with and without pre-insertion resistors are depicted in Fig.8.
With 100 Ω
2.0399 699.54 854.24 118 3.1
resistor 3
2.9
With 200 Ω 2.8
1.8928 649.54 795.91 118 2.7
2.6
resistor 2.5
ov erv oltage(p.u)
2.4
2.3
2.2
Maximum values of switching overvoltages along the line, 2.1
2
1.9
in each study, are listed in Table II. Since the insulation 1.8
1.7
withstand level for this line is 1050 kV, no pre-insertion 1.6
1.5
no-R
R-100
resistor is required. Although the maximum overvoltage is 1.4
1.3 R-200
1.2
1054.95 kV, due to the 5 percent safety margin considered in 1.1
1
the study, the results without resistor are acceptable for this 0 34.6 69.2 103.8 138.4 173 207.6 242.2 276.8 311.4 346
Length(km)
case.
Fig.8. Voltage profiles for case study3
Maximum values of switching overvoltages along the line,
B. Case study2: switching of Tabriz-Khoy3 400 kV line from are listed in Table IV. According to the results, 100 Ω pre-
Khoy3 substation insertion resistors are required in Tabriz substation.
TABLE IV
This study is similar to case study1. However, switching
MAXIMUM SWITCHING OVERVOLTAGES ALONG THE LINE FOR CASE 3
operation is performed from the other side of the line, in Switching Vov Distance
Khoy3 substation. Network diagram of this case was depicted Vov (pu) Ka.Ks.Vov
type (kV) (km)
in Fig.3. Overvoltage profiles along the line, with and without Without
pre-insertion resistors are depicted in Fig.7. 3.0024 1029.61 1224.15 207.6
resistor
2.8 With 100 Ω
2.7 2.1278 729.68 889.51 311.4
2.6 resistor
2.5
2.4 With 200 Ω
2.3 1.9715 676.08 827.01 346
resistor
ov erv oltage(p.u)
2.2
2.1
2
1.9 D. Case study4: switching of Tabriz- Ghayati 400 kV line
1.8
1.7 from Ghayati substation
1.6 no-R
1.5
1.4
R-100 This study is similar to case study3. However, switching
R-200
1.3
1.2 operation is performed from the other side of the line, in
1.1
1 Ghayati substation. Overvoltage profiles along the line, with
0 11.8 23.6 35.4 47.2 59 70.8 82.6 94.4 106.2 118
Length(km)
and without pre-insertion resistors are depicted in Fig.9.
Fig.7. Voltage profiles for case study2 3.1
3
Maximum values of switching overvoltages along the line, 2.9
2.8
are listed in Table III. According to the results, 100 Ω pre- 2.7
2.6
insertion resistors are required in Khoy3 substation. It should 2.5
o v e rv o ltag e (p .u)
2.4
be noticed that although pre-insertion resistor is not required 2.3
2.2
2.1
for this line, in Tabriz substation, it is required in Khoy3. In 2
1.9
other words, the results of studies of the same line might be 1.8
1.7 no-R
completely different at each end of the line. 1.6
1.5 R-100
TABLE III 1.4 R-200
1.3
MAXIMUM SWITCHING OVERVOLTAGES ALONG THE LINE FOR CASE 2 1.2
1.1
Switching Vov Distance 1
Vov (pu) Ka.Ks.Vov 0 34.6 69.2 103.8 138.4 173 207.6 242.2 276.8 311.4
type (kV) (km) Length(km)
Without Fig.9. Voltage profiles for case study4
2.7198 932.7 1120.37 59
resistor Maximum values of switching overvoltages along the line,
With 100 Ω are listed in Table V. According to the results, 100 Ω pre-
2.1675 743.3 904.56 106.2
resistor insertion resistors are required in Ghayati substation.
With 200 Ω 1.8527 635.34 778.52 118
366
Therefore, for this line, pre-insertion resistor is required at 2.8
both ends. 2.7
2.6
TABLE V 2.5
2.4
MAXIMUM SWITCHING OVERVOLTAGES ALONG THE LINE FOR CASE 4 2.3
Switching Vov Distance
ov erv oltage(p.u)
2.2
Vov (pu) Ka.Ks.Vov 2.1
type (kV) (km) 2
1.9
Without 1.8
2.6991 925.6 1113.77 138.4 1.7
resistor 1.6 no-R
1.5
With 100 Ω 1.4
R-100
2.13 730.43 890.43 311.4 1.3
R-200
resistor 1.2
With 200 Ω 1.1
1.9912 682.84 835.28 346 1
resistor 0 46.3 92.6 138.9 185.2 231.5 277.8 324.1 370.4 416.7 463
Length(km)
E. Case study5: switching of Tabriz-Rajaee 400 kV line from Fig.11. Voltage profiles for case study6
TABLE VII
Tabriz substation
In this case, Tabriz- Rajaee 400 kV transmission line is Switching Vov Distance
Vov (pu) Ka.Ks.Vov
under study. The line is divided into 10 sections, each 46.3 type (kV) (km)
km. Overvoltage profiles along the line, with and without pre- Without
2.6868 921.38 1108.7 324.1
insertion resistors are depicted in Fig.10. resistor
With 100 Ω
2.8 2.1647 742.34 903.39 416.7
2.7 resistor
2.6
2.5 With 200 Ω
2.4 1.9962 684.55 837.38 463
2.3 resistor
ov erv oltage(p.u)
2.2
2.1
2
1.9
1.8
1.7
V. DISCUSSION
no-R
1.6
1.5 R-100 According to the results of simulation studies, presented in
1.4 R-200
1.3 section IV, the following important points are concluded:
1.2
1.1 It is possible to omit unnecessary pre-insertion
1
0 46.3 92.6 138.9 185.2 231.5 277.8 324.1 370.4 416.7 463 resistors, through accurate simulation studies. In
Length(km)
this way the shortcomings, associated with the
Fig.10. Voltage profiles for case study5
failure rate and cost of pre-insertion resistors may
be avoided.
are listed in Table VI. According to the results, 100 Ω pre-
Statistical switching overvoltage study at one end
insertion resistors are required in Tabriz substation.
of the line is completely independent of the same
TABLE VI
study at the other end of the line. In other words,
Switching Vov Distance pre-insertion resistor might be necessary at one
Vov (pu) Ka.Ks.Vov
type (kV) (km) end, while not required at the other end of the
Without same line.
2.7297 936.09 1124.43 185.2
resistor Pre-insertion resistor effectively reduces switching
With 100 Ω overvoltages. Percentage reduction of switching
2.1726 745.04 906.67 416.7
resistor overvoltages by this method is about 30%.
With 200 Ω According to the simulation results, pre-insertion
1.9939 683.76 836.41 463
resistor resistor completely changes the overvoltage
F. Case study6: switching of Tabriz- Rajaee 400 kV line from profile. In this method, position of maximum
Rajaee substation voltage along the line, moves either forward or
backward, compared to its position in the studies
This study is similar to case study5. However, switching
without resistor.
operation is performed from the other side of the line, in
According to the simulation studies, the maximum
Rajaee substation. Overvoltage profiles along the line, are
overvoltage along the line exists only in a small
depicted in Fig.11.
portion of the line. In other words, in many cases,
only in a small part of the line, overvoltages
are listed in Table V. According to the results, 100 Ω pre-
exceed the withstand level of insulators.
insertion resistors are required in Rajaee substation. Therefore,
Therefore, by enhancing the insulation level in
for this line, pre-insertion resistor is required at both ends.
that portion of the line, it is possible to avoid pre-
insertion resistor application, even if the
367
maximum overvoltage exceeds the initial controlled switching”, IEEE Catalogue No. 95TH8130 ,0-7803-
2981-3/95/$4.00Ol995 IEEE
withstand level of the insulators. Of course the
[14] Sang-Pil Ahn, Chul-Hwan Kim Aggarwal, R.K. Johns, “An
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switching surge control by application of MO-arresters and
368
Detection of Transformer Winding Radial

Deformations by Using UWB pulses and DWT
Javad Ebrahimi Gevorg B. Gharehpetian Hamidreza Amindavar Maryam A. Hejazi
Electrical Eng. Dept. Electrical Eng. Dept. Electrical Eng. Dept. Electrical Eng. Dept.
Amirkabir Univ. of Tech. Amirkabir Univ. of Tech. Amirkabir Univ. of Tech. Amirkabir Univ. of Tech.
Tehran, Iran Tehran, Iran Tehran, Iran Tehran, Iran
j_ebrahimi@aut.ac.ir grptian@aut.ac.ir hamidami@aut.ac.ir akhavanhejazi@aut.ac.ir
Abstract— The on-line monitoring of transformer winding lightening can be used to determine the transfer function.
radial deformations using Ultra-Wideband (UWB) sensors and Many factors affect this method such as lightning arresters
Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT) has been presented in this and different power system structures. The measurement
paper. The measurements on a simplified model of the timing depends on the time of occurrence of the overvoltage
transformer winding demonstrate the high sensitivity of the transients [8]. This method is in the research phase and has
proposed method to detect the winding radial deformation. not been used for any transformer.
The off-line methods will not meet all the needs of the
Index Terms— Winding Radial Deformation, On-Line
transformer monitoring systems. The on-line methods do not
Monitoring, Transformer, UWB Sensor, Discrete Wavelet
Transform.
require switching of the transformer and can continuously
monitor the transformer winding.
I. INTRODUCTION The other advantage of the on-line monitoring method is
the prediction of important faults before their occurrence.
P ower transformers are most expensive and highly
essential elements of electric power systems whose
failures and abnormal operations may lead to the outage of a
The simulations have shown that the scattering parameter of
the winding can be used as an index for on-line monitoring
of winding radial and axial deformations [9, 10]. The same
power system. The requirement of safe and reliable as FRA method, this method is based on the comparison of
operation of power transformers leads to study and results. This method is also in the research phase and has not
development of several fault detection and conditions been used for any transformer.
monitoring methods. The short circuit due to In this paper, a new fault detection method has been
electrodynamics forces cause radial deformations and axial developed, which uses Ultra-Wideband (UWB) sensors for
displacements of transformer windings. These mechanical the on-line detection of transformer winding radial
damages may not lead to an immediate failure of the deformations. The Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT) is
transformer, but the ability of the transformer to withstand used for feature extraction and discriminating the different
future mechanical and dielectric stresses may be highly type of winding radial deformations.
decreased[1,2].
There are many transformer monitoring and diagnostic II. UWB SIGNALS
methods. Each method can be applied to a specific type of
problem and has its own advantages and disadvantages [3, According to the U.S. Federal Communications
4]. In recent years, several off-line methods such as Short Commission (FCC), a UWB signal is defined to have an
Circuit test method (SC) [1], Low Voltage Impulse method absolute bandwidth of at least 500 MHz or a fractional
(LVI) [5] and Frequency Response Analysis method (FRA) (relative) bandwidth of larger than 20% [11].
[3] for the detection of the winding deformation have been Large bandwidths of UWB signals bring many advantages
proposed. for positioning, communications and radar applications, as
In the short circuit test method, the short circuit reactance follows [12]:
is measured while the transformer is off-line. In this method, • Penetration through obstacles,
the sensitivity of the reactance to the winding displacement • Accurate position estimation,
is very low, and the type and the location of the mechanical • High-speed data transmission and
damage in the winding cannot be determined [3]. • Low cost and low power transceiver designs.
The FRA method can be used off-line and on-line [6, 7]. In The penetration capability of a UWB signal is due to its
the off-line FRA method, the transformer is switched on and large frequency spectrum that includes low frequency
off, on the high voltage side (HV-side). Therefore the components as well as high frequency ones. This large
transformer is usually disconnected from the power network spectrum also results in high time resolution, which
on the low voltage side (LV-side) [6]. The well-known FRA improves ranging (i.e., distance estimation) accuracy.
method has been carried out off-line. In this method, three From a radar perspective, short-pulse UWB techniques
experimental approaches of comparison are: time-based, exhibit distinct advantages over more conventional radar
type based and construction-based. Also model-based approaches. These advantages include:
comparison has been presented recently for the FRA • Higher range measurement accuracy and range
method. resolution due to the shorter spatial extent of the
In the on-line FRA method, it is suggested that the transmitter waveforms,
transient over-voltages caused by the switching and the
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 369

• Enhanced target recognition due to detection of the frequency response for these filters depends on the type
additional information from a target’s separate and the order of the mother wavelet used in the analysis.
elements,
• Increased radar operational security because of the IV. TEST OBJECT AND MEASUREMENT METHOD
extremely large spectral spreading and As shown in Fig. 1, a simplified model of transformer
• Ability to detect very slowly moving or stationary High Voltage (HV) winding with the ability of modeling the
targets [13]. axial displacement and radial deformation has been used as a
Numerous applications of short-pulse technology were test object. This model should represent HV winding disks
developed for short-range radar sensing, metrology, of transformers. The dimensions of the model are
communications, and more recently, precision positioning approximately 1/3 of a real one. Disks have made from
[14]. plexiglass sheets which are covered by a layer of copper.
For communications applications, short-pulse UWB They are separated from each other by spacers, which have
techniques offer increased immunity to multipath equal thicknesses. Table I lists the model dimensions.
cancellation due to the ability to discriminate between direct
and time-orthogonal reflected waves. Low-pulse-rate UWB
systems have the additional advantage of having extremely
low duty cycles, which translate into low average prime
power requirements, ideal for battery-operated equipment.
For active Radio Frequency (RF) tracking and positioning
applications, short-pulse UWB techniques offer distinct
advantages in precision time-of-flight measurement,
multipath immunity for leading edge detection (i.e., first
Time of Arrival (TOA)) and low prime power requirements
for extended-operation RF Identification (RFID) tags [15].
In this research, UWB pulses have been used for on-line
monitoring of transformer winding mechanical damage, Fig.1: Transformer winding model and experimental setup
which can be considered as a slowly moving or stationary
target. [13]. TABLE I
DISK MODEL DIMENSIONS
III. WAVELET TRANSFORM Disk Spacer

Diameter 60 cm 60 cm
Time–frequency transforms such as the Short Time Thickness 2 cm 0.5 cm
Fourier Transform (STFT) and the wavelet transform are Number 6 6
widely used for fault detection applications in the electrical
systems. One of these disks has been cut in sectors with different
The drawback of STFT is the fixed size of the time dimensions. These sectors can be moved in radial direction
window for all frequencies. The wavelet transform is the as shown in Fig.2. The amount of deformation is
breaking up of a signal into scaled and shifted versions of characterized by deformation length. The thickness of each
the mother wavelet [16]. Any discrete signal x[n] can be sector is equal to the thickness of each disk. But their widths
decomposed by using the wavelet function and the wavelet are different, in order to model different radial deformations.
coefficients, as follows:
J −1
x[n] = ∑ a j 0,k .2 j 0 2.φ [2 j 0 n − k ] + ∑ ∑ d j ,k .2 j 2.ϕ[2 j n − k ] Deformation
k j= j0 k length
(1)
Disk No.1
where φ [n] is the scaling function, and ϕ[n] is the mother
Disk No.2
wavelet, j is the scale of decomposition, k is the shifting
a j 0, k Disk No.3
factor, are the approximation coefficients at a scale of
Disk No.4
s = 2 j 0 , d j ,k are the detail coefficients at a scale of
Disk No.5
s = 2 j and N = 2 J , where N is the number of x samples. Disk No.6
The DWT divides the given function into different
frequency components based on a power of two divisions. Fig. 2: Modelling of radial deformation (in disk No.2) and disk numbering
More concretely, if f s (in samples per second) is the
sampling rate used for capturing x, at the jth decomposition A bi-static transmitter and receiver have been used for the
measurements.
level, the detail d j and the approximation a j coefficient
contains the information concerning the original signal
• Reference measurement
[
components with the frequency bandwidth f s 2 j +1 , f s 2 j ] There is no deformation or displacement on the
[ ]
and 0 , f s 2 j +1 , respectively [16], [17].
transformer model. The results of this test have been stored
as a normal and base case.
Therefore, DWT carries out the filtering process. Note that
• Deformation measurement
the filtering is not ideal, a fact leading to a certain overlap
between adjacent frequency bands [16], [18]. The shape of
370
Different radial deformations have been applied to the 2
a5 d5
5
winding but the test set-up configuration is the same for
0 0
these cases. A typical waveform of received signal in the
case of the radial deformation of the winding model is -2
-5
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
shown in Fig. 3. d4 d3
400
5
200
500 0 0
-200
-5 -400
300
0 5 10 15 20
normalized amplitude
0 5 10 15 20
d2 10 d1
100
200
0 0
-100
-200
-10
-300 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (nsec) Time (nsec)
-500
0 2 4 6 8 10
t (ns)
12 14 16 18 20
Fig. 4: Typical waveform of detail and approximate components of
receiving signal for daubechies 16
Fig. 3: typical waveform of receiving signal
TABLE II
V. ANALYSIS METHOD SUM OF PDD DIFFERENCE OF DIFFERENT WAVELETS FOR
DIFFERENT DECOMPOSITION LEVELS
In a classical Fourier analysis, the power of a signal can Wavelet Sum of PDD difference
be obtained by integrating the Power Spectral Density Type d2 d3 d4 d5
(PSD), which is the square of the absolute value of the db 4 0.64 1.01 3.88 1.89
Fourier transform coefficients. A similar derivation can be db 16 1.06 0.60 6.45 2.43
obtained with the wavelet transform. Power Detail Density db 28 1.06 0.60 6.17 2.67
(PDD) can be described as the squares of the coefficients of db 32 0.58 0.68 5.99 2.77
sym 2 0.33 0.86 2.7 3.44
one concerned detail. The power energy carried by this detail sym 4 0.84 0.50 4.18 4.06
can be obtained by integrating the PDD of this detail [18]. sym 8 0.76 0.56 5.44 3.56
The power-distribution function resulting from a wavelet coif 3 0.66 0.85 3.77 4.73
transformation appears to be the optimal method to be
applied to nonstationary signals to show changes in the Fig. 5 shows detail d4 of receiving signal for
amplitude and distribution of the harmonics [20]. daubechies 16 mother wavelet for the case, which has
The energies related to the approximation coefficient at jth not any deformation and the case with 1, …, 4 cm
decomposition level, E aj , and detail coefficient at jth deformation length. The deformation area is equal to 4
cm2 in Fig. 5.
decomposition level, E dj , can be computed as follows [21]:
1 Nj 6 0 cm
2
E aj = ∑ (a j ) (2) 1 cm
N j i =1 4 2 cm
Normalized Amplitude
3 cm
2 4 cm
1 Nj 2
E dj = ∑ (d j ) (3) 0
N j i =1
-2
where N j is the data length of the jth decomposition level
without the boundary effects and given by the following -4
equation: -6
N
N j = j +1 (4) 0 5 10 15 20
2 Time (nsec)
In this paper, the PDD difference between deformed
winding and sound winding has been selected as an index for 6
fault detection. 4
The type of wavelet function is important for the fault
detection. Several wavelet functions such as daubechies 4, 8, 2
16, 28, 32, symlet 2, 4 8, coiflet 3 have been tested for a 0
typical radial deformation. Table III gives the sum of PDD
difference of different radial deformation for decomposition -2
levels 2, 3, 4 and 5. It is obvious that daubechies 16 -4
maximizes the fault index. Therefore, daubechies 16 has
been chosen as the wavelet function for this application. The -6
approximate a5 and details d1, …, d5 for daubechies 16 10 10.5 11 11.5 12
mother wavelet are shown in Fig. 4.
Fig. 5: d4 component of receiving signal for daubechies 16 mother
wavelet.
371
The results of applying PDD difference index for the [4] E. Rahimpour, J. Christian, K. Feser and H. Mohseni, “Transfer
Function Method to Diagnose Axial Displacement and Radial
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372
Transformer Winding Radial Deformation

Detection Using Scattering Parameters
Hasan A. Alehoseini Maryam A. Hejazi Gevork B. Gharehpetian
Dep. of Electrical eng. Dept. of Electrical Eng. Dept. of Electrical Eng.
Amirkabir Uni. of Tech. Amirkabir Uni. of Tech. Amirkabir Uni. of Tech.
Tehran, Iran Tehran, Iran Tehran, Iran
ali_alehosseini@yahoo.com akhavanhejazi@aut.ac.ir grptian@aut.ac.ir
Abstract—The method of the on-line monitoring of method can be used off-line and on-line [7, 8 and 9].
transformer winding radial deformations using scattering Compared to the off-line methods, an on-line method has the
parameters has been discussed in this paper. In this method, the advantage of stationary installation and hence an improved
signature of the transformer is the scattering parameters, which reproducibility of the test. The merit of on-line monitoring
are calculated using high frequency simulation software and methods over off-line methods is the prediction of the
saved for further analysis as a base case. The new simulations important fault before its occurrence.
can be compared with this case, to detect the radial deformation
In this paper, a new on-line monitoring method has been
of transformer winding. Based on simulations of a simplified
model of the transformer winding, it is shown that the proposed proposed based on the simulation of scattering parameter of
method can discriminate between the deformed and intact the winding. This method, the same as FRA method, is based
windings. on the comparison of results. The simulation results have
shown that the scattering parameter of the winding can be
Index Terms— Winding Radial deformation, On-Line used as a fingerprint for the detection of the winding radial
Monitoring, Transformer, Scattering Parameters. deformation.
I. INTRODUCTION II. SCATTERING PARAMETERS
P OWER transformers are an expensive and vital component

of power system which their condition has a direct
influence on the safety and reliability of the power system.
The principles of this method are based on the measurement of
the magnitude and phase of scattering parameters measured by
several high frequency antennas.
Transformer winding failures account for 19 percent of the The antenna used in the proposed method can be placed inside
transformer failures [1]. Due to short circuits, mechanical or outside of the tank. If the antenna is placed outside of the
forces mainly can cause axial displacement and/or radial tank, then it has a dielectric window which forms a robust
deformation of transformer windings. These mechanical electrical aperture for sending and receiving very high
damages may not result in an immediate failure of the frequency electromagnetic waves. Thus, using the proposed
transformer, but the ability of transformer to resist against method the dielectric window on the tank of the transformer
future dielectric and mechanical stresses may be highly can be used for both, the partial discharge and winding
decreased [2, 3]. deformation detection. An N-port microwave network is
Condition monitoring of transformers is desirable for shown in Fig.1.
increasing their availability, reducing consequential damage or
catastrophic failure of power transformer. There are several
transformer mechanical damages monitoring and diagnostic
methods. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages
[4, 5]. In recent years, several off-line methods such as Short
Circuit test (SC) [2], Low Voltage Impulse (LVI) [5] and
Frequency Response Analysis (FRA) [4] have been proposed
for the detection of the winding deformation.
In the short circuit test method, the short circuit reactance is
measured while the transformer is disconnected. In this
method, the sensitivity of the reactance to the winding
deformation is very low, and the type and the location of the
mechanical damage in the winding cannot be determined [4].
In the FRA method, experimental approaches of comparison Fig.1: N-port network
are: time-based, type based and construction-based. The FRA
1
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 373

The N incoming wave complex amplitudes are usually
+
designated by the N complex quantities V N and the N
outgoing wave complex quantities are designated by the N
−
complex quantities V N .The incoming and outgoing waves are
sorted in vectors V
+
and V − , respectively.
The relationship between these two vectors can be expressed

by the equation (1):
⎡ V −1 ⎤ ⎡ S11 S12 . . . S1N ⎤ ⎡ V +1 ⎤
⎢ − ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢V 2 ⎥ ⎢ S 21 S 22 . . . S2N ⎥⎢ V + 2 ⎥
⎢ . ⎥ ⎢ . . . . . . ⎥⎢ . ⎥ (a)
⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ . . . . . ⎥⎢ . ⎥ (1)
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ . . . . . . ⎥⎢ . ⎥
⎢ . ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣V N ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣S N1 S N 2
−
. . . S NN ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣V + N ⎥⎦
In equation (1), S is a N × N matrix with complex elements

called the "scattering matrix". It completely determines the
behavior of the network. In general, the elements of this
matrix, which are termed “Scattering parameters” or “S-
parameters”, are frequency-dependent [11].
III. TEST OBJECT AND SIMULATION PROCEDURE

A simplified single-phase model of transformer, used in this
paper, is shown in Fig.2. The model is based on ideal metallic
cylinder in a metallic tank. The inner metallic cylinder
represents the LV winding while the outer metallic cylinder
represents the HV winding. The dimensions of the model are (b)
approximately 5 percent of a real one and presented in Fig.2.
50mm
In this research, only one rectangular aperture has been
installed. As a result, the S-matrix dimension is 1 × 1 .The
single element of the S-matrix is easily determined by the
following equation: 49.6mm
V1−
S11 = (2)
V1+
which can be written in the following simple form: (c)
Pref
S11 = (3)
Pin
Where, Pin is the transmitting power and Pref is the
receiving power of the antenna.
The antenna of the model is a rectangular aperture with the
dimensions of a standard X-band waveguide (WR90). The
excitation frequency should be between the first and second
cut-off frequencies (6.6 and 14.7 GHz for the model) to have a
single mode of propagation.
(d)
Fig. 2: Simplified model of transformer a) Three dimensional view, b) Side
view of transformer model, c) Top view of transformer model and d) Side
view of winding model
From the electromagnetic waves point of view, if the

diameter of a hole is less than 0.1 of the wavelength, then the
wave cannot enter the hole. The wavelength at the middle of
374
Aperture position
the band is 31mm which is greater than one tenth of the
distance between the high voltage winding disks in the
reduced scales (i.e., 6mm×0.05=0.3mm). As a result,
considering the dimensions of the HV winding of a power
transformer and the frequency of the electromagnetic wave,
the inner parts (core and LV winding) can be neglected and
only the outer surface of HV winding should be modeled.
The scattering parameters of the intact winding model are
a-1 b-1
calculated by using the high frequency simulation software in
the range of 7-12 GHz and stored as a fingerprint of the
transformer winding.
Tank model
Fig.3 shows different radial deformation types of the
winding model.The deformation in the model No.1 is only on Deformed winding model
one side of the winding model. In the same way, the
deformation on other sides or the extent of the deformations
have been modeled.
c-1
Fig. 5: Model No.1in different positions respect to antenna.
Model No.1 Model No.2
a-2 b-2
Model No.3 Model No.4

Fig.3: Different radial deformation types
The deformation is modeled to the cylinder by subtracting a

cube with the width of a=6mm , length of b=18mm and
height of 80mm (Fig.4).
a-3 a-4
Fig. 6: Model No.2, 3 and 4 in different positions respect to the antenna.
The scattering parameters have been calculated from7-12

GHz for different radial deformation extents in different
positions of the winding model respect to the aperture antenna
as shown in Fig.5 and Fig.6. Simulation results of the
magnitude and phase of scattering parameter for the different
Fig4: Radial deformation dimensions cases of Fig. 5 and Fig. 6 are shown in Fig. 7 to Fig.14.
The results show the sensitivity of the method to the extent
In this research, the effect of radial deformation extent and
and position of the radial deformation. The following
its location have been simulated by High Frequency
activities will remain for our future work:
Simulation Software (HFSS). The radial deformation can
• The simulations should be extended to all of possible
happen in different sides of the winding. Fig. 5 and Fig. 6
positions of the radial deformation.
shows the simulated winding models in different positions
respect to the antenna position. • The simulation results should be compared with the
measurement.
• The results can be used for training of an expert
system to estimate the extent and position of the
radial deformation.
375
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
Ref
a-1
-30
b-1
c-1
-35
7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11 11.5 12
Frequency(GHz)
Fig. 7 : Magnitude of scattering parameter for reference position and positions a-1, b-1 and c-1 shown in Fig.5
200
150
100
50 Ref
a-1
0 b-1
c-1
-50
-100
-150
-200
7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11 11.5 12
Frequency(GHz)
Fig. 8 : Phase of scattering parameter for reference position and positions a-1, b-1 and c-1 shown in Fig.5
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
Ref
-30
a-2
b-2
-35
7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11 11.5 12
Frequency(GHz)
Fig. 9: Magnitude of scattering parameter for reference position and positions a-2 and b-2 shown in Fig.6
376
200
150
100
Ref
50 a-2
b-2
0
-50
-100
-150
-200
7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11 11.5 12
Frequency(GHz)
Fig. 10 : Phase of scattering parameter for reference position and position a-2 and b-2 shown in Fig.6
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
Ref
a-3
-35
7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11 11.5 12
Frequency(GHz)
Fig. 11: Magnitude of scattering parameter for reference position and position a-3 shown in Fig.6
200
150
100
50
-50
-100
-150 Ref
a-3
-200
7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11 11.5 12
Frequency(GHz)
Fig. 12: Phase of scattering parameter for reference position and position a-3 shown in Fig.6
377
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
Ref
a-4
-35
7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11 11.5 12
Frequency(GHz)
Fig. 13: Magnitude of scattering parameter for reference position and position a-4 shown in fig.6
200
150
100
50
0 Ref
a-4
-50
-100
-150
-200
7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11 11.5 12
Frequency(GHz)
Fig. 14: Phase of scattering parameter for reference position and position a-4 shown in Fig.6
[4] Christian, J.; Feser, K.; , "Procedures for detecting winding

displacements in power transformers by the transfer function
IV. CONCLUSION method," Power Delivery, IEEE Transactions on , vol.19, no.1, pp.
In this paper, the on-line monitoring of the transformer 214- 220, Jan. 2004
winding has been investigated using scattering parameters. To [5] Rahimpour, E.; Christian, J.; Feser, K.; Mohseni, H.; , "Transfer
function method to diagnose axial displacement and radial
show the capability of the method, the scattering parameters of deformation of transformer windings," Power Delivery, IEEE
a simplified model of transformer have been simulated using Transactions on , vol.18, no.2, pp. 493- 505, April 2003
high frequency software in different radial deformation extent [6] Chen, W., Sun, C., Yun, Y. Xie, Z. (2002) . . Int. Conf. on
Power System Technology. v3, 1966- 1969
and positions. The results show the capability of the method in
[7] Leibfried, T., & Feser, K. (1999) .Monitoring of power
the detection of radial deformations. transformers using the transfer function method. IEEE Trans.
Power Deliv. , v. 14, 1333-1341.
V. ACKNOWLEDGMENT [8] Leibfried, T., & Feser, K. (1996) .Off-line and On-line
Monitoring of Power Transformers using the Transfer Function
The financial support of Tehran Regional Electric Co. Method. IEEE Int. Symp. on Electrical Insulation, 1, 34-37.
(TREC) towards this research is hereby acknowledged. [9] Leibfried, T., & Feser, K.(1994) .On-line monitoring of
transformers by means of the transfer function method. IEEE Int.
Symp. on Electrical Insulation, June 5-8, Pittsburgh, PA USA
VI. REFERENCES [10] M.A. Hejazi, G. B. Gharehpetian , A. Mohammadi “On-line
[1] Bengtsson, C.; , "Status and trends in transformer monitoring," Monitoring of Radial Deformation of Transformer Winding Using
Power Delivery, IEEE Transactions on , vol.11, no.3, pp.1379- Scattering Parameters” 15th International Symposium on High
1384, Jul 1996 Voltage Engineering, ISH 2007, Aug. 27-31, 2007, Ljubljana,
[2] Xu, D.K.; Huang, J.H.; Li, Y.M.; , "On-line monitoring of Slovenia
winding deformation of power transformer," Electrical Insulating [11] Pozar, David M. (2005) .Microwave Engineering. (3rd ed.). John
Materials, 2001. (ISEIM 2001). Proceedings of 2001 International Wiley & Sons Inc.
Symposium on , vol., no., pp.853-856, 2001
[3] Morched, A.S.; Marti, L.; Brierley, R.H.; Lackey, J.G.; ,
"Analysis of internal winding stresses in EHV generator step-up
transformer failures," Power Delivery, IEEE Transactions on ,
vol.11, no.2, pp.888-894, Apr 1996
378
Study of Impulse Voltage Distribution in

Transformer Windings
Hendri Masdi *, Norman Mariun *, Azah Mohamed **and Noor Izzri Abdul Wahab*
* Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,

University Putra Malaysia 43400 Serdang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia.
** Department of Electrical, Electronic and Systems Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia.
Abstract—In this paper, analysis impulse voltage distribution real situation is very important, especially if one wishes to
in transformer winding, and winding of the voltage impulse study the stresses borne by the winding during occurrence
response with a standard full wave and clipped wave especially of transient overvoltage [1,2,3].
at the ends of the entanglement presented. To realize that goal, we experiments and simulation
Compared with experimental data EMTPDC simulation, the were conducted on a distribution power transformer
result of t <1.0 μs voltage difference occurs. For t > 2.0 μs was whose capacity was: 100kVA, 20.000V/400V. To
obtained near the same voltage large, between experimental experimentally simulate a lightning current Surge Current
and simulation results. So we can say that circuit simulation Generator from Schaffner Type NSG 857 was utilized,
can mimic the real situation EMTDC/PSCAD. which can produce surge current up to 7,5 kA of 8x20
Construction of turns and the thickness of insulation (Cs and
microsecond.
Cg) transformer, poorer have considerable effect on the
distribution center of experiencing transient voltage In the experiment, current of 5 kA was injected to the
transformer(transitional-symptoms). Winding section closest transformer winding, and then the over voltage between
to the high voltage high voltage gradient than most parts of the transformer HV-terminal and ground and also between
another entanglement, tests were performed in a standard the transformer conductor layer to ground were measured.
form according to the current surge of IEC-71 8/20μs. From the measurement, a waveform and voltage
Important information from this study is that the simulation distribution along the winding can then be obtained [6].
gives a more pessimistic outcome (EMTDC/PSCAD Further, simulations were conducted, by applying the
calculations show a larger stress values compared with same current waveform. The simulation was performed
experimental). Although it is difficult to imitate the behavior using the EMTDC/PSCAD; and the transformer constants
of entanglement in the initial transient, but the real situation included in the simulation have been derived from the
is not worse. Thus, this simulation can be used as EMTPDC physical dimension of the transformer winding [7].
experimental substitution want to know the response to the
current surge of turns.
Keywords—EMTDC/PSCAD; transformer model; Transient

II. TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION AND ITS
overvoltage.
CONSTANTS
I. INTRODUCTION Schematic drawing of the transformer investigated in
Analysis impulse voltage distribution in transformer the study can be seen in figure 1, where the HV-winding
winding, and winding of the voltage impulse response was constructed of 9 layers. The transformer was a three
with a standard full wave and clipped wave especially at phase winding. In the experimental simulation, the surge
the ends of the entanglement. For transient study in current was injected to the tap 1 and the tap 9 connected
electric power system can nowadays be done by to ground. These taps represent the HV-terminal and the
simulation with the help of software packages dedicated neutral point of the transformer, respectively.
for that purpose, such as EMTDC/PSCAD and others.
Studies that involve substation require a good skill and
knowledge in how to model more or less correctly the
equipment included in substation’s model. There has been
a lot of discussion regarding transient model of
substation’s main equipment, such as: power transformer,
Surge Arrester and others.
So far, the transient model of a power transformer
consists of a circuit of capacitance that represent the Connector
(a)
capacitance of the winding insulation to ground, and the RSTN
inter-turn capacitance. To model properly a power
transformer that could reproduce the phenomenon close to (a)
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 379

In the simulation the following assumptions have also
been adopted:
• The HV-winding under test was considered as

isolated from the other two windings and from
the LV-winding.
• The transformer was assumed as air-core
transformer. This assumption was applied since
the influence of iron only significant for the case
of switching impulse.
In the study, the simulation was conducted using two

type of circuit model; the first model included the
transformer’s capacitances only, while in the second all
(b) transformers’ constants were taken into account. Figure 2
and figure 3 illustrate the transformer models 1 or 2 used
in the simulation by EMTDC/PSCAD and figure 4 is the
Figure 1: Construction of the transformer output from the system simulation.
a. Transformer under study
b. Inner construction of the transformer
Arrestor Module:
The transformer’s constants have been calculated from Two electrical connections for the arrester
the physical dimension. Each winding layer corresponds to go to module, double click on the icon
VHigh
with one transformer winding segment of the transformer High
model, where uniformly distributed, so each layer can be
represented by a lumped circuit component [4,5,6]. The
6 8 0 .4 [o h m ]
2 6 9 .1 [o h m ]
P
C s 1 ,9 [n F ]
C s 1 ,8 [n F ]
C s 1 ,7 [n F ]
C s 1 ,6 [n F ]
C s 1 ,5 [n F ]
C s 1 ,4 [n F ]
C s 1 ,3 [n F ]
C s 1 ,2 [n F ]
C s 1 ,1 [n F ]
Steep
inner-turn and winding-to-ground capacitance, inductance Etank Front
N Arrester
and resistance of transformer obtained from calculation
based on physical dimension are shown in the table 1. Neut
VNeut
These transformer constants were calculated using the Bx
Ae
principle of transformer modeling as proposed in the 2 6 7 .2 [o h m ]
B
-
reference [6].
C g 1 ,9 [n F ]
C g 1 ,8 [n F ]
C g 1 ,7 [n F ]
C g 1 ,6 [n F ]
C g 1 ,5 [n F ]
C g 1 ,4 [n F ]
C g 1 ,3 [n F ]
C g 1 ,2 [n F ]
C g 1 ,1 [n F ]
Etank1 TIME
+ Surge
Bx F
Ae
the LV connection and the Neutral are

combined since the LV service wire Simple Lightning Surge:
and the neutral wire are twisted
together and are strongly coupled I = 50 * [ EXP(-50e-6 * t) - EXP(-1.2e-6 * t) ]
TABLE I
TRANSFORMER CONSTANTS (a)
Conductor Inductan
Capacitance (pF) Resistance
Layers ce
(from-to) Cs Cg (mH) (Ohm)
L1- 1 - 3,4.10-4 - -
L1- 2 8,5.10-3 3,5.10-4 1.1 4
L1- 3 8,7.10-3 3,7.10-4 1.1 4
L1- 4 9,0.10-3 3,8.10-4 1.1 4
L1- 5 9,2.10-3 4,0.10-4 1.1 4
L1- 6 9,5.10-3 4,2.10-4 1.1 4
L1- 7 9,7.10-3 4,4.10-4 1.1 4
L1- 8 1,0.10-2 4,6.10-4 1.1 4
L1- 9 1,02.10-2 4,8.10-4 1.1 4
III. CIRCUIT MODEL FOR EMTDC/PSCAD (b)

In the numerical simulation, we applied the subroutine
JMARTI SETUP where the transformer was considered Figure 2: Model 1, consisting of transformer’s capacitances only.
as distributed and frequency-dependent parameters. The
surge current used in the simulation was the type 15 of (a) Simulation Model 1 and (b)Schematics Model 1
EMTDC/PSCAD.
380
Vltg: Tank1 to Line
0.0
Arrestor Module:
Two electrical connections for the arrester

to go to module, double click on the icon -1.0k
VHigh
High
Cs. .,n [nF] Cs1,6 [nF] Cs1,5 [nF] Cs1,4 [nF] Cs1,3 [nF] Cs1,2 [nF] Cs1,1 [nF]
-2.0k
6 8 0 .4 [o h m ]
2 6 9 .1 [o h m ]
L.., n [H] L1,6 [H] L1,5 [H] L1,4 [H] L1,3 [H] L1,2 [H] L1,1 [H] L1,1 [H] P
Steep
Etank R1,1 [ohm] L1,1[H] Front
N Arrester -3.0k
R..,n [ohm] R1,6 [ohm] R1,5 [ohm] R1,4 [ohm] R1,3 [ohm] R1,2 [ohm] R1,1 [ohm] R1,1 [ohm]
Voltage (kV)
Neut -4.0k
VNeut
the LVconnection and the Neutral are
C g .., n [n F ]
C g 1 ,6 [n F ]
C g 1 ,5 [n F ]
C g 1 ,4 [n F ]
C g 1 ,3 [n F ]
C g 1 ,2 [n F ]
C g 1 ,1 [n F ]
combined since the LVservice wire Ae Bx B -5.0k
and the neutral wire are twisted -
2 6 7 .2 [o h m ]
together and are strongly coupled TIME
+ Surge
F -6.0k
Ae Bx
Simple Lightning Surge:

-7.0k
Etank1 I = 50 * [ EXP(-50e-6 * t) - EXP(-1.2e-6 * t) ]
0.000 0.001m 0.002m 0.003m 0.004m 0.005m 0.006m 0.007m 0.008m 0.009m 0.010m
(a)
(b)
Figure 4: Output Simulation EMTDC/PSCAD Model 1, consisting of

transformer’s capacitances only.
(a) Output Cs Simulation Model 1 and
(b) Output Cg Simulation Model 1
(b)
IV. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

Figure 3: Model 2, including all parameters R, L, C
The experimental measurement was carried out with
(a) Simulation Model 2 and (b) Schematics Model 2 help of the setup shown in figure 5. The surge current
was generated from the generator “Shaffner NSG 587”,
which can produce impulse current up to 5 kA peak
Where: value, with different waveform. In this simulation, we
applied current waveform of 8/20µs.
Cg1; Cg2...: Capacitance between conductor layers
to ground
Cs1, Cs2...: Capacitance between layers
L11, L12, : Inductance of each conductor layer
R11, R12, : Resistance of each conductor layer
LV Winding
1
GPIB 2
Computer Generator
Card
Impuls 3
4
5
6
Oscilloscope Probe HV 7
8
9
HV Winding
Figure5: Experimental Setup

(a)
381
The experiments were done by injecting current to the µs. The curve obtained from the experimental
upper terminal of the transformer, and the lower terminal measurement decreased toward zero.
was grounded through a metal strip of copper. The After t ≈ 1 µs, the simulation and experimental
voltages measured at the winding taps were recorded by measurement curves were in good concordance that
PC, which was connected to the oscilloscope through means the response of the transformer can be adequately
GPIB card. During the test, the LV-winding was short- simulated. The numerical simulation shown in the figure
circuited and connected to ground, as well. 5 was obtained by using the model 2. Simulation by using
the model 1 was not presented in this report, it gave
however similar characteristic.
Results of the study show that the numerical
V. RESULTS simulation could not follow the real phenomena at the
Results of experimental measurement shown in the beginning of transient period (t < 1µs), where at this time
figure 6 indicate the behavior of the transformer, when period the capacitances have important influence during
surge current is injected to the HV terminal (at layer 1). transient.
The voltage measured at the conductor layers (L2, L5, As the capacitance at each layer applied in the EMTP
L8) oscillate during the first 4 µs, where the highest simulation has been obtained through approximate
voltage was at the layer L1 (the layer near to the calculation and also assumed as lumped component, the
transformer’s HV terminal, the curve not presented in the response at higher frequencies would not follow exactly
figure 5). After 6µs the voltage at the layer tends to be the phenomena. This might be caused by stray
stabilised. capacitances of the layers to ground, which play an
important role for higher frequencies. Experimental
curves of the layers L1 up to L9, show a sharp decrease at
t ≈ 1 µs, which might eventually be due to reflection at
ground terminal. Yet, this assumption is not very clear,
and needs to be further investigated. The simulation curve
shows in fact same decrease at that instance, but not very
important.
From the comparison between experimental and
numerical simulation it can be concluded that numerical
calculation can simulate adequately transient
characteristic of a transformer after some microseconds
of surge current flowing through the winding. To
simulate more or less precisely at t ≈ 0-1 µs proves to be
difficult, since the estimation of the transformer
capacitances could not be done precisely for higher
frequency component of the surge currents.
Figure6: Voltages at the layers L2, L5, L8 during 6 µs after current However, from this study, it has been observed that the
injection to the winding.
experimental measurements have given results, where the
simulation curve is always higher than the measured
ones. It means the simulation tends to result in more
pessimistic values in overvoltage estimation.
Plot of voltage distribution at t ≈ 6 µs, both of
experimental and numerical simulation (model 1 and 2) is
presented in the figure 8. As already known from theory,
the voltage gradient at the upper turns (nearest to the HV
terminal) will be the most important. Nearly 60% of the
voltage is born by layer 1 and layer 2. Again, the
simulation curve indicates more severe situation
compared to the real condition.
Figure 7: Comparison between experimental measurement and

numerical simulation.
The figure 7 shows comparison between experimental

measurement and numerical simulation. As can be seen,
the discrepancy between the curves is important at t ≈ 1
382
[3] Mobammad S. Naderi, and M. Vakilian “A Method for Modeling
Power Transformer Tap Winding for Transient Studies”,
Conference Record of the 2004 IEEE International Symposium on
Electrical Insulation, Indianapolis, IN USA, 19-22 September
2004
[4] Morcheds, A.S., et al., “A High Frequency Transformer Model for
the EMTP”, IEEE Trans. On Power Delivery, Vol. 8, No. 3, July,
1993.
[5] Rodrigo H., and H.Q.S. Dang, “Behaviour of Transformer
Winding Under Surge Voltages”, Departement of Electrical
Engineering, Royal Melbourne Institute of Tecnology, Australia,
1999.
[6] Xiaoyan Zhu, Huaying Dong, Guishu Liang and Changhu Ji, “A
new hybrid model of transformer windings under very fast
transient overvoltages”, Electrical Machines and Systems, 2008.
ICEMS 2008. International Conference on Publication Year: 2008
, Page(s): 4296 - 4301
[7] Francis De Leon, Adam Semlyen “Complete Transformer Model
Figure 8: Comparison of voltage distribution obtained from for Electromagnetic Transients”, IEEE Transactions on Power
experimental measurement and simulation, along the transformer Delivery, Vol.9, No. 1, January 1994, pp 231-239.
winding at t ≈ 6 µs. [8] Pritinda, Chowdhuri, Electrical Transient in Power System,
Research Studies Press Ltd, John Willey & Sons Inc, England,
1996.
[9] Greenwood, A, Electrical Transient in Power Systems, second
VI. CONCLUSION edition, John Willey & Sons, Canada, 1991.
[10] “Electromagnetic Transient Program (EMTP) Application
Transformer model used for transient condition is Guide”, Westinghose Electric Corporaton Power Planning and
normally represented by its capacitance to ground, the Operation Program Electritical System Division, California, 1986.
value of which is so for given based on approximated [11] Jouni Pylvänäinen, Kirsi Nousiainen, and Pekka Verho, Studies to
Utilise Calculated Condition Information and Measurements for
value depending on the rated voltage and power capacity Transformer Condition Assessment, International Review of
of transformer [6,8,9]. This very simple model can Electrical Engineering, August 2009. Vol. 4. n. 4, pp. 684-689.
sufficiently represent the transformer when rough
prediction on transient overvoltage due to lightning surge
current is needed [7,11].
The study here presented shows that the more complete
and detail model is sufficiently good for transient
simulation. Somehow, the model could still not be quite
precise when it concerns the first microseconds of the
transient period. On the other hand, after some
microseconds the concordance between the simulation
and measurement curves is good.
The information obtained from this study which can
justify the estimation of transient overvoltage by
numerical simulation, is the fact that it resulted in more
pessimistic overvoltage values compared to the real
condition [10].
From the study, it has been discovered that transformer
capacitances, especially those of conduction layer to
ground, had the most important role in numerical
simulation. Our study shows that there is only small
discrepancy of voltage values obtained by using the
model 1 and model 2.
REFERENCES
[1] A. Marti, J.R and S. Chimklai, “Simplified Three-

PhaseTransformer Model for Electromagnetic Transient Studies”,
IEEE Trans. On Power Delivery, Vol. 10, N0. 3, July, 1993.
[2] B.V.Sumangala and G.R.Nagabhushana, “Analysis Of Surge
Voltage Distribution In A Model Transformer For Different Types
Of Surges With Turn Resolution And Its Validation”. TENCON
2006. 2006 IEEE Region 10 Conference Digital Object Identifier:
10.1109/TENCON.2006.344190 Publication Year: 2006 , Page(s):
1 – 4.
383
Considering on Charge Density along Return

Stroke Lightning Channel
Mahdi Izadi, Mohd Zainal Abidin Ab. Kadir
Centre of Excellence on Lightning Protection (CELP),
Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia,
43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
Email: aryaphase@yahoo.com
Abstract- Prediction of return stroke current wave with shock wave. The solution of the three gas-
shape along lightning channel is an important subject in dynamic equations are considered in these models,
evaluating the electromagnetic fields and induced representing the conservation of mass, momentum and
overvoltage due to lightning channel at observation energy [2]. On the other hand, in the electromagnetic
point and power line. This paper reviews the different
models, the lightning channel is assumed to be as a
return stroke current models, with the engineering
current models is selected as the leading model, and tin-lossy antenna and the return stroke current along
evaluates the their current behaviors along the lightning lightning channel is evaluated by solving Maxwell’s
channel. A comprehensive result on the charge density equations at the skin of the channel. The simulation
for each model will then be presented to conclude the of lightning channel is based on distributed circuit,
findings. which is represented by special elements of R
(resistance per unit length of channel), L (inductance
Keywords — Return stroke current; lightning channel; per unit length of channel) and C (capacitance per unit
induced overvoltage; charge density length of channel). By estimating values of R, L and C
along the lightning channel and by applying the
Telegrapher’s equations (with the use of numerical
I. INTRODUCTION method for solving these equations), the return stroke
With the initial inter-cloud breaks down and the current will be calculated [2]. Eventually in the
downward leader coming to the ground, the surface engineering models, the return stroke current wave
electric field will be exceeded. Hence, an upward shape along lightning channel is expressed as a
streamer with the speed around 10 ~10 will move function of return stroke current at the channel base.
for missing leader front. At the connection point of Its special function depends on the channel height that
upward streamer and downward leader, a strong can be linear or non-linear [2]. This study focuses on
current will travel upward the channel and this engineering models for the prediction of return stroke
channel is called a return stroke channel whilst that current wave shape along lightning channel.
current is termed as a return stroke current [1]. By Moreover, the distribution of charge density along
neutralizing the connection point between leader tip lightning channel will be compared among different
and the return stroke channel, the charge will move return stroke current models and with the triggered
upward from surface of the ground with the velocity lightning data.
equal to v, which referred as a return stroke velocity.
II. RETURN STROKE CURRENT AT
Subsequently, the return stroke current will travel with
CHANNEL BASE
a certain speed which often referred as return stroke
current velocity [2]. Several models was proposed on In this part, the improvement of Dindorfer and Uman
the return stroke current model and can be divided on Heidler model is stated as in equation (1) [3]:
into four groups [2]:
i 0, t
1- Gas-dynamic models
2- Electromagnetic models Г
exp
Г
exp (1)
3- Distributed circuit models Г Г
Г Г
4- Engineering models
Where
The gas-dynamic models, which are primarily
concerned with the radial evaluation of a short i ,i : the amplitude of the channel base current,
segment of the lightning channel, were associated
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 384

Г , Г : the front time constant, I z ,t u t P z I 0, t (2)
Г ,Г : the decay- time constant,
Where
n ,n : the exponent (2~10),
z’ : temporary charge height along lightning channel,
η ,η : the amplitude correction factor.
I (z’,t) : return stroke current at height of z’ along
lightning channel,
Typical initial parameters based on equation (1) are
listed at Table 1. I (0,t) : return stroke current at channel base,
TABLE 1.TYPICAL VALUES FOR DIENDORFER AND
UMAN CHANNEL BASE CURRENT [4-6] P (z’) : attenuation height depend factor,
i i v : return stoke front velocity,

Г Г Г Г
(kA) (kA) (µs) (µs) (µs) (µs) n n V(m/s) v : return stroke current velocity,
10.5 9 2 4.8 20 26 2 2 1.5 10 u : Heaviside function.
Whilst Fig. 1 illustrates the return stroke current at

channel base,
12000
10000
Return stroke current(kA)
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 Figure 2.Geometry of Lightning Channel
t(s) -5
x 10
Figure 1. Return stroke current wave shape

On the other hand, in the current generation model,
the current source moved upward with the return
stroke front velocity along lightning channel. With the
connection of return stroke front to the leader tip, a
III. ENGINEERING RETURN STROKE downward current is injected to the channel with the
MODELS return stroke current velocity. The most important
engineering models are Bruce - Golde (BG) model,
The engineering return stroke models can be grouped Transmission line (TL) model, traveling source
into two; current model (TCS), modified transmission line with
exponential decay (MTLE) model, modified
1- Current Propagation (CP) models transmission line with linear decay (MTLL) and
2- Current Generation (CG) models Dindorfer and Uman model (DU). They are all listed
in Table 2 [1, 7]. In the TL model, the lightning
In the current propagation models, it is assumed that a channel is assumed to be similar to the transmission
source of current is set at the channel base and the line. The source of current is applied onto the line and
return stroke current flows upward along lightning current flows on the line with special velocity and
channel. This model usually assumes the lightning return stroke velocity is equal to return stroke current
channel as a transmission line without any branches velocity. This model however is not completed since
which is expressed by a general equation such as there is no clear mechanism to explain the
equation (2). This equation is derived based on the neutralization of the return stroke front when it is
geometry of problem that is shown in Fig.2 [1]. connected to the leader channel. In addition, the
experimental results using optical sensors showed that
385
the return stroke current decreased by with the .
increase of the channel height [1].
TABLE 2. ENGINEERING RETURN STROKE CURRENT MODELS [1, 3]
Model Return stroke current at height of z’ Return stroke current P(z’) Type of Model
along lightning channel velocity
Bruce-Golde model
(BG) i(z',t) = i(0,t) ∞ 1 CP
Transmission Line
model (TL) i(z',t) = i(0,t-z'/v) v 1 CP
Traveling Current
Source model (TCS) i(z',t) = i(0,t+z'/c) c 1 CG
Modified Transmission
Line Exponential decay
model (MTLE) i(z',t) = i(0,t-z'/v)exp(-z'/ ) v exp(-z'/ ) CP
Modified Transmission
Line Linear model i(z',t)=i(0,t-z'/v)(1-z'/H) v (1-z'/H) CP
(MTLL)
z
i z ′, t i 0 ,t
Dindorfer and Uman c c - CG
′
model z′ z′
(DU) i 0, e τD
v c
For improving the TL model, MTLE and MTLL In the TCS model, the return stroke front moves
models are proposed. In the MTLE model, the return upward with the return stroke front velocity along
stroke current amplitude is reduced by a special lightning channel. With the connection of the return
exponential height as the dependent function where in stroke front to the leader tip, a current source is
λ this function is the constant factor that is typically produced. Subsequently, a downward return stroke
2000 m). Whilst in the MTLL model, the current current with constant velocity equal to c (speed of
amplitude is reduced by a linear height as the light) is injected to the channel. The drawback of this
dependent function (H is the cloud height and is model is due to its discontinuity current [3]. On the
considered as 8km in the present work). Therefore, by other hand, the DU model, which is similar to the TCS
increasing the return stroke front height along the model but the current at the return stroke front is
lightning channel, the current amplitude is reduced turned on exponentially with a time constant τD . If the
with some of the charges remain as the deposit in τD 0, the DU model reduces to the TCS model.
each level of height; hence the required charge for Further, if c is replaced with ∞ , the BG model [1] is
neutralization at the return stroke front for both MTLE produced. The return stroke currents wave shape for
and MTLL models is produced and the mechanism is various engineering models as listed in Table 2 are
completed [1]. estimated at different heights along lightning channel
The BG model [2] assumes that the return stroke using the equation (1) which assumes the return stroke
current value at any points along the lightning channel velocity to be equal to 1.5 10 m/s , as shown in
is equal to the return stroke current at channel base. In Figs. 3 to 8.
addition, the return stroke front velocity is equal to v 12000
(z’) which depends on the height of the channel and 10000

z=500,1000,2000,3000 m
the return stroke current velocity is infinite. These

drawbacks reflect to the incompletion of this model.
8000
Current(A)
In addition, the current at each point should be equal 6000
to the channel base current. Whilst the current does 4000
not have any path to flow a discontinued current will 2000
be emerged. At a constant time, the model predicts

that the current wave shape at each point of channel is
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time(S) -5
x 10
equal to the channel base current. So the wave have to

transmit with the infinite speed (faster than the light Figure 3. Return Stroke Current Using BG Model
speed), which is impossible and it is not physically
seen [1-2].
386
10000
z=500m
DISTRIBUTION OF CHARGE IV.
9000
DENSITY
8000
7000
The general equation for evaluation of charge density
6000 distribution along the lightning channel for the
Current(A)
5000
z=2000m
z=3000m
engineering return stroke current model, based on
4000
3000
z=1000m
equation (2), is expressed by equation (3). Whilst, the
2000
charge density distributions for other engineering
1000 models are listed in Table 3. They are divided into
0
0 1 2 3
Time(S)
4 5
-5
x 10
6 two parts as tabulated in Table 3, namely the
transferred charge density and the deposit charge
Figure 4. Return Stroke Current using TCS model density [1]. The transferred charge density is the value
of the charge that moves between different heights
8000 along lightning channel. On the other hand, the
7000
z=500m deposit charge density is considered as the value of
6000
z=1000m charge that is deposited at each level of height along
the lightning channel and it is used for neutralization
5000
Current(A)
4000
3000
at the connection point of downward leader and
2000 z=2000m upward streamer. After the neutralization process, the
1000
z=3000m
charge is transferred upward along the lightning
0
0 1 2 3
Time(S)
4 5 6
-5
channel [1].
x 10
Figure 5. Return Stroke Current using DU model , P

ρL z , t P z /
i 0, τ dτ
12000
z=1000m z=2000m
z=3000m
(3)
z=500m
10000
8000
The transferred charge density for different
engineering models, based on Tables 1 and 3, is
Current(A)
shown in Figs. 9-13 with Table 3 shows that the

6000
4000
transferred charge density in the BG model is zero.
2000
-5
x 10
7
0 500 m
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 1000 m
-5
Time(s) x 10 6 2000 m
3000 m
Trasferred charge density(C/m)
Figure 6. Return Stroke Current using TL model 4
3
9000
z=500m
2
8000
7000 1
6000
0
z=1000m
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Current(A)
5000 Time(S) -5
x 10
4000
z=2000m
3000
z=3000m
Figure 9. The transferred charge density using TL model
2000
1000
-5
x 10
0 7
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 z=500m
Time(S) -5
x 10 z=1000m
6 z=2000m
z=3000m
Transferred Charge Density(C/m)
Figure 7. Return Stroke Current using MTLE model 5
10000
z=500m z=1000m 3
9000
z=2000m
8000 2
7000
1
6000
Current(A)
z=3000m
5000 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
4000 Time(S) x 10
-5
3000
2000
1000
Figure 10.Transferred charge density using MTLL model
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time(s) -5
x 10
Figure 8. Return Stroke Current using MTLL model
387
TABLE 3. CHARGE DENSITY DISTRIBUTION FOR DIFFERENT ENGINEERING MODELS[1]
Model Transferred Charge Density Component Deposited Charge Density Component

z′
i 0, t
TL v 0
v
z′ Q z′ , t
z′ i 0, t
MTLL 1 v H
H v
z′ e
′ /λ
i 0, t Q z′ , t
MTLE ′
e /λ v
λ
v
z′
i 0,
BG 0 v
v
z′ z′
i 0, t i 0,
TCS c v
c v
′ ′ ′
DU ′
z z z z z′
i 0, t ′/ i 0, τD di 0, i 0, τD di 0,
c v v v v
e τD
c dtv v v v dt
z′ z′ z′ z′
, v t z′ , Q z′ , t i 0, τ dτ
v c t z′ ′/ v
Total charge density(ρL z′ , t ) = Transferred Charge Density Component + Deposited
Charge Density Component
6
x 10
-5
z=500m
Also, the deposited charge density for different
5
z=1000m
z=2000m engineering models are shown in Figs. 14 to 18 with
z=3000m
4 the deposited charge density in the TL model is equal

3
to zero.
2
-5
x 10
7
z=500m
1
z=1000m
z=2000m
6.5 z=3000m
Deposited Charge Density(C/m)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time(s) -5
x 10
6
Figure 11. Transferred charge density using MTLE model 5.5
x 10
-5 4.5
0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
z=500m Time(S) x 10
-5
z=1000m
-0.5 z=2000m
z=3000m
-1
Figure 14. Deposited charge density using BG model
-1.5
-5
-2 x 10
4.5
z=500m
4 z=1000m
-2.5 z=2000m
z=3000m
3.5
-3
3
-3.5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 2.5
Time(S) x 10
-5
1.5
Figure 12. Transferred charge density using TCS model 1
0.5
0
9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
x 10
3.5 Time(S) x 10
-5
z=500m
z=1000m
3
z=2000m
z=3000m
Figure 15. Deposited charge density using MTLL model
Trasferred Charge Density(C/m)
2.5
1.5
1
The total charge density is equal to the
0.5
summation of transferred charge density and the
0 deposited charge density for different positions along
-0.5
0 1 2 3
Time(S)
4 5
x 10
6
-5
lightning channel. By considering the charge density
behavior in different engineering models, the TL
Figure 13. Transferred charge density using DU model model has similar values at different heights from the
ground surface and is shown in Fig. 9. However, some
charges are needed for neutralizing each height level
388
between upward streamer and downward leader. that by increasing the return stroke channel height, the
Hence, this model does not cover in this paper. In deposited charge shows a constant value. This is true
contrast, the MTLE and MTLL models consider that for BG, TCS and DU models. The initial delay time
subject and results are illustrated in Figs.10 and 11. shows in Figs. 17 and 18 (TCS and DU models,
respectively) is due to the change in position of the
return stroke front velocity of current source along
-4
x 10
1.4
z=500m
lightning channel.
z=1000m
1.2 z=2000m
z=3000m
0.8
V. CONCLUSION
0.6
0.4 By considering the lightning mechanism, different but

0.2 important return stroke current models are
0
0 1 2 3
Time(S)
4 5
-5
6 investigated. This study has taken its impetus from the
engineering model, which are divided into two groups
x 10
Figure 16.Deposited charge density using MTLE model i.e. CP and CG models. In addition, the important
engineering models are listed. Using typical value for
1
-4
x 10
z=500m
the return stroke current at the channel base from time
0.9 z=1000m
z=2000m
when the lightning is triggered lightning measurement
campus, behavior of each ones in different heights
0.8 z=3000m
0.7
0.6 from ground surface along lightning channel is

0.5
0.4
demonstrated. Charge density behavior, which can be
0.3 divided into two parts namely the transferred charge
0.2
0.1
density and the deposited charge, is discovered. The
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
different component of charge density at various
Time(S)
channel heights are estimated and illustrated. Different
-5
x 10
Figure 17.Deposited charge density using TCS model engineering models of the MTLE and MTLL models
were considered as they are suggested to have good
0
x 10
9
z=500m
charge density conditions and are adjustable models.
z=1000m
-0.5
z=2000m
REFERENCES
z=3000m
-1
-1.5
-2
[1] R. Thottappillil V. A. Rakov and M. A. Uman,
-2.5
"Distribution of charge along the lightning channel:
-3
relation to remote electric and magnetic fields and to
-3.5
return-stroke models," J. Geophys. Res., vol. 102, pp.
-4
0 1 2 3
Time(S)
4 5
x 10
6
-5 6987–7006, 1997.
[2] V. A. Rakov and M. A. Uman, "Review and evaluation
Figure 18.Deposited charge density using DU model of lightning return stroke models including some
aspects of their application," IEEE Trans. Electromagn
Compat., vol. 40, pp. 403-426, 1998.
The BG model has deposited charge density and [3] C. A. Nucci, "Lightning-induced voltages on overhead
the transferred charge equal to zero. In the TCS power lines. Part I: return stroke current models with
model, the transferred charge density has a specified channel-base current for the evaluation of the
discontinuity due to return stroke velocity, as shown return stroke electromagnetic fields," ELECTRA, vol.
161, pp. 75–102, 1995.
in Fig. 12. With the deposited charge in the TCS [4] M’ziou, L. Mokhnache, A. Boubakeur and R. Kattan,
model is constant, the deposited charge density can be "Validation of the Simpson-finite-difference time
considered to be neutralized at the return stroke front. domain method for evaluating the electromagnetic field
Whilst the transferred charge density in the DU model in the vicinity of the lightning channel initiated at
ground level," IET, vol. 3, pp. 279-285, 2009.
for different heights depends on the height-level [5] F. Rachidi, "Effects electromagnetiques de la foudre sur
velocity (v ) and time, there is change with the les lignes de transmission aerienne,modelisation et
increment of height along lightning channel, as simulation," Ecol Polytechnique Federal De Lausanne,
demonstrated in Fig. 13. Lausanne-Swiss, 1991.
[6] Z. E. Azzouz, "Analysis of Radiated Lightning
Figs.15 and 16 illustrate that by increasing the Electromagnetis Fields Abone Imperfect Ground Using
height along the lightning channel, there is a delay in a Quasi-FDTD Hybrid Method," Acta Electrotechnicaet
the deposited charge at the initial time periods and a Informatica, vol. 8, pp. 16-23, 2008.
decrement compared to the lower levels. On the other [7] R. Thottappillil and M. A. Uman, "Comparison of
lightning return stroke models," J. Geophys. Res., vol.
hand, the deposited charge density for MTLL model 98, pp. 22903–22914, 1993.
increases linearly as the time increases non-linearly
increases for MTLE model. Figs.14, 17 and 18 show
389
Voltage Stability Calculations in Power

Transmission Lines: Indications and Allocations
F.A. Althowibi M.W. Mustafa
Department of Electrical Power Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,
81310 Skudai, Johor, Malaysia,
fhdamer@yahoo.com wazir@fke.utm.my
Abstract- In recent years, voltage stability problems have been and ultimately to voltage collapse. Power systems might be
increasing since power systems operate close to stability limits subjected to a sudden increase of reactive power demands
and large amounts of power are being transferred from long causing a partial or total system breakdown. The extra
distance. Accurate determination of voltage collapse points reactive power demands must be met by the generator and
with rapid line voltage stability analysis, indications and
reactive power compensator reserves to prevent such
allocations, allows operators to take necessary action to
prevent such collapse incidents. Although several methods incidents.
have been used in voltage stability analysis, successful Voltage stability, instability and collapse are well-
avoidance of power collapse is depends on accuracy, rapid defined in [4] and these issues have been the focus of a
indications and very low computation time. This paper great deal of research recently. Dynamic analysis has been
presents an efficient method for conducting line voltage used to conduct voltage stability since voltage instability is
stability analysis in power systems. This newly developed a dynamic phenomenon. Nevertheless, static voltage
method is accurate, fast, simple, and theoretically proven for stability analysis is widely used in voltage stability research,
finding precise voltage collapse points and for determining as static analysis is not overly complex, and requires low
voltage stability at each transmission line. Voltage stability
calculation time. Static analysis provides an accurate
margins can be easily calculated, providing an indication of
how far the transmission line is from its severe load condition analysis method for handling mostly short disturbances
and allowing separate analysis if one transmission line is while dynamic analysis is used to analyze heavy load
highly stressed. The proposed method was demonstrated on disturbances.
the IEEE 14-bus system and compared with existing methods For the last two decades, several methods were
to show its effectiveness and efficiency. developed to conduct static voltage stability analysis. Some
methods have used Jacobian matrix to determine the exact
values of voltage collapse [5-10] while others determine the
Keywords: voltage collapse, line voltage stability index, voltage bifurcation point to predict voltage stability margins [11].
stability analysis Mmaximum load determination enables assessment of
proximity to voltage collapse [12] while scalar indices
(including line stability index (Lmn) [13], line stability
I. INTRODUCTION factor, (LQP) [14], fast voltage stability index (FVSI) [15],
and voltage collapse proximity index [16]) can be calculated
as part of line voltage stability analysis.
Recently, several researchers have used voltage
Recently, power systems have been operating close to stability/instability analysis to predict voltage collapse;
stability limits because of deregulation and the complexity some developed new methods, while others improved
of constructing a new transmission lines causing violation existing methods or proposed hybrid methods. Arya and
of voltage limits. Operating power systems in such an others [17], for example, developed a line voltage stability
environment initiates severe stability problems leading index used to devise a protective scheme against voltage
power systems as a whole to collapse. An inadequate collapse; the index halves at a collapse point and is easily
supply of reactive powers also contributes to system voltage implemented in a distant relay to give an alarm/tripping
instability and eventually to electricity blackouts. Several signal indicating the system has entered an insecure zone.
blackout incidents have been recorded worldwide, including Although all the methods briefly described above can
France in 1978, Sweden in 1983, in Japan in 1987 [1] and in be used to carry out static voltage stability analysis, their
the USA in 1996 [2]. More recently, in the summer of 2003, scope is limited. Some methods are suitable only for
blackouts occurred in the USA, Italy and England [3]. specific applications, while others are too complex,
Voltage collapse can be avoided. Maintaining system consuming so much time running through their procedures
voltage profiles within an acceptable range in power system that it may be too late to avoid voltage collapse events.
operations improves system security and reliability and This paper presents a new method to calculate line
prevents system collapse from happening. Operating voltage stability (in a line connected between nodes k and
beyond acceptable range limits leads to voltage instability m) that points out how far the transmission line is from its
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 390

outage condition or collapse point. The proposed index is 2
Re : Pm = VmVk Ykm ⋅ cos(θ − δ m ) − Vk ⋅ Ybus ⋅ cos(θ ) (4)
simple and accurate in conducting rapid voltage stability
2
analysis, providing the reduced calculation time needed to Im : Qm = − VmVk Ykm ⋅ sin(θ − δ m ) + Vk ⋅ Ybus ⋅ sin(θ ) (5)
prevent voltage collapse. The proposed method can be
easily used in on-line applications, allowing operators to
take action to prevent such incidents. This method has been Substituting equation (4) into equation (3) to establish a
demonstrated on the IEEE (14-bus, 20 lines) Test System to relationship between Vk and Qm yields:
show its effectiveness and efficiency. 2
Vm Vk Ykm ⋅ cos(θ − δ m ) − Vk ⋅ Ybus ⋅ cos(θ ) − jQm =
This paper is organized as follows: the theoretical
basis of the proposed method is introduced in Section II Vm Vk Ykm ∠(θ − δ m ) − Vk ⋅ Ybus ∠θ
2
while the line stability index method is reviewed in Section

III. Section IV presents the results and discussion while 2
Vk − VmVk
(sin(θ − δ m ) + Qm
=0
Section V presents the paper final conclusions. (sin(θ ) ) Ykm ⋅ (sin(θ )) (6)
Since δm is very small, it is assumed to be zero seeking
equation simplification, then the whole term of (sin(θ-
II. THE PROPOSED METHOD δm)/sin(θ) ) is eliminated and yields,
2 Qm
V k − V m Vk + =0
Ym ⋅ (sin(θ ) )
Consider a simple line power system as illustrated in
Fig.1, which can be extended to an n-line power system. Since Bkm=Ykm.sin (θ), the new equation can be
rewritten as
2 Qm (7)
Vk − VmVk + =0
Where: Bkm
Vk ,Vm = sending and receiving voltages at system
By taking the quadratic of Vm, the root of Vm is
buses
expressed as:
Pk +jQk Pm +jQm
2 4 ⋅ Qm
bus k bus m + Vk ∓ Vk −
Bkm
Vk∟δk Vm∟δm Vm = (8)
2
ILine (G +jB)km Eq. (8) gives one distinct real root or two equal roots of
Vm if (∆=b2 – 4ac) is discriminated to zero. The
Fig. 1 Simple line power system discriminated real roots of Vm can be expressed as
⎧ 2 4Q m
δk, δm. = sending and receiving voltages angle ⎪ Vk − B ≤ 0
at system bus k and m …… ⎪ km (9)
⎨
Pk, Pm = sending and receiving real powers at ⎪ 4 Q m
≤1
buses ⎪ Bkm ⋅ Vk 2
⎩
Qk ,Qm =sending and receiving reactive powers
at buses The Vm varies from zero to one indicating the real root
Ykm = (G+jB) line a admittance between bus limitation and can be used as voltage stability limits. The
k and m voltage real root must be greater than zero and lower than
θ = line admittance angle one, otherwise the voltage stability are compromised; this
r+jx = line impedance between bus k and m proves that the developed equation determines voltage
stability at each line and predicts system voltage collapse,
When bus k is taken as a reference bus, the line current, named as voltage reactive power index at line, VQILine , and
ILine , is calculated by: expressed as
I Line = (V k − V m )Ykm (1) 4Qm
VQI Line = 2
≤ 1.0 (10)
The ILine also can be determined by using the receiving Bkm ⋅ Vk
apparent power at bus m, given as:
Once the value of VQILine approaches unity, the voltage
(P − jQm )
*
⎛S ⎞ (2)
I Line = ⎜⎜ m ⎟⎟ = m stability reaches stability limits. Voltage instability occurs
V
⎝ m⎠ Vm ∠ − δ m
when VQILine is beyond stability limits. VQILine determines
Rearranging equation (1) and (2) yields: how far the power system is from instability or collapse
Pm − jQm = VmVk Ykm ∠(θ − δ m ) − Vk ⋅ Ybus ∠θ
2
(3) point.
The real and imaginary parts can be separated from

equation (3) as:
391
III. REVIEW ON LINE STABILITY 0.0595 k load rate between the total summations of two
INDEX, Lmn methods confirming their similarity.
2. Load scenarios on power systems

This section briefly discusses line stability index, Lmn
[15] which will be used as base method for comparison This section discusses the accuracy of VQILine when
purpose with the proposed method, VQILine. under gradual load increase to the point that the power
Lmn is a line power index used to calculate line voltage system reaches collapse condition. In this application, loads
stability. This index detects the stress condition of power as a whole were assumed to be constant although the load, in
system lines and decides which areas are weak and exposed whole or in part, is considered dynamic. Loads were
to voltage collapse, providing online system stability assumed to be constant and subject to gradual increases in
prediction. A single line of an interconnected network is steps of 0.01 units until the system voltage collapsed, where
illustrated in Figure1, which can be expanded to n-lines system voltage indications were easily determined and
forming a grid network [15] as voltage collapse points were predicted.
2
Vk ⋅ Vm Vm (11)
Sm = ∠(θ − δ k + δ m ) − ∠θ Table1 VQIline vs. Lmn on IEEE 14-bus system
Z Z
2 Line From to VQILine Lmn
Vk Vk ⋅ Vm (12)
Sk = ∠θ − ∠(θ − δ k + δ m ) 1 1 2 0.08 0.0843
Z Z
The real and imaginary parts can be separated from 2 1 5 0.0075 0.0076
equation (11) as: 3 2 3 0.0628 0.0634
2
Vk ⋅ Vm Vm (13) 4 2 4 0.0158 0.0166
Pm = cos(θ − δ k + δ m ) − cos(θ )
Z Z
2
5 2 5 0.0214 0.0229
Vk ⋅ Vm Vm (14)
Qm = ⋅ sin(θ − δ k + δ m ) − ⋅ sin(θ ) 6 3 4 0.018 0.0215
Z Z
Let’s δ=δk-δm and Vm is given as 7 4 5 0.0135 0.0152
8 4 7 0.0306 0.0307
Vk sin(θ − δ ) ± (Vk ⋅ sin(θ − δ ))2 − (4 XQm ) (15)
Vm = 9 4 9 0.0747 0.0753
2 sin(θ )
The root of the real receiving voltage varies from zero to 10 5 6 0.0442 0.0446
one indicating the real root limitation expressed as 11 6 11 0.0287 0.035
⎧(Vk ⋅ sin(θ − δ ) )2 − 4 XQm ≤ 0 12 6 12 0.0252 0.0305
…. ⎪ (16)
⎨ 4 XQm 13 6 13 0.0368 0.0455
⎪ (V ⋅ sin(θ − δ ) )2 = Lmn ≤ 1
⎩ k 14 7 8 0.193 0.193
15 7 9 0.0976 0.0977
Once the value of Lmn exceeds one, the system reaches its 16 9 10 0.0134 0.0153
voltage collapse point.
17 9 14 0.0375 0.0449
18 10 11 0.014 0.0166
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 19 12 13 0.0063 0.014
20 13 14 0.0264 0.0323
Total ---- ---- 0.8474 0.9060
This section demonstrates the implementation of the
proposed method, VQILine, on IEEE (14-bus, 20 lines) to
conduct line voltage stability analysis. VQILine and line Two load scenarios were considered in this study. In the
stability index, Lmn were compared to measure VQILine’s first scenario, the loads, active and reactive powers, were
relative effectiveness and efficiency, as they share similar increased in the system at all buses simultaneously at
characteristics. Several loading scenarios were observed, in identical rate k until the system voltage collapsed. In the
which loads were progressively increased until the power second scenario, the loads were increased in the system at
system collapsed. only one bus a second. For both load scenarios, the power
factors were assumed to remain constant.
1. Normal Load scenario on 14-bus system Figures 2 to 4 show the performance of the proposed
method, VQILine, versus Lmn on IEEE (14-bus, 20 lines) for
Table1 shows the performance of the proposed method two loading scenarios. Figure 2 illustrates the first loading
on IEEE (14-bus, 20 lines) system. The proposed method scenario showing the similar results between the proposed
was compared with Lmn to check its accuracy in a normal method, VQILine, and Lmn method. Subfigures (a to h)
load condition. The comparison outcomes show VQILine had illustrate voltage stability margins at the selected lines: 1, 3,
very similar voltage stability results at each individual line, 4, 5, 7, 12, 13 and14. These subfigures show voltage stability
recording 0.8474 and 0.9069 as the total summation of margins were almost the same for both methods, starting
VQILine and Lmn respectively. There was a difference of only with system normal condition and ending with system
392
VQILine VQILine Figure 3 illustrates the second loading scenario on the
Lmn Lmn
same system showing the high similarity in voltage stability
Collapse point Collapse point
indications along with load increases at bus 9. VQILine and
Lmn at Line 3,7,10 and11 have almost exact voltage stability
indications and an identical voltage stability margin,
specifying voltage collapse point at load rate k=6.95.
(a) (b)
VQILine VQILine
3. Determination of VQILine accuracy:
Lmn Lmn
This section discusses the degree of accuracy of

Line outage Line outage VQILine compared to Lmn in terms of voltage stability
indications and margins, line outages and voltage collapse
predictions in critical lines.
Figure 4 illustrates the first loading scenario in an IEEE
(c) (d) Line (6) outage by Lmn
VQILine VQILine
VQILine VQILine Lmn Lmn
Lmn Lmn Vm at bus(4) Vm at bus(9)
Line outage Line outage Line (6)by VQILine & Vm at System & line (9)
bus (4) collapse point Collapse point
(a) (b) Line (2) outage
(e) (f)
VQILine VQILine
Lmn Lmn
VQILine VQILine Vm at bus(5)
Lmn Vm at bus(8)
Lmn
Vm at bus (5)
Vm at bus (8) Collapse point
Collapse point Collapse point Collapse point
(c) (d)
Fig.4. 1st scenario VQILIne vs. Lmn

(g) (h)
(a) VQILine and Lmn at line (6) and Vm at bus (4) (b) VQILine and Lmn at
Fig.2 First scenario, VQILine and Lmn vs. load factor k on IEEE (14-bus,
line (9) and Vm at bus (9), (c) VQILine and Lmn at line (14) and Vm at bus
20 lines) system
(8), (d) VQILine and Lmn at line (2) and Vm at bus (5)
(a) At line 1, (b) at line 4, (c) at line 5, (d) at line 14, (e) at line 3, (f)
at line 7, (g) at line 12, (h) at line 13 (14-bus, 20 lines) system, showing the performance of the
proposed method in the critical lines. VQILine, Lmn and the
received voltage at that line, Vm, were compared to check the
collapse at load rate k =2.75. They have almost identical accuracy point of voltage collapse and the status of line
voltage stability indications as loads increase and share the outage. While VQILine and Lmn vary from zero to 1 along with
VQI vs.Lmn at line (3) VQI vs.Lmn at line (7) loading increase rate k, Vm decreases gradually until it
1 VQILine 1 VQILine reaches its voltage security limits or voltage collapse state.
0.8
Lmn
0.8
Lmn
VQILine, Lmn and Vm are illustrated (in red, blue and black
0.6
Line outage 0.6
Line outage respectively). Results show there are slight differences in
0.4 0.4 terms of voltage collapse predictions among the three
0.2 0.2 methods in critical Lines 2, 6, 9 and 14. Subfigure (a) shows
0 0
that on Line 6 the VQILine reached unity as the Vm at bus 4
0 1 2 3
(a)
4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4
(b)
5 6 7
passed its stability limits at load rate k=2.75, while Lmn
VQI vs.Lmn at line (10) VQI vs.Lmn at line (11) predicted an earlier voltage collapse point at load rate
1 VQILine 1 VQILine k=2.33 which implies VQILine accurately predicted voltage
0.8
Lmn
0.8
Lmn
collapse at that line. Subfigure (b) demonstrates that VQILine
0.6
Line outage 0.6
Line outage and Lmn at Line 9 decrease sharply and tend to zero before
0.4 0.4 reaching their stability limits, indicating line collapse
0.2 0.2
conditions at load rate k= 2.75, at which the receiving
0 0
voltage Vm at bus 9 passed its stability limits. A high
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Load Factor k at only bus (9) Load Factor k at only bus (9) reactive power shortage may have been behind the line
(c) (c) collapse causing VQILine and Lmn to drop sharply and tend to
Fig.3 Second scenario, VQILine and Lmn vs. load factor zero, or a few collapsed lines may have forced the rest of the
k on IEEE (14-bus, 20 lines) system power system lines to collapse. Subfigure (c) show VQILine
and Lmn indicated voltage stability along with loading
(a) At Line 3, (b) at Line 7, (c) at Line 10, (d) at Line
increase identically, predicting exactly the same voltage
same predicated voltage collapse points. For further load collapse points at load rate k=2.75, at which Vm at bus 8
increases beyond that load rate k, the calculations of load dropped until it reached its security restrictions.
flow failed to converge.
4
393
Both methods at Line 2 shown in subfigure (d) predicted occur at faster rates when the loads at all buses are
voltage collapse before Vm at bus 5 passed its stability increasing. VQILine was demonstrated on the IEEE 14-bus
clearance. It is possible that the increased load on receiving and compared with existing methods to show its
bus 5 (which is interconnected to bus 1, 2, 4 and 6) forced effectiveness and efficiency.
Line 2 to collapse earlier, or a voltage drop in bus 5 may
have contributed to an early system line collapse.
Nevertheless, VQILine predictions were closer to Vm than VI. REFERENCES
Lmn’s predictions, presenting accurate voltage stability
indications, margins and voltage collapse point.
The overall results show that VQILine has similar [1] “Voltage stability of power system: concepts, analytic
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and voltage collapse points. Results show VQILine has very Power System Conference and Exposition, vol.1,
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Bose, C. Canizares, N. Hatziargyriou, D. Hill, A.
have a direct relationship between line sending voltages and
Stankovic, C. Taylor, T. Van Cutsem and V. Vittal,
line receiving reactive powers along with formula simplicity “Definition and classification of power system stability
while Lmn is more complex. VQILine permits more efficient IEEE/CIGRE joint task force on stability terms and
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results in voltage collapse causing a partial or total system Tarasov, “Estimation of electric power system steady-
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powerful tool for static voltage stability analysis. VQILine is vol. 12, No. 4, November 1997.
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stability at each individual line and predicting precisely the stability evaluation using modal analysis,” IEEE Trans.
point of system voltage collapse. Any system line can also on Power Systems, vol.7, Issue:.4, pp. 529-1542,
be studied separately when the line is highly stressed. Nov.1992.
[8] N. Flatabo, R. Ognedal, and T. Carlsen, “Voltage
stability condition in a power transmission system
calculated by sensitivity methods,”IEEE Trans. on
Power Systems, vol. PWRS-5, N0,4, pp. 1286-1293,
V. CONCLUSIONS
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[9] C.L. DeMarco, and T.J. Overbye, “An energy based
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VQILine, indicates how far the transmission line is from a pp: 35-39, Apr. 2000.
severe load condition or collapse point, permitting separate [11] A. Semlyen, et al., “Calculation of the extreme loading
analysis if one transmission line is highly stressed. VQILine condition of a power system for the assessment of
is designed to have a direct relationship between sending voltage stability,” IEEE Trans. On Power Systems,
line voltages and line receiving reactive powers, permitting Vol:6, Issue: 1, pp.307-315, Feb. 1991.
more effective stability analysis, particularly when a power [12] V. Balamourougan, T.S. Sidhu, and M.S. Sachdev, “A
system is subjected to a sudden increase in reactive power technique for real time detection of voltage collapse in
demands. VQILine's accuracy in conducting line voltage power systems,” Eighth IEE International Conf.
stability analysis and its predictions of voltage collapse Developments in Power system protection, vol: 2, pp.
were tested, showing very similar voltage stability margins 639-642, 2004.
and the same system voltage collapse points when [13] M. Moghavvemi, F.M. Omar, “Technique for
compared to existing methods. One line or more might contingency monitoring and voltage collapse
collapse/outage early as a result of reactive power being prediction,” IEEE Proceeding on Generation,
Transmission and Distribution, vol. 145, pp. 634-640,
inadequate to support the required demand. The results
November 1998.
show VQILine is superior to its predecessors in its simplicity, [14] A. Mohamed, G.B. Jasmon, and S. Yusoff, “A static
speed of calculations, accuracy and low computation time, voltage collapse indicator using line stability factors,”
factors which are vital to the prevention of power system Journal of Industrial Technology, vol:7, pp. 73-85,
collapse. The results also show that voltage collapse events 1989.
5
394
[15] M. Ismail, and T. K. Rahman, “Estimation of maximum
loadability in power systems by using fast voltage
stability index (FVSI),” Journal of Power and
Engineering Systems, vol: 25,pp. 181-189, 2005.
[16] M. Moghavvemi, and O. Faruque, “Real-time
contingency evaluation and ranking technique,” IEEE
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[17] L.D. Arya, S.C Choube, and M. Shrivastava,
“Technique for voltage stability assessment using newly
developed line voltage stability index,”Energy
Conversion and Management, vol.49, pp. 267–275,
2008.
VII. BIOGRAPHIES
F. A. Althowibi received the B.S. degree in electrical

engineering from College of Technology, Saudi Arabia in
2000 and the degree of M.S. from University of
Queensland, Australia in 2006. He is currently pursuing
PhD degree at Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia.
M. W. Mustafa received his B.Eng degree (1988), M.Sc

(1993) and PhD (1997) from University of Strathclyde,
Glasgow. His research interest includes power system
stability, deregulated power system, FACTS, power quality
and power system distribution automation. He is currently
Head of Electrical Power Engineering, Faculty of Electrical
Engineering at Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
395
Line Voltage Stability Calculations in Power

Systems
Abstract- voltage instability and voltage collapses are occurrences of voltage collapse. Operating further than
increasingly attracting worldwide interest. Operating power those limits results in voltage instability and ultimately to
system closer to its stability limits, transferring large amounts voltage collapse. A sudden increase of reactive power
of powers from long distance and an inadequate supply of demands may be responsible for such incidents if there is a
reactive power contribute to system voltage instability and
shortage in reactive power supply. Hence, adequate reserve
eventually to voltage collapse. Accurate calculations of voltage
stability, precise prediction of voltage collapse points and low of reactive powers and quick dynamic supplies are the
time consumption of procedures computation are essential successful remedial actions needed to avoid voltage
needs for operators to take the necessary actions to prevent collapse occurrences.
such system incidents. Although several methods have been The concepts of voltage stability, voltage
used in voltage stability analysis, successful avoidance of instability and voltage collapse are defined clearly in [4].
power system collapse is based on accuracy, rapid indication Voltage stability problems have drawn the most attention of
and very low calculation time. This paper presents a research recently, and these problems have been classified
competent method for conducting line voltage stability analysis into dynamic and static analysis. Dynamic analysis has been
in power systems. This newly developed method is accurate,
used to conduct voltage stability analysis since voltage
fast, simple, and theoretically proven for calculating voltage
stability at each individual line and finding accurate voltage instability is classified as a dynamic phenomenon; carrying
collapse points. Voltage stability margins based on line out a large disturbance, long-term disturbance, short-term
analysis can be easily calculated, providing an indication of disturbance or transit disturbance. Nevertheless, the static
how far the line(s) is from its severe load condition and analysis has been used as of late to comprehensively study
permitting separate analysis if one line is highly stressed. The voltage stability problem. This analysis is accurate and less
proposed method was demonstrated on the IEEE 57-bus complex as it requires low computation time to carry out
system and compared with existing methods to show its system stability analysis, particularly when handling short
efficiency. load disturbances.
Several methods were developed over the past two
Keywords: voltage collapse, line voltage stability index, voltage
decades to conduct static voltage stability analysis. These
stability analysis methods can be divided into four groups. Some methods
utilize the systematic Jacobian matrix to determine the exact
values of voltage collapse [5-10] while (ii) others determine
the bifurcation point to predict voltage stability margins
I. INTRODUCTION [11]. (iii) Mmaximum load determination enables
assessment of proximity to voltage collapse [12] while (iv)
Modern power systems have been recently scalar indices can be calculated as a part of line voltage
operating close to network stability limits due to stability; which are: line stability index (Lmn) [13], line
deregulation in the electricity market and the complex stability factor, (LQP) [14], fast voltage stability index
nature of establishing new transmission lines, causing (FVSI) [15], and voltage collapse proximity index [16].
violation in system voltage profile limits. Operating power In recent years, Arya et al. [17] developed a line
systems under such condition initiates a sequence of voltage voltage stability index used to devise a protective scheme
instability points leading power system to voltage collapse against voltage collapse. The index halves at a collapse
events. Inadequate reactive power supplies may also point and can be implemented easily in a distant relay to
contribute to system voltage collapse and, then to electricity give an alarm or tripping signal indicating that the power
blackouts. Several electricity blackouts were registered system has entered an insecure zone.
globally. Examples include France in 1978, Sweden in All of the methods described above have their
1983, in Japan in 1987 [1], in the USA in 1996 and 2003 limitations. Some methods are only suitable for specific
[2,3], Italy in 2003[3], and England in 2003[3]. applications, while others are too complex, consuming so
Avoiding voltage collapse events are achievable. much time running through their procedures that it may be
Voltage profiles in power system operations can be too late to avoid voltage collapse occurrences. Accuracy
maintained within acceptable levels to improve the security levels also vary from one to another which is an essential
and reliability of power systems and prevent the factor for voltage collapse avoidance.
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 396

This paper presents a new method to calculate line The real and imaginary parts can be separated from
voltage stability, connected between nodes k and m, equation (3) as:
indicating how far the line is from its outage condition and 2
collapse point. The proposed index is simple and accurate in Re : Pm = Vm Vk Ykm ⋅ cos(θ − δ m ) − Vm ⋅ Ykm ⋅ cos(θ ) (4)
terms of conducting swift voltage stability analysis, 2
providing the reduced calculating time needed to prevent Im : Qm = − Vm Vk Ykm ⋅ sin(θ − δ m ) + Vm ⋅ Ykm ⋅ sin(θ ) (5)
voltage collapse. The proposed method can be easily used
in on-line applications, allowing operators to take action to Substituting equation (4) into equation (3) to establish a
avoid such incidents. This method has been demonstrated
relationship between Vk and Qm yields:
on the IEEE (57-bus, 80 lines) Test System to show its
2
effectiveness and efficiency. Vm Vk Ykm ⋅ cos(θ − δ m ) − Vm ⋅ Ykm ⋅ cos(θ ) − jQm =
This paper is organized as follows: the theoretical
Vm Vk Ykm ∠(θ − δ m ) − Vm ⋅ Ykm ∠θ
2
basis of the proposed method is introduced in Section II
while line stability index method is reviewed in Section III.
IV presents the results and discussion while Section V (sin(θ − δ m ) Qm (6)
Vm2 − Vm Vk + =0
presents the paper final conclusions. (sin(θ )) Ykm ⋅ (sin(θ ) )
Since δm is very small, it is assumed to be zero seeking

equation simplification, then the whole term of (sin(θ-
II. THE PROPOSED METHOD
δm)/sin(θ) ) is eliminated and yields,
2 Qm
Vm − Vm Vk + =0
Consider a simple line power system as illustrated Ym ⋅ (sin(θ ) )
in Fig.1, which can be extended to an n-line power system. Since Bkm=Ykm.sin (θ), the new equation can be
rewritten as
Pk +jQk Pm +jQm 2 Qm (7)
Vm − VmVk + =0
bus k bus m Bkm
Vk∟δk Vm∟δm By taking the quadratic of Vm, the root of Vm is
ILine (G +jB)km
expressed as:
2 4 ⋅ Qm
+ Vk ∓ Vk −
Fig. 1 Simple line power system Bkm
Vm = (8)
2
Where: Eq. (8) gives one distinct real root or two equal roots of
Vk ,Vm = sending and receiving voltages at system Vm if (∆=b2 – 4ac) is discriminated to zero. The
buses discriminated real roots of Vm can be expressed as
δk, δm. = sending and receiving voltages angle ⎧ 2 4Qm
at system bus k and m ⎪ Vk − B ≤ 0
…… ⎪ km (9)
Pk, Pm = sending and receiving real powers at ⎨
buses ⎪ 4Q m ≤1
Qk ,Qm =sending and receiving reactive powers ⎪ Bkm ⋅ Vk 2
⎩
at buses
Ykm = (G+jB) line a admittance between bus
k and m The Vm varies from zero to one indicating the real root
θ = line admittance angle limitation and can be used as voltage stability limits. The
r+jx = line impedance between bus k and m voltage real root must be greater than zero and lower than
one, otherwise the voltage stability are compromised; this
When bus k is taken as a reference bus, the line current, proves that the developed equation determines voltage
ILine , is calculated by: stability at each line and predicts system voltage collapse,
I Line = (Vk − Vm )Ykm (1) named as voltage reactive power index at line, VQILine , and
The ILine also can be determined by using the receiving expressed as
apparent power at bus m, given as: 4Qm (10)
VQI Line = 2
≤ 1.0
⎛S ⎞
*
(P − jQ m ) (2) Bkm ⋅ Vk
I Line = ⎜⎜ m ⎟⎟ = m
⎝ Vm ⎠ Vm ∠ − δ m
Rearranging equation (1) and (2) yields: Once the value of VQILine approaches unity, the voltage
stability reaches stability limits. Voltage instability occurs
Pm − jQm = VmVk Ykm ∠(θ − δ m ) − Vm ⋅ Ykm ∠θ
2
(3) when VQILine is beyond stability limits. VQILine determines
397
how far the power system is from instability or collapse The real and imaginary parts can be separated from
point. equation (11) as:
2
Vk ⋅ Vm Vm (13)
Pm = cos(θ − δ k + δ m ) − cos(θ )
Z Z
III. REVIEW ON LINE STABILITY Vk ⋅ Vm Vm
2
Qm = ⋅ sin(θ − δ k + δ m ) − ⋅ sin(θ ) (14)

INDEX, Lmn Z Z
Let’s δ=δk-δm and Vm is given as
This section briefly discusses line stability index, Vk sin(θ − δ ) ± (Vk ⋅ sin(θ − δ ))2 − (4 XQm ) (15)
Vm =
Lmn [15] which is used as a base method for comparison 2 sin(θ )
purposes with the proposed method, VQILine. The root of the real receiving voltage varies from zero to
Lmn is a line power index used to calculate line voltage one indicating the real root limitation which can be
stability. This index detects the stressed condition of power
expressed as
system lines and determines the weak areas susceptible to
voltage collapse, providing online system stability ⎧(Vk ⋅ sin(θ − δ ) )2 − 4 XQm ≤ 0
prediction. …………. ⎪ (16)
⎨ 4 XQm
A single line of an interconnected network is ⎪ (V ⋅ sin(θ − δ ) )2 = Lmn ≤ 1
illustrated in Figure1, which can be expanded to n-lines ⎩ k
forming a grid network [15] expressed as Once the value Lmn exceeds one, the system reaches
voltage collapse point.
2
Vk ⋅ Vm Vm (11)
Sm = ∠(θ − δ k + δ m ) − ∠θ
Z Z IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
2
Vk Vk ⋅ Vm (12)
Sk = ∠θ − ∠(θ − δ k + δ m )
Z Z This section demonstrates an implementation of the
proposed method, VQILine, on IEEE (57-bus, 80 lines) to
conduct line voltage stability analysis. VQILine and line
Line From To VQILine Lmn Line From To VQILine Lmn Line From To VQILine Lmn
1 1 2 0.0371 0.0397 28 14 15 0 0 55 41 42 0.0874 0.1146
2 2 3 0.0893 0.0952 29 18 19 0.0457 0.0641 56 41 43 0.1064 0.1067
3 3 4 0.0022 0.0023 30 19 20 0.0165 0.0234 57 38 44 0.0155 0.0196
4 4 5 0.0299 0.036 31 21 20 0.0043 0.0043 58 15 45 0.0467 0.0468
5 4 6 0.0397 0.0425 32 21 22 0.0007 0.001 59 14 46 0.0549 0.055
6 6 7 0.0055 0.0057 33 22 23 0.0033 0.0047 60 46 47 0.0477 0.0523
7 6 8 0.0503 0.0538 34 23 24 0.0318 0.0451 61 47 48 0.0045 0.0073
8 8 9 0.0387 0.0392 35 24 25 0.2444 0.2468 62 48 49 0.0277 0.0391
9 9 10 0.0089 0.0092 36 24 25 0.2444 0.2468 63 49 50 0.005 0.0068
10 9 11 0.0363 0.0395 37 24 26 0.0116 0.0116 64 50 51 0.0902 0.1287
11 9 12 0.1093 0.1141 38 26 27 0.063 0.092 65 10 51 0.0448 0.0448
12 9 13 0.0272 0.0298 39 27 28 0.0257 0.0373 66 13 49 0.1668 0.1673
13 13 14 0.0394 0.0432 40 28 29 0.0217 0.0333 67 29 52 0.0603 0.0927
14 13 15 0.0388 0.0437 41 7 29 0.0568 0.0569 68 52 53 0.0222 0.0349
15 1 15 0.0138 0.0138 42 25 30 0.0406 0.0577 69 53 54 0.0492 0.0823
16 1 16 0.088 0.0883 43 30 31 0.0525 0.0735 70 54 55 0.0603 0.0976
17 1 17 0.027 0.0274 44 31 32 0.0433 0.0641 71 11 43 0.05 0.05
18 3 15 0.0257 0.0278 45 32 33 0.0037 0.008 72 44 45 0.0431 0.0566
19 4 18 0.1307 0.1314 46 34 32 0.1924 0.194 73 40 56 0.0155 0.0155
20 4 18 0.1307 0.1314 47 34 35 0.0176 0.0256 74 56 41 0.0473 0.09
21 5 6 0.0184 0.0224 48 35 36 0.019 0.0315 75 56 42 0.0172 0.0232
22 7 8 0.0515 0.0547 49 36 37 0.0132 0.0216 76 39 57 0.0887 0.0889
23 10 12 0.0759 0.0803 50 37 38 0.0429 0.062 77 57 56 0.0095 0.0136
24 11 13 0.0024 0.0026 51 37 39 0.0025 0.0035 78 38 49 0.0475 0.0675
25 12 13 0.0958 0.1055 52 36 40 0.0006 0.0009 79 38 48 0.0198 0.0282
26 12 16 0.0573 0.0609 53 22 38 0.0065 0.0093 80 9 55 0.0487 0.0487
27 12 17 0.1288 0.1416 54 11 41 3 0.1676 0.1686 Total 4.0478 4.6483
Table 1 VQILine and Lmn at normal Condition on IEEE (57-bus, 80 lines) system
398
stability index, Lmn were compared to measure VQILine’s system collapsed. The results show close similarities
relative efficiency, because they share similar between VQILine, and Lmn on voltage stability indications at
characteristics. Several loading scenarios were observed, in each individual line with load increase, recording a collapse
which loading scenarios were progressively increased until point at rate k= 0.375. As seen in Subfigures 2(a) to 2(h),
the power system collapsed. VQILine and Lmn at Lines 6, 35, 36, 41, 46, 54, 55 and 62 have
very similar voltage stability outcomes. Voltage stability
VQILine VQILine VQILine VQILine

Lmn Lmn Lmn Lmn
Line outage Line outage

Collapse point Line outage
(a) (b) (e) (f)
VQILine VQILine VQILine VQILine

Lmn Lmn Lmn Lmn
Line outage Line outage Line outage Line outage
(c) (d) (g) (h)
Fig.2 First scenario, VQILine and Lmn vs. load factor k on IEEE (57-bus, 80 lines) system
(a) At line 35, (b) at line 36, (c) at line 46, (d) at line 54, (e) at line 6, (f) at line 41, (g) at line 56,
(h) at line 62
margins at all lines are also almost identical, with very
1. Normal Load scenario on 14-bus system similar voltage collapse points.
Table1 shows a comparison between VQILine and Lmn to B. Load increase at selected bus 25
check the performance of the proposed method on IEEE
(57-bus, 80 lines) and validate its accuracy in a normal load The procedure described above was repeated by
condition. The comparison outcomes show VQILine had very subjecting the 57-bus IEEE system to gradual load increase
similar voltage stability results at each individual line, at only bus 25 until the system collapsed. Figure 3 shows
recording 4.0478 and 4.6483for the total summation of the occurrence of voltage collapse at loading rate k =4.4, at
VQILine and Lmn respectively. A difference of only 0.6005 k which VQILine and Lmn methods passed voltage stability
load rate difference was recorded between the total limits. Voltage stability indications at Line 35, 36, 46 and 54
summations of two methods confirming their similarity of using both methods are shown in Subfigures 3(a), 3(b), 3(c)
outcomes. and 3(d) respectively. Similar results were obtained on
voltage stability margins and voltage collapse points,
2. Load scenarios on power systems suggesting that VQILine is a powerful tool for line voltage
This part discusses the accuracy of VQILine with load VQILine VQILine
Line
Lmn
increase until power system approaches collapse state. Lmn mn
Despite the fact that load is, at least partially, considered to

be a dynamic phenomenon, the loads in this application as a Collapse point Collapse point
whole were assumed to be constant and subject to gradual

increases in steps of 0.01 units until the system voltage
(a) (b)
collapsed. As such, system voltage indications were easily
calculated and voltage collapse points were predicted. VQILine
VQI Line VQILine
VQI Line
Two load scenarios were considered in this study. In the LLmn

mn LLmnmn
first scenario, the system loads were increased at all buses at Line outage
once with identical rate k until the system voltage collapsed.
In the second, the loads were increased in the system at the Line outage
rate of one bus a second. For both load scenarios, the power
factors were assumed to remain constant. Figures 2 to 4 (c) (c)
show the performance of the proposed method, VQILine, Fig.3 Second scenario, VQILine and Lmn vs. load factor k on IEEE (57-
versus Lmn on IEEE (57-bus, 80 lines) for two loading bus, 80 lines) system
scenarios.
(a) At line 35, (b) at line 36, (c) at line 46, (d) at line 54
A. Load increase at all buses stability analyses. The difference between VQILine and Lmn is
In Figure 2, VQILine, and Lmn illustrate the first loading a clear indication of different accuracy level (see section 3).
scenario, in which the 57-bus system was subjected to 3. Determination of VQILine accuracy:
simultaneous steady load increase at all buses until the
4
399
results. VQILine is planned to have a direct connection
This section discusses the accuracy level of VQILine between line sending voltages and line receiving reactive
against Lmn in terms of voltage stability indications and powers along with formula simplicity while Lmn is still more
margins, line outages and voltage collapse predictions in complex. VQILine permits more efficient and quicker stability
critical lines. analysis than Lmn, particularly when a power system is
Figure 4 illustrates the first loading scenario in an IEEE subjected to a sudden increase in reactive power demands.
(57-bus, 80 lines) system, showing the performance of the Thus, the proposed method, VQILine, is superior to its
proposed method in the critical lines. VQILine, Lmn and the predecessors in its accuracy, simplicity, speed of
receiving voltage at that line, Vm, were compared to check calculations and low computation time, indicating that it is
the accuracy point of voltage collapse, voltage stability an influential tool for static voltage stability analyses.
indications and the status of line outage. While VQILine and VQILine is accurate, fast and simple allocating voltage
Lmn vary from zero to 1 along with load increase rate k, Vm stability at all lines as well as predicting precisely the
decreases gradually until reaches its voltage security limits system voltage collapse point.
or voltage collapse state. VQILine, Lmn and Vm are illustrated
(in red, blue and black respectively).
V. CONCLUSIONS
1 1
0.8 VQILine 0.8 VQILine

Lmn Lmn
0.6 Vm at bus(25) 0.6 Vm at bus(25) This paper presented a novel voltage stability analysis
0.4 0.4 based on transmission line system, accurately determining
0.2 Collapse Point 0.2 Collapse Point voltage stability analysis at each line and precisely
at at
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
predicting the points of voltage collapse on power systems.
Load Factor k
(a)
Load Factor k
(b) The proposed method, VQILine, indicates how far the line is
from a severe load condition or collapse point, permitting
separate analysis if one line is highly stressed. VQILine is
1 1
Collapse Point
0.8
0.8
VQILine
Lmn 0.6
VQILine designed to have a direct association between sending line
0.6
Vm at bus(32)
0.4
Lmn
Vm at bus(43) voltages and line receiving reactive powers, giving more
0.4
0.2
efficient stability analysis, particularly when a power
0.2
Collapse Point 0 system is subjected to an unexpected increase in load
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 reactive powers. The accuracy of VQILine to carry out line
Load Factor k Load Factor k
(c) (d)
voltage stability analysis and predict voltage collapse were
Fig.4 First scenario, VQILine ,Lmn and Vm vs. load factor k on tested, showing almost identical voltage stability margins
IEEE (57-bus, 80 lines) system and the same system voltage collapse points when
compared to the existing methods. An earlier line
(a) VQILine and Lmn at line (35) and Vm at bus (25) (b) VQILine and
collapse/outage might be forced to be out by large amounts
Lmn at line (36) and Vm at bus (25), (c) VQILine and Lmn at line (46)
and Vm at bus (32), (d) VQILine and Lmn at line (54) and Vm at bus of transferring powers, due to long distance, or caused by
(43) reactive power being insufficient to supply the required
demands. The results show VQILine is superior to its
predecessors in its simplicity, speed of calculations,
The results show that there are slight differences in accuracy and low computation time, factors vital to the
terms of voltage stability indications and voltage collapse prevention of power system collapse. VQILine was
predictions among the three methods in critical Lines 35, demonstrated on the IEEE 57-bus and compared with
36, 46 and 54. Subfigures 4(a) to 4(d) show the VQILine and existing method to show its efficiency.
Lmn reached unity as the Vm at bus 4 passed its stability
limits at loading rate k=0.375. VQILine has very similar
results compared to Lmn method along with gradual load VI. REFERENCES
increase in those critical lines. The results also show that in
these subfigures VQILine and Lmn predicted voltage collapse
similarly to what Vm predicted at those buses; which implies [1] “Voltage stability of power system: concepts, analytic
VQILine accurately determines voltage stability indications, tools, and industry experience,” IEEE Committee, vol.
voltage stability margins and precisely predicts voltage IEEE/PES 93TH0358-2-PWR, 1990.
collapse at critical lines. [2] C.W. Taylor, “Improving grid behavior,” IEEE Spectr.,
vol.36, pp.40-45, 1999.
[3] M. Klaric, I. Kuzle and S. TesnjK, “Under voltage load
4. Overall results:
The overall results show that VQILine has almost shedding using global voltage collapse,” IEEE PES
identical voltage stability indications at each individual line Power System Conference and Exposition, vol.1,
and very similar voltage stability margins and system pp.453-459, 2004.
[4] P. Kundur, J. Paserba, V. Ajjarapu, G. Andersson, A.
voltage collapse points compared to Lmn method. Both
methods in system critical lines were compared to line Bose, C. Canizares, N. Hatziargyriou, D. Hill, A.
receiving voltages, Vm at those particular lines to validate Stankovic, C. Taylor, T. Van Cutsem and V. Vittal,
VQILine accuracy of voltage stability indications, margins and “Definition and classification of power system stability
voltage collapse points. The outcomes show VQILine had IEEE/CIGRE joint task force on stability terms and
very close locations to voltage collapse points yielding more definitions,” Power Systems, IEEE Trans. vol. 19, pp.
accurate in voltage stability analysis and voltage collapse 1387 – 1401, 2004.
5
400
[5] A. Venikov, V.A. Stroev, V.I Idelchick, and V.I. M. W. Mustafa received his B.Eng degree (1988), M.Sc
Tarasov, “Estimation of electric power system steady- (1993) and PhD (1997) from University of Strathclyde,
state stability in load flow calculations,” IEEE Trans. on Glasgow. His research interest includes power system
PAS, vol. PAS-94, No.3, pp. 1034-041, May 1975. stability, deregulated power system, FACTS, power quality
[6] Y.H Hong, C.T Pan, and W.W Lin, “Fast calculation of and power system distribution automation. He is currently
voltage stability index,” IEEE Trans. on Power Systems, Head of Electrical Power Engineering, Faculty of Electrical
vol. 12, No. 4, November 1997. Engineering at Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
[7] B. Gao, G.K. Morison, and P. Kundur, “Voltage
stability evaluation using modal analysis,” IEEE Trans.
on Power Systems, vol.7, Issue:.4, pp. 529-1542,
Nov.1992.
[8] N. Flatabo, R. Ognedal, and T. Carlsen, “Voltage
stability condition in a power transmission system
Nov. 1990.
security measure for assessing vulnerability to voltage
collapse,” IEEE Trans on Power Systems, vol.5, pp.582-
591, May 1990.
[10] L. Zhuo, “The impedance analyses of heavy load node
in voltage stability studies,” CSEE Proceedings, vol. 20,
pp: 35-39, Apr. 2000.
[11] A. Semlyen, et al., “Calculation of the extreme loading
condition of a power system for the assessment of
voltage stability,” IEEE Trans. On Power Systems,
Vol:6, Issue: 1, pp.307-315, Feb. 1991.
[12] V. Balamourougan, T.S. Sidhu, and M.S. Sachdev, “A
technique for real time detection of voltage collapse in
power systems,” Eighth IEE International Conf.
Developments in Power system protection, vol: 2, pp.
639-642, 2004.
[13] M. Moghavvemi, F.M. Omar, “Technique for
contingency monitoring and voltage collapse
prediction,” IEEE Proceeding on Generation,
Transmission and Distribution, vol. 145, pp. 634-640,
November 1998.
[14] A. Mohamed, G.B. Jasmon, and S. Yusoff, “A static
voltage collapse indicator using line stability factors,”
Journal of Industrial Technology, vol:7, pp. 73-85,
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[15] M. Ismail, and T. K. Rahman, “Estimation of maximum
loadability in power systems by using fast voltage
stability index (FVSI),” Journal of Power and
“Technique for voltage stability assessment using newly
developed line voltage stability index,”Energy
2008.
VII. BIOGRAPHIES

401
An Analysis of Transient Stability Using

Center-of-Inertia: Angle and Speed
*H. Hashim, M. R. Zulkepali, Y. R. Omar, N. Ismail, I. Z. Abidin, S. Yusof
Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Malaysia. Advanced Power Solution Sdn. Bhd.
{halimatun, yaakob, noraisma, izham}@uniten.edu.my. zm.ridzuwan@gmail.com, salleh@aps-my.com
Abstract - Instability in the system may cause the rotor dynamic behavior of generators in the system [3, 4,
angle of the machine to accelerate or decelerate 5]. If the indices calculated show an out of step
depending on the mechanical power and electrical condition after the fault is cleared, the system is
power; most seriously could result to tripping of the considered to be in an unstable condition. In addition,
machine This paper evaluates the impact of
if the multi-machine system is in synchronism with
disturbances and types of loads to system stability using
Area-based COI-referred Transient Stability Indexes: all the machines turning at a constant speed, the
COI angle and COI speed. The analysis is carried out system frequency is equal to the dynamic frequency
using PSS®E 32 software on IEEE 118 Bus Test System (possibly above or below the steady state speed, ωs)
at system conditions with and without dynamic loads. [4].
The network is initially divided into significant areas
based on the geographical. The COI reference transformation defines the
COI angle as:
Keywords - Transient stability, Center-of Inertia,
Dynamic load. (1)
I. INTRODUCTION
∑ (2)
Fault on transmission facilities, large loss of load
or generation will result in transient stability causing ( ) ∑ (3)
large currents and torque experienced by the machine
concerned. Any unbalanced torque acting on the rotor
causes the machines to accelerate or decelerate, ∑ (4)
which may lead to loss of synchronism [5, 6] if the
imbalance is too significant. Therefore, it is important
to analyze the impact of these disturbances to the Where N is the number of generator, M is the
power network in order to maintain system stability. moment of inertia of the machine, MT is the total
This paper analyzes the effect of dynamic load to system inertia, is the area equivalent rotor angle, δi
power system stability upon the occurrence of fault the individual rotor angle, while r is total number of
using Area-based [3] COI-referred Transient Stability areas in a power system.
Index: COI angle and COI speed [3, 4, 5]. For this to
be possible, simulation analysis was carried out on The COI reference transformation defines the
IEEE 118 Bus Test System. Apart from that, the COI speed as:
system loads are varied by taking into account static
and dynamic load conditions. (5)
II. AREA-BASED CENTRE OF INERTIA (COI)

( ) ∑ (6)
Area-Based COI is a common transformation
used in transient stability analysis. The indices as
shown in equation (1) and equation (5) associate with
the rotor angle and angular speed of a particular area Where ω is the area equivalent rotor speed and ωi is
of a power grid and are based on an equivalent inertia the individual rotor speed of the area.
representing the total inertia of the generators located
in that area. The indices are derived from the
classical machine model by assuming that the
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 402

III. METHODOLOGY indices and hence, the stability of the system could be
analyzed. If the COI angle is within ±180º and the
The index of Area-Based COI: COI angle and COI speed is very low, the system is in stable
COI speed are used to examine the stability the IEEE condition; however, if the COI angle exceeds ±180º
118 Bus Test System, which consists of 28 and the COI speed is large, then the system is in an
generators, 118 buses and 186 transmission lines, unstable condition [3, 4].
when subjected to fault. Figure 1 shows that the large
network is organized into three areas, namely: Area 1
has 13 generators, Area 2 with 8 generators and Area IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
3 consists of 7 generators respectively based on
A. Case studies without dynamic loads
geographical. Different types of power plants are
modeled connected to static loads and/or dynamic
Case 1: A bus fault is created at bus 89 in Area
loads using PSS®E 32.
1. Figure 3.1 – Figure 3.3 illustrate the behavior of
the angle in each area: Area 1, Area 2 and Area 3.
Referring to Table 1, the COI angle is lesser than
±180°, which means the system is in stable condition.
Referring to Table 11, the individual rotor angle of
each machine in all areas does not violate the stability
limit of the power system. Table 2 shows that the
COI speed is very low, which indicates that this
multi-machine system is in synchronism with all the
machines in each area turning at almost a constant
speed. This indicates the system frequency is almost
equal to the dynamic frequency.
Figure 1: IEEE 118 Bus Test System with three
electrically coherent areas.
Figure 2 represents a simplified version of the

IEEE 118 Bus Test System to highlight the
interconnection between the three areas and the
number of generators and inertia constant for the
respective area.
Figure 3.1: Case 1 for Area 1
Area 3, Area 2,
7- genset, 8- genset,
Area 1,
13- genset,
Figure 2: Area Based IEEE 118 Bus Test System
Simulations are carried out on the system at base

case and contingency conditions with and without
dynamic loads as a comparison from different load
models. Bus fault was simulated at Bus 80 and 89
with a fault clearance time of 100ms [7]. The
characteristic of rotor angle for each machine in the
respective area was plotted during pre-fault, fault and
post-fault conditions. Data obtained from the
simulation results were used to calculate the stability Figure 3.3: Case 1 for Area 3
403
The total inertia of the machines of the three areas:
Area 1, Area 2 and Area 3 is MT = 186.6
33.5530° 19.0352° 40.8326°
COI Angle ( ) ∑ = 31.2866°

2.2664 12.2514° 9.5460°
611.2° 2133.525 2108.80°

Table 1: Transient Stability Index: Area-Based COI
Angle – Case 1
COI Angle ( ) ∑ = 1435.294°
-314.102 -314.213 -314.263

824.094° 698.231° 673.506°
COI Speed ω ( ) ∑ = -314.175

Angle – Case 2
0.073809 -0.03781 -0.0876
-366.929 -369.125 -358.628

Speed – Case 1 COI Speed ω ( ) ∑ = -365.404
Case 2: Figure 3.4 – Figure 3.6 demonstrate the
behavior of rotor angles when fault occurs at Bus 80. -1.52478 -3.72024 6.776079
After the disturbance is cleared, the individual rotor
angle for each machine in particular areas goes out of
step of the stability limit, which is ±180° as proven in Table 4: Transient Stability Index: Area-Based COI
Table 3 and Table 12. In addition, the COI speed of Speed – Case 2
each area in Table 4 is also high. This indicates that
the machines in each area are running out of B. Case studies with dynamic loads
synchronism.
Case 3: A bus fault is simulated at bus 89 in
Area 1. Figure 3.7 – Figure 3.9 show the behavior of
the rotor angle, which is decreasing due to the effect
of dynamic loads connected to buses 13, 15 and 19 in
Area 3. Nevertheless comparing to Case 1, the
dynamic loads that are connected to the system have
caused the rotor angles to be decreasing within the
simulation time frame of 20 seconds.
404
Case 4: Figure 3.10 – Figure 3.12 show the
graph of rotor angle for each generator in the three
areas when a fault occurs at Bus 80 in Area 1. The
system becomes unstable since the rotor angle of
most of the machines exceeding the stability limit,
which is ±180° accept for some of the machines in
Area 1 as shown in Table 14 and proven in Table 7
and Table 8 through Transient Stability Index.

The fault does not affect the system stability

since the individual rotor angle for each machine in
particular areas does not violate the stability limit of
the power system as shown in Table 13. This is also
proven by COI angle in Table 5. In addition, COI
speed of each area in Table 6 is also low showing that
the machines are turning at almost a constant speed.
3.5029° 16.068° 4.6827°
COI Angle ( ) ∑ = 4.975°
1.473° 11.092° 9.657°

Angle – Case 3 Figure 3.12: Case 4 for Area 3
650.508° 2178.688° 2155.869°

-315.888 -315.996 -316.046
COI Speed COI Angle ( ) ∑ = 1478.291°

ω ( ) ∑ = -315.96
827.783° 700.397° 677.578°

0.071775 -0.0361 -0.08592

Angle – Case 4
Speed – Case 3
405
V. CONCLUSIONS
-370.373 -315.996 -316.046
The existence of dynamic loads in the system
COI Speed ω ( ) ∑ = -340.72 affects the rotor angle and speed of the machines
during steady state and abnormal conditions. At
transient instability condition, the system with
-29.6525 24.72438 24.67456 dynamic loads receives a greater impact compared to
the system without dynamic loads. Therefore, in
order to ensure that the stability of a power system is
preserved, it is advisable to take dynamic loads into
Speed – Case 4
consideration during the analysis of transient
stability. Based on all the cases, if the COI angle is
Table 5 and 6 summarize the results in terms of
within ±180º and the COI speed is very low, then the
Transient Stability Index: COI angle and COI speed
system is in stable condition. Furthermore, in all
for cases with and without the dynamic loads
cases, Area-based COI-referred Transient Stability
connected to the system. The index indicates whether
Index: COI angle and COI speed is useful in analyzing
the system is stable or unstable. Case 1 and Case 3
the transient stability of a system when it is subjected
demonstrate the stability of the system with the value
to disturbance.
of Transient Stability Index, COI angle not exceeding
±180˚ and low values of COI speed. In contrast,
Case 2 and Case 4 represent the unstable condition of
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
the system with Transient Stability Index, COI angle
exceeding ±180˚ and large values of COI speed. In
addition, the values of both COI angle and COI speed The research team would like to acknowledge the
are higher for the system with dynamics loads Ministry of Science and Technology Malaysia for
compared to the system without dynamic loads. research funding (03-02-03-SF0141 and 03-02-03-
SF0187), Universiti Tenaga Nasional Malaysia,
Tenaga Nasional Berhad and Advanced Power
Case 1: fault at Bus 89 Case 2: fault at Bus 80 Solution Sdn. Bhd. for the support given to this
research.
2.2664° 0.073809 824.094° -1.52478 This paper is also dedicated to the late Dr.
Sallehhudin Yusof (President, Advanced Power
Solutions Sdn. Bhd.) for his tireless effort and
12.2514° 698.231° tremendous help in making the research presented to
-0.03781 -3.72024
be more meaningful. May The Al-Mighty bless him
always.
9.5460° -0.0876 673.506° 6.776079

REFERENCES
TABLE 9: TSI for system without dynamic loads
[1] C. W. Taylor, “Power System Voltage Stability.”

Case 3: fault at Bus 89 Case 4: fault at Bus 80
New York: McGraw-Hill, 1994.
[2] Hadi Saadat, “Power System Analysis.” Second
Edition, New York: McGraw-Hill, 2002.
1.4733° 0.071775 827.7827° -29.6525 [3] A. W. Noor Izzri, A. Mohamed, “Area-Based
COI-Referred Transient Stability Index for
Large-Scale Power System,”International Journal
11.0923° -0.0361 700.3969° 24.72438 of Power, Energy and Artificial Intelligence,
No.1, Vol. 1 (ISSN: 1985-6431), August 2008.
[4] Sauer P. W and M. A. Pai, “Power System
Dynamics and Stability.” Prentice Hall, 1998.
9.6569° -0.08592 677.5782° 24.67456
[5] Kundur, P. 1994. Introduction to the Power
System Stability Problem – Basic Concept and
TABLE 10: TSI for system with dynamic loads Definitions, Mid-term and Long-Term Stability.
Power System Stability and Control: 33-34,
McGraw-Hill.
406
[6] J Machowski, J W Bialek, JR, Bumby, “Power
System Dynamics Stability and Control.” 2nd
Edition, John Wiley & Sons, 2008.
[7] TNB Transmission Division, Protection and
Control Code of Practice (COP), Second
Edition, September 2003.
APPENDIX
A. Rotor Angle after Fault without Dynamic Loads

B. Rotor Angle after Fault with Dynamic Loads
M/C Rotor M/C Rotor M/C Rotor

No angle, No angle, No angle, M/C Rotor M/C Rotor M/C Rotor
Area1 (°) Area2 (°) Area3 (°) No angle, No angle, No angle,
69 25.5470 Area1 (°) Area2 (°) Area3 (°)
40 20.8900 1 39.2257
69 -28.7021 40 -15.7373 1 1.7394
70 57.2498 42 13.8581 10 58.6341
70 -4.5072 42 -22.7143 10 23.7219
74 43.5788 46 20.8517 12 38.5190
74 -31.1004 46 -15.103 12 2.9723
76 4.9322 49 20.5787 25 34.2887
76 -17.5300 49 -15.5163 25 -1.7649
80 32.0188 54 16.3275 26 41.1974
80 -9.2960 54 -19.6988 26 5.1773
87 5.5125 55 22.0559 27 31.3702
87 44.4442 55 -14.1043 27 -5.4513
89 21.2923 59 18.8620 31 42.5933
89 20.2945 59 -17.1486 31 6.3774
91 28.2124 65 18.8620
91 5.2610 65 -8.5175
100 81.9580
100 4.2279
103 40.9147
103 -8.0555
107 28.8721
107 -4.5227
110 32.0866
110 -4.3124
TABLE 11: Case 1: Fault at Bus 89 without Dynamic

Load TABLE 13: Case 3: Fault at Bus 89 with Dynamic
Load
No angle, No angle, No angle,
No angle, No angle, No angle,
Area1 (°) Area2 (°) Area3 (°)
Area1 (°) Area2 (°) Area3 (°)
69 -2149.66 40 -2133.33 1 -2111.5
69 -2192.30 40 -2179.43 1 -2159.90
70 -2126.19 42 -2140.99 10 -2090.44
70 -2171.83 42 -2186.71 10 -2138.78
74 -2152.01 46 -2130.21 12 -2109.75
74 -2197.39 46 -2175.47 12 -2155.58
76 -2139.87 49 -2132.84 25 -2114.02
76 -2186.75 49 -2177.85 25 -2160.48
80 32.815 54 -2135.03 26 -2107.33
80 30.2364 54 -2180.32 26 -2153.83
87 102.901 55 -2133.29 27 -2120.11
87 62.0942 55 -2178.31 27 -2167.30
89 85.8264 59 -2135.01 31 -2108.47
89 45.0147 59 -2179.87 31 -2155.18
91 71.0956 65 -2127.5
91 29.2325 65 -2171.54
100 72.7026
100 32.0114
103 63.8331
103 23.1300
107 64.0682
107 23.7278
110 66.6714
110 24.6400
TABLE 12: Case 2: Fault at Bus 80 without Dynamic TABLE 14: Case 4: Fault at Bus 80 with Dynamic
Load Load
407
On-line Voltage Collapse Indicator for Power

Systems
Abstract: The problem of voltage instability is considered a power networks results in successful voltage collapse
critical issue all over the world. A precise voltage collapse avoidances.
allocations and fast voltage stability analysis are a challenge. Voltage stability, instability and voltage collapse are
Although several methods conducing voltage stability well interpreted in [4] and those issues recently have been
analysis; accurate voltage collapse predications and rapid
the most attention among research centers. Dynamic and
voltage stability analysis providing computation time
reduction are needed to successfully prevent voltage static analyses have been used in voltage stability studies.
collapses and blackouts. This paper presents a competent Although voltage instability is a dynamic phenomenon,
and efficient method for use on-line voltage collapse static analysis is widely used in voltage stability research.
predications, theoretically proven for finding voltage The static analysis provides an insight into voltage stability
collapse point precisely and determining voltage stability problems and consumes low computation time, handling a
accurately. The proposed method is accurate, fast and simple small disturbance while the dynamic analysis characterizes
indicating how far the power system is from collapse point the phenomenon of voltage instability, handling large,
and how far the bus is from its severely loading condition or short and transient disturbances. Several methods have
outage. The proposed method was demonstrated on the
been used for analysis of static voltage stability. Some of
IEEE 57-bus system and compared with previous methods to
demonstrate its effectiveness and efficiency. these methods determine the exact values of voltage
collapse such: Jacobian method [5], singular value index
Keywords: voltage collapse, line voltage stability index, [6], modal method [7], voltage sensitivity method [8],
voltage stability analysis energy function method [9] and impedance index [10]
while others determine the bifurcation point to predict
voltage stability margins [11]. Determination of maximum
load enables assessment of proximity to voltage collapse
I. INTRODUCTION [12], and scalar indices based line system analysis [13-16].
In recent work, several researchers have used
Violation of voltage limits and undesirable line voltage stability analysis to predict voltage collapse; some
outages are leading power systems to voltage instability developed new methods, while others improved existing
and ultimately to voltage collapse. Sudden load increases methods or proposed hybrid methods. Balamourougan et
or insufficient reactive power supplies may also contribute al. [17] developed a voltage collapse prediction index
to voltage collapse and blackouts. Several incidents of (VCPI) to evaluate voltage stability and predict voltage
electricity blackouts have occurred worldwide [1] were collapse, assessing power system stability in real time. A
registered lately in the USA in 1996 and 2003 [2, 3] and in combined static and dynamic voltage stability analysis was
Italy and England in 2003 [3]. also introduced by Nizam et al. [18] which predicted
Operating within design limits makes power dynamic voltage collapse in a practical power system by
networks more secure and reliable. The occurrences of using power transfer stability index (PTSI). Arya et al.
voltage collapse might be investable to avoid when a [19] developed a line voltage stability index used to devise
power system are operating close to its transmission line a protective scheme against voltage collapse.
capacity limits. Some electric utilities are operating close Accurate voltage collapse points and rapid voltage
to transmission capacity limits to reduce costs and stability analysis with low computation time in power
maximize profits of electricity production while other systems are needed. Although several methods briefly
utilities have a difficulty to construct a new transmission described above, successful avoidance of power system
line due to deregulation and environmental factors. collapse is based on accuracy, speed of indication and very
Operating close to system instability condition raises risks low computation time.
that are difficult for network operators to control, This paper presents an efficient method for on-line
particularly when generators and reactive power voltage collapse indicator accurately predicts the point of
compensators cannot respond quickly to meet reactive system voltage collapse and precisely determines voltage
power demands. Thus, maintaining voltage stability in stability allocations for each bus. It indicates how far the
system is from instability condition and also how far the
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 408

bus is from its collapse point. This method has been 2
V j − V j Vi
(sin(θ − δ ) +j Qj
=0 (6)
demonstrated on the IEEE 57-bus test system to show its
effectiveness and efficiency.
(sin(θ ) ) Ybus ⋅ (sin(θ ) )
This paper is organized as follows: the proposed Since δj is very small, it is assumed to be zero
method is introduced in Section II whilst the bus voltage seeking equation simplification, then the whole term of
stability indices are reviewed in Section III. Results and (sin(θ- δj)/sin(θ) ) is eliminated and yields,
discussion are presented in Section IV and the paper 2 Qj
V j − V j Vi + =0
conclusion is presented in Section V. Ybus ⋅ (sin(θ ))
Since Bbus=Ybus sin (θ), the new equation can be
II. THE PROPOSED METHOD rewritten as
2 Qj
V j − V j Vi + =0 (7)
Consider a simple power system as illustrated in Bbus
Fig.1 with 2-bus power system, which can be extended to By taken quadratic of Vj, the root is expressed as
an n-bus power system and used to establish a relationship
between sending voltage profiles and receiving reactive 2 4 ⋅ Qj
+ Vi ∓ Vi −
powers. Bbus
Vj = (8)
Bus I Bus J 2
Eq. (8) gives one distinct real root or two equal roots
G +jB Pj +jQj
of Vm if (∆=b2 – 4ac) is discriminated to zero. The
discriminated real roots of Vm can be expressed as
Pi +jQi
Vi∟δi Vj∟δj ⎧ 2 4Q j
⎪ Vi − =0
Fig. 1 2-Bus Power System …… ⎪ Bbus (9)
⎨ 4Q j
Where, ⎪ =1
⎪B ⋅V 2
Vi , Vj sending and receiving voltages at system buses ⎩ bus i
δi , δj sending and receiving voltage angles at system
buses The Vm varies from zero to one indicating the real
Pi , Pj sending and receiving real powers at buses root limitation and can be used as voltage stability limits.
Qi , Qj sending and receiving reactive powers at buses The voltage real root must be greater than zero and lower
Yij (G+jB) system admittance between bus i and j than one, otherwise the voltage stability are compromised;
Yii The diagonal of system admittance this proves that the developed equation determines voltage
θ The admittance angle stability at each line and predicts system voltage collapse,
named as voltage reactive power index at bus, VQIBus ,
When bus i is taken as a reference bus, the system and expressed as
current is calculated by 4Q j
(
I = Vi − V j Ybus ) (1) VQI Bus = 2
≤ 1. 0
The system current also can be obtained by using the Bbus ⋅ Vi
apparent power at bus j, given as As Bbus has dominant diagonal elements; the VQIBus
⎛S ⎞
I =⎜ j ⎟ = j
(P − jQ j )
*
(2)
can be expressed as
⎜V ⎟ 4Q j
⎝ j ⎠ V j∠ − δ j VQI Bus = ≤ 1.0 (10)
2
By arranging equations (1) and (2) yields, diag ( Bbus ) ⋅ Vi
[
Pj − jQ j = V j ∠ − δ j ⋅ (Vi ∠0 − V j ∠δ j )⋅ Ybus∠θ ] VQIBus vary from zero to one. Once the value of
VQIBus closes to the unity, the voltage stability reaches
∠(θ − δ ) − V
2
Pj − jQ j = V j ViYbus j j ⋅ Ybus ∠θ (3) stability limits. Voltage instability occurs when the VQIBus
From equation (3), the real and imaginary parts can is beyond their stability limits.
be separated as,
2
Re : Pj = V j ViYbus ⋅ cos(θ − δ j ) − V j ⋅ Ybus ⋅ cos(θ ) (4)
2 III. REVIEW OF BUS VOLTAGE STABILITY
Im : Q j = − V j ViYbus ⋅ sin(θ − δ j ) + V j ⋅ Ybus ⋅ sin(θ ) (5) INDICES
Substituting equation (4) into equation (3) to
establish a relationship between Vi and Qj yields, This section briefly discusses two methods based on
2
V j Vi Ybus ⋅ cos(θ − δ j ) − V j ⋅ Ybus ⋅ cos(θ ) − jQ j = bus system analyses of conducting voltage stability study:
modal analysis [7] and voltage collapse prediction index
V j Vi Ybus ∠(θ − δ j ) − V j
2
⋅ Ybus ∠θ (VCPI) [17].
409
A VCPI Where ζ and η are the left and the right eigenvectors
and Λ is diagonal eigenvector matrix of JR . Since ζ, η and
VCPI is an analytical method used to predict voltage Λ have dominant diagonal elements, the V-Q sensitivity to
collapse which specifies system stability margins in power system parameters is determined as:
systems. The VCPI was derived from the basic load flow ΔV
= diag{ξ ⋅ Λ−1η } (18)
illustrated in Fig.1. The apparent power, Si, at bus i is ΔQ
given by: Once the values ∆V/∆Q are close to zero or even their
⎡ ⎛ N ⎞⎤
⎜
(11) signs change from positive to negative, the system reaches
⎢
2
(
Si∗ = ⎢ Vi − (Vi ⋅ cos δ i − j Vi ⋅ sin δ i )⋅ ⎜ ∑ V j′ ⋅ cos δ ′j − j V j′ ⋅ sin δ ′j )⎟⎟⎥⎥ ⋅Y
ii voltage instability.
⎢⎣ ⎜ jj =≠1i ⎟⎥
⎝ ⎠⎦
where V’j is given by: IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

′ Yij
V j = ⋅V j , where Y = ∑ Yik
Y k =1, k ≠ i
From equation (11), the real and imaginary parts This section demonstrates an implementation of the
can be separated as: proposed method, VQIBus, on an IEEE 57-bus system to
n predict system voltage collapse as a whole and for every
f1 (Vi , δ ) = Vi − ∑V′ ⋅V (12)
2
j i ⋅ cos δ bus. The proposed method, VQIBus, and previously
j =1, j ≠ i developed methods were compared to verify the accuracy
n of VQIBus in predicting voltage collapse. VCPI and modal
f 2 (Vi , δ ) = ∑V′ ⋅V j i ⋅ sin δ (13) analysis dV indices are used for bus voltage collapse
j =1, j ≠ i predictions; where VCPI is used for online voltage stability
where δ= δi - δj’. The Newton-Raphson method is analyses and dV is used to compute Jacobian eigenvalues
used here to solve the unknowns of equations (12) and and eigenvectors to provide a proximity measure to system
(13). The Jacobian matrix is set at zero to satisfy the voltage instability. Although all three methods have
bifurcation condition and to obtain voltage collapse different characteristics, they share voltage stability
prediction index as expressed below: margins just only when they have an identical or similar
n voltage collapse point. Several loading scenarios were used
∑V ′ j to validate the proposed method’s accuracy, in which
VCPI kth = 1−
j =1, j ≠i
(14) loading scenarios were gradually increased until the power
bus
Vi system collapsed.
In this application, loads were assumed to be
VCPI varies from zero to one, indicating the
constant and subject to steady increases in steps of 0.01
voltage stability margin. Once the value of VCPI closes to
units until the system voltage collapsed, in which system
unity or exceeds it, the system voltage collapses. voltage margins were simply determined and voltage
collapse points were predicted. Three load scenarios were
considered in this study. In the first scenario, the loads,
B. Modal Analysis active and reactive powers, were increased in the system at
all buses simultaneously with identical rate k until the
Modal analysis is a powerful analytical tool used to system voltage collapsed, while the loads were increased in
predict voltage collapses in complex power systems. It the system at only one bus a second. In third scenario, the
specifies system stability margins and power transmission loads in multiple buses were increased at once with
limits. identical rate k until the system voltage collapsed. The
The modal analysis approach computes eigenvalues power factors were assumed to remain constant in all load
and eigenvectors of a reduced Jacobian matrix. The scenarios.
Jacobian matrix eigenvalue determines stability modes Figures 2 to 4 show the performance of the
while the eigenvalue magnitude provides a proximity proposed method, VQIBus, on IEEE 57-bus system. VQIBus
measure to system instability. The power system equations compared to modal analysis-dV and VCPI methods to
are given by: verify its accuracy of estimating voltage collapse point for
three loading scenarios. In each of these figures, VQIBus is
⎡ ΔP ⎤ ⎡ Δθ ⎤
⎢ ΔQ ⎥ = J ⋅ ⎢ ΔV ⎥ shown in sub-figure (a) and VCPI and modal analysis-dV
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ are shown in subfigures 2(b) and (c) to 4(b) and (c)
(15) respectively.
By considering ∆P is equal to zero, the reduced
Jacobian matrix is expressed as: A. Load increase at all buses
ΔQ ⎛⎜ ΔQ ⎛ ΔP ⎞ ΔP ⎞⎟
−1
JR = − ⋅⎜ ⎟ ⋅ (16) The first loading scenario is illustrated in Figure 2

ΔV ⎜⎝ Δθ ⎝ Δθ ⎠ ΔV ⎟⎠ showing voltage stability margins and specifying voltage
By taking the right and left eigenvector matrix into collapse points for all methods. Voltage stability margin
account, the JR matrix can be expressed as: generally is starting with normal system conditions and
ending with system collapse. Results show VQIBus, dV and
J R = ξ ⋅ Λ−1η (17) VCPI have the same voltage stability margin and alike
voltage collapse point at loading rate k=0.38. For any
3
410
increase in loading beyond that load rate k, the calculations buses were collapsed and became out of service recording
of load flow failed to converge. load rate 2.93 k and 3.33 k respectively. This may imply
At this point, all indices in the system as a whole a heavily loaded in those buses was behind earlier bus(s)
exceeded their stability limits. VQIBus and VCPI have collapse/ outage or may suggest an insufficient reactive
VQIBus
Unstabl
VCPI VQIBus VCPI

Point of Collapse Point of Collapse Point of System Collapse Point of Collapse
Stability Margin Collapse Point at one bus

Stability Margin Stable Stability Margin
Stable
Stability Margin
(a) (b) (a) (b)

Point of Collapse
Point of Collapse
Unstable
Point of Instability
Modal Analysis dV
Stable
Stable
Modal Analysis dV
Stability Margin
Stability Margin
(c) (c)
Fig.2 First scenario on IEEE 57-bus system, Fig.3 Second scenario on IEEE 57-bus system,
VQIBus , VCPI and dV vs. load factor k VQIBus , VCPI and dV vs. load factor k at bus 25
passed 1 while dV reached zero going to negative infinity power supply by generators or reactive power
indicating system voltage collapse. compensators to support the required demand.
Despite dV and VCPI exactly predicted the of system
B. Load increase at selected bus 25: voltage collapse point, none of them predict bus(s) voltage
collapse or outage easily, quickly and precisely as VQIBus
The second loading scenario is presented in did; where an accurate voltage collapse predication in one
Figure 3 showing the high similarity of VQIBus, dV and bus could avoid the voltage collapse events ensuring the
VCPI in terms of voltage stability collapse, where the load need for bus voltage collapse indicator and contingency
at bus 25 was subject to increase. VQIBus and other analyses. Thus, VQIBus is confirmed as an effective and
methods have almost the same voltage stability margin and
accurate method of predicting voltage collapse.
an identical voltage collapse, specifying a voltage collapse
point at load rate k=4.36. dV went to zero tending to
negative infinity. VCPI method passed its stability at the VQIBus VCPI
same load rate k, where all 57 buses collapsed at the same Point of System Collapse Point of Collapse
Collapse Point at one bus
points.
By observing subfigure 3(a), although VQIBus
accurately predicted the point of system voltage collapse as
a whole, one bus was forced to collapse at k=3.28 load rate (a) (b)
and then be out of services. This suggests heavily loaded in Point of Collapse
that bus caused by reactive power being inadequate to
support the required demand resulting in bus collapse or
outage. Subfigure 3(c) also shows instability point Modal Analysis dV
observed by dV-modal analysis while VCPI had no signs
Stability Margin
of bus outages or instability points.
(c)
C. Load increase at multiple bus selections:
Fig.4 Third scenario on IEEE 57-bus system,
(Buses: 24, 25, 32 and 43) VQIBus, VCPI and dV vs. load factor k at buses:
24, 25, 32 and 43 only
The procedure described above was repeated for
Overall, VQIBus generates voltage stability
a third loading scenario by subjecting the IEEE 57-bus
indications at each individual bus, predicting voltage
system to gradual load increase at buses 24, 25, 32 and 43
stability margins and voltage collapse points. The results
until the system collapsed. The occurrence of voltage show VQIBus, dV and VCPI had the same voltage stability
collapse at load rate k=3.72 is shown in Figure 4, at which margins and unique voltage collapse points. One bus or
all three methods had passed voltage stability limits. At more may collapse earlier as predicted by VQIBus before
this event, VQIBus and VCPI have passed one while dV the power system as a whole collapsed suggesting heavily
tended zero going to negative infinity indicating system load in those buses or because of reactive power being
voltage collapse. Despite VQIBus accurately predicted the inadequate to support the required demand at their
system point of voltage collapse as other methods did, two interconnected lines.
411
VQIBus has a direct connection between bus VI. REFERENCES
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accurate, fast and simple indicating how far the system is
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VII. BIOGRAPHIES

M. W. Mustafa received his B.Eng degree (1988), M.Sc

(1993) and PhD (1997) from University of Strathclyde,
Glasgow. His research interest includes power system
stability, deregulated power system, FACTS, power
quality and power system distribution automation. He is
currently Head of Electrical Power Engineering, Faculty
of Electrical Engineering at Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia.
413
Under Frequency Load Shedding (UFLS): Principles and Implementation

*Y. R. Omar, I. Z. Abidin, S. Yusof, H. Hashim, H.A. Abdul Rashid
Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Advanced Power Solution
{yaakob; izham, halimatun, hairul}@ uniten.edu.my, salleh@aps-my.com
Abstract - Under frequency load shedding is conditions which may lead to frequency decay [3].
implemented to restore power system frequency Nevertheless, an ideal load shedding program should
stability if system frequency drops below the be able to quickly recognize the generation and load
operational set point during major disturbance such imbalance, to determine accurately the degree of
as lost of generation. Different countries/utility overload and precisely shed only the correct amount
companies have their own philosophies in of load required to arrest the system frequency back
implementing the under frequency load shedding to its nominal condition [6]. This paper analyzes
scheme. Generally, it is based on country/utility frequency behavior during disturbance and the
requirements, e.g. the overall power system network application of UFLS to 56 Bus test system using
and the country’s demographic. This paper presents PSS®E software when the system is subjected to
the principles and implementation of the under major disturbance(s) based on various methods of
frequency load shedding (UFLS) and presented using load shedding schemes.
simulations of 56 test bus-system. The performance
of the developed schemes under various conditions of II. UFLS SCHEME FORMULATION
disturbance were compared and analyzed. All the
simulation works were performed using Siemens PTI In formulating a load shedding scheme several
software PSS®E. criteria have to be considered, which includes [6]:
Keyword: Under frequency load shedding; i. Power system characteristics

contingency; disturbance; electrical island In implementing under frequency relay load
shedding scheme, it is necessary for power system
I. INTRODUCTION engineers to have some knowledge on the behavior of
system frequency when load exceeds the generating
Basically, power system network generation capacity, and when the systems recovers from such
capacity should increase in proportion to the increase situation. A basic knowledge of the phenomena
of its loads. B u t , i f t h e r e a r e s udden large involved and the effect of the various parameters are
changes in the system generation capacity through sufficient.
loss of generator or key inter-tie due to line
tripping can produce severe generation-load ii. Maximum anticipated system overload
imbalance [1]. In those cases the p o we r generation
capacity decreases but the load demand remains Typically, UFLS schemes are designed to protect
constant and causes rapid system frequency decline. for maximum overload situation. It should be able to
If other generators are unable to supply the power provide coverage during a substantial generation loss.
needed, then the frequency begins to decline further. A scheme designed for a 50% - 100 % overload,
To stop further declining of system frequency, which probably would not work for 0 % - 50 % overload
may lead to total system collapse, the fastest way is situations [6]. A well behave UFLS scheme could not
temporary disconnect a portion of electrical load be designed for loss of generation beyond 33% unless
from the system known as under frequency load- load is massively shed at higher frequency to avoid
shedding. frequency from falling below the thermal generating
units operating frequency. The anticipated overload
The main objective of UFLS is to shed an (L) can be determined by the following equation [8,
appropriate amount of load for quick recovery of 10]:
system frequency to its nominal value. UFLS as a
(1)
coordinated set possible corrective actions aims at
forcing the perturbed system to new equilibrium state
[2]. It is a set of corrective actions to balance between A simple interpretation of equation (1) is that a loss
load and generation; thus, maintaining network of generation of 0.33 per unit and 0.5 per unit would
system’s frequency within nominal range. Load result 0.5 per unit and 1.0 per unit overload on
shedding steps are determined by possible (credible) remaining generations respectively.
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 414

iii. Determination of maximum load to be shed Load shedding or under-frequency relays are
usually installed at distribution stations, where
The amount of load to be shed should be predetermined loads can be disconnected. For large
sufficient enough to restore system frequency to its systems, the under frequency/load shedding relays
normal or close to its nominal value, within 1 Hz should be installed throughout the system to avoid
from the rated frequency [7]. The total amount of heavy power flows and undesirable islanding effect
load shed can be determined using the following [7]. To maintain an acceptable system power flow,
equation [8, 10]; the best possible area where load should be shed is
the area which is close to the lost source of power.
(2) Different countries/utility companies have their

own philosophies in implementing the load shedding
Where; scheme. The designing of the scheme is based on
LD – total load to be shed their requirements, the overall power system
L – per unit anticipated overload network, country’s demographic and etc. Currently,
f – Minimum permissible frequency most of the power utility companies employed a
d – Load reduction factor static off-nominal UFLS program/scheme. It is based
on predetermined system scenarios or based on
iv. Number and size of load shedding steps characteristics of particular system and the utility’s
philosophy. Tripping is done in stages/steps at
The number and size of load shedding steps predetermined amount of load or block of load until
normally related to maximum load to be shed. The decreasing frequency is arrested. Certain countries or
larger the amount of load to shed, the larger the utilities’ load-shedding scheme drop between 30% of
number and size of load shedding steps implemented. the total load demand but others drop as much as
Limiting the steps to a small number between three to 60%. Number of steps employed could be between 3
five would simplify relay coordination and the to 15 steps [4, 5].
amount to be shed could be minimized [6]. However,
some utility companies employed 8 and up to 15 III. METHODOLOGY
steps.
This paper worked on 56 bus system with 14
v. Frequency Level and relay settings synchronous generators as shown in Figure 1.0. The
system frequency is 50Hz while total generation is
The frequency steps depends on the system 2430.649 MW, and total connected active and
nominal operating frequency range, the operating reactive load are 2501.4 MW and 1485 MVAR
speed, accuracy of frequency relays and the number respectively. Total spinning reserve available is
of load shedding steps. The first step frequency 1784.351 MW. The network system is divided into 2
should be just below the system normal operating areas: Area A and Area B. These areas are connected
frequency or the frequency at which the system could through 230 kV parallel lines tie lines. Area A is a
continue to operate [6]; for example, for 50 Hz generation rich area with 1475.649 MW of
system, the first load shedding step could be initiated generation capacity and the total connected active
at 49.5 Hz. The frequency level should be selected to load is 1155 MW. In contrast, Area B is a load rich
avoid shedding for minor disturbance or sudden area with the total connected active load of 1346.4
frequency deviation due to sudden changes of loads MW and 955 MW of generation capacity.
from which the system able to recover on its own.
To observe the response of the system frequency
The determination of practical relay settings is during abnormal condition, three N-1 contingency
based on the power system operator’s expert cases were simulated:
knowledge [7]. Relay setting is required to determine
the best possible combination of number and size of • Case 1: loss of a single generator
load shedding steps and corresponding relays which • Case 2: loss of a single bus
will disconnect the required load within the specified • Case 3: loss of a single line.
frequency.
• Case 4: loss of multiple generators
• Case 5: loss of parallel tie-lines
vi. Location of the under frequency/load shedding
relays
415
Case 2 - Loss of a single bus
Area B Area A
Bus fault was simulated at every bus separately;
the most severe conditions were when bus 2550, bus
2660 and bus 2540 were disconnected from the
system. As a result, the system frequency dropped to
43.82 Hz, 46.27 Hz and 47.83 Hz respectively. It was
observed that the generator connected buses had
Bus 1520
given significant impact to the system frequency if
they were disconnected from the system.
Tie-lines Bus 2530
Figure 1: 56-bus Test System Loss of bus 2540
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

f = 47.83 Hz
A. SYSTEM BEHAVIOR
f = 46.27 Hz
Loss of bus 2660
Case 1- Loss of a single generator
Loss of bus
f = 43.82 Hz
2550
A total of 14 number of loss of a single generator
faults were simulated. Figure 3 shows the behavior of
the frequency due to loss of generation at the
Figure 4: System frequency response at bus 2901
respective buses. Table 1 illustrates that if a loss of
response due to loss of Bus 2550, Bus 2660 & Bus
generation involves a generator with bigger capacity
2540
the frequency will drop to a lower value compare to
losing a generator with low capacity. The frequency Case 3 - Loss of a single line 41
will settle after 14.96s for all cases, but to a lower
value with loss of bigger generation capacity.
Loss of a single line was simulated for all the 41
lines one at a time and system frequency response
was observed for each contingency. It was found that
f = 49.81 Hz loss of a single line did not give any significant
Loss of gen. at
f = 49.50 Hz bus 1910 impact to the frequency of the system.
Case 4- Loss of multiple generators
Loss of gen. at
f = 49.07 Hz bus 2931
Figure 5 clearly shows the impact of loss of
Loss of gen. at multiple generators to the system frequency. Loss of
bus 2910 generators at bus 1900, bus 1901 and bus 1902 with
total generations of 825 MW brought down the
Figure 3: System frequency response due to loss of system frequency to as low as 45.92 Hz, which is
generator at bus 1910, 2931 & 2910 lower than the steam turbine safe operating
frequency. Finally the frequency settled at 47.12 Hz, .
Loss of MW left Mismatch Freq Final
Generation (MW) including losses drops to Freq
(MW) (Hz) (Hz) Loss of gen 2910 - 2911
Bus 1910 2365.65 135.7511 49.81 49.91

(65MW) f = 47.20 Hz Loss of gen 2931- 2933
Bus 2931 2280.65 220.75 49.501 49.77

(150MW)
f = 47.01 Hz Loss of gen 1900 - 1902
Bus 2910 2130.65 370.75 49.066 49.58 f = 45.92 Hz
(300 MW)
Table 1: Summary of the results for Case 1 Figure 5: System frequency response due to loss of
multiple generators
416
Case 5 - Loss of parallel tie-lines equation (1), the anticipated overload L was 56 %.
This is obvious since the total generation is 825 MW.
Referring to Figure 1, area A is connected Then based on equation (2), 33 % of the total
between bus 1520 and bus 2530 through 230 kV connected load has to be shed from the system in
parallel tie-lines. Loss of these tie lines had separated order to restore back the frequency close to its
the two areas to become two separate electrical nominal rating.
islands. Consequently, frequency at area B dropped
to 41.80 Hz at 8.78s and settled at 43.82 Hz, while • 6-stage load shedding scheme
over frequency occurred at area A, frequency
increased to 51.97 Hz at 4.63s and settled at 50.65 Hz The number of steps should be between three to
at 25s as shown in Figure 6.0. five steps [6]. For this case 6-stage load shedding
scheme as shown in Table 2 was employed. Total
The responses were obvious since area A had load shed was 34% or 851.4 MW of the total
about 300 MW excess of generation while area B had connected load and distributed equally to
generation deficit of 400 MW. The available spinning predetermined bus number as shown in Table I.
reserve of area B was not really able to support area About 60% of connected load each of predetermined
B generation deficiency due to the disconnection of bus number.
those tie lines.
Step Frequency (Hz) Load Shed (%)
1 49.5 5.67
2 49.2 5.67
3 48.9 5.67
f = 51.97 Hz Freq. at bus 2530 4 48.6 5.67
5 48.3 5.67
f = 41.80 Hz 6 48.0 5.67
Total 34.0
Freq. at bus 1520
Table 2: 6-stage UFLS scheme
Figure 7 shows the improvement in system

Figure 6: System frequency response due to loss of frequency; it dropped to 48.479 Hz and recovered to
parallel tie lines 49.641 Hz at 18.017s and settled at 49.611 Hz after
25s.
B. UNDER FREQUENCY LOAD SHEDDING
(UFLS) SCHEME DESIGN
f = 49.641 Hz
The purpose of load shedding is to avoid a
After employment of 6-stage
complete system collapse due to generation-load UFLS scheme
imbalance. Further drop of frequency may endanger f = 48.479 Hz
generator unit itself; a prolonged operation at reduced
frequency may damage the steam turbines. Therefore,
the minimum frequency of load shedding step should Before employment of 6-stage
UFLS scheme
not be lower than that frequency. Based on the
analysis carried out on the frequency response to
system disturbance on IEEE 56 Bus test system
above, few selected schemes are implemented and Figure 7: System frequency response after applying
analyzed in order to find the most efficient ULFS 6-stage UFLS scheme on loss of multiple generators
scheme for the test system. contingency
i. UFLS Scheme Design 1 – loss of generator • 3-stage load shedding schemes
This design is based on loss of multiple To improve further system frequency, two of 3-
generations since it has more significant impact than stage load shedding scheme were designed and
loss of a single generator. For loss of multiple tested. This scheme applies 3-stage load shedding
generators at bus 1900, bus 1901 and bus 1902 the scheme 1 as shown in Table 3 for a start then
remaining generation was 1605.65 MW. Applying
417
followed by 3-stage load shedding scheme 2. Total
load shed in scheme 1 was 33% or 825 MW of the
total connected load. 50% of predetermined load was f = 49.955 Hz
shed for the first step and followed by 30% and 20% After employment of 3-stage
for the next two steps consecutively. UFLS scheme 2
Step Frequency (Hz) Load Shed (%)

1 49.5 16.5 f = 48.943Hz
2 49.0 9.9
3 48.5 6.6
Total 33.0 Figure 9: System frequency response after applying
of 3-stage UFLS scheme 2 on loss of multiple
Table 3: 3-stage UFLS scheme 1 generators contingency
As expected the system frequency had improved ii. UFLS Scheme Design 2 – Loss of a Single Bus
since a bigger portion of load was shed on the first
step of the scheme rather than smaller portion as For this scheme this paper only consider for the
employed in 6-stage scheme. The lowest frequency loss of bus 2055 since it contributed towards the
had increased to 48.874 Hz and recovered to 49.7 Hz lowest frequency. The 3-stage scheme as designed
at 13.025s and settled at 49.74 Hz at 25s as shown in for loss of generation was employed. The frequency
Figure 8.0. response is shown in Figure 10; the lowest frequency
was 48.926 Hz, but 50.565 Hz over frequency
occurred at 10.443s and settled at 50.020 Hz 25s
f = 49.74 Hz
f = 50.020 Hz
f = 48.874 Hz After employment of 3-stage
UFLS scheme 1
f = 48.926 Hz After employment of 3-stage
UFLS scheme
Loss of bus 2550

f = 43.82 Hz
Figure 8: System frequency response after applying
3-stage UFLS scheme 1 on loss of multiple
generators contingency Figure 10: System frequency response after applying
of 3-stage UFLS scheme on loss of bus contingency
For the second 3-stage load shedding scheme,
the total predetermined load was increased to 39% or iii. UFLS Scheme Design 3 – loss of tie-lines
990 MW of the total connected load. This was to
observe the effect of shedding more loads in Losing the parallel tie-lines caused area A to
improving system frequency. As previous 3-step experience 300 MW excess of generation while area
scheme, 50% of predetermined load was shed for the B experienced deficit of 400 MW and as mentioned
first step and followed with 30% and 20% for the earlier the available spinning reserve of area B was
next two steps consecutively. not really able to support area B generation
deficiency.
Again, as expected the system frequency was
better compared to the previous scheme. The lowest In order to recover a huge frequency drop in area
frequency further improved to 48.943Hz, but a slight B, load shedding scheme as shown in Table 4 was
over frequency occurred 50.215 Hz at 6.7048s and employed. The actual load shed was 30% or 396 MW
settled at 49.955 Hz at 25s as shown in Figure 9. of the area B total connected load.
418
Step Frequency (Hz) Load Shed (%) 02-03-SF0187), Universiti Tenaga Nasional Berhad,
1 49.5 10.0 Malaysia and Advanced Power Solutions Sdn. Bhd.
2 49.0 10.0 for the support given in this research.
3 48.5 10.0
Total 30.0 This paper is also dedicated to the late Dr.
Sallehhudin Yusof (President, Advanced Power
Table 4: 3-stage UFLS scheme Solutions Sdn. Bhd.) for his tireless effort and
tremendous help in making the research presented to
By employing the scheme, a 50.589 Hz over be more meaningful. May The Al-Mighty bless him
frequency occurred at 1.13s, which was due to the always.
impact of the disconnection of area A loads. Then
frequency dropped to 48.299 Hz, a slight over
frequency occurred, 50.202 Hz at 11.126 s and settled
at 49.970 Hz at 25s as shown in Figure 11. REFERENCES
[1] P.M Anderson; Power System Protection,

f = 49.970 Hz Protection Against Abnormal System Frequency,
p.807-847: Power Math, Associates Inc., IEEE
After employment of 3-stage PRESS, 1998.
f = 48.299 Hz UFLS scheme [2] Zin, A.A.M. Hafiz, H.M. Wong, W.K., Faculty
of Electrical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia; Static and Dynamic Under-Frequency
Load Shedding: A Comparison; PowerCon 2004.
Before employment of 3-stage
UFLS scheme
[3] Dynamics of Power System Frequency, Advanced
Power System Protection: Applications &
Performance Analysis Training, 30 June – 4 July
Figure 11: System frequency response after applying 2008.
of 3-stage UFLS scheme on loss of tie line [4] CIGRE’s WG B5.21 Report, 2007.
[5] MAAC Under-Frequency Load Shedding
Program Requirements (Document B-8); Revision
Date: June 29, 2000.
VIII. CONCLUSIONS
[6] Zoran Gajic & Daniels Karlsson, ABB; Ch
The frequency response is so much depends on Andrieu, IDEA, Per Carlsson, EnerSearch &
the nature of disturbance; hence, it is important to Nayeem Rahmat Ullah, Sumbo Okuboye, ABB,
analyze the behavior of system frequency subjected IDEA_ABB_ILS_WP15_002_09 Deliverable 1.5:
different types of disturbance that may occur in the Intelligent Load Shedding; CRISP; August 2005.
system. Every under frequency load shedding scheme [7] John Berdy, General Electric Company Electric
is has its own advantage(s) and/or disadvantage(s). Utility Engineering Operation, Schenetady, N.Y.
Based on the analysis, implementing UFLS scheme Load Shedding – An Application Guide.
with less number of stages, the system frequency [8] Dadashzadeh, M.R. Sanaye-Pasand, M.; ECE
requires much shorter time to recover. While, the Department, Tehran University, Iran; Simulation
scheme with more stages may shed a lesser amount at And Investigation of Load Shedding Algorithms
each stage but the system frequency requires longer For A Real Network Using Dynamic Modeling;
time to recover its nominal value. Nevertheless, the 39th International Universities Power Engineering
designed UFLS scheme should be able to cater Conference, 2004.
difference types of contingencies that may occur in [9] Hadi Shadaat; Power System Analysis, Second
power system in order to minimize power supply Edition, McGraw-Hill Higher Education, 2002.
interruption and maintain the reliability and stability [10] Jones, J.R. , Kirkland, W.D. ; Department of
of power system. Electrical Engineering, Alabama University,
Birmingham, AL; Computer Algorithm For
Selection of Frequency Relays For Load
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Shedding; IEEE, Computer Applications in
Power, Jan 1988
The research team would like to acknowledge the
Ministry of Science and Technology Malaysia for
research funding under eScience Research Fund (03-
419
Influence of Distributed Generations and

Renewable Energy Resources Power Plant on
Power System Transient Stability
Mohd Zamri Che Wanik and István Erlich Azah Mohamed and Azuki Abdul Salam
Department of Electrical Power System Dept. of Electrical, Electronic and System Eng
University of Duisburg Essen Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
Duisburg, Germany Bangi, Malaysia
Abstract— This paper analyzing influence of distributed With this large number penetration, some conventional
generation (DG) on transient stability of power system power plant is dismantled and the supplied power is
network operating parallel with large renewable energy replaced by DG and RES which are mostly coupled to
resources (RES) power plant. The study is performed in grid through power electronic converter (PEC). Different
hypothetical power system network envision in the future characteristic posses by these nonconventional generation
which contains a large number of DG. Network behavior creates a lot of concern on power system network stability
when subjected to disturbance is compared with different which led to transient stabilities studies [4-5,13]. In [4-5]
level of DG penetration. The results are compared with the the stability of a power system network with the
performance of the network without DG and RES power penetration of DG is analyzed. In [13] the influence of
plant as a reference case. It can be concluded that addition windfarm on transient stability is investigated in. It is
of DG and RES power plant makes power system network demonstrated these nontradional generation units
more transiently stable. This integration enhances the improves the stability of power system if they are properly
power system network capability in handling more larger sized, located and controlled.
disturbances.
In [4-5] however DG units are disconnected if the
Keywords — Transient Stability; Distributed Generation;
voltage at the point of connection goes bellow 80 % [4] or
85% [5]. This disconnection however creating another
Renewable Energy Resources; Fault Ride Through
disturbance to the network after already went through a
critical situation. If DG penetration is large as expected in
I. INTRODUCTION
future power system which is termed smart grid, there is
The need for unconventional generation units for substantial loss of active power supply inside the network
supplying electricity is clearly due to various reasons such and this strategy is feared will brings the power system
as responding to current climate change; depleting sources network to instability. In [13] the influence of different
of fossil fuel; and to overcome the threat on security, control strategy in wind farm and the influence on power
reliability, and quality of supplies due to ageing system stability is compared. In this studies even voltage
infrastructures. It is anticipated that future generation of at the point of connection reaching zero, fault ride through
electricity will be shared between central power plants, is necessary if the disturbance is less than 150 ms. With
small scale distributed generation (DG) units and large appropriate control, addition of wind farm to power
renewable energy sources (RES) power plant. In this system is shown enhances power system transient
electricity network as illustrated in Fig. 1, DG and large stability.
RES power plant will replace a proportion of electricity
presently generated by conventional power plants [1-2].
DG technologies mostly anticipated in future network is
microturbine generation system (MTGS), fuel cell
generation system (FCGS) and photovoltaic generation
system (PVGS). Wind Farm
The sharing of generation among conventional power MTGS
plant, large RES power plant and DG is in fact already FCGS
realized in many European countries. In Germany for
example, by the end of 2007, 22.2 GW of wind turbines
and 3.8 GWp of Photovoltaic systems had been installed.
Combining with other energy sources including Conventional
Power plant PVGS
hydropower and biomass plant a total of 34 GW RES has
been installed [3]. This magnitude of penetration is MTGS
MTGS
considered significant comparing to the Germany load Active
Distribution
demand of 40-80 GW. This DG and RES can constitute Network
more than 50% of the total power generation when the Figure 1. Future power system network.
weather condition is optimum.
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 420

All these studies however investigate the influence of which it is connected to. Each unit must have a capability
nonconventional generations separately where only DG is to recover voltage and remain in synchronism with the
considered in [4-5] and only large windfarm considered in power system after a disturbance. In a future grid in
[13]. There is so far lack of technical publication assessing addition to this capability, each generation unit must also
the stability of the network considering both DG has a capability to ride through a fault. This fault ride
connected to LV and large windfarm connected to HV. through (FRT) requirement is depicted in Fig. 2 for
In this paper, transient stability of the power system synchronous generator connected to HV grid. As depicted
with the large penetration of DG connected to LV levels in Fig. 2, the unit must remain connected to the grid even
operating parallel with large RES connected to HV bus is if the voltage at the point of connection reaching zero for
studied. Grid code which demands fault ride through and up to 150 ms.
at the same time providing a reactive support is Line-to-line voltage
considered. Transient stability is analyzed with different lowest value
levels of DG penetration. U/Uc of the voltage
band
II. CHARACTERISTIC OF PEC BASED DG
100%
DG coupled to electrical grid through power electronics
converter possesses different characteristics compare to
the conventional generator connected directly to the grid. 70%
The power system network that we know today is evolved
based on the synchronous generator characteristic. In
summary, conventional power system operation and 45%
control is influenced greatly by the characteristic of
synchronous generator as follow [14]:
• Magnitude of short circuit current is high due to low 15%
source impedance and no current limiting devices or
0 150 700 1.500 3.000 time in ms
control is equipped.
• Current rating is subjected to the withstand capability
point of fault
of the winding insulation to the rise of temperature.
Figure 2. FRT requirement for SM connected to HV network [6]
Short circuit current up to 10 times of the nominal
current can be tolerated for a few cycles due to For non-traditional generator which includes generation
relatively large thermal time-constant of the winding units interface to the grid through PEC, the requirements
and surrounding steel. are different and are depicted in Fig. 3 when connected to
• Real power exchange is proportional to the applied HV network and Fig. 4 if it is connected to MV voltage
torque to the rotor shaft. Power output can be made level. But the similarity is in the FRT requirement for the
proportional to the frequency by applying closed first 150 ms after the occurrence of fault. Non traditional
loop governor setting. generators must also remain connected to the grid even
when the voltage at the point of connection reaching zero
The corresponding characteristics of the power value for up to 150 ms.
electronic converter are:
Highest value of the three
• Short circuit current can be controlled and limited line-to-line grid voltage lowest value of
with the current control loops. the voltage band
U/UN limit line 1 limit line 2
• Current rating is largely determined by thermal
withstand capability of semiconductor devices. Large 100%
over currents will cause device failure due to very
range in which the disconnection
short thermal time-constant of the semiconductor
70% is only permissible by the
devices. automatic system
• Power exchange can be controlled by providing
power setpoint to the controller subjected to the 45% selective disconnetion of
converter rating. generators depending on their
condition
Huge differences in characteristics makes clear a need 15%
to perform a thorough study on power system operation
and control with the large penetration of power electronic 0 150 700 1.500 3.000 time in ms
based DG. The influence of this new generation
technology on the traditional power system therefore must point of fault
be assed to evaluate any necessary modification to be Figure 3. FRT requirements for PEC coupled generation unit connected
made to maintain the stability, security and reliability of to HV network [6].
power system.
III. GENERATOR FAULT TOLERANCE For generators coupled to grid through PEC, additional
requirements are imposed. During the FRT through, the
In a large interconnected power system network, each
generator is demanded to inject reactive current with the
generation unit must participate in maintaining the
gain of at least two as depicted in Fig. 5. This reactive
stability, security and reliability of the of power system
421
support supposed to be available within 20ms after fault is where the distribution network with DG is connected.
was detected and be added to already injected reactive Six typical distribution networks as shown in Fig. 7 are
current during steady state operation. After the voltage connected to the 110 kV busses in this area.
already returned inside the deadband range, this reactive SG
support must still be continually provided further for at SG
least 500 ms. If the voltage however rises above 110% SG2
B1 B2
SG1 100 km
after the faults is cleared, an inductive reactive current in
70 km
opposed to capacitive is demanded to reduce the grid
voltage.
380 kV
60 km
voltage limiting curve lowest value of 110 kV
voltage band 3 4
2 20 km 30 km 15.75 kV
U/Uc boundary line 1 = 90% of Uc
boundary line 2 20 km 20 km
20 km 20 km
100%
1 5
6
Below the blue line
70% there are no
requirements on Figure 6. Test power system network
generators to remain
45% grid connected A. Distributed Generation
30% DG interfaces to the grid using PEC has no direct
15% coupling between grid and DG sources. The characteristic
of this kind of DG is greatly influence by its line side
0 150 700 1.500 3.000 time in ms converter (LSC). It is therefore acceptable to represent
MTGS dynamic model introduced in [8] to represent
point of fault nontraditional DG coupled to the grid through PEC in
performing power system studies. Each MTGS as shown
Figure 4. FRT requirement for PEC coupled generation unit connected
to MV network [7]. in Fig. 8 is rated at 1.4 MVA and comprised of back to
back voltage source converter with DC circuit. LSC is
used to control reactive power and DC voltage while
required additional reactive current ΔIB/IN
maintenance of the terminal voltage of permanent magnet synchronous
voltage support in machine (PMSM) is controlled through machine side
dead (underexcited accordance with converter (MSC).
the characteristic
band mode) MTGS is model to follow the requirements of the grid
after return to the
voltage band over a code depicted in Fig. 4 and Fig. 5. For allowing MTGS
further 500 ms injecting high amount of reactive current during FRT, the
maximum allowable total current output is temporary
− 50 0 0 10 0 0 10 0 0 20 0 0 Voltage drop / rise ΔU/Un change to 1.5 p.u. of rated current. This DG technology is
voltage support shown capable in meeting these new grid code
reactive current static: requirements as demonstrate in [9].
(overexcited
k= (ΔIQ/IN)/(ΔU/UN)≥2,0p.u.
mode)
rise time < 20 ms DG1 DG DG2 DG DG3 DG
IQ_max ≥ In
− 100 0 0
T1 T2 T3
Figure 5. Demanded reactive support from PEC coupled generation unit HV Grid
1 km
1 km 1 km
In Germany, DG with rated capacities from 100 kVA up
to 10 MVA is directly connected to the MV network 1 km 1 km 1 km 1 km
110/10 kV
(10kV to 35 kV). These DG units include large PV plants,
CHP units and single or several wind turbines. For these T4 T5 T6 T7
1 km
generators grid code for medium voltage level depicted in
Fig. 4 [7] applies. For the generation unit connected to
LV, FRT and reactive support is still not required but in T1,…T12 = 10/0.4 kV
this study, the requirements as depicted in Fig. 4 and Fig.
DG DG4 DG
DG5 DG
DG6 DG
DG7
5 are assumed.
1 km 1 km 1 km 1 km
IV. POWER SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
Power system network considered is similar to the T8 T9 T10 T11 T12
network used in [4]. This network as depicted in Fig. 7
comprises two HV level 380 kV and 110 kV. There are
two conventional power plant with synchronous DG
DG8 DG
DG9 DG
DG10 DG
DG11 DG
generators (SG) connected through step up transformer to DG12

380 kV bus. SG2 in the studies is treated as a slack
generator. The area which is circled and colored in green Figure 7. Distribution network with DG
422
75 % from the nominal voltage throughout the network.
During the fault and after the fault no component inside
MSC control LSC control the network is disconnected.
UPMSM UDC Q
RSC control LSC control
P Q cos UT UDC Q
DC Link
MT PMSM
DC Link
Line
MSC Chopper LSC

Crowbar
RSC Chopper LSC
Figure 8. Layout of single shaft MTGS
B. Wind Farm UT
With installation of 22.2 GW by the end of 2007 [3] GB
and comparing to German load demand of 40-80 GW,
performing stability study without considering wind DFIG
penetration is considered unrealistic. Wind turbines
operated as a wind farm with rated capacities from 10 to Figure 10. Layout of the DFIG wind turbine
200 MW is fed directly into 110 kV level. In the studies All types of generators in responding to voltage dip at
carry out in this paper, 25 MW wind farm (refer Fig. 9) the point of connection inject lower active power because
comprises of five 5 MW DFIG wind turbine [10] is rated power cannot be transfer due to drop in voltage.
considered. This wind farm is connected to bus 3 which is Reactive power however during this time is temporarily
110kV bus. DFIG is considered as nearly all modern large increases. For SG reactive power changes during this low
wind turbines are based on this technology. Compared to voltage even is only a small portion of its rating. For
the wind turbine using PMSM interface to the grid DFIG wind farm the reactive power changes is 15 MVar.
through full size converter, this DFIG technology posses For MTGS its reactive power output rises to nearly 1.5
an advantage in usage of smaller and cheaper converter MVar. This amount is considered significant comparing to
but still possesses reactive power controllability. The its rating of 1.4 MVA. But it is already mention before
layout of DFIG wind turbine is shown in Fig. 10. during this critical time the allowable maximum current is
C C C change to 1.5 p.u of the rated value with the priority is
given to the reactive component. Active current during
this FRT is temporarily curtailed.
Voltage, Real- and Reactive Power of SG
HV Grid 400
33 kV Cable
1 km 1 km 1 km
300
1 km 1 km
110/33 kV
5 x 5 MW DFIG 200 U(kV)

P(MW)
Wind Turbines
Q(Mvar)
C C 100
Figure 9. Layout of the wind farm

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
V. SIMULATION RESULTS Time(s)
All modelings and dynamic simulations are carried out Figure 11. Response of SG to a grid fault
in simulation package Power System Dynamic software
Voltage, Real- and Reactive Power of DFIG
[11]. Synchronous generator is modeled as fifth order 40
model with the rated voltage of 15.75 kV. Typical
parameters of thermal units are used. For speed governors 30
and excitation systems, standard IEEE regulators are used.
20 U(kV)
A. Generator response to grid fault P(MW)
10
SG, DFIG wind turbine and MTGS due to different in Q(Mvar)
technology responding differently when the voltage at 0
their connection node reduce sharply due to fault in the -10
grid. Fig. 11-13 respectively depicting the response of the
SG, DFIG and MTGS when power system network in Fig. -20
0 1 2 3 4 5
6 is subjected to temporary self-clearance three phase fault Time(s)
at bus B2 for 150 ms. This fault causes the voltage dip of Figure 12. Response of DFIG wind farm to a grid fault
423
Voltage, Real- and Reactive Power of MTGS furtherly reduced. This indicates that more extreme
2 penetration of DG improves power system transient
stability.
1.5
U(kV) TABLE I.
1 P(MW) SUMMARY OF THE SIMULATED CASES
Q(Mvar)
0.5
Cases Description
0 Case 1 DG Penetration is 0 %
-0.5 Case 2 DG Penetration is 40 %

0 1 2 3 4 5
Time(s)
Case 3 DG Penetration is 80 %
Figure 13. Response of MTGS to a grid faults.
Case 4 DG Penetration is 110 %
B. Transient Stability
With different output characteristic illustrated in
previous subsection, transient stability of the power
system is a main concern. Transient stability is the ability Change in the power angle (degree)
of the synchronous generator in interconnected power 30
system network to remain in synchronism after been Case 1
subjected to a disturbance [12]. In broadest sense, it is Case 2
20
capability of a power system to survive a variety of Case 3
disturbances in the system and have the generation and Case 4
load return to a balance condition. It is also referred to 10
first swing stability. Initial operating condition of the
system, as well as the type, severity of the location will
0
affect this transient stability. Most widely used method in
assessing transient stability is time domain simulation
method which is adopted in this study. The excursion of -10
power angle between synchronous generators is used to
evaluate the stability.
-20
0 1 2 3 4 5
C. Transient Stability with DG Time(s)
To access the transient stability a few cases is
investigated. In the first simulation setup, no wind farm is Figure 14. Change of power angle against DG penetration
considered. The base case is the power system with
conventional generator only (case 1). Case 2 considering
maximum penetration by DG without many changes D. Transient Stability with DG and RES
necessary on the existing infrastructures and control In the second simulation setup, 25 MW wind farm is
devices inside network. DG penetration in this case 2 is added to the power system network. For the base case
40 %. In a future power system network under smart grid, again the power system network only fed by conventional
distribution network is expected to be an active network generator is simulated as case 1. Power system with wind
where it is not only importing active power but also farm but without DG is considered in case 2. In case 3
exporting active power when required. This requires power system is fed by conventional synchronous
penetration of larger than 40 % of DG. This amount of generator and wind farm with 40 % penetration level of
penetration making it possible to operated the whole DG. Penetration of DG of 110 % is simulated in case 4.
distribution network as a cell or some portion of the All simulated cases are summarized in Table II.
network as a microgrid which are two concept of DG
control under smart grid concept. This envisions operation TABLE II.
is considered under case 3 and case 4 with 80 % and SUMMARY OF THE SIMULATED CASES
110 % respectively. Summary of the cases simulated is
tabulated in Table I. Cases Description
Fig. 14 depicting the change of the power angle of SG1
Case 1 No Wind farm and no DG
in respect to SG2 following 150 ms self temporary fault
which occurs at bus B2. As desired by new grid code
Case 2 25 MW Wind farm with 0 % DG
requirements there are no parts of the networks are
disconnected during the fault. From the observation of the
Case 3 25 MW Wind Farm with 40 % DG
first swing, addition of DG units reduces the magnitude of
the maximum angle deviation. This reduction is seemed
Case 4 25 MW Wind Farm with 110 % DG
proportional with the penetration level and also consistent
with the result presented in [4-5] but [4-5] only performed
stability studies with the maximum DG penetration of
40 % only. With larger penetration simulated of which From the observation of the first swing in Fig. 15,
80 % and 110 %, the maximum rotor angle deviation is addition of wind farm and DG units reduces the
424
magnitude of the maximum angle deviation. This improved power system transient stability. It can be
reduction in power angle is proportional with the concluded that sharing generation between conventional
penetration level of DG. This indicates that combination power plants with a large RES power plant and small
of DG and wind farm furtherly improves the power scale DG units improves power system transient stability
system transient stability. and enhances the network’s capability in handling larger
Change in the power angle (degree) disturbances. Extended research works is at the same time
30 is carried out to asses different type of power system
Case 1 stabilities such as small signal stability, frequency stability
20 Case 2 and voltage stability.
Case 3 VII. REFERENCE
Case 4
10 [1] European Commission, "European SmartGrids technology
platform: vision and strategy for Europe’s electricity networks of
the future, " 2006, [online]
0 http://www.smartgrids.eu/documents/vision.pdf
[2] Grid 2030 – A national vision for electricity’s second 100 years.
[Online].
-10 http://www.ferc.gov/EvenCalendar/Files/20050608125055- grid-
2030.pdf
[3] M. Braun, G. Arnold and H. Laukamp, Plugging into the Zeitgeist,
-20 IEEE power and Energy, Vol. 7, No. 3, May/June 2009.
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time(s) [4] A. M. Azmy and I. Erlich, ‘‘Impact of distributed generation on
the stability of electrical power systems,’’ in Proc. 2005 IEEE
Figure 15. Change of power angle against DG penetration considering PES General Meeting, vol. 2, pp. 1056-1063.
wind farm. [5] M. Reza, P. H. Schavemaker, J.G. Slootweg, W.L. Kling, and L.
van der Sluis, ‘‘Impacts of distributed generation penetration
E. Comparing Transient Stability with and without wind levels on power systems transient stability,’’ in Proc. 2004 Power
Engineering Society General Meeting, pp. 2150 – 2155.
farm
[6] E.ON Netz GmbH, Byayreuth, Grid Code, High and Extra high
It is of interest to know to what extend the influence of voltage, [Available online] http://www.eon-
wind farm on the power system network in handling netz.com/Ressources/downloads/ENENARHS2006eng.pdf
disturbance. In Fig. 16 the deviation of power angle is [7] Technische richtlinie erzeugungsanlagen am mittelspannungsnetz,
compared for the same DG penetration level. Observation BDEW Standard. [online]. Available :
on the first swing clearly indicate power system network http://www.energiedienst.de
/site/DE/netze/img/Pdf_02_netzanschluss/Technische_Richtlinien/
is more transiently stable with combination of wind farm BDEW_RL_EA-am-MS-Netz_Juni_2008.pdf
and DG in opposed to only DG. Network is evident to [8] M. Z. C. Wanik and I. Erlich, ‘‘Dynamic simulation of
have more capability in withstanding more larger microturbine distributed generators interconnected into multi-
disturbance. machines power system network,’’ in Proc. 2008 IEEE
Change in the power angle (degree) International Conference on Power and Energy, pp. 1545-1550.
15 [9] M. Z.C. Wanik and I. Erlich, "Simulation of microturbine
DG 110%, no wind farm generation system performance during grid fault under new grid
DG 110%, 25 MW wind farm code requirements," in Proc. of 2009 IEEE PES Powertech,
10
Bucharest.
[10] I. Erlich, J. Kretschmann, S. Mueller-Engelhardt, F. Koch and
5 J.Fortmann "Modeling of wind turbine based on doubly-fed
Induction generators for power system stability studies,“ ’’ in
Proc. 2008 Power Engineering Society General Meeting, pp. 2150
0 – 2155.
[11] I. Erlich, ‘‘Analyse und simulation des dynamischen verhaltens
-5 von elektroenergiesystem (Analysis and Simulation of the
Dynamic behaviour of Electrical Power Systems),’’ (in German)
Habilitation Thesis, Dept. Elect. Eng., Tech. Univ. Dresden,
-10 Dresden, Germany, 1995.
0 1 2 3 4 5 [12] P. Kundur, Power System Stability and Control, New York, NY,
Time(s) McGraw-Hill, Inc. 1994.
[13] F.Shewarega, I. Erlich and J. L. Rueda, Impact of large offshore
Figure 16. Change of power angle for the same DG penetration with wind farms on power system transient stability, in Proc. 2009
and without wind farm. IEEE PES Power System Conference & Exposition, Seattle, USA,
pp:1-8.
[14] T. C. Green and M. Prodanovic, "Control of inerter-based micro-
VI. CONCLUSION grid, " Electrical Power System Research, 77, pp: 1204-1213,
In this paper, stability of hypothetical power system 2007
network has been studied and analyzed through digital
simulation. In the first simulation setup, only DG
penetration is considered. The power system is found
more transiently stable with increasing penetration of DG.
In the second simulation setup, transient stability is assed
with different level of DG penetration but this time with
the consideration of wind farm connected to HV level.
The mix of RES power plant and DG is found further
425
Transient Stability Emergency Control of Power

Systems Employing UFLS Combined with
Generator Tripping Method
Noor Izzri Abdul Wahab* and Azah Mohamed**
*Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang Selangor, Malaysia. Email: izzri@eng.upm.edu.my
**Department of Electrical, Electronic and Systems Engineering
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi Selangor, Malaysia. Email: azah@eng.ukm.my
Abstract — This paper concerns with transient corrective measures can be taken for preventing
stability control which is part of transient stability deterioration in service quality.
assessment which needs to be considered so that the Ref. [3] presented a systematic study of automatic
power systems remained intact when failures UFLS system employed in electrical power system. The
originating from faults occurred in power systems. study showed that the UFLS method can clearly define
Conventional UFLS system is designed to retrieve the the system frequency and loads to be shed. Generally,
balance of generation and consumption following UFLS strategies can be implemented based on static and
disturbances occurrences in the system. In UFLS dynamic studies [4]. Comparing the static and dynamic
method, whenever the system’s frequency drops below UFLS strategies, it is noted that the dynamic scheme
a predetermined value, the system loads are shed in appears to give better frequency recovery. Ref. [5]
stages. An efficient UFLS method needs to be devised proposed a fast and accurate UFLS scheme by using
so as to reduce the impacts of transient disturbance on genetic algorithm to solve the steady state load shedding
power systems and prevent total system blackout. In optimization problem. Ref. [6] developed a procedure to
this paper, an emergency control scheme known as the perform UFLS scheme considering probabilistic outages
combined UFLS and generator tripping is developed of various generators. The study provided power system
in order to stabilize the system when unstable faults performance under the UFLS scheme. In ref. [7], an
occurred in a power system. The performance of the adaptive minimum UFLS scheme based on ANN was
combined UFLS and generator tripping scheme is designed for an industrial cogeneration facility. It is noted
compared with the conventional UFLS control that the ANN based UFLS gives a more effective load
scheme. The results show that the combined control shedding to maintain system stability. In a more recent
scheme performed better. study, a centralized load shedding scheme was proposed
[1], in which such a scheme was found to be more
Keywords — transient stability control, under efficient than the conventional UFLS scheme.
frequency load shedding, generator tripping From the literature review, it can be concluded that
UFLS remains to be an important control strategy for
I. INTRODUCTION mitigating transient instabilities. In this work, UFLS
Transient stability emergency control which is part of combined with generator tripping are considered as a
transient stability assessment (TSA) needs to be transient stability control strategy. The advantage of
considered so that the cascading failures originating from employing the combined UFLS and generator tripping is
faults in power systems which would lead to blackout can that reduced amount of load needs to be shed due to the
be blocked. One of the transient stability control fact that by tripping a generator the loads in a power
strategies is by means of under frequency load shedding system are not affected. Results comparing the
(UFLS). Conventional UFLS system is designed to conventional UFLS and the UFLS combined with
retrieve the balance of generation and consumption generator tripping control method are illustrated.
following disturbances occurrences in the system [1]. In
II. UNDERFREQUENCY LOAD SHEDDING CONCEPT
UFLS method, whenever the system’s frequency drops
below a predetermined value, the system loads are shed UFLS is defined as a coordinated set of controls which
in stages. At present, the emergency control actions used results in a decrease of electrical loads in a power system
for transient stability control of power systems are such [4]. An UFLS system is designed to retrieve the balance
as excitation control, generator tripping, fast valving, fast of generation and demand following a severe disturbance
fault clearing time, dynamic braking and load shedding [1]. In this way, whenever the frequency of a system falls
[2]. Thus, power system transient stability control plays below its predetermined threshold, some parts of the
an important role in transient stability studies so that system loads are shed in a few steps after an intentional
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 426

time delay. The relationship that shows the variation of A. Design Of Under Frequency Load Shedding Scheme
frequency with time, following a sudden variation in load
The steps involved in designing an UFLS scheme are
and/or generation is derived by first considering,
described as follows:
i) Determine the anticipated overload which is an
GH d 2δ important parameter to represent the protection to be
= Pa (1)
π f 0 dt 2 provided and the amount of service that will be
where, disrupted in the event of overload. The calculation of
G : nominal MVA of generator the anticipated overload (L) in per unit is given by,
H : inertia constant
δ : generator rotor angle Total Load - Total Generation
L= (7)
f0 : nominal frequency Total Generation
Pa : net accelerated or decelerated power
From equation (7), if a system is balanced there will
Consider the generator speed variation due to a be no anticipated overload. However, a loss of 33%
disturbance which is given by, of total generation due to a fault occurring in a
system will lead to 50% overload and a loss of 50%
dδ of the total generation will lead to 100% overload.
ω = ω0 + = 2πf (2) The value of the anticipated overload greater than
dt
50% is not recommended due to possible over load
shedding for less severe unstable faults [1].
where ω0 is the synchronous speed
ii) Determine the number of load shedding steps. A
typical load shedding scheme will consider three to
Differentiating equation (2) with respect to time,
six stages. The UFLS scheme implemented in this
work utilizes 4 stages of load shedding considering
d ω d 2δ df 20%, 20%, 30% and 30% of the total load to be shed.
= 2 = 2π (3)
dt dt dt The duration between consequence load shedding
stages is between 2 to 3 cycles [1].
Substituting equation (3) in equation (1), we get iii) Determine the amount of load to be shed in order to
maintain the system’s frequency above its minimum
df P f permissible frequency. The total load to be shed in
= a 0 (4) per unit is given by [1],
dt 2GH
L
− d (1 − f min f n )
Equation (4) defines the rate of change of frequency in (1 + L)
LD = (8)
Hz, which can be used for an individual generator or for 1 − d (1 − f min f n )
an equivalent which represents the total generation in a where,
system. For equivalent case, the inertia constant (H) can L : anticipated overload in p.u.
be derived from the following, fmin : minimum permissible frequency
fn : nominal frequency
H1 MVA1 + H 2 MVA2 + ... + H n MVAn (5) d : load reduction factor
H=
MVA1 + MVA2 + ... + MVAn iv) Determine the load buses where loads are to be shed.
The total load to be shed calculated in (iii) is selected
where n is the number of generators in a power system. from the load buses whose voltages are severely
The accelerating power, Pa, in equation (4) is affected by an unstable fault occurring in a power
responsible for the rate of change of frequency due to system. The voltage in the area where an unstable
disturbances in a power system. The derivation for Pa can fault occurs will decline faster than other areas in a
be rewritten as, power system. Thus, loads that are located near to
the fault location in a particular area will be the most
Pa = Pm - Pe (6) affected load compared to loads located far from the
where, fault location [8].
Pm : mechanical power entering the generator
Pe : electrical power leaving the generator B. UFLS Scheme Implementation Procedure
The procedures for implementing an UFLS scheme are
A power system is said to be stable when Pa equals to described as follows:
zero which means that there is no change in the i) Calculate the amount of load to be shed, LD, using
frequency. In the case of overload, when Pe > Pm , equation (8).
which would result in Pa < 0 , then there will be a drop ii) Run dynamic simulations of a power system by
in the power system frequency. considering various contingencies. In this work, three
phase faults occurring at each line in a power system
427
are considered. Identify the unstable cases by using r
1
the area based COI referred rotor angle index [9].
iii) For the unstable cases, rank the loads in the system
δcoi =
MT ∑M j δ j (9)
j=1
according to the severity of the voltage decline at the r
load buses due to a fault. The total load to be shed
(LD) is then calculated.
in which, MT = ∑M j ,
j=1
iv) From the ranking of loads in (iii), divide the total where,
load to be shed in 4 stages of load shedding of 20%, MT : total inertia in a system
20%, 30% and 30%. The first stage of the UFLS Mj : j-th inertia in an area
scheme would be implemented at the loads most
affected by the voltage decline and the subsequent δj : area equivalent rotor angle
stages are the less affected loads. r : total number of areas in the power system
v) Run the dynamic simulation again for the unstable
cases only but this time with the UFLS control The individual rotor angle of a generator in the weakest
scheme. In the initial UFLS scheme, shed the first area, k, expressed in the COI frame can be defined as,
stage UFLS at a fault clearing time which is set at
100 ms. Monitor the area-based COI-referred rotor δ coi = δ k - δ coi (10)
k
angle index in order to verify whether the power
where,
system manages to recover to a stable state after
performing the first stage load shedding. If the δk : individual generator’s rotor angle in the weakest
system becomes stable after the first load shedding, area
then stop the UFLS control. However, if the system
is still not stable, then continue with the subsequent By this definition, the generator in the weakest area to
second, third and fourth stage of load shedding. be tripped would be the first generator to go out of step
with its individual COI-referred rotor angle exceeds the
III. UFLS COMBINED WITH GENERATOR TRIPPING ±1800.
SCHEME The procedures involved in identifying the generator to
be tripped are given as follows:
Generator tripping is considered as an effective method
i) Run time domain simulations by considering three
of transient stability control. In this work, generator
phase faults as contingencies and obtain the rotor
tripping and UFLS scheme is combined to provide
angles responses.
transient stability control of power systems. By
ii) Calculate and plot the area based COI referred rotor
employing UFLS alone as a form of transient stability
angle indices for all the areas in the system.
control, the loss of loads in a power system will be
iii) Identify the weakest area based on the curves of the
greater than when it is combined with generator tripping.
area based COI referred rotor angle index that goes
This is because generator tripping does not cause loss of
out of step (exceeds ±1800).
load in a power system but a reduction in the system total
iv) Calculate the individual COI-referred rotor angle for
inertia which may reduce the effect of a fault. In the
each generator in the weakest area using,
proposed combined method for transient stability control,
the priority is to first trip a generator and then followed δ coi = δ k - δ coi .
k
by the UFLS scheme if needed when an unstable
v) Rank the generators in the weakest area based on the
condition still prevails.
generators’ individual COI-referred rotor angles that
In generator tripping, the most important step is to
identify which generators are to be tripped in order to goes out of step (exceeds ±1800) the earliest.
reduce the effect of instability in a power system [10]. vi) Trip the highest ranking generator identified in (v)
The area-based COI-referred rotor angle index [9] is for the proposed generator tripping scheme.
used to identify the weakest area in a power system due
A. Implementation Procedure of Combined UFLS with
to an unstable fault. The identified weakest area consists
Generator Tripping
of a group of generators located in that area. In order to
identify the generator to be tripped in the weakest area, The implementation procedures for UFLS combined with
individual COI-referred rotor angles for each generator generator tripping for transient stability control are given
needs to be calculated. Thus, by employing the area- as follows:
i) Run time domain simulation for the contingency that
based COI-referred rotor angle index, the weakest area is
causes instability in a power system. From the
identified and by using the individual COI-referred rotor
simulations, obtain the rotor angles and all the
angle for each generator in the weakest area, the first
generator that goes out of step (rotor angle exceeds frequency responses of the generator buses.
±1800) is identified. ii) Implement generator tripping. If the system still
In order to determine the generator that goes out of step remains unstable after generator tripping, implement
the UFLS scheme.
due to an unstable fault, the COI of a system is
iii) For the generator tripping part, rank the generators
formulated as [9],
and identify the weakest area in the system using the
428
area-based COI-referred rotor angle indices.
Determine the generator to be tripped based on the
individual COI-referred rotor angle.
iv) Trip the generator identified in (iii) at a fault clearing
time which is set at 100ms. Monitor the area based
COI referred rotor angle indices to determine
whether the power system manages to recover to a
stable state after performing the generator tripping. If
the system is stable after the generator is tripped,
then stop the combined control scheme. However, if
the system is still unstable, then proceed with the
UFLS (Section II. B).
IV. METHODOLOGY
The IEEE 39-bus system has been used in validating
the proposed combined load shedding and generator
tripping method. The test system as shown in Figure 1
consists of 10 generators, 12 transformer, 46 transmission Figure 1. The IEEE 39-bus System
lines and 19 loads. The system is divided into three areas;
which are Area 1, Area 2 and Area 3 [11]. The load flow
and dynamic data of the test system were obtained from V. RESULTS
ref. [12]. The areas of the test system are divided Simulations were carried out using the PSSTME
according to coherency of generators when subjected to software and the output results were plotted using the
disturbances. Time domain simulation method is used in MATLAB program. The time taken to run the transient
this work to assess the transient stability of the large stability simulations is set at 10 seconds considering that
practical power system because it is the most reliable, it is a small power system. The results of the combined
mature and accurate method compared to other method. control scheme are compared with the results of the
The differential equations to be solved in transient conventional UFLS scheme. For UFLS, the total load to
stability analysis are nonlinear ordinary equations with be shed (LD) for the 39-bus system is 0.32 p.u. or 2131.3
known initial values. For this purpose the PSSTME MVA and four stages of UFLS are implemented at 20%,
software is used. 20%, 30% and 30% of the total load with shed load
In this work, the dynamic performance of the system values of 426.3 MVA, 426.3 MVA, 639.4 MVA and
during disturbances is based on observation of the rotor 639.4 MVA, respectively.
angle of generators in their respective areas via a time Case 1 – A three-phase line fault is created at line 4 in
domain simulation method. Three-phase faults are the system. After 100 ms, the fault is cleared followed
created at various locations in the systems at any one with the disconnection of line 4. Figure 2 shows the plot
time. When a three-phase fault occur at any line in the of the area-based COI-referred rotor angle index of the
system, a breaker will operate and the respective line will test system.
be disconnected at the fault clearing time (FCT) which is 6000
Area-based COI-referred Rotor Angles Index
set at 100 ms. According to ref. [13], if the relative rotor Area 1
Area 2
angles remain stable after a fault is cleared, it implies that Area 3
the power system is stable but if the relative angles go out

5000
of step after a fault is cleared, it means that the system is

unstable. The time step, ∆t, for the time domain 4000
rotor angle (degrees)
simulations is set at 0.02 seconds. The time frame of

interest in transient stability studies is usually limited to 3 3000
to 5 seconds following the disturbance; it may be

extended to 10 seconds for very large systems with 2000
dominant inter-area swings [14]. All the rotor angles data

collected from all the contingencies are then applied to
1000
the area-based COI-referred rotor angle index. The index
are then plotted to illustrate the severity of the
contingencies on the power system. 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
The combined control method results are compared

Time(sec)
with the results of the conventional UFLS scheme. The Figure 2. All area rotor angles go out of step due to the fault at line 4
performance of both control schemes in maintaining the
stability of the system are illustrated using the area-based From the plot, it can be seen that the rotor angles of
COI-referred rotor angle index. each area goes out of step after the fault is cleared and the
system becomes unstable. Due to the fault, the system’s
frequency declines.
429
The conventional UFLS control scheme and the (a)UFLS Scheme
combined control scheme is applied separately to the Area 1
80
system. For this case, 3 stages of the UFLS are required Area 2

for the system to remain stable after the fault is cleared. 60
Area 3
As for when employing the combined control scheme, 40

before the proposed method is employed, the generator to
be tripped is first identified using the individual COI- 20
referred rotor angle method. Since, the fault is located at 0

Area 1, therefore the individual rotor angle of generators 0 1 2 3 4 5
Time(t)
6 7 8 9 10
in Area 1 are plotted as shown in Figure 3. From the plot, (b)Combined UFLS with Generator Tripping Scheme
the generator located at Bus 37 is chosen as the generator 40
to be tripped since it is the first generator to exceed 1800.

Area 1
Area 2
rotor angle (degrees )

30
For Case 1, 3 stages of the combined control scheme are Area 3
required for the system to maintain its stability after the 20

fault is cleared.
Figure 4 shows that due to the application of both the 10
conventional UFLS scheme and the combined control

0
scheme, the system remains stable after the fault is 0 1 2 3 4 5
Time(t)
6 7 8 9 10
cleared. From the figure, it can be seen that the rotor

angles swing in the beginning but after sometime the Figure 4. The system remains stable after applying both schemes
swings subside and the system recovers to its stable state.
The average frequency of the system remained at 60 Hz Case 2 - A three-phase fault is created at the
when both control schemes are applied. transmission line connecting bus 13 and bus 14 (Line 18)
The combined UFLS and generator tripping control in Area 2. After 100 ms, the fault is cleared while Line 18
scheme gives better performance compared to the is disconnected. Figure 5 shows the plot of the area-based
conventional UFLS control scheme in terms of amount of COI-referred index which indicates that the system
load shed and the angle deviation. The amount of load becomes unstable after the fault is cleared. Due to the
shed is 981.9 MVA when the combined control scheme is fault, the system’s frequency deteriorates.
employed whereas 1675.5 MVA load needs to be shed Area-based COI-referred Rotor Angles Index
when the conventional UFLS scheme is employed. 10000

Area 1
Area 2
Comparing Figures 5(a) and (b), the maximum angle Area 3
deviation for the affected Area 1 is 800 for the 8000
conventional UFLS and 380 for the combined scheme

(showed by dashed arrows) which means that lower stress 6000
is exerted from the system to the generators in Area 1

when the combined scheme is employed to allow the 4000
system to recover to its stable state.

2000
Individual COI-referred Rotor Angle of Generators in Area 1

300
Bus 30 (G1) 0
Bus 38 (G2)
Bus 37 (G3)
250
-2000
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
200 Time(sec)
line, y = 180 degrees
Figure 5. The system becomes unstable due to the fault at Line 18

150
The conventional UFLS control scheme and the

combined control scheme is applied separately to the
100
system in order to prevent the system from becoming
unstable after the fault is cleared. For this case, 2 stages
50
of the UFLS are required for the system to remain stable
because the rotor angles do not go out of step, thus
0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6
indicating that the system is stable. As for when
Time(sec) employing the combined control scheme, before the
Figure 3. Individual COI-referred rotor angle of generators in Area 1
proposed method is employed, the generator to be tripped
is first identified using the individual COI-referred rotor
angle method. Since, the fault is located at Area 2,
therefore the individual rotor angle of generators in Area
2 are plotted as shown in Figure 6. From the plot, the
generator at Bus 34 (G7) is chosen as the generator to be
430
tripped; since it is the first generator to go out of step. For CONCLUSION
Case 2, 2 stages of the combined control scheme are
This paper presents an improved TSC method known as
required for the system to maintain its stability after the
the combined UFLS and generator tripping scheme. It is
fault is cleared.
known that UFLS remains to be an important control
Figure 7 shows the plot of the area-based COI-referred
strategy for mitigating transient instabilities. However,
rotor angle index of the system when the conventional
the main concern of UFLS is to determine the amount of
UFLS and combined control schemes are applied. From
load that needs to be shed in order to bring back the
Figure 10, it is noted that the subsequent angle swings of
system to its stable state. The amount of shed load is
the COI-referred rotor angles are lower than the initial
greater when severe faults occur in a power system. The
angle swings for all areas. The average frequency of the
proposed method has attempted to reduce the amount of
system remained at 60 Hz when both control schemes are
load shed in which slight changes are made in the stages
applied.
of the conventional UFLS by including generator tripping
Comparing the performance of both control schemes,
in the first stage. The performance of the combined
the amount of load shed is 430 MVA when the combined
control scheme is compared with the conventional UFLS
control scheme is employed whereas 980.9 MVA load
scheme and it is noted that less load is shed when the
needs to be shed when the conventional UFLS scheme is
proposed method is employed compared to the
employed. In terms of maximum angle deviation, for the
conventional UFLS. The results also show that the angle
conventional UFLS, the maximum angle deviation for the
deviation of the affected area in the power systems is
affected Area 2 is 390 and 320 (showed by dashed arrows
lower and more subtle when the combined UFLS and
in Figure 7) for the proposed combined control scheme.
generator tripping scheme is applied which indicates that
This means that lower stress is induced for the generators
lower stress are exerted on the generators.
in Area 2 when the proposed control scheme is employed.
500
Individual COI-referred Rotor Angle for Area 2
REFERENCES
Bus 31(G4)
400
Bus 32(G5) [1] Seyedi, H., & Sanaye-Pasand, M. 2009. New centralised adaptive
Bus 33(G6)
Bus 34(G7)
load-shedding algorithms to mitigate power system blackouts. IET
300
Bus 35(G8) Generation, Transmission & Distribution, 3(1): 99 - 114
Bus 36(G9)
[2] Yu, Z., Zhou, X. & Wu, Z. 2006. Design of a fast transient
200
stability control scheme in power system. IEEE Power
line, y = 180 degrees
Engineering Society General Meeting, 6: 8 pp.
rotor angle (degrees )
100
[3] Perumal, N. & Amran, A.C. 2003. Automatic load shedding in
power system. Proc. of National Power Engineering Conference,
0
12: 211 – 216.
[4] Zin, A.A.M., Hafiz, H.M. & Wong, W.K. 2004. Static and
-100
dynamic under-frequency load shedding: a comparison.
International Conference on Power System Technology, 1: 941 –
-200 945.
[5] Sanaye-Pasand, M. & Davarpanah, M. 2005. A new adaptive
-300 multidimensional load shedding scheme using genetic algorithm.
IEEE proceeding of the CCECE/CCGEI, 1974-1977.
-400 [6] Shrestha, G. B. & Lee, K. C. 2005. Load shedding schedules
0 1 2 3
Time(sec)
4 5 6
considering probabilistic outages. Proceeding of the 7th
International IEEE Power Engineering Conference, 2: 950-955.
Figure 6. Individual COI-referred rotor angle of generators in Area 2 [7] Hsu, C.-T., Chuang, H.-J. & Chen, C.-S. 2008. Artificial Neural
Network Based Adaptive Load Shedding for an Industrial
Cogeneration Facility. IEEE Industry Applications Society Annual
(a)UFLS Scheme Meeting, 8: 1 – 8.
40
Area 1
[8] Prasetijo, D., Lachs, W.R. & Sutanto, D. 1994. A new load
35 Area 2 shedding scheme for limiting underfrequency. IEEE Transactions
30
Area 3 on Power Systems, 9(3): 1371 – 1378.
[9] A. W. Noor Izzri, Azah Mohamed. 2008. Area-Based COI-
25
Referred Transient Stability Index for Large-Scale Power System.
20 International Journal of Power, Energy and Artificial Intelligence,
15 1(1): 1 – 7.
[10] Karady, G.G. & Gu, J. 2002. A hybrid method for generator
10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 tripping. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, 17(4): 1102 –
Time(t) 1107.
(b)Combined UFLS with Generator Tripping Scheme [11] Yusof, S.B., Rogers, G.J. & Alden, R.T.H. 1993. Slow coherency
35
based network partitioning including load buses. IEEE
Area 1
30 Area 2 Transactions on Power Systems, 8(3): 1375 – 1382.
Area 3 [12] Pai, M. A. 1989. Energy function analysis for power system
25 stability. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
[13] Anderson, P. & Fouad, A. 2003. Power system Control and
20
Stability. Second Edition. Singapore: McGraw Hill.
15 [14] Kundur, P. 2007. Power System Stability. In. Grigsby, L. G. (ed.).
Power System Stability and Control, pp. 7-1 – 7-10. New York:
10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 CRC Press.
Time(t)
Figure 7. The system remains stable when both schemes are applied
431
On Comparing the performance of Voltage Source

Converters based D-STATCOM for Voltage Sag
Mitigation
Kanagaraj Pillay1, Mohamed S.A. Dahidah1 and Norman B. Mariun2
1
Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering, The University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus
Semenyih, 43500, Malaysia
kanagaraj_18@yahoo.com, mohamed.dahidah@nottigham.edu.my
2
Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia
Serdang, 43500, Malaysia
norman@eng.upm.edu.my
Abstract—This paper studies the utilization of PWM voltage The disadvantages posted by the traditional compensators
source converters in Distribution Static Synchronous have called upon a new device which can perform the same
Compensator (D-STATCOM) for voltage sag mitigation. Three function with minimal drawbacks. This contributes to the
different voltage source converter topologies based D- development of STATCOM. The STATCOM functions as a
STATCOM; namely the two level, three level neutral point synchronous voltage source which provides reactive power
clamped and the three level flying capacitor are investigated and compensation without the dependence on the AC system
compared. The comparison is drawn based on harmonic profile, voltage [2]. Fig. 1 illustrates the voltage-current characteristic
response time and the steady state time of the poinf of common of STATCOM and SVC, where it can be obviously noticed that
coupling voltage for different VSCs based D-STATCOM. The
the STATCOM has a better voltage-current characteristic as
investigation is carried out using MATLAB-SIMULINK Power
System Blockset for different operating points and a comparison
opposed to SVC [3].
between the different topologies is provided.
Keywords – D-STATCOM, pwm voltage source converter,
voltage sag mitigation.
I. INTRODUCTION
The development of new high power semiconductors
devices such as insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBTs) and
integrated gate commutated thyristors (IGCTs) has improved
converters design and also the introduction of multilevel
concept that have led to drastic increase of the market share of
PWM controlled voltage source converter (VSC) [1]. The Fig. 1. Voltage-current characteristic of a) static VAR compensator and b)
PWM-VSC is very popular and attractive in high power and static synchronous compensator
utility applications. The PWM-VSC is slowly replacing the
traditional thyristor based VSC in many high power This characteristic shows the ability of STATCOM to
applications. supply a wider range of reactive power at low system voltage.
The STATCOM is a shunt connected compensator Furthermore, the STATCOM has a faster response and better
designed to electronically emulate reactive loads both inductive control stability. On the other hand the STATCOM is also
and capacitive. The name arises from the fact that it is an smaller in size compared to the SVC for the same power
electronic version of the traditional rotating compensator which ratings. The STATCOM with PWM controlled voltage source
was implemented using synchronous machine with field converter introduces less total harmonic distortion which
excitation control. Before the STATCOM was introduced, makes it more reliable for voltage and reactive power
voltage and reactive power compensations in transmission line compensations.
were achieved with the use of thyristor controlled reactor
The development of inverters or VSCs has extended the
(TCR), thyristor switched capacitor (TSC) or static VAR
compensator (SVC). These compensators have fast response use of power electronics in AC power system. Traditional
time but their reactive power output is dependent to the AC two-level thyristor based VSCs however introduce harmonics
system voltage [2]. Furthermore, the use of naturally which has deregulated the power systems [4]-[5]. To reduce
commutated thyristor valves in these compensators often the effect of harmonics, the PWM based VSC was introduced.
injects significant amount of undesirable harmonics into the The PWM-VSC replaced the thyristor based VSC in many
AC system. applications. The development of multilevel PWM-VSC
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 432

further increased the use of VSCs as it is able to operate in turn-on and turn-off capabilities [10]. Hence the three level
high voltages with minimum harmonic distortion [6]-[8]. The NPC-VSC was of particular interest for medium voltage
implementation of PWM-VSC in STATCOM application has applications [10].
contributed to reduction in harmonic distortion and a faster This circuit topology has many advantages compared to the
response time [9]. two level VSC. For the same dc-link voltage, the NPC-VSC
The objective of this paper is to investigate and compare can produce higher average output voltage. Due to the
the performance of different topologies of VSCs based D- arrangement and switching pattern of the three level NPC-
STATCOM systems for voltage sag mitigation. A D- VSC, the output line to line voltage produced has less
STATCOM on a 33kV distribution network is developed harmonic distortion compared to the conventional two level
using MATLAB-SIMULINK software package. Different VSC. The line to line voltage produced by the NPC-VSC
VSC topologies are studied and applied as the building block appears to be almost sinusoidal as the number of levels of the
of the D-STATCOM system and the performance in the light VSC is increased. However, on the other hand, as the number
of various aspects is compared. of levels increases there is a difficulty to maintain the DC
capacitor voltage which makes this topology unattractive
II. VOLTAGE SOURCE CONVERTER TOPOLOGIES beyond three-level.
A. Two-Level Six-Pulse Converter
Fig. 2 illustrates the circuit arrangement of conventional
two-level voltage source converter which consists of a dc-link
capacitor and six power semiconductor switches. The energy
stored in the dc-link capacitor is released and converted into
three phase supply which is later delivered to the load. To
convert the DC supply into a set of three phase supply, the
PWM swithcing scheme is used to generate switching signals
to control the semiconductor switches. The well-known
IGBTs are usually used to imlement PWM inverters as it is
able to operate in high frequency for high power applications.
Fig. 3. Three Level NPC Voltage Source Converter
C. Three Level Flying Capacitor Converter

The three level FC topology is the final topology examined
for the STATCOM application. This topology is not very
popular in the market and currently the four-level FC-VSC is
being produced by one manufacture of industrial MV drives
[10]. Fig. 4 shows the schematic of a three-level FC-VSC.
The control of this circuit topology is similar to the three
Fig. 2. Two-Level Voltage Source Converter level NPC-VSC, however there is a redundant switching state.
The FC-VSC produces the same output voltage waveform as
The conventional two level VSC is widely used in many the NPC-VSC for the same number of levels. Therefore, the
application due to its simple design and control. Typical use of THD introduced by this topology is almost similar to that
the two level VSC is in the high power traction and high introduced by the NPC-VSC.
power motor drives application [10]. This topology may be in
particular interest for applications up to 3.3kV [1], however
beyond this operating voltage it may be difficult to use this
topology due to the limitation of semiconductor devices.
Moreover, the THD introduced by the two level VSC is higher
compared to multilevel VSCs.
B. Three-Level Neutral Point Clamped Converter

The three level NPC shown in Fig. 3 was proposed in early
1980’s [10] which was later the pioneer for multilevel VSCs.
Since all semiconductors are operated at a commutation
voltage of half of the dc-link voltage, the topology offered a
simple solution to extend voltage and power ranges of the
existing two level VSC, which were severely limited by the
Fig. 4. Three Level FC Voltage Source Converter
blocking voltages of power semiconductor devices with active
433
This circuit topology is not popular because flying Where ω is the system frequency and m is the modulation
capacitors must be pre-charged and the voltage across them index of the converter. Equations (4-5) can be represented in
must always be maintained in order for the converter to work state space form as shown in equation (6),
properly. Besides, the size of this converter is larger compared
to other converters for the same power and voltage ratings.
III. CONTROL SYSTEM (6)
The control system used for the D-STATCOM simulation is
introduced in this section. First, the modeling of D- The voltage harmonics produced by the direct and quadrature
STATCOM based on the synchronous reference frame method axis voltage can be neglected to form the following:
is briefly described [11]. Then, the operation of Synchronous
Reference Frame (SRF) based control system is discussed [12]. (7)
A. Modelling D-STATCOM
Fig. 5 shows the simplified diagram of the D-STATCOM (8)
comprising of a dc-link capacitor, IGBT based VSC,
equivalent transformer and filter resistance, equivalent Assuming the inverter is a lossless circuit and as per the power
transformer and filter inductance and a three phase source. balance theory, the instantaneous power at the ac-dc terminals
of the inverter is
(9)
The DC side circuit equation is given as
Fig. 5. Simplified model of D-STATCOM
Here, (10)
Vpcc : Point of common coupling voltage
Vc : Converter Voltage Rearranging equation (10) and combining it with equation (6)
Rs : Equivalent resistance of transformer and filter gives the following state space equation
Ls : Equivalent inductance of transformer and filter
The point where the STATCOM is connected to the grid is

referred as point of common coupling (PCC). The relation
between the PCC voltages and the inverter output voltage is (11)
presented by:
Where F is gives as,
(1)
(2)
(3)
The rotating d-q axes follow the trajectory of the voltage
The following equation is obtained by transforming equation
vector within the synchronous rotating frame, vp = vpd and
(1-3) to SRF using Park’s Transformation.
vsq = 0, the instantaneous active and reactive power as per
Instantaneous Reactive Power Theory are described as:
(4)
(12)
(13)
(5)
434
Based on equation (12) and (13), the D-STATCOM A. Voltage Sag Mitigation
performance can be controlled by controlling the active and The voltage source converters based D-STATCOM is first
reactive component of current id and iq. examined for its ability for voltage sag mitigation. A three
B. Control System: Basic Concept phase balanced load rated at 2.88MW and 5.26MVAR is
switched in to reduce the system voltage to 0.9pu and hence
Fig. 6 depicts the block diagram of the basic controller of
creating voltage sag. The load is highly inductive and this can
the STATCOM system which consists of a current controller
and a voltage controller. The voltage controller ensures that the be seen from the reactive power rating of the load. Fig. 7
PCC voltage and the dc-Link voltage are as same as the set shows the voltage sag which starts at 0.15 sec and lasts for
values. The current controller will determine the amount of 100ms.
current injected or absorbed by the STATCOM. The controller The reference voltage in the controller is set to 1pu. As the
requires the PCC voltage, the current at PCC and the dc-link voltage drops to 0.9pu, the STATCOM will generate the
voltage as inputs to determine the switching pattern of the appropriate switching signals for the VSC to release the
VSC. The phase locked loop is synchronized to the system energy stored in its capacitor to compensate for the voltage
frequency to provide reference (sinωt and cosωt) required by sag. Fig. 8 shows the system voltage restoration when the two-
the abc-dq transformation [12]. Furthermore the measured PCC level VSC based D-STATCOM is employed. However on the
voltage and the output currents of the STATCOM are in per- other hand there are some harmonics generated in the
unit values which are transformed into d-q components. The distribution system upon connecting the D-STATCOM which
inner current regulation loop consists of two Proportional- are due to the switching of the VSC and to reduce the effect of
Integral-Derivative (PID) controllers that output the direct axis these harmonics, a higher level of VSC should be used.
and quadrature axis voltages [12]. These voltages are later Voltage Per-Unit
1.5
converted to three phase voltages which are fed to the SPWM
generator to generate switching signals for the VSC. The grid 1
voltage is compared to a reference and the error is fed to a
Proportional-Integral (PI) controller to generate Iq reference. 0.5
Voltage (pu)
Similarly the measured dc-link voltage is compared to a

reference value and the error is fed to the PI controller to 0
provide reference Id value.
-0.5
-1
-1.5
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
Time (sec)
Fig. 7. Balanced three phase voltage sag

Voltage Per-Unit
1.5
Fig. 6. Basic block diagram of D-STATCOM model 0.5

Voltage (pu)
IV. SIMULATION RESULTS 0

The comparison between the three VSC topologies based
STATCOM system was carried out by means of computer -0.5
simulation using MATLAB/SIMULINK software package for
parameters listed in Table 1. -1
Table I -1.5
SYSTEM PARAMETERS FOR THE SIMULATION STUDY 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
Time (sec)
Supply Voltage, 2.0 kV
Fig. 8. Distribution system voltage after connecting the D-STATCOM
Rated Compensator Power , 6 MVA
AC Filters, 1 mH The DC capacitor used as the energy storage device requires
Modulation Frequency, 1.65 kHz to be charged continuously as it has to compensate for the
DC Capacitance, Two Level : 6mF losses within the VSC. Therefore, the STATCOM
Three Level NPC : 5mF continuously draws some current from the system and this is
Three Level FC : 8mF shown in Fig. 9. Fig. 9 shows the per phase current at the
DC Voltage, Two Level : 6.6 kV output of the STATCOM where it can be clearly seen that the
Three Level NPC : 3.3 kV current is being injected to the network during the voltage sag.
Three Level FC : 3.3 kV
435
1
harmonic components, the FFT analysis is presented for
different VSC based D-STATCOM. Fig. 12 shows the FFT
analysis of the system voltage during the operation of the D-
STATCOM Current (pu)
0.5 STATCOM and Fig. 13 depicts FFT analysis of the system

current. Observing Fig. 12, the THD in voltage introduced by
two level, three level NPC and three level FC based D-
0 STATCOM are 1.12%, 0.53% and 0.6% respectively. The
IEEE-519 standard states that the THD introduced in a power
-0.5
system which operates below 69kV must be less than 5% [13].
Therefore the THD in voltage obtained from the simulation is
within the permissible range set by the IEEE standard. The
-1 THD in current of the two level, three level NPC, three level
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
Time (sec) FC based D-STATCOM are 4.94%, 2.13% and 1.88%
Fig. 9. STATCOM output current
respectively. Similarly, these values are also within the
permissible range set by the IEEE Standards [13].
Fig. 10 depicts the dc-link voltage of the VSC where it is
being controlled throughout the operation using a proper
control of the modulation index. DC Link Voltage
8000
6000
DC Link Voltage
4000
(a)
2000
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
Time (sec)
Fig. 10. DC link voltage of the D-STATCOM
Looking at Fig. 11 the modulation index is almost constant

throughout the operation however during the voltage sag one
can easily see that the modulation index is changed. This is (b)
because the voltage required by the capacitor to charge up is
reduced due to the voltage sag. Therefore, the raise in the
modulation index ensures that the dc-link voltage stays
constant at all times. The constant dc-link voltage ensures that
the DC capacitor is charged properly. Modulation Index
0.8
Modulation Index
0.6 (c)
Fig. 12. Frequency Spectrum of line to line voltage produced by the a) two-
level, b) three-level NPC, c) three-level FC VSC based D-STATCOM
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
Time (sec)
Fig. 11. Modulation Index
B. Total Harmonic Distortion

The THD in voltage and current introduced by the D-
STATCOM differs for different VSC topology. To identify the (a)
436
VI. CONCLUSION
The application of different VSC configuration to build the
D-STATCOM in power system for voltage sag mitigation has
been successfully demonstrated. The different circuit
topologies provide different type of response. The THD in
particular in seen to be decreasing as the number of level in
VSC is increasing. The steady state time of the compensator
increases as the number of levels in the VSC increases and this
was mainly due to the capacitor voltage balancing issue.
(b) Generally, the three level VSC based D-STATCOM indicates
interesting figures and it would be suitable for the D-
STATCOM application.
REFERENCES
[1] S. Bernet, “Recent Developments of High Power Converters for Industry
and Traction Applications,” IEEE Transaction on Power Electronics,
vol.15, no.6, pp.1102-1117, Nov 2000.
[2] C. K. Lee, Joseph S. K. Leung, S. Y. Ron Hui, Henry Shu-Hung Chung,
“Circuit Level Comparison of STATCOM technologies,” IEEE
Transaction on Power Electronics, vol.18, no.4, pp.1084-1092, July
2003.
(c)
[3] P. Lauttamus, H. Tuusa, “Comparison of Five-Level Voltage-Source
Fig. 13. Frequency Spectrum of phase current supplied by the a) two-level, b) Inverter Based STATCOMs,” Power Conversion Conference, pp.659-
three-level NPC, c) three-level FC VSC based D-STATCOM 666, Apr 2007.
[4] M. Noroozian, A. N. Petersson, B. Thorvaldson, B.A. Nilsson, C.W.
Taylor, “Benefits of SVC and STATCOM for electric utility
C. Response & Steady State time application,” Transmission and Distribution Conference and Exposition,
The response time of the STATCOM which is defined as vol.3, pp1192-1199, Sep 2004.
the time taken for the control to recognize the voltage drop is [5] M. Saitou, T. Shimizu, “A novel strategy of the high power PWM
inverter with the series active filter,” IEEE International Symposium on
same for different VSC topologies which is about 6ms. The Industrial Electronics, vol.1, pp.67-72, Dec 2000.
steady state time refers to the time taken for the point of [6] D. Soto, T.C. Green, “A comparison of high-power converter topologies
common coupling voltage to be stable as the STATCOM for the implementation of FACTS controllers,” IEEE Transactions on
compensates for the sag. Higher level VSC takes longer time Industrial Electronics, vol.49, no.5, pp.1072-1080, Oct 2002.
to reach steady state compared to the two level VSC based D- [7] V. Padmathilagam, B. Shanti, S.P. Natarajan, “Dynamics of Multilevel
STATCOM. This is mainly due to the capacitor voltage Inverter Based Series Compensator for Transmission Lines,” IEEE
Power India Conference, 6pp., June 2006.
balancing issues for higher level VSCs and the difference can
[8] A. Shukla, A. Ghosh, A. Joshi, “State Feedback Control of Multilevel
be seen from Table II. Inverters for DSTATCOM Applications,” IEEE Transaction on Power
Delivery, vol.22, pp.2409-2418, Oct 2007.
V. SUMMARY [9] J. Dixon, L. Moran, J. Rodriguez, R. Domke, “Reactive Power
Compensation: State-of-the-Art Review,” Proceedings of the IEEE,
The different VSC based D-STATCOM is compared based vol.93, pp.2144-2164, Dec 2005.
on the THD level in voltage and current, the response time of [10] J. Rodríguez, S. Bernet, B. Wu, J.O. Pontt, S. Kouro, ‘‘Multilevel
the compensator and the steady state time of the point of Voltage-Source-Converter Topologies for Industrial Medium-Voltage
common coupling voltage. All these details are summarized in Drives,’’ IEEE Transaction on Industrial Electronics, vol.54, no.6
pp.2930-2945, Dec 2007.
Table II. It can be seen that the three level NPC-VSC and
[11] D. Masand, S. Jain, G. Agnihotri, “Distribution Statci Compensator
three level FC-VSC based D-STATCOM introduce relatively Performance under Linear and Nonlinear Current Regulation Methods,
less THD compared to the two level VSC based D- vol.4, pp.91-105, March 2008.
STATCOM. However, the two level VSC based D- [12] P. Giroux, G. Sybille, H. Le-Huy, “Modeling and Simulation of a
STATCOM has a faster steady state time compared to other Distribution STATCOM using Simulink’s Power System Blockset,”
IEEE Industrial Electronics Society, pp.990-994, Nov 2001.
compensators. Higher level VSCs takes longer time to reach
[13] T. Key, J.S. Lai, “Comparison of Standards Limiting Harmonic
steady state due to the capacitor voltage balancing issue. Distortion in Power System,” Industrial and Commercial Power System
Technical Conference 1991, pp57-62, May 1991.
Table II. VSC based D-STATCOM Comparison
Voltage THD in THD in Steady
Response
Source Voltage, Current, State
Time
Converter % % Time
2 Level 1.12 4.94 6ms 46.1ms

3 Level NPC 0.53 2.13 6ms 55.6ms
3 FC 0.6 1.88 6ms 58.3ms
437
A Novel Sensorless Method for Rotor Position

Detection in Bifilar SRM Drive
A. R. Kazemi, M. Asgar, E. Afjei, A. Siadatan
Evin, Tehran, IRAN
m_asgar@sbu.ac.ir
Abstract- This paper presents a new sensorless method for There are also some intelligent control methods based
controlling a Three-Phase Switched Reluctance Motor on artificial neural network (ANN) and fuzzy control that
utilizing bifilar drive. In this method rotor position is
extracted by analyzing the current results of injected high have found applications in the detection of the rotor
frequency diagnostic pulses to the motor windings. The position in switched reluctance motors [12], [13].
proposed method is based on the dependency of the phase Rotor position detection in this paper is done by
current slope that achieved from the diagnostic pulses to the impedance sensing method as a result of injecting
rotor position. The new method is applicable at standstill as diagnostic pulses to an un-energized phase. Impedance
well as the running mode. The use of bifilar windings for
rotor position detection makes the control circuit to be sensing method is based on the relationship between rotor
completely isolated from main winding and the power position and phase impedance [14]. Each stator phase
transistors. Also the simplicity of hardware and control voltage in SRM is given by the following equation:
algorithm minimizes the cost of drive. The proposed method
was implemented on a 3-phase 6/4 SRM with bifilar
windings and the experimental results demonstrated the dλ di ∂L di ∂L (1)
accuracy and function ability of this method. V = Ri + = Ri + L + i + iω
dt dt ∂i dt ∂θ
Index Terms – Bifilar switched reluctance motor,
Sensorless control, Diagnostic pulses
Where R is phase winding resistance, L is phase
inductance, λ is flux linkage, i is phase current, ω is
I. INTRODUCTION rotor speed, and θ is rotor position angle. By applying
S witched Reluctance Motor (SRM) has become one of high frequency and narrow pulses to an un-energized
the attractive alternatives in the different variable phase and measuring the current results the phase
speed applications. Simple structure and low cost are the inductance can be calculated. If the applied pulses are
most important reasons for this popularity [1-4]. Having short enough the saturation effects and motional back
no windings or permanent magnet in rotor are the most EMF can be neglected. Therefore equation (1) can be
significant advantages of this motor but they need a approximated by:
mechanism to detect rotor position for correct operation.
The use of sensors for this task increases the cost of the di
V≅L (2)
drive system and machine size in addition to reducing the dt
system reliability. Also the entrance of SRMs in the
sensitive applications such as aerospace and automotive Therefore the slope of current result of applied
industries has proved the need for highly reliable and diagnostic pulses has inverse relationship with phase
fault tolerant methods. Therefore several approaches to inductance.
eliminate the position sensors have been reported [4-10]. This paper proposes the design of a new improved
The primary idea for rotor position detection is to use sensorless SRM drive based on impedance sensing
the relationship between the rotor position, the phase method that is highly independent of the motor
current, and the flux linkage [2]. The measurements can parameters and supply voltage.
be done in an energized or un-energized phase. By
measuring the electrical parameters of active phase and II. THE PROPOSED METHOD
processing the results rotor position can be detected. The The overall block diagram of the proposed method is
mutual induced voltage and current gradient sensing shown in Fig. 1. As seen the rotor position detection is
methods are among the examples of this group [8], [9]. composed of two modes of operation: standstill and
In the other group rotor position is extracted by rotation modes.
injecting high frequency and low level signals to an un- In standstill mode the correct phase for initial
energized phase and processing the results. Modulation excitation is selected. In the proposed method each of
techniques and injection of diagnostic pulses are the three phases is excited with short duration pulses. Then
examples of these methods [10], [11]. the current slope of the secondary winding in three
phases are compared with each other, consequently with
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 438

considering the direction of the rotation, the first phase is The schematic of the controller circuit is shown in
selected. Fig.2. This circuit is composed of three sections.
The first section is a bifilar power converter circuit. As
In rotation mode the accurate time for fully alignment seen in Fig. 3, there are one switch and one diode per
of the rotor and stator pole must be determined. In this phase in this converter circuit. When the switch is on, the
position, the active phase must be turned off and current passes through primary winding and energizes
simultaneously the next phase must be turned on. For this related phase and when the switch is turned off the
purpose high frequency diagnostic pulses are applied to current passes through the secondary winding in shown
an un-energized phase and by analyzing the currents of direction and returns energy back to the power supply. A
secondary winding the rotor position is extracted in the sensing resistor is employed for each phase; the voltage
rotation mode. drop of this resistor as outcomes of applied diagnostic
pulses is analyzed to detect the rotor position.
The second section is the receiving and processing
block which consists of an inverting amplifier and a
comparator for each phase. Inverting amplifier inverts
and amplifies the voltage drop of sensing resistors to
make a positive voltage with proper amplitude. In the
comparator block the inverted and amplified voltage is
compared with a reference voltage. When the input
voltage is more than the reference voltage the comparator
output is high (5V) otherwise it is low (0V), therefore the
high level duration of the comparator output is a good
criterion to approximate the current slope.
The third section is used as a decision block. It
consists of an AVR microcontroller which receives and
Fig. 1. General Diagram of proposed method
analyzes the input signals and makes the proper decisions
for the correct motor phase selection.
A. Controller circuit
Fig. 2. Block diagram for the motor control
439
Fig. 3. Bifilar converter circuit
B. First mode of operation: Standstill mode

The first mode of operation is standstill. In this mode
the correct phase for initial excitation is selected. Two
Fig. 4. Diagnostic pulses and resulting current in primary and secondary
factors are considered in selecting the initial phase for windings of one of the phases
excitement: rotor position and direction of rotation. It
must be noticed that the direction of rotation is selected
by the user; therefore other factor must be determined.
For extracting the rotor position the diagnostic pulses are
applied to the coil winding of each phase and then the
currents slope in secondary winding of three phases are
compared together. In order to avoid the rotor movement
because of outcome currents, the duration of diagnostic
pulses must be enough short.
As it has been said before there is an inverse relation
between the current slope that resulted from injected
diagnostic pulses and the phase inductance. It is note
worthy to mention that the more aligned is the rotor pole
with respect to the stator pole, the higher is the phase
inductance and therefore the lower is the current slope.
Fig. 4, shows the diagnostic pulses applied to one phase
and the resulting current in the primary and secondary Fig. 5. Secondary winding current in three phases
winding. As seen when the phase is excited the current
passes in the primary winding and when the excitation is
cut off the current passes in the secondary winding. Also
it is clear that the secondary winding current has reverse
polarity in respect to the primary winding.
Fig. 5, shows the secondary winding current in three
phases and Fig. 6, depicts the secondary winding currents
after that these currents pass through the inverting
amplifier. As seen in this figure these currents have been
converted to the positive signal with proper amplitude.
Fig. 10, shows the comparator output for the resulting
currents in Fig. 7. As seen from this figure the comparator
output is included of a signal with the high (5V) and low
(0V) levels. The duration of the high level output
indicates the current slope and consequently the amount
of aligning between the rotor and the stator pole in each
Fig. 6. Secondary winding current in three phases after inverting and
phase. It can be said that the shorter duration of the amplifying
comparator output signifies the lower slope of phase
winding current and consequently more aligning between
the rotor and stator pole. Therefore by comparing the
comparator output of all phases and considering the
direction of rotation the correct phase for initial excitation
will be selected.
440
As it has been said before the variation of the current
slope as the outcomes of applied diagnostic pulses has
inverse relationship in respect to variation in the phase
inductance. Therefore by considering the inductance
variation of phase-C during the excitation of phase-B, it
can be said that the slope of current changes increasingly
until it reaches a maximum value. After that it passes the
maximum situation, and then it changes decreasingly until
it reaches a specified value when the rotor pole is
completely aligned with the stator pole in phase-B. This
specified value is dependent on the frequency of
diagnostic pulse and the supply voltage and it is key
parameter in determining commutation instance of active
phase and exciting the next phase.
Fig. 7. Comparator output for three phases Also it is verified that this specified value is a
percentage of maximum current slope. This percentage is
C. Second mode of operation: rotation mode independent of the frequency of diagnostic pulses and
In this mode, one of the motor phases is energized and supply voltage.
accurate time for the complete aligning between the rotor As it has been mentioned before for approximating the
and stator pole must be determined. In the proposed current slope, a comparator is used and the duration of
method for detecting the rotor position in rotation mode high level of comparator output is proper to the current
the diagnostic pulses are applied to an un-energized slope approximation that is achieved from applied
phase. When one phase is energized, the discharge current diagnostic pulses. The maximum high level duration of
exists in the secondary winding of previous active phase. the comparator output and its value at fully aligned
Therefore diagnostic pulses must be applied to the next position in active phase are named Tmax and Taligned,
phase in the sequence of excitement that is in minimum respectively. It can be said that Taligned is a percentage of
inductance region as shown in Fig. 8. Tmax.
As seen from Fig. 8, when the inductance of phase-A The diagnostic pulses are applied to the phase winding
reaches its maximum value, the rotor pole is completely and also the pulse width of the comparator output is
aligned with the stator pole in this phase. Also the phase- measured and stored. The new value is compared with
A must be turned off and for clockwise rotation phase-B previous value until the maximum value (Tmax) is
must be excited; hence diagnostic pulses are applied to extracted and then Taligned is calculated from Tmax. Now
the phase-C. In addition, with an increase in inductance of the comparator output is compared with Taligned and the
phase-B from unaligned position to the fully aligned equality between the comparator output and Taligned
position the inductance of phase-C at first changes indicates that the rotor pole is completely aligned with the
decreasingly until it reaches a minimum value, when it stator pole in the active phase.
passes the minimum situation it changes increasingly until
it reaches a specified value when phase-B reaches its fully III. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
aligned position. Also there is a same procedure for other The proposed method was implemented on a three
phases. phases bifilar SRM. The voltage supply in this experiment
was 12V. Fig. 9, shows the injected voltages by the
microcontroller for three phases in rotation mode. After
that these voltages pass throughout the power MOSFET
driver, they are applied to the gate of power transistors in
three phases. Also these voltages contain the exciting and
diagnostic pulses for each phase. As seen from Fig. 9, for
rotor position detection in every energized phase the
diagnostic pulses are applied to the next phase in
sequence of excitement.
Fig. 8. Applying diagnostic pulses in minimum inductance region
441
Fig. 9. Diagnostic and exciting pulses of the phases Fig. 12. Secondary winding current of three phases
The waveforms of exciting and diagnostics voltages

and the current of primary and secondary windings for IV. CONCLUSIONS
one phase are shown in Fig. 10. Different issues such as the importance and different
Fig. 11 and Fig. 12, show the primary and secondary kinds of sensorless control methods were studied and then
winding currents for three phases, respectively. a new comprehensive sensorless method using diagnostic
pulses was described. The difference between the
proposed method and the previous methods is that the
rotor position is extracted by analyzing the secondary
winding current and the controller circuit is completely
isolated from primary winding. This method was
implemented on a three phase bifilar SRM and the
experimental results demonstrate the function ability of
proposed method. The most important advantages of the
implemented scheme can be summarized as following:
1- The rotor estimator circuit is completely isolated
from primary winding and power transistors.
2- Applicable at standstill and running mode.
3- Simplicity of hardware and control algorithm
that minimizes the cost of drive.
Acoustic noise and negative torque as the results of
injecting diagnostic pulses are the most important
Fig. 10. Diagnostic and exciting pulses and current of primary and disadvantages of this method.
secondary windings for one phase
V. REFERENCES
[1] B.Fahimi, “Design of Adjustable Speed Switched Reluctance
Motor Drives,” 27th Annual Conference of the IEEE Industrial
Electronics Society, June 2001, pp. 1577-1582.
[2] R.Krishnan, “Switched Reluctance Motor Drives, Modeling,
Simulation, Analysis, Design, and Applications”, CRC Press,
2001.
[3] M. Ehsani, and B. Fahimi, “Elimination of Position Sensors in
Switched Reluctance Motor Drives: State of the Art and Future
Trends,” IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Vol.49,
No. 1, February 2002, pp. 40-47.
[4] E. Afjei, M. Asgar, S. Ataei, “A New modified bifilar Drive
Circuit for Switched Reluctance Motor” Power system technology
and IEEE Power India Conference, 12-15 Oct. 2008, pp. 1-4.
[5] I. Husain, “Indirect Rotor Position Estimation Techniques for
Switched Reluctance Motors A Review,” Electromotion,
Department of Electrical Engineering, the University of Akron, pp.
94-102, 1996.
[6] M. Krishnamurty, C. S. Edrington, A. Emadi, P. Asadi, M. Ehsani,
Fig.11. Primary winding current of three phases and B. Fahimi, “Making the Case for Applications of Switched
Reluctance Motor Technology in Automotive Products,” IEEE
Transactions on Power Electronics, Vol.21, No. 3, May 2006, pp.
659 -675.
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[7] K. M. Rahman, B. Fahimi, G. Suresh, A. Velayutham, and M. [11] B. Fahimi, A. Emadi, and R. B. Sepe, “Four-Quadrant Position
Ehsani, “Advantages of Switched Reluctance Motor Applications Sensorless Control in SRM Drives Over the Entire Speed Range,”
to EV and HEV: Design and Control Issues.” IEEE Transactions IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics,Vol.20, No. 1, January
on Industry Applications, Vol. 36, No. 1, February 2000, pp. 111- 2005, pp. 154-163.
121. [12] A. Bellini, F. Filippetti, G. Franceschini, C. Tassoni, and P. Vas
[8] I. Husain, and M. Ehsani, “Rotor Position Sensing in Switched “Position Sensorless Control of a SRM Drive Using ANN
Reluctance Motor Drives by Measuring Mutually Induced Techniques,” IEEE Conf. Ind. Appl. Soc., Oct. 1998, pp. 709-714.
Voltages,” IEEE Transactions on Industry, pp. 665-672. [13] Z. Wang, A. D. Cheok, and L. K. Wee, “Sensorless Rotor Position
[9] Gabriel Gallegos-Lopez, Philip C. Kjar, T.J.E. Miller, ”A New Estimation Algorithm for Switched Reluctance Motors Using
Sensorless Method for Switched Reluctance Motor Drives, ” IEEE Fuzzy Logic”, Proc. Power Electronics Specialist Conf., vol. 3,
Transactions on Industry Applications, Vol 34, No.4, July 1998, Cairns, Australia, June 7, 2001, pp. 1701-1706
pp. 832-840. [14] Xin Kai, Zhan Qionghua, Luo Jianwu, “A New Simple Sensorless
[10] P. Bishop, A. Khalil, and I. Husain, “Low Level Amplitude Control Method for Switched Reluctance Motor Drives, ” IEEE
Modulation Based Sensor less Operation of a Switched Reluctance Proceedings of the Eighth International Conference on Electrical
Motor,” 35th Annual IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Machines and Systems, Issue 1, Vol 1, pp. 594-598, September
Conference, 2004, pp. 3347 – 3352. 2005. 1058
443
On-line Parameter Estimation of an Induction

Machine using a Recursive Least-Squares
Algorithm with Multiple Time-Varying
Forgetting Factors
Duy C. Huynh Matthew W. Dunnigan Stephen J. Finney
Electrical, Electronic and Electrical, Electronic and Electronic and Electrical
Computer Engineering Dept. Computer Engineering Dept. Engineering Dept.
Heriot-Watt University Heriot-Watt University University of Strathclyde
Edinburgh, United Kingdom. Edinburgh, United Kingdom. Glasgow, United Kingdom.
Email: dh45@hw.ac.uk Email: m.w.dunnigan@hw.ac.uk Email: s.finney@eee.strath.ac.uk
Abstract—This paper proposes a recursive least-squares [21], adaptive observers [22]-[23] and other techniques
(RLS) algorithm with multiple time-varying forgetting such as an adaptive backstepping technique [24] and a
factors for on-line parameter estimation of an induction technique of the variable structure theories [25]. It is
machine (IM). The regressive mathematical model of the IM desirable to further improve the RLS algorithm
is also introduced which is simple and appropriate for on- performance for on-line estimation of the IM parameters,
line parameter estimation. The estimator inputs using the to adapt better to the variations of the IM parameters and
proposed RLS algorithm are easily measurable variables to estimate more the IM parameters. This paper proposes a
such as the stator voltages and currents as well as the rotor RLS algorithm with multiple time-varying forgetting
speed of the IM. The simulation results obtained compare factors for on-line parameter estimation of the IM which
the estimated parameters with the IM parameters achieved can better track the variations of the IM parameters during
using other RLS algorithms such as a standard RLS its operation. The stator and rotor resistances, stator and
algorithm and a RLS with a constant forgetting factor. The rotor inductances and magnetizing inductance are
comparison shows that the proposed RLS algorithm is estimated in this paper. The estimated parameters using
better than others for on-line parameter estimation of the the proposed algorithm are compared with those using
IM. other RLS algorithms such as the standard RLS algorithm
and RLS algorithm with a constant forgetting factor.
Keywords—Parameter Estimation; Induction Machine; Re- The remainder of this paper is organized as follows.
cursive Least-Squares Algorithms The mathematical model of the parameter estimation
problem is described in Section II. A novel modification
I. INTRODUCTION of the RLS algorithm is proposed for on-line parameter
The field-oriented control (FOC), also known as vector estimation of an IM in Section III. The simulation results
control (VC), technique is the most popularly used control then follow to confirm the validity of the proposed
technique in induction machine (IM) drive systems, algorithm in Section IV. Finally, the advantages of the
especially for high performance IM applications. Direct novel algorithm are summarized through comparison with
field-oriented control (DFOC) and indirect field-oriented other related existing algorithms.
control (IFOC) are two types of VC which are available to
control the IM so that it always achieves a quick and II. ON-LINE PARAMETER ESTIMATION OF AN
accurate torque response and a large range of speed INDUCTION MACHINE
control. Accurate knowledge of the IM parameters is On-line parameter estimation is considered in the
necessary during operation of both the DFOC and IFOC steady-state and d-axis rotor flux IFOC conditions in this
techniques. The IM parameters are time-varying during its paper. Additionally, it is assumed that the stator and rotor
operation due to temperature variation, saturation inductances are the same value. Then, the dynamic model
phenomenon and skin effects. This results in the of the IM in the two-phase d-q synchronously rotating
deterioration of the IM control performance and the drive reference frame is given as follows [26]:
system becomes detuned. For this reason, the IM vqs = Rs iqs + Lsω r ids + Rr iqs (1)
parameters need to be estimated on-line during its
operation. There are several algorithms for on-line ⎛ L2 2
⎞ iqs
L2m
parameter estimation of the IM such as model reference vds = Rs ids − Lsω r iqs + ω r iqs + Rr ⎜⎜ m2 − 1⎟⎟ (2)
adaptive system (MRAS) based algorithms [1]-[4], Ls ⎝ Ls ⎠ ids
Kalman filters (KF) [5]-[10], recursive least-squares
where
(RLS) algorithms [11]-[19], neural networks (NN) [20]-
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vqs, vds, iqs and vds are the d-q axis stator voltages and
currents respectively.
(
θ (t ) = θ (t − 1) + L(t ) y (t ) − φ T (t )θ (t − 1) ) (9)
Rs, Rr, Ls, Lr and Lm are the stator and rotor resistances, the [
L(t ) = P (t )φ (t ) = P (t − 1)φ (t ) 1 + φ (t )T P (t − 1)φ (t ) ] −1
(10)
stator and rotor inductances and the magnetizing
inductance respectively. ( )
P (t ) = 1 − L(t )φ T (t ) P (t − 1) (11)
ωr is the rotor electrical speed. P (0) = rI (12)
In order to perform on-line parameter estimation using the where
RLS algorithms, the IM model needs to be re-written
using a regressive form. L(t) is the update gain.
The linear regressive estimator of the system is described P(t) is considered as the covariance matrix of the
as follows: estimated parameter vector, where P (0) = rI is the initial
value of the covariance matrix and r is a large value.
y = φT θ
(3) I is the identity matrix.
where It is obvious that the knowledge of the estimated
y is the output. parameters at t = 0 is imprecise. Thus, a very high
φ is the regressive vector. covariance matrix of the parameters is to be expected.
This means that a large value of r is assigned.
θ is the vector of estimated parameters.
The standard RLS algorithm needs initial values such as
Based on the linear regressive form (3), the q-axis stator θ (0) and P(0) which are obtained from the system’s
voltage in the two-phase d-q synchronously rotating
reference frame is re-written as follows: knowledge.
The estimation is updated by adding a correction to the
⎡ Rs ⎤ previous estimation at each step which is based on the
v qs = iqs [ ω r ids ]
iqs ⎢⎢ Ls ⎥⎥ (4) error between the model and system outputs and the
⎢⎣ Rr ⎥⎦ update gain. Obviously, the estimation error will be
accumulated in this case which can reach a large value.
where Then, the estimation results will no longer be accurate.
y = vqs is considered as the output of the regressive Thus, in order to improve the performance of the RLS
estimator. algorithm for on-line parameter estimation, a constant
[
φ T = iqs ω r ids iqs ] is the regressive vector.
forgetting factor is introduced to give more emphasis to
recently observed data than to older data. The RLS
algorithm with a constant forgetting factor is introduced in
θ = [Rs Ls Rr ]T is the vector of estimated parameters. detail in the next section.
The estimated parameters of the IM are then: B. Recursive Least-Squares Algorithm with a Constant
R s = θ1 (5) Forgetting Factor
Ls = Lr = θ 2 (6) The forgetting effect is considered as giving less weight
to older data and more weight to recent data. This affects
Rr = θ 3 (7) the update gain and covariance matrix of the estimated
Utilising this model, the stator and rotor resistances and parameter vector, described as follows:
the stator inductance are estimated. Then, the magnetizing
inductance is calculated using (2) as follows: [
L(t ) = P (t )φ (t ) = P (t − 1)φ (t ) λ + φ (t )T P (t − 1)φ (t )] −1
(13)
2
iqs ( λ
)
P (t ) = 1 − L(t )φ T (t ) P (t − 1)
(14)
1
vds − ids Rs + ω r iqs Ls + Rr
ids Then, the parameters are estimated using (9), (13) and
Lm = (8)
ω r iqs 2
iqs Rr (14).
+ The main difference between the standard RLS
Ls ids L2s
algorithm and RLS algorithm with a constant forgetting
where factor is in the covariance matrix. In the standard RLS
Rs, Rr and Ls are the three estimated parameters obtained algorithm, the covariance matrix vanishes to zero as time
using (5)-(7). increases which results in the tracking capability of the
algorithm to parameter variations being lost. In this
III. RECURSIVE LEAST-SQUARES ALGORITHMS modified algorithm, this matrix is divided by the
The standard recursive least-squares (RLS) algorithm is forgetting factor at each update. This slows down the
reviewed in section A followed by descriptions of fading out of the covariance matrix. The forgetting factor
advanced RLS algorithms such as the RLS algorithm with is constant in this case. The typical choice of the
a constant forgetting factor and the RLS algorithm with forgetting factor is in the range between 0.98 and 0.995
multiple time-varying forgetting factors in sections B and [28].
C respectively. C. Recursive Least-Squares Algorithm with Multiple
A. Standard Recursive Least-Squares Algorithm Time-Varying Forgetting Factors
The standard RLS algorithm is described as follows It is can be realised that in the RLS algorithm with a
[27]: constant forgetting factor, when the system has little new
445
dynamic information arriving, the old information is still where M tv _ multi (t ) is defined as follows:
continuously forgotten with a constant forgetting factor.
This could lead to the exponential growth of the M tv _ multi (t ) = M 1tv _ multi (t )× M 2tv _ multi (t ) (25)
covariance matrix, known as the covariance “wind-up”
1
problem of the RLS algorithm with a constant forgetting M 1tv _ multi (t ) = (26)
factor. As a consequence, the estimator becomes 3 Pj (t − 1)φ j (t )2
extremely sensitive and thus susceptible to numerical and
computational errors [29].
1+ ∑ λ j (t )
j =1
Additionally, in the RLS algorithm with a constant
⎡ P1 (t − 1)φ1 (t ) ⎤
forgetting factor, the estimated parameters are assumed to ⎢ ⎥
vary with a similar rate. Then, the parameters are ⎢ λ1 (t ) ⎥
estimated and the errors due to all parameters are lumped ⎢ P2 (t − 1)φ 2 (t ) ⎥
M 2tv _ multi (t ) = ⎢ (27)
into a single scalar term. In fact, the algorithm has no way λ2 (t ) ⎥
of knowing if the error is due to one or more parameters. ⎢ ⎥
If there is a drift in a single parameter, corrections of the ⎢ P3 (t − 1)φ3 (t ) ⎥
same rate will be applied to all parameters which results in ⎢⎣ λ3 (t ) ⎥⎦
overshoot or undershoot in the estimations. If the drift
continues for sometime, this can result in poor overall IV. SIMULATION RESULTS
performance of the estimator [30]. Simulations are performed using MATLAB/SIMULINK
In order to overcome these presented disadvantages, a software to estimate on-line the parameters of the 3 Hp
RLS algorithm with multiple time-varying forgetting induction machine fed by a voltage source inverter. The
factors is proposed in this paper, which assigns different parameters of the simulated IM are in Table I. In the
time-varying forgetting factors for the estimated simulations, the IM parameters are assumed to change at
parameters. The proposed RLS algorithm is a different rates which are described as follows: the IM
modification of the RLS algorithm with a time-varying parameters are constant for t = 0 – 2 s; the IM stator
forgetting factor [31] and the RLS algorithm with multiple resistance is increased by 30% at t = 2 s, the remaining
forgetting factors [30]. parameters are constant; the IM rotor resistance is
Let λ1 (t ) , λ2 (t ) and λ3 (t ) be the time-varying increased by 50% at t = 2.5 s, the IM stator resistance
remains at its varied value, the remaining parameters are
forgetting factors of the first, second and third estimated constant; the IM stator and magnetizing inductances are
parameters respectively which are as follows. increased by 20% at t = 3 s, the IM stator and rotor
1 resistances remain at their varied values, 30% and 50%
λ1 (t ) = 1 − (15) respectively. The forgetting factor, λ, is set to 0.98 in the
ζ
1+ RLS algorithm with a constant forgetting factor.
φ1 (t )T P1 (t − 1)φ1 (t )
Figs. 1-6 show the estimated parameter values of the
1 IM and their percentage errors using the standard RLS
λ2 (t ) = 1 − (16) algorithm, RLS algorithm with a constant forgetting factor
ζ
1+ and RLS algorithm with multiple time-varying forgetting
φ2 (t )T P2 (t − 1)φ2 (t ) factors. It can be seen that the percentage errors are
1 greater than 20% for the stator and rotor resistances and
λ3 (t ) = 1 − (17) 5% for the magnetizing inductance using the standard
ζ
1+ RLS algorithm and the RLS algorithm with a constant
φ3 (t )T P3 (t − 1)φ3 (t ) forgetting factor, Figs. 1-4. When the IM parameters vary
The update gains in the RLS algorithm with multiple time- in this manner, the effectiveness of the RLS algorithm
varying forgetting factors are: with a constant forgetting factor has not been established.
Obviously, the algorithm does not take into account the
[ ]
L1 (t ) = P1 (t − 1)φ1 (t ) λ1 + φ1T (t )P1 (t − 1)φ1 (t )
−1
(18) estimation errors of each IM parameter and the corrections
have then been applied for all IM parameters with the
L (t ) = P (t − 1)φ (t )[λ + φ (t )P (t − 1)φ (t )]
T −1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 (19) same rate. This results in large errors for the estimations.
Additionally, the value of the forgetting factor, λ = 0.98, is
L (t ) = P (t − 1)φ (t )[λ + φ (t )P (t − 1)φ (t )]
T −1
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 (20) not appropriate in this case when the IM parameters vary
in this manner. A different value of the forgetting factor
The elements of the covariance matrix in this algorithm
needs to be assigned so that the percentage errors can be
are: reduced. From this aspect, it can be realised that the issue
[ ]
P1 (t ) = 1 − L1 (t )φ1T (t ) P1 (t − 1)
1
λ1 (t )
(21)
of choosing appropriate forgetting factor is important. It is
not easy to choose good forgetting factors. Then, the RLS
algorithm with multiple time-varying forgetting factors is
[ ]
P2 (t ) = 1 − L2 (t )φ2T (t ) P2 (t − 1)
1
λ2 (t )
(22) the best choice for this application. The estimation results
are shown in Figs. 5-6. The forgetting factors are time-
varying which depend on the input signals and the value
[ ]
P3 (t ) = 1 − L3 (t )φ3T (t ) P3 (t − 1)
1
λ3 (t )
(23) of the covariance matrix. The percentage errors of the
estimated IM parameters are less than 5% in this case.
Eventually, the estimated parameter vector is: This confirms the effectiveness of the proposed RLS
algorithm when the IM parameters are time-varying with
( )
θ (t ) = θ (t − 1) + M tv _ multi (t ) y (t ) − φ T (t )θ (t − 1) (24) different rates.
446
40
V. CONCLUSION
This paper proposed the RLS algorithm with multiple
Rs (%)
20
time-varying forgetting factors for on-line parameter
estimation of the IM. When using the proposed RLS
algorithm, the percentage errors of the estimated 0
parameters are always less than 5%. This confirmed the 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
benefit of the proposed algorithm for this on-line 40
estimation application. Regarding the RLS algorithm with
multiple time-varying forgetting factors, the disadvantages
Rr (%)
of the existing RLS algorithms such as covariance matrix 20
vanishing, the covariance “wind-up” problem and the
overshoot or undershoot problem in the estimations were 0
overcome. The proposed RLS algorithm is better than the 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
other RLS algorithms for on-line parameter estimation of
the IM. 10
Ls (%)
5
TABLE I. IM PARAMETERS
Stator resistance (Ohm) 0.55 0
Rotor resistance (Ohm) 0.72 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Stator inductance (Henry) 0.068
20
Rotor inductance (Henry) 0.068
Magnetizing inductance (Henry) 0.063
Lm (%)
10
0.715 0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Rs (Ohm)
Time (s)
0.55 Figure 2. Percentage errors of the estimated parameters using the
standard RLS
0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
0.715
Rs (Ohm)
1.08
Rr (Ohm)
0.55
0.72
0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
1.08
Rr (Ohm)
0.0816
Ls (Henry)
0.72
0.068 0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Ls (Henry)
0.0816
Lm (Henry)
0.0756
0.068
0.063 0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Time (s)
Lm (Henry)
Figure 1. Estimated parameter values using the standard RLS 0.0756

algorithm
0.063
0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Time (s)
Figure 3. Estimated parameter values using the RLS algorithm with a
constant forgetting factor
447
40 10
Rs (%)
Rs (%)
20 5
0
0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
40 10
Rr (%)
20
Rr (%)
5
0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
10
10
Ls (%)
Ls (%)
5
0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
20
10
Lm (%)
10
Lm (%)
0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 0
Time (s) 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Figure 4. Percentage errors of the estimated parameters using the RLS Time (s)
algorithm with a constant forgetting factor Figure 6. Percentage errors of the estimated parameters using the RLS
algorithm with multiple time-varying forgetting factors
0.715 REFERENCES
Rs (Ohm)
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449
Energy Efficient Control of an Induction Machine

using a Chaos Particle Swarm Optimization
Algorithm
Duy C. Huynh Matthew W. Dunnigan Stephen J. Finney
Electrical, Electronic and Electrical, Electronic and Electronic and Electrical
Computer Engineering Dept. Computer Engineering Dept. Engineering Dept.
Heriot-Watt University Heriot-Watt University University of Strathclyde
Edinburgh, United Kingdom. Edinburgh, United Kingdom. Glasgow, United Kingdom.
Email: dh45@hw.ac.uk Email: m.w.dunnigan@hw.ac.uk Email: s.finney@eee.strath.ac.uk
Abstract—This paper proposes a new application of a chaos [2]-[5], a genetic algorithm [6]-[7] and a particle swarm
particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm for loss optimization algorithm [8] have allowed an optimal flux
model-based energy efficient control of an induction level to be defined for energy efficient control using the
machine (IM) using an optimal rotor flux reference. The IM loss model. In the model-based control approach, the
chaos PSO algorithm with a logistic map has been used for IM loss model is usually formed by the IM loss
initializing a random value of the rotor flux reference, the components such as the stator and rotor copper losses,
inertia weight and two independent random sequences in core loss, stray loss and mechanical losses [2]-[4] and [7]-
the velocity update equation of the PSO algorithm. These [8]. The search control approach is based on a search of
result in the best convergence capability and search optimal flux levels which ensure minimization of the IM
performance for the PSO algorithm in searching for an measured input power for a given load torque and
optimal rotor flux reference for energy efficient control of machine speed. It can be realised that this approach is
the IM. Additionally, this paper also proposes a recursive insensitive to IM parameter variations and does not
least-squares (RLS) algorithm with multiple time-varying require a priori knowledge of the IM parameters.
forgetting factors for on-line parameter estimation of the Nevertheless, the response for obtaining an optimal flux
IM. The estimated parameters are used to update IM value is slow. Additionally, input power measurement
parameter variations during operation. This means that the noise can affect the algorithm performance. A fuzzy logic
energy efficient control scheme is robust to parameter [9]-[11] and a golden section technique [12] have been
variations. Simulation results confirm the effectiveness of applied for this control strategy. It is obvious that there are
the proposed energy efficient control strategy. always disadvantages in the model-based control and
search control approaches. This is why hybrid controllers
Keywords—Energy Efficient Control; Parameter Estimati- [13]-[16] have been recently examined for energy efficient
on; Induction Machine control of the IM. These are a combination of the model-
based control and search control approaches. By using
I. INTRODUCTION hybrid controllers, the energy efficient control strategy
Energy efficient control of the induction machine (IM) always remains optimal. Nevertheless, it can be realised
has received significant attention in recent years because that the structure of these controllers is complex.
of concerns regarding energy saving and environmental This paper proposes a loss model-based energy efficient
pollution reduction. Basically, the IM operational control strategy for the IM using an optimal rotor flux
efficiency is high for rated conditions of the load torque, reference which is determined using a chaos particle
speed and flux. Nevertheless, IM drive systems usually swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm. Additionally, in
operate at light loads most of the time. In this case, if the order to adapt to the IM parameter variations, an on-line
rated flux is maintained at light loads, the core loss will parameter estimator for the IM is proposed to perform
increase dramatically. This results in poor IM efficiency. together with the energy efficient controller. The energy
In order to solve this problem, it is well-known that the efficient control strategy then always remains optimal
IM efficiency can be improved by reducing the flux level regardless of the IM parameter variations. The RLS
when it operates at light load conditions [1]. Various algorithm with multiple time-varying forgetting factors is
approaches have been researched to enhance the IM proposed for on-line parameter estimation in this paper.
efficiency at light loads. Two basic control approaches, Simulations and comparisons are performed to confirm
known as model-based control and search control have the effectiveness and benefit of the proposed energy
been introduced. The model-based control approach uses efficient control strategy. The remainder of this paper is
an IM loss model to define an optimal flux for each organized as follows. An energy efficient control strategy
operational point at a given load torque and machine using an optimal rotor flux reference is presented in
speed. This approach has a fast response time. However, it Section II. A new application of the chaos PSO algorithm
is not robust to IM parameter variations. A neural network is proposed in Section III. A novel RLS algorithm
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 450

modification with multiple time-varying forgetting factors From (3)-(4) and (6)-(8), assuming that the stator and rotor
is proposed in Section IV for on-line updating of the IM inductances are the same value, the input power of the IM
parameter variations. The simulation results then follow to is then given as follows:
confirm the validity of the proposed techniques in Section
Pin = vqs iqs + vds ids =
V. Finally, the advantages of the new techniques are
summarized through comparison with other related Rs 2 16 Te2 ⎛ Rr L2m + Rs L2s ⎞ 1 4 Te (9)
existing control strategies. = ψ dr + ⎜ ⎟ + ωr
L2m 9 p2⎜ 2 ⎟ 2
⎝ Lm ⎠ ψ dr 3 p
II. ENERGY EFFICIENT CONTROL OF AN INDUCTION In addition, the output power of the IM is described as
MACHINE follows:
In the model-based control approach, most of the 2
previous energy efficient control strategies were based on Pout = ωmTe = ωrTe (10)
the model of the IM loss components which are the stator p
and rotor copper losses, core loss, stray loss and Eventually, from (9)-(10), the total IM loss is:
mechanical losses. This paper introduces a loss model for
energy efficient control of the IM which is more general ΔP = Pin − Pout =
and simpler than others. In this case, energy efficient Rs ⎛ Rr L2m + Rs L2s ⎞ 1
16 Te2 2 Te (11)
control is considered in the steady-state and d-axis indirect = 2
ψ dr + ⎜ ⎟ − ωr
2 ⎜
9 p2 2 ⎟ 2
rotor flux-oriented control conditions. Thus, the IM Lm ⎝ Lm ⎠ ψ dr 3 p
mathematical model is described as follows [1]. It can be realised that the IM efficiency can be
vqs = Rs iqs + ωe Ls ids (1) improved by minimizing the total IM loss which is
dominated by the stator and rotor copper losses and core
⎛ L2 − Ls Lr ⎞ loss. The stator and rotor copper losses are reduced by
vds = Rs ids + ωe ⎜ m ⎟ iqs (2) decreasing the stator and rotor currents respectively which
⎜ Lr ⎟
⎝ ⎠ results in increased IM flux. As a consequence, the core
1 Lr loss is then increased. Obviously, there is a conflict
iqs = (ωe − ωr )ψ dr (3) between the copper losses and core loss. When the copper
Rr Lm losses are decreased, the core loss is increased [17].
1 Nevertheless, there is an optimal IM flux at which the
ids = ψ dr (4) total IM loss is minimized for a given load torque and
Lm machine speed [1]. As a result, the solution for energy
3 p Lm efficient control of the IM is to find the optimal IM flux
Te = ψ dr iqs (5) reference during operation. It is based on the IM loss
2 2 Lr model defined as in (11). The chaos PSO algorithm is one
where of the relatively new population-based stochastic
vqs, vds, iqs and ids are the d-q axis stator voltages and optimization algorithms, which is proposed to obtain an
currents. optimal IM flux reference for energy efficient control of
the IM. This algorithm is presented in detail in the next
Rs, Rr, Ls, Lr and Lm are the stator and rotor resistances, section.
stator and rotor inductances and magnetizing inductance.
ω e is the synchronous speed. III. ENERGY EFFICIENT CONTROL OF AN INDUCTION
MACHINE BASED ON A CHAOS PARTICLE SWARM
ω r and ω m are the rotor electrical and mechanical
OPTIMIZATION ALGORITHM
speeds.
The particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm is a
ψ dr is the d-axis rotor flux. population-based stochastic optimization method which
Te is the electrical torque. was developed by Eberhart and Kennedy in 1995 [18].
p is the number of poles. The PSO algorithm is simpler and easier to implement
than other evolutionary algorithms, as it only has a few
From (3) and (5), the IM synchronous speed is given by: parameters to adjust, especially in solving discontinuous,
4 RrTe 1 multimodal and non-convex problems. However, for local
ωe = ω r + 2
(6) optima problems, the particles sometimes become trapped
3 p ψ dr
in undesired states during the evolution process which
Substituting (3)-(4) and (6) into (1)-(2), the d-q axis stator leads to the loss of the exploration abilities. Because of
voltages become: this disadvantage, premature convergence can happen in
⎛ Rr Lm + Rs Ls ⎞ 1 the standard PSO algorithm which affects the performance
4 Te Ls
⎜ ⎟
⎟ ψ + L ωrψ dr
vqs = (7) of the evolution process. This is one of the major
3 p ⎜ Lm drawbacks of the standard PSO algorithm. In order to
⎝ ⎠ dr m
improve the performance of the standard PSO algorithm,
Rs 4 Te ⎛ L2m − Ls Lr ⎞ the variant of the standard PSO algorithm, known as a
vds = ψ dr + ⎜ ⎟ω r 1 +
Lm 3 p ⎜ Lm ⎟ ψ chaos PSO algorithm was introduced in [19]-[20]. The
⎝ ⎠ dr
chaos PSO algorithm is proposed for energy efficient
(8)
16 Te2 Rr ⎛ L2m − Ls Lr ⎞ 1 control of the IM. This algorithm is described through the
+ ⎜ ⎟ velocity and position update equations as follows:
9 p2 ⎜ Lm ⎟ψ 3
⎝ ⎠ dr
451
The velocity update equation: (
rk2 = br(2k −1) 1 − r(2k −1) ) (20)
v i (k + 1) = wk v i (k ) + c1 rk1 ( pbest i (k ) − x i (k )) + where r1k and r2k are two kth independent chaotic random
(12)
+ c 2 rk2 ( gbest (k ) − x i (k )) sequences, r1k and r2k ∈ (0, 1) have the following initial
conditions: r10 and r20 are random numbers in the interval
The position update equation: of (0, 1) and r10 and r20 ∉ {0.0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1.0}.
x i (k + 1) = x i (k ) + v i (k + 1) (13) In this application, the cognitive and social parameters,
where c1 and c2, are set to 2.
vi (k ) is the kth current velocity of the ith particle. The best position of the ith particle { pbestψ dri (k ) } and
xi (k ) is the kth current position of the ith particle. the best position over the swarm { gbestψ dr (k ) } are
k is the kth current iteration of the algorithm, 1 ≤ k ≤ n . obtained at each kth iteration using the fitness function
n is the maximum iteration number. (11). The evolution process of the chaos PSO algorithm is
i is the ith particle of the swarm, 1 ≤ i ≤ M . implemented according to the position and velocity update
equations, (13) and (12) respectively.
M is the particle number of the swarm.
Eventually, the chaos PSO algorithm stops at the nth
c1 and c2 are the cognitive and social parameters, c1 and c2 maximum iteration number and the optimal rotor flux
∈ [0, 2]. reference is obtained as follows.
wk , rk1 and rk2 are the chaotic inertia weight and two ψ dr _ optimal = gbestψ dr (n ) (21)
independent chaotic random sequences.
pbesti(k) is the best position found by the ith particle IV. ENERGY EFFICIENT CONTROL OF AN INDUCTION
(personal best). MACHINE WITH ON-LINE PARAMETER ESTIMATION
gbest(k) is the best position found by a swarm (global The rated values of the IM parameters are usually used
best, best of the personal bests). in energy efficient control. Nevertheless, the IM
In this application, the particles represent the rotor flux parameters vary and are different from their rated values
reference of the IM. Each particle has its position and due to temperature variation, saturation and skin effects.
velocity. The logistic map is used for initializing the Thus, the utilisation of the rated values can produce a
position { ψ dri } and velocity { vψ dri } of the ith particle mismatch in energy efficient control. For this reason, an
on-line parameter estimator is proposed for the energy
which are described as follows: efficient control application. The RLS algorithm with
(
ψ dri (1) = bψ dr (i −1) (1) 1 − ψ dr (i −1) (1) (14) ) multiple time-varying forgetting factors is proposed for
on-line parameter estimation of the IM and is described as
where
follows.
b is the control parameter and is usually set to 4 in the
From (1)-(4), the d-q axis stator voltages are expanded
experiments [19].
as follows:
ψ dr 0 (1) is an initial value to produce the first particle
vqs = Rs iqs + Lsω r ids + Rr iqs (22)
position at the first iteration. It is a random number in the
interval of (0, 1) and ψ dr 0 (1) ∉ {0.0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1.0}. L2m ⎛ L2m 2
⎞ iqs
( )
vψ dri (1) = bvψ dr (i −1) (1) 1 − vψ dr (i −1) (1) (15)
vds = Rs ids − Lsω r iqs +
Ls
⎜
⎝ Ls
⎟
ω r iqs + Rr ⎜ 2 − 1⎟
⎠ ids
(23)
where vψ dr 0 (1) is an initial value to produce the first In order to perform on-line parameter estimation using
the RLS algorithms, the IM model needs to be re-written
particle velocity at the first iteration. It is a random using a regressive form.
number in the interval of (0, 1) with vψ dr 0 (1) ∉ {0.0, 0.25,
The linear regressive estimator of the system is
0.5, 0.75, 1.0}. described as follows:
The ith particle position and velocity are limited as y = φT θ (24)
follows:
ψ dri(min) ≤ ψ dri ≤ ψ dri(max) (16) where
y is the output.
and φ is the regressive vector.
vψ dri (min) ≤ vψ dri ≤ vψ dri (max) (17) θ is the vector of estimated parameters.
In addition, the chaotic inertia weight in the chaos PSO Based on the linear regressive form (24), the q-axis
algorithm is: stator voltage in the two-phase d-q synchronously rotating
wk = bw(k −1) 1 − w(k −1) (
(18) ) reference frame (22) is re-written as follows:
where wk is the kth chaotic inertia weight, wk ∈ (0, 1) has ⎡ Rs ⎤

the following initial conditions: w0 is a random number in [
v qs = iqs ω r ids ]
iqs ⎢⎢ Ls ⎥⎥ (25)
the interval of (0, 1) and w0 ∉ {0.0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1.0}. ⎢⎣ Rr ⎥⎦
Moreover, the two independent chaotic random sequences
where
in the chaos PSO algorithm are:
(
rk1 = br(1k −1) 1 − r(1k −1) ) (19)
y = vqs is considered as the output of the regressive
estimator.
452
[
φ T = iqs ω r ids iqs ] is the regressive vector. ( )
θ (t ) = θ (t − 1) + M tv _ multi (t ) y (t ) − φ T (t )θ (t − 1) (39)
θ = [Rs Ls Rr ]T is the vector of estimated parameters. where M tv _ multi (t ) is defined as follows:

The estimated parameters of the IM are then: M tv _ multi (t ) = M 1tv _ multi (t )× M 2tv _ multi (t ) (40)
R s = θ1 (26)
1
M 1tv _ multi (t ) = (41)
Ls = Lr = θ 2 (27) 3 Pj (t − 1)φ j (t )2
Rr = θ 3 1+ ∑
(28)
j =1 λ j (t )
Utilising this model, the stator and rotor resistances and
the stator inductance are estimated. Then, the magnetizing ⎡ P1 (t − 1)φ1 (t ) ⎤
⎢ ⎥
inductance is calculated using (23) as follows:
⎢ λ1 (t ) ⎥
⎢ P2 (t − 1)φ 2 (t ) ⎥
2
iqs M 2tv _ multi (t ) = ⎢ (42)
vds − ids Rs + ω r iqs Ls + Rr λ2 (t ) ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ P3 (t − 1)φ3 (t ) ⎥
ids
Lm = 2
(29)
ω r iqs
+
iqs Rr ⎢⎣ λ3 (t ) ⎥⎦
Ls ids L2s The stator and rotor resistances and the stator and
where Rs, Rr and Ls are the three estimated parameters magnetizing inductances are estimated to update these
obtained using (26)-(28). parameters on-line for energy efficient control of the IM.
In addition, let λ1 (t ) , λ2 (t ) and λ3 (t ) be the time- V. SIMULATION RESULTS
varying forgetting factors of the first, second and third Simulations are performed using MATLAB/SIMULINK
estimated parameters respectively which are as follows software for energy efficient control of the 3 Hp IM, fed
[21]-[22]. by a voltage source inverter. The specifications and
1 parameters of the simulated IM are in Table I. The chaos
λ1 (t ) = 1 − (30) PSO algorithm is applied for energy efficient control of
ζ
1+ the IM in which the particle number of a generation is set
φ1 (t )T P1 (t − 1)φ1 (t ) to 50 and the maximum iteration number is set to 100.
1 Additionally, the energy efficient control strategy also
λ2 (t ) = 1 − (31) takes into account the IM parameter variations. The
ζ proposed RLS algorithm is utilised to adapt to IM
1+
φ2 (t )T P2 (t − 1)φ2 (t ) parameter variations. In this case, the IM parameter
variations are described as follows. The IM parameters are
1
λ3 (t ) = 1 − (32) constant for t = 0–2 s; the stator resistance is increased by
ζ 30% at t = 2 s, the remaining parameters are constant; the
1+
φ3 (t )T P3 (t − 1)φ3 (t ) rotor resistance is increased by 50% at t = 2.5 s, the stator
resistance remains at its varied value, the remaining
where
parameters are constant; the stator and magnetizing
Pj(t) is considered as the covariance matrix of the inductances are increased by 20% at t = 3 s, the stator and
estimated parameter vector. rotor resistances remain at their varied values, 30% and
ζ is a constant which is set to 4 [22]. 50% respectively.
The update gains in the RLS algorithm with multiple Fig. 1 shows the IM efficiency corresponding to the
time-varying forgetting factors are: rated rotor flux reference which is constant regardless of
the IM load variation. When the IM load is 80% of the
[
L1 (t ) = P1 (t − 1)φ1 (t ) λ1 + φ1T (t )P1 (t − 1)φ1 (t ) ] −1
(33) rated load in the period, t = 0.5–2 s, the IM efficiency is
high, 73.1%. At t = 2 s, the IM load starts decreasing to
[
L2 (t ) = P2 (t − 1)φ2 (t ) λ2 + φ2T (t )P (t − 1)φ (t )]
2 2
−1
(34) 60%, 50%, 40% and 20% of the rated load and the IM
efficiency then decreases to 68.8%, 66.2%, 62.2% and
L (t ) = P (t − 1)φ (t )[λ (t )P (t − 1)φ (t )]
−1
+ φ3T (35) 45.1% respectively. When the IM load decreases, the
3 3 3 3 3 3
output power decreases and the input power is constant.
where Lj(t) is the update gain. As a consequence, the IM efficiency decreases. In order to
The elements of the covariance matrix in this algorithm keep high IM efficiency, the input power is required to
are: decrease and this can be achieved by changing the rotor
[ ]1 flux reference to its optimal value.

P1 (t ) = 1 − L1 (t )φ1T (t ) P1 (t − 1) (36)
λ1 (t ) Fig. 2 shows that the IM always has high efficiency.
The rotor flux reference alters to adapt to the IM load
[ ]
P2 (t ) = 1 − L2 (t )φ2T (t ) P2 (t − 1)
1
λ2 (t )
(37)
variations. There is a significant improvement in the IM
efficiency, Fig. 2, which is compared to the IM efficiency
using the rated rotor flux reference, Fig. 1, especially at
[ ]
P3 (t ) = 1 − L3 (t )φ3T (t ) P3 (t − 1)
1
λ3 (t )
(38)
light loads. The IM efficiency is 45.1% at the lightest load
whereas it is 83.5% using the optimal rotor flux reference
obtained by the chaos PSO algorithm.
Eventually, the estimated parameter vector is:
453
Fig. 3 shows the optimal IM efficiency corresponding VI. CONCLUSION
to the optimal rotor flux reference obtained using the This paper proposed an energy efficient control strategy
chaos PSO algorithm. Due to the effect of the IM for the IM using an optimal rotor flux reference obtained
parameter variations, the accuracy of the optimal rotor using the chaos PSO algorithm. The simulation results
flux reference is reduced which affects the performance of show that the IM efficiency is significantly improved,
the energy efficient control. In order to improve the especially for light loads. Additionally, the RLS algorithm
accuracy of the optimal rotor flux reference, the IM with multiple time-varying forgetting factors is applied to
parameters are estimated on-line using the proposed RLS estimate on-line the IM parameters which are then used in
algorithm. the energy efficient control strategy. In this case, the IM
Fig. 4 shows the optimal IM efficiency corresponding efficiency always remains optimal.
to the optimal rotor flux reference achieved using the 100
chaos PSO algorithm. In this simulation, the IM parameter
80
variations are updated on-line to improve the accuracy of
Load (%)
the optimal rotor flux reference so that the performance of 60
the energy efficient control scheme is always optimal. The 40

IM efficiency, Fig. 4, is lower than the case where the IM 20
parameters are assumed constant during operation, Fig. 2. 0
The stator and rotor resistances begin to increase at t = 2 s. 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Due to these variations, the total IM loss is increased. As a

consequence, the IM efficiency is decreased as shown in
1
Optimal flux (Wb)

Table II.
0.8
0.6
TABLE I. IM SPECIFICATIONS AND PARAMETERS
0.4
Number of phases 3 0.2
Connection Star 0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Number of poles 4
Rated power 3 Hp (~ 2.24 kW)
100
Line voltage (RMS) 230 V
90
Line current (RMS) 9A
Efficiency (%)
80
Rated speed 1430 rpm 70
Rated torque 14.96 N m 60
Rotor construction Wound rotor with slip rings 50
Stator resistance 0.55 Ω 40
Stator inductance 0.068 H 30
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Magnetizing inductance 0.063 H Time (s)
Rotor resistance 0.72 Ω
Rotor inductance 0.068 H Figure 2. IM efficiency with the optimal rotor flux reference obtained
Moment of inertia 0.05 kg m2 using the chaos PSO algorithm
100 100
80 80
Load (%)
Load (%)
60 60
50
40 40
20 20
0 0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
1 1
Optimal flux (Wb)
Rated flux (Wb)
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
100
100
90
90
Efficiency (%)
80
Efficiency (%)
80
70
70
60
60
50
50
40
40
30
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 30
Time (s) 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Time (s)
Figure 1. IM efficiency with the rated rotor flux reference
Figure 3. Energy efficient control using the chaos PSO algorithm in
the case of no updated IM parameter variations
454
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60
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455
A Sector Advanced Technique to Improve

Dynamic Response of a Direct Torque
Controlled Induction Motor
Narasimham PVRL Sarma AVRS Vargil kumar E
Electrical Engineering Dept. Electrical Engineering Dept. Electrical Engineering Dept.
Gudlavalleru Engineering College College of Engg. Osmania University Gudlavalleru Engineering College
Gudlavalleru-521 356, India Hyderabad- 500 007, India Gudlavalleru-521 356, India
email: pvrl2005@yahoo.co.in email: avrs2000@yahoo.com email: vargilkumar@gmail.com
Abstract—Several techniques are available for speed II. DYNAMIC EQUATIONS OF INDUCTION MOTOR
control of induction motor drive. The Direct Torque The dynamic T- model of induction machine
Control (DTC) method is simple and efficient because of in the stator reference frame is given in Fig.1[4]
independence of rotor parameters and free from d-q
transformation. It is observed that dynamics of DTC drive
can be improved by using estimators, observers, and
machine intelligence systems. This paper proposes a new
technique namely Sector Advancing Technique (SAT) for
reducing the response time of the drive for a known
torque command. Simulation studies are carried out using
MATLAB/SIMULINK and results of DTC with SAT over
conventional DTC are presented.
Index Terms: Induction Machine, Direct Torque Control, Fig. 1 T-model of Induction Motor
Stator Flux, Torque Ripple. The stator flux is given by
I. INTRODUCTION dλ s
= Vs − R s is ...(1)
The DTC method of induction motor proposed dt
by Japanese and German researchers [1, 2] has drawn While the rotor flux in the squirrel cage induction
the attention of many researchers in recent times. In motor satisfies the relation
DTC it is possible to directly control the stator flux and dλ r
the torque by selecting appropriate inverter state. The = jω 0 λ r − R r i r ....(2)
main feature of this method of control is decoupled dt
The torque developed ‘TM’ can be expressed in several
control of flux and torque without the need of
forms, one such form is
coordinate transformation and inner current regulation
loops. The DTC has a drawback of having inherent 2P
TM = (λ ds i qs − λ qs i ds ) ....( 3)
torque and flux ripple. This has been the topic of 3 2
research for the last few years to minimize the ripple III. BASICS OF DIRECT TORQUE CONTROL
and to improve the performance of DTC of induction The torque developed by in an induction motor can be
machines [3-10]. The major indicator of quality of written as
dynamic response of a DTC is response time to the
torque command. In this paper reduction of response 2 P Lm
TM = λs λr sin(θ sr ) ....(4)
time is realized by using the Sector Advancing 3 2 Lσ 2
Technique (SAT) over a conventional DTC [4]. The Here θsr denotes the angle between the stator flux and
proposed scheme aimed at reducing response time to rotor flux and is called as torque angle. The torque can
improve dynamic performance consists of a DTC be controlled by adjusting this angle. The magnitude of
controller, Torque and flux estimator and a Voltage stator flux λs, a measure of intensity of magnetic field in
Source Inverter (VSI). It does not need pulse width the motor is directly dependent on the stator voltage
modulator and position encoder as in some other and is given in equation (5). The same stator voltage Vs
methods, resulting in fast dynamic response. The details can also be employed to control θsr there by controlling
of this method are given in subsequent sections. the torque developed.
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 456

t
λs = ∫ (V
0
s − R s i s ) dt + λ s ( 0 ) ....( 5 )
From Fig.1, it is observed that the derivative of stator

flux reacts instantly to changes in the stator voltage, the
respective two space vectors are separated in the circuit
by the stator resistance Rs only.
However, the vector derivative of rotor flux ‘рλr’ is
separated from that of stator flux by stator and rotor
leakage inductances. Therefore the reaction of rotor
flux vector to stator voltage is somewhat sluggish in
comparison with that of stator flux vector.
In Fig.2, at a certain instant t, the initial vectors of stator
and rotor are denoted by λs(t), λr(t) respectively. After
a time Δt , the new stator voltage vector λs(t+Δt) differs Fig. 3 Indication of sectors
from λs in both magnitude and direction. As time Δt is states V0 and V7 practically do not affect the vector of
very small the changes in rotor flux has been negligible. stator flux which stops moving. (4) The developed
The stator flux has increased and torque angle θsr has torque can be controlled by selecting such inverter
been reduced by Δ θsr . Thus, appropriate selection of state, where the stator flux vector is accelerated,
inverter states allows adjustments of both the strength stopped or decelerated.
of magnetic field of motor and developed torque.
jΘvk
The basic premises and principles of the direct torque The kth voltage vector is given by Vk=Vdc , e
control methods can be formulated as follows.
(1) Stator flux is a time integral of stator EMF. Vk =Vdc e jΘvk ....(6)
Therefore its magnitude strongly depends on the stator Where Vdc denotes the dc input voltage of the inverter.
voltage. (2) Developed torque is proportional to the sine Θ vk = ( k − 1)π / 3 ....( 7 ) .
of angle between the stator and rotor flux vectors. (3)
Reaction of rotor flux to changes in stator voltage is The d-q plane is divided into six wide vectors
slower than that of stator flux. Consequently both the designated 1 through 6 and centered on corresponding
magnitude of stator flux and developed torque can be voltage vectors as given in Fig. 3
directly controlled by proper selection of space vectors A stator flux vector λs is said to be associated with the
of stator voltage i.e., selection of inverter states. voltage vector Vk when it passes through the sector k.
Specifically, (1) Non zero voltage vectors whose Impacts of individual voltage vectors on stator flux and
misalignment with the stator flux vector does not developed torque are listed in Table 1.
exceed ±900 cause flux to increase. (2) Non zero The impact of vectors Vk and Vk+1 on the
voltage vectors whose misalignment with the stator flux developed torque is ambiguous because it depends on
vector exceeds ±900 cause flux to decrease. (3) Zero whether the flux vector is leading or lagging the voltage
vector in question. The zero vector Vz does not affect
the flux but reduces the torque, because the vector of
rotor flux gains on the stopped rotor flux.
TABLE 1
Influence of Voltage State on Stator Flux and Torque
Vk Vk+1 Vk+2 Vk+3 Vk+4 Vk+5 Vz
λs ↑↑ ↑ ↓ ↓↓ ↓ ↑ —
TM ? ↑ ↑ ? ↓ ↓ ↓
Fig. 2 Effect of Voltage Vector on Stator Flux and Torque
457
The basic block diagram of the DTC drive TABLE 2
Selection of Voltage State based on Flux and Torque Errors
system is shown in Fig. 4. The DC link voltage Vdc
and two stator currents ia and ib are measured and space Flux Torque
θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4 θ5 θ6
vectors Vs and Is of stator voltage and current are error error
determined in the voltage and current synthesizer. bT = 1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 V1
Based on Vs and Is , the stator flux vector λs of the bλ=1 bT =0 V7 V0 V7 V0 V7 V0
stator flux is compared with the reference value λs* bT = -1 V6 V1 V2 V3 V4 V5
and TM is compared with the reference torque TM* in
the torque control loop. bT = 1 V3 V4 V5 V6 V7 V1
bλ=0 bT =0 V0 V7 V0 V7 V0 V7
The flux and torque errors bλ and bT are
bT =-1 V5 V6 V1 V2 V3 V4
applied to respective hysteresis controllers. The flux
controller output signal can assume the values 0 and 1
and that of torque controller can assume the values of -1
,0 ,1 as given in Fig. 5. Selection of inverter state is
based on values of -1, 0 and 1. Selection of inverter
state is based on sector, errors in torque and flux.
Inverter state selection is provided in Table 2.
Rectifier Inverter Motor

DC Link
νi
Fig. 6 Effect of Stator Voltage Vector on Torque and Flux
λs* bλ From Table 2 and Fig. 6, it can be observed

a b c that five cases are distinguished in selection of the state
λs
Θs of the inverter. (1) Both flux and torque are to be
λs λs νs is decreased. (2) The flux is to decreased but the torque is
bT to be Increased. (3) The flux and torque are to be
λds increased. (4)The flux is to increased and the torque to
λqs be decreased. (5)The torque error is within the tolerance
Tm* range. Case (5) calls for such a zero state that
Tm minimizes the number of switching. It is stated in the
literature that as the width of hysteresis loop is reduced,
the ripple in the flux and torque reduces and switching
Fig. 4 Basic DTC Scheme
frequency increases.
IV. IMPLEMENTATION OF SECTOR ADVANCING
TECHNIQUE
Various improvements of the basic scheme
described often involving Space Vector Modulation
Technique, Fuzzy Logic Controllers; Machine
Intelligence Systems are used to improve the flux
waveform, ripple free torque, dynamics and efficiency
of the drive and to enhance the quality of stator currents
in the motor. Sector Advancing Technique (SAT) is
Fig. 5 Hysteresis Controllers employed for reducing the response time of the drive to
given torque command. This time is often used as a
458
major indicator of quality of the dynamic performance V. SIMULATION RESULTS
of the drive. To validate the proposed sector advancement
In a DTC, a vector of inverter voltage used in technique, simulations have been carried out by using
one sector of the vector plane to decrease the stator flux MATLAB/SIMULINK, with the following machine
is employed in next sector when the flux is to be parameters.
increased. With such a control the trajectory of stator Rated power: 1.5kW, 4 pole, Rs=8.49Ω, Rr=7.65Ω,
flux control vector forms a piecewise linear Ls=0.5253H, Lr=0.5253H, Lm=0.5015H, J=0.02 kg-m2
approximation of a circle as given in Fig. 7. The reference torque is taken as 20 N-m and reference
In the proposed Sector Advancing Technique, flux as 1
the line separating the two sectors is shifted back by an
angle α radians. Due to this there is an advancement of
a sector by an angle α at that boundary region and the
inverter applies vector states of next sector into the
present sector. As the linear speed of the stator flux
vector along its trajectory is constant and equals to the
dc supply voltage of the inverter, the voltage vector
swiftly moves to next sector in a shorter time than if it
traveled along the regular trajectory as shown in Fig. 8.
The acceleration of stator flux vector results in a rapid
Fig. 9 Simulation model of CDTC/SATDTC
increase of the torque, because that vector quickly
moves away from the rotor flux vector. The greater the The simulation model is given in Fig. 9. The locus of
sector shift α , the greater the torque increase. flux in Conventional DTC(CDTC) and with 300 angle
advancement in sector 2 of SAT in DTC (SATDTC)
are shown in Fig. 10.
The variation of torque with time of CDTC
and SATDTC are given in Fig. 11 and Fig. 12. It is
observed that the acceleration time to reach reference
torque of 20N-m first time is 10.2ms in CDTC and it is
14.25ms in SATDTC which is slightly more than that
of CDTC. However the time taken by DTC to reach a
load torque of 5N-m is 0.45 s where as that in SATDTC
it is 0.422 s (approximately 6.22% improvement) which
proves that there is an improvement in the dynamic
response with sector angle advancement. The variation
of rotor speed in both the schemes is shown in Fig. 13
Fig. 7 Selection of voltage vectors with DTC
and Fig. 14. The time to reach final speed in CDTC is
0.5s and in proposed scheme it is 0.45s. The steady
speed of SATDTC is observed to be slightly higher
value with more ripple content as compared to CDTC.
The stator currents are shown in Fig. 15 and Fig. 16.
Studies have been made on response time,
torque ripple, speed, flux ripple, steady currents by
varying the sector angle advancement from 00 to 600. It
is observed that the ripple content increases with
increase in advancement of angle in a sector. Even
though studies are made with SAT in sector 2, it can be
extended to all other sectors also. But it is preferred to
Fig. 8 Sector Advancement Technique DTC adopt the SAT in one sector at a time rather than
459
applying SAT in more than one sector at a time, to keep
the ripple in torque, flux and currents at lower values. 300
250
Rotor Speed (Electrical)

200
150
100
50
0
-50
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Time in Seconds
Fig. 13 Rotor Speed in CDTC

350
Fig. 10 Locus of Flux in CDTC and SATDTC
300
250
Speed (rad/sec)
200
20 150
M otor T orque in N m
100
15
50
10 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Time in Seconds
5 Fig. 14 Rotor Speed in SATDTC
Two axes Stator Currents (Iqs , Ids)
iqs
ids
15
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 10

Time in Seconds
5
Fig. 11 Developed Torque in Conventional DTC 0
25 -5
-10
20 -15
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
M o to r T o r q u e in N - m
Time in Seconds
Fig. 15 Stator Currents in Conventional DTC
15 15
iqs
Two Axes Stator Currents (A)
10 ids
10 5
5 -5
-10
0 -15
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
-20
Time in Seconds 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Time in Secs
Fig. 12 Developed Torque in SATDTC
Fig. 16 Stator Currents in SATDTC
460
VI . CONCLUSION
In this paper , Sector Advancement

Technique ( SAT) has been proposed to improve the
dynamic response of a Direct Torque Controlled
Induction Motor. Simulation studies show that the
improvement in dynamic response is 6.22% in SATDTC
as compared to CDTC for the selected induction motor.
The ripple in torque, flux is increased as compared to
CDTC. The steady state speed with SATDTC is higher
by about 12 rad/s as compared to CDTC. It is observed
that ripple in flux and torque increases with SATDTC.
The toque ripple and flux ripple can be minimized by
using well defined techniques.
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461
Implementation of Fuzzy Logic Controller for

Permanent Magnet Brushless DC Motor Drives
Tan Chee Siong1, Baharuddin Ismail2, Siti Fatimah Siraj3, Mohd Fayzul Mohammed4 ,
Mohd Faridun Naim Tajuddin5, Universiti Malaysia Perlis, School of Electrical Systems Engineering, Perlis,
Malaysia. terry_tcs_5510@yahoo.com, baha@unimap.edu.my, faridun@unimap.edu.my
Abstract— This paper presents the analysis of Fuzzy Logic I I . SYSTEMS STRUCTURE
controller for permanent magnet brushless DC motor drive. The
brushless direct current (BLDC) motor is efficiently controlled A. Permanent-Magnet BLDC Motor Structure
by Fuzzy logic controller compare to the other type of controllers.
The dynamic characteristics of the brushless dc motor such as Fig. 1 illustrates the structure of a typical brushless DC
speed, torque, currents and voltages of the inverter components motor. The stator windings are similar to those in a
are easily observed and analyzed by using the developed Matlab polyphase AC motor, and the rotor is composed of one or
model. To verify the effectiveness of the controller the simulation more permanent magnets. Brushless DC motors (BLDC)
results are compared with experimental results.
contain a powerful permanent magnet rotor and fixed
Keywords- Fuzzy logic controller; BLDC motor drives; MATLAB
stator windings. The stationary stator windings are usually
Simulation; experiment result three phases, which means that three separate voltages are
supplied to three different set of windings [6]. Brushless DC
I. INTRODUCTION motors are different from AC synchronous motors in that
the former incorporates some means to detect the rotor
BLDC motors have some advantages over conventional position (or magnetic poles) to produce signals to control
brushed DC motors and induction motors. Some of these the electronic switches as shown in fig. 2.
are; better speed versus torque characteristics, high
dynamic response, high efficiency, long operating life,
noiseless operation and higher speed ranges. In addition,
BLDC motors are reliable, easy to control, and inexpensive
[1]. Due to their favorable electrical and mechanical
properties, BLDC motor are widely used in servo application
such as automotive, aerospace, medical, instrumentation,
actuation, robotics, machine tools and industrial automation
equipment. Many machine design and control schemes have
been developed to improve the performance of BLDC motor
drives. The model of motor drives has to be known in
order to implement an effective control in simulation.
Furthermore, fuzzy logic controllers (FLCs) are used to Figure 1. Disassembled view of a brushless dc motor)
analyze BLDC motor drives in literature [2]. The previous
studies have made a great contribution to BLDC motor
drives. In this paper, a comprehensive simulation model
with fuzzy logic controller is presented. MATLAB/fuzzy
logic toolbox is used to design FLC, which is integrated
into simulations with Simulink. The control algorithms,
fuzzy logic and PID are compared. Several simulation
results are shown to confirm the performance and the
validity of the proposed model [3]. Besides, considering that
the computational time without affecting the accuracy of the
results obtained is very low, it can be said that the proposed
method is promising [4].
Figure 2. Diagram for BLDC motor
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Fig. 3 shows the equivalent circuit of BLDC motor and
VSI system.
Figure 5. Structure of fuzzy logic controller
Figure 3. Voltage source inverter (VSI) and BLDC motor
B. Structure of fuzzy logic controller

Figure 6. (a) triangle, (b) trapezoid, and (c) bell membership function
Fig. 4 shows the designed control system for BLDC
motor. The system contains two loops, the first loop is the Fig. 7 illustrates the membership function used to
current control loop that accomplishes torque control of fuzzification two input values and defuzification output of
BLDC motor and the second loop is the speed control loop the fuzzy controller. For seven clusters in the membership
that adjusts the speed of BLDC motor. functions, seven linguistic variables are defined as:
Negative Big (NB), Negative Medium (NM), Negative
Small (NS), Zero (Z), Positive Small (PS), Positive Medium
(PM), and Positive Big (PB).
Figure 7. Membership functions of fuzzy logic controller

Figure 4. Fuzzy logic for BLDC motor drive system
A sliding mode rule base used in fuzzy logic controller
Fig. 5 shows the basic structure of fuzzy logic controller. is given in Table 1. The fuzzy inference operation is
Fuzzy logic’s linguistic terms are most often expressed implemented by using the 49 rules. The min-max
in the form of logical implications, such as If-Then rules. compositional rule of inference and the center of gravity
These rules define a range of values known as fuzzy method have been used in defuzzification process [6].
membership functions [5]. Fuzzy membership functions
may be in the form of triangle, a trapezoid, a bell as shows
If p1 is NB and p2 is NB Then out is PB,
in fig. 6, or another appropriate form.
If p1 is NB and p2 is NM Then out is PB,
If p1 is NB and p2 is NS Then out is PM,
If p1 is NB and p2 is Z Then out is PM,
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Figure 8. Matlab simulation diagram of fuzzy logic controller
TABLE I. RULE BASE OF FUZZY LOGIC CONTROLLER
(2)
Where; va , vb , and vc are phase voltages, R is
resistance, L is inductance, M is mutual inductance, ea ,
eb , and ec are trapezoidal back EMFs.
The motion equation is:
C. Simulation structure of fuzzy controller (3)

Fig. 8 shows the Matlab simulation diagram of Fuzzy
logic controller. The developed Matlab model is use to
observer the phase current waveforms, speed, torque and The trapezoidal shape functions with limit values between
maximun current. +1 and -1:
III. MATHEMATICAL EQUATIONS
The trapezoidal back-EMF wave forms are modeled

as a function of rotor position so that rotor position can
be actively calculated according to the operation speed.
The back EMFs are expressed as a function of rotor position (4)
(θ).
The expression of electromagnetic torque:
Te = ke ( fa (θ) ia + fa (θ) ib + fc (θ) ic ) (5)
Speed and torque characteristics of BLDC motor:

(1)
(6)
Where ke is back-EMF constant, fa (Θ ) , fb (Θ ) , and fc The error and the change in error:
(Θ ) are the function of rotor position.
e1[n] = wref [n]– wr [n] (7)
e2[n] = e1 [n] – e1 [n-1] (8)
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IV. RESULTS
A. Simulation
To validate the control strategies as described,

digital simulation were carried out on a converter dc
motor drive system by using MATLAB/SIMULINK, the
used parameters in these system are given in table II.
Table II. THE PARAMETER OF DC MOTOR DRIVE SYSTEM
Armature resistance (Ra) 0.5 Ώ

Armature inductance (La) 8 mH
Back e.m.f constant (K) 0.55 V/rad/s
Mechanical inertia (J) 0.0465 kg.m2
Friction coefficient (B) 0.004 N.m/rad/s
Rated armature current (Ia) 10 A
Fig. 9 shows the phase current waveforms of the BLDC

motor when the rotor position at 4000 rpm. The phase
difference between Ia, Ib and Ic is approximate to 120 degrees.
The peak currents value is approximate to 9 A for all Ia, Ib and
Ic.
Figure 10. Speed of BLDC motor, Electromagnetic torque and maximum
current (Imax)
Fig. 11 shows the speed for FLC by developed model.

The speeds reach the desired value at the time 5ms .
Figure 9. Phase current waveforms based on the rotor position at 4000 rpm Figure 11. Speeds comparison for FLC
Fig. 12 shows the torques FLC b y developed model. For

Fig. 10 shows the dynamic responses of the FLC, the torque reached the desired value at 5ms.
speed, torque and Imax, respectively. The reference value
of maximum current (Imax) is computed from the
generated constant torque reference.
465
Fig. 15 shows the experimental results for phase current
waveforms of the BLDC motor when the rotor position at
4000 rpm. The phase difference between Ia, Ib and Ic is
approximate to 120 degrees and the value of the peak current
for Ia, Ia and Ic is about 9A.
Figure 12. Torques comparison for FLC
B. Experimental
The TMS320F2808 DSP and BLDC motor was used

to observed the speed response and the phase current
waveforms. Fig. 13 shows the experimental set of the
controller and BLDC motor.
Figure 15. Phase current waveforms based on the rotor position at 4000 rpm
V. CONCLUSION
Figure 13. The experimental set As a conclusion, a comprehensive analysis of brushless
Fig. 14 shows the speed response of the experimental set. DC drive system has been performed by using fuzzy logic
The speed of the motor reached the desired value or steady controller. The simulation model which is implemented in a
state at approximate 5ms. A very small value of the overshoot modular manner under MATLAB environment allows
for experimental result, its about 50rpm from the desired dynamic characteristics such as phase currents, rotor speed,
value. and mechanical torque can be effectively considered. It is
seen that the desired real speed and torque values could be
reached in a short time by FLC controller. The results
show that MATLAB paired with simulink is a good
simulation tool for modeling and analyze fuzzy logic
controlled brushless DC motor drives.
Besides, both simulated results and experimental results
shows very good closed agreement.
Figure 14. Speed for Fuzzy Logic Controller
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VI. REFFERENCES
[1] P. Yedamale, Brushless DC (BLDC) Motor Fundamentals.

Chandler, AZ: Microchip Technology, Inc., last access; March 15,
2009.[Online].Available:http://ww1.microchip.com/downloads/en/Ma
rket_Communication/Feb%202009%20microSOLUTIONS.pdf
[2] R. Akkaya, A.A. Kulaksız, and O Aydogdu, DSP implementation
of a PV system with GA-MLP-NN based MPPT controller
supplying BLDC motor drive, Energy Conv. and Management 48,
210-218, 2007.
[3] Tan Chee Siong, Baharuddin; M.Fayzul; M.Faridun N.T, Study of Fuzzy
and PI Controller for Permanent-Magnet Brushless DC Motor Drive, IEEE
International Power Engineering and Optimization Conference.
[4] C.W. Hung; C.T. Lin, and C.W. Liu, An Efficient Simulation
Technique for the Variable Sampling Effect of BLDC Motor
Applications, IECON 2007, pp. 1175–1179, 2007
[5] A. Rubai, A. Ofoli, and M. Castro, dSPACE DSP-Based Rapid
Prototyping of Fuzzy PID Controls for High Performance
Brushless Servo Drives, IEEE Industry Applications Conference,
41st IAS Annual Meeting, page(s):1360–1364, 2006
[6] B. Sing, A.H.N. Reddy, and S.S. Murthy, Gain Scheduling
Control of Permanent Magnet Brushless dc Motor, IE(I) Journal-EL
84, 52-62, 2003
467
High Performance Induction Motor Drive Using

Fuzzy Self-Tuning Hybrid Fuzzy Controller
A. Saghafinia * and H. Wooi Ping **
* Department of Electrical Engineering University of Malaya Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Saghafi_ali@yahoo.com
** Department of Electrical Engineering University of Malaya Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia wphew@um.edu.my
Abstract— a fuzzy self-tuning hybrid fuzzy controller for under some operating conditions but not all. Because
indirect field oriented control (IFOC) induction motor most industrial processes are in general complex, time
drives will be presented in this paper. The developed hybrid variant, with non-linearity and model uncertainty, and
fuzzy control law consists of proportional-integral (PI) this places additional complexity on the modeling
control at steady state, PI-type fuzzy logic control (FLC) at procedure used. In fact, PI controller main drawbacks are
transient state, a simple switching mechanism between the sensitivity in performance to the system parameters
steady and transient states, and fuzzy self-tuning for tuning variations and inadequate rejection of external
of their coefficients to have high performance and disturbances and load changes and robustness to inertia
robustness drive under steady and transient conditions. The increasing and rotor resistance variations in the case of an
importance of the presented hybrid fuzzy controller will be indirect rotor flux oriented machine [7-8]. Thus, the
highlighted by comparing the performance of fuzzy self- controller parameters have to be continually adapted
tuning hybrid fuzzy controller with PI controller, for IFOC according to the current trend of the system [9].
induction motor drives. It will be displayed that the
presented induction motor drive has both less steady state
There are several adaptive control techniques for
error and better behavior in transient state; moreover, it is
coefficient tuning of PI controller such as model
robust to load disturbance, the inertia variation, and robust
reference adaptive control (MRAC) [10], sliding-mode
to rotor resistance variation. Simulation results will be control (SMC) [11], variable structure control (VSC)
presented confirming the above-mentioned claims. [12] , self-tuning PI controllers [13], etc. The design of
all of the above controllers depends on the system exact
Keywords — Induction Motor; Indirect Field Oriented mathematical model. However, it is often difficult to
Control; Hybrid Fuzzy; Self-Tuning; Self Tuning Fuzzy PI develop an accurate system mathematical model due to
Plus PI saturation, temperature variations, and system
disturbances [14].
I. INTRODUCTION Many of the recent developed computer control
techniques are grouped into a research area called
Electric drives for motion control must have a fast Intelligent Control, that result from the integration of
torque response, controllability of torque, and speed over
fuzzy logic techniques within automatic control systems.
a wide range of operating conditions [1].It is well known
As compared to the conventional PI, PID, and their
that vector control [2] can cope with the control issues of adaptive versions, the FLCs have some advantages such
ac motor drives. as: 1) they do not need any exact system mathematical
Indirect vector method decouples the motor current model; 2) they can handle nonlinearity of arbitrary
components (flux and torque) by estimating the slip speed complexity; 3) sometimes they are proved to be more
which requires a proper knowledge of the rotor time robust against plant parameter variation, load disturbance
constant. The accuracy of this model depends very much effects than conventional controllers [15]; 4) they have
on the accuracy of motor parameters, especially the rotor satisfactory performance with imprecision signals from
time constant Tr [3]. However, changes in the rotor time the sensors [16]. However, the application of FLC has
faced some disadvantages during hardware and software
constant Tr , often cause field-orientation detuning and implementation due to its high computational burden
degrade system performance, especially for large high- [17].
efficiency induction machine systems [4]. Although Due to the popularity of PI, PID controllers in
indirect field orientation method is very sensitive to industrial applications, most of the development of fuzzy
variations of motor parameters it is generally preferred controllers revolves around fuzzy PID and PI or P or D
than the direct one. This is because direct method controllers in the past decade [7, 18-21]. In standard
requires a modification or a special design for the FLCs, the scaling factors of the fuzzy controller are fixed
machine. Moreover the fragility of flux sensors often and selected under nominal conditions, in which attention
degrades the inherent robustness of an induction motor cannot be simultaneously given to both dynamic and
drive [5]. steady-state performances of a drive system with wide
The conventional PI controller (CPIC) is one of the speed range [22]. That is why; the coefficient of hybrid
most common approaches for speed control in industrial fuzzy should be tuned with adaptive method.
electrical drives in general [6]. It is well known that PI In this paper, a fuzzy self tuning PI type fuzzy plus PI
controller may be insufficient to deal with systems controller for IFOC induction motor drives will be
subjected to severe disturbance and may perform well
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presented. The attribute of the presented hybrid fuzzy
controller will be highlighted by comparing the Where
performance of hybrid fuzzy controller control with (4)
proportional-integral (PI) control, for IFOC induction ϕ edr = (L m i eds + L r i edr )
motor drives. Simulation results will be presented
confirming the above-mentioned claims. ϕ eqr = (L m i eqs + L r i eqr ) (5)
II. INDUCTION MOTOR MODEL AND BASIC

VECTOR CONTROL EQUATIONS B. Indirect Field Oriented Control
In this section, the basic theoretical background to The configuration of the drive investigated in this
IFOC induction motor drives is explored. paper and structure of speed controller induction motor
A. Induction Motor Model are shown in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 respectively. The drive
applies IFOC to cage IM by means of space vector pulse
A dynamic model developed either with the concept d- with modulation (SVPWM) voltage controller. The
q [23] representations may be utilized to develop the simulated IM model is described in synchronous
basic machine equations for implementation of vector reference frame and can be found in several references
control. The d-q axes model of an induction motor with [24].
reference axis rotating at synchronous speed ωe has For rotor flux orientation control, the rotor flux axes
shown in Equation (1). are locked with the synchronously rotating reference
system such that the rotor flux is entirely in the d-axis,
ω r*e(t) i qs* Vqs* v α* VDC
ΔE (t )
ϕe = ϕe (6)
r dr
*
V ds* ϕ eqr = 0 (7)
i ds
iαs v β* iα Substituting (6) & (7) in (4) & (5) yields
θe ids Lm R r e (8)
ωsl = ( )i qs
i qs iβs iβ ϕ er L r
ωr From (4) & (8),

Lr e
i eqs = − i qr (9)
Figure 1. Control structure of an IFOC induction motor Lm
(R r + L r p)ϕ edr = R r L m i eds (10)
Self-tuning Mechanism
Above equation shows the desired property of
providing a torque proportional to the torque
Ge,Gd,GU Kp,Ki
command i eqs . Combining (10), (4) & (6), yields the
equation relating flux Command and the flux in the
e( k ) E( k ) du
steady state is
U( k )
1/GE
FLC
+
Gdu ϕe = L i e (11)
+ dr m ds
1/GC
Z −1
Δe(k )
With the flux command held Constant, a change in i eqs
−
ΔE ( k ) *
ZZ −1
−1 + i qs
+ is followed instantly by corresponding change in i eqr .

PI controller
e(t) E (t )
Figure 2. Speed controller structure
+ u PID
⎡ Lm L
p − m ωe ⎥
⎤ +
⎢R s + σLs p − σLSωe Lr Lr Δe(t )
⎡ veds ⎤ ⎢ ⎥ ⎡i eds ⎤ ΔE(t ) Z −1
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ σLSωe R s + σLs p
Lm
ωe
Lm
p ⎥ ⎢⎢i e ⎥⎥
(1)
⎢ veqs ⎥ ⎢ Lr Lr ⎥ qs Figure 3. Block diagram of a PI-type and PD-type fuzzy logic
⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ R Rr ⎥⎢ e ⎥ controllers
⎢0 ⎥ ⎢ − L m r 0 +p − ωsl ⎥ ⎢ϕdr ⎥
⎢0 ⎥ ⎢ Lr Lr ⎥⎢ e ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎢ R Rr ⎥ ⎢⎣ϕqr ⎥⎦
⎢ 0 − Lm r ωsl +p ⎥ e(t ) E (t ) u PD u PID
⎣ Lr Lr ⎦ +
Where Δe(t )
+
L2 d ΔE (t ) Z −1
σ = 1 − m , p = , ωsl = (ωe − ω r ) (2)
Ls L r dt
The electromagnetic torque developed by a 3-phase, P- Figure 4. Block diagram of PID-type fuzzy logic controllers
pole, induction motor is
3 p Lm e e
Te = (i qs ϕ dr − i eds ϕ eqr ) (3)
2 2 Lr
469
Table I is selected and the fuzzy inference used is
Mandani type using max- min composition [27].
The defuzzification method used in the system is based
on center of area (COA) method [24]. The fuzzy
controller output is denormalized and integrated to
establish the active current i*qs of the vector-controlled
drive as shown in Fig. 1.
B. Hybrid Fuzzy Controller Design
Figure 5. Input membership function (E)
Block diagram of the hybrid fuzzy controller is
displayed in Fig. 7. As shown in Fig. 7 the controller
consists of PI control law, PI-type fuzzy control law and a
simple switching mechanism. The switching mechanism
changes the control law adaptively and thereby achieving
high performance control under both transient and steady
states. The switching mechanism is defined as
⎧⎪1, e ≤ w PI controller
Switch = ⎨
⎪⎩0, e > w PI − FUZZY controller
TABLE I.
FUZZY PI RULE BASE WITH49 RULES FOR PI-TYPE FUZZY
Figure 6. Input ( ΔE ) and output membership function CONTROLLER
E NL NM NS ZE PS PM PL
III. SPEED CONTROLLER DESIGN
A. PI-Type FLC Design
NL NL NL NL NL NM NS ZE
For most control systems especially motor control,
error signals and their first derivatives are assumed to be NM NL NL NL NM NS ZE PS
available to the controller if the reference input is
piecewise continuous. Analytical calculations show that a NS NL NL NM NS ZE PS PM
two-input FLC employing proportional error signal and
ZE NL NM NS ZE PS PM PL
velocity error signal is a nonlinear proportional-integral
(PI) or proportional-derivative (PD) or proportional- PS NM NS ZE PS PM PL PL
integral -derivative (PID) as shown in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4
espectively [25]. PM NS ZE PS PM PL PL PL
Fig. 3 has two control signals error ( e ) and change in
PL ZE PS PM PL PL PL PL
error ( Δe ) by differentiating the ( e ) signal. These signals
are then converted to per unit (pu) signals E and ΔE by TABLE II.
dividing with the respective scaling factors (SFs) GE and FUZZY PI RULE BASE WITH49 RULES FOR FUZZY SELF-
GC. The per unit (pu) or normalized definition of TUNING CONTROLLER
universe of discourse has the advantages that the design is E NL NM NS ZE PS PM PL
simple and intuitive, and the same fuzzy control
algorithm is applicable for all the scaled systems except
that the SFs GE, GC and Gdu require modification in NL PVL PVL PVL PL PML PVS ZE
individual case. Selection of suitable values for GE, GC
and Gdu are made based on the knowledge about the NM PVL PVL PVL PM PS ZE PVS
process to be controlled and sometimes through trial and
error to achieve the best possible control performance. NS PVL PML PML PS ZE PS PML
Triangular type membership function(MF) is the best ZE PL PM PS ZE PS PM PL
for fuzzy controlled drive system [26]. Asymmetrical
distribution of MFs with number of fuzzy sets (N=7), and PS PML PS ZE PS PML PVL PVL
with both convergent and divergent type asymmetry is
optimal when the loop error ( E ) signal MFs has high PM VS ZE PS PM PVL PVL PVL
degree of convergence, the Symmetrical distribution of
PL ZE PS PML PL PVL PVL PVL
MFs and error rate ( ΔE ) MFs has medium degree of
convergence and the output signal (Gdu) MFs has NL: Negative Large NM: Negative Medium
divergence. Inputs and output MF have been defined on NS: Negative small ZE: Zero
the common interval [-1, 1] as shown in Fig. 5 and Fig. 6 PVS: Positive Very Small PS: Positive Small
respectively.
PM: Positive Medium PML: Positive Medium Large
The well-known Mamdani type fuzzy inferring method PL: Positive Large PVL: Positive Very Large
has been used in all the cases [16]. The fuzzy rule base
for the PI fuzzy controller with 49 rules as shown in
470
The threshold value w for switching control is selected Where f is a nonlinear function (computational
to be slightly greater than the maximum value of steady algorithm) of E and ΔE which is described by the rule
state error for PI-type fuzzy controller alone. This base shown in Table II.
threshold value depends upon the PI-type fuzzy controller Inputs and output MFs for fuzzy self tuning have been
as well as sampling frequency of controller. As the selected like PI-type fuzzy MFs in Fig. 5 and Fig. 6
sampling frequency increases, this value decreases since respectively. Also, the defuzzification method used in the
the steady error of PI-type fuzzy logic controller fuzzy self-tuning controller is based on center of area
decreases. In fact, for the case of steady state, the PI- (COA) method.
controller dominates the control output to significantly The gain updating factor ( α ), output of fuzzy self-
reduce steady state error of the system. In contrast, the
tuning, is calculated using Mamdani type fuzzy inferring
PI-type fuzzy logic controller contributes to the output to
method, with a view to the improvement of the overall
provide fast response and low overshoot when the
control performance. The rule base used is shown in
absolute value of speed error is greater than w [21]. Table II for computation of α . Table II is designed in
C. Designing Self-Tuning Mechanism of Hybrid Fuzzy conjunction with the rule base in Table I.
Controller The following steps can be used for tuning of the
A PI-type fuzzy plus PI can be developed by applying proposed controller.
a tuning algorithm such as self-tuning to directly adjust Step 1: Tune the SFs of PI-type fuzzy controller
the following: 1) the rules; 2) the MFs; and/or 3) the without the gain tuning mechanism and PI controller,
scaling gains. Techniques to tune the scaling gains in real namely adjusting parameters FLC controller alone to
time have received the highest priority in literature due to achieve a reasonably good control performance. In doing
the influence of the gains on the performance and so first, you should normalize of the inputs of PI-type
stability of the system [28-30].The real-time tuning of the fuzzy by dividing error by rated speed so that the error (e)
scaling factors (SFs) is necessary in order to maintain the almost covers the entire domain [-1, 1] to make efficient
desired performance of the drive. use of the rule bases. Then GE and GC are to be tuned to
make transient response of the system as good as
possible.
switch = 1 Step 2: Tune the coefficients of PI controller without
+ u (t )
e(t) the gain tuning mechanism and PI-type fuzzy controller
+ namely, adjusting parameters PI controller alone. Then
switch = 0 KP and KI are to be tuned to make steady -state response
of the system as good as possible.
Step 3: determine value w for the switching
Figure 7. Block diagram of the hybrid fuzzy controller mechanism so that PI controller operates in steady-state
and PI-type fuzzy operates in transient state and make
In Fig.2 u (k ) is obtained by hybrid fuzzy, as mentioned in section III.B. In this paper
u (k ) = u (k − 1) + du (k ) (12) this value is obtained 100 r.p.m.
(13) Step 4: add fuzzy self-tuning to tune parameters of
i *qs = Gdu * u (k ) hybrid fuzzy as mentioned in section III.C and use SFs
In (12), k is the sampling instance and du (k ) is the and coefficients, determined in steps 1, 2 respectively.
incremental change in PI-type fuzzy controller output. As IV. SIMULATION RESULTS
shown in Fig. 2, the SFs of PI- type fuzzy controller and
coefficients of PI controller are adjusted on-line In order to verify the validity of the proposed fuzzy
according to the current states of the controlled processes self tuning hybrid fuzzy controller, several simulations
by a self-tuning mechanism. Our objective here is to are carried out using MATLAB and Simulink software.
adapt SFs of PI-type fuzzy and coefficients of PI The configuration of the overall control system is shown
controller to achieve better control performance by using in Fig. 1.
of gain updating factor ( α ). In fact, α (k ) in each Simulations are based on the facts that whether the
sampling time is multiplied/divided in/by pervious value proposed controller is better and more robust than the PI
SFs of PI-type fuzzy and coefficients of PI controller and controller or not. For the comparison, simulations of the
it changes the value of them for desired performance. speed response were performed according to the speed
The SFs (GE, GC, Gdu) and coefficients (KP, KI) in command variation, the load variation, inertia variation,
Figure 2defined in sampling instance k as and rotor resistance variation of the induction motor.
(14) Table III shows the parameter of the used induction
GE(k ) = (1 / GE(k − 1)) * α (k )
motor for simulation whose general specifications are 37
GC(k ) = (1 / GC(k − 1)) / α (k ) (15) KW, 1771 rev/min, 460V, 60 Hz, 4 poles. The sampling
Gdu (k ) = Gdu (k − 1) * α (k ) (16) time of the controller is 20 u.s.
(17) Fig. 8, Fig. 9 how speed response in case of load
KP(k ) = KP(k − 1) / α (k )
variation using conventional PI controller and proposed
KI(k ) = KP(k − 1) * α(k ) (18) self-tuning fuzzy controller respectively. The command
speed is 1771 rev/min which is increased suddenly from
The functional relationship of α can be viewed as zero and the full disturbance load of the rated torque is
applied at 2.5 sec. The proposed controller rejects the
α (k ) = f (E(k ), ΔE(k )) (19) load disturbance rapidly with no overshoot with
471
maximum drop of speed maximum 5 r.p.m whereas, the applied at 2.5sec. We can see that proposed fuzzy self-
PI controller has a speed drop of maximum 50 r.p.m. tuning hybrid fuzzy controller is more robust to the
Rejection of load disturbance and speed recovery time in inertia. PI controller has a speed overshot maximum of 6
proposed self-tuning hybrid fuzzy controller is better rp.m.
than those in conventional PI controller.
1800
1800
1600
1600
1400
1400
1200
1200
SPEED(R.P.M)
1000
SPEED(R.P.M)
1000
800
REFRENCE SPEED
PROPOSED CONTROLLER RESPONSE
800 PI CONTROLLER RESPONSE
SPEED REFRENCE
600
600
400
400
200
200
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
0 TIME(SEC)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
TIME(SEC)
Figure 11. Effect of change inertia variation on the speed using PI

Figure8. Speed response using proposed controller controller
1800
1800
1600
1600
1400
1400
1200
1200
SPEED(R.P.M)
1000
SPEED(R.P.M)
1000
800
REFRENCE SPEED
PROPOSED CONTROLLER RESPONSE

800 600
REFRENCESPED
400
600 PI CONTROLLER RESPONSE
200
400
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
200 TIME(SEC)
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Figure 12. Effect of doubling rotor resistance on the speed using
TIME(SEC) proposed controller
Figure9. Speed response using PI controller

1800
1800 1600
1600 1400
1400 1200
SPEED(R.P.M)
1200 1000
SPEED(R.P.M)
1000 800
REFRENCE SPEED
800 600
PI CONTROLLER RESPONSE
REFRENCE SPEED
600 PROPOSED CONTROLLER RESPONSE 400
400 200
200 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
TIME(SEC)
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
TIME(SEC)
Figure 13. Effect of doubling rotor resistance on the speed using PI

Figure 10. Effect of change inertia variation on the speed using
controller
proposed controller
Fig. 10 and Fig. 11 show speed response with inertia Fig. 12 and Fig. 13 show the effect of rotor resistance
on the speed when its value has doubled at 2.5sec and full
variation, where the load moment of inertia J L is changed
load is applied from the beginning. However, the
to four times of the nominal value J LN and full load is proposed controller is still performing perfectly with only
472
a maximum speed drop of 3 r.p.m whereas the PI Meeting of the IEEE-Industry-Applications-Society, Tampa, FL,
controller has a speed drop of 30 r.p.m. 2006, pp. 1732-1740.
[10] L. Zhen and L. Xu, "Sensorless field orientation control of
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473
Improved Performance of PMSM Speed

Responses Using a Hybrid Fuzzy/ PI Controller
Kein Huat Chua, Yun Seng Lim, Stella Morris and Jianhui Wong
Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Faculty of Engineering and Science, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Email: chuakh@utar.edu.my, yslim@utar.edu.my
Abstract—This paper presents an improved performance of an efficient solution and this led to the development of
a Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM) using a fuzzy control algorithms. The invention of fuzzy set
hybrid Fuzzy/ Proportional-Integral (PI) controller. Hybrid theory by Zadeh in 1965 also provides a large contribution
control has an advantage of integrating a superiority of two especially in the complex process control applications and
or more control techniques for better control performances. the power electronic systems where a nonlinear and
A fuzzy controller offers better speed responses for start-up precise control is required. In 1989, a lot of researches
and large reference input changes (large speed error) as have been done by Li and Lau [5]. Their research was
compared to a Proportional-Integral controller. based on the application of the fuzzy control theory to a
Nevertheless, a rules-based fuzzy controller is limited to a microprocessor-based servo motor controller. A
particular operating condition. If the nature of the load comparison was done between the PID control and Model
torque is varied, the steady-state error of the fuzzy logic References Adaptive Control (MRAC). Of all indicated
controller will be significant. The Proportional-Integral approaches, the fuzzy logic control provides the best
controller has good adaptability over load torque variation opportunity to improve the performance of PI control
and can maintain high steady-state accuracy. However, the through fuzzy PI controller (FPIC) and the superiority of
transient responses are quite poor. This study has fuzzy control based algorithms is proven as one of the
incorporated a Fuzzy and PI into the control of PMSM to most effective measures in [6] and [7].
improve its dynamic speed performances. The simulation is
carried out using Matlab Simulink. Today there is a tendency to integrate the control
algorithms together for better performances. Lately hybrid
Keywords—Hybrid; Fuzzy; PI; PMSM; systems have increased the potential for intelligent control
systems in getting improved performances [8] to [10]. The
I. INTRODUCTION PI control algorithm mainly supports steady-state
accuracy and cancels disturbance effects (load torque
Electrical machines with permanent magnet (PM) rotor change) while the fuzzy control algorithm acts in the case
excitation become popular in various applications due to of sufficiently large reference input changes (large error)
its brushless and low power-loss operation. The [11]. [12] presents a hybrid Fuzzy-PI controller operated
improvement in flux density of rare-earth permanent by predetermined speed errors or a combination of the two
magnets created the opportunities for novel machine outputs with separate weights in switching the controller.
topologies with substantially improved performance such These control algorithms have been simulated and also
as efficiency and higher torque-to-weight ratio [1]. implemented on hardware with promising results.
Permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) has high In order to obtain control schemes that would be less
efficiency, power factor as well as power density and it is sensitive to parameter variations than conventional PI
widely used in various applications [2]. controllers, a hybrid controller was suggested in this
A conventional Proportional-Integral (PI) controller is a paper. The hybrid controller contains fuzzy and PI control
generic control loop feedback mechanism widely used in algorithms. The fuzzy controller will be activated in the
industrial control systems due to its capabilities in case of sufficiently large reference input changes (large
controlling linear plants. However, it faces problem in speed error), while the PI controller will be activated in
controlling nonlinear plants such as electrical machines. the case of the small speed error so that it can support
Electrical machine drives might behave as a nonlinear steady-state accuracy and cancels disturbance effects. Fig.
system, where non-linearities may appear due to armature 1 shows the simulation model of the hybrid controller for
current limitations, change of load and drive inertia [3]. PMSM.
The system step response for a given reference speed is
one of the performance indicator of the speed controller. It
is desired that the step response of the system has minimal
rise time and without overshoot. However, conventional
PI controller cannot be tuned in such a way that the
optimum step response is achieved for different inertia,
load and speed reference. Thus, the intelligent controller
i.e. fuzzy controller is needed for improving the speed
response [4].
Researchers found that incorporating human
intelligence into the process control application would be
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 474

The electromagnetic torque of a three-phase motor with
p-pole pairs is:
pelm 3
Te = p = p[ψ f + ( Ld − Lq )id ]iq (5)
ω 2
The electrical and mechanical torque balance equations
are as follow:
dω
J = p (Te − Tm ) − Bω (6)
dt
Figure 1. Simulation model of the hybrid controller for PMSM where J is the inertia of the PMSM, Tm is the load torque,
B is the approximated mechanical damping to friction.
The motor angular speed ω is ω = dθ where θ is rotor
II. THE DYNAMIC D-Q MODELING OF PMSM dt
angle.
A dynamic performance of PMSM can be achieved by
the d-q current control system. Fig. 2 shows the d- and q- The relationship between id, iq and phase currents iaA, iaB
axis equivalent circuits of the sinusoidal PMSM brushless and iaC are:
machine where Rs is the stator resistance, ls is the stator 2 2π 2π
leakage reactance, Vq and Vd are the d- and q- axis stator id = [iaA cos ωt + iaB cos(ωt − ) + iaC cos(ωt + )]
3 3 3
voltage, id and iq are the d- and q- axis stator current, Lmd
and Lmq are the armature mutual inductances in the d and (7)
q-axis, ωo is the motor angular frequency. The rotor
magnet can be considered as a loop of constant current 2 2π 2π
iq = [iaA sin ωt + iaB sin(ωt − ) + iaC sin(ωt + )]
source, im located at the stator direct axis. Any change in 3 3 3
the magnetic flux of the rotor magnet will cause an
induced electromagnetic force, resulting in a circulating (8)
current in the magnet. The reverse relations in conjunction with iaA + iaB + iaC =
0 are:
iaA = id cos ωt − iq sin ωt (9)
2π 2π
iaB = id cos(ωt − ) − iq sin(ωt − ) (10)
3 3
2π 2π
iaC = id cos(ωt + ) − iq sin(ωt + ) (11)
3 3
The dynamic model of PMSM is simulated using
(a) Matlab simulink. The simulation model is divided into
two parts, namely electrical part and mechanical part. The
electrical part executes the calculation of three phase
current, i and electrical torque produced, Te. The
mechanical part executes the calculation of motor angular
speed and rotor angle. The details of the model are shown
in Fig. 3.
(b)
Figure 2. d- and q-axis equivalent circuits of the sinusoidal PMSM
brushless machine (a)d-axis;(b)q-axis
The mathematical model of PMSM in d-q frame can be

expressed as follows [13]:
The stator voltage equations can be expressed as:

dψ d (1)
vd = Rs id + + ωψ q
dt (a)
dψ q (2)
vq = Rs iq + − ωψ d
dt
The instantaneous power to the motor input terminals is:
3
pin = (vd id + vq iq ) (3)
2
The electromagnetic power of a three-phase machine is:
(b)
3
pelm = ω[ψ f + ( Ld − Lq )id ]iq (4) Figure 3. Simulation model of PMSM in Matlab simulink (a) Electrical
2 part; (b) Mechanical part
475
TABLE II
COMPARISONS OF DIFFERENT TUNING METHODS
III. PWM INVERTER MODEL
Choosing a tuning method
The instantaneous three phase currents, iabc of the Method Advantages Disadvantages
PMSM motor is feedback to the PWM inverter model and Ziegler- Proven method, Process upset,
compare with the reference current, iref obtained from the Nichols online method some trial-and-
d-q to a-b-c transformation module (refer to Fig. 4). The error, very
currents will then be converted into the equivalent three aggressive tuning
phase voltage via a voltage controlled source block to Trial-and- No math required, Erratic, not
drive the PMSM motor. error online method repeatable
Software Consistent tuning. Some cost and
tools Online or offline training involved
method. May
include valve and
sensor analysis,
allow simulation
before downloading
Cohen- Good process Some math, offline
Coon models method, only good
for first-order
Figure 4. PWM inverter model processes
IV. PI CONTROLLER
In this paper, the software tool is used for tuning the Kp
The PI controller can correct the error between the and KI in order to obtain the optimal speed response. The
measured motor speed and the desired set point by gains of the PI controller are tuned using the Simulink
calculating and then outputting a corrective action that can response optimization tools. Fig. 5 shows the block
adjust the speed accordingly. The PI controller can be
parameters of the optimization tool. The Kp and KI gains
expressed as follow:
obtained from the optimization are 10 and 1.5
KI
G p (s ) = K P + respectively.
s (12)
where Kp is the proportional gain and KI is the integral
gain.
A proportional gain (Kp) will have the effect of
reducing the rise time and will reduce, but never
eliminate, the steady-state error. An integral gain (KI) will
have the effect of eliminating the steady-state error, but it
may make the transient response worse. The effects of Kp
and KI, on a closed-loop system are summarized in the
Table I [14].
TABLE I
EFFECT OF KP AND KI ON A CLOSED-LOOP SYSTEM
Figure 5. Simulink response optimization tool

Control Response Kp (Increase) KI(Increase)
Rise time Decrease Decrease

Overshoot Increase Increase V. FUZZY CONTROLLER
Settling time Small change Increase A. Input variables
Steady-state error Decrease Eliminate The fuzzy controller is adopted in speed loop in the
PMSM control model. The implementation of fuzzy
Tuning a control loop is a process of selecting its controller consists of three stages: the fuzzification, rule
control parameters to meet given performance execution, and defuzzification. The input variables for
specifications. It is essentially important to fine tune the fuzzy logic are speed error, er (m) , and change in speed
PI controller parameters in order to get the acceptable •
responses from control systems. Several methods can be error, e(m) . The expressions are shown below:
used for tuning a PI loop such as Ziegler-Nichols, trial-
and-error, software tools and Cohen-Coon. Table II er (m) = wr* (m) − wr (m) (13)
shows the comparisons of different tuning methods. •
e r (m) = er (m) − er ( m − 1) (14)
476
*
where wr and wr are the speed command and the In practice, one or two types of membership functions
are more than enough to solve most of the problems. For
actual speed of the PMSM. The output signal (CU), is the simplicity, triangular and trapezoidal shapes are used
desired current for the motor speed control. In order to here. The next step is to define the control rules. There
permit flexibility in the design, the variables can be are no special criteria to formulate the fuzzy logic rules.
normalized as follow: However, the step responses of a PI controller provide an
E = er ( m ) / GE (15) opportunity for rule justification. This can be achieved
• through examining the condition of each reference points
CE = er (m) / GCE and relate it to the E, CE, and CU as shown in Fig. 7.
(16)
where GE is scaling factor for speed error and GCE is
scaling factor for change in speed error.
B. Fuzzy variables, membership functions and rules

Each universe of discourse is divided into seven fuzzy
sets:
NL: Negative large NM: Negative medium
NS: Negative small ZE: Approximately zero
Figure 7. System step response
PL: Positive large PM: Positive medium
PS: Positive small
Therefore, after through careful analysis the total 49
Two additional fuzzy variables are used for the output rules can be split into nine regions corresponding to each
signals, namely (PVL) “Positive very large” and (NVL) condition until it reaches the desired speed at “I” as
“Negative very large”. These two additional fuzzy
variables optimized the output signals. Fig. 6 shows the shown in the Table III.
membership functions of E, CE and CU variables.
TABLE III
RULE MATRIX FOR FUZZY SPEED CONTROL
(a)
VI. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Fuzzy controller offers a better speed response for start-
up and large reference input changes (large speed error)
whereas the PI controller has good adaptability over load
(b) torque variation and supports steady-state accuracy. The
superiority of both fuzzy and PI controller are integrated
together by using a switch. The speed error was selected
as a pilot for the switch such that it will be switched to
fuzzy controller when the speed error is large and vise
versa to PI controller when the speed error is small.
Simulations have been carried out for the PMSM rated at
220 V, 1.1 kW, 314 rad/s. The motor start-up from 0 rad/s
to 700 rad/s (about twice the nominal speed), step speed
changes from 700 rad/s to 300 rad/s, and speed responses
(c) with variations of load torque from 3 Nm to 9 Nm are
Figure 6. Membership functions simulated and observed.
(a) Speed error (E) Fig. 8 shows the simulation results for PMSM start-up
(b) Change in speed error (CE) from 0 rad/s to 700 rad/s. The fuzzy controller has smaller
(c) Current output signal (CU)
overshoot and settling time but greater steady-state error
as compared to PI controller. The hybrid controller took
similar path as fuzzy controller until the speed error less
477
than 1 rad/s. After that, it was switched to PI controller (b)
such that its steady-state error remained as small as PI Figure 9. Step speed changes from 700 rad/s to 300 rad/s
controller’s steady-state error. (a) Normal scale
(b) Enlarged scale
Fig. 10 shows the speed response with variation of load

torque at 0.02s from 3 Nm to 9 Nm. From Fig.10 it is
observed that, the speed for all the three controllers
dropped for a short duration. The PI controller has longest
settling time. The fuzzy controller has faster settling time
but higher steady-state error. The hybrid controller has
short settling time and small steady-state error.
(a)
(b)
Figure 8. Start-up speed response from 0 rad/s to 700 rad/s
(a) Normal scale
(b) Enlarged scale
(b)
Fig. 9 shows the step speed changes from 700 rad/s to Figure 10. Speed response with variation of load torque at 0.02 s
300 rad/s. From Fig.9, it is observed that, the fuzzy from 3 Nm to 9 Nm
controller takes longer settling time as compared to PI and (a) Normal scale
hybrid controller. The fuzzy controller has larger steady- (b) Enlarged scale
state error, albeit with less overshoot as compared to PI
and hybrid controller. Among the three controllers, the
hybrid controller has the fastest settling time. Fig. 11 shows the torque produced by the PMSM
during the load torque variation. During the motor start-up
period, all the three controllers need to generate high
torque to overcome the motor inertia before its speed rise
to 700 rad/s. When motor speed reaches the set point (700
rad/s), the torque produced will be maintained at the load
torque level (3 Nm). During the load torque changes from
3 Nm to 9 Nm, the torque produced will rise to 9 Nm. The
torque produced by PI controller has higher oscillation
before it settle down.
(a)
Figure 11. Torque produced by the PMSM
VII. CONCLUSION
From simulation results, it was shown that the PI
controller cancelled the disturbance effects (load torque
change) and maintained steady-state accuracy while the
fuzzy controller performed well in the case of sufficiently
478
large reference input changes (large speed error) but Drives Using Experimental Approach”, IEEE Transactions on
higher steady-state error. The hybrid controller has Industry Applications 38(5): pg 1210- 1218, 2002.
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Fuzzy Logic and PI Speed Control in High-Performance AC
479
Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell Control

Using a State Feedback Controller Based on LQR
D. Arzaghi-haris1, M. Sedighizadeh2, M. Zolfaghari-Nejad2 , Z. Tirkan2
1- Faculty of Engineering, Islamic Azad University, Saveh Branch, Saveh, Iran
2-Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Imam Khomeini International University, Qazvin, Iran
m_sedighi@sbu.ac.ir
Abstract- In this paper a state model of the set made up of a

Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) and a
DC/DC converter is studied. The set is modeled as a plant
controlled by the converter duty cycle. The paper has
used a method based on state space for controlling the
output voltage from converter terminals and set on
working point. In this paper is utilized from optimal
linear regulator for quadratic performance index (LQR)
for designing state feedback. The LQR algorithm takes
care of the tedious work done by the control systems
engineer in optimizing the controller. This method, leads Fig. 1. PEM fuel cell diagram.
to determine Ricatti equation response. After simulation
with state feedback controller, it is observed that by This paper intends to introduce an optimal controller based on
changing load current as input, the output voltage state-space for controlling the output voltage from converter
remains constant. The simulation results show the terminals and set on working point. Because all the current
proposed controller exhibit a higher efficiency compared information on the system are available in state variables and
to conventional PI controller. whatever is achieved from output and its derivatives, can be
found in the state variables, we can achieve to desired closed
Index Terms- Fuel cell; State feedback controller; State Gain loop characteristic by state variables instead of output
Matrix; LQR algorithm; Ricatti equation feedback. Therefore, the optimal linear regulator for quadratic
I. INTRODUCTION performance index (LQR) is utilized for designing state
feedback.
The main aim of new energy conversion technologies is the
This paper is organized as follows: the next section reviews
production of non-polluting energy. As result, fuel cell-based
the considered PEMFC’s model, section III introduces state
systems arise as a promising alternative thanks to their high
feedback controller and submits a method for obtain state
efficiency, low environment impact and high reliability in
gain matrix, section IV shows the results of implementation
stationary, automotive and spatial applications compared to
of this designed optimal controller in comparison with a PI
other technologies such as wind or environmental restrictions,
controller. Section V is conclusions.
for a better energetic use [1, 2].
A fuel cell produces electrochemical power when a
hydrogen-rich gas passes through the anode and an oxygen II. THEORETICAL MODEL OF A PEM FUEL CELL
(or air) rich gas passes through the cathode, with an In order to control fuel cells voltage, first, it is necessary to
electrolyte between the anode and cathode which allows consider the dynamic model. In recent years, many papers
which allows the exchange of ions. The flow of ions through have been written by researchers about dynamic modelling of
the electrolyte and an electrical current through an external PEWMFC [3, 4, 5, and 7]. So in this paper a model that has
circuit are produced when the hydrogen molecules dissociates been previously presented by the reference [1] is used. This
[1] (Fig. 1). model is a theoretical model of a proton exchange membrane
The DC-DC converter is an integral part of fuel cell power (PEM) fuel cell and DC/DC converter as a plant. Fig. 2
conditioning unit. The design of DC/DC converter and their presents the diagram of the system (fuel cell and DC/DC
controller plays an important role to control voltage. The converter)
boost converter offers higher efficiency and less component The state space equations of fuel cell and DC/DC converter
counts compared to other DC/DC converters topologies like are as (1). Where r1 and rc is losses in the inductor and the
push pull, half bride and full bride etc. This could possibly be capacitor respectively. The variable d takes a value between 0
used to interface fuel cell system to the load [5]. and 1, matching the converters duty cycle [6] and d’= (1-d).
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 480

In this model the state variables are ( iL , vC , vCFC ) and input compressed in state variables. Therefore
T main idea in modern
variables are ( io , d ' ). controller design is using statte feedback. One of the first
applications of state feedback in linear control systems is
eigenvalue-assignment. If reallization of a system is state
⎡ r1 rc D′ DFC D′ C FC ⎤
− − + − controllable, any arbitrary chharacteristic equation can be
⎡ iL ⎤ ⎢ L
L L L L ⎥ ⎡ iL ⎤ obtained by state feedback by:
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ D′ ⎥

⎢ vC ⎥ = ⎢ 0 0 ⎥ ⎢⎢ vC ⎥⎥ SI − ( A − BK) = 0 (2)
C
⎢vCFC ⎥ ⎢ BFC 0
⎥
AFC ⎥ ⎢⎣vCFC ⎥⎦ In linear systems, this controlller is a linear function of x:
⎣ ⎦ ⎢
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ u = − Kx (3)
At first the state space equatioons for the system is defined as
⎡ rc D′ 1 ⎤ follows:
⎢ L (rc ( I o − I L ) − VC )⎥
L x = ( A − BK ) x
⎢ 1 IL ⎥⎡i ⎤ (4)
+ ⎢− ⎥⎢ o ⎥ (1) y = Cx
⎢ C C ⎥ ⎣ d ′⎦ Where Acl = A − BK shows a linear time invariant system.
⎢ 0 0 ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ If internal stability is considereed, it is enough to choose gain
matrix k in a way that all eigenvvalues of Acl = A − BK lie in
Whereas the control of the fuel cell outpuut voltage ( VC ) is the left-half s plane (Re(λi ) < 0) . In addition to internal
required, acting upon the converter duty cycle
c (d), then the stability, this selection demonsttrates as t approaches infinity,
system output matrix is C= [0 1 0]. The load is generically
modeled as a current source. Value resultinng from each of the all state variables approach to zeero.
parameters is shown in Table 1. Jacoobean matrixes of lim x (t ) = 0 (5)
t→∞
PEMFC are obtained from Ref. [1].
Hence, output signal which is i linear combination of state
III. STATE FEEDBACK CONTRO
OLLER variables approaches to zero tooo.
In modern control viewpoint, input-outpput information is Consider y d as references, input
i y d ≠ 0 . In order to
implement the controller, the required
r steady state value of
state variables and inputs to achhieve y d is calculated.
At steady state:
x = 0
⎧⎪ 0 = Ax * + Bu *
⇒ ⎨
⎪⎩ y d = Cx *
(6)
The solution of these equations is given by
x* = M x yd
u* = M u yd (7)
Consider new variables defined by
Δ x (t ) = x (t ) − x *
Δ u (t ) = u (t ) − u *
Fig. 2. Diagram of fuel cell and DC/DC coonverter [1] Δ y (t ) = y (t ) − y d
(8)
TABLE I
VALUES USED FOR THE BOOST CONVERTER AND JAC
COBIAN MATRIXES OF
PEMFC
L = 75 μH C = 390 μF AFC = −29.7299
r1 = 6.5e − 3Ω rc = 0.056Ω BFC = 0.1422
I i = 45.88 A Vi = 26.14V C FC = −33

I o = 25 A Vo = 46.256V DFC = −0.1887 Fig. 3. Design of controol system in state space
New. state equations are consisteent with the previous ones:

Δ x = AΔx + BΔu (9)
Δy = CΔx
481
So the controller is: All of the matrices (i.e. , A , B , Q , and R) are constant,
Δu = − K Δx (10) the initial time is arbitrarily set to zero, and the terminal
The controller of the main system is: time is taken in the limit t f → ∞ (this last assumption is
what is known as infinite horizon). In the infinite-horizon
u (t ) = u * + Δu case the matrices Q and R are positive-semi definite and
= u * − KΔx positive-definite, respectively.
= u * − K ( x − x* ) (11)
= (Mu + KMx ) yd − Kx
Q ≥ 0 ⇒ x T (t )Qx (t ) ≥ 0
= u ex − Kx
R > 0 ⇒ u T (t ) Ru (t ) > 0 (15)
Where uex = (Mu + KMx ) yd and assuming that the answer
exists ( r ≥ m ) M x , M u are easily calculated. R is number of They are also constant. These restrictions on Q and R in the
inputs or elements of U and m is number of outputs or infinite-horizon case are enforced to ensure that the cost
elements of Y. function remains positive. Furthermore, in order to ensure
that the cost function is bounded, the additional restriction is
A. Linear optimal controller imposed that the pair (A, B) is controllable. Note that LQR
cost function can be thought of physically as attempting to
Optimal control deals with the problem of finding a control minimize the control energy (measured as a quadratic form).
law for a given system such that a certain optimality criterion t1
∫x
T
is achieved. A control problem includes a cost function that is Q is the weighting matrix and the term J = (t )Qx(t )dt
a function of state and control variables. An optimal control is
t0
a set of differential equations describing the paths of the
determines absolute error of state variables with appropriate
control variables that minimize the cost function.
weighing factor attributed to each of state variables. Q matrix
shows importance of each state component. Determining
B. Linear Quadratic Regulator optimal input by minimization of this term faces the problem
of extremely large input magnitude. To avoid this problem we
A special case of the general optimal control problem is the insert input into performance criterion. Hence, energy of
linear quadratic regulator optimal control problem. The LQR control signal appears in the performance index:
problem is stated as follows. Minimize the quadratic
continuous-time cost function: t1
∫ [x ]
T
J= (t )Qx(t ) + uT (t ) Ru (t ) dt (16)
t1
∫ [x ]
t0
T
J= (t )Qx(t ) + u T (t ) Ru (t ) dt (12)
t0 Relative importance of two terms of cost function is
determined by Q and R matrices
Subject to the linear time-invariant first-order dynamic
constraints C. Determination of matrix K using second lyapunov
approach
x (t ) = Ax (t ) + Bu (t ) (13)
System is defined by
And the initial condition
x (t ) = Ax (t ) + Bu (t ) (17)
And control signal is given by
u = − Kx (18)
The feedback gain matrix K that forces the cost function (12)
to be minimum can be determined by using second lyapunov
approach. Substituting (18) into (17) gives:
x (t ) = ( A − BK ) x (t ) (19)
Fig. 4. Design of controller for non-zero reference input
This is equation of closed-loop system. Substituting (18) into
x (t0 ) = x0 (16) gives:
(14)
482
t1 K = T −1(T T )−1 BT P = R−1BT P (30)
∫ [x ]
T T T
J= (t )Qx(t ) + x (t ) K RKx(t ) dt
Equation (30) gives optimal value of K. By substituting (30)
t0 (20)
into (26), Matrix Riccati equation is obtained. P should
∞
= ∫
0
xT (t )[Q + K T RK ]x(t ) satisfy this equation.
Suppose AT P + PA − PBR−1BT P + Q = 0 (31)

d T
xT (t )[Q + K T RK ]x(t ) = − [ x (t ) Px(t )] (21) IV. SIMULATION RESULTS
dt
In this section, the ability of proposed optimal controller is
Where P is a positive-definite matrix. It is also real and
proved for set the output voltage around 80 V and the
symmetric.
capability of proposed controller is compared with PI
From (21) we get:
controller. The linear model introduced is parameterized at a
xT (t)[Q + KT RK]x(t) = −x(t)Px(t) − xT (t)Px(t) generic operating point; therefore, the fuel cell behavior can
(22)
= −xT (t)[(A − BK)T P + P(A − BK)]xT (t) be known for any of its operating points, which makes the
The equation (22) is true for all X so we obtain: design of linear control strategies easier [1]. The operating
T T
( A − BK) P + P( A − BK) = −(Q + K RK) (23) point is: ( VCFC , I o , d ' ) = (75.7v, 15A, 0.3269). First, the
From lyapunov second approach, we know that if A − Bk is PEMFC model will be constructed on the Matlab/Simulink
stable, the positive-definite P matrix exists which satisfies platform and Validity of the introduced model in section II
(23).Noting that x (∞ ) = 0 , cost function can be written as will be demonstrated. In this simulation, a testing current 20A
is loaded at the beginning and suddenly reduced to 16A.
x T (0) Px(0) (24)
Then, it raised 3A as shown in Fig. 5(a). Fig. 5(b) shows the
Which is the performance index value designed for optimal
output voltage of the whole system (capacitor voltage ( VC ))
control.
that increases from 65.8 to 73.7V to reach the steady state
Now, we write symmetric real R matrix as
with a first-order-like transient response. By increasing
R = T TT (25)
current, voltage decreases to 67.8V.
where T is a nonsingular matrix. The equation (23) can be
By using proposed optimal controller in section III, we
written as
obtain:
(AT − KT BT )P + P(A − BK) + Q + KTTTTK = 0 (26)
K = [0.0063 4.0000 − .0034],
Equation (26) becomes M u = 3.04596898× 10 −3 ,
AT P + PA + M x = [− 0.426435657 1 0].
T −1 T T T −1 T
[TK − (T ) B P] [TK − (T ) B P] − (27) In this paper a simple PI controller is used to compare its
−1 T
PBR B P + Q = 0 response with optimal controller response. A PI controller
Since the cost function J can be determined from (24) for based on tuning rule is:
∂J ∂K = 0 we have ∂P ∂K = 0 and P satisfies (27). 0.0916
GC ( s ) = 2.1(1 + ) (32)
s
Thus the gain matrix K which minimizes the cost function
Fig. 6 illustrates simulation result of both controllers. The
can minimizes this term:
Output voltage recedes from the desired value by increasing
xT (t )[TK − (T T )−1 BT P]T [TK − (T T )−1 BT P]x(t ) (28) R rather than Q. But the accuracy of input signal (d') and
Minimum of (28) is zero because it is non-negative. Hence response speed of convergence increases by increasing Q,
equation (28) is minimum when output voltage improved. This figure shows the capability of
TK = (T T )−1 BT P (29) proposed controller compared to conventional PI controller.
or
483
V. CONCLUSIONS
In this work, state feedback is used to control the plant. Gain

Matrix (K) is calculated by LQR algorithm. Speed of
convergence and accuracy of response improved significantly
by use of optimal controller compared with PI controller.
Simulation results indicate that the performance of optimal
controller is better than PI and error reduce from 5% to 0.1%.
REFERENCES
[1] J.M.Andujar, F.Segura, M.J. Vasallo, “A suitable model plant for
control of the set fuel cell-DC/DC converter,” NO.33, pp. 813-826,
Fig. 5. (a) The step demanded current, (b) the response of produced voltage April 2007.
of the whole system. [2] W. Freide, S. Rael, B. Davat, “Mathematical model and
characterization of the transient behavior of a PEM fuel cell”, IEEE
Trans.Power Electronics vol. 19, pp.1234-1241.
[3] Wang C, Nehrir H, Shaw Steven R. “Dynamic models and model
validation for PEM fuel cell using electrical circuits,” IEEE Trans
Energy Converse 2005, No. 20, pp. 442-451.
[4] J.E. Larminie and A. “Fuel Cell Systems Explained,”.Chichester,
U.K:Wiley, 2000,pp.308-308.
[5] K. Kirubakaran, S. Jain, R.K. Nema, “The PEM Fuel Cell System with
DC/DC Boost Converter: Design, Modeling and Simulation,”
International Journal of Recent Trends in Engineering, vol. 1, No. 3,
May 2009.
[6] Middlebook RD, Cuk S. A general unified approach to modeling
switching converter power stage. Proceedings of the IEEE PES, 1976.p.
18-38.
[7] J.T.Pukrushpan, A.G.Stefanopoulou, H.Peng, Control of Fuel Cell
Power Systems, Springer, New York, 2004.
Fig. 6. Comparing of tracking operation between PI and optimal Controller
Fig. 7. (a) The input signal (d') and output of optimal controller, (b) the input
signal (d') and output of PI controller.
Fig. 7 represents input signal (d') for system that it control

output and regulate output voltage ( VC ). According to Fig.7
the proposed controller adjusts the output voltage using less
computational effort.
484
Material Based Characterization of Aqueous

Metal Oxide Based Supercapacitors
P. B. Karandikar Dr. D. B. Talange
Department of Applied Science Department of Electrical Engineering
Army Institute of Technology Government College of Engineering
Pune, India Pune, India
parag_k_2000@yahoo.com talanged@yahoo.co.in
Abstract— Supercapacitors (SC) / Electro Chemical Double with respect to activated carbon plays key role in the value
Layer Capacitor (EDLC) is yet to experience widespread of capacitance, equivalent series resistance, and self
use. Recently, advances have been made in improving both discharge characteristics of the supercapacitor. Material
energy and power density. Due to their limited power and based models are developed for aqueous metal oxide
energy capabilities, they saw use in applications such as based supercapacitors and are used for proper selection of
memory backups. New applications in the area of FCV, EV, the electrode material
EHV, space, military, automotive subsystems and industrial
automation are being attempted at an increasing rate. Its II. MODELING APPROCHES FOR SUPERCAPACITOR
use in electronic devices like mobiles, Laptops and
Modeling of supercapacitor and modeling of
communication systems is gaining momentum.
Supercapacitor is mainly a pulse power device even though supercapacitor based system are different from each other
it is seen as a replacement to battery in low power [9]. Former requires characteristics of the supercapacitor
applications. In pulse power, the width of pulse, stability, whereas the later requires the characteristics of
repetition rate along with commercial aspects like cost, supercapacitor as well as the dynamics of load. System
volume, weight and life requires attention. Aqueous metal modeling involving supercapacitor, requires the basic
oxide based supercapacitors are more compatible with model of this device which is a part of the complete
battery. Material based models which are useful in model. Thermal based model, physical based model [5],
fabrication of electrode are presented for their comparative statistical based model, circuit component based model,
study.
material based model and terminal behavior based model
Keywords — Supercapacitor, Ultra-capacitor, EDLC
has its significance in production or operation of the
modeling device. supercapacitor based system can be analyzed
with the help of modeling software like MATLAB
I. INTRODUCTION simulink, Electronic work bench, ANN tools [10] or
simplorer etc. Modeling of supercapacitor involves
S upercapacitor finds application in high power, high
energy storage as an alternative to, or a compensator
for batteries [1]. Because of the charge and discharge
collection of data from the supercapacitor under
consideration and then deriving the relevant equations
operation, in supercapacitor are not accompanied by from it. These equations can be then simplified to get the
chemical reactions, it affords quick response, high input/ physical parameters by comparison or from the graphical
output currents and has a longer operation life. Although analysis. Along with conventional methods which are
the capacitance of this device is higher than conventional charge or energy based , the parameter measurement of
capacitor, per cell voltage is very less. The value of per the supercapacitor can done by various techniques such
cell voltage for aqueous supercapacitor is 1.1 V where as as Impedance spectroscopy, Constant current charge,
for non aqueous supercapacitor it is 2.7V [2]. Voltage Cyclic Voltammeter, and Power cycling [3][7][4]. None
balancing is an issue with this device and as a result of these techniques gives guideline for selection proper
series, parallel operation requires special circuit to take electrode material. Hence material based modeling is
care of differential voltages. In most of the applications
carried out to get such type of information. Measurement
series parallel operation is essential due to high system
voltage and current ratings. This device is suitable for of capacitance is carried out on charge basis than energy
pulse power applications up to about 20 seconds only. basis. Discharge current is plotted against time to get the
Size and weight is important for its use in portable system total charge and then ratio of total charge and terminal
such as automotive. For static system like wind mill voltage gives capacitance.
rocket launcher weight or volume may not be an issue.
Cost of this device is main hurdle in its widespread use in III. BASIC RC MODELS
number of applications. Aqueous supercapacitor is more The basic objective of terminal behavior based modeling
suitable for battery due to voltage compatibility and it is is to simulate the actual supercapacitor behavior during
cheap in comparison with non-aqueous supercapacitor. charge and discharge. When supercapacitor is charged or
However, development of aqueous supercapacitors discharge, the terminal voltage shows rapid variation.
demands the proper selection of electrode material.
There is self discharge phenomenon along with current
Material based modeling which is not attempted so far can
be very useful. Type of metal oxide used and its weight variations in the supercapacitor. Model should take care
of these issues considering the dynamic nature [7] of the
[Type text] [Type text] [Type text]
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 485

load. Supercapacitor modeling has been reported in many which affect the performance of the device. Activated
research papers. Some of them has used load based carbon, graphite, carbon aerogels, carbon black, carbon
modeling where as others has done it with the help of RC nano tubes are attempted by many researchers.
models. Some of the proposed models for supercapacitor Considering cost and availability, Vulcun XC 72 is used
are (a) R-C series model (b) R-C model with parallel to mix with metal oxides in the presented work. Metal
resistance (c) Two branch model (d) Three branch RC oxides are added to improve characterization. Comparison
Model (e) Transmission line model (f) RC series-parallel of X-ray diffraction pattern for Vulcan XC 72 carbon and
branch model (g) Theoretical Model [8]. These models metal oxide /carbon composite in the range of 10- 80oC are
fail to give complete insight of the operation of the shown in the Fig.1. Supercapacitors of electrode area of
supercapacitor. It is important that these models should unit dimension were prepared with different weight ratios
reflect or give consideration the power density and of activated carbon (Vulcun XC72) and different metal
energy density along with terminal parameters such as oxides. Capacitance of these combinations is measured
current and voltage. It is found that some of these by charge discharge technique, which is on charge basis
modeling methods do reflect the voltage, current behavior rather than on energy basis and plotted against variation
but they lack in projecting the power density and energy in weight ratio. Curve fitting of these graphs gives the
density of the device which are electrode material based. characteristic equations. Basic model proposed is
They are also dependant on the ionic properties of the improved further to get basic model for each type of
electrolyte. It was felt that there is need to develop a new metal oxide based supercapacitor to get capacitance in
model which can help in the material selection and can terms of ‘p’ which is percentage of metal oxides. For low
guide the quantity of material used for electrode making. cost metal oxide, value of ‘p’ is increased up to 80%
Material based modeling presented can take care of these where as for high cost metal oxide like ruthenium oxide
issues which can further clubbed with RC models to get its value is restricted to 40% only.
complete supercapacitor model.
Assumptions in these conventional models, 300
• There is no faradic process at the 200 (a)

electrode/electrolyte interface.
• The two porous electrodes are treated as an 100
Intensity (a.u.)
equivalent single pore

• Physical variables of each electrode is neglected 0
• These models are developed for non aqueous 80
supercapacitors.
• Effective surface area is considered to be 60 (b)
constant.
For aqueous supercapacitors, these models are not

40
sufficient due to (a) the effective surface area available
for charge holding is much more (b) the conductivity of 20
the electrolyte is not taken care by the conventional
models (c) there are changes in the electrode 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
characteristics due to presence of aqueous solution near
electrode (d) Physical parameters of supercapacitor are 2θ
not considered. Fig. 1 Comparison of X-ray diffraction pattern for (a) Vulcan XC 72
carbon and (b) Metal oxide /carbon composite in the range of 10-
80oC,which confirm the amorphous nature of metal oxide.
From the analysis of these models, it is concluded that,
none of the models correlate physical parameters of Various metal oxides can be used in the construction of
supercapacitor with its behavior. These models are more electrodes [12]. RuO2 based gives best results however
suitable for non aqueous supercapacitor. Hence there is MnO2, V2O5 and SnO2 being cheap are getting more
need for development of new material based model which attention [11].Use of low cost metal oxide is inevitable
gives realistic guidelines for electrode making. from commercialization point of view.
IV. EXPERIMENTAION AND MATERIAL BASED
Basic physical model used is to find capacitance of
MODELING
activated carbon based aqueous supercapacitor is,
Carbon is most extensively studied electrode material.
The carbon materials have the advantages of rich in C0= SA*m*q*K/V
resource, lower cost and higher specific surface area. This
material is considered as one of the industrialization This is new model which is derived from the capacitors
prospect electrode material. Specific surface area and basic equation that capacitance is a ratio of the charge
pore size distribution are the most important factors and voltage. In this model, SA is surface area in meter
486
square per gram of the activated carbon, m is mass of B. Manganese dioxide based aqueous
electrode material in gram, q is charge density per unit supercapacitor
surface area (actual surface area), V is voltage across
supercapacitor and K is constant of material which
depends on physical nature of material. This model is
good for electrodes made up of activated carbon only.
Metal oxides are added to reduce the equivalent series
resistance and thereby increase the power density of the
supercapacitors. Different metal oxides are suitable for
supercapacitor electrodes; however, selection of material
depends on resistance offered, charge holing capability,
thermal stability, and stability in electrolytic
environment. Transition metal oxides are considered to
be the best candidate material. Ruthenium oxide,
Manganese oxide, vanadium pentoxide and stannic
oxides were considered for material based modeling. Fig 3. Variation of C with respect to addition of metal oxide (MnO2) in
Material based models for RuO2, MnO2, V2O5 and SnO2 electrode material
are presented below,
Manganese oxide is one of the cheap and potentially
A. Ruthenium Oxide based aqueous supercapacitor good metal oxides for electrode material. It is mixed with
activated carbon and capacitance with various weight
Among the transition metal oxides, ruthenium oxide is ratios with metal oxides are estimated which are shown in
most promising electrode material due to its high specific fig.3.Thus the model for estimation of capacitance for
power which makes them very appealing in commercial manganese dioxide (MnO2) is,
applications. However cost is the main hurdle in its use in C=C0 (-2.4*10-5*P3+1.92*10-3*P2-0.000639*P+1)
many applications. Electrode membrane Units were
prepared for the various weight ratios of the ruthenium Validation of the model is as follows,
oxides and activated carbon. Capacitance is measured. If P = 25%
The variation of capacitance is shown in Fig.2.
Simulated value of ‘C’ Actual value of ‘C’
0.598 F 0.61F
C. Vanadium Pentoxide based aqueous
supercapacitor
Fig.2. Variation of C with respect to addition of metal oxide

(Ruthenium oxide) in electrode material
Fig.4. Variation of C with respect to addition of metal oxide (Vanadium

Thus the model for estimation of capacitance for pentoxide) in electrode material
ruthenium Oxide (RuO2) using curve fitting program is,
Vanadium pentoxide is again cheap metal oxide which
C=C0 (-8.05*10-5*P3+6.94*10-3*P2-0.055*P+1) can be used in electrode material. Capacitance is
Validation of the model is as follows, measured by taking this metal oxide in various metal
If P = 25% oxides in different weight ratios with activated carbon.
Fig.4. show the variation of capacitance with different
Simulated value of ‘C’ Actual value of ‘C’ weight ratio of this metal oxide. The model for estimation
1.27 F 1.3F of capacitance for vanadium pentoxide (V2O5) using
curve fitting program is,
C=C0 (-3.056*10-5*P6-9.44*10-5*P2+0.044*P+1)
487
Validation of the model is as follows, ACKNOWLEDGMENT
If P = 25% Financial support by the BCUD, Pune University and
encouragement to do research work in this area by Dr. K.
Simulated value of ‘C’ Actual value of ‘C’ Vijaymohanan, National Chemical Laboratory, Pune,and
Mr Dhanraj Rathod, Dublin University, Ireland is
0.712 F 0.73F acknowledged. Authors also acknowledge the
management of Army Institute of Technology, Pune for
D. Stannic oxide based aqueous supercapacitor providing research facilities.
REFERENCES
[1] B.E. Convey, Electrochemical supercapacitors, Kluwer
Academics, New York, 1999.
[2] Andrew Burke, “The present and projected performance and cost
of double layer and pseudo-capacitive ultra-capacitors for hybrid
vehicle applications,” IEEE Transactions on Industry
Applications, vol.-40, no.9, May 2005, pp 356-366.
[3] R.L.Spyker, R.M. Nelms, “Analysis of double layer capacitors
supplying constant power loads,” IEEE Transactions on
Aerospace and Electronic Systems, vol.-36, no.-4, October 2000,
pp 1439-1443.
[4] P.J. Mahon, G.L. Paul, S.M. Keshishian, A.M. Vassallo,
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carbon based supercapacitors,” Journal of Power Sources, vol.-
91, March 2000, pp 68-76.
[5] F. Belhachemi, S. Rael, B Davat, “A physical based model of
power electric double layer supercapacitors,” IEEE, May 2000,
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Fig.5. Variation of C with respect to addition of metal oxide (stannic [6] Tongzhen, wei, Xinchun Qi, Zhiping Qi, An improved
oxide) in electrode material ultracapacitor equivalent circuit model for the design of energy
storage power system, Proceeding of International conference on
Stannic oxide was also tried for electrode material. Electrical Machines and Systems, 2007, October 8-11, Seoul,
Korea, pg 69-73.
However the variation in the capacitance was not uniform [7] S Buller, EKarden , DeKok, RW De Doncker, modeling the
by any means. This has happened due to uneven pore size dynamic behavior of supercapacitors using impedance
associated with this metal oxide. The variation of spectrography, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, Vol
capacitance with different weight ratios of metal oxides 38, No 6, November/December 2002, pg 1622-1627.
[8] R M Nelms, DR Cahela, B J Tatarchuk, Modeling double layer
are shown in fig 5.Thus the model for estimation of behavior using ladder circuits, IEEE Transactions on aerospace
capacitance for stannic oxide (SnO2) using curve fitting and electronic systems, vol-39, No-2, April 2003, pg 430-439
program is, [9] M Uzanoglu, MS Alam, Dynamic modeling , designing and
C=C0 (-8.05*10-6*P3+1.25*10-3*P2-0.055*P+1) simulation of a combined PEM Fuel cell and UC system for
standalone residential applications, IEEE Transactions on Energy
Validation of the model is as follows, Conversion, Volume 21,No 03,September 2006, pg 298-215
If P = 25% [10] JN marie, HGuabus, A Berthan, SUPERCAPACITOR thermal,
electrical behavior modeling using ANN, IEE proceedings on
Simulated value of ‘C’ Actual value of ‘C’ Electric Power Application. Volume 153, No 02, March 2006, pg
260-270.
0.0942 F 0.25F [11] Hongfang Li, Ruoding Wang, Rong Cao, Physical and
electrochemical characterization of hydrous ruthenium oxide/
ordered mesporous carbon composites as supercapacitor,
Microporous and Mesopourous Materials, July 2007, pg 1-4
[12] Yong Zhang et al, Progress of electrochemical capacitor
CONCLUSION electrode materials: A review, International Journal of Hydrogen
Energy, April 2009, pg 4889-4900
With number of trials on electrode membrane units, it
was found that the accuracy of model has significant P B Karandikar is working as Assistant Professor in Applied Science
practical implications in electrode making process. Department at Army Institute of Technology, Pune. He has done his
Selection of metal oxide and its percentage use with Bachelor of Engineering (Electrical) and Master of Engineering (Control
System) from Pune University. He is member of Institution of Engineers
respect to activated carbon requires proper guideline, (India) and ISTE (India). He has presented ten papers in national and
which is obtained from the material based modeling and international conferences. He has published one paper in National level
it is presented in this paper. Models are validated by journal. He has written a book on basic electrical engineering. His
preparing electrodes of 25% metal oxides in activated research areas include energy storage systems, electrical machines and
control system. At present, he is with Government College of engineering
carbon. Simulated and actual values of C are compared - Pune, University of Pune India as doctoral fellow.
and found to be closely matching. SnO2 based Dr. D. B. Talange is working as a Professor in Electrical Engineering
supercapacitor has highly nonlinear behavior, apparently Department at Government College of Engineering, Pune. He has done
due to mismatched particle size of this material with his Bachelor of Engineering (Electrical) from Walchand College of
Engineering, Sangli and ME (Power Electronics) from Victoria Jubilee
respect to charge size. Hence very poor characteristics are Technical Institute, Mumbai. He has done his Ph D from IIT, Mumbai.
observed. Manganese oxide is the best option for He is member of ISTE (India). He has presented 10 papers in conferences
electrode material with ratio of 1:1with activated carbon. and published 2 papers in journals. His research areas include control
system, energy systems, power electronics and drives.
488
Single-Phase Grid-Tie Inverter Control Using

DQ Transform for Active and Reactive Load
Power Compensation
B. Crowhurst, E.F. El-Saadany, L. El Chaar and L.A. Lamont
Abstract—This paper presents a current control for single phase implemented for the interconnection of certain renewable
grid connected inverters. The method allows for inverter active and energy resources to the grid [3].
reactive power control. The method uses the Direct-Quadrature (DQ) Many DG systems are installed at residential or rural
synchronous reference frame transformation for single-phase locations which are often only served by a single phase of the
converters. This method transforms an orthogonal pair consisting of electrical distribution system. In these cases a single-phase
the inverter output current and a time shifted version of this current inverter is required. The FACTS systems previously mentioned
from a stationary frame to a rotating frame synchronous to the are typically larger scale three-phase systems, therefore if we
fundamental output frequency. Alternatives to using the time shifted wish to implement equivalent power electronic converter
current are discussed. The steady state current components in this
control algorithms in single-phase inverters they must either be
rotating DQ frame are DC values and thus PI control methods
modified to suit that application or new algorithms must be
can be used with zero error. A household scale grid-tie inverter is
used as an example application of this method. A Simulink developed.
simulation model and results where the inverter output is controlled Some three-phase compensation algorithms also suffer from
to match a local load's active and reactive power demand is the inability to generate sinusoidal current waveforms in the
presented. utility side when utility voltages and/or currents are not
balanced [4] which could be a motive to further investigate
Index Terms— Pulse width modulated inverters, Reactive single-phase compensation techniques.
power control, Power electronics. In the past, sine wave inverters used open loop feedforward
control with output RMS voltage feedback to regulate the
I. INTRODUCTION magnitude for standalone applications. Grid-tie systems require
a more instantaneous control system to achieve lower Total
D istributed Generation (DG) systems offer secure and

Harmonic Distortion, and improved disturbance rejection [5].
The application of time-invariant system theory to control
AC values is problematic and typically causes significant steady
diversified energy options, increase generation and
transmission efficiency, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, state error in both amplitude and phase [6] referred to as
improve power quality and system stability, cut energy costs and “following error” [5] which must be reduced by operating the
capital expenditure, and alleviate the bottleneck caused by power converter at a very high switching frequency.
distribution lines [1]. DG systems that are based on renewable A common theory employed in active filters and reactive
energy sources are intermittent source of energy and power power compensators that addresses this problem is
electronics converters are needed as interface to connect them to Synchronous Reference Frame Theory (DQ). The advantage of
the grid. Hence, Power electronic converters or inverters play an this theory is that the fundamental frequency components of an
important role in these systems particularly in cases where power AC signal are mapped to DC values. It has been shown to be
is generated in a format incompatible with the distribution system effective in the presence of harmonic distortion. One of the
such as the DC output of batteries, photovoltaic modules and inherent DQ transformation properties is that it can only be
fuel-cells or the variable frequency AC output of variable speed applied to three-phase systems [7]. In single phase systems, the
wind turbines. Moreover, such interface must be outfitted with instantaneous power contains sinusoidal components at twice
control strategies to maximize the power extracted from the the grid frequency which complicates the grid connected system
source and transferred to the grid without violating the grid [8]. This paper investigates a new method that overcomes the
standards of quality [2]. problem listed above and applies the DQ transform to single-
Power electronic converters are also used for Active Power phase systems for the purpose of controlling active and
Filtration and Power Factor Correction in Flexible AC reactive power injection of a single phase inverter.
Transmission System (FACTS) systems such as the Static
Compensator (STATCOM) and the Unified Power Flow II. ALTERNATIVE CONTROL ALGORITHMS
Controller (UPFC). DG systems, which employ the same A few alternative power electronic converter control
converters, are thus also capable of performing these functions. methods that were reviewed but not implemented in this
FACTS technologies are extremely beneficial when study are briefly described here.
A. Space Vector Transformation
B. Crowhurst and E.F. El-Saadany are with the Electrical and Computer
Engineering department, the University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario The space vector transformation is another method used in
Canada. (e-mail: ehab@ uwaterloo.ca). L. El-Chaar and L. A. lamont are with controlling power electronic converters. This method
the petroleum Institute, Abu Dhabi, UAE. (e-mail: lelchaar@pi.ac.ae; overcomes a weakness of the DQ transform that there is a
llamont@pi.ac.ae).
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 489

strong coupling between the transformed coordinates (dq) [9]. IV. POWER GRID AND LOAD MODELS
B. Fuzzy Logic Control External connections to the inverter include a simple model
Fuzzy logic controllers are another method of control for of the connection to the power grid and a similarly simple load
power electronic converters. Fuzzy logic control is non-linear model to represent a load at the site of the DG to be
and adaptive in nature, has robust performance under compensated.
parameter variation and load disturbance, and its A. Power Grid Model
implementation does not require a sophisticated An infinite bus model of the power grid was used as shown
microcontroller such as a DSP [10]. in Figure 2. This model consists of an AC voltage source and a
small RL branch component. The inclusion of the RL branch
III. THE SINGLE PHASE INVERTER allows for voltage variation at the point of common coupling
The single-phase inverter considered in this paper consists (PCC) dependent on load and inverter power injection.
of an IGBT based H-bridge and an LCL output filter. The
combination of the H-Bridge and LCL filter implemented as a
Simulink model is shown in Fig. 1. The inverter output voltage
and current measurement “sensors” are also shown in this
model. These signals are fed back to the control system which
generates the pulses or IGBT gate control signals. The signals
are generated such that in each leg of the bridge the bottom
transistor gate control is the inverse of the top to avoid creating Fig. 2. Power Grid Model
a low impedance path between the DC source terminals. B. Load Model
The local load was modeled as two separate loads shown in
Fig. 3, one fixed and the other switched. This allows for the
observation of inverter response to changes in load. The
constant load is purely resistive whereas the switched load is
partially inductive. The switching of this load thus changes
both the active and reactive power demand of the total load.
The switch used is the ideal switch with infinite snubber
capacitance.
Fig. 1. Inverter circuit with H-Bridge, and LCL filter
A. H-Bridge
The H-bridge is also known as a full bridge. This is a simple
circuit topology with low component count which leads to low
cost and high efficiency [1]. This topology was chosen over a
half bridge which consists of only one pair of switches because
a lower DC voltage source is required. Half bridge inverters
require twice the DC voltage and two capacitors in series are
Fig. 3. Switched load used in simulation
required to provide the neutral output. The H-Bridge is
modeled using the Universal Bridge Simulink model block
V. DQ SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORM
with two legs. The gates of the H-bridge are driven by a Pulse
Width Modulation (PWM) generator discussed in section V. A. DQ transform
The average amplitude of the voltage output of the H-Bridge As previously mentioned, the single-phase DQ transform is
(VAB in figure 1) over a switching cycle is directly an important element in the control circuit of the inverter
proportional to the commanded duty cycle of the inverter system. The DQ transform is an example of a state space
(±100%) and the amplitude of the DC bus [5]. transform. The state of a system at any instant t0 is the smallest
B. Output Filter set of variables which is sufficient to determine the behavior of
Inverters require an output filter to limit the high the system for all time t > t0 when the inputs to the system are
frequency current ripple. There is a tradeoff between filter known [12]. This system state can be specified in many
component size and switching frequency. The former increase different ways which means the state variable are not unique.
inverter size and cost whereas the later increases switching Alternative state representations can be obtained via linear
power loss. The output filter selected for simulation is the LCL transformation.
filter. This filter has gained popularity due to its smaller size The three phase DQ transform can be implemented directly
however it presents potential stability problems in control [11]. from the ABC time varying signal space to the DQ space with
the linear transformation in (1) [3].
490
⎡vd ⎤ ⎡sin ωt sin (θ − 2π 3) sin (θ + 2π 3) ⎤ ⎡va ⎤ Equations (4) and (5) gives the resulting id and iq values for
⎢ ⎥ 2⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ this ideal sinusoidal case. These values are constant DC
⎢ q ⎥ 3 ⎢cos ωt cos(θ − 2π 3) cos(θ + 2π 3) ⎥ ⎢vb ⎥
v = (1)
values for fixed amplitude and phase input as previously
⎢v ⎥ ⎢⎣1 2 12 12 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣vc ⎥⎦ described.
⎣ 0⎦
where θ=ωt, and ω = electric system frequency
i d = A sin (ωt + δ ) sin (ωt ) + A sin (ωt + δ − π 2)(− cos(ωt ))
This transform can also be accomplished by first (4)
= A cos δ
transforming to the αβ space. The αβ space is used in PQ
theory and three phase voltages and currents are represented as i q = A sin (ωt + δ ) cos(ωt ) + A sin (ωt + δ − π 2)(sin (ωt ))
a single vector which rotates about the stationary (5)
= A sin δ
orthogonal axes thus α and β projections of sinusoidal abc
values are themselves sinusoidal. It should be noted here that DC components of the original
The transformation from αβ space to DQ can then be signal are mapped to AC signals at the fundamental
achieved by effectively rotating the αβ frame at the frequency in the rotating DQ frame. Thus the presence of a
fundamental frequency as shown in Figure 4. In this rotating DC component will result in control system oscillation and
frame the resulting D and Q vectors will be constant for make zero steady state error impossible. In order to transform
sinusoidal signals at the fundamental frequency. What this back to the real and imaginary frame the inverse transform is
indicates is that the transformation to the synchronous frame applied as shown in (6). Again, if cos(ωt) is considered the
requires two orthogonal components, the equivalent of the αβ reference this transform must be modified (i.e. replace sin(ωt)
components of three-phase systems. In other words, to achieve with cos(ωt) and cos(ωt) with-sin(ωt)).
an orthogonal plane, the projections of two or more variables
are necessary [3]. This is a problem in single-phase systems. ⎡I r ⎤ ⎡sin ωt cos ωt ⎤ ⎡ I d ⎤
I ri = ⎢ ⎥ = T −1 I dq = ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ (6)
I
⎣ i⎦ ⎣cos ωt − sin ωt ⎦ ⎣ I q ⎦
B. Simplified technique
Other techniques for implementing the single-phase
DQ transform avoid the need for a second orthogonal variable
by using notch filters tuned at twice the line frequency
[13][6]. In this case the transform is applied with i q = 0.
The resulting derivation is shown in equation series (7) and
(8).
Fig. 4. Rotating DQ Frame It can be seen that similar results to the original are
obtained however a double line frequency sinusoid is
In order to get around this requirement several methods
added. It is this double frequency component that must be
have been suggested to generate the missing orthogonal vector.
filtered in order to obtain the DC quantities desired for zero
One method involves using the capacitor current of an output steady state error.
LC filter as in [5]. This current is 90 degrees out of phase with This simplified technique was simulated without the use of
the output voltage. Another is to use a quarter period time notch filters and because of the DC component in the D
delayed version of the signal as the orthogonal vector as in [7]. and Q components, zero steady state error was possible. This
This is the method that is examined here. was the method that was described for the in-class
If we consider a current signal to be transformed to the DQ presentation. The results of this simulation are not presented
frame using the time delay method we can refer to the actual in this report as it was decided to implement the time delay
current signal as the real current, ir, and the time delayed version instead.
version the imaginary current, ii, where the real current
corresponds to the α and the imaginary to the β. Equations for i d = A sin (ωt + δ ) sin (ωt )
ideal sinusoidal versions of these currents are given in (2.a) and [
= A (cos δ ) sin 2 (ωt ) + (sin δ )(sin ωt ) cos(ωt ) ] (7)
(2.b) A
= ( cos δ ) − A [sin δ sin (2ωt ) − (cos δ ) cos(2ωt )]
i r = A sin (ωt + δ ) (2.a) 2 2
i q = A sin (ωt + δ )(− cos(ωt ))
ii = A sin (ωt + δ − π 2 ) = − A cos (ωt + δ ) (2.b)
[
= − A (sin δ ) cos 2 (ωt ) + (cos δ )(sin ωt ) cos(ωt ) ] (8)
The linear transform corresponding to the rotation of the αβ −A
frame is given in (3). Note that this transform is different if = (sin δ ) − A [sin δ sin (2ωt ) + (cos δ ) cos(2ωt )]
2 2
cos(ωt) is considered the reference (i.e. replace sin(ωt) with
cos(ωt) and cos(ωt) with -sin(ωt)). C. DQ Transform Circuit
⎡I d ⎤ ⎡sin ωt − cos ωt ⎤ ⎡ I r ⎤ The simulation model used to implement the single-phase
I dq = ⎢ ⎥ = TI ri = ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ (3) DQ transform is shown in figure 5. The generation of the sine
⎣I q ⎦ ⎣cos ωt sin ωt ⎦ ⎣ I i ⎦
and cosine signals involved is discussed in the next section.
491
The transport delay achieves the π/2 phase shift. This commanded current and the inverter output current is
transport delay can easily be implemented using a digital subtracted to generate D and Q error signals which are then
controller shifted queue [6]. fed into PI controllers. The PI controllers adjust their output
so as to eliminate this error.
The PI controller output is then transformed back to the
stationary frame using only the “real” portion of the inverse
transform shown in (6). This output is used to command the
PWM generator which controls the output voltage of the H-
bridge. Because the simulated example inverter control
attempts to match both the active and reactive components of
the load current the error signal could be generated in the
stationary frame before the DQ transform and thus only one
DQ transform block would be required. This topology was
not used because the ability to control active power
independent of load is a more likely scenario for a grid-tie
inverter. In this case only the Q component of the load current
would be required to achieve reactive power compensation.
Fig. 5. Time Delay Single Phase DQ Transform
D. Pulse Width Modulation Pulse Generator
The inverse transform is implemented at the load following
The control loop is completed with the PWM pulse
control level discussed in the next section. Only the “real”
generator which can be seen in the top level simulation
signal needs to be generated in this case.
schematic shown in Figure 7. The output of the load following
control circuit is used to modulate the PWM gate signals. A
VI. LOAD FOLLOWING CONTROL
modulation process example is shown in Figure 8. By changing
A. Control Circuit the amplitude and phase of the command signal to the PWM
The load following control circuit is shown in Figure 6. This generator the magnitude and phase of the inverter output
circuit includes sine and cosine reference generation, two DQ voltage can be controlled. The load following current controller
transform blocks, D and Q PI controllers and the inverse DQ thus adjusts the inverter output voltage such that the inverter
transformation. output current matches the load current in both phase and
magnitude. The Simulink PWM generator block was used to
generate the gate pulses as it is easily configured to generate
the appropriate output for an H-bridge.
Fig. 6. Load Following Control Circuit
B. Reference current generation

This circuit uses a Phase Lock Loop (PLL) to generate the
sine and cosine references from the PCC voltage. The load
current is determined by subtracting the output current from
the grid current. This technique was used because measuring Fig. 7. Top level simulation circuit
load current directly in a residential situation may be difficult
as grid-tie inverter typically connect directly to the main
household breaker panel making measurement of load
current independent of inverter current infeasible. This
indirect measurement technique could cause controller
stability problems particularly under zero load conditions and
thus a different connection location for the inverter output
that would allow for direct measurement of the load current
would be preferred.
C. PI Control in the DQ Reference Frame
Both the inverter output current and the load current are Fig. 8. Pulse Width Modulation
transformed to the DQ frame. The load current is used as the
492
VII. SIMULATION RESULTS reactive power are increased. This can be seen as the current
magnitude increases and phase shift to compensate. After the
A time domain simulation of the circuit shown in Figure 7
second switching event the current returns to its original
and previously described was carried out in the MATLAB
magnitude and phase.
Simulink environment. The total simulation time was 0.45
seconds and the inductive load was switched in at 0.15 seconds
and out at 0.3 seconds. The simulation circuit parameters are
shown in Table I.
A. H-Bridge Output Voltage

The output voltage and current of the H-bridge while
operating at unity power factor are shown in Figure 9. Note
that the voltage and current are out of phase due to the fact that
the inverter must compensate for the output filter in order
to achieve unity power factor at the filter output. Fig. 10. Inverter PCC Voltage and Output Current
TABLE I C. Active and Reactive Power

SIMULATION CIRCUIT PARAMETERS
The inverter output active and reactive power was measured
PWM Switching frequency f pwm 5 kHz DC with a Simulink PQ measurement block. The output of this
Voltage V DC 500V block is shown in Figure 11. It can be seen that the inverter
Universal Bridge Parameters Various Default Filter output active and reactive power track the load with zero
Inductance 1 L F1 4 mH Filter steady state error. Overshoot could be eliminated by adjusting
Inductance 2 L F2 2 mH Filter the PI control gains however this may result in longer durations
to achieve zero error.
Capacitance CF 10 ℜ F Feeder
Resistance R line 0.1 ∂ Feeder
Inductance L line 0.69 mH Grid
AC peak voltage V AC 340 V
Constant load active power P load1 5 kW
Constant load reactive power Q load1 0 kVAR
Switched load active power P load2 5 kW
Switched load reactive power Q load2 5 kVAR
Proportional Control gain Kp 0.005
Integral Control gain Ki 0.75
DQ transform Transport delay t delay 1 / 240s Fig. 11. Inverter Output Active and Reactive Power
Switched load turn on time t on 0.15 s D. DQ Transform of Inverter Output Current
Switched load turn off time t off 0.30 s
The inverter output current, time shifted output current, D
Simulation length t simulation 0.45 s component of the output current, and Q component of the
output current are shown over the duration of the simulation in
Figure 12. The D and Q components using the time shift DQ
transform are seen to be DC values in the steady state. It can be
seen that using the time shifted current in the DQ transform
contributes to D and Q error during magnitude and phase
transitions. This is because the time shifted current is not
completely orthogonal to the current during these periods.
E. DQ Error and PI Control Output
The D error, D PI controller output, Q error, and Q PI
Fig. 9. H-Bridge Output voltage and current when operating at Unity PF controller output are shown in Figure 13. The high frequency
current spikes resulting from the switching of the inductive
B. Voltage and Current load are seen in the Q error and also in the Q PI control
The inverter output voltage at the PCC and the inverter output. The DQ transform can also be applied in higher
order harmonic cancellation as discussed in [7].
current throughout the simulation are shown in Figure 10.
Before the first switching event the load is purely resistive and
thus the inverter output current is in phase with the
voltage. At the first switching event the load power and
493
VIII. CONCLUSIONS
This paper presented a description of the synchronous rotating
frame current control for single-phase inverters. The method
uses a time delayed version of the original output current signal
as the orthogonal variable used in the linear transform to the
synchronous frame. An example application of this control for
a household scale grid-tie inverter system was described.
Simulink models of this application were presented which
demonstrate local load following using switched inductive
load. Time domain simulation results of this example have
been presented. These results demonstrated the active and
reactive load power demand compensation capabilities of this
control method.
IX. REFERENCES
[1] Y.Xue, L. Chang, S.B. Kjær, J. Bordonau, and Toshihisa Shimizu,
Fig. 12. Inverter Output Current, Time Shifted Inverter Output Current, D “Topologies of Single-Phase Inverters for Small Distributed Power
Generators: An Overview ,” IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics,
component of output current, Q component of Output current.
vol. 19, pp. 1305-1314,.Sept. 2004
F. PWM Modulation Signal [2] F. Blaabjerg, R. Teodorescu, M. Liserre, and A. Timbus, “Overview
of control and grid synchronization for distributed power generation
An example waveform showing the combination of the D systems,” Industrial Electronics, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 53, no 5,
and Q PID output after having performed the inverse DQ pp. 1398-1409, Oct. 2006.
transform is shown in Figure 14. [3] J. D. Glover, M. S. Sarma, and T. J. Overbye, Power System Analysis
and Design (4th Edition), Toronto: Thomson, p. 228-235, 1950.
[4] M. Tarafdar. Haque, “Single-Phase PQ Theory,”in Proceedings of
Power Electronics Specialists Conference, Vol. 4, pp. 1815-1820,
2002.
[5] M.J. Ryan and R.D. Lorenz, “A synchronous-frame controller for a
single phase sine wave inverter,” in Proceedings of Applied Power,
Electronics Conference., Vol. 2 , pp. 813-819, 1997.
[6] R. Zhang, M. Cardinal, P. Szczesny, and M. Dame, “A grid Simulator
with Control of Single-Phase Power Converters in D-Q Rotating
Frame,” Power Electronics Specialists Conference, Vol. 3, pp. 1431-
1436, 2002.
[7] M. Gonzales, V. Cardenas and F. Pazos, “DQ Transformation
Development for Single-Phase Systems to Compensate Harmonic
Distortion and Reactive Power,” 9th IEEE International Power
Electronics Congress, pp. 177-182, 2004.
[8] S. Silva, B. Loopes, B. Filho, R. Campana, and W. Bosventura,
“Performance evaluation of pll algorithm for single-phase grid
connected systems,” Industry Applications Conference, 2004, 39th IAS
Annual Meeting, Conference Record of the 2004 IEEE, vol. 4, pp.
2259-2263, Oct. 2004
[9] J. M. Aller, A. Bueno, T. Paga, “Power system analysis using space-
vector transformation,” IEEE Transactions on Power Systems., Vol.
Fig. 13. D error PI control input, D PI control output, Q error PI control input, 17 , pp. 957-965, Nov. 2002.
Q PI control output. [10] S. Premrudeepreechacharn, T.Poapornsawan, “Fuzzy logic control
of predictive current control fro grid-connected single phase
inverter,” IEEE Photovoltaic Socialists Conference, pp. 1715-1718,
2000.
[11] H.R. Karshenas, H. Saghafi, “Basic Criteria in Designing LCL Filters
for Grid Connected Converters,” IEEE International Symposium on
Industrial Electronics, Vol. 3, pp. 1996-2000, 2006.
[12] B.P. Lathi, Linear Systems and Signals, Carmichael, CA:Berkely
Press, p. 595, 1992.
[13] U.A. Miranda and L.G.B. Rolin, “A DQ Synchronous Reference
Frame Current Control for Single-Phase Converters,” Power
Electronics Specialists Conference, pp. 1377-1381, 2005.
Fig. 14. Combination of D and Q PID output after the inverse DQ transform to
form PWM modulation signal
494
Steady State Investigation of Self Excited 3

Phase Induction Generator with Novel
Leading VAR Controller and Mitigation of
Harmonics Using Active Power Filter
Vargil Kumar E Narasimham PVRL Sarma AVRS
Department of EEE, Gudlavalleru Department of EEE, Gudlavalleru Department of Electrical Engg.,
Engineering College, Gudlavalleru, Engineering College, Gudlavalleru, Osmania University, Hyderabad,
A.P. 521 356, INDIA A.P. 521 356, INDIA A.P. 520 001, INDIA
vargilkumar@gmail.com pvrl2005@yahoo.co.in avrs2000@yahoo.co.in
Where ρ is the air density, ‘Cp’ is the power coefficient

Abstract – Self Excited Induction Generator (SEIG) is and ‘A’ is the rotor swept area and ‘v’ is the wind speed
identified as isolated power source, whose terminal voltage
and frequency are controlled by varying speed, excitation
capacitance or load impedance. Since load changes from
time to time, the output parameters mostly are controlled
by either speed or by varying excitation capacitance. To
reduce the complexity in analysis, the speed of a prime-
mover driving the induction generator is kept constant. For
proper voltage built-up suitable value of excitation
capacitance is necessary.
This paper presents a method for calculating the
minimum excitation capacitance using the equivalent
circuit approach for analyzing the steady state operation of
SEIG. Change in load impedance forces alteration in the
value of excitation capacitance which is difficult to be Fig1. Speed and Power Output Characteristic
implemented. A novel leading VAR controller (LVARC) Basically the wind generation schemes involve
consisting of uncontrolled converter, inverter and a series induction generators, not only of its usage in large
LCR resonance circuit, is introduced in between the load numbers but also due to varied modes of operation both
and source to take care of reactive power disparity thereby under steady and dynamic states. Increased use of Power
feeding the reactive power to the inductive loads and Electronic controllers with such machines makes
absorbing reactive power for capacitive loads.
A closed loop operation of SEIG was developed using
appropriate modeling and parameter identification
Shunt Active Power Filter (SAF) is used for harmonic crucial, for both working control strategies and
elimination. performance predictions.
MATLAB based simulation and experimental results Induction Generator (IG) is not able to start on its
are presented and compared for VAR controller operated own and sustain electrical oscillations. To sustain the
with linear loads. Simulation study is made for Non-Linear electrical oscillations, reactive magnetization current
loads with respect to SAF’s. The simulation results show should be completely compensated by appropriate
the effectiveness of Voltage built-up and harmonic reactive current [2, 3]. It is well known that a suitable
reduction in Wind based Power Generation. capacitor is compulsory to be connected at the output
Key words: SEIG, Leading VAR Controller, Shunt Active Power terminals of induction machine while working as
Filter (SAF), Harmonics. generator, which raises a problem in designing the value
of capacitor. This paper confers a simple nevertheless
I INTRODUCTION open methodical procedure to perceive the steady state
condition using the operational equivalent circuit of the
The depleting Energy resources had made the present machine [5, 6].
society to rethink about the Power generation procedures
SEIG has to supply both the linear and non-linear
and paved a path for utilizing Non-renewable energy loads. As a result, the reactive power oscillation has to
resources [1]. One such resource is Wind Energy, where take place between the source and the load, which
the generated output power varies as the cube of wind enforces the VAR control, envisaging the usage of
speed shown in Fig.1. power electronic switching devices and passive energy-
1
P = C p ρAν 3 (1) storage-circuit elements inductors or capacitors. These
2 elements can be used for controlling current harmonics
at the low or medium-voltage distribution levels or for
controlling reactive power, and voltage [7-10].
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 495

In a capacitance excited SEIG, the terminal voltage operate at the threshold of saturation. All the parameters
and its frequency are dependent on exciting capacitance, except ‘Xm’ magnetizing reactance are assumed
speed and load impedance. The required exciting constant.
capacitance calculation for a load impedance is The voltage in the loop PQRS can be written as
estimated through a MATLAB program, by keeping the I loop .Z eq = 0 (2)
prime mover speed as constant.
II T HEORY OF PROPOSED VAR CONTROLLER
With the designed capacitance, and constant prime-
mover speed the terminal voltage of IG reaches to
required voltage.
Fig. 3 Equivalent circuit of SEIG with proposed controller.
The loop equivalent impedance “Zeq” of SEIG with

proposed controller is given by reducing the circuit
around the loop PQRS
⎡⎡⎡ R ⎤ ⎡⎛ R ⎞ jX ⎤ ⎛ − jX ct ⎞⎤ ⎤
⎢ ⎢ ⎢ l + jX ll ⎥ ⎢⎜⎜ sh ⎟⎟ + jX lsh − csh ⎥ ⎜ ⎟⎥ + ⎥
⎢ ⎣⎢ ⎣ f ⎦ ⎣⎝ f ⎠ f 2 ⎦ ⎜⎝ f 2 ⎟⎠⎦⎥ ⎥
Z eq = ⎢ ⎥
Fig.2 Proposed VAR controller with SEIG ⎢ ⎡⎛ ⎡⎛ Rs ⎞ ⎤ ⎞⎤ ⎡ ⎡⎛ Rr ⎞ ⎤ ⎤ ⎥
The controller consists of three parts – the front ⎢ ⎢⎜⎜ ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + jX s ⎥ ⎟⎟⎥ + ⎢ ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + jX r ⎥ jX m ⎥ ⎥
end uncontrolled rectifier, the SPWM inverter and the
f
⎣⎢ ⎢⎣⎝ ⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎦ ⎠⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎣⎝ f − ν ⎠ ⎦ ⎥⎦ ⎦⎥
LCR series circuit shown in Fig. 2. The VAR controller (3)
circuit is used in conjunction with the fixed minimum On solving and combining similar terms in eq.3 a
capacitance, which is permanently connected to the complex equation in terms of terminal capacitive
machine terminals. With increase in load the capacitance reactance ‘Xct’ frequency ‘f’ is achieved.
required to sustain the terminal voltage increases, this ⎡ 3 2 ⎤
Xct( −jf A1 + f A2 + jfA3 − A4 )
increase in the reactive power requirement. ⎢ 5 4 3 2
⎥
Change in the load current will insist to change ⎢− f A5 + jf A6 + f (A7 + XctA8 ) + jf (A9 − XctA10) − fA11Xct⎥
AC/DC/AC resonance circuit current in opposite Zeq = ⎢ ⎥
direction. The total generator current should be ⎢ B1 + jfB2 (f −v)E1 + jE2 ⎥
+ +
maintained at the rated current. At any instant of time ⎢ f E3 + j(f − v)E4 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
AC/DC/AC converter is operated to balance the load
(4)
current to maintain the generator current constant. The
variable frequency operation of series resonance LCR Under steady state self excitation the loop current is not
circuit effectively takes care of VAR variation in load, zero,( I loop ≠ 0 ), so equivalent impedance is assumed
which is supplied by the VAR controller by operating to be zero [6]. The real and imaginary parts of ‘Zeq’ are
the inverter either below or above the resonant zeros. From eq. 4 separating the real and imaginary parts
frequency. of the terminal capacitance ‘Xct’ are obtained as
Because of proposed VAR controller, the power 7 6 5 4 3 2
f M1 + f M2 + f M3 + f M4 + f M5 + f M6 (5)
factor variation of SEIG is minimized. The mathematical Xct real=
5 4 3 2
approach in relation to above discussion is given in the f M7 + f M8 + f M9 + f M10 + fM11
commencing section.
6 5 4 3 2
f I1 + f I 2 + f I3 + f I 4 + f I5 (6)
III MODELING OF PROPOSED VAR CONTROLLER Xct imag=
4 3 2
f I6 + f I7 + f I8 + fI9
The advantage in this scheme is that only, fixed The terminal capacitance is to be calculated it should
minimum capacitance is needed to be connected to the simultaneously satisfy both eq.5 and eq.6. is obtained by
SEIG, and also this scheme provides smooth terminal equating both of them, resulting in a 11th order equation
voltage regulation. The per phase equivalent circuit in ‘ f ’.
given in Fig.3, is taken to derive the expression for
terminal capacitance. 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3
Xctl = f J1 + f J2 + f J3 + f J4 + f J5 + f J6 + f J7 + f J8 + f J9
Here core losses are being ignored. For the
minimum capacitance requirement, the machine must (7)
496
The solution of the eq.7 is tedious and lengthy a
− 1/2 1/2 ⎤ ⎡va ⎤
MATLAB m-file program was written and solved. By ⎡vα ⎤ 2 ⎡⎢1 ⎥ ⎢v ⎥
⎢ ⎥=
conducting suitable tests, and using the basic equations v
⎢⎣ β ⎥⎦ 3 ⎢0 3 3 ⎥ ⎢ b⎥
of induction machine the proposed VAR controller is ⎣ 2 2 ⎦ ⎢⎣vc ⎥⎦
designed, and open loop operation is being assessed for (9)
linear loads and nonlinear loads, by verifying the − 1/2 1/2 ⎤ ⎡ia ⎤
theoretical and experimental results and are presented in
⎡iα ⎤ 2 ⎡⎢1 ⎥ ⎢i ⎥
⎢ ⎥=
section VIII. i
⎢⎣ β ⎥⎦ 3 ⎢0 3 3 ⎥ ⎢ b⎥
Operation of LVARC happened to an open loop ⎣ 2 2 ⎦ ⎢⎣ic ⎥⎦
system is effective with respect to linear, but coming to The conventional instantaneous power on the three phase
nonlinear loads the harmonic current are not properly circuit can be defined by using ‘p-q’ theory as
taken care because of presence of fast acting nonlinear
switching devices (as shown in Fig.13, Fig. 18 can be
p = vα .iα + v β .i β (10)
compared). So a closed loop system based on shunt Instantaneous reactive power is defined by
active power filter is designed, the discussion follows.
q = v α .i β + v β .i α
IV C LOSED LOOP SAF DESIGN FOR SEIG (11)
The conventional instantaneous power, ‘p’ and the
When SEIG supplies a non-linear load, the load Instantaneous imaginary power ‘q’, are expressed by
draws a fundamental component of current and harmonic
current from the generation systems, which are to be ⎡ p ⎤ ⎡ vα v β ⎤ ⎡ iα ⎤
⎢q ⎥ = ⎢− v ⎥⎢ ⎥
properly controlled. The shunt APF can compensate the ⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣ β v α ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ i β ⎥⎦ (12)
harmonic current by continuously tracking the changes
in harmonic content. APF’s consists of a voltage fed After determining the active and reactive power signals,
converter with a PWM current controller and an active they are smoothened by passing through a low pass
filter controller that realizes an almost instantaneous filter. Later they are converted back to three phase
control algorithm shown in Fig.4. reference currents and made available for comparison
with actual currents. Both are fed to Hysteresis Current
Controller (HCC) where the firing angle corresponding
to the difference of the two signals is generated and fed
to Inverter shown in Fig. 5.
Fig. 4 Block Diagram of APF
The SAF works in a closed loop manner,

continuously sensing the load current and calculating the Fig. 5 A Three phase, Three-wire, Current Compensation SAF
instantaneous values of the compensating current
reference Ic* for the PWM converter. In an ideal case, The inverter is enabled to act as a filter and the use of
the PWM converter may be considered as a linear power inductive and capacitive elements can be vanished out,
amplifier, where the compensating current Ic tracks thereby reducing the cost involved on them (as in case of
correctly its reference Ic*. LVARC). And this filter design promises the closed loop
control and provides better efficient harmonic
V MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF SAF-SEIG elimination, which is validated by simulation results.
The source voltages in all the three phases are VI S IMULATION METHODOLOGY
combined with currents, are converted to Vα ,Vβ , and Iα The required capacitance value (C = 105.2 µFd) of
,Iβ by using Clarke Transformation. These space vectors SEIG has been calculated from the steady state
are easily transformed into a three coordinates as follows
497
equivalent circuit, using MATLAB m-file program by 10
solving a 11th order equation in ‘Xct’, and simulation of
Source
Output
0
SEIG with proposed VAR controller and the closed loop
operation with SAF is being done using simpower -10
0.56 0.57 0.58 0.59 0.6 0.61 0.62
systems block-set of MATLAB/Simulink. The Simulink 10
Controller
models of SEIG with LVARC and SAF is shown in
Output
0
Fig.6, Fig.7 and results of LVARC are presented in Fig.8 -10
to Fig.10 for linear loads and Fig. 11 to Fig. 12 for 0.56 0.57 0.58 0.59 0.6 0.61 0.62
Nonlinear loads. The results of SAF with Non-linear 10
Output
loads are presented in Fig. 16 for Voltage built-up;
Load
0
variation of voltage, current in Fig. 17; and Pulse -10

0.56 0.57 0.58 0.59 0.6 0.61 0.62
Generation using current controller in Fig. 18. Time in Seconds
Fig. 8 Lagging VAR Control of proposed Controller

5
Output
Source
0
-5
0.56 0.57 0.58 0.59 0.6 0.61
10
Controller
Output
0
-10
0.57 0.58 0.59 0.6 0.61 0.62
Output
Load
0
-5
-10
0.56 0.57 0.58 0.59 0.6 0.61 0.62
Time in Seconds
Fig. 9 In-phase VAR Control of proposed Controller simulation
Fig. 6 Simulation of SEIG with proposed VAR controller 5

Output
Source
0
-5
0.56 0.57 0.58 0.59 0.6 0.61
Controller
5
Output
0
-5
0.57 0.58 0.59 0.6 0.61 0.62
5
Load
Output
0
-5
-10
0.56 0.57 0.58 0.59 0.6 0.61 0.62
Time in Seconds
Fig. 10 Leading VAR Control of proposed Controller
Source Output
-5
0.6 0.61 0.62 0.63 0.64 0.65 0.66 0.67 0.68 0.69 0.7
Controller Output
Fig. 7 Simulation of SEIG with Active Power Filter and Hysteresis

Current Controller with non-linear Load 0
-5
VII RESULTS
0.6 0.61 0.62 0.63 0.64 0.65 0.66 0.67 0.68 0.69 0.7
Load Output
A 3-φ, 3 KVA, 415V, 7A alternator is connected -5
across R-L load, and a drop of about 45V is calculated to 0.6 0.61 0.62 0.63 0.64 0.65
Time in Seconds
0.66 0.67 0.68 0.69 0.7
be controlled. For convenience the voltage waveform in Fig. 11 Leading VAR Control of proposed Controller with
the graphs from 8 to 11 are scaled by 5, in order to get a Nonlinear Loads
better view of voltages and currents.
498
Voltage of Phase 'a'
5
of LVARC 0
-5
0.6 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.68 0.7 0.72 0.74
5
Current in phase 'a'
of LVARC
-5
0.6 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.68 0.7 0.72 0.74
Time in Seconds Fig. 16 Voltage built-up in all the three phases of SEIG-SAF
Fig. 12 Stator Voltages currents in phase ‘A’ of 4
phase 'a' of S A F
VIII P OWERLVARC with nonAlinear
QUALITY loads RESULT
NALYZER
V oltage in
2
The observed phasors are obtained using the 0
FLUKE power quality analyzer and are given in Fig.13
-2
to Fig.15. The variable impedance effect of the LCR
series circuit with the change in inverter output -4
frequency was observed. 0.6 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.68 0.7
phase 'a' of S A F
2
C urrent in 0
-2
-4
0.6 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.68 0.7
Time in Seconds
Fig. 17 Stator Voltages and currents in phase ‘A’ of SAF

Fig. 13 UPF effect at frequencies equal to resonant with non linear loads.
C urrent in
'A' phase
2
0
-2
0.6 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.68 0.7
2
C urrent
D istoted
0
-2
-4
0.6 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.68 0.7
C urrent
2
Error
Fig. 14 Lagging effect at frequencies greater than 0

resonant frequency -2
0.6 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.68 0.7
H ysteresis
1
Puleses
0.5
0
0.6 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.68 0.7
Time in Seconds
Fig. 18 Waveforms of Reference currents, Controller Current, Error

current, and Hysteresis pulse Generation
IX CONCLUSION
Fig. 15 Leading effect at frequencies greater than It can be accomplished that the minimum
resonant frequency excitation capacitance calculated from the design
equations was found to be 105.2µF, which aided proper
499
voltage built-up in an SEIG. The novel LVARC I 1 = Q21 − Q37
introduced between SEIG and load has taken care of the I 2 = −Q38 + v * (Q39 − Q22 )
reactive power disparity by providing a reactive power I 3 = Q23 − Q40
ranging from 10% to 40% of the rated capacity on an I 4 = Q41 + v * (Q42 − Q24 )
average, feeding linear and non-linear loads. An
I 5 = Q25
improvement in the voltage magnitude and power factor
is possible by changing the operating frequency of the I6 = Q06 + Q26 +Q56
inverter in multiples of 50Hz, and the by varying LCR
I7 = Q51 −v*(Q07 +Q27 +Q58 +Q59)
component ratings above and below 35mH and 291 µF.
The shunt active power filter with the aid of I8 = Q08 −Q28
hysteresis current controller had taken care of the uneven I9 = v *(Q09 −Q29)
distortion in current thereby smooth voltage J1=(M1I6-M7I1)
characteristic at the output is achieved in comparison
with LVARC technique. The Shunt active power filter J2=M1I7+M2I6-(M8I1+M7I2)
eliminated the harmonics by enabling the inverter to act J3=M1I8+M2I7+M3I6-(M9I1+M8I2-M7I3)
as a filter, fading away the usage of inductors and
capacitors, reducing the cost involved on them. J4=M1I9+M2I8+M3I7+M4I6-(M8I3+M9I2+M10I1+M7I4)
The simulation and experimental results proves J5=M2I9+M3I8+M4I7+M5I6-
the effectiveness of VAR controller, and Shunt Active
Power Filter in Wind based Power System. (M8I4+M9I3+M10I2+M11I1+M7I5)
APPENDIX J6=M3I9++M4I8+M5I7+M6I6-(M8I5+M9I4+M10I3+M11I2)
By performing various tests on a 3φ squirrel cage J7=M4I9+M5I8+M6I7-(M9I5+M10I4+M11I3)
induction machine possessing a rating of 3.7KW, 415V, J8=M5I9+M6I8-(M10I5+M11I4)
50Hz the stator resistance and inductances were found
to be 0.057, and 0.001 p.u., and Rotor 0.04 and 0.001 J9=M6I9-M11I5
p.u., and magnetizing reactance of 1.93 p.u. is preferred.
REFERENCES
Expansion of various terms used in the equation are 1. Iulian Munteanu • Antoneta Iuliana Bratcu, Nicolaos-Antonio
given below Cutululis • Emil Ceang “Optimal control of Wind Energy
Systems” , Springer Edn., 2007.
A1 = X ll + X lsh 2. P.Vas, Electrical Machines and Drives – A Space Vector
Approach, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992..
A 2 = R l X lsh + R sh X ll 3. R.Rabinovici, “Autonomous excitation of induction generators”,
A3 = R l R lsh + X ll X lsh IEEE transactions on Mag., v.34, pp. 664-670, May 1998.
4. G.R.Slemon, Electric Machines and Drives, Reading, MA:
A 4 = R l X csh
Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., 1992.
A5 = X ll X lsh 5. Kh. Al Jabari and Alolah “Limits on the performance of the Three
A6 = R sh X ll + R l X lsh Phase Self-excited Induction Generators”, IEEE Transaction on
energy Conversion, vol.,5, No.2, Page 350-356,June 1990.
A 7 = R l R sh + X ll X csh 6. Kh. Al Jabari and Alolah, “Capacitance requirement for Self-
A 8 = X ll + X lsh excited Induction Generator”, IEE Proceeding, Vol.137, pt. C,
No.3, Page 154-159,May 1990.
A 9 = R l X csh 7. S. Singaravelu, S. Velusami, “Capacitive VAR requirements for
A10 = R l + R sh wind driven self-excited induction generators”, Energy
Conversion
A11 = X csh and Management 48 (2007) 1367–1382.
8. Hirofumi Akagi, Yoshihira Kanazawa, and Akira Nabae.:
M1 = Q31 ‘Instantaneous Reactive Power Compensators Comprising
M2 = −vQ32 Switching Devices without Energy Storage Components’, IEEE
Transactions on Industry Applications, Vol. IA-20, No. 3,
M3 = Q11 + Q33 June1984.
M4 = Q34 + v * (Q12 − Q35) 9. Jayant K. Chatterjee, B.Venkatsa Perumal, and Naveen Reddy
M5 = Q13 Gopu “Analysis of Operation of a Self Excited Induction
Generator with Generalized Impedance Controller”, IEEE
M6 = −(Q36 + vQ14) Trans. Power App. Sys., vol.22 No.2, pp. 307-315, 2006.
10. Bhim Singh, S.S. Murthy, and Sushma Gupta, “Analysis and
M7 = Q51 Design of Electronic Load Controller for Self-Excited Induction
M8 = Q52 + vQ02 Generators”, IEEE Trans. On Energy Conversioon, Vol.21,
No.1, Page 285-294, March 2006.
M9 = Q15 + Q53 + Q03
M10 = Q54 − v *(Q04 − Q16 − Q55)
M11 = −(Q05 + Q17)
500
A Single Stage SEPIC PFC Converter for LED

Street Lighting Applications
Mokhtar Ali*,
li*, Mohamed Orabi*, Mahrous E. Ahmed*, Abdelali El-Aroudi**
Aroudi**
*APEARC, South Valley University, Aswan 81542, orabi@ieee.org
** UniversitatRovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain, abdelali.elaroudi@urv.cat
Abstract—Light
Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) with their current street lighting as shown in Fig 1. The number of LEDs
performances have been proved to be the most suitable required for the streetlight is calculated based on multiples
solution for street lighting applications. Nowadays, a topic of the light flux produced by a single LED [6]. [6].Typically
of interest in this context is the design for electronic driver the operating current of the high brightness white (HBW)
in order to take the advantage of LEDs performances.
LED ranges from 200 mA to 700mA. The typi typical drive
However, requirements
ments such as high power factor, long life
time, accurate current control and high efficiency pose voltage is about 2.5V to 4V. Figure 2 shows the current –
challenges to the design of LED driver circuits. Single
Single-stage voltage characteristics of a commercial high brightness
power factor correction (PFC) topologies are preferred here LED.
for their advantages of lower cost and near unity power The LED brightness is strongly dependent on its current
factor, while adding a separated PFC stage will surely so an efficient driver is needed to regulate the LED
increase the cost. This paper presents a high efficiency current. In generall lighting applications the LED lamps
single-stage
stage LED lamp driver for street lighting applications have to operate from universal AC input so an AC/DC
based on SEPIC PFC converter topology operating in
continuous conduction mode (CCM). This converter has
converter is needed to drive the LED lamp. The driver
achieved high efficiency and high power factor all over the must comply with European IEC 61000 61000-3-2-2000
operating range with low total harmonic distortion (THD). mandatory regulations in terms of harmonic content and
Simulation results are provided to demonstrate the power factor correction (PFC). A power factor of at
effectiveness of the proposed driver. Then, a laboratory least0.9 is needed. The converter efficiency is one from
prototype is built to verify the feasibility of the proposed the prime concerns due to the huge amount of power
LED lamp driver. consumed by lighting sources.The driver must also have
low cost and low component count.
Keywords—LEDs;
LEDs; power factor correction; street lighting;
SEPIC.
I. INTRODUCTION
Developing efficient lighting systems is an essential
task today due to the huge amount of energy consumed by
lighting sources as they represent approximately 20 % of
electrical energy consumed in the world [1].With the
advancement of lighting materials and manufacturing
process, a new lighting source, that is high brightness
Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs), are now attracting more
and more attention from both academy and industry [2 [2-3].
Fig. 1 LED module
ule array used in street lighting.
light
LEDs have no glass components or filaments that made
them with extremely long life time and robustness. The
life time of LEDs is more than 10 times that of the
compact fluorescent lamp (CFL). They are also insensitive
to vibration or movement. LED lamps have rrelatively
high efficacy compared with othercolored light sources as
there is no need for colored filters.Also,
Also, the
t output light
efficiency of power LEDs hass increased over 100 lumens
/watt. Moreover, LED lamps do not have any harmful
emissions such as Ultra-Violet
Violet (UV) or Infra
Infra-Red (IR)
output.They can be dimmed smoothly from full output to
off. LED lamps have a modular construction and do not
need to an external reflector [4-5].
Because the illumination produced by a LED is
relatively weak, it is necessary to increase the flux by
incorporating strings of LEDs of series and parallel
combinations into a module array in order to use them for Fig. 2I-V
V curve of commercial HB LEDs at 40° C.
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 501

It is also required to operate at wide input voltage II. MODES OF OPERATION AND STEADY
variations that are usually ranges from 90V to 230V rms. STATE ANALYSIS
The control loop not only performs power factor
correction but also regulates the lamp current. The SEPIC converter combines the best features of
The AC/DC converters are categorized into two the boost and flyback topologies, making it especially
types: two stages and single stage topologies. The two advantageous in high power factor applications. The
stage PFC converters consist of two separate stages.The SEPIC converter consists of two inductors, two capacitors,
first stage is to make power factor correction and the one switch and a diode as shown in Fig 4. The voltage
second stage is to make the load regulations. They give after the diode bridge rectifier is the rectified AC input
the benefits of reaching unity power factor and providing voltage. The current sensing resistance Rs is put in series
fast output dynamics but they increase the size of the drive with the LED module. The SEPIC converter can be
and therefore the cost. The LED lamp drivers presented in operated in DCM or in CCM. Operating in DCM, the
[7] and [8] are examples for the two stages systems. current ofinductor L1 has three stages of operation. The
Single stage topologies are the most suitable first stage is during period t1 in which switchQ1 is on and
converters as they have only one active switch, high diode D1 is off.The second stage is during period t2in
efficiency, power factor near unity, one control loop and which switchQ1 is off and diode D1 is on.The third stage is
smaller size than that of the two stages topologies and during period t3 in which switchQ1 is off and diode D1is
therefore lower cost [9]. Among the single stage off. Figure 5 shows the inductor L1 current during this
topologies the flyback and SEPIC are the most attractive mode of operation. The converter behaves as a ‘resistor
solutions. emulator’ where the line current exactly follows the line
voltage and provides a high power factor with a simple
Flyback converter is one of the frequently used
control technique with only one feedback loop and the
topologies for low-power low-cost AC/DC conversions
automatic current shaping at constant switching frequency
for lighting applications as shown in Fig 3. It has the
and duty cycle but the ripple content is high so the THD is
advantages of isolation between input and output, high
large and requires an input EMI filter. It also suffers from
efficiency and low total harmonic distortion (THD) but a
high current stresses on devices. The second approach to
propersnubber circuit is needed to suppress the ringing
achieve PFC is CCM operation which uses current control
caused by the leakage inductance of the transformer.
technique.Operating in CCM, the current of inductor L1
Thecomponents' voltage stresses are very highe.g. the
has two stages of operation. The first stage is during
switch voltage stress is (Vin + N Vo ), where Vin is the
period t1 in which switchQ1 is on and diode D1 is off.The
input voltage, Vo is the output voltage and N is the
second stage is during period t2 in which switchQ1 is off
flyback transformer turns ratio[10-12].
and diode D1 is on.The inductor L1 current during this
The SEPIC converter shown in Fig 4 has the best mode is shown in fig 6. As compared to voltage follower
power factor correction and lowercomponents' voltage approach, it has low ripple and low current stresses but its
stresses than flyback converter e.g. the switch voltage controller has two loops and needs sensing of other
stress is (Vin + Vo )and also does not have the leakage ring variables in addition to the LED current [15-16].
effect as in flyback converter. The introduced driver However, for street lighting applications, CCM is the best
circuits for LEDs application have been divided based on choice as DCM imposes very high current stresses on
their power level. For most low power applications devices.
(indoor lighting), discontinuous conduction mode (DCM)
As mentioned above, operating in CCM has two
operation is applied where unity power factor can be
stages of operation a) SwitchQ1 is on and diode D1is off b)
obtained directly as introduced for SEPIC converter in
SwitchQ1 is off and diodeD1is on. The converter circuits
[13-14]. On the other hand, for higher power applications
during these two stages are shown in Fig. 7 and Fig. 8,
(street lighting) continuous conduction mode (CCM)
respectively.
operation is the preferred to achieve high efficiency.
Therefore, this paper presents a high-efficiency single-
stage LED lamp driver for street lighting applications. The
proposed driver is based on the SEPIC converter operating
in CCM. This converter has achieved high efficiency and
near unity power factor all over the operating range with
low THD. Section II shows the SEPIC LED lamp driver
circuit and its modes of operation. In section III the power
stage design calculations are presented and section IV
illustrates the control loop design. Simulation and
experimental results to verify the feasibility of the
proposed driver are presented in V.Finally, some Fig. 3Flyback converter for driving LEDlamps.
concluding remarks are presented in the last section.
502
Assuming that the switching frequency ( ) of the C1is small and must ensure that the voltage over C1is
converter is much higher than the utility frequency ( ) so equal to the rectified input voltage.
the input voltage can be assumed constant during 1
switching cycle and C1is properly selected which means & = (9)
' . +
that the voltage of C1is equal to the rectified input voltage
as in DC-DC SEPIC converter. whereωL<ωr<ωs that means resonant frequency (ωr)
should lie between line frequency (ωL) and switching
a) Thefirst stage of operation: frequency (ωs). The outsput capacitor is calculated from:
This stage starts when the switch Q1is on. The 1
equivalent circuit is shown in Fig 7. The inductor currents & = (10)
' . "( . R
rise linearly and capacitor C1 discharges through inductor
L2 so wherervis the percentage output voltage ripple.

= (1)

2)The second stage of operation:
This stage starts as the switch Q1 is off. The
equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 8. The inductor
currents fall linearly and capacitor C1charges through
inductor L2so

= − (2)
Fig. 4SEPIC converter for driving LEDlamps.
III. DESIGN OF POWER STAGE PARAMETERS

A proper design of the converter parameters is
important to obtain the required performance. To ensure
that the converter operates in CCM, this condition should
be satisfied:
1
> (3)
2 + 1
whereK is the conduction parameter and M is the
voltage conversion ratio.

= (4) Fig. 5Inductor L1 current in DCM operation.

where, Vo is the output voltage, Vr is the peak value of
the input voltage,
. .
= (5)
2

Ts is the switching period, = ,R is the minimum load
!
resistance.
.
= (6)
+
L1and L2 can be obtained fromLeqas:
Fig. 6Inductor L1 current in CCM operation.
2.
= (7)
. "
whereri is the percentage ripple desired in input current,
and d is the duty ratio.
d = √2 . M . √ (8)
then from (6) we can calculate L2

Fig. 7SEPIC converter when switch Q1 is on.
503
IV. THE CONTROL LOOP DESIGN
The complete converter with simplified controller is
shown in Fig 9. It consists of two successive loops: the
inner or current one is designed to ensure the wave-
shaping of the input current and consequently, the
improvement of the input power factor, while the outer or
voltage loop is aimed to regulate the LED current and to
stabilize it at the desired set point. The two loops are
chosen to be a linear proportional (PI) compensator. To
Fig. 8SEPIC converter when switch Q1is off. ensure high stability of the control system, the outer loop
is designed to be enough slower than the inner one. In
addition, in order to emulate a pure resistor behavior, the
current reference must have the same shape as the
rectified source voltage Vin(t), with an adjustable
magnitude. An analog multiplier is used for this purpose
[17].
V. SIMULATION AND EXPERIMENTAL

RESULTS
To study the feasibility of the proposed driver, an
example has been designed of a LED street lighting lamp
of 200 W and 1.4 A LED current with the following
specifications:
• Input voltage: 90 V -230 V
• Line frequency: 50 Hz
• Switching frequency: 100 kHz
• Rated output current:1.4 A
Fig. 9Average current mode control with SEPIC Converter.
• Rated output voltage:143 V
The circuit parameters for the implemented laboratory

prototype are summarized in Table 1.The circuit was first
simulated using PSIM package and some of the key
waveforms are listed in Fig. 11. Figure 11 shows the
supply input voltage versus the input current at low and
high input voltages 90V and 220V, respectively. It is
clear that the input current follows the input voltage at
both values.
The LED lamp driver has to regulate the LED current
even if there is a change in the supply voltage. Figure 12
shows the output LED current versus the supply voltage
of 90 V and 220 V, respectively. The proposed converter
achieved high efficiency all over the supply voltage
varriations.
Figure 13 shows the efficiency of the converter versus
the supply voltage. It is clear that the efficiency is above
90 % for all the operating points. A prototype of the
proposed LED lamp driver has been built to confirm the
simulation results. The prototype is realized as a single
stage solution.Figure 14 shows the waveforms of the
input voltage and the input current with an input voltage
of 90 V rms. It is clear that the input current has a near-
sinusoidal waveform and follows the input voltage that
proves the control function. Also, it agrees with the
Fig. 10 The complete experimental circuit of the power stage with the previous obtained simulation results.
controller.
504
95
94
93
Efficiency
92
91
90
100 120 140 160 180 200 220
Input voltage
Fig. 13The efficiency of the driver v.s. input voltage.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 11The supply input voltage v.s. input current.
(a) at input voltage 90 V

(b)at input voltage 220 V
Fig. 14The measured input voltage (500 mv/div with a scale of 1/100)
and the input current (10 A Ω) at vin = 90 V rms.
Table 1: Components andparameter values used in experiments
Components / parameters values
Inductor L1 1.7 mH
(a)
Inductor L2 500 µH
Capacitor C1 1 µF
Capacitor Co 600 µF
Bridge Rectifier GBU604
Mosfet Switch IRFP27N60K
Diodes D1 8ETX06
(b)
Fig. 12The supply voltage and the LED current
(a) at input voltage 90 V

(b)at input voltage 220 V
505
VI. CONCLUSIONS [15] Z. Ye, F. Greenfeld, Z. Liang, “Design considerations of a high
power factor SEPIC converter for high brightness white LED
In this paper a single-stage high efficiency LED lamp lighting applications",Power Electronics Specialists Conferences
PESC 2008, 2008, pp: 2657 - 2663.
driver with power factor correction has been proposed. [16] B. Singh, “Analysis and design of single-phase power-factor Ac-
The proposed system is based on SEPIC converter Dc SEPIC converter with high frequency isolation" International
operating in CCM. The theoretical calculations for Journal of Energy Technology and Policy, 2007, vol 87.
currents and voltages of the power stage and its control [17] G. Spiazzi, P. mattavelli, “Design criteria for power factor pre-
loop design have been described in details. An example regulators based on SEPIC and Cuk converters in continuous
conduction mode " Industry Applications Society Annual
for LED street lighting has been designed and tested MeetingIAS, 1994, Vol:2 pp: 1084 – 1089.
using numerical simulations and experimental [18] H. Y. Kanaan, K. Al-haddad, et. al, “Practical design of a SEPIC
measurements from a laboratory prototype. The power factor corrector with DC-voltage regulation",Industrial
experimental results and the numerical simulations have Electronics, 2006, pp:964 - 969.
been correspongingly shown to verify the feasibility of
the proposed scheme and validated the proposed
converter for LEDs street lighting applications. It has
been found that high power factor and high efficiency can
be achieved with only a single stage.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully thank the Egyptian Ministry of
Science and the Egyptian Science and Technology
Development funds (STDF project No 346) for
supporting this project.
REFERENCES
[1] R. A. Pinto, M. R. Cosetin, et al, “Compact lamp using high-
brightness LEDs", IEEE Industry Applications Society Annual
MeetingIAS 2008, 2008, pp: 1 - 5.
[2] I. L. Azevedo, M.G. Morgan, F. Morgan, “The transition to solid
state lighting”, proceedings of the IEEE, 2009, Vol: 97 issue: 3 pp:
481-510.
[3] X. Long, R. Liao, J. Zhou, “Development of street lighting
system-based novel high brightness LED modules", IET
Optoelectronics,2009, pp: 40 - 4.
[4] B. Cook, “New developments and future trends in high-
efficiencylighting”, Engineering Science and Education Journal,
2000, pp. 207- 217.
[5] M.S. Shur, R. Zukauskas, “Solid-state lighting toward superior
illumination",proceedings of the IEEE, 2005, Vol: 93 issue: 10 pp:
1691 - 1703.
[6] Y. Aoyama, T. Yachi, “An LED module array system designed for
streetlight use",Energy 2030 Conference, 2009, pp : 1 - 5.
[7] XiaohuiQu, S .C. Wong, C. K. Tse, XinboRuan, “Isolated PFC
pre-regulator for LED lamps”, Industrial Electronics IECON,
2008, pp: 1980 - 1987.
[8] K. I. Hwu, Y. T. Yau, Li-Ling Lee, “Powering LED using high-
efficiency SR Flyback converter”, Applied Power Electronics
Conference and ExpositionAPEC 2009, 2009, pp: 563 - 569.
[10] D. Gacio, “A universal-input single-stage high-power-factor
power supply for HB-LEDs based on integrated Buck-Flyback
converter" Applied Power Electronics Conference and
ExpositionAPEC 2008, 2008 , pp: 570 - 576 Feb. 2009.
[11] H. Chiu, H. Huang, et. al, “An Improved single-Stage Flyback
PFC converter for high-luminance lighting LED lamps"
International Journal of Circuit Theory and Applications,
2007,pp: 205 - 210.
[12] J. Yeon, D. Kim, et. al, “A single stage flyback power supply unit
for LED lighting applications",Electrical and Electronics
Engineering, 2009,pp:I-288 - I-292 ,5-8.
[13] T. Chern , L. Liu , et. al, “Single stage flyback Converter for
constant current output LED driver with power factor
correction",Industrial Electronics and Applications ICIEA 2009,
2009,pp: 2891 - 2896.
[14] Z. Ye, F. Greenfeld, Z. Liang, “Offline SEPIC converter to drive
the high brightness white LED for lighting applications",Industrial
Electronics, pp: 1994 - 2000, Nov 2008.
506
New Resonance Type Fault Current Limiter

Mehrdad Tarafdar Hagh1, Member, IEEE, Seyed Behzad Naderi2 and Mehdi Jafari2, Student Members, IEEE
1
Mechatronic Center of Excellence, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, IRAN
2
Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, IRAN
Emails: tarafdar@tabrizu.ac.ir, s.b.naderi87@ms.tabrizu.ac.ir, m.jafari87@ms.tabrizu.ac.ir
Abstract—This paper proposes a new parallel LC resonance type instantaneously. It is important to note that, if fault continues,
Fault Current Limiter (FCL). This structure has low cast because series resonance type FCL will not be able to limit level of
of using dry capacitor and non-superconducting inductor and fault current, so we propose parallel LC resonance type FCL.
fast operation. The proposed FCL is able to limit fault current in Parallel LC circuit offers high impedance at resonant condition.
constant value near to pre-fault condition value against series It can limit fault currents by selecting various values for L and
resonance type FCL. In this way, the voltage of point of common C. This type of FCL has high flexibility for fault current
coupling (PCC) will not change during fault. Analytical analysis limiting purposes. Indeed, by using the proposed FCL, fault
is presented in detail and simulation results are involved to current will always have constant value against series
validate the effectiveness of this structure.
resonance type of FCL. Analytical analysis and design
Keywords-resonance circuit; fault current limiter; dc reactor;
considerations are presented and their solution is done by
total harmonic distortion MATLAB software. The circuit operation in normal and fault
conditions are simulated by using EMTDC/PSCAD.
I. INTRODUCTION
II. POWER CIRCUIT TOPOLOGY AND OPERATION
Growth of power transmission and distribution systems has PRINCIPLES
resulted in a continuous increase in short circuit currents level
[1]. The most common ways to limit high-level fault currents Fig. 1 shows single phase power circuit topology of
are: upgrading of switchgear and other equipments, splitting proposed FCL.
the power grid, introducing higher voltage connections (ac or This structure is composed of two main parts which are
dc), using high-impedance transformers and etc. These described as follows:
alternatives may create other problems such as loss of power
system safety, reliability, high cost and more power losses. In 1) Bridge part: This part consists of a Semi-Conductor
such condition, the realization of a FCL is going to be Rectifier (SCR) bridge containing D1 to D4 diodes, a
expected, strongly. The SFCL structures offer a good way to superconducting dc limiting reactor ( Ldc ), an IGBT switch, a
limit the fault currents level in distribution networks due to
natural low- losses in superconductors during the normal dc voltage source and a freewheeling diode ( D f ).
operation [2].
2) Resonance part: This part consists of a parallel LC
The implementation of FCLs in electric power systems is resonant circuit that is tuned on 50 Hz network frequency and a
not restricted to suppress the amplitudes of the short circuits; resistor in series with the capacitor.
they are also utilized to variety of performances such as the
Bridge part of FCL operates as a high speed switch that
power system transient stability enhancement, power quality
changes fault current path to resonant part, when fault occurs.
improvement, reliability improvement, increasing transfer
Obviously, as a conventional method, it is possible to substitute
capacity of system equipment and inrush current limitation in
this part with an anti parallel connection of two semiconductor
transformers [3]–[6]. An ideal FCL should have the following
switches. In this case, it is necessary to use a series inductor
characteristics [2]:
with each switch for limiting severe di dt .
1) Zero impedance at normal operation;
2) No power loss in normal operation;
3) Large impedance in fault conditions;
4) Quick appearance of impedance when fault occurs;
5) Fast recovery after fault removal;
Resonance type superconducting FCLs have been proposed
in literatures [7], [8]. These types of FCLs limit fault current by
using various topologies of series LC resonant circuits.
In this paper new structure of parallel LC resonance type
FCL is proposed. Series resonance type FCL limits fault
current and does not allow the short circuit current to increase Figure 1. Power circuit topology of new proposed resonance type FCL
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 507

These inductors make a voltage drop on FCL and affect When the bridge turns off, fault current go through the
FCL’s operation in normal state. But, using diode rectifier parallel resonant part of FCL. Consequently, large impedance
bridge and placing IGBT in this bridge has two advantages as enters to the circuit and prevents rising the fault current.
follows:
It is obvious that, in fault condition, parallel LC circuit
1) This structure uses only one controllable semiconductor starts to resonance. In this case, because of resonance, line
device which operates at dc side, instead of two switches that current oscillates with large amplitude that passes from power
operate at ac current. So, control circuit is simpler because of system equipments. This may lead to harm them or put them in
no need to switching ON/OFF at normal operation case. In stress. But, by placing a resistor ( Rsh ) in series with the
addition, there is not switching losses. capacitor, transient swings of current damp quickly.
2) It is possible to placing a small reactor in series with Some previous structures have ac power losses at resonant
IGBT at dc side. This reactor plays two roles; Snubber for circuit in no-fault condition, because of placing large inductor
IGBT to protect it and current limiter at first moments of fault in line current path [9], [10]. But, this structure has very lower
that will be discussed in detail. losses in normal condition. Also, during fault, proposed FCL
In this structure, by IGBT as a self turn-off device, behaves in a way that power system is not affected by fault
operation delay problem of FCL is mitigated. current. So, there will not be any voltage sag on PCC voltage.
The dc voltage source is used to compensate the voltage In addition, at pervious structures, capacitor is in power
drop on diodes and IGBT. So its value is defined as follow: system, always. So, oil capacitor must be used. But capacitor of
this structure is bypassed at normal operation of power system
and dry capacitor with low cost can be used.
Vdc = 2VDF + VSW (1)
III. ANALYTICAL ANALYSIS
Where VSW stands for the voltage drop across IGBT and Fig. 3 shows the single phase power system model of
the forward voltage drop across rectifier diodes is defined as proposed FCL. The utility voltage is a three-phase sinusoidal
VDF . waveform where ω and Vs stand for its angular frequency and
Fig. 2 shows that by placing dc voltage source in proposed effective voltage value in each phase, respectively. The utility
FCL topology, THD and distortion of load voltage is reduced impedance is modeled by series connection of a resistor Rs
[2]. and an inductor Ls .
This is important to note that dc voltage source can be Analytical analysis is discussed in three modes as follows:
provided by diode rectifiers [3].
Mode 1: Pre-fault steady state operation.
In normal operation of power system, small dc reactor
charges to the peak of line current and behaves as short circuit. Mode 2: Just after fault occurrence until IGBT turning off.
On the other hand, the dc voltage source compensates the Mode 3: Between IGBT turning off and fault removal.
voltage drop on diodes and IGBT switch. So, voltage drop on
the bridge becomes almost zero. Consequently FCL does not
A. Mode 1
affect normal operation of system.
In normal operation of power system, as discussed, SCR
As fault occurs, dc reactor limits short circuit current and bridge bypasses resonant circuit. In this condition, line current
starts to charge. When the line current rises to the pre-defined ( iL ) can be expressed by differential equation (2):
value that can be set by system operator, control system turns
off the IGBT switch. So, the bridge retreats from the utility. At
this moment, freewheeling diode turns on and provides free Vs sin(ωt ) = RiL + ω L ( diL d ωt ) (2)
path for discharging dc reactor.
Load voltage dis tortion where:

Load voltage
Tim e(s)
Figure 2. Load voltage with (▬▬) and without (──) dc voltage source
Figure 3. Single phase power system model
508
R = Rs + RL (Resistance of source and load, respectively) tsw : IGBT switch turn off instant.
Equation (5) is solved by MATLAB software and its results
L = Ls + LL (Inductance of source and load, respectively) are presented in simulations section. In addition, the calculation
Vs : RMS of utility voltage results of MATLAB and simulations of PSCAD are compared
together to prove accuracy of analytical analysis. As mentioned
So the line current equation can be derived as: before, using resistor in proposed resonant structure, can damps
transient swings in primal cycle of fault. After removal of this
transient state, the equation of fault current can be expressed
−( R
ω L )ω t
by:
iL (ω t ) = (Vs R 2 + ω 2 L2 )[( Lω R 2 + ω 2 L2 ) e (3)
+ sin(ω t − ϕ )]
iL = A cos(ωt ) + B sin(ωt ) (7)
where:
where:
ϕ = arctan(ω L R) (4) Vs ⎡ RshCshω(d ′ − b′ω2 ) − (1 − LshCshω2 )(c′ω − a′ω3 )⎤

A= ⎣ 3 2 2 2
⎦
(c′ω − a′ω ) + (d ′ − b′ω )
B. Mode 2
When a short circuit occurs, the dc limiting reactor can Vs ⎡ Rsh Cshω (a ′ω 3 − c′ω ) − (1 − Lsh Cshω 2 )(d ′ − b′ω 2 ) ⎤
B= ⎣ ⎦
limit the increasing rate of fault current. The IGBT switch 3 2 2 2
doesn’t operate until line current reach to per-defined value. (c ′ω − a ′ω ) + (d ′ − b′ω )
Since time interval of fault occurrence instant to IGBT a ′ = Ls Lsh Csh , (8)
operation is very small, its analysis is not presented in detail in b′ = Rs Lsh Csh + Ls Rsh Csh + Rsh Lsh Csh ,
this paper.
c ′ = Ls + Rsh Csh Rs + Lsh ,
C. Mode 3 d ′ = Rs
After IGBT operation, the bridge is switched off and the dc Considering (7) and choosing proper values for Lsh and
limiting reactor retreats from the utility; then, the fault current Csh , it is possible to limit the line current in fault condition in a
is limited by the resonant circuit. So, differential equation of
way that its value be near to the pre-fault line current. In this
fault current can be expressed as follow:
state, if fault occurs, PCC voltage will not sense the fault.
IV. SIMULATION RESULTS AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

⎪ s sh sh (
⎧ L L C d 3i dt 3
L ) The power circuit topology of Fig. 3 is used for simulation
⎪
( 2
⎪ +( Rs Lsh Csh + Ls Rsh Csh + Rsh Lsh C sh ) d iL dt
⎨
2
) (5)
in fault condition. The simulation parameters are as follows:
⎪ +( Ls + Rsh Csh Rs + Lsh ) ( diL dt ) + Rs iL = System parameters:
⎪
⎪⎩(Vs − Lsh Cshω 2 ) sin(ωt ) + Rsh CshVsω cos(ωt )
Vs = 6.6kV (rms ) , Z source = 0.57 + jω 0.003Ω
Z load = 15 + jω 0.1Ω
With initial values as follows: Z Fault = 0.01 + jω 0.001Ω
Z line = 0.5Ω
⎧ FCL parameters:
⎪iL (t = tsw ) = I 0
⎪
⎪( diL dt ) (t = tsw ) = (Vs sin(ω tsw ) − I 0 ( Rs + Rsh )) Ls Rsh = 16Ω , Csh = 150 μF , Lsh = 68mH
⎪⎪ 2
( 2
)
⎨ d iL dt (t = tsw ) = (Vsω cos(ωtsw ) (6) Ldc = 10mH
⎪ VDF = VSW = 3V
(( )
⎪ + I 0 Rsh 2 Lsh − (1 Csh )
⎪ ) I 0 =500A
⎪ − (V sin(ωt ) − I ( R + R ) L ( R + R ))
⎪⎩ ( ( s sh ) s)
sw 0 s sh s
Fault occurs at 1.005s and lasts 0.12s (6 cycles of power
frequency).
Where: As fault occurs, without using FCL, fault current increases
I 0 : Pre-defined line current; extremely (Fig. 4a). Also, without using Rsh in resonance
circuit, transient oscillations appear on the line current caused
509
by LC resonance as shown in Fig. 4b. After damping of these This figure is in accordance with Fig. 4c. Values and
transients, line current becomes a small value. variation of curve shows that result of calculations are adapted
by simulation result of PSCAD.
Fig. 4c shows the line current in fault condition with using
proposed resonant type FCL. As shown in Fig. 4c, when fault Fig. 8 used to choose proper values for Csh , Lsh and Rsh .
current reaches to I 0 that is the pre-defined fault level, IGBT Curves are plotted for Rsh from 10 to 100 ohms. Lower limit
turns off ( at tsw = 1.0052s ) and line current is mitigated in of Rsh is selected to ensure proper transient response of
fault condition. After fault removal, IGBT turns on again and resonant circuit. Standard values for Csh is obtained from [11].
line current returns to the normal state, after negligible
distortion. 0.8
Fig. 5 shows dc reactor current. As fault occurs, it starts to 0.4
DC reactor current (kA)

charge until IGBT turning off. Then freewheeling diode turns
on and discharges dc reactor. After fault removal, dc reactor
0
recharges because of resonant circuit voltage. With discharging 0.98 1.08 1.18
resonant circuit, dc reactor current discharges and returns to
normal state. Fig. 6 shows PCC voltage with and without -0.4
proposed structure. As shown in this figure, proposed FCL can

prevent voltage sag on PCC, properly. -0.8
Time (s)
To demonstrate the accuracy of calculations, differential

equation (5) that shows the line current in fault condition, is Figure 5. Dc reactor current
solved by MATLAB software and result is displayed in Fig. 7. Fault occurance instant
10
8
5
PCC voltage (kV)
4
Line current (kA)
0
0.98 1.08 1.18
0
-5
0.98 1.08 1.18
-4 -10
Tim e (s)
-8
Time (s) Figure 6. PCC voltage without (▬▬) and with (──) proposed topology
(a)
1.6
0.8
Line current (kA)
0
0.98 1.08 1.18
-0.8
-1.6
Tim e (s)
(b)
Figure 7. Fault current calculated by MATLAB
0.8
IGBT turning off

Fault removal instant
0.4
Line cu rren t (kA)
0
0.98 1.08 1.18
-0.4
IGBT turning on
Fault occurance instant
-0.8
Time (s)
(c)
Figure 4. Fault current (a) without FCL (b) without Rsh in resonant type
FCL (c) with proposed FCL Figure 8. Variation of fault current respect to Rsh
510
It is considered that feeder’s average current is 256A at test VI. CONCLUSIONS
system. In this condition, pre-desired value of fault current In this paper, a new topology of parallel LC resonant type
(256A) can be achieved by two values for resonant circuit fault current limiter that includes a series resistor with the
parameters as follows: capacitor of LC circuit is introduced. The analytical analysis
Case 1: Csh = 150 μ F , Lsh = 68mH , Rsh = 16Ω and design considerations for this structure of FCL are
presented. The overall operation of mentioned FCL in normal
Case 2: Csh = 107 μ F , Lsh = 95mH , Rsh = 49Ω and fault cases are studied in detail. Proposed resonant type
FCL can limit fault current in a way that PCC voltage doesn't
In case (1), Rsh is smaller than its value in case (2). So, change during fault. This means that, in case of transient faults,
generated heat in Rsh is reduced in fault condition. As a result, it is not necessary to open the line. By using Rsh in proposed
design of Rsh becomes simpler. topology, transient swings of current caused by resonance just
after fault damps quickly. In addition, this structure has low
However, we can choose another values for Rsh , for losses, low harmonic distortion, low cost because of using dry
capacitor and non-superconducting inductor, fast operation
example lower than 16Ω , in this case (As shown in Fig. (8)),
because of using IGBT switch and capable of controlling fault
line current in fault condition will be lower than pre-fault current at constant value against series resonant type FCLs. In
condition value. In addition, transient swings of fault current general, proposed resonant type FCL has high flexibility for
will be increase. fault current limiting aims.
V. HARMONIC STUDY REFERENCES

As explained previously, using the dc voltage source in [1] Zhang Xiaoqing, Ming Li, “Using the Fault Current Limiter With Spark
proposed structure and compensation of voltage drop on Gap to Reduce Short-Circuit Currents,” IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol.
semiconductor devices reduces THD of voltage waveform. 23, no. 1, pp. 506-507, January 2008.
Magnitude of dc voltage source obtains from (1). [2] M. Tarafdar Hagh, M. Abapour, “Non-superconducting fault current
limiters,” Euro. Trans. Electr. Power, Published online in Wiley
Fig. 9 shows the frequency spectrum of load voltage in InterScience, pp. 669-682, March 2008.
normal operation of power system with and without dc voltage [3] Mehrdad Tarafdar Hagh, Mehdi Abapour, “Nonsuperconducting Fault
source. As shown in Fig. 2 and Fig. 9, by using dc voltage Current Limiter With Controlling the Magnitudes of Fault Currents,”
source in proposed topology, the distortions of voltage IEEE Trans. Power Elec., vol. 24, no. 3, pp. 613-619, March 2009.
waveform in normal operation are decreased to lower values. [4] M. M. R. Ahmed, G. A. putrus, L. Ran, “Power Quality Improvement
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Distribution Conference, Asia Pacific, vol. 2, pp. 1059-1064, Oct. 2002.
Load voltage THD, without dc voltage source: 1.98% [5] M. Tarafdar Hagh and M. Abapour, “DC reactor type transformer inrush
current limiter,” IET Electr. Power, vol. 1, no. 5, pp. 808–814, Appl.,
Load voltage THD, with dc voltage source: 0.061% 2007.
[6] M. Tsuda, Y. Wlitani, K. Tsuji, K. Kakihana, “Application of Resistor
It is important to note that the THD of load voltage is near Based Superconducting Fault Current Limiter to Enhancement of Power
to zero for proposed structure. System Transient Stability,” IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond., vol. 11, no.
1, pp. 2122-2125, March 2001.
[7] K. Arai, H. Tanaka, M. Inaba, “Test of Resonance-Type
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vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 650-654, June 2006.
[8] H. Arai, M. Inaba, T. Ishigohka, “Fundamental Characteristics of
Superconducting Fault Current Limiter Using LC Resonance Circuit,”
IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond., vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 642-646, June 2006.
[9] Hector G. Sarmiento, “A Fault Current Limiter Based on an LC
Resonant Circuit: Design, Scale Model and Prototype Field Tests,” iREP
Symposium-Bulk Power System Dynamics and Control-VII, Revitalizing
Operational Reliability, pp. 1-5, August 2007.
[10] S. Henry, T. Baldwin, “Improvement Of Power Quality By Means Of
Fault Current Limitation,” IEEE, System theory, Proceedings of the
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[11] High Voltage Capacitors and Power Supplies, General Atomics,
Electronics Systems, gaep.com
Figure 9. Frequency spectrum of load voltage (kV)
511
Simple Sensorless Control Technique of

Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator Wind
Turbine
Mahmoud M. Hussein, Mohamed Orabi, Mahrous E. Ahmed, and Mahmoud A. Sayed
University of South Valley
Aswan 81528, Egypt
orabi@ieee.org
Abstract - This paper proposes a simple technique to get while developing low amount of mechanical stress
maximum power of wind energy conversion system (WECS) compared to constant speed systems. With variable speed
without using sensors for wind and rotor speed of the
system, presence of power electronics devices is very
permanent magnet synchronous generator (PMSG). It uses
the measurements of DC current and DC voltage to obtain important, where AC-DC converter such as rectifier is
maximum power point tracking (MPPT) by controlling the used to convert variable voltage and frequency from the
duty cycle of the DC-DC boost converter switch. Moreover, PMSG to DC voltage,. The DC link is converted back to
a PI control is employed to control the output voltage and AC at a fixed frequency that is appropriate for electrical
current of a single-phase voltage source inverter, which is utilizations in the grid [2-4].
used to connect the system to the grid. In this case, the active Wind turbine can deliver Maximum Power when the
and reactive power can be controlled independently. Using
the proposed technique to get MPPT requires only the
rotor speed varies with the wind speeds operating at
measurements of DC current and DC voltage after the maximum power coefficient (Cp) and consequently the
uncontrolled rectifier. From these measurements of the DC maximum power point tracking. MPPT control is an
voltage and current, the DC power can be calculated easily active research area to extract maximum possible power
and thus the MPP can be attained. Therefore the optimum from the available wind power [5-10].
value of the power coefficient of wind turbine (Cp) can be There are two common types of interferences between
reached. Accuracy of this technique for getting MPPT is
PMSG and grid. The first configuration is designed as a
verified through simulation results.
back-to-back converter connected to the grid [11-14].
Keywords - Sensorless control, Wind Energy Conversion This configuration has a lot of switches, which cause
System (WECS), Permanent Magnet Synchronous more losses and voltage stress in addition to the presence
Generator (PMSG), and Maximum Power Point Tracking of Electromagnetic Interference (EMI). The second
(MPPT). configuration is a diode-bridge rectifier, a boost converter
and an inverter connected to the grid [15-19]. This
I. INTRODUCTION configuration that adopted in this paper is, simple, less
expensive, robust and rigid.
Electric power generation using nonconventional In this paper, the maximum power point tracking from
sources is receiving considerable attention throughout the wind turbine is extracted by measuring the DC voltage
world due to exhaustion of fossil fuels, and and current of the uncontrolled rectifier by controlling the
environmental issue. Wind energy, which is the clean duty cycle of the DC-DC boost converter switch. In order
energy source and infinite natural resources, is one of the to achieve unity power factor at the grid side, a PI
available nonconventional energy sources. Nowadays, it controller is applied to control the injected reactive power
is the most fast growing energy source in the world. Also, to the grid to be zero. The propose control scheme of the
it can be installed far quicker than conventional power wind turbine has been verified using simulation program
stations. PMSG has been used more frequently as (PSIM). The simulation results prove that the system can
variable speed system in Wind Energy Conversion attain MPPT and unity power factor at the grid side,
Systems (WECS). When it is connected to a power simultaneously.
converter, PMSG can operate at low speed, so that a gear
was usually omitted. Using a gearbox causes higher
weight, losses, costs and demands maintenance [1]. A II. WIND ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEM
gearless construction represents an efficient and robust Fig. 1 shows the power circuit topology and control
solution, which is believed to be beneficial especially for system of a variable speed wind turbine that proposed in
offshore application. Variable speed systems have several this paper. The system consists of wind turbine connected
advantages such as yielding maximum power output to a PMSG of 20 kW rated power, uncontrolled rectifier
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 512

Figure 1. Power circuit topology combined with control structure
which is used to convert the AC output waveforms of the It can be noticed that the maximum value of is
PMSG to a DC voltage. The DC-DC boost converter is about 0.48 for of 8.1. So by attaining to be 8.1,
used to catch the maximum wind power, where a MPPT the maximum power can be obtained from the wind. This
control algorithm is employed to do so. Additionally, a can be done by adjusting the rotor speed according to the
single phase H-bridge inverter is used for grid connection value of wind speed. Since the radius of the blade is
at unity power factor. The proposed system has been constant, the maximum value of can be achieved by
modeled and simulated using PSIM software program. controlling the DC-DC boost converter.
A. Mathematical Equation of Wind Energy Conversion B. Maximum Power Point Tracking Algorithm
System In this paper, the maximum power point tracking from
The amount of mechanical power that can be extracted wind turbine is extracted by measuring the DC voltage
and current of the uncontrolled rectifier. From these
from the wind turbine and fed to the PMSG is governed
values, the power can be easily calculated. By using a
by the following well know equation: suitable delay time, a comparison between the current and
previous values of the DC voltage can be done. In
0.5 (1) addition, the MPP algorithm needs to sense the power and
the sign of the change in the DC voltage to control the
value of the duty cycle for the DC-DC boost converter.
Where is the mechanical output power of the wind
turbine in watt, is the Air density (Kg/m3), is the There is a general relation between mechanical power
Swept area (m ), is the power coefficient of the wind and DC voltage as shown in Fig. 3 where it is similar
turbine and is the wind speed (m/sec.). Consequently, relation between mechanical power and rotor speed of
the output energy is determined by the power coefficient PMSG. From Fig. 3 it can be observed that at any wind
( ) of the wind turbine if the swept area, air density, speed value there is one point of maximum power point
and wind speed are assumed to be constants. is a at certain value of DC voltage. There is a liner relation
function in the pitch angle (β) in degree and tip speed between the DC voltage and the rotor speed of the PMSG.
ratio (TSR). If β is equal zero degree, in this case the So the operating point can be shifted from curve to
power coefficient is only function in TSR as shown in another with changing wind speed by changing the duty
equation (2), and TSR is function of rotor mechanical cycle of DC-DC boost converter. For example when the
speed, rotor radius of blade and wind speed as shown in wind speed changes from to , the MPP should
equation (3). move from point ‘A’ when the wind speed is to point
‘C’ when the wind speed is through the point ‘B’ by
, controlling the duty cycle of the DC-DC boost converter,
and also when the wind speed decreases from to ,
/ .
0.5176 116/ 0.4 5 (2) the MPP should transport from point ‘C’ when the wind
1/ 0.08 0.035/ 1 speed is to point ‘E’ through point ‘D’ by controlling
the duty cycle of the DC-DC boost converter. Therefore,
/ (3) the algorithm of MPPT includes several steps, which can
be summarized as follow:
Where is the rotor mechanical speed (rad/sec.) and
‘R’ is the radius of the blade. Fig. 2 indicates the relation 1- Measure the value of DC current and DC voltage
between and when pitch angle ( ) equals zero. at the uncontrolled rectifier terminals.
513
2- Calculate the value of the DC C power from DC Figure 4 indicates the stteps of MPPT technique
current and DC voltage values. algorithm, to get the optimum value
v of duty cycle in order
3- Increase or decrease the value of duty cycle (D) to achieve MPPT at any value of the wind speed from the
by a certain perturbation value (ΔD).
( cut in wind speed to the cut ouut. The flow chart shown in
Fig. 4 has been inserted andd simulated in the PSIM
4- Calculate the sign of (ΔP) and thhe sign of (ΔVd) software package as shown in Fig.
F 5
5- The duty cycle of DC-DC boosst converter can be C. Grid Side Converter Controol
changed according to the foollowing equation
[20], where there is a relation beetween duty cycle, With respect to the grid sidee, an H-bridge single phase
inverter is used to interface between
b the DC-DC boost
rotor speed and DC voltage.
converter side and the grid.. A passive filter ‘L’ is
D (k) = D (k-1) – Sign (ΔP)* Signn (ΔVd)*(ΔD) connected between the H- briidge single phase inverter
and the grid for AC smoothingg. A Simple PI controller is
6- Repeat steps 4-5 to obtainn the maximum
employed to achieve unity pow wer factor at the grid side
operating point.
by equating the reference acttive power injected to the
grid with the sensed power exxtracted from wind energy
after uncontrolled rectifier. In order to achieve unity
0.5
power factor, the reference reactive power has been
0.45 chosen to be equal zero.
0.4
0.35
Power Coefficient (CP)
Startt
0.3
D Duty Cycle
0.25 Δ D Pertubation
0.2 Measure Vd (k)) and Id (k)
0.15
0.1
P (K) = Vd (kk) * Id (k)
0.05
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Tip Speed Ratio (TSR
R) Delayy
P (k) & Vd (k) by (k-1) instant
Figure 2. The relation between Power coefficiennt ( ) and Tip speed P (k-1) , Vdd (k-1)
Ratio ( )
ΔP = P (k) – P (k-1)
ΔVd = Vd (k) – Vd (k-1)
No Yes
ΔP >0
No Yes No Yes
Δ Vd > 0 Δ Vd > 0
D=D-ΔD D= D+Δ D D=D+ΔD D=D-Δ D
To the Switch of DC-D

DC boost Converter
Returrn
Figure 4. MPPT Coontrol flow chart.

Figure 3. Relation between Mechanical Poweer and the DC voltage
514
Figure 5. MPPT Control Technique using PSIM Software
III. SIMULATION RESULTS

To check the proposed algorithm of MPPT control
technique, the whole system shown in Fig. 1 has been
simulated using PSIM software package with step
changes in the wind speed. The parameters of the system
under-consideration are shown in Table 1, [20].
Figure 6 (a) shows the grid current and voltage when
the wind speed equals 12 m/sec. Also, Fig. 6 (b) shows
the grid current and voltage when the wind speed equals
8 m/sec. It is cleared that, the current and voltage shown
in Fig. 6 (a and b) are in phase. Therefore the PI
controller has great capability to achieve unity power (a) The grid current and grid voltage at = 12 m/sec.
factor at the grid side. Fig. 6 (c) presents the maximum
output power that can be obtained from turbine with
change the wind speed.
Figure 7 (a) indicates the wind speed profile during the
time of simulation. It decreases from 12 m/sec. to 10
m/sec. at 1.5 sec. and from 10 m/sec. to 8 m/sec. at 3 sec.
after that it increases from 8m/sec. to 10 m/sec. at 4.5 sec.
and at time 6 sec. it increases from 10 m/sec. to 12 m/sec.
By implementing the proposed MPPT control
technique, the rotor speed of PMSG should be adjusted to
achieve maximum value of power coefficient ( ) which
is 0.48, according to tip speed ratio, as shown in
Fig. 7 (b). The corresponding rotor speed of PMSG is
shown in Fig. 7 (c). The change in duty cycle of the DC-
(b) The grid current and grid voltage at = 8 m/sec.
DC boost converter resulted by MPPT control technique
is shown in Fig. 7 (d). The change of the output DC Output power (W)
voltage with the change in wind speed to achieve MPPT
25000
is shown in Fig. 7 (e).
TABLE 1 20000
MACHINE PARAMETERS
15000
Pr Rated output power in KW 20
10000
Nr Rated mechanical speed in rpm 211

5000
pole Number of poles 36 0

0 1.5 3 4.5 6 7.5
Time (s)
ELN Peak line-to-neutral back emf at no-load 295.6
(c) Maximum output Power from the wind turbine
Rs Stator winding resistance in ohm 0.1764
Figure 6. Control of inverter to get unity power factor at the grid.
Ls Stator leakage inductance in mH 4.48
515
12 IV- CONCLUSION
In this paper, a Sensorless wind energy conversion
10
system is presented along with a comprehensive analysis
8 and simulation using PSIM software. MPPT control
algorithm is employed based on measuring the DC
6 voltage and current of the uncontrolled rectifier to attain
0 1.5 3 4.5 6 7.5
Time (s)
the maximum available power from wind. The MPPT
algorithm adjusts the rotor speed of the PMSG according
(a) Changing in wind speed (m/sec.) to the changing in wind speed to obtain maximum value
of the power coefficient ( ). Additionally, a simple PI
0.54
controller is employed on the grid side to connect the
0.48
system with grid at unity power factor. Simulation results
0.42
0.36
prove that the proposed control scheme has a great
0.3
capability to obtain unity power factor at the grid side
0.24 while achieving MPPT.
0.18
0.12
0.06 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
0
0 1.5 3 4.5 6 7.5 The authors gratefully thank the ministry of Science,
Time (s)
Egyptian science and technology development funds
(b) Maximum Power coefficient to get MPPT (STDF project No 346), for supporting this project.
300
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250
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517
DESIGN OF A PREDICTIVE CONTROL

STRATEGY FOR INTEGRATION OF
STAND-ALONE WIND/DIESEL SYSTEM
Behzad Sedaghat*, Abolfazl Jalilvand** and Reza Noroozian***
* Zanjan University, Zanjan, Iran. Email: behzad.sedaghat@gmail.com
** Zanjan University, Zanjan, Iran. Email: ajalilvand@znu.ac.ir
*** Zanjan University, Zanjan, Iran. Email: noroozian@aut.ac.ir
Abstract—Power control of variable speed wind turbines the best choice for transforming wind energy to electrical
coupled with squirrel cage induction generators is difficult energy.
and suffers from some fundamental problems. If this type of Remarkable characteristics of diesel generators like
wind turbines are applied to remote areas, they cannot relatively low cost, ease of transportation, low tech and
stabilize frequency and voltage of the grid in acceptable reliable operation, Independent of atmospheric condition
limits. Changes in the load during one day also make this [2] can make them one of the reliable sources of energy to
problem harder to deal with. In this paper, a system use in remote areas. But, diesel engines burn fossil fuel
consisting of three wind turbines integrated with two diesel which release harmful emissions into atmosphere and
generator connected to a variable load is analyzed, and a deplete earth's limited energy resources [2].
new predictive control is proposed. The load model is
implemented a changing power demand based on load Changes in load demand during a day are the main
curve. This control method adjusts a controller based on problem to control these types of systems. Changes in the
past system and environmental data. Simulations with load can lead system parameters to change. If time of
“PSCAD/EMTDC” software show the ability of the changes and durations are recognized, control of the
proposed control system to provide high quality power for system is more accurate and simpler.
this type of load. In this paper a new control method based on prediction
of load changes is proposed. The power system consists of
Keywords—Wind Turbine; Diesel generator, Load Curve; two diesel generators integrated with wind turbines to
PSCAD; Stand Alone; Predictive Control provide the required power in actual load conditions.
The main area of concern in this study is to feed
I. INTRODUCTION consumers of a small village according to their load
Providing suitable electrical power supplies is one of pattern in one day and in appropriate conditions of power
the basic concerns in remote villages around the world. quality. The proposed control method will lead the diesel
Connecting these areas and regions to the grid is a cost generator to operate in a minimum operating condition
consuming process or in some ways physically impossible and the major part of the base load will be provided by
[1]. On the other hand, the quality of power is one of the wind turbines. Further economical and fuel consumption
concerning problems in this type of systems. studies in typical or specific applications shall be carried
Wind is one of the clean and rich sources of energy in out in future.
nature. Extraction as much as possible of this energy is II. SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
one the main purposes of using this type of energy.
Besides, the unpredictable nature of this phenomenon Fig. 1 shows a remote area power system and it's
makes this energy source hard to control and needs some components. Three wind turbines coupled with induction
considerations. Wind turbines coupled with generators are generators are operating at variable speed condition. In the
the appliances to transform this natural form of energy to wind farms the collective output power fluctuations are
electrical form. minimal [3]. Based on this fact, three wind turbines are
Induction machines with a simple construction and low selected to minimize the fluctuations and besides this,
price are vastly coupled with wind turbines, whereas simulation can be done. Wind turbines coupled with
control of these machines is so difficult and in some induction generators cannot preserve system frequency.
conditions almost impossible. Using squirrel cage An additional system will be needed to retain and control
induction generators can make this problem harder to deal output frequency at a proper range. In this study the wind
with. turbines will produce power as high as possible from the
wind.
Rotation of wind turbine shaft is developed by wind
when passes through the turbine blades. With respect to Two diesel generator sets provide a smooth power
the wind variable speed, turbine rotational speed will be output. The online one keeps frequency and voltage
varied. Thus output of the machine will be variable in constant in a vast range of operating points whereas the
both frequency and voltage accordingly [1]. A simple and
suitable control method can make the induction machines
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 518

Data Selector
Block
Power
DATA Coefficient
PROCESSOR
Wind Power 1 Torque 1 Induction
Starting Curve + -
Power Source w Js+D Generator
Command
Operator
Block Wind-Gen
Electrical Loss Busbar
CONTROLLER
Voltage(PU), Frequancy(Hz)
Figure. 2 Wind Turbine Block Diagram
Past System Data
Capacitor
The mechanical power (PWT) extracted from the wind is
Bank
mainly governed by three quantities namely, the area
swept by rotor blades (AW), the upstream wind velocity
Governor (VW) and rotor power co-efficient (CP) [5], (2).
AVR
Linearized Load Curve
1
Pwt = ρAwVw3C p (λ , β )
Backup
Diesel Generator
(2)
2
Cp, the power coefficient of rotor, is a function of tip
Governor
AVR
speed ratio (λ) (3) and pitch angel (β). The wind turbine
Online
considered in this work is “stall controlled”, so pitch angel
Diesel Generator
is kept constant and Cp is a function of λ only.
Vw
Figure.1 Stand-Alone Power System Configuration TSR, λ = (3)
output of the wind turbines vary due to the wind speed ω
fluctuations. This low power diesel generator is used as a ω is the rotor rotational speed.
frequency and voltage control part of the system. The A squirrel cage induction machine will be coupled to
other diesel generator will work as the controlled source wind turbine in this study. The induction machines
of energy. This high power diesel generator will be called operation will be determined from sign of two main
backup diesel generator. parameters. If both electromagnetic torque and slip are
Wind dynamic model is applied to the wind turbines. considered as positive, this machine will operate as a
This model consists of 4 elements, wind mean value, motor, whereas negative sign of these parameters makes
ramp, gust and turbulence components. this machine to operate as a generator.
A new variable load model based on load curve is The d-q equivalent circuit of the induction machine is
employed in this study. By using an algorithm integrated used to model the machine. The direct axis is assumed to
with some variable electrical elements, this load is align with the stator terminal voltage phasor, therefore all
designed, and can be used as a one day load shrunken to the rotor variables are referred to the stator side [6].
several minutes [1]. Voltages produced in d and q axes of the stator are
obtained from parks transformation, (4) and (5).
III. SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Vd = E d' − rs I d − X ' I q (4)
A. Wind
One approach to model a wind speed sequence is to use Vq = E q' − rs I q − X ' I d (5)
measurements. The disadvantage is, however, that only The differential equations describing the rotor windings
wind speed sequences that have already been measured are shown in (6) and (7), and electromagnetic torque
can be simulated [4]. In this study a more flexible equation is obtained from (8).
approach with the ability of setting characteristics is used
dE d'
for modeling of wind speed.
Wind speed model usually is made up of the following dt
1
[
= ' − E d' + ( X − X ' ) I q + s ⋅ ω ⋅ E q'
T0
] (6)
four components: the average value (Vwa), a ramp
component (Vwr), a gust component (Vwg) and a dE q'
turbulence component (Vwt). Wind speed (Vw) can be
dt
=
1
T0'
[ ]
− E q' + ( X − X ' ) I d + s ⋅ ω ⋅ E d' (7)
obtained from (1).
Vw (t ) = Vwa + Vwr (t ) + Vwg (t ) + Vwt (t ) (1) Te = E d' ⋅ I d + E q' ⋅ I q (8)
Detailed modeling description of the wind is presented The active and reactive power output, voltage and
in [4]. The model is implemented in PSCAD/EMTDC current under steady state operation are given by (9), (10),
software for simulation approaches. (11) and (12).
B. Wind Turbine Generator {
Pe = Re Vt ⋅ I At } (9)
= Im{V ⋅I }
In this study "PSCAD/EMTDC" pre-modeled "MOD5" t
wind turbines are fitted with induction machines. There Qe t A (10)
are some problems to connect these two systems and make
them to work together properly. Wind turbine is modeled Vt = Vd2 + Vq2 (11)
according to [5]. Block diagram of the system is shown in
Fig. 2. I A = I d2 + I q2 (12)
519
The above equations are in per-unit system with respect Diesel engines need a governor to maintain output
to the synchronous reference frame [6]. speed of the system at 1 PU, so that the output frequency
The "PSCAD/EMTDC" pre-modeled induction of the synchronous machine is kept constant at 50Hz
machine is used as a machine model to convert accordingly. Governor controls fuel valve according to the
mechanical output power of the wind turbine to electrical changes in load on the shaft. This local control system can
power for the plant common bus (Fig. 1). In this study the keep rotor speed of the coupled generator almost constant
machine will operate without continuous connection to an during changes in load demand. A clutch simple model
infinite bus. To start the machine in this condition an has been also implemented [10]. Detail descriptions of
external source of power is needed to produce voltage in diesel engine and governor models are presented in [11].
the terminals. After a limited period of time the source can The proposed synchronous generator in this study,
be disconnected. A bank of capacitors will continuously including synchronous machine, AVR control system and
produce most of the required reactive power for the excitation, is one of the "PSCAD/EMTDC" pre-models.
machine (Fig. 1). The machine operates as a self-excited AVR system was modeled based on IEEE type 1
induction generator. Minimum value of capacitance is recommended models. The diesel generator set is
required for initiating voltage build up and it can be completed by connecting these three components together.
calculated from (13) [7]. Fig. 3 shows the system configuration with all these
elements.
1 ⎧ amax2
XL X ⎫ The ability of the diesel generator to respond to
Cmin = ⎨ 2 + 2 ad 2 ⎬ (13)
2πf b Z b amax ⎩ RL + amax X L Rad + X ad ⎭
2 2 2
frequency changes is affected by the inertia of the diesel
Generator set, the sensitivity of governor and the power
Zb and fb are the base impedance and frequency, amax is capability of the diesel engine and generator [3]. In remote
the per-unit frequency respectively, RL and XL are the areas, because of the weak network, it is required to apply
resistance and reactance of load and Rad and Xad are the a relatively larger diesel generator set to stabilize the
total resistance and reactance of the simplified equivalent system frequency.
circuit from machine terminal.
The response time of AVR and excitation system, show
The generator starts at constant speed of 1.02 PU, the ability of the machine to control voltage.
which is higher than the rated speed. Hence with this
configuration, the induction machine is generating power D. Variable Load
instead of absorbing power. At 0.5 sec, the operation is In this study instead of using constant or switching
being switched to constant torque and runs in steady state load, variable load based on load curve is used. Fig. 4.a,
condition [8]. shows a typical load curve of a remote area in one day.
C. Diesel Generator Variable electrical elements integrated with a load
Standard diesel generators are fitted with synchronous programmer unit are used for implementation of this
generator and consequently are controlled to run at a variable load (Fig. 4). The load programmer unit is a
constant speed to guarantee constant electrical frequency block that uses 4 points of actual load curve as reference
[2]. As an electrical system, diesel generator set is a to estimate linearized load curve. Details of the load
source that can supply power demand up to rated power at modeling is expressed in [1] in detail. Variable Load
constant frequency [3]. Diesel engine has a reliable and block has all electrical characteristics of an actual load.
simple operation. There are two limitations in selecting time scale of the
Diesel engine model gives the description of the fuel load. Simulation experiences show that time scale cannot
consumption rate as a function of speed and mechanical be more than 200 second due to the instability of the
power at the output of the engine. The transfer function operation system and also cannot be lower than 150
describes relation between fuel consumption and engine seconds because of the conflictions between load changes
mechanical power. and system dynamics. "180 seconds" was selected as the
best possible time scale for this study [1].
The set of equations relating the diesel engine model
are presented in (14) to (18). IV. PREDICTIVE CONTROL SYSTEM
Δω = ω − ω 0 (14) The predictive control system consists of three main
parts, the “Data Selector Block” (DSB), “Data Processor”
dPC K (DP) and the “Command Operator Block” (COB). The
= − 1 Δω (15)
dt ω0 DSB integrated with DP works like a planner control and
•
COB works like an intermediate control.
d mB 1 K • DSB collects system main parameters data from last
= ( K 2 PC − 2 Δω − m B ) (16) days and DP processes the data to estimates system
dt τ2 ω0 R condition in the next day. This estimation is done for
• •
m′ B (t ) = m B (t − τ 1 ) G o v e rn o r AV R V re f
(17) -+
f re f
E x c ite r
-+
•
Tm = C2 (C1 m′ B ε − C3ω ) (18)
Fuel
D ie s e l S y n c h ro n o u s
M o to r G e n e ra to r
The parameters ε, C1, C2 and C3, being efficiency, Fuel
V a lv e C lu tc h
engine proportional constant, torque and speed constants D ie s e l-G e n
B u sb a r
respectively [9]. Figure 3. Configuration Diagram of Diesel-Generator Set
520
time table. Reducing load may lead system to
4 R unbalancing and fluctuations in power, instability and
2 Load causes inexcusable costs. According to time table, before
1 3 Programmer
L
load reduction, back up diesel generator must be prepared
Time
for disconnection and disconnects in a specific time. An
Load
Busbar
overview of control algorithm can be summarized as
below:
4
Step.1: changes in system main parameters and wind
2 speed patterns were recorded from the previous day.
1 3
Time Step.2: “Time Table” of the system settings for the next
Figure.4 Variable Load System Diagram, a. Top-left is a typical
day is generated based on step.1.
load curve of a remote area, b. Top-right is a block diagram of Step.3: in the next day, the system will be controlled
variable load, c. Bottom-right is estimated load curve according to “Time Table”.
every instant of the next day and step of estimations can
be adjusted from seconds to hours. V. SIMULATION AND RESULTS
DSB-DP is the higher level of the control system. This To evaluate the performance and response capability of
part of the control system analyzes the power system the proposed control method and controllers to the
parameters data from previous day and create a time table changing load power demand, simulations will be done for
for starting and commitment of Backup diesel generator. the shrunken time scale of the load. Figs. 5, 6 and 7 show
Backup diesel generator Start button, clutch and CB will system responses to described configuration and scenario.
be controlled based on time schedule. By analyzing At the time of 0 second, both online and backup diesel
system parameter changes during previous day and by generators are switched off and the CB is opened and
considering the similarity of the previous day and the next clutch is freed whereas the wind turbines CB are closed.
day, DSB-DP predicts the system conditions of the next Time 0 of simulation is based on three o’clock in the
day. morning of actual load curve. The reason of this time shift
Analyzing a typical system parameters data during a is explained in [1].
year and considering seasons and climatic changes In a short time after starting the simulation and after
indicate that the most similar days to the day for which completion of transient state, the online diesel generator is
planning is done, is the previous day in the same year. started and connected to the system.
Very small changes in climatic conditions and small Based on time schedule at these moments there is no
changes in consumption behavior of customers are the need for extra power production. This happens because of
main reasons for this similarity. the proper load balancing between demand and power
Many previous data from the days in many years can be generation.
used for this short term planning and system condition The amount of first peak of the load curve is within
estimation. But all of the data except the one from the generation range if the wind blows according to prediction
previous day have information that makes the DP to work (Fig. 7).
relatively slow without any better results. The authors
have concluded that, using the previous day data is the As time passes by, at the time of 125 second the
best choice for this type of planning, because it makes the controller system predicts that simultaneous changes in
control system simpler to be implemented and constructed wind speed and power demand can make the system
and at the same time to be more accurate and fast. instable or work out of acceptable range. Based on this
prediction, backup diesel generator must be connected to
COB is the intermediate level of the control system. the system at the proper time. Predictive control system
This controller has two main parts. One of them controls starts the diesel generator before connection time. After
power system based on time table and the other part that diesel engine starts, the controller commands for clutch
called Power Assignment System starts system from lock and CB connection when the time is appropriate.
inactive time period and control voltage and frequency at Before the diesel generator CB can be closed, engine must
proper condition during start operation. Details of starting be started to work at a steady state under the nominal
procedure and how the COB works as a “Power frequency and voltage condition.
Assignment System” is presented in [1].
According to the result displayed in Figs. 5-7, system
COB commands based on DP generated time table and local controllers try to stabilize voltage and frequency in
starting conditions. This block can start diesel generators this new configuration. As these figures show, three wind
or shut them off, lock or free clutch of diesel generators turbines integrated with online diesel generator provide
and open or close CBs throughout the system. power for the most part of the total demand of the
Analyzing the output indicates that the system cannot consumers and the remaining part at peak load is provided
control frequency and voltage level if load power demand by the backup diesel generator. The role of online diesel
fluctuates more than wind turbines generated power and generator is to preserve voltage and frequency at nominal
online diesel generator maximum power. Both frequency conditions and the role of backup generator is to provide
and voltage will be fluctuated out of admissible limits. extra power for peak load or low wind conditions.
In this system, according to prediction of load changes After decreasing in load demand with consideration of
and climatic changes backup diesel generator starts up and wind speed changes, the backup diesel generator must be
after achieving steady state, it will be connected to the disconnected at a time of around 150 seconds. The
system. The time of starting, clutch locking and predictive control had predicted the system condition and
connection to the system are according to the generation have prepared for disconnection earlier than this time.
521
Disconnection of the diesel generator is executed at the The most significant motif that was taken into
appropriate time so the unbalanced load cannot make the consideration in this study is the fact that the wind
system unstable. turbines produce power freely whereas diesel generator
Since load changes speed is much less than controllers’ sets work as the controlled power sources to adjust final
response time, the system can be adapted to the moving output of the system at a proper condition.
new operating points. Fig. 7 shows the ability of the
system and controllers to provide high quality power for VI. CONCLUSION
the load demand changes and to prevent system from Three Variable speed wind turbines coupled with
operating in none appropriate conditions. squirrel cage induction generators integrated with two
As it can be observed from Fig. 7 there is a permanent diesel generator sets provide power for an isolated village
division between generated power and the estimated load demand. The main problem of these wind turbines is that
curves. This division originates from electrical losses in they cannot stabilize frequency and voltage of the grid in
the system [1]. At the moment that the diesel generator acceptable ranges. One of the diesel generators, called
connects to the system a tension imposes to the system. online, was used to stabilize voltage an frequency of the
This happens due to differences between frequency and system. Another problem of the isolated power systems is
phase of the system and the diesel generator set. This changes in the load during one day. Integration of a diesel
proposition is indicated by a peak in power generation generator set, called backup, can improve the system
curve. behavior during large changes in load demand. In this
condition, prediction of load changes based on previous
Main Busbar Voltage
V Actual Delta Voltage
data of the system can make control of the system more
2.00
Backup Diesel-Gen accurate with less complexity.
1.50
Disconnected In this study a new predictive control method for
improving performance of a stand-alone wind/diesel
1.00 power system is proposed. Simulations with
"PSCAD/EMTDC" software show the ability of the
PU
0.50
Backup Diesel-Gen proposed control method to supply power according to
0.00
Connected load demand and to control the voltage and frequency of
the system in a proper condition in presence of the
-0.50
variable load and wind speed .
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 .
.
. REFERENCES
Figure.5 System Voltage Variations [1] B. Sedaghat, A. Jalilvand, R. Nowrouzian, “Modeling and
simulation of stand-alone wind/diesel system connected to
Estimated variable load,” IEEE CCECE 2010 Symposium of the
System Frequancy IEEE Canadian Conference on Electrical and Computer
Frequency
56.0 Backup Diesel-Gen Engineering, Calgary, 2010.
54.0 Connected [2] ] P. A. Stott, M. A. Mueller, “Modelling Fully Variable Speed
Hybrid Wind Diesel Systems,” Proceedings of the 41st
52.0 International Universities Power Engineering Conference, 2006.
50.0 [3] E. Muljadi, C. Wang, M. H. Nehrir, “Parallel Operation of Wind
Hz
Turbine, Fuel Cell, and Diesel Generation Sources,” IEEE Power

48.0
Engineering Society General Meeting, 2004.
46.0 Backup Diesel-Gen [4] Thomas Achermann, Wind Power in Power Systems, john Wiley
44.0
Disconnected & Sons, LTD, 2005.
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 . [5] A. Murdoch, R.S. Barton, J.R. Winkelman, S.H. Javid, “Control
.
. Design and Performance Analysis of a 6 MW Wind Turbine-
Generator,” IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems,
Figure 6. System Frequency Variations Vol. PAS-102, No. 5, 1983.
[6] Atul S. Kini, Udaykumar R. Yaragatti, “Modelling and Simulation
of a Wind/Diesel Hybrid Power System,” IEEE International
Conference on Industrial Technology, 2006.
[7] T. F. Chan, “Capacitance requirements of self-excited induction
generators,” IEEE Transaction on Energy Conversion, Vol. 8,
1993.
Power Generation
[8] Group of Writers, PSCAD/EMTDC Power System Simulation
Software User's Manual, Manitoba HVDC Research Center,
Winnipeg, Canada, 1996.
[9] G. S. Stavrakakis, G. N. Karinitakis, “A general simulation
algorithm for the accurate assessment of isolated diesel-wind
Estimated Load turbines systems interaction. Part.I: A general multimachine power
Demand system model,” IEEE Transaction on Energy Conversion, 1995.
[10] R. Sebastian, “Smooth transition from wind only to wind diesel
mode in an autonomous wind diesel system with a battery-based
energy storage system,” Renewable Energy, Vol. 33, 2008.
Figure.7 Load Variations and Following Power Generation [11] Yeager KE, Willis J.R., “Modeling of emergency diesel generators
in an 800 Megawatt nuclear power plant,” IEEE Transaction
Energy Conversion, Vol.8, 1994.
522
Investigating of Wind Turbines Affects on

Recloser Operation in Distribution Networks
H. Kazemi Karegar S. Saberi
Tehran, Iran. Tehran, Iran.
H_kazemi@sbu.ac.ir sadegh_Saberi65@yahoo.com
Abstract--Wind turbines are normally installed on It is possible to simply reconnect of two part of a system,
distribution networks and reclosers are one of the main parts if generation units are exist only on one part. If both two
of that. Recloser operations are well known in traditional parts have generation units then it is necessary to use
network, but they need more investigations when wind synchronous relay for the connection.
turbines are connected on the other side of the recloser.
Existences of wind turbines produce mal-functions of As stated before, using wind turbines in distribution
reclosers. In this paper, the affects of the wind turbines on network make the network as bidirectional and produce
operations of reclosers will be investigated and by simulation some problems for operation of reclosers.
results the main problems will be shown. Also, the suitable In this paper the problems of using wind turbines in
time and current settings for reclosers will be proposed. distribution network for operation of reclosers will be
investigated. The new settings of reclosers will be obtained.
Keywords—Wind Turbine, Recloser, Distribution Netwrok, The simulation will be done on a part of a distribution
Current Setting, Time Setting. network in which a V47 VESTAS wind turbine is installed.
MATLAB is used for obtaining results.
I. INTRODUCTION
II. RECLOSER OPERATION
Using renewable energy is considerably increasing over
the world as more than 159200 MW wind turbines are now Recloser is a protection device against high current faults
installed. It shows that the average increase was 31.7 % in distribution networks which by sequential operations
during 2008-2009 and it is predicted that 190000 MW wind deletes temporary faults or detects permanent faults and
turbines will be installed at the end of 2010 [1]. disconnected the faulty section from the power supply.
Normally, wind turbines are installed in distribution The sequential operations of a recloser are done in
networks. These networks are radial, but they will be different ways. There are five different techniques:
bidirectional by existence of wind turbines. Therefore,
protection schemes of the network should be investigated
- Two instantaneous and two delay operations.
[2-6].
- One instantaneous and three delay operations.
More than 80% of faults are temporary in distribution - Three instantaneous and one delay operations.
networks, so it is important to reestablish the connection of - Four delay operations.
consumers to the power system. It will be possible by using -
reclosers.
Delay times between reclosing operations are mainly
Relcosers are mainly used for deleting temporary faults, depending on the protection network structure. Normally,
isolating faults, increasing reliability of distribution two reclosing operations are adequate for most of the
networks. distribution networks. Two main factors should be
During fault, network current increases and the recloser considered in setting of reclosers.
disconnected the faulty section of network from the main
part. If the fault was temporary, it is possible to reconnect
- Selecting suitable delay time in order to successful
the disconnected section to the main part. At this time the
operations.
recloser operates and reconnects the section. If the fault was
- Limiting affects of reclosers operations such as over
not temporary, then the network current will be increased
voltages.
and the recloser will disconnect the faulty section.
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 523

III. PROBLEM STATEMENT Grid
Wind turbines generators are mainly divided in two

categories: Recloser WTG
- Asynchronous
- Synchronous Temporary Fault
Asynchronous wind turbines are simple and economical, By-Pass Switch

but they need gear boxes. Therefore, large asynchronous Figure 2. Recloser and Wind Turbine
wind turbines need large gearboxes. It is the main problem
of asynchronous types. When there is a temporary fault as shown in figure (2),
Nowadays, large wind turbines use synchronous then the recloser will be opened. After a delay time, for
generators and eliminate gearboxes, but these types are example 0.5 Sec., the recloser will be closed. At this time,
more expensive and need more operation cost. the fault was cleared but the recloser again may be opened
because of high current of reconnection of the wind turbine
By the way, most of wind turbines installed around the to the grid. The causes of high current are:
world are asynchronous type.
This type needs reactive power at the time of connection
to the grid and absorb it from grid. At this moment the - Directly connection of the wind turbine to the grid
speed of the wind turbine is near the synchronous speed and without soft start.
behave like an asynchronous motor when connects to the - Connection of two parts of the system without
grid. The starting current is high and over current relays and synchronization.
recloser may operate. To solve this problem a soft start is -
used for reducing the starting current of wind turbine during The soft start will be in service at the starting time of the
cut-in. wind turbine, but reconnection is different with the starting
Soft start is composed of two thyristors connected back- time. Hence, a high current will be produce.
to-back in each phase as shown in figure (1). It behaves like Another reason of high current is about out of
a static switch which applies the grid’s voltages gradually to synchronization. When the recloser is opened the
wind turbine generator. By increasing firing angle the synchronization of wind turbine and the gird will be lost. At
voltage amplitude gradually increases and the starting the time of reclosing, two source with different voltage,
current gradually increases too. After starting sequence is different phase and different frequency will be connected
completed, then a by-pass contactor directly connects the together. At this time a high current will be produce.
wind turbine to the grid. This technique increases the This paper will be deal with these situations and proposes
efficiency of wind turbine and the longevity of soft start. the solutions.
IV. CASE STUDY
As shown in figure (3), a 660 kW wind turbine is

Grid WTG connected to the grid via a three phases 20/0.69 kV and a
recloaser.
A temporary three-phase fault has been occurred near
busbar B1. After 0.2 Sec. the recloser operates and the wind
turbine is connected to the grid. The turbine current is
shown in figure (4) at bus B690.
Soft Start As can be seen, the nominal current of wind turbine is
Figure 1. Wind Turbine and Soft Start 2000 A, the fault current is 9000 A which is supplied by the
wind turbine and the reconnection current is 6000 A.
However, the main problem arises when the there is a
recloser between grid and the wind turbine as shown in
figure (2).
524
Figure 3. Simulated Network
It is known that the 80% of faults are single-phase to

ground faults. The operation of recloser on temporary
single-phase to ground fault are shown in figure 6.
Figure 4.B690 RMS Value of Wind Turbine’s Current
Figure (5) shows the current at busbar B20 where

recloser is installed. The nominal current is 60 A and the
three-phase fault current is more than 300 A. As the fault Figure 6. B20 RMS Value of Recloser’s Current (Single-Phase to
is temporary, then for a short time the current is zero. Ground Fault)
The recloser operates at 5.2 Sec. and the currents
increases to 250 A. this current is more than 4 times of The rms value of single-phase to ground isabout 110
nominal current. Therefore, it is quite possible to A, but reconnection current of the recloser is more than
investigate the reconnection current of wind turbine as 160 A. It is evident that the recloser’s current after the
fault current and recloser operates again. wind turbine connections is more than the fault current.
Therefore, mal-operation of recloser may be happened
and new setting of recloser should be considered.
To find the suitable time and current settings of a
recloser, stability and instability operation of wind
turbine should be considered. It is important that a
recloser has a successful operation when the wind
turbine is working in stable area.
In this regard, the recloser is closed for various times
until the wind turbine goes into instable area. Figure (7)
shows the obtained results.
Figure 5. B20 RMS Value of Recloser’s Current (Three-Phase

Fault)
525
In this case the wind turbine’s current is higher and
hence the setting current should be greater.
V. CONCLUSIONS
Reclosers are used in distribution network for service

continuity, but its duty interrupted if wind turbines
installed in distribution network. It is shown that it is not
possible to use recloser as before and some
modifications are necessary. Time and current settings of
recloser are depened on the type of fault current and
stable region of wind turbine operation. Single-phase to
ground fault has greater stable region than two-phase
fault. In two-phase fault, the current setting of recloser is
Figure 7. Wind turbine’s Current versus Delay Operation Time higher than single-phase fault.
(Single-Phase Fault)
REFERENCES
As delay time is increased, the wind turbine’s current
is increased. For example, at 0.2 sec. delay time, the
[1] www.WWindEA.org
current is near 5000 A and for 1 Sec. delat time, the wind
[2] S. Brahma, A. Girgis, "Development of Adaptive Protection
turbine’s current is about 9000 A, which is 4.5 times of Scheme for Distribution Systems with High Penetration of
nominal wind turbine’s current. Distributed Generation," IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, Vol.19,
No.1, Jan. 2004, pp. 56-63.
This figure shows that the maximum delay operation
[3] P. P. Barker, R. W. de Mello," Determining the impact of
time of recloser is less than 1.2 Sec. after this time, the distributed generation on power systems: part -radial distribution
wind turbine enters in instable region. systems," IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, Vol. 15, Apr.2000, pp.
Also the maximum current is near 10000 A, 486-493.
[4] A. Girgis, S. Brahma, "Effect of Distributed Generation on
approximately 5 times of wind turbine’s nominal Protective Device Coordination in Distribution System," Power
currents. Engineering, LESCOPE ‘ 01.2001 Larg Engineering Systems
Therefore, suitable time and current setting of recloser Conference , July 2001 , pp. 115 – 119 .
are based on the left hand side of the figure (7). [5] L. K. Kumpulainen, K. T. Kauhaniemi, "Analysis of the impact
of distributed generation on automatic reclosing," Power
If line-line fault happened the stable region is limited. Systems Conference and Exposition, IEEE PES 10 – 13 Oct.
This is shown in figure (8). 2004 , Vol.1 pp.603 – 608 .
[6] S. Brahma, A. Girgis, "Microprocessor-Based Reclosing to
Coordinate Fuse and Recloser in a System with High Penetration
of Distributed Generation," IEEE PES Winter Meeting , 2002,
Vol.1 , pp. 453 – 458
Figure 8. Wind turbine’s Current versus Delay Operation Time

(Two-Phase Fault)
As it is evident, the wind turbine enters instable region

after 0.3 Sec. So time settings of the recloser is shorter
and the recloser should be operated faster.
526
Optimal Size of Distributed Generation to

Minimize Distribution Loss Using Dynamic
Programming
S. Paudyal, E.F. El-Saadany, L. El Chaar and L. A. Lamont
Abstract—This paper first analyses the impact of Distributed distribution voltage profile also. So, it becomes important to
Generations (DG) on distribution system loss and voltage profile. analyze the effect of those parameters on the distribution loss
Distribution loss depends on various factors such as: the number and and voltage profile. Several analyses have been done in the
locations of DG connections, injected DG powers, distribution system literature [3, 4] to study the impact of DG penetration level on
configuration etc. To study the impact of injected DG powers and the distribution loss. But, in a system with more than one DG,
locations on the distribution loss, a 15-bus radial distribution system is the same DG penetration level can be achieved by various
modeled using PSCAD and simulations are carried with varying DG
combinations of individual DG powers and the terminology
power injections and locations. Next, the optimum sizes of DG are
evaluated which gives the minimum loss satisfying various other system
‘Dispersion Level [4]’ measures this factor. This paper analyses
constraints. Dynamic Programming approach is used to solve this the impact of both dispersion level and penetration level on the
optimization problem and the subroutine is developed in MATLAB. distribution loss variation.
In a DG connected system the distribution loss depends on the
Index Terms— Distribution Loss, Distributed Generation, size and location of the DG. As the energy cost is dependent on
Optimization, Dynamic Programming. the distribution loss, in the planning process it becomes crucial
to minimize the distribution loss. This needs careful placing of
I. INTRODUCTION DG in the distribution system with appropriate sizes. Beside this,
while placing and sizing the DG other system constraints need to
D istributed Generation (DG) units are usually small

be satisfied. [1] has listed various such system constraints which
has to be satisfied during the DG placement. Some of them are:
voltage limits, feeder capacity limits, maximum DG penetration,
generators less than 100MW, which are connected to the
consumer site in distribution system and are not planned and substation capacity limit etc. Thus, finding the size and location
usually not dispatchable by the system operator [1]. In recent is an optimization problem (minimization of loss) subjected to
years, the number of DG interconnections has increased due to various system constraints.
the advantages that the DG poses to the utilities and consumers. There are various methods in literature to find the optimum
Penetration of DG has many inherent benefits to the existing size and location of the DG. Some of the methods are based on
systems but also creates significant challenges [2]. Some of the numerical approach and some of them are solved analytically [5,
benefits could be the distribution loss reduction, voltage profile 6]. [7] has listed Hereford Ranch algorithm method to find the
improvements, transmission congestion reduction, reduced optimum allocation of DG to minimize the loss. Other methods
emissions etc [2]. like Fuzzy Logic-Genetic Algorithm [8], Tabu search [9] and 2/3
In absence of DG, the electric energy is transmitted to the rules [6] are also used for this optimization problem. The
consumer loads via transmission and distribution networks in analytical approaches [5, 6] explained only for a single DG
one direction. The loss, which depends on consumer energy connected to the distribution system and did not explain the
demand, increases for large consumer loads. Similarly, the system constraints considered.
distribution network being a passive network in absence of DG, Optimum placing and sizing of multiple DG at the same time
the voltage magnitude along the feeder drops. After DG is a complex task and [5, 6] has not explained it. Also, the
connection, the direction and amount of energy flowing in the solution of the loss minimization problem obtained with and
distribution network depends on several factors including the without system constraints may not be the same. Thus, it
size, number, and location of DGs, consumer demand and the becomes important to consider the system constraints while
network structure etc. Thus, the DG connection may reduce or solving the loss minimization problem.
increase the distribution loss depending on those factors. A DG This paper utilizes Dynamic Programming approach to solve
source being an active voltage source may help to improve the the above optimization problem. This is an iterative technique
which is applied to find the optimum size of DG. Various
simulations are shown in this paper to illustrate how multiple
S. Paudyal and E.F. El-Saadany are with the Electrical and Computer Engineering
department, the University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario Canada. (e-mail: DG can be planned at the same time to solve the loss
ehab@ uwaterloo.ca). L. El-Chaar and L. Lamont are with the petroleum minimization problem. The optimization problem is solved
Institute, Abu Dhabi, UAE.
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 527

deterministically assuming that the connected DGs are
dispatchable and output powers are firm.
II. DISTRIBUTION LOSS AND VOLTAGE PROFILE

ANALYSIS
A. Modeling
A 15-bus, 60Hz radial distribution system as shown in Fig.1 is Fig. 2. Voltage magnitude at various buses for base case study.
considered to illustrate the impact of DG on distribution loss and
voltage profile. The line parameters and load data are listed in Total DG Power Generation
Table I. The data are based on 30MVA and 11.432kV bases [4]. Penetration Level = (1)
Total System Power
Number of buses with DG

Despertion Level = (2)
Number of buses with loads
The penetration level is varied from 0-110% in the interval of

Fig. 1. A 15-bus radial distribution system 5% and the dispersion level is set at seven different values (1/14,
3/14, 5/14, 7/14, 9/14, 11/14 and 13/14, as an example:
TABLE I dispersion level of 3/14 means DG are connected to 3 buses and
LINE PARAMETERS AND LOAD DATA OF 15-BUS RADIAL
loads are connected to 14 buses).
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Based on the above penetration and dispersion levels,
Line Parameters Load Data corresponding sizes of DG are connected to the system shown in
From Bus R p.u. X p.u. Bus P p.u. Q p.u. Fig. 1. The assumptions made in the DG modeling are: all DG
1-2 0.00315 0.075207 2 0.0208 0.0021 are assumed as fixed power source and are operating at unity
2-3 0.00033 0.001849 3 0.0495 0.0051 power factor (thus the DG connected buses are modeled as PV
3-4 0.00667 0.030808 4 0.0958 0.0098 buses). The power loss for each simulation case is recorded and
plotted in Fig. 3.
4-5 0.00579 0.014949 5 0.0422 0.0045
5-6 0.01414 0.036547 6 0.0133 0.0012
4-7 0.008 0.036961 7 0.0638 0.0066
7-8 0.009 0.041575 8 0.0323 0.0033
8-9 0.007 0.032346 9 0.0213 0.0022
Loss
9-10 0.00367 0.01694 10 0.028 0.0029
(MW)
10-11 0.009 0.041575 11 0.217 0.0022
3-12 0.0275 0.127043 12 0.0132 0.0014 1.5
1.0 0.8
12-13 0.0315 0.081405 13 0.0029 0.0003 0.6
0.5 0.4
13-14 0.03965 0.102984 14 0.0161 0.0016 Penetration Level 0 0.2 Dispersion Level
14-15 0.01061 0.004153 15 0.0139 0.0014
Fig. 3. Loss Variation with different Penetration and Dispersion Levels.
Total Load 0.6301 0.0446
B. Base Case Study III. OPTIMUM SIZE OF DG TO MINIMIZE LOSS

In the first simulation, no DG is connected to the system and It is evident from the above analysis that sizing and placing of
power loss and voltage magnitudes at all buses are recorded. The DG change the overall distribution system loss. If DGs are sized
total load in the system is 18.903MW (0.6301p.u.) and the slack and placed in order to minimize the loss, it reduces the cost of
bus is delivering 19.103MW power. The distribution loss in the energy. So, in the planning process, it becomes important to
system is 0.2MW. The voltage magnitude of all buses is plotted know the size and location of DG for minimum power loss.
in Fig. 2. All bus voltages are within 0.95-1.05p.u. However, the distribution loss depends on various factors
making it a non-linear problem. While planning the sizes and
C. Other Case Studies locations of DG, it is also important that the other system
The objective of other case studies is to analyze the impact of constraints (like voltage limit, current rating of cable etc.) are
various DG output powers and locations on the distribution also not violated. Thus, to find the required size and location of
system loss. Thus, various simulations are carried out by DG to have minimum power loss is an optimization problem
changing penetration level and dispersion level of DG. The with various system constraints.
penetration level gives measure of injected DG power relative to This section first briefly explains Dynamic Programming
the system load and the dispersion level gives the measure of technique which can be applied to solve optimization problems.
number of buses with DG connection relative to the number of Then, the simulation results are presented to verify the
buses with load connections [4]. application of Dynamic Programming to distribution loss
528
minimization problem. At the end, comments on the results and
some of the issues of this technique are pointed out.
A. Dynamic Programming
Dynamic Programming is a tool which can be applied to solve
optimization problems [10]. Here, instead of explaining the
general concepts of dynamic programming, three point approach
of Dynamic Programming is explained based on the specific Fig. 5. Figure showing three possible paths and the minimum loss path.
problem (to minimize distribution system loss). Let’s consider,
DGs are connected to buses 3, 5, 9 and 14 in the distribution
system shown in Fig. 1. The steps in the Dynamic Programming
can be explained as:
(i) Initial guess of DG injected powers: The DG at buses 3,
5, 9 and 14 are injecting PG30, PG50, PG90 and PG140
respectively as shown in Fig. 4. These initial guesses are
Fig. 6. Figure showing final three possible paths and the minimum loss path.
called ‘States’ and the line joining the states are called
‘Path’.
(ii) Three states for each bus: Two new states for each bus
are calculated by adding and subtracting ΔP to the states
in the previous step. Thus each bus has three states (1, 2,
3) and the states in the previous step always being the
state 2 as shown in Fig. 4.
(iii) Find the minimum power loss path: Starting from state 1 Fig. 7. Figure showing new state 2 for each bus.
of any bus, look into all three states of nearby bus. This
gives three paths joining the states. Evaluate the power B. Simulations
loss for each path and save the minimum loss path which
also satisfies all the system constraints. For example, In
Fig. 5, starting from state 1 of bus 9 and looking into
states 1, 2, 3 of bus 14 gives three paths 2-2-1-1, 2-2-1-2
and 2-2-1-3. The path 2-2-1-3 gives the minimum loss
and also satisfies the system constraints, so this path is
saved. Repeat this step for state 2 and 3.
(iv) Find the final minimum power loss path: Repeat the step
(iii) for rest of the buses. At the end of this process, there
will be three paths from first to the last bus. Again,
evaluate the power loss for each path and save the
minimum loss path which also satisfies the system
constraints. In Fig. 6, there are three paths 1-1-1-3, 2-3-2-
2 and 3-3-2-2, the path 3-3-2-2 gives the minimum power
loss and also satisfies the system constraints, so this path
is saved. Note that, the whole paths or part of the paths
may overlap.
(v) New state 2 for each bus: Assign the states of final path
saved in step (iv) as new state 2 for each bus and go to
step (ii). Repeat the steps (ii)-(v) unless a convergence
criterion is met. For example, In Fig. 7, the states 3, 3, 2
and 2 obtained from the final path (i.e. path 3-3-2-2) in
step (iv) are assigned as new states 2 for all buses.
From one to next iteration, the Dynamic Programming gives less
distribution loss and finally converges to an optimum solution.
In the steps (iii) and (iv), to find the loss, a load flow analysis Fig. 8. Flowchart of Dynamic Programming
(Gauss Seidel method) is carried out for each possible paths. The
flow chart of the Dynamic Programming is shown in Fig. 8. A program is developed in MATLAB which finds the optimum
size of DG using Dynamic Programming approach. The radial
distribution system shown in Fig. 1 is considered for this study.
Four simulation cases are reported here. In the first simulation
case, it is assumed that DGs are connected to buses 6 and 11.
The following optimization problem (listed in Eq 3) is solved
using the Dynamic Programming method.
Fig. 4. Initial three states and paths in the Dynamic Programming.
529
Minimize: PLosses (3)
Subjected to:
(1) Power Flow Equations
m n
PGi = ∑
t =1
PDGt ,i − PDi = ∑V V Y
j =1
i j ij * cos(θ ij + δ j − δ i ) ∀i (4)
n
QGi − Q Di = − ∑V V Y
j =1
i j ij * sin(θ ij + δ j − δ i ) ∀i (5)
Fig. 9. The initial guess and optimum power injections at buses 6 and 11.
(2) Power Losses Equations
∑ ∑ G [V ]
n n
2
PLosses = 0.5 * ij i + V j2 − 2Vi V j * cos(δ j − δ i ) (6)
i =1 j =1
(3) Branch Current Equations

[
I ij = Yij * Vi 2 + V j2 − 2Vi V j * cos(δ j − δ i ) ] 1
2 (7)
Fig. 10. Voltage magnitude at various buses for optimum DG powers.
(4) Slack Bus Voltage In the next simulation, it is assumed that DGs are connected to
V1 = 1∠0 ° (8) buses 3, 5, 9, 14; and the optimization problem (3) is solved. The
initial guesses of DG injected powers are: PG30=13.545,
PG50=12.096, PG90=5.829 and PG140=4.404MW. The ΔP is
(5) Other Bus Voltages
chosen 0.03MW. The Dynamic Programming gives 4.242,
0.95 ≤ Vi ≤ 1.05 ∀i ∈[2, n] (9) 3.996, 9.789 and 1.104 MW injections by DG at buses 3, 5, 9
and 14 respectively. These optimum power injections give the
Where, minimum power loss of 0.021002MW which is less (89.49%
reduction) compare to the base case (0.2MW). All bus voltages
n Number of buses are improved compare to the base case (Fig. 2) and within the
i, j Indices for buses limit of 0.95 to 1.05p.u. The initial guess, optimum power
t Index for number of DGs injection obtained from Dynamic Programming and
corresponding losses are shown in Fig. 11. The voltage
PDGt , i Output power of tth DG connected at bus i magnitudes of all buses are shown in Fig 12.
PGi Substation active power injected at bus i
QGi Substation reactive power injected at bus i
PDi Peak active power demand at bus i
Q Di Peak reactive power demand at bus i
Vi Voltage at bus i
I ij The current in the feeder connecting the ith and the jth bus
Yij Magnitude of (i,j)th element of Y bus matrix
Gij Real part of (i,j)th element of Y bus matrix Fig. 11. The initial guess and optimum power injections at buses 3, 5, 9, 11.
θij Angle of (i,j)th element of Y bus matrix

In the previous simulations, the penetration level of DG was
δi Voltage angle of ith bus found to be 66.43% and 101.21%, respectively which are not
practical. Thus, in the third simulation, an additional system
constraint (maximum DG penetration) along with the constraints
The initial guesses of DG injected powers are: PG60= 1MW and
in (4-9) is used.
PG110= 10MW. The ΔP is chosen 0.001p.u. (i.e. 0.03 MW).
The Dynamic Programming gives 2.97 and 9.588MW as
optimum injections by DG at buses 6 and 11 respectively. The
initial guess, optimum power injection obtained from Dynamic
Programming and corresponding losses are shown in Fig. 9. The
power loss is reduced to 0.017183MW (91.41%) compare to the
base case power loss 0.2MW. The voltage magnitudes of all
buses when the optimum powers are injected are shown in Fig
10. All bus voltages are improved compared to base case (Fig. 2) Fig. 12. Voltage magnitude at various buses for optimum DG powers.
and are within 0.95-1.05p.u.
530
the same optimization problem but the fourth simulation has one
(6) Maximum DG Penetration in the system more constraint compare to the second simulation case. The
n n n minimum power loss obtained in the second case is less
PLosses = ∑∑
i =1 t =1
CF * PDG t ,i ≤ x ∑P
i =1
Di (10) (0.021002MW) compare to the fourth case (0.132488MW). This
shows that the loss minimization problem with considering one
additional system constraints don’t yield the same size of DG.
where, x is the maximum penetration limit as the percentage of Thus, the choice and use of the system constraints play vital role
peak load. in finding the optimum size of DG.
The maximum DG penetration allowed is set at 30% of the peak
load. It is assumed that DG are connected to buses 6 an 11. The
initial guesses of DG injected powers are: PG60= 0.0369 and
PG110= 0.6540MW. The ΔP is chosen 0.03MW.
The Dynamic Programming gives 2.5269 and 3.1410MW as
optimum injections by DG at buses 6 and 11 respectively. The
initial guess, optimum power injection obtained from Dynamic
Programming and corresponding losses are shown in Fig. 13.
The power loss is reduced to 0.086947MW (reduced by 56.52%)
compare to the base case power loss 0.2MW. The voltage Fig. 15. The initial guess and optimum power injections at buses 3, 5, 9, 11.
magnitudes of all buses when the optimum powers are injected
are shown in Fig 14. All bus voltages are improved compared to
base case (Fig. 2) and are within 0.95-1.05p.u. The maximum
penetration in this case is 29.9% which is less than the maximum
allowed penetration i.e. 30%.
Fig. 16. Voltage magnitude at various buses for optimum DG powers.
C. Accuracy of the Dynamic Programming

To test the accuracy of this method, the second case in the
previous section is run with different set of initial guesses. Fig.
17 shows the results of the simulation with four different sets of
Fig. 13. The initial guess and optimum power injections at buses 6 and 11. initial guesses. The solid color line in Fig. 17 represents the
initial guesses and corresponding optimum solution obtained by
Dynamic Programming are represented by the dotted line of
same color. The initial values, the optimum power obtained from
Dynamic Programming and the corresponding power loss are
given in Table II.
TABLE II
DIFFERENT INITIAL GUESSES AND THE FINAL OPTIMUM DG POWERS
Fig. 14. Voltage magnitude at various buses for optimum DG powers. Initial Guess Final Optimum Power Ploss
Case Bus 3,5,9,14 (MW) Bus 3,5,9,14 (MW) (MW)
In the last simulation, it is assumed that DGs are connected to 1 8,10,12,10 4.227,3.999,9.876,1.083 0.020071
buses 3, 5, 9, 14. The optimization problem (3) is solved using 2 1.485,1.326,0.639,0.483 4.275,3.816,9.789,1.083 0.021004
the constraints (4-10). The initial guesses of DG injected powers 3 1,2,3,4 4.229,3.894,9.870,1.077 0.020998
are: PG30= 0.1515, PG50= 0.1356, PG90= 0.0669 and PG140= 4 13.545,12.1,9.729,1.104 4.545,3.966,9.729,1.104 0.021002
0.0513 MW. The ΔP is chosen 0.03MW. The Dynamic
Programming gives 1.6935, 1.3776, 1.3089 and 1.2903 MW It is clear from Fig. 17 that the dotted lines are almost close, but
injections by DG at buses 3, 5, 9 and 14 respectively. These not exactly overlapping. So, irrespective of the initial guess, the
optimum power injections give the minimum power loss of Dynamic Programming always converges at the optimum or
0.132488MW which is less (33.756% reduction) compare to the converges very close the optimum solution. The error in the
base case (0.2MW). All bus voltages are improved compare to solution obtained from the Dynamic Programming depends on
the base cases (Fig. 2) and within the limit of 0.95 to 1.05p.u. the choice of ΔP, the convergence criteria used for the Dynamic
The maximum penetration in this case is 30% which is same as Programming algorithm and the convergence criterion used for
the maximum allowed penetration. the load flow analysis.
The initial guess, optimum power injection obtained from There is also possibility that the Dynamic Programming
Dynamic Programming and corresponding losses are shown in converges to the local minima. But, in this particular
Fig. 15. The voltage magnitudes of all buses are shown in Fig optimization problem, there are no local minima. There is only
16. The second and fourth simulations reported above showed
531
one minimum and the Dynamic Programming always converges solution is very small and depends on the choice of ΔP and the
to that solution. Fig. 18 shows the variation of loss with
convergence criterions. It was also analyzed (based on the U-
penetration level (obtained from Fig. 3 with Penetration Level of
shaped nature of power loss curve) that the power loss curve has
1/14). From the Fig. 18, it is clear that the Loss function does not
only one minimum (no local minima). Thus, it was concluded,
have any local minima and the dynamic programming always
due to the nature of optimization problem the Dynamic
move along the curve to converge at the global minimum.
Programming approach does not converge at the local minima.
V. REFERENCES
[1] Ehab El-Saadany, Lecture Notes on Sustainable Distributed Power,
University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada.
[2] Mozina, C.J., “A Tutorial on the Impact of Distributed Generation (DG)
on Distribution Systems”, IEEE 61st Annual Conference for Protective
Relay Engineers, 1-3 April 2008.
[3] V.H. Mendez and et.al., "Impact of Distributed Generation on
Distribution Losses”, Proceedings of the 3rd Mediterranean Conference
and Exhibition on Power Generation, Transmission, Distribution and
Fig. 17. Different Initial Guesses and the optimum solutions. Energy Conversion. Athens, Greece. 4-6 November 2002.
[4] Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt, “Impact of Distributed Generation over
Power Losses on Distribution System”, 9th international conference:
Electric power quality and utilization, Barcelona 9-11 October 2007.
[5] Gozel, T. and et.al., “Optimal placement and sizing of distributed
generation on radial feeder with different static load models”,
International Conference on Future Power Systems, 16-18 Nov. 2005.
[6] H. L. Willis., “Analytical Methods and Rules of Thumb for Modeling
DG-Distribution Interaction”, IEEE PES Summer Meeting, vol. 3 Seattle,
WA, July 2000, pp. 1643–1644.
[7] Gandomkar, M, and et.al., “Optimal distributed generation allocation in
distribution network using Hereford Ranch algorithm”, Proceedings of the
Eighth International Conference on Electrical Machines and Systems,
ICEMS 2005.
Fig. 18. Loss Variation with Penetration Level (for Dispersion Level= 1/14). [8] K. H. Kim, Y. J. Lee, S. B. Rhee, S. K. Lee, and S.-K. You. “Dispersed
Generator Placement Using Fuzzy-GA in Distribution Systems”, IEEE
PES Summer Meeting, Vol. 3, July 2002, pp.1148-1153.
[9] K. Nara, Y. Hayashi, K. Ikeda, and T. Ashizawa, “Application of Tabu
IV. CONCLUSIONS Search to Optimal Placement of Distributed Generators”, IEEE PES
In this paper, first loss variation analysis was done with different Winter Meeting, 2001, Volume: 2, pp.918 – 923.
[10] Nurul A. Chowdhury, Lecture Notes on Economic System Operation,
penetration and dispersion levels. The impact of DG on losses University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada.
and voltage profile was studied. It can be concluded that the
penetration of DG may or may not reduce the system loss. The
loss depends on the dispersion level and penetration level. The VI. BIOGRAPHY
variation of loss with penetration level is a U-shaped curve Sumit Paudyal (S’07) received the Bachelor’s degree in Electrical Engineering
which tells that loss first reduces and then increases with from Tribhuvan University, Nepal, in 2003, the M.Sc. degree in Electrical
increase in the penetration level. It was also seen that the Engineering from the University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada, in 2008,
dispersion level of DG also plays role in distribution loss. For and is currently pursuing the Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering at the University of
Waterloo, Ontario, Canada. He was a Research Assistant at Kathmandu
various dispersion levels, the variation of loss with penetration Engineering College, Nepal during 2003-2004 and an Electrical Engineer at
level was found a series of U-shaped curves. The minimum Nepal Electricity Authority during 2004-2005.
losses in those U-shaped curves were different and occurred at Ehab F. El-Saadany (SM’05) was born in Cairo, Egypt, in 1964. He received
different penetration level. The impact on voltage profile the B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees in electrical engineering from Ain Shams
University, Cairo, Egypt, in 1986 and 1990, respectively, and the Ph.D. degree in
improvement was also studied. Thus, analysis showed that a electrical engineering from the University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada,
careful placing and sizing of DG are required to have minimum in 1998. Currently, he is an Associate Professor in the Department of Electrical
distribution loss; otherwise the DG will have negative impact on and Computer Engineering, University of Waterloo. His research interests are
the loss and voltage profile. distribution system control and operation, distributed generation, power quality,
power electronics, digital signal processing (DSP) applications to power systems,
Next analysis was carried out to find the optimum size of DG to and mechatronics.
minimize the distribution loss. Dynamic Programming was Lana Chaar graduated from the University of Minnesota, USA with BS, MS
applied to solve the optimization problem. Four simulation cases and PH.D. in Electrical Engineering/Power Electronics. During her studies she
were reported showing the application of the Dynamic worked as a Design Engineer at Schott Power Inc. while her main work was to
develop an efficient battery charger for the electric vehicle. She has taught in
Programming to optimize the system loss and also satisfying the several universities in Lebanon until she moved to the United Arab. Her research
various system constraints. Based on the simulations, it can be interests are in the areas of power electronics in particular rectification and
concluded that the Dynamic Programming is applicable to power quality. In addition, her recent research has been mostly concentrated in
optimally size the DG. Next, the accuracy of the optimum renewable energy in general and photovoltaic and wind energy in particular.
Lisa Lamont (M’03) obtained BEng (Hons) degree from University of Ulster,
solution obtained from the Dynamic Programming was also UK in 2001 and PhD degree from the University of Ulster, UK in 2005. Since
studied which showed that the Dynamic Programming always September 2005 she has been employed as an Assistant Professor with the
converges at the optimum solution (or very close to the optimum Petroleum Institute, Abu Dhabi, UAE. Her research interests lie in the areas of
solution) for any set of initial guesses. The error in the optimum Control Systems and Renewable Energy with specific interest for the application
in the oil and gas industry.
532
Simulation of PV Array Output Power

for Modified PV Cell Model
Nand Kishor*, Soumya R. Mohanty*, M. G. Villalva** , E. Ruppert**
*Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad, India,

Email: nandkishor@mnnit.ac.in, soumyaigit@gmail.com
** University of Campinas, UNICAMP, Brazil
Email: mvillalva@gmail.com, ruppert@fee.unicamp.br
Abstract—This paper discusses the performance of a PV PV cells and modules are highly nonlinear devices and
system which uses a PV cell modeled with basis on the cannot be modeled as simple voltage or current sources.
maximum power point characteristics. The results are Instead, over the years several models have been
simulated for a typical daily variation of solar radiation.
The effect of temperature on the system output is also
proposed. There exist three basic types of PV system
simulated. models based on (i) PV array characteristics [1-3], (ii)
inverter structure characteristics [4-7], (iii) overall PV
Keywords—PV array, modeling, maximum power point. system [8-9]. Modeling the nonlinear PV array
characteristics which varies not only with temperature
and solar intensity, but also with other environmental
factors like dust and wind velocity, still remains a major
I. NOMENCLATURE
challenge. It is important to understand the PV
module/array characteristics for effective installation
I0 Diode saturation current under all weather conditions.
I photo ,cell Photon current In the past, researchers have already studied the
T0 Actual temperature in K characteristics of PV module and the factors that
influence their performance [10-13]. Walker [10]
Tn Nominal temperature in K
proposed a MATLAB based model of PV module for
G0 Solar radiation on the cell surface in W / m 2 study of temperature, solar intensity and load variation.
Gn Nominal solar radiation in W / m 2 The influence of partial shading effect was discussed in
KI Current/ temperature coefficient [11-13]. A fast MPPT algorithm for tracking the
maximum under fast changing environmental conditions
KV Voltage/temperature coefficient
is investigated in [14]. The authors have considered study
for rapidly changing solar radiation. A theoretical model
I. INTRODUCTION to estimate the solar cell performance degradation due to
dust accumulation is carried out in [15].
Photovoltaic energy is considered to be increasingly Recently an analytical approach to determine the PV
important for power generation in last few decades cell parameters, i.e. resistances by adjustment of I-V
among all the renewable sources. This has resulted not equation with experimental characteristics was suggested
only decreasing dependence on fossil fuels but also in in [16, 18].
lowering of greenhouse gases emissions. Photovoltaic for
This paper discusses the performance of PV system
power generation is considered the ideal resource in
with PV cell/array modeled based on the maximum
distributed generation systems, which are located at or
power point as mentioned in [16] at different temperature
near to the load point.
conditions.
A single PV cell, being too small for practical power II. SINGLE DIODE PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL MODEL
applications, is usually connected as series or parallel
combinations to give a required voltage and current in the
Without much emphasis given on physics of how the
so called PV module. PV modules can be combined in
PV cell transforms the solar photons into direct current
series or parallel to form a PV array. The DC output is
power, this section starts with the modeling concept of
converted into AC at standard frequency through an
single diode PV cell. The standard PV cell is represented
inverter. The PV system application can be as grid
as a current source in parallel with a single diode. The
connected, stand alone or hybrid.
equivalent circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 1. The current
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 533

I photo ,cell Rs
is directly proportional to the amount of incident
solar light on the PV cell. It is the diode that determines
I d ,cell I PV ,cell
the shape of I-V characteristics of a PV cell. A more
detailed model can be represented by inclusion of the I photo ,cell
following: Vd Rsh
• Temperature dependence of the diode saturation
current, I 0 .
• Temperature dependence of the photon current,
I photo ,cell . Fig. 1: Single-diode equivalent circuit of a PV cell.
• Series resistance Rs that represents the internal
losses. A. Improvement in PV model
• Shunt resistance Rsh in parallel with diode to take into
account leakage current to the ground. A considerable effort is being put into the development
• Diode quality factor, a . of robust mathematical models for PV with low
computational cost so as to take into account the variation
Applying KCL to the model circuit: of the output with the weather conditions.
V
I photo ,cell − I d ,cell − d − I pv ,cell = 0 (1)
Rsh The improvement over (6) that takes into temperature
dependency of saturation current with current and voltage
I pv = I photo , cell − I d , cell (2) coefficients K I and KV is given as [16]:
where,
⎡ ⎛ qV ⎞ ⎤ I SC , n + K I ΔT
I d , cell = I 0, cell ⎢ exp ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ (3) I0 = (7)
⎣ ⎝ akT ⎠ ⎦ exp ⎡⎣(VOC , n + KV ΔT / aVt ) ⎤⎦ − 1
The complete model of the PV module should include
the effect due to the series-parallel combination of each
PV cell. Thus the above equation is expressed as: The authors [16] have proposed an approach for
iterative solution to determine the resistances Rs and Rsh
⎡ ⎛ q (V + I pv Rs ) ⎞ ⎤ V + I pv Rs which uses the maximum power point on the I-V curve.
I pv = I SC − I 0 ⎢ exp ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ − (4)
⎢ ⎜ aVt ⎟ ⎥ Rsh
⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦
III. PV ARRAY DESCRIPTION
where, I SC = I photo , cell N p , I 0 = I 0,cell N p .
The influence of solar radiation, cell temperature, dust,

The photon-generated current of the PV cell depends shadow and wind is important to estimate the
linearly on the solar radiation and is also influenced by performance under all weather conditions. The photo
the temperature according to: current I photo ,cell is directly proportional to solar radiation
(5). In fact, PV cell performance does not degrade
G significantly from full sun shine to partial cloud
I photo ,cell , n (Tn ) = ⎡⎣ I photo , cell ,0 (T0 ) + K1ΔT ⎤⎦ 0 (5)
Gn conditions. The variation of the saturation current as a
function of temperature is described by (7). The PV array
where, I photo , cell ,0 is the photon-generated current at 250 C must operate electrically at a certain voltage that
corresponds to the maximum power point under the
and 1000 w / m 2 , ΔT = T0 − Tn . influence of given operating conditions like temperature
and solar radiation. To achieve this, a maximum power
The temperature dependence of the diode saturation point tracker (MPPT) is used based on the perturbation &
current I 0 can be expressed as: observation technique [19]. For a PV array with operating
voltage as V and current as I , the power is P = VI . At
3 the maximum power point, dP / dV should be zero with
⎛T ⎞ ⎡ qEg ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎤
I 0 = I 0, n ⎜ n ⎟ exp ⎢ ⎜ − ⎟⎥ (6) its sign defined by:
⎝ T0 ⎠ ⎣ aK ⎝ Tn T0 ⎠ ⎦
1 dP dVI I dI
where, I 0,n is the nominal saturation current. = = + (8)
V dV VdV V dV
534
90
80
70
The MPPT returns the desired PV array voltage to the
boost DC/DC converter through change of duty ratio. The 60
Cell power [W]

details on the MPPT and boost DC/DC converter can be 50
found in several literatures, so they are not discussed 40
further. 30
20
10
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
0
0 5 10 15 20
Cell voltage [V]
The study in the paper uses the parameters of solar PV 6
module EN2060. The module data are given in the
5
Appendix. The model parameters are adjusted to simulate
Cell current [A]

the static response based on the data provided. In the PV 4
array simulation all modules are considered to be
identical and to work under identical temperature and 3
solar radiation conditions. Figure 1 shows the iterative
2
adjustment and adjusted curves of P-V and I-V
characteristics of the EN2060 PV module at 250 C. 1
0
The variation of efficiency, DC/DC converter duty 0 5 10 15 20
Cell voltage [V]
ratio, PV array voltage, MPPT reference current and PV
power over the simulation of 8 hours during the day is (a) Adjustment of P-V and I-V characteristics
shown in Fig. 2. The array power has varied smoothly.
The PV array output is controlled by MPPT to give
maximum power output under varying solar radiation.
80
Next in the study, the PV module characteristics adjusted
at elevated temperature of 500C is considered and the 70
system simulation responses are shown in Fig. 3. The 60
Cell power [W]
efficiency of the PV array slightly reduces with increased 50

operating temperature.
40
30
V. CONCLUSION 20
10
The paper analyzed the performance of a PV array system
0
using a modified model of PV module, adjusted to the 0 5 10 15 20
Cell voltage [V]
maximum power point at different temperature
conditions. 6
5
VI. APPENDIX
Cell current [A]
Parameter EN2060 3
Short-circuit current at 250C 5.45 A

2
Open circuit voltage at 250C 22.2 V
Current at MPP 4.95 A 1
Voltage at MPP 17.2 V
0
0 5 10 15 20
Cell voltage [V]
(b) Adjusted P-V and I-V characteristics
Fig. 1: PV module characteristics.
535
Efficiency
1
0.5
0
Duty
1
0.5
Vpv
150
100
50
0
-50
Iref
5
0
Pout, Ppv
1000
500
-500
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Time (min)
(a) System performance.
500
400 Pout, Ppv
300
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
(c) Zoomed output.
Fig. 2. EN2060 PV output at module temperature of 250 C.
536
Efficiency
1
0.5
0
Duty
1
0.5
Vpv
150
100
50
0
-50
Iref
5
0
Pout, Ppv
1000
500
0
-500
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Time (min)
(a) System performance.
500
400 Pout, Ppv
300
200
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
(b) Zoomed output.
Fig. 3. EN2060 PV output at module temperature of 500 C.
537
VII. REFERENCES [10] G. Walker, “Evaluating MPPT converter topologies using a
MATLAB PV model”, Journal of Electrical & Electronics Australia,
vol. 21, pp. 49-56, 2001.
[1] J. D. Mondol, Y. G. Yohanis, and B. Norton, “Comparison of [11] M. C. Alonso-Gracia, J. M. Ruiz, and F. Chenlo, “Experimental study
measured and predicted long term performance of grid connected of mismatch and shading effects”, Solar Energy Material & Solar
photovoltaic system”, Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 48, Cells, vol. 90, pp. 329-340, 2006.
pp. 1065-1080, 2007. [12] H. Kawamura, K. Naka, N. Yonekura, S. Yamanaka, H. Ohno, and K.
[2] M. Cucumo, A. D. Rosa, V. Ferraro, D. Kaliakatsos, and V. Naito, “Simulation of I-V characteristics of a PV module with shaded
Marinelli, “Performance analysis of a 3kW grid-connected PV cells”, Solar Energy Material & Solar Cells, vol. 75, pp. 613-621,
photovoltaic plant”, Renewable Energy, vol. 31, pp. 1129-1138, 2003.
2006. [13] T. Shimizu, M. Hirakata, T. Kamezawa, and H. Watanabe,
[3] Mao Mei-Qin, Su Jian-Hui, and Zhang Guo-Rong et al., “Simulation “Generation control circuit for photovoltaic modules”, IEEE
of large-scale photovoltaic grid-connected systems”, Journal of Hefei Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 16, pp. 293-300, 2001.
University of Technology, vol. 28, pp. 1069-1072, 2005. [14] D. Sera, R. Teodorescu, J. Hantschel, and M. Knoll, “Optimized
[4] R. Gonzalez, J. Lopez, P. Sanchis, and L. Marroyo, “Transformerless maximum power point tracker for fast-changing environmental
inverter for single-phase photovoltaic systems”, IEEE Transactions conditions”, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol. 55, pp.
on Power Electronics, vol. 22, pp. 693-697, 2007. 2629-2636, 2008.
[5] T. F. Wu, C. L. Shen, H. S. Nein, and G. F. Li, “A single-phase 3 W [15] K. Tanabe, “Modeling of airborne dust accumulation on solar cells at
inverter with grid connection and active power filtering based on the Martian surface”, Acta Astronautica, vol. 62, pp. 683-685, 2008.
nonlinear programming and fast-zero-phase detection algorithms”, [16] M. G. Villalva, J. R. Gazoli, and E. R. Filho, “Comprehensive
IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 20, pp. 218-226, 2005. approach to modeling and simulation of photovoltaic arrays”, IEEE
[6] M. Nagao, and K. Harada, “Power flow of photovoltaic system using Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 24, pp. 1198-1208, 2009.
buck-boost PWM power inverter”, in proc. 1997 International [17] E. Radziemska, “Effect of temperature on dark current characteristics
Conference on Power Electronics and Drive Systems. of silicon solar cells and diodes”, International Journal of Energy
[7] S. Saha, and V. P. Sundarsingh, “Novel grid-connected photovoltaic Research, vol. 30, pp. 127-134, 2005.
inverter”, in IEE proc. On Generation, Transmission and Distribution, [18] M. G. Villalva, J. R. Gazoli, E. Ruppert F., “Modeling and circuit-
vol. 143, pp. 219-224, 1996. based simulation of photovoltaic arrays”, Brazilian Journal of Power
[8] M. Djarallah, and B. Azoui, “Grid connected interactive photovoltaic Electronics, vol. 14, pp. 35 - 45, 2009.
power flow analysis: A technique for system operation [19] M. G. Villalva, E. Ruppert F., “Analysis and simulation of the P&O
comprehension and sizing”, in proc. 2006 of the 41st International MPPT algorithm using a linearized photovoltaic array model”, In:
Universities Power Engineering Conference, pp. 69-73, 2006. Proc. 35th Annual Conference of the IEEE Industrial Electronics
[9] Mao Mei-Qing, Yu Shi-Jie, and Su Jian-Hui, “Versatile matlab Society, IECON, p. 231-236, 2009.
simulation model for photovoltaic array with MPPT function”,
Journal of System Simulation, vol. 17, pp. 1248-1251, 2005.
538
Proteus Based Simulation of a Charge Controller

Ahmad Shukri Bin Fazil Rahman* and Abdul Rahim Bin Abdul Razak**
Power Electronics Cluster,
Department of Electrical System,
Universiti Malaysia Perlis,
Tingkat 1, Blok A,
Jalan Satu, Taman Seberang Jaya 3,
02000 Kuala Perlis, Perlis, Malaysia.
*Email: ahmadshukri@unimap.edu.my
**Email: abdulrahim@unimap.edu.my
Abstract- This paper provides the simulation aspect of a

newly design charge controller in Proteus Isis II. METHODOLOGY
environment. The system function by to managing battery
(for two batteries) charging scheme by regulating
incoming source. The sensing method only employs
voltage reading from source. Since the research is at
initial stage, it is therefore conducted in an adequate
manner by completing each stage at fundamental basis.
Keywords-Charge controller, Proteus Isis,

Mikroelektronika, microcontroller, voltage divider.
I. INTRODUCTION
Charge controller has been regarded as one of the
important devices in stand-alone photovoltaic systems
to prevent the battery from damage due to over-
charging and over-discharging [1]. The charge
controller regulates the supply power and thus prevents
overcharging. This can be achieved by limiting the
input current at a predefined charge regulation voltage
Figure 1. Proposed Charge controller block diagram
[2].
Microcontroller is the common choice of The proposed system was design as shown in figure
implementing digital charge controller as in [1]. The 1, with rechargeable batteries, relays, microcontroller
proposed microcontroller used in this system is and a LCD display. Source (ie generator or photovoltaic
PIC16F877A from Microchip. The selection was made array) received, will be sensed by a PIC16F877A
due to certain factors, such as cost effective, reliable microcontroller. The voltage divider drops the incoming
and etc. The microcontroller was loaded with a series of source to a tolerable level. Other sensed method may be
algorithm (see Methodology) to perform voltage considered as in [3,4,5]. The PIC16F877A
regulation. microcontroller read the value and determined a series
Charging is accomplished by connecting and of actions set to be as default condition:
disconnecting battery from source through a series of a • If voltage source is greater than the threshold
common relay. Relay was chosen because of its ability value, charge battery 1.
to withstand high input current and cost effective. • If battery 1 is fully charged, then charge battery
Sensing method incorporates a common potential 2.
reading from source. As precaution a standard voltage
divider circuit was built to drop the incoming voltage. • If battery 2 is fully charged, then ‘on’ dummy
load.
A display unit consists of LCD (Liquid Crystal • If voltage source is lower than the threshold
Display) attached to the existing system. Actions such
value, keep sensing.
as charging and reading will be displayed on the LCD.
The proposed system may be suitable for typical III. RESULTS
electrical application usage such as laptop, radio and
etc. The Proteus Isis’ circuit was implemented as
in figure 2. Several modifications have been conducted
for the purpose of optimizing the system performance.
The rechargeable batteries were replaced by voltage
divider circuits while LEDs (Light Emitting Doides)
were used to indicate selection progress. Relays were
chosen since it is cheaper (actual hardware
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 539

implementation), provide better isolation (protection)
and able to tolerate high current.
Figure 2. Proteus Isis’ circuit
The initial stage requires the PIC16F877A to be

loaded with a HEX (hexadecimal or machine language)
file, which was accomplished by using MikroC
software from Mikroelektronika. Upon completion,
several tests have been conducted to verify the actions
of PIC16F877A (see methodology).
A. Voltage source greater than threshold value.
A supply source, Vgen (Voltage generator) greater
than threshold value (>12V) is supplied via generator.
This can be achieved by increasing the variable resistor
value at RV1. If source is greater than threshold value,
the controller (PIC16F877A) will measured potential
from Vb1 (Voltage battery 1) and Vb2 (Voltage battery
2). When both batteries are high (greater than 11.5V), Figure 3. Voltage source greater than threshold value
the dummy load will be ‘on’ as shown in figure 3. The
LED (D3) will turn ‘on’ to indicate the working process B. Charging of Vb1.
of the dummy load.
Vb1 is set to low by lowering the variable resistor at
RV3. The controller will starts charging Vb1 and
540
disconnect dummy load as shown in figure 4. When
Vb1 is fully charge, the controller will proceed to
charge Vb2, since Vb2 already fully charge the dummy
load is set to ‘on’ again. The ‘low’ part of Vgen
represent the sampling period of the controller at
5second interval.
Lower source
Figure 6. Lower source
1) Display
The proposed circuit in figure 2 also included an
LCD to show important parameters, when charging to
Vb1 a series of texts will be displayed as in figure 7.
Other parameters such as ‘reading from Vb1’, ‘reading
Figure 4. charging of Vb1 from Vb2’, ‘dummy load on’ and ‘generator low’ as per
figure.
C. Charging of Vb2.
Vb1 is set to high by increasing the variable resistor
at RV3 and lowering Vb2. The controller will starts
charging Vb2 and disconnect dummy load as shown in
figure 5. When Vb2 is fully charge, the controller will
proceed to charge Vb1, since Vb1 already fully charge
the dummy load is set to ‘on’ again.
Figure 7. Text indicating charging to Vb1 is in progress.
Figure 5. charging of Vb2
D. Lower source.
The source, Vgen is set again to be less than 12V, by
decreasing RV1. The controller will keep on sampling
until Vgen starts to increase and greater than threshold
value as shown in figure 6. Figure 8. Text indicating reading voltage from Vb1.
Figure 9. Text indicating reading voltage from Vb2.
541
without spending too much time on hardware. Through
simulation, adjustment can be made and finalized
design could be accomplished through hardware circuit.
Preliminary results show that the proposed circuit is
functioning as expected by performing series of action
such charging, reading and etc. Future works might
consist of hardware implementation and non-contact
sensor (i.e. hall sensor). The source voltage might be
suitable if increase to higher than existing value (12V).
Additional controller may be considered as in [6,7].
REFERENCES
Figure 10. Text indicating dummy load is ‘on’.
[1] Muthukumaran, M.B., “Micro controller Based Charge
Controller For Photo Voltaic System”, IEEE Power Systems
Conference and Exposition (PSCE), pp. 1454-1457, Oct. 2006.
[2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charge_controller
[3] James P. Dunlop, P.E., Batteries and Charge Control in Stand-
Alone Photovoltaic Systems, Clearlake Road, FL: Florida Solar
Energy Center/University of Central Florida, 1997.
[4] Amin, Nowshad; Azim, Md. Anwarul; Sopian, Kamaruzzaman;
“Development of cost effective charge controller with data
acquisition options for PV powered sensor nodes,” 33rd IEEE
Photovolatic Specialists Conference (PVSC), pp. 1 – 4, May
2008.
[5] Amin, N.; Lam Zi Yi; Sopian, K.; “based smart charge
controller for standalone solar photovoltaic power systems,”
34th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC), pp.
001094 – 001097, 2009.
Figure 11. Text indicating Vgen is low.
[6] Ullah, Z.; Burford, B.; Dillip, S.; “Fast intelligent battery
charging: neural-fuzzy approach,” IEEE Aerospace and
Electronic Systems Magazine, Vol. 11, pp. 26-34, June 1996.
[7] Singh, P.; Rajagopalan, J.; LaFollette, R.; Fennie, C., Jr.;
Reisner, D.E.; “Fuzzy logic-based solar charge controller for
microbatteries,” Conference Record of the Twenty-Eighth
IV. CONCLUSION IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, pp. 1726 – 1729,
Sept. 2000.
With the implementation of Proteus software, the
realization of a charge controller circuit is possible
542
543
Grid-Connected Photovoltaic Models for Three-Phase

Load Flow Analysis
Syafii, Student Member IEEE Khalid Mohamed Nor, Mamdouh Abdel-Akher,

Electrical Power Engineering Dept, Senior Member IEEE Member IEEE
Univrsiti Teknologi Malaysia Electrical Power Engineering Dept, Electrical Engineering Dept,
/Electrical Engineering Dept, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia South Valley University,
Andalas University, Padang, Indonesia Johor Bahru, Malaysia Aswan, Egypt
Email: syafii@ft.unand.ac.id Email: khalidmn@fke.utm.my Email: mabdelakher@ieee.com
Abstract— The paper presents grid connected Photovoltaic (PV) The objective of this paper is to improve Photovoltaic
models for three-phase distribution load flow analysis. The model and study the effect when they are connected in
models comprises of single-diode PV model with and without the distribution networks. The study includes both voltage profile
effect of the series and parallel resistances, I-V nonlinear and system losses. The paper is organized such that Section 2
question, I–V database and single-phase PV modeled as single- presents the PV model, section 3 presents the three-phase load
phase real power injection. The three-phase load flow program flow method, Section 4 shows the system under study, Section
with Photovoltaic models has been tested using IEEE 13 node 5 gives comprehensive results and the effect of grid-connected
feeder. The solution of the base case is compared with the radial PV on both the voltage profile as well as system losses, and
distribution analysis package (RDAP) before used to analyze
finally the conclusions are drawn in Section 6.
distribution networks. The analysis is carried out with various
photovoltaic mathematical models. The simulation results show
that the grid-connected three-phase photovoltaic system in
distribution network can improve the voltage profile as well as II. PHOTOVOLTAIC MODEL
reduce the total system losses. However, single-phase PV DG
Another source of distributed generator is the photovoltaic
model does not always guarantee voltage improvements.
systems, which are commonly known as solar panels. Solar
Keywords-Three-Phase Load Flow; Photovoltaic Models; panels are made up of discrete PV cells connected together to
Distributed Gneration be PV modules and PV arrays that convert light radiation into
electricity. The PV cells produce direct-current (DC)
electricity, which must then be inverted for use in an AC
I. INTRODUCTION system. The systems can be used as single phase source or
Distributed generations using renewable energy sources, three phase source and thus can have the unbalancing impact
such as wind, solar photovoltaic and hydro power have on the grid connected system.
received considerable attention in recent years. Grid- The solar radiation varies according to the orbital variations.
connected solar photovoltaic (PV) continued to be the fastest The total solar radiation output from the sun in all frequencies
growing power generation technology, with production has at a distance R from the sun centre [3] is equal to:
been increasing by an average of more than 20 percent each S = 4πR2 Q(R) (1)
year since 2002 [1]. At the end of 2009, the cumulative global If the radiation flux per unit area at a distance R represented
PV installations surpassed 21,000 MW [2]. Therefore, there is by Q(R) and the earth approximately 150x106 km away from
a need to improve specific DG model to cover grid-connected the sun. Hence, the total solar output is about 3.8 x 1026 W.
photovoltaic energy sources. Since, the surface area of the earth is 4πr2; the amount of solar
Photovoltaic (PV) system directly converts sunlight into the radiation per unit area on a spherical planet becomes as 340
most valuable form of energy known as electricity. The electric W/m2 [3]. Therefore the solar energy has a large potential for
power produce at the terminals of a PV device may directly future renewable energy sources.
feed small loads such as lighting systems and DC motors. Photovoltaic equivalent circuit consists of a current source
Photovoltaic system requires electronic converters to control driven by sunlight in parallel with a real diode and resistance
output voltage and current as well as the power flow in grid- (Rp) series with resistances (RS) shown in Fig. 1. The output
connected systems application. The impact of grid-connected power and voltage varies according to sun radiation.
PV system can be analyzed using three-phase load-flow
program. The power system model in the program needs an
extension with PV models.
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 544

where n : number of cells
The power output of the PV system can be found by
multiply I and V.
The Monte Carlo techniques for photovoltaic generators
model in Probabilistic distribution load flow report in [6]. The
power output of the PV system (P ) is given by :
Figure 1. Equivalent circuit for photovoltaic cell
. . . . . . (7)
The ideal equivalent circuit of PV cell consists of a current
source in parallel with a diode. Ideally the voltage-current (VI)
Where : AC is the array surface area [m2]; η is the
equation of PV cell [1,4] is given by:
qV
efficiency of the PV system in realistic reporting conditions
I = I pv ,cell − I 0 ,cell (e akT
− 1) (RRC) [7]; T and T’ are parameters that depend on inclination
β, declination δ, reflectance of the ground ρ, latitude , hour
(2) angle ω, sunset hour angle ω , day of the year [8].
Where IPV,cell is the current generated by the incident light Some of the previous PV models used for individual or
(directly proportional to the sun irradiation), I0,cell is the stand alone PV generation analysis. For grid-connected PV
reverse saturation of the diode, q is the electron charge models analyzed using single phase load flow formulation for
(1.60217646 x 1019 C), k is the Boltzmann constant balanced distribution network studies only. The extend grid-
(1.3806503 x 10-23 J/K), T is temperature of the p-n junction connected PV models in the latest unbalanced load flow [9,10]
and a is the diode ideality constant. make possible to analyze their impact in unbalanced
distribution networks. Brief explanation of these models is
given in the next section.
III. THREE PHASE LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS

Three-phase load flow is required when solving unbalanced
distribution system. There are many causes of unbalanced
condition in a distribution networks. Regarding reference
frame, three-phase load flow algorithms can be categorized
Figure 2 Characteristic I-V curve of Photovoltaic into two groups. The first group solves using phase component
approach and the second used sequence component approach.
Fig. 2 shows the V-I curve and Ppv-V curve originated from However the sequence component has some advantages such
(2). General photovoltaic model using voltage and current of as the size of the problem is effectively reduced in comparison
equivalent PV module to calculate the output power [5] as to phase components approach [9] and easy to handle
state below: unbalanced power system components [11].
This project research will develop grid-connected PV
P=V.I= 1 .∆ . 1 .∆ (3) models by improve existing three-phase power flow object
components software already developed in [9]. The object
Where and are short circuit current and open circuit oriented programming methodology has an ability for
voltage at reference temperature; α and β are temperature updating or adding new algorithm without affecting other
coefficient; components inside the software [12] such as an extension for
More specific formulation provided in [1] : fault analysis algorithm presented in [13].
A. Sequence Three-Phase Load Flow Problems
⎡ q (V + IRS ) ⎤ 1 The sequence three-phase load flow requires power system
I = I SC − I 0 ⎢e kT − 1⎥ − (V + I RS ) (4)
R models in terms of their sequence components. The three-phase
⎣ ⎦ P
power system models represented by sequence admittance
The voltage across individual cell can be found from : matrices of three sequence network. The sequence admittance
matrices comprise of positive-, negative- and zero- sequence
V= Vd – I RS (5) decoupled bus admittance matrices. Then, these sequence
admittance matrices used to solve the three sequence network
When photovoltaic are wired in series the Vmodule calculated in the iteration scheme. The process is repeated until certain
by: preset permissible tolerance reached
Vmodule = n (Vd – I RS) (6) The state variable of three-phase voltage updated using the
result of three decomposed sub-problem in the iterative
545
scheme. The positive-sequence network has been solved using Model 2 Ipv Calculate from :
the standard Newton-Raphson method and whereas the Single-diode PV/ 1
negative- and zero-sequence are represented and solved using Maximum power ln
two nodal voltage equations. The specified values of sequence output model 1
networks for three decomposed sub-problem calculated by
a= 1+ln(Iph/I0);
combining the current injection due to loads, distributed load,
b= a/(a+1);
capacitor bank and system unbalanced. The available of new
component need to model in theirs sequence component. This P obtain from Vpv*Ipv
sequence component model reused by existing three-phase load Model 3 PV model as real Power injection
flow component and its power system models [9]. Single-phase PV P = Pl-Ppv.
B. Photovoltaic DG Mathematical Model Model 4 P obtain from VI Curve for given V
In sequence three phase power flow program, every power I–V curve V is specified
system component need to convert to sequence components database
using A matrix (8). The A matrix is defined as the symmetrical
components transformation matrix: Model 5 Ipv and I0 calculate from:
(PQ bus) ∆
⎡1 1 1⎤ ∆ / 1
A = ⎢⎢1 a 2 a ⎥⎥ (8)
, ∆
⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦
⎡ q (V + IRS ) ⎤ 1
where a =1.0 ∠120° I = I PV − I 0 ⎢e kT − 1⎥ − (V + I RS )
⎢ ⎥ RP
⎣ ⎦
The result is sequence model of the component that can be P obtain from Vpv*Ipv
included in three phase power flow algorithm as new class
library. By used sequence component model, balanced grid- For grid-connected PV DG, the specified voltage and power
connected photovoltaic can be modeled in unbalanced system. can be calculated using mathematical model as shown in Table
The sequence component model allows using the balanced 1. By knowing of injected power, the PV DG can modeled as
three-phase load flow specifications for generators. Normally complex power injection bus or PQ model with Q limit.
at a terminal generator bus, both the positive sequence voltage
IV. DESCRIPTION OF THE TEST SYSTEM
and the total power leaving the terminal of the actual three-
phase bus are specified. The positive sequence voltage The modified IEEE 13 node test feeder Fig. 3 used for PV
magnitude at the terminal bus is the same as the positive DG test cases. The cases presented PV DG model as PQ node.
sequence network of the generator, and hence, the positive A PV DG with five different model shows as in Table 1
connected at new node 672 via step down transformer with
sequence voltage magnitude of the positive sequence network
connected to node 671 of original node and original node 634.
of the generator is specified. The total power specified at the
terminal bus is mainly due to the positive sequence network of This IEEE 13 node [14] used to validate the improved
the generator since there is no induced EMF in both the algorithm for analyzing grid-connected different PV models.
negative- and zero-sequence networks. Consequently, the
specified power of the positive sequence network of is known.
In this paper, the sequence components three-phase power
flow algorithm and power system model in [9] are used for
developing grid-connected PV model. The new class library to
model PV DG have been add in object oriented power system
model [9,10] using C++ programming.
TABLE 1. PHOTOVOLTAIC DG MODEL
Photovoltaic Mathematical Model c

Model
Model 1 I Calculate from :
Single-diode PV qV
model I = I pv ,cell − I 0,cell (e akT − 1) watts or

including/without ⎡ q (V + IRS ) ⎤ 1
I = I PV − I 0 ⎢e kT − 1⎥ − (V + I RS )
Rs and Rp ⎢ ⎥ RP
⎣ ⎦
Figure. 3 IEEE 13 node test feeder with PV connected
P obtain from V*I for given V
V is specified The solution of the IEEE 13 node is compared with the
546
solution calculated using the radial distribution analysis .
program (RDAP) .
V. RESULTS
First test is carried out to validate the improved generator
model in three-phase distribution load flow with RDAP
software [15]. The loads are the same as the original data
except that the distributed load is removed. This is for the sake
of comparison between proposed method and the RDAP as the
distributed load is modeled differently in the two methods. In
this test, the IEEE 13 node is solved using sequence three-
phase power flow algorithm and the RDAP software. The
solution of the IEEE 13 node feeder is given in Table 2.
The result from the developed program closely match with
RDAP result without PV DG grid-connected as shown in Table
2 for Colum 2 and 3. The other Colum shows that PV DG
connected have improved voltage profile of IEEE 13 node
system. The PV DG sizes also give effect on voltage
improvement. However, for single-phase PV DG model does
not always guarantee voltage improvement such as for phase b
of using model 3 have been decreased as shown in Fig.3 for
phase b. The dummy nodes have voltages equal to the upstream
nodes voltage since the current flow through the dummy lines
is zero for all phases in the program. The missing phase in
unbalanced lateral showed empty in the result of Table 2 and
Fig. 3, because no actual voltage node available here.
TABLE 2 THREE PHASE VOLTAGE PROFILE

RDAP
Without
Node Without Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4
PV DG
PV DG
634 Ppv=0 Ppv=0 Ppv=876.2 Ppv=270 Ppv=240(A) Ppv=189
672 Ppv=0 Ppv=0 Ppv=442.9 Ppv=272 Ppv=0 Ppv=378
650 1 1 1 1 1 1
632 0.9559 0.9557 0.9647 0.9597 0.9644 0.96
633 0.9528 0.9524 0.9641 0.9573 0.9653 0.9573
Figure 3. Three-phase voltage profile for 13 node test feeder.
634 0.9271 0.9267 0.9585 0.9381 0.9621 0.9362
TABLE 3 SYSTEM LOOSES
645 - - - - - -
646 - - - - - - Ppv Losses
PV Models
671 0.9232 0.9226 0.9346 0.9285 0.9313 0.9294 (kW) (kW)
672 0.9232 0.9226 0.944 0.9344 0.9313 0.9375
Without PV 0 119.6
680 0.9232 0.9226 0.9346 0.9285 0.9313 0.9294
684 0.9214 0.9209 0.9329 0.9267 0.9295 0.9277
Model 1 1319.1 82.32
611 - - - - - - Model 2 542 94.79
652 0.9154 0.915 0.9269 0.9208 0.9236 0.9217 Model 3 240 109.18
692 0.9232 0.9226 0.9346 0.9285 0.9313 0.9294
675 0.9161 0.9154 0.9276 0.9214 0.9242 0.9223
Model 4 567 94.54
The system losses are evaluated without and with PV The simulation results presented that the integration of PV
models connected. The effect of proposed PV DG model on DG into an existing distribution network can improve the
line losses is given in Table 3 for all cases. The result shows voltage profile as well as reduces the total system losses.
that the losses are reduced when the total size of PV DG Among the PV DG models, model 1 which act as PQ node
increased from 240 kW to 1319.1 kW. Therefore, the PV DG have better performance relate to voltage profile and loss
size give more effect in network loss reduction. reduction. However, for single-phase PV DG model does not
always have a voltage improvement.
547
VI. CONCLUSION
[6] S. Conti, and S. Raiti,” Probabilistic load flow using Monte Carlo
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three-phase source for three-phase distribution load flow and Journal of Solar Energy, February 2007
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networks. In this paper, the PV DG was modeled as PQ node performance measurements. In: Proceedings of the 16th IEEE
with Q limit and as PQ node with have five different type of P Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, San Diego, CA, USA., 1982.
calculation. The model was tested and analyzed using a 13 [8] Gagliano, S., Raiti, S., Tina, G., Hybrid solar/wind power system
node IEEE distribution feeder. The simulation results show that probabilistic modelling for long-term performance assessment. Journal
of Solar Energy 80 (5), 578–588. 2006
the integration of grid-connected PV into an existing
[9] M. Abdel-Akher, K. M. Nor, and A. H. Abdul Rashid, “Improved Three-
distribution network can improve the voltage profile as well as Phase Power-Flow Methods Using Sequence Components”, IEEE
reduces the total system losses. However, for single-phase PV Transaction on Power System Vol.20, no 3, pp. 1389-1397, Aug 2005
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Sequence Decoupled Full Newton Raphson Three-Phase Power Flow”,
IEEE International Conference TenCon, Singapore, Dec 2009.
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Distribution Networks with Distributed Generation”, Proc of IEEE
[1] Marcelo Gradella Villalva, Jonas Rafael Gazoli, and Ernesto Ruppert International Power and Energy Conference (PECon), Malaysia, Dec
Filho, "Comprehensive Approach to Modeling and Simulation of 2008.
Photovoltaic Arrays',IEEE Transaction on Power Electronic, Vol. 24, [12] M. Abdel-Akher, and K. M. Nor, Fault Analysis of Multiphase
No. 5, May 2009 Distribution Systems Using Symmetrical Components, IEEE
[2] Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century, “Renewables Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol 25, Oct 2010.
Global Status Report 2009 Update”, REN21, 2009 [13] K. M. Nor, H. Mokhlis, and T. A. Ghani, "Reusability techniques in load
[3] Zekai Sen, Solar energy in progress and future research trends, Progress flow analysis computer program", IEEE Tran. on power system, vol. 19,
in Energy and Combustion Science, Volume 30, Issue 4, 2004, Pages no. 4, pp. 1754-1762, Nov. 2004
367-416 [14] W. H. Kersting, “Radial distribution test feeders”, PES winter meeting,
[4] D. Das, R Esmaili, L. Xu, and D Nichols,” An Optimal Design of a Grid vol. 2, no. 28, pp. 908-912, Jan. 28/Feb. 1, 2001:
Connected Hybrid Wind/Photovoltaic/Fuel Cell System for Distributed Available:http://ewh.ieee.org/soc/pes/dsacom/test feeders.html
Energy Production”, 2005 [15] Radial Distribution Analysis Program (RDAP), which can be
[5] M. R. Patel,”Wind and Solar Power System”, CRC Press, Boca Raton, downloaded from http://www.zianet.com/whpower/
Florida, 1999
548
1
Improving Power Loss Reduction Calculations

for Distributed Generation Planning
H.S. Manougian, E.F. El-Saadany, L.A. Lamont and L. El Chaar
Abstract—An overview of existing power loss reduction generation to affect line losses lies in its ability to change the
calculation methods, varying in complexity and accuracy, is current flowing through the system. If the current is halved,
undertaken. Their strengths and weaknesses are compared. power losses are reduced by a factor of four. However, if the
Additionally, an improvement is suggested as the negative current flowing were actually to increase because of the new
correlation between wind generation and system load is
distributed generation, power losses would also increase by
underscored. A case study is performed to determine the
performance of the suggested improvement. Results showed that the square of the change. It can be concluded, therefore, that
considering the relationship between instantaneous wind the addition of distributed generation has the potential to either
generation and system load improved accuracy significantly, increase or decrease power line losses – or even both as
concluding that the factor is not negligible. system parameters change [3].
In [4], an economic analysis of installing distributed
Index Terms—Power distribution, Power distribution lines, generation on a given feeder is carried out. The objective of
Power generation, Power generation planning, Power system
the exercise is to determine the optimal sizing and siting of
new wind turbines. It is assumed that the power production of
I. INTRODUCTION
the wind turbines is the main source of uncertainty.
T HE power systems of the twenty first century promise to

differ significantly from those of the past. Increasing
significance is being given to non-traditional sources of
Distribution line losses are an important factor, which are
minimized by executing a genetic algorithm. The geographical
area covered by the feeder is divided into different wind
energy, such as wind and solar. As new sources of generation zones. A Rayleigh probability density function is assumed to
are connected at the distribution level, a number of potential represent the general wind speed pattern, which is deemed to
benefits arise, as well as multiple challenges. be homogenous within each of these zones. The specified
Among the potential benefits of installing new distributed wind speed to power output relationship is then used to
generation onto the network are increased reliability, deferral conclude a distribution of power output on behalf of the wind
of capital expenditures, decreased environmental impact, and a turbines being studied [4].
savings in losses as the transportation of power over long The mathematical formulation that is solved in [4] is quite
distances is avoided [1]. extensive and considers a diverse array of factors. They
Loss reduction is often a major goal in the planning of include factors such as inflation, the time value of money, the
distributed generation on a given feeder and different methods horizon of the planning period, and the construction and
have been developed to minimize power losses by selecting maintenance costs of different types of feeders. The study also
the appropriate capacity and placement of new distributed considers the power demands of the loads on the feeder and
generation [2]. This paper discusses various methods and accounts for their growth over time. It is noteworthy to
proposes an improvement in the calculation of power losses consider, however, that no mention is made about the periodic
for the purpose of distributed generation planning. fluctuation of loading levels, whether they are over the course
of a day or seasonal changes over the course of a year.
II. EXISTING METHODS Instead, in a case study, the medium [sic] active power
A. Overview demand is used [4].
The fact that introducing distributed generation will affect The loading pattern of the feeder would have a dramatic effect
system losses is clear [3]. The resistance of an electric cable is on actual losses, however, more accurately, [5] describes how
not negligible. As power flows along the length of the line, the relative proportion between the loading level and the
some power will be lost as heat according to (1) output of a distributed generator can change the total loss
reduction – defined as the difference in line loss with and
Ploss = I 2 R (1) without distributed generation. Fig. 1 shows the variation of
where Ploss is power lost as heat, I is the magnitude of current line loss reduction as distributed generation power output is
flowing through the line, and R is the total resistance of the varied. The load level in this example is kept constant at 2.0
entire length of the line [3]. pu [5]. In this simple model, the distributed generation is
One must note therefore, that the ability of distributed located in the middle of the feeder, halfway between the
substation and the load [5]. It is observed that loss reduction
H.S. Manougian and E.F. El-Saadany are with the ECE department, increases, at a declining rate, until it reaches its optimum at
University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada (e-mail: ehab@uwaterloo.ca).
L.A. Lamont and L. El Chaar are with the Petroleum Institute, Abu Dhabi, about the point where the distributed generation is meeting all
UAE (email: llamont@pi.ac.ae, lelchaar@pi.ac.ae). of the load’s power requirements. Beyond this point, loss
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 549

2
reduction begins to decrease, reaching zero when the power essential.

output is 4 pu. Presumably, if the generator were to further Two different loss reduction calculation methods are
increase its power output, the loss reduction would be discussed in [2] for the purpose of optimal distributed
calculated as negative and the system would, in effect, be generation siting and sizing. In the first, identified as the
increasing the total line losses. “traditional planning method”, the loads along a feeder are set
Although the model is quite simple in its composition, it to their peak value, while the output of the distributed
reinforces the idea that power loss reduction due to distributed generation wind turbine is fixed at its average value (capacity
generation has an optimal value and the potential to become factor) [2].
negative, and that one of the parameters that dictates this In the second approach, identified as the “probabilistic
operating condition is the relative size between instantaneous planning method”, the variance of the wind turbine’s power
system load and generator output. output is considered as in [4]. A probability density function
of wind speed is used and split into multiple levels. These
levels are then mapped into the corresponding power output
level that can be expected from a turbine’s wind speed-power
characteristic [2]. Where the probabilistic method differs from
both [4] and [6], however, is in how it deals with the feeder
power demand. Instead of taking a single value or accounting
for each half hour interval, it uses a standard IEEE load shape
to also divide the load into multiple levels, each with its own
probability of occurrence. Thus, instead of solving thousands
of power flow cases, it produces only (m x n) cases, where m
Fig. 1. Variation of line loss reduction with distributed generation power is the number of wind power generation levels and n is the
output [5] number of loading levels. A weighted average is then
To accurately represent the variable conditions of line performed, where the weight of each case is the probability of
losses, [6] takes a different approach. Using a generic, its wind generation level multiplied by the probability of its
standard load characteristic of a single family home’s loading level [2]. In a case study, it was found that the
consumption throughout the day, a profile was developed that probabilistic method led to a more accurate final result [2].
accounted for the differences between weekday and weekend B. Comparison and Analysis
consumption, as well as five seasons throughout the year: The various existing methods for calculating loss reduction
spring, summer, high summer, autumn, and winter. These due to distributed generation vary in their approaches,
parameters were combined to develop a synthesized annual objectives, and results. It can be assumed that as a model
load pattern, split into half-hour intervals [6]. To represent more closely reflects reality it becomes increasingly complex,
generation, the actual annual generation profile of a wind but also should deliver more accurate results. As the simplest
turbine was used [6]. Three feeder models were used. They modeling method, therefore, the traditional method of [2] is
were quite extensive, as they went beyond the substation and likely to deliver misleading results. By setting demand at its
included much of the higher voltage, sub-transmission peak value – which has a very low probability of occurrence
network as well. The three models considered urban, rural, [7] – the load-wind relationship is bound to be skewed.
and mixed feeders [6]. A new computer software tool was Following the preliminary results of [5], one can expect it to
used to drive existing power system simulation software to result in calculating a greater loss reduction and overstating
calculate the loss reduction in each of the 17,520 half-hour the actual benefits of a new distributed generator. This result
intervals of the year, using the corresponding load and is especially important to the management of utilities as
generation levels. The mean of the outputs represented a mean decisions may then be made to allocate capital in new projects
annual loss reduction figure [6]. where the expected benefit is never realized.
The methodology employed by [6] more accurately It is in this consideration of money where the method
represents the expected loss reduction value. Various outlined in [4], henceforth referred to as the wind probabilistic
conclusions were made, such as that it was possible for method, excels. In determining the optimal site and size of a
distributed generation to actually increase line losses, loss new distributed generator, it not only considers loss reduction
reduction was more effective in the urban and mixed scenarios but other cost factors as well. It may be decided that a larger
which had higher load densities, and that loss reduction was generator would indeed result in greater loss reduction;
not limited to the local system, but propagated upstream to the however, the added cost of the larger unit may not be justified
higher voltage network, which also experienced reduced by the savings. The wind probabilistic method also separates
current levels [6]. the feeder area into zones with different wind speed
Fortunately, in power system planning, the speed of characteristics. If this data is available and accurate, it would
execution of studies is not a major factor since computing certainly contribute to optimizing the solution. However, in
resources required for this methodology were quite intensive, reality, the collection and justification of micro-scale wind
solving 17,520 separate load flow cases. The requirement for speed data is a more complex problem. Multiple monitoring
an automated process tool and output collection data is
550
3
stations would have to be set up to measure the wind speed at meaningful output. In a way, the re-enactment method is an
the appropriate hub height. Then, the issue exists of defining extension of the independent load-generation method. The
where the border between two wind zones lies. Perhaps it difference lies in that the effective 17,520 levels of wind need
would be a justified assumption that the wind resource within only to be combined with one of the 17,520 levels of loading
the geographical location of a distribution feeder differs as the combined probability (the case weight) with any of the
relatively little. other levels is zero.
A weak point of the generation probabilistic method is that
it assumes a constant load – albeit at a more realistic value of TABLE I
(A) AVERAGE VALUE OF ZONAL DEMAND AND WIND GENERATION IN THE
50% of peak. Demand levels certainly fluctuate over the BRUCE REGION OF ONTARIO DURING THE DAY AND NIGHT
course of the day and from month to month. The mathematical TIME OF DAY AVERAGE DEMAND AVERAGE WIND
formulation in [4] did account for a predictable year-over-year (PERCENT OF PEAK) (PERCENT OF PEAK)
increase, however. Although more useful than the traditional 8AM-8PM 53.21% 33.56%
8PM-8AM 48.05% 37.57%
method, the generation probabilistic method would likely still
suffer from some inherent inaccuracies in true loss reduction. (B) AVERAGE VALUE OF ZONAL DEMAND AND WIND GENERATION IN THE
By accounting for variation in load as well, the BRUCE REGION OF ONTARIO DURING THE FOUR SEASONS
probabilistic method discussed in [2], henceforth referred to as SEASON AVERAGE DEMAND AVERAGE WIND
(PERCENT OF PEAK) (PERCENT OF PEAK)
the independent load-generation method, should achieve WINTER 44.64% 50.03%
greater accuracy. The changes that can be expected to occur in SPRING 44.14% 37.15%
system parameters should be more accurately reflected in the SUMMER 60.72% 17.12%
FALL 52.91% 38.31%
mode 1. Although more complex, the simulated system
resulted in more realistic conditions. A major assumption in The main drawback of the re-enactment method, in
multiplying the probabilities of the wind level and demand comparison with its rivals, is that it requires automation to
level, however, is that the two are not correlated. It is perform the study. Even if an hourly precision level was used,
reasonable to assume that demand and wind are independent 8760 cases would have to be solved, restricting the method to
of each other in that neither has a clear causal effect on the those who either purchase a similar software tool, or a
other. That is, turning on a light or a hair dryer in a home programmable load flow application. In contrast, the
should not affect the wind speed at 80m elevation so as to be traditional method needs to solve only one case. Even the
detectable by a wind turbine’s power output. However, it independent load-generation method, with 10 levels each for
could be justified to postulate that wind speed and load are wind and demand, needs only 100 cases to be solved, which is
correlated. feasible to be performed by an individual.
The hourly demand of the Bruce region of Ontario was Additionally, the section of the power system that is
analyzed for the year of 2007 and compared to the hourly modeled is expanded to the upstream sub-transmission
output of the Kingsbridge Wind Farm, which is found within network, allowing upstream loss reduction to be included. For
the Bruce region, during the same year. The data were the purposes of this paper, however, loss reduction beyond the
collected from [7] and [8], respectively. The results are local distribution feeder will not be analyzed as it requires the
summarized in Table I. The existence of a negative correlation consideration of different assumptions, including a non-radial
between demand and wind is observed. Whereas demand is flow of power and the possibility of line congestion, which
higher during the daytime hours, the wind farm has a tendency insert a greater variance from one specific location to another.
to generate more at night. The seasonal divergence is also
stark. The summer months have the highest level of demand, C. Suggestions
indicating this is when power line losses are highest as It was also observed that an important application of the
equipment operates under heavier loading conditions. results of a loss reduction study is in distributed generation
However, at the same time, the wind is weakest and is not able planning, specifically the siting and sizing of a new unit. An
to capitalize on an important loss reduction opportunity. important suggestion for this application would be to factor in
There does, therefore, seem to be a correlation – a negative the cost tradeoff of loss reduction, performing a complete
one – between wind and demand, although their relationship is economic analysis of a new project, including the depreciating
not causal. This reality will result in higher currents along the value of money over the time horizon of the project. This
feeder cables than forecast by the independent load-generation approach was clearly followed in [4].
method. Thus, the calculation of loss reduction using that With regard to the actual calculation method of the
method tends to overestimate. potential loss reduction of new distributed generation, a
In the method used in [6], henceforth referred to as the re- tradeoff between simplicity and accuracy was observed. We
enactment method and the most complex and accurate of those propose that an intermediate step between the independent
discussed, the issue of the negative correlation between wind loss-generation method and the re-enactment method is
and demand is appropriately addressed. By using actual wind possible. That is, the correlation between wind generation and
generation data and a reconstructed load profile sensitive to power demand can be easily incorporated into the framework
hourly and seasonal variance, any correlation is inherently of the independent load-generation method, to drastically
accounted for. The result is a very realistic model that offers a reduce the number of cases it is necessary to solve. We will
551
4
refer to this approach as the correlated load-generation of load and wind were averaged to determine the value that
method. The main improvement lies in the calculation of the represents that level. Note that a linear distribution within the
weight of an individual case. Instead of multiplying the level was not assumed, nor found to be accurate. The results
probabilities of the wind and demand levels, if the actual joint are summarized in Table II. The reader should keep in mind
probability of the two cases can be found, the weight of the that, although both are subdivided into 10, the levels of load
case will factor in the correlation between wind and load, and wind are independent of each other.
providing more accurate results. The correlated load-
generation method is used and further discussed in Part III. TABLE II
AVERAGE NORMALIZED VALUE OF ZONAL DEMAND AND WIND GENERATION
REPRESENTING THEIR RESPECTIVE LEVELS
III. IMPROVEMENT PROPOSAL – A CASE STUDY Level Load Wind
A. Purpose Generation
1 0.0640 0.0237
The purpose of the case study is to assess the extent that the 2 0.1826 0.1387
correlated load-generation method, by incorporating the 3 0.2690 0.2433
4 0.3508 0.3446
relationship between demand and wind patterns, improves the 5 0.4475 0.4461
accuracy of loss reduction calculation over the standard set by 6 0.5491 0.5492
the independent load-generation method. The sources of the 7 0.6472 0.6543
8 0.7304 0.7603
data and the preparation of the feeder model are elaborated so 9 0.8406 0.8655
as to expose the limitations of the study. 10 0.9343 0.9628
B. Data Collection C. Model Preparation

For the purpose of the case study, the hourly zonal demand The model of the feeder was developed using PowerWorld
of the Bruce region of Ontario for the year of 2007 was Simulator. The starting point of the distribution feeder was
obtained from [7]. These were matched with their taken from the 41.6 kV 13-bus system identified in [9].
corresponding hourly wind generation output of the However, the parameters of the feeder were changed in order
Kingsbridge wind farm, situated within the Bruce region of to simplify and generalize the case. The capacitors,
Ontario. Studying a period of one year with hourly precision, transformers, and voltage regulator were removed and all
8760 data points were considered. The numerical analysis of lines, including laterals, were remodeled as three-phase
the data was performed using Microsoft Access. The data circuits. The main feeder was modeled as a 500CM ACSR
were then normalized as a percentage of the peak annual overhead line with 2000 ft. between buses. The laterals were
value. The peak demand was found to be 151 MW [7], while set as 4/0 ACSR overhead lines with 500 ft. between buses.
the peak wind generation was the rated capacity of the The loading on the system was represented by uniform three-
Kingsbridge Wind Farm at 39 MW (rounded) [8]. phase loads at each bus, except one. Their characteristics were
Splitting both the wind and load data into ten levels set to consume a constant power, with peak consumption of
provides acceptable precision, resulting in a combination of 160 kW and 77 kVar each.
100 separate cases. The level of each data point was
determined using (2). In the case where the normalized data
was actually equal to 1.0, the level was assigned as 10 (not 11
as (2) would suggest).
Level = Int([Normalized Data]*10)+1 (2)

The probability, or weight, of each joint state was then
determined by dividing the number of hours where both the
demand and wind were at the specified level by the total of
8760. This weight accounts for the correlation between wind
and load.
Subsequently, the independent weight of the joint state was
found. The probability of the 10 levels of loading were found
without considering wind and, similarly, the independent
probabilities of the 10 levels of wind were found without Fig. 2. The feeder model representing peak loading conditions with no
considering load. These two values were multiplied to obtain distributed generation
the probabilities of the 100 load flow cases if the correlation
between wind and demand were ignored. A distributed generator was then added at the end of the
In analyzing the difference between these two figures, the main feeder. It was set to have a peak capacity of 2 MW so
negative correlation was confirmed. The correlated weights that it would be roughly equal to the total peak demand. This
gave relatively more emphasis to cases where demand was value was chosen upon reviewing the case in [5], where the
high and wind was low, or vice versa. optimal loss reduction was achieved when the distributed
Finally, the normalized values within each of the 10 levels generation was approximately equal to the total demand. Fig.
552
5
2 is a snapshot of the Power World model under peak loading correlated load-generation method was less than that for the
conditions, with no distributed generation output. independent load-generation method, while the traditional
method gave the greatest results. Furthermore, whereas the
D. Simulations traditional method vastly differed from the most accurate
result, the independent load-generation method was relatively
The values of the 12 loads and the distributed generator
close. The difference in the absolute value of active and
were manually changed to represent each of the 100 cases.
reactive requirement reduction was approximately one third.
The peak values chosen in Part C were multiplied by the
normalized averages identified in Table II. The resultant TABLE IV
conditions are summarized in Table III. Note that precision RESULTS OF THE CASE STUDY FOR DIFFERENT METHODS
was maintained to the third decimal place (1 W). kW Loss kVar Req.
The loss reduction of each case was calculated, as in [5], by Method Reduction Reduction
subtracting the active power requirement with the distributed Correlated load-generation -2.7 -15.1
generation connected from the case where the distributed Independent load-generation -2.0 -11.3
generation output is zero. Traditional 25.8 75.8
TABLE III
SCALED VALUES OF TOTAL LOAD AND WIND GENERATION USED IN EACH OF
The independent load-generation method is likely accurate
THE TEN LEVELS enough to suggest where and what size of distributed
Level Total Total Wind generation would benefit the system, but the correlated load-
MW MVar Generation generation method provides a more accurate, conservative
Load Load (MW) result that is desired when making asset management
1 0.120 0.060 0.047 decisions based on economic return.
2 0.348 0.168 0.277
3 0.516 0.252 0.487 F. Limitations
4 0.672 0.324 0.689
5 0.864 0.408 0.892
The model and procedure used for this case study has
6 1.056 0.504 1.098 various limitations. Firstly, it uses specific data from a specific
7 1.248 0.600 1.309 area in Ontario. It may be the case that different jurisdictions
8 1.404 0.672 1.521 may encounter a different relationship between wind
9 1.608 0.780 1.731
10 1.788 0.864 1.926 generation and demand, or even that the two parameters are
barely correlated at all, in which case the correlated load-
The amount of reactive power drawn from the substation generation method and independent load-generation method
changed as well, although the distributed generation operated should give identical results.
at a unity power factor. This effect is due to a general decrease Also, the data used in the study was very limited. The wind
in the current flowing along the feeder lines [2]. The reactive generation output characteristic reflected the pattern of only
power reduction was also recorded. Afterwards, the reactive one wind farm. It is possible that scheduled or forced outages
power requirement reduction was calculated by subtracting the of the Kingsbridge wind farm resulted in extended periods of
reactive power requirement with the distributed generation zero output. Also, singular events that affected the load
connected from the case where the distributed generation pattern and are not present in a typical year may have
output is zero. Refer to Table V in the Appendix for a happened during 2007.
summary of the MW loss reduction and MVar requirement Similar studies using data from other areas could be
reduction for each of the 100 cases. utilized to repeat the case study and either confirm or disprove
its preliminary findings.
E. Results
The active power loss reduction and reactive power IV. CONCLUSIONS
requirement reduction in each of the 100 cases was multiplied A number of conclusions can be made from this study. The
by the correlated weights obtained in Part B. The products first concerns the relative accuracy of the traditional and
were summed to find the weighted average value, which is the independent load-generation methods as compared to the
result of the correlated wind-generation method. correlated load-generation method. Whereas the traditional
Next, the same procedure was followed with the method provides a very hypothetical picture, the usefulness of
independent weights to obtain a weighted average that did not which is minimal for distribution planning, the independent
consider the correlation between demand and wind generation, load-generation method is much closer and does give a
which is the result of the independent load-generation method meaningful upper bound to the expected loss reduction.
Finally, for the purpose of comparison, the model was Secondly, it was observed that distributed generation on the
solved at peak loading with the generator at its year-round order of magnitude of the total load did not give the same
capacity factor of 35.56% [8], which is the result of the optimal results as in [5], but actually increased losses. The
traditional method. The results of all three analyses are distributed nature of the load certainly had a role to play, as
summarized in Table IV. opposed to the single-point node of [5].
It is observed that, as expected, the loss reduction for the Lastly, one can conclude that the utilization of distributed
553
6
generation driven by energy sources more closely correlated 5 7 0.0105 0.0294

6 7 0.0043 0.0108
with the load pattern would present an economic advantage to 7 7 -0.0021 -0.0082
wind generation as observed in the Bruce area. That is, 8 7 -0.0076 -0.0241
although more expensive to install, solar photovoltaic systems 9 7 -0.0148 -0.0457
10 7 -0.0215 -0.0649
should have a higher loss reduction effect than wind. 1 8 0.0452 0.1318
2 8 0.0365 0.1105
3 8 0.0318 0.0919
V. APPENDIX 4 8 0.0263 0.0756
5 8 0.0192 0.0550
TABLE V 6 8 0.0122 0.0339
ACTIVE POWER LOSS REDUCTION AND REACTIVE POWER REQUIREMENT 7 8 0.0048 0.0122
REDUCTION FOR EACH OF THE 100 POWER FLOWS OF THE CASE STUDY 8 8 -0.0014 -0.0059
9 8 -0.0096 -0.0304
Demand Wind MW Loss MVar Req. 10 8 -0.0173 -0.0524
1 1 0.0002 -0.0005
2 1 -0.0010 0.0001 1 9 0.0587 0.1717
3 1 -0.0001 -0.0020 2 9 0.0491 0.1477
4 1 -0.0003 -0.0025 3 9 0.0437 0.1271
5 1 -0.0005 -0.0033 4 9 0.0376 0.1088
6 1 -0.0007 -0.0041 5 9 0.0297 0.0858
7 1 -0.0009 -0.0048 6 9 0.0218 0.0623
8 1 -0.0011 -0.0054 7 9 0.0136 0.0381
9 1 -0.0013 -0.0064 8 9 0.0067 0.0179
10 1 -0.0017 -0.0071 9 9 -0.0025 -0.0094
1 2 0.0012 0.0026 10 9 -0.0111 -0.0342
2 2 -0.0014 -0.0007 1 10 0.0729 0.2132
3 2 -0.0014 -0.0057 2 10 0.0624 0.1868
4 2 -0.0025 -0.0090 3 10 0.0564 0.1644
5 2 -0.0040 -0.0132 4 10 0.0497 0.1444
6 2 -0.0053 -0.0176 5 10 0.0411 0.1192
7 2 -0.0069 -0.0221 6 10 0.0325 0.0935
8 2 -1.0081 -0.0258 7 10 0.0235 0.0671
9 2 -0.0098 -0.0310 8 10 0.0159 0.0450
10 2 -0.0114 -0.0354 9 10 0.0059 0.0153
1 3 0.0041 0.0111 10 10 -0.0035 -0.0120
2 3 0.0004 0.0045
3 3 -0.0005 -0.0030
4 3 -0.0024 -0.0088 VI. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
5 3 -0.0049 -0.0160
6 3 -0.0074 -0.0236 The authors gratefully acknowledge the contributions of B.
7 3 -0.0100 -0.0313 Crowhurst for his comments on the concept of this paper.
8 3 -0.0122 -0.0377
9 3 -0.0151 -0.0466
10 3 -0.0178 -0.0541 VII. REFERENCES
1 4 0.0087 0.0245
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10 5 -0.0237 -0.0715 [6] A. Beddoes, C. Lynch, M. Attree, M. Marshall, “The Impact of
1 6 0.0231 0.0670 Distributed Generation Upon Network Losses”, Proc. of CIRED 19th
2 6 0.0164 0.0514 International Conference on Electricity Distribution, Vienna, 21-24 May
3 6 0.0131 0.0371 2007, Paper 0116.
4 6 0.0090 0.0249 [7] 2007 Zonal Demand Report, Independent Electricity System Operator,
5 6 0.0037 0.0094 http://www.ieso.ca/imowebpub/200801/ZonalDemands_2007.csv, 2008.
6 6 -0.0015 -0.0065 [8] Hourly Wind Farm Output, Independent Electricity System Operator,
7 6 -0.0071 -0.0228 http://www.ieso.ca/imoweb/pubs/marketreports/download/
8 6 -0.0118 -0.0364 HourlyWindFarmGen_20081114.csv, 2008.
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3 7 0.0215 0.0617
4 7 0.0167 0.0474
554
A New Modeling Method for Reliability

Evaluation of Thermal Power Plants
Farshad Khosravi Naziha Ahmad Azli Ebrahim Babaei
Faculty of Electrical Engineering Faculty of Electrical Engineering Electrical & Computer Faculty
Kermanshah Azad University Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Tabriz University
Kermanshah, Iran Skudai, Malaysia Tabriz, Iran
farshadgoli@fkegraduate.utm.my naziha@ieee.org e-babaei@tabrizu.ac.ir
Abstract— Noticing the ever increasing dependency of life to extortionate costs, choosing the best design by surveying
the electrical energy, continuance of high quality service reliability indices is necessary. The main factors in
non-failure of power is very important for consumers. For determining the kind of equipments include; reliability,
achieving this goal, each main part of power system should flexibility in utilization, equipment repairs, development
have proper reliability. Some Papers have introduced the in future, being standard, costs etc. In order to have a
modeling methods for reliability evaluation of Transferring proper design it should be taken into consideration
and Distribution parts at the power systems, But this paper economically after scientific and technical surveys, and
for the first time presents the analysis of reliability indices the optimum design should be selected among applicable
for all parts of generation unit (Thermal Power Plants) by designs by reliability evaluation of them. For this purpose
using new method of modeling. The Unit Indices in different the reliability indices of each plan is calculated and by
states of power limitations and power not-supplied can be applying economic computations, an optimum design is
calculated. It can also be calculated the total average of selected. Some elements have considerable effects on
annual not-supplied energy on the basis of occurred Power Plant Reliability. By improving the reliability of
different errors. The effect of time changing of equipment these equipments, the Power Plant Reliability would be
repairs, that is equal to adding cost and/or personnel increased properly. Therefore, these equipments should be
number, on the Unit Reliability improvement, is surveyed. taken into consideration in order to increase the reliability
Personnel errors and Repair costs are decreased, generation by the least cost.
income is increased, by training of personnel and spending
less costs. Sensitive equipments can be identified therefore II. METHODS OF RELIABILITY EVALUATION
investment is propelled toward removing probable errors of
these equipments. The effect of each error on generation Since in each case, due to applicatory concept, proper
system indices are studied on the basis of the kind of error. index is applied for explaining system reliability, there are
different methods of evaluation relevant to proper indices.
Keywords— Reliable Generation; Modeling; Load Curve; There are two major methods.
Thermal Power Plant A. Methods of Enhancing Reliability
I. INTRODUCTION The main methods of enhancing reliability in a system
are as follows:
In modern societies, engineers and technical managers
are in charge of programming, designing, manufacturing 1- Quality.
and utilizing of the simplest product and the most 2- Manpower experience.
complicated systems. Products and systems dysfunctions 3- Excess elements application.
cause failure at different levels. It may also be considered 4- Making diversity or excess elements.
as a strong threat for society and environment. For this
5- Spare parts maintenance and preventive repairs.
reason consumers in general expect the products and
systems to be reliable, safe and fixed. Reliability B. Reliability Information
evaluation methods were initially presented for aerospace Gathering information is possible in two ways:
industries and military science, but soon they were noticed
and applied in other industries such as nuclear industries 1- Experimental tests.
that were impressed for guaranteeing safety and reliability 2- Information while utilizing.
of nuclear reactors in supplying electrical energy. In The second method is used in other situations. The
recent years serious problems and accidents have been information is applied at the next reviewing of the plan, by
encountered, e.g. in 1986 in aerospace industries and making information return circle and enhancement of
challenger spacecraft accident. These incidents have system reliability. Studying on changes trend of reliability
proven the necessity of noticing reliability, safety and in a working system and gathering proper information
probable dangers. have many advantages such as assessment of previous
A power system consists of three sections; Generation, operations. It is used for predicting the future.
Transmission and Distribution. Since power plants play
important roles, and they are sensitive, and also have
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 555

III. EVALUATION OF RELIABILITY INDICES only if at least one element works properly. For example if
The reliability of a system is “the probability that a we have two elements:
system has a successful operation under a determined λ λ (r + r ) , U = λ .r = (λ λ r r ) / 8760 (8)
λ = 1 2 1 2
PP
pp pp pp 1 2 1 2
condition at a determined time duration whit no error”. 1 + λ1r1 + λ2 r2
The required equations are presented in this Section, [4-6]. Where:
A. Density Function of Failure Probability rpp =
r1.r2 (9)
The probability that continuous random variable of r1 + r2
error T to be between t1, t2 is explained as follows where H. The Role of Repairs in Reliability
f(t) is density function of system failure probability.
t2
Most of the time, periodic repairs prevent unpredictable
P(t1 < T < t 2 ) = ∫ f (t )dt (1) and total failure and/or at least decrease the rate of failure.
t1
Therefore it is necessary that the power system elements
B. Function of Failure Distribution are repaired before failure on the basis of determined
programming repairs. Repairs are divided into “Partial and
System encounters an error at t time and/or less than Periodic Repairs” and “Basic Repairs” parts.
that, is called distribution function of unreliability or
failure distribution. 1) Coordinated Periodic Repairs
t In this kind of repair, the Unit is out of circuit and those
F ( t ) = P (T ≤ t ) = ∫0 f ( t ) dt (2) systems needed to be repaired are inspected and repaired.
But it takes long time and many personnel are involved.
C. Reliability Function The advantage is decrease of error numbers.
The reliability is explained as follows: 2) Not Coordinated Periodic Repairs
t ∞
(3) In this kind, the number of sets that exit is high, but the
R (t ) = 1 − ∫ 0
f ( t ) dt = ∫ t
f ( t ) dt
time of repair is short and the number of personnel
involved is less, [7, 8].
D. Function of Failure Rate
In two parallel elements, the reliability indices from
The failure rate is the rate of error at a time interval, repairs are calculated as follows:
between t1, t2 as follows:
λ pm = [λ1′′(λ2 r1′′) + λ2′′(λ1r2′′)] / 8760 (10)
R(t + h ) − R(t ) 1 ⎡ d ⎤ f (t )
λ (t ) = − = − R(t )⎥ = (4)
hR(t ) R(t ) ⎢⎣ dt ⎦ R(t ) ⎡ r ′′r r r ′′ ⎤ (11)
U = ⎢ λ1′′⎛⎜ λ 2 ″ r1″ ⎞⎟ 1 2 + λ 2′′ (λ 1 r2′′ ) 1 2 ⎥ / 8760
pm
⎝ ⎠ ″ r1 + r2′′ ⎦
E. Definition of System and Kinds of Systems ⎣⎢ r1 + r2 ⎥
System is a device or set manufactured for performing a U pm (12)

task. If a system performs its task properly, it is perfect
rpm =
λ pm
otherwise it is defective. In reliability theory, systems are
divided into Repairable and Non-Repairable Systems. Where:
In repairable systems, 1 is average time till failure that λi′′ is Rate of Periodic Repair for i th element and ri′′ is
λ Average Time of Periodic Repairs for i th element.
is indicated by m or MTTF. In this system, average time
to repair is showed by r or MTTR. µ is repair rate. I. Transient Errors in Reliability Evaluation
n n
The transient and steady state errors are totally studied
∑ mi ∑ ri under two categories; First Time Errors and Second Time
MTTF = m = i =1
=
1 , MTTR = r = i =1
=
1 (5)
n λ n μ Errors.
“System availability” is used for reliability evaluation The second time errors are discussed in two ways:
of repairable systems. System availability is “the 1) Transient or Provisional with Steady State Errors
probability that system works properly at any time, under This case works only for networks with parallel elements.
determined conditions”.
The reliability indices are calculated as follows:
m m μ , r r λ (6)
A= = = U= = = λ pt = [λ 2 ( λ t 1 r2 ) + λ 1 ( λ t 2 r1 ) ] / 8760 (13)
T m+ r λ + μ T m+ r λ + μ
A System Availability U pt = [λt1λ 2 rt1r2 + λ1λt 2 r1rt 2 ] / 8760 (14)
U System Unavailability 2) Transient Errors with Periodic Repairs
F. Reliability of Series Systems In this case we have:
Consider a system with n elements. If failure of each λ tm = [λ 1′′( λ t 2 r1′′) + λ 2′′ ( λ t 1 r2′′) ] / 8760 (15)
element causes failure of the system, it is known as ⎡ r ′r′ r r ′′ ⎤ (16)
“Series System”, if elements are time-independent. U tm = ⎢λ1′′(λt 2 r1′′) 1 2 + λ2′′(λt1r2′′) 1 2 ⎥ / 8760
⎣ r1′′+ r2 r1 + r2′′ ⎦
n n
λSS = ∑ λi , U SS = ∑ λi .ri (7)
J. Active Errors in Reliability Evaluation
i =1 i =1
1) Active Error with Steady State Error
G. Reliability of Parallel Systems
If failure of all elements causes failure of system, it is
[ (
λap = λ1a (λ2 s1 ) + λa 2 λ1a r2 / 8760 )] (17)
known as “Parallel System”. This system works properly
556
s1r2 (18) each state, by using the following equation, the PLOC
rap = index can be calculated:
s1 + r2
E = ∑Ui .Li , U = ∑U i (26)
2) Active Error with Periodic Repair
Li The average of not-supplied power in ith state
[ (
λam = λ2′′ λa1r 2 )+ λ′′(λ r′′)]/ 8760
2 1 2
(19)
Ui
in KW or MW
Annual exit of ith
⎡ s r ′′ ⎤ (20)
ram = ⎢ 1 2 ⎥ E Annual not-supplied average energy as a result
⎣ s 1 + r2′′ ⎦
of load limitation in KWh or MWh
Noticing all the above conditions, the basic reliability
indices are as follows: B. The index of Total Loss of Continuity, TLOC,
λ = λpp + λpm + λpt + λtm + λap + λam , r = U (21) Some errors and/or states lead to exit of Unit. In this
λ case the Unit is totally out of circuit. For calculating not-
U = λ pp .r pp + λ pm .r pm + λ pt .r pt + supplied energy in this state, the TLOC index is used.
(22)
λtm .rtm + λ ap .rap + λ am .ram C. The index of Loss of Load Expectation, LOLE,
Always, noticing the load sustain curve, LOLE is:
IV. INDICES OF LOAD, ENERGY, ECONOMIC n
(27)
ESTIMATION LOLE = ∑P
k =1
k * tk
By using the above equations, the reliability main t k is the time, when the required maximum load is more
indices at a Thermal Generating Unit are calculated. The
than the rate of generation. Therefore there would be
indexes alone are not able to explain the reliability
completely. This is because they cannot explain the states shutdown and (The Probability of Kth. Event, Pk ,) which
of load limitation and cannot be used directly in economic is difference of load and system generation capacity.
analysis. In order to remove these faults the load energy
D. The Index of Loss of Energy Expectation, LOEE,
indices are applied.
This index in (per unit, P.U.,) is described as:
A. Index of Partial Loss of Continuity, PLOC, n
Ek (28)
In a Thermal Unit, exit of some sets from a circuit may LOEE pu = ∑
k =1 E
* Pk
not cause the Unit to be completely out of circuit and the
other sets are remained in circuit, but considering power Where: E k is the Energy shortage at the Pk , and E is the
generation, the Unit would be in limitation. Total consumed energy.
λe The Rate of above set exit Noticing the above indices, the capability energy index
is described as:
re Time of element failure (29)
EIR = 1 − LOEEpu
μe Reverse of re
E. Economic Notices
Ls Maximum limitation power
Power Systems transfer electrical energy. These
P The probability, the power is greater than LS systems have to transfer electricity with proper reliability
rH Time, the power is greater than LS balanced cost price to the consumers. The increase of
system reliability means the increase of system services
λH The rate of power that is greater than LS to the that involve the increase of system costs. Therefore the
Smaller or Equal power increase of reliability is justified if decrease in costs due to
energy not-supplied is more than the cost required for
rL The time, the power is smaller or equal to LS reliability increase.
λL The rate of power is smaller or equal to LS to V. POWER PLANT MODELING ON THE BASIS OF
the greater power RELIABILITY
In this case the rate of PLOC is obtained from the The importance of generation in power systems is very
following: obvious. In most countries Thermal Power Plants generate
the major part of electrical power. Following the matter
re .rL (23) and in getting the desired results, we consider Bisutoun
λ = λ e p + λ e (1 − p )λ L
re + rL big Power Plant with two Thermal Units and generation of
Here the indices of load and energy are: 640 MW, as data source and derived Load Curve from
national dispatching, as the basis of consumption [13-15].
U = λ.r , E = L.U (24)
A. Modeling parts of a Thermal Unit
L = ⎡ ∫ L ( t ) dt − L S .t 1 ⎤ / t 1
t1
(25)
⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦ The main parts of each Thermal Unit are Boiler,
Turbine, Condenser, Generator and Thermal Cycle.
Where L(t) is the load sustain curve.
Network Model of each part has been designed as follows:
Taking the states that cause load limitation into
consideration and calculating the indices r, λ and L for
557
1) Boiler
In the Boiler, the model of systems can be designed as
shown in Fig.1, while considering the kind of arrangement
of the equipments such as: Circling Water Pumps i.e.
B.C.Pumps, Combustion Air Fans i.e. F.D.Fans,
Ljungstrum i.e. L.J. and Fuel Oil Pumps i.e. F.O.Pumps,
also accidentally perforation of ReHeater pipes i.e.
R.Heaters and operation of Boiler protections including
(Boiler Valve Failure and Furnace High Press.), according
to the rate of failure and average time of repair of each
part. Therefore the Network Model of Boiler would be as
Fig. 2, [10, 11].
Fig. 3. Network Model of each Turbine and Condenser parameters
Therefore the Network Model of Turbine and

Condenser would be as shown in Fig. 4 in summary.
Fig. 4. Network Model of Turbine and Condenser
Fig. 1. Network Model of each Boiler parameters
Fig. 2. Network Model of Boiler
2) Turbine and Condenser

In Turbine and Condenser, the model of systems can be
designed as shown in Fig.3, while considering the kind of
arrangement of the equipments such as: Oil Pumps of
Turbine Bearings i.e. Main or Aux. Pumps, Cooling Water
Pumps of Condenser i.e. C.W.Pumps and Cooling Tower
Fans i.e. C.T.Fans, also operation of turbine protections,
while considering the rate of failure repair and average
time of each part.
Fig. 5. Network Model of each Generator parameters
558
Therefore the Network Model of Generator would be as the system arrangement, that its model is made according
shown in Fig. 6 in summary [12]. to Fig. 9.
Fig. 9. Network Model of Thermal Unit

Fig. 6. Network Model of Generator
6) Unit Model in case of Load limitation in 160 MW
3) Generator Exit of some equipments cause limitation of exit power
In Generator, the model of systems can be designed as in 160 MW. Therefore the Unit Model in this case is as
shown Fig.5, while considering the kind of arrangement of shown in Fig. 10.
the equipments such as: Seal Oil Pumps, Stator Cooling
Water Pumps, operation of excitation system protections
i.e. Exciter, operation of protections of Generator output
voltage, while noticing the rate of failure and repair
average time of each parts, [13]. Fig.10. Unit Model in the Load limitation 160 MW
4) Thermal Cycle
In Thermal Cycle, the model of system can be designed 7) Unit Model in case of Load limitation in 240 MW
as shown in Fig. 7, while considering the kind of Exit of some equipments cause limitation of exit power
arrangement of the equipments such as: Feed Water in 240 MW. Therefore the Unit Model in this case is as
Pumps i.e. F.W.P., condenser Extraction Pumps and High shown in Fig. 11.
Pressure Heaters i.e. H. P. Heaters, while noticing the rate
of failure and repair average time of each part, [14].
Fig. 11. Unit Model in the Load limitation 240 MW
Noticing the data from Bisutoun Power plant and

according to the above models, the reliability of this
Power Plant is calculated as follows:
VI. ANALYSIS OF SENSITIVITY

The Unit equipments have different effects on
reliability indices. By studying the effect of different
equipments on the Unit reliability, our attention is
attracted to the sensitive equipment to spend more energy
in this respect. In the following figures we compare the
Unit unavailability on the basis of Errors of some
parameters.
Fig. 7. Network Model of each Thermal Cycle parameters
Therefore the Network Model of Thermal Cycle would

be as shown in Fig. 8 in summary.
Fig. 8. Network Model of Thermal Cycle
5) Personnel Error
Personnel error is a factor that is taken into
consideration in evaluating reliability indices. It consists
of personnel, utilization and repairs. This error involves Fig. 12. Unit unavailability according to the rate of Boiler Protection
states that cause unit exit. It is unavoidable and series in Error and C.W.Pumps
559
The system unavailability is mostly affected by the rate not-supplied can be calculated. The annual average non
of personnel error. Personnel error and repairs costs can be supplies energy can be obtained totally and due to cause
decreased by training personnel and spending less money. different errors. The effect of time changing of equipment
We can also calculate the annual average not-supplied repairs, that is equal to adding cost and/or personnel
energy of the Unit on the basis of the rate of equipment number, on the Unit Reliability improvement, can be
error and/or increase of repairs duration by using the Load surveyed. With training personnel and spending less
persistence curve during one year. money we can decrease personnel error, repairs costs and
decrease generation income. With the recognition of
sensitive equipments, investment is propelled toward
removing probable errors of these equipments. Effect of
different models of the protective system on improving
the reliability indices of production system can be
examined. With the calculation of energy not-supplied
versus occurred each error the major error can be found
out. Other literatures have introduced the modeling
methods for reliability evaluation of Transmission and
Distribution parts of the power systems, [1-3]. This paper
for the first time has presented the analysis of reliability
indices for all parts of generation unit (Thermal Power
Plants) by using new method of modeling.
REFERENCES
[1] P. Wang, R. Billinton, L. Goel, “Unreliability Cost Assessment of
an Electric Power System Using Reliability Network Equivalent
Fig. 13. Unit unavailability according to the rate of Personnel Error Approaches,” IEEE Trans. On Power System, Vol. 17, No. 3,
and C.W.Pumps August 2002.
[2] M. Banejad, R. Hooshmand, M. Moazzami, “Evaluation the
Effects of the Synchronous Generator Circuit Breaker on the
Reliability of Busbar Layout in Power Plant Substation in
Deregulated Electricity Market,” IEEE Conferences, pp. 1-6,
2008.
[3] M. Alemany, D. Moitre, F. Magnago, “Power system Reliability
Considering combined Cycle Plants,” IEEE/PES Conferences, pp.
1-5, 2008.
[4] D.L. Grosh, A Primer of Reliability Theory, John wiley & sons,
1989oman, M.L., Probabilistic Reliability. Mc Graw-Hill, New
York, 1973.
[5] R. Billinton, Evaluation of Reliability Worth in an Electric Power
System, Reliability Engineering and Sys. Safety, No 46, pp. 15-23,
1994.
[6] A. K. Govil, Reliability Engineering, Mc Graw-Hill, 1983.
[7] R. Mukerji, B. parker, “Power Plant Maintenance Scheduling:
Fig. 14. Average not-supplied energy according to the rate of Optimizing Economics & Reliability,” IEEE Trans. on Power
personnel error Systems, Vol. 6, No.2, May 1991.
[8] C. Wood, Wild Weather, Maclean, s, Jan. 25, pp. 17-19, 1999.
[9] R. Billinton and B. Fotuhi-Firuzabad, “Adequacy and Security
Considerations in Generating Capacity Reliability Evaluation,”
ICEE 1994.
[10] T. G. Woo, “Reliability Analysis of a Fluidized-Bed Boiler for a
Coal-Fueled Power Plant,” IEEE Trans. on Reliability, Vol. R-29,
No.5, December 1980.
[11] Ansaldo Energia S.P.A., Steam Generator & Steam Turbine,
Operating Man. Vol. 2, Part 2, Book 4, Tavanir Bisutoun T.P.P.,
1996.
[12] Ansaldo Energia S.P.A., Turbine Control Sys. & Control System,
Operating Man. Vol. 2, Part 5, Book 13, Tavanir Bisutoun T.P.P.,
1996.
[13] Ansaldo Energia S.P.A., Generator & Excitation Sys., Operating
Man. Vol. 2, Part 8, Book 5-6, Tavanir Bisutoun T.P.P., 1996.
[14] Ansaldo Energia S.P.A., Thermal Cycle System, Operating Man.
Vol. 2, Part 4, Book 5-6, Tavanir Bisutoun T.P.P., 1996.
Fig. 15. Average not-supplied energy according to the rate Turbine
Oil Pumps
VII. CONCLUSION
By using the reliability theory in power systems we can
present a Network Model for thermal Unit. The Unit
indices in different cases of power limitation and power
560
Harmonic and Neutral to Ground Voltage

Reduction Using Isolation Transformer
M.A Shafie*, H. Singh*, M.Q.A Rahman*
*
Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA Malaysia
Email: mohdaffandi370@ppinang.uitm.edu.my
Abstract— Service reliability and quality of power have be reduced to an acceptable level [5]. One volt may create
become a growing concern especially with the increasing an immediate response and is cause for concern in any
sensitivity of electronic equipment which generates harmonic operation. Large voltage may cause increasingly several
current and voltage in distribution system posing new problems. If the neutral-to-ground voltage is less than 0.5
problems for electrical engineers. This power quality
volt, there probably is no serious cause for concern. If the
problem is of prime concern due to non-linear loads showing
distorted current and voltage waveforms. An unexpected voltage is in the range of 0.5 to 1.0 volts or higher, it
side effect of distributed non-linear loads is an increase in should be monitored and some corrective measures may
neutral-ground voltages on distribution systems. In this have to be taken [3].It is important to note that neutral to
paper, a study was done to determine the power quality for ground voltage is a normal occurrence caused by the
the several computer labs at UiTM Penang. The reduction of intentional grounding of the power system.
harmonic voltage and neutral to ground voltage using
isolation transformer was analyzed. Isolation transformer is II. HARMONICS
used to improve the harmonics as well as neutral to ground
The non linear loads draw non-sinusoidal currents from
voltage. The findings identified the harmonic content is in full
compliance with the IEEE standards.
the supply and lead to voltage distortion. This deviation
from a perfect sine wave can be represented by harmonic
Keywords — Harmonic; Neutral to ground voltage; Power components having a frequency that is an integral
Quality; Non linear loads multiple of the fundamental frequency [1]. Harmonics are
multiples of the fundamental frequency, which is 50 hertz
I. INTRODUCTION (Hz) in Malaysia. Harmonics are created by nonlinear
In the past several years, the uses of electronic loads because current does not varies smoothly with
equipments have increased drastically due to demands voltage as it does with simple resistive and reactive loads.
from power consumers and power equipment
manufacturers. This issue became more serious with the
non linear loads (rectifiers, microwave ovens, blenders,
electric drills, UPS, computer, printer, TV’s, variable
speed drivers, arc furnaces and industrial electronic
Amplitude
equipment which contains of power semiconductors such

as thyristor, converters, inverters and etc. These power
semiconductors are some of the sources of harmonics
[1-2]. Large commercial and office buildings are supplied
by a three-phase utility source. The loads in those
buildings are usually fed primarily by single-phase power
lines connected between one of the three lines and the
neutral line [3]. Both nonlinear and linear loads are Figure 1: Fundamental with third and fifth harmonics
connected to these single- phase distribution systems.
Excessive harmonic voltage may lead to malfunction and Almost all productivity equipment used in the modem
higher losses for linear loads. Therefore, suppression of office environment falls into this category. Personal
harmonic voltage is more important and effective for computers, workstations, and peripheral devices such as
improving the quality of three-phase four-wire power printers and copiers all contain circuitry for converting
distribution systems than suppressing harmonic current utility-supplied ac voltage to dc which is supplied to
[2]. microelectronics components [6]. These loads are
normally single-phase (although power supplies for
Common mode (CM) voltage is another term popularly larger mainframe or minicomputer systems may be
applied to the neutral to ground phenomena. Neutral to three-phase) and are supplied from receptacles at 240V
ground voltage is any potential measured between the which draw current as shown in the Fig 2.
neutral (white) conductor and the safety ground conductor
of a building electrical system. The common voltage
normally cannot totally be eliminated, but it can certainly
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 561

Figure 4 : Isolation Transformer concept
Figure 2: Current Waveform of a Typical Switch-Mode Power Supply. Isolation transformers are dry type, natural air cooled
isolation (separation) transformers where the primary
The relationship between voltage across and current (line) and secondary (load) side windings are electrically
through a fluorescent lamp is non linear due to the and separated from each other, thus, there is a functional
characteristics of the electrical arc which is responsible insulation by design [7].
for illumination. However, harmonic current generation
B. Potential Application
by fluorescent lighting is strongly influenced by the
type of lamp ballasts used. Although fluorescent lamps Isolation transformer prevents common-mode noise
with magnetic ballasts draw non sinusoidal currents, there from reaching and damaging sensitive electronic
is currently more concern about electronic ballasts. equipments. If the secondary of the isolation transformer
Lighting in a modern office building provides a wide is a grounded wye, then no common-mode noise can
range of current waveform and harmonic distortion. reach the protected sensitive equipment. The NEC
Energy efficient fluorescent lighting is beginning to requires that the secondary neutral bonded to ground. This
dominate all other types of lighting in commercial bond eliminates any voltages that the load may see
buildings. Both magnetic and electronic ballasts serving 4- between the neutral and ground. With the isolation
ft fixtures can generate harmonic currents, but as seen transformer, the NEC allows the secondary to be
earlier, levels are significantly lower than the typical grounded [9]. The isolation transformer, as it names
computer [8] .A line current from a lighting circuit serving implies, isolates sensitive equipments from transients and
one common type of electronic ballast is shown in Fig 3. noise produced by the utility. The components of the
isolation transformer provide a path for transients and
noise. Isolation transformer components include a
primary and secondary winding with a magnetic core and
grounded shield made non magnetic foil located between
the primary and secondary winding [9]. Any noise and
transient that comes from the utility is transmitted through
the capacitance between the primary and the shield and
onto the ground and does not reach any sensitive
equipment as shown as in Fig 5.
Figure 3: Electronic Ballast Current Waveform for Fluorescent Lighting
III. ISOLATION TRANSFORMER

A. Concept
An isolation transformer is a transformer with
physically separate primary and secondary windings as
shown in Fig 4. These windings are typically separated by
an electrostatic shield, which is a sheet of nonmagnetic
conducting material (copper or aluminum) connected to
ground which acts as a shield to prevent the noise of one
system from passing through the transformer to sensitive
equipments [7]. Shielded isolation transformers are very Figure 5 : Fig shows the different between unshielded transformer and
popular power-conditioning devices. They isolate sensitive shielded transformer.
loads from transients and noise caused by the utility. They
can also keep harmonics produced by end-user non linear In addition to protecting the end user from transients
equipments from getting onto the utility’s system. They caused by the utility, the delta-wye isolation transformer
especially eliminate common-mode noise [9]. protects the utility from triplen harmonics (third, ninth,
fifteenth, etc). The isolation transformer transfers the
triplen harmonics from the wye secondary to the delta
562
primary of the transformer. The triplen harmonics remain
in the delta primary circulating around and generating Start
heat in the transformer but not getting on the utility’s
system. The Fig 6 shows a diagram of a shielded delta-
wye isolation transformer [9]. Literature review:
Define objective and scope
Study about high neutral to ground
Data Collection Process:

Monitor the harmonic voltage and
neutral to ground voltage.
Analyzing data:
Use the Reliable Power Meter (RPM)
software to analyze the monitored data.
Compare the measurement data.
Figure 6 : Tree phase delta-wye isolation transformer.
Analyzed data using IEEE Standard

Shielded isolation transformers are often used in
conjunction with surge suppressors. They do not regulate
the voltage or protect equipment from voltage sags.
Various types of line-voltage regulators provide that type
of protection. Recommendation to the problem
IV. METHODOLOGY
The objective of this power quality analysis was to
study the harmonics and neutral to ground voltage End
generated by the non linear loads, and analyze the
harmonic and neutral to ground voltage data with and
without isolation transformer. This study was conducted Diagram 1: Flowchart of the methodology approach
because of view of the frequent power supply interruptions
and damage to several expensive electrical equipments at
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Penang especially at a
several computer labs. The harmonic analysis software
utilized in the study was made available by
Professional Power Recorder System, Reliable Power
Meter(RPM). This software allowed the recording
min/max/average values of harmonic content, nominal
voltage, voltage and current imbalance for each
waveforms and waveform display, as well as the
calculation of harmonic content for each waveform
Figure 7: Harmonic voltage and neutral to ground voltage monitoring location
obtained. The monitoring of the incoming power supply at point A and point B
voltages and using reliable power monitors (RPM)
recording min/max/average values and looking for
harmonic voltage and neutral to ground voltage at the
monitored switchboards. The wiring system configuration
of the isolation transformer is in series with the load is a
shown in Fig 7. The measurement of harmonic voltage and
neutral to ground voltage will be conducted at point A and
Point B. At this point the different value of the harmonic
voltage and neutral to ground voltage are analyzed. The
detail wiring system configuration for the isolation
transformer was carried out as shown in Fig 8.
Figure 8: Schematic diagram of the connection isolation transformer at the

distribution system
563
The harmonic voltage and neutral to ground voltage
are monitored by using reliable power meter (RPM)
software at the non linear loads. In this case, the non
linear load is computer. The main objectives are to see
how far the reduction of amplitude voltage harmonics
and neutral to ground voltage could be achieved. The
monitored results between with (Point A) and without
(Point B) isolation transformer are compared. The
analyzed software is to be interpreted and compared using
the IEEE standards. The harmonic voltage at all monitoring
points were in compliance with the IEEE standards (519-
1992) indicating satisfactory operation of the electrical
loads [4].
V. RESULTS
The measurement data of neutral to ground voltage at Fig 10: Without isolation transformer (Point B) for computer lab 1
with and without isolation transformer for 3 different
locations are shown in Table I.
TABLE I.
NEUTRAL TO GROUND VOLTAGE
N-G Min. Ave. Max.
Location
voltage mV mV mV
Computer With 610.3 734.0 976.6
Lab 1 Without 610.3 835.1 1464
Computer With 732.0 732.9 977.6
Lab 2 Without 610.0 855.2 1099
Computer With 488.4 610.0 855
Lab 3 Without 732.2 732.2 977.0
The neutral to ground voltage waveforms at with and

without isolation transformer for 3 different location of
computer lab are shown in Fig 9 to Fig 14.
Fig 11: With isolation transformer (Point A) for computer lab 2
The measurement data of the Total Harmonic
Distortion (THD) of voltage at Point A and Point B for the
different locations are shown in Table II to Table VII. The
measurement data is based on the phase voltage.
Fig 12: Without isolation transformer (Point B) for computer lab 2
Fig 9: With isolation transformer (Point A) for computer lab 1
564
TABLE V.
THE FIRST 16 HARMONICS FOR PHASE VOLTAGE WITHOUT (POINT B)
ISOLATION TRANSFORMER AT COMPUTER LAB 2
Voltage
Va Vb Vc
THD
Odd 1.822% 2.132% 1.951%
Even 0.278% 0.264% 0.211%
Total 1.842% 2.152% 1.961%
TABLE VI.
THE FIRST 16 HARMONICS FOR PHASE VOLTAGE WITH (POINT A)
Voltage
Va Vb Vc
THD
Odd 1.271% 1.132% 0.871%
Fig 13: With isolation transformer (Point A) for computer lab 3 Even 0.301% 0.298% 0.305%
Total 1.521% 1.118% 0.838%
TABLE VII.
THE FIRST 16 HARMONICS FOR PHASE VOLTAGE WITHOUT (POINT B)
Voltage
Va Vb Vc
THD
Odd 1.209% 1.914% 1.682%
Even 0.274% 0.266% 0.210%
Total 1.997% 1.860% 1.720%
The current harmonic waveforms at with and without

isolation transformer are shown in Fig 15 and Fig 16.
Fig 14: Without isolation transformer (Point B) for computer lab 3
TABLE II.
Voltage THD Va Vb Vc
Odd 1.471% 1.032% 0.781%
Even 0.299% 0.295% 0.303%
Total 1.501% 1.074% 0.838%
Figure 4.8: Plotted graph for phase voltage vs total harmonic distortion
TABLE III.
THE FIRST 16 HARMONICS FOR PHASE VOLTAGE WITHOUT (POINT B) (THD) of with and without isolation transformer at computer lab 1.
Odd 1.909% 1.814% 1.678%
Even 0.263% 0.256% 0.200%
Total 1.927% 1.832% 1.690%
TABLE IV.
Odd 1.398% 1.112% 0.977%
Even 0.297% 0.295% 0.310%
Total 1.438% 1.134% 0.838%
Figure 4.9: Plotted graph for phase voltage vs total harmonic distortion
(THD) of with and without isolation transformer at computer lab 2.
565
Harmonics in the Distribution System,” National Power &
Energy Conference (PECon) 2004 Proceedings.
[2] Keiji Wada and Toshihisa Shimizu, “Mitigation Method of 3rd-
Harmonic Voltage for a Three-Phase Four-Wire Distribution
System Based on a Series Active Filter for the Neutral
Conductor,” Department of Electrical Engineering Tokyo
Metropolitan University 1-1, Minami-ohsawa, Hachioji, Tokyo,
192-0397.
[3] Chuck Thomas,”Power Quality in Medium and Large
Commercial Buildings,” Senior PQ Engineer, EPRI, November
2007.
[4] Sanmin Wei, N. Zargari, Bin Wu and S. Rizzo, “Comparison and
Mitigation of Common Mode Voltage in Power Converter
Topologies,” Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering,
Ryerson University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5B 2K3,2004.
Figure 4.10: Plotted graph for phase voltage vs total harmonic distortion [5] Louis Hapeshis, ”Power System Harmonic Mitigation for Water
(THD) of with and without isolation transformer at computer lab 3. and Wastewater Treatment Plants,” PE, Square D Engineering
Services.
[6] Fluke Education Partnership Program, 2004, PQ Measurement at
VI. CONCLUSION receptacle branch circuit, http://www.fluke.com,30/01/2008.
Based on measurement data for each computer lab, the [7] E. P. Wenaas and R. Wheeler,”EMP Isolation Transformer,”
THD% voltage is highest at location Point B without the IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science, Vol. NS-32, No. 6,
December 1985.
isolation transformer compared with Point A with the [8] Robert D. Henderson and Patrick J. Rose, “Harmonics: The
isolation transformer. The odd components were found to Effects on Power Quality and Transformers,” IEEE Members,
contribute higher levels of harmonics in comparison to IEEE Transaction on Industry Applications, VOL. 30, NO. 3,
even harmonics. It was found that the 3th harmonic is May/June 1994.
eliminated and the 5th harmonics reduced by using the [9] Barry W. Kennedy, “Power Quality Primer”, 2006, United State
of America, Taylor & Francis Group.
isolation transformer. The THD voltage for phase A at
[10] Michael Z. Lowenstein, “The 3rd Harmonic Blocking Filter: A
computer lab 1 is 1.927% without isolation transformer Well Established Approach to Harmonic Current Mitigation”,
and reduced to 1.501% using the isolation transformer. member of The IEEE Industrial Applications S ociety, IAEI
The maximum value of neutral to ground voltage is magazine.
reduced using isolation transformer for all 3 locations. At
the computer lab 1, the maximum value of neutral to
ground voltage without isolation transformer is 1.464V. It
is reduced to 976.6mV using isolation transformer. The
results clearly show that by installed the isolation
transformer can reduce harmonic voltage as well as neutral
to ground at the same time. The comparisons between with
and without isolation transformer for phase A current
waveforms are shown in Fig 15 and Fig 16. The current
waveforms pattern are similar for phase A, Phase B and
phase C .With the installation of isolation transformer, it is
observed that the harmonic content is in full compliance
with the IEEE standards (519-1992). For recommendation,
3rd harmonic blocking filter (often called a harmonic
suppression system or HSS) methods is alternative method
to reduce the harmonic voltage and neutral to ground
voltage. It is some benefits of installing this technology to
mitigate harmonic voltage as well as neutral to ground
voltage. The analysis of performance shows that the
isolation transformer is very significant in improving
both harmonic voltage and neutral to ground voltage at the
low distribution system.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I would like to take this opportunity to express my
deepest gratitude and appreciation to all personnel who
have directly or indirectly helped me in completing this
paper.
REFERENCES
[1] M.Izhar, C.M.Hadzer, SyafrudinM, S.Taib and S.Idns,
“Performance for Passive and Active Power Filter in Reducing
566
Enhancement of Power System Quality using

Distributed Generation
H.D. Mathur, Member, IEEE
Electrical and Electronics Engineering Group
Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani
Rajasthan, India
mathurhd@gmail.com
Abstract—The global demand for energy is increasing at a loss reduction, transmission and distribution capacity
breathtaking pace. This sharp increase in world energy release.
demand will require significant investment in new power Achieving the above benefits is in practice much more
generating capacity and grid infrastructure. Considering difficult than is often realized. The DG sources must be
the present energy scenario and the degrading
reliable, dispatchable, of the proper size and at the proper
environmental conditions, distributed generation seems to
be a promising option. Distributed Generation generally locations. They must also meet various other operating
refers to small-scale electric power generators that produce criteria. Since many DGs will not be utility owned or will
electricity at a site close to customers or that are tied to an be variable energy sources such as solar and wind, there
electric distribution system. is no guarantee that these conditions will be satisfied and
The power grid is currently facing tremendous changes in that the full system support benefits will be realized. In
the way the energy is produced, transmitted and consumed. fact, power system operations may be adversely impacted
The increasing number of actors and the demand for more by the introduction of DG if certain minimum standards
and more complex services to be provided by the grid for control, installation and placement are not maintained.
exceed the capabilities of today's control systems. This
The focus of this paper is on the voltage quality, loss
paper gives an overview of the changes that the power
system is undergoing and how these affect the aspects of reduction and reliability factors associated with DG. This
communication, ancillary services, voltage regulation and paper will not address how to achieve equipment
losses and harmonics. deferments or transmission and distribution capacity
Keywords— Distributed generation; ancillary services; release with DG; that is a comprehensive topic in itself.
power system; power system protection; reactive For DG to have a positive benefit in these areas, it must
power. at least be suitably coordinated with the system operating
philosophy and feeder design. This means addressing
I. INTRODUCTION issues related to voltage regulation, voltage flicker,
An area of growing interest is the distributed generation harmonic distortion, islanding, grounding compatibility,
(DG), as it is seen as a means of satisfying the growing overcurrent protection, capacity limits, reliability and
need in electric energy. DG is often lumped with other factors. The larger the aggregate DG capacity on a
distributed storage and the combination of the two is circuit relative to the feeder capacity and demand, the
known as Distributed Resources. The interest in DG is more critical is this “coordination” with these factors [3-
the result of the opening of the energy markets under 5].
deregulation and of recent technological advances in II. DISTRIBUTED GENERATION SYSTEMS
electrical and mechanical power conversion systems.
These include cheaper and more efficient static power Some of the important DG systems that hold the greatest
converters, gas and wind turbines and photovoltaic and technical potential are listed below and a complete
fuel cells. In order to be more effective, distributed overview is presented in Table 1 [6-14].
generation which provides variable power, such as wind • Reciprocating engines-diesel, natural gas, and dual
energy and photovoltaic energy, can be associated with fuel
energy storage, such as batteries [1, 2]. • Gas Turbines- microturbines, miniturbines, and
The introduction of generation sources on the distribution large turbines
system can significantly impact the flow of power and • Wind Turbines
voltage conditions at customers and utility equipment. • Photovoltaic Cells
These impacts may manifest themselves either positively • Fuel Cells
or negatively depending on the distribution system • Storage devices (battery and flywheels)
operating characteristics and the DG characteristics.
Positive impacts are generally called system support
benefits like voltage support and improved power quality,
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 567

Table: 1 Overview of DG Technologies
Technology Pros Cons

Engine ¾ Low initial investment ¾ High maintenance cost
¾ Mature technology ¾ Low redundancy in large
¾ Relatively small size sizes
Micro turbine ¾ Low initial investment ¾ Relatively new technology
¾ High redundancy with small ¾ Requires air permit
units ¾ Possible synchronization
¾ Low maintenance cost problems at large
¾ Relatively small size installations
¾ Installation flexibility
Photovoltaic ¾ Low operation and ¾ Initially expensive
maintenance cost ¾ Sun must shine
¾ Environmental friendly ¾ Battery storage usually
needed
Wind ¾ Low to medium O&M cost ¾ Large footprint
¾ Environmental friendly ¾ Wind must blow
¾ Initially costly
Fuel Cell ¾ Very low emission ¾ High initial investment
¾ Exempt from air permitting in ¾ Only one manufacturer
some areas producing commercially
¾ Comes in a complete “ready available units today
to connect” package
III. IMPACT OF DISTRIBUTED GENERATION ON

ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEM
In the past, power systems were owned and operated by were congruent with the objectives of the system. This
monopolists, often under the control of governments. The has changed: today, the multitude of independent agendas
segments of electricity generation, transmission, does not necessarily guarantee decisions that are effective
distribution and supply were integrated within individual and sustainable for the power system as a whole.
electric utilities. This made the operation of the grid less Coordination is therefore necessary. In addition to the
complicated because the system operator had full provision of active power, ancillary services are required
knowledge of the grid status and total control over it. to maintain a sufficient level of system reliability and
Liberalization and deregulation of the industry led to the power quality. At present no uniform definition exists of
introduction of competition in the segments of generation the individual ancillary sub-services to attain these
and supply. In transmission and distribution, the natural system objectives [15-17].
monopoly element has been maintained subject to Commonly, frequency control, voltage control, spinning
network regulation. and non-spinning reserve, black-start capability, islanding
Electricity exhibits a combination of attributes that make support and remote automatic generation control are
it distinct from other products: non-storability (in comprised in the definition of ancillary sub-services;
economic terms), real time variations in demand, low however, the sub-services included in the definition even
demand elasticity, random real time failures of generation vary between countries. Four major methods through
and transmission, and the need to meet the physical which system operators procure ancillary services can be
constraints on reliable network operations. One of the distinguished: compulsory provision, bilateral contracts,
consequences of liberalization is the new way in which tendering, and via a spot market. With the increasing
the now separated entities interact with each other. pressure of the newly created market to increase
In order to ensure instantaneous balancing of supply and productive efficiency and minimize cost, electric utilities
demand, real-time markets are run as centralized markets, are looking for ways to increase profit for their stake
even in fully deregulated systems. The system operator holders. Asset management at the core of a new
acts as a single buyer and is responsible for upward management strategy, combined with deregulation, has
and/or downward regulation, which may be done via the consequence of increasing the stress on existing grid
regulating bids under an exchange or pool approach. components and to reduce investments in new
Economic decisions are made individually by market infrastructures. This new way of operating the power grid
participants and system-wide reliability is achieved closer to its physical limits certainly generates more
through coordination among parties belonging to profit, but it also reduces the stability of the grid, making
different companies. it more prone to blackouts. This poses a challenge to the
In other words, in the past all grid participants pursued current design and regulation of electricity networks.
the same goal: the objectives of the individual entities When the electrical power system was conceived in the
568
way it is today, the grid was based on large-scale An analysis conducted suggests that the value of most
generation facilities. In most countries, the topology of feasible ancillary services provided by DG will be low
the transmission grid reflects the locations of these large and thus only provide incremental revenue opportunities.
power plants, and the large load centers. Liberalization The incentives to invest in DG to exploit this second
coincided with an increasing awareness for revenue stream are thus rather small [17, 23, 24].
environmental concerns, technological progress, and
security of supply considerations as well as an increased
B. Impact on Voltage and Harmonics
need for reliable and high-quality power.
All these factors have been the drivers for an increase in Noticeable voltage fluctuation may be caused by DG.
DG in Europe and North America, With the help of Fluctuation can be either a simple issue or a complex
political incentives and due to the rise in energy costs, issue as far as its analysis and mitigation are concerned.
small energy producers have begun to emerge: wind From the simple perspective. It can be the result of
farms, solar and geothermal plants, fuel cells and micro starting a machine (e.g. induction generator) or step
turbines, often operated in the countryside and far away changes in DG output which result in a significant
from the main transmission corridors. These small-scale voltage change on the feeder. If a generator starts, or its
producers feed the energy directly into the distribution output fluctuates frequently enough, fluctuation of
grid [18-20]. lighting loads may be noticeable to customers.
To provide insight into some of the major changes the A approach to reduce fluctuation involves placing
power system is undergoing, in the following the impact constraints on when and how often DG operators may
of these developments on ancillary services, voltage and start and change the output of DG systems. In the case of
harmonics, change in power flow, protection and reactive wind and solar energy systems, the outputs will fluctuate
power is presented. Both the technical and economic significantly as the sun and wind intensity change. The
factors inducing the changes are discussed. dynamic behavior of machines and their interactions with
upstream voltage regulators and generators can
A. Impact of Ancillary Services complicate matters considerably. For example, it is
possible for output fluctuations of a DG to cause hunting
Compared to large, fossil-fueled power plants, small of an upstream regulator and, while the DG fluctuations
generation units connected to the distribution grid will alone may not create visible flicker, the hunting regulator
typically have a lower capacity factor, i.e. a higher ratio may create visible fluctuation.
of peak to average generation. The reasons for this are Thus, fluctuation can involve factors beyond simply
either properties of the primary energy source – starting and stopping of generation machines or their
intermittent production from wind turbines and basic fluctuations. Dealing with these interactions
photovoltaic arrays – or operational and economical requires an analysis that is far beyond the ordinary
constraints, such as the heat-bound limitations of voltage drop calculation performed for generator starting.
combined heat-and-power (CHP) plants. With their share Identifying and solving these types of fluctuation
of peak capacity growing even faster than the share of problems when they arise can be difficult and the
energy production, DG will have to participate in the engineer must have a keen understanding of the
provision of ancillary services to the grid to ensure interactions between the DG unit and the system. To
reliable system operation. Functions traditionally done at model this on a computer requires good models of the
transmission level will have to be provided where these distributed generators (which are often not available) and
DG resources are connected, i.e. within the distribution their interactions with utility system equipment. A
grid itself: primary, secondary and tertiary reserve, software analysis package with the ability to analyze the
voltage/var control, black start and islanding capability dynamic behavior of systems is helpful for this type of
[21, 22]. study. It may also be necessary to perform system
The underlying rationale for the creation of markets for measurements to assess voltage and power flow
ancillary services is to achieve the procurement of these oscillations and to identify how equipment controls can
services at least cost through the extension of competition be “tuned” or modified to reduce flicker. In some cases,
between providers of active power and loads to this these dynamic flicker problems can be solved without a
segment. For loads and generators of active power this detailed study by simply performing an adjustment of a
implies the opening up of a second revenue stream. control element until the measured flicker disappears. In
Ancillary services encompass a wide range of services other cases, the fix is allusive and requires considerable
with different characteristics; e.g., voltage control has to investigation to solve.
be supplied locally whereas frequency control is a Distributed generators may also introduce harmonics.
system-wide service. Also, due to their diversity, The type and severity will depend on the power converter
different market arrangements may be chosen for the technology and interconnection configuration. In the case
individual services. In their comparative analysis, there of inverters, there has been particular concern over the
are many variations in ancillary services market design possible harmonic current contributions they may make
across countries with regard to the procurement methods to the utility system. Fortunately, these concerns are in
applied. part due to older SCR type power inverters that are line
The capability for the delivery of ancillary services is commutated and produce high levels of harmonic current.
strongly dependent on the type of generation technology. Most new inverter designs are based on IGBTs that use
569
pulse width modulation to generate the injected “sine” S = Pload + jQload (6)
wave [25, 26].
Rotating generators such as synchronous generators can Dividing both sides by Voltage as in (2) and inserting
be another source of harmonics. Depending on the design into equation (3) we get
of the generator windings (pitch of the coils), core non-
linearity’s, grounding and other factors, there can be VS − (R + jX )(PLoad − jQ Load )
significant harmonics. In extreme cases, equipment at the VLoad = (7)
VLoad
DG site may need to be derated due to added heating
The above equation is used in power simulation software
caused by harmonics. Any DG installation design should
programs for solving power flows.
be reviewed to determine whether harmonics will be
Significance of power flows, another way of writing (5)
confined to the DG site or also injected into the utility
is
system. For larger DG units or cases involving complex
VLoad = VS - ΔV – jδV (8)
harmonic problems, measurements and modeling of the
Where the in phase component is
system harmonics may be required to assess conditions.
Any analysis should consider the impact of DG currents RP + XQ
ΔV = (9)
on the background utility voltage distortion levels. The VS
limits for utility system voltage distortion are 5% for total and the quadrature component is
harmonic distortion (THD) and 3% for any individual XP + RQ
harmonic [27-29]. δV = (10)
VS
Power Systems typically operate at load angles below 30
C. Impact on Change in power flow, protection and degrees. It can be seen that the voltage drop between the
reactive power different bus bars ΔV is caused by a combination of the
A two bus system is shown in figure 1 and the apparent product of real power and resistance and the product of
power transferred is given by: reactive power and reactance. Conversely, the phase
angle difference is caused by a combination of the
S=P+jQ (1) product of real power and reactance and the product of
reactive power and resistance. These comparisons are
Dividing both sides by voltage current can be obtained: more useful when considering transmission lines which
have considerably higher reactance than resistance.
P − jQ Hence they can be simplified to the below
I= (2) approximations:
Vs
XQ
Load end voltage is lower than the generator side voltage ΔV = (11)
VS
due to the voltage drop across the line.
XP + RQ
δV = (12)
VLoad = Vs − (R + jX )I (3) VS
Thus for transmission systems voltage drop is largely
Combining the above equations for VLoad and I determined by reactive power transfer and load angle is
determined largely by real power transfer.
( R + jX )( P − jQ ) (4)
V Load = Vs − Since DG is likely to have an equal contribution to
Vs
voltage drop from real and reactive power flows, both
real power and reactive power control can be effective.
It can be shown that vice-versa for the generator the The effect of controlling the net flows of real and reactive
voltage in terms of load and load voltage is: power on a bus can be approximated in p.u. by dividing
RP + XQ Load XP − RQ Load (9) by Vbase.
VS = VLoad − Load + j Load
VLoad VLoad RP + XQ
ΔVp.u = (13)
(5) VS / Vbase
It must be noted that some of the real and reactive power
entering the line will be consumed by the line itself. ΔVp.u = RP + XQ (14)
Using real and reactive power at the load we can derive
another equation using the same process as above.
570
Figure 1: Two bus system
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572
New High Impedance Fault Detection
A.Siadatan H.Kazemi Karegar, V.Najmi

Department of Electrical Eng. Department of Electrical Eng.
Islamic Azad University (West Tehran Branch) Faculty of Electrical & Computer Eng.,
Tehran, IRAN Shahid Beheshti University G.C.
A_siadatan@sbu.ac.ir Tehran, IRAN
h_kazemi@sbu.ac.ir, v.najmi@mail.sbu.ac.ir
Abstract— The high impedance fault detection in power MATLAB environment programming. The obtained
system is one of the hard works and if the fault does not results show the new method can correctly distinguish
clear then the power system may get into damage. In this the HIF in noisy and small value of sample signal.
paper a new method for high impedance fault detection is
proposed. The proposed method is based on the chaotic
and doffing function. The paper will propose the II. DUFFING OSCILLATOR FUNCTIO
appropriate formula and the setting parameters. The
method is applied on a sample distribution network and
the simulation results show that the new method properly Generally, a nonlinear dynamic system has four states:
works.
Keywords- CHAOTIC THEORY, DUFFING FUNCTION, FAULT the fixed point sate
DETECTION, HIGH IMPEDANCE FAULT
the periodic state
the quasi periodic state
I. INTRODUCTION
the chaotic state
In general, The High Impedance Fault (HIF) detection
with traditional method is difficult. Because the fault
current is low and the accuracy of the traditional method The basic idea of the signal detection by chaotic idea,
is not enough. The HIF occurs when one of the phase- is that a small periodic signal in noise can be detected by
conductor connects to another conductive material with the DO function via a transition from chaotic motion to a
high impedance and the fault current through the system periodic motion.
is low. This type of fault should be detected as soon as The DO function is used in this paper is according to
possible, otherwise the fault current gradually increases the equation (1).
and the power system damages [1].
In recent years, several methods have been proposed
for the detection of HIF. The major approaches are based
X + KX − X 3 + X 5 = f sin( t ) (1)
on the fractal method [2], low and high frequency
analyze of the fault current [3, 4], neural network and Where:
fuzzy logic methods [5, 6]. All of the mentioned method
has low accuracy when the sampled signal is noisy and
its magnitude is low. K: Damping coefficient
In this paper a new method based on the chaotic f sin(t): Periodic motivation function
theory will be proposed. The new features of the x3+x5: Nonlinear resistive force
proposed method are its ability to distinguish the HIF f: Control parameter
when there is noise and the magnitude of the sample
x: Sampled signal
signal is low.
The theory of the proposed approach is based on the
variation of the system state from chaotic to periodic If K is kept constant and f gradually changes from
according to the liyapunov and Duffing Oscillator (DO) zero then the state of the system varies from a small
function. The method analyzes a sample network in
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 573

periodic shown in Fig. 1 to a chaotic state where shown periodic state. So it is necessary to adjust the system on
in Fig. 2. the order of chaotic and periodic state. In this regard, the
If f is increased more, then the state of the system expression (1) can be written as equation (2).
changes from chaotic to large periodic where shown in ⎧ dx
Fig. 3. ⎪⎪ dt = y
⎨ (2)
⎪ dy = − ky + x 3 − x 5 + f sin t
⎪⎩ dt c
If we assume there is a small fault signal, then we can

simulate the signal as input in equation (3). In this
equation, a transforming from t to τω is also used.
⎧ dx
⎪⎪ dτ = ωy
⎨ (3)
⎪ dy
= ω[− ky + x 3 − x 5 + f c sin(ωτ ) + Input
⎪⎩ dτ
Fig. 1. Small periodic state

Where:
Input = a sin t ((ω + Δω )τ + φ )
The Δω is the frequency difference between the

reference and the input signal and the phase angle
difference is also shown by φ.
III. PROPOSED FLOWCHART
According to the theory that proposed in Ref. [7], if

Fig. 2. Chaotic state the Lyapunove Energy (LE) be positive then the system
motion is toward the periodic state and if the LE is
negative then the system motion is toward the chaotic
state. Therefore, the LE is the criteria for the system
state detection. The proposed flowchart for fault
detection is shown in Fig. 4.
Fig. 3. Large periodic state
The basic idea for small signal detection based on the

chaotic theory is movement form chaotic state to large
574
Current
Measurement
Duffing
Oscillator
LEmax
Calculation
L Yes
Emax Fig. 5. The sample distribution network
No The Fig. 6 shows that LEmax reaches zero when the

HIF Detection control parameter is 0.827. In this case, the system is on
the border of chaotic state. Therefore, the f is set to
0.827.
Trip Signal Furthermore, MATLAB simulation shows that the
third and fifth harmonic orders of the sample network
are more dominant than the other harmonic orders,
especially when there is a fault on the system.
Fig. 4. The proposed flowchart Therefore, two follows DO function are used.
As can be seen, the algorithm starts by three-phase

current measurement and does DO function parameter
settings. The sample data is analyzed by the Duffing
Oscillator and then the maximum LEmax is calculated. If
the LEmax was positive then the HIF is detected by the
algorithm, otherwise the algorithm repeated.
IV. CASE STUDY
In this paper, a part of a distribution network as

shown in Fig. 5 is selected for testing the proposed
method. Fig. 6. LEmax variations
The network is consisting of a linear and non-linear
load connected to a 5 MVA power transformer via a
⎧ dx
transmission line. An HIF is happened on the
⎪⎪ dτ = ω1 y
transmission line and the proposed method intends to DOI : ⎨ (4)
find it. ⎪ dy = ω [ − ky + x 3 − x 5 + fc sin t (ω τ )
The network simulation and the demonstration of the ⎪⎩ dτ 1 1 1
proposed method have been done by MATLAB.

The parameter of the DO function must set as the
system is set on the border of chaotic and large periodic
⎧ dx
state. In this regards, k is set to 0.5 and is kept constant. = ω2 y
The control parameter f gradually changes from 0.81 ⎪⎪ dτ (5)
DOII : ⎨
with step size of 0.0005 and in each step, LEmax is dy
calculated. The variation of the LEmax is shown in Fig.
⎪ = ω 2 [ − ky + x − x + fc 2 sin t (ω 2τ )
3 5
⎪⎩ dτ
6.
575
V. CONCLUSIONS
In this paper a new method for high impedance fault

Where: detection based on the chaotic and duffing oscillator
k=0.5 function theory was proposed. A sample distribution
network was used for evaluating the proposed method
fc1=fc2=0.827
and the obtained results show that the proposed method
ω 2 = 500π , ω1 = 300π was effective in high impedance fault detection. The
criteria for high impedance fault detection was based on
the motion of the state system from the chaotic state to
the large periodic.
VI. Acknowledgment:
This paper was supported by a grant from Islamic
Azad University (West Tehran Branch).
VII. REFERENCES
[1] [1]. M.R.Hagifam, A.R sidighi and O.P.Malic, “Development of

fuzzy inference system based on genetic algorithm for high
impedance Detection”, IEE. Proceeding Generation,
Fig. 7. The chaotic state of the system before Transmission and Distribution, vol. 153, No. 3, 2006.
[2] [2].A.Mamishev, A.V. Russelland Benner , “Analysis of high
fault Impe dance faults using fractal technique” , IEEE Transaction on
After setting the DO function parameters, then a Power. System, vol. 11 ,No. 1, pp. 435-440, 1996.
high fault current is applied. [3] [3].Y. Sheng, and S.M.Rovnyak, , “Detection tree- based
methodology for high impedance fault detection” , IEEE
Before the fault, the state of the system was chaotic Transaction on Power Delivery, vol. 19 , No. 2 , pp. 533-536,
which it is shown in Fig. 7. 2004.
By applying the fault, then the state of the system [4] [4]. B.M.Aucion and B.D.Russel, “Distribution high impedance
changes from chaotic to large periodic as shown in fault detection using high frequency current components” , IEEE
Transaction on Power System, vol. 101, No. 6, pp. 1596-1606,
Figure 8. 1982.
[5] [5].M.Michanlick.,W.Rebizat., M.Lukowicz,J.K.song, “High
impedance fault detection in Distribution Networks with use of
wavelet – Based Algorithm” IEEE Transaction on Power
Delivery, Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 1713-1802, 2006.
[6] [6]. W.Guanyu ,G.Dajun , and X.Chen, “The application of
chaotic oscillator to weak signal detection” , IEEE Transaction
on Industrial Electronics, vo1. 46 No. 2, pp. 440-444, 1999.
[7] [7].MT.Rosenstenin , JJ.Collins, “A practical method for
calculating largest lyapunov exponent from small data sets” ,
Physical , vo1. 65: 117-134, 1993.
Fig. 8. The large periodic state of the system,

after fault
As can be seen from Figures 7 and 8, the parameters

setting of the DO function was properly selected and the
proposed method could detect the high impedance fault.
576
Optimized Protective Devices Allocation in Electric Power

Distribution Systems Based on the Current Conditions of the
Devices
H. Hashemi. Dezaki, Student member, IEEE, H. Askaraian. Abyaneh, Senior, IEEE, Y. Kabiri, Student
member, IEEE, H. Nafisi, K. Mazlumi, H. Akbar Fakhrabadi
Amirkabir University of Technology/Department of electrical engineering, Tehran, Iran - Email: Hamed.hashemi@aut.ac.ir
Abstract— This paper proposed the new method to carry out cost of the non- supplied energy and cost of the
the optimized allocation of the protection devices to improve sectionalizing switches. The algorithm used to solve the
SAIFI based on the current placement of devices. Genetic optimization problem is genetic algorithm. [8]. Binary linear
algorithm (GA) is used to optimize the objective function. programming model is used for the placement of protection
Advantages of the method used in this paper are minimal risk devices, fault locators and other sensors in the distribution
to change the protection devices, cost minimization of change
networks [1,9]. In References [11,13], the problem of the
the location of the devices and system reliability improvement.
In order to illustrate the application of this method, an actual optimized switches and protective devices is modeled
electric power distribution feeder, 20 kV, overhead lines, three- through nonlinear programming (MINLP) with real and
wire with a delta-grounded wye connection substation binary variables. The reactive tabu search algorithm (RTS) is
transformer is used. used to solve the optimized problem. Ref [14] has presented
Keyword- distribution systems, protection, reliability, a multi objective optimization methodology to optimally
optimization place of the switches and protective devices to improve the
system reliability indices. The multi objective ant colony
I. INTRODUCTION optimization (MACO) has been applied to solve the
T HE fundamental purpose of the electric utilities is to

service their customers with a reliable and appropriate
cost power supply. In the recent studies, the most common
problem. The proposed placement of switches and protective
devices leads to minimize the total cost while
simultaneously minimize two distribution network reliability
indices used about the power quality and reliability of the indices including SAIFI and SAIDI.
distribution systems are customer oriented indices. These This paper proposed the new method to carry out the
customer oriented indices are system average interruption optimized allocation of the protection devices to improve
frequency index (SAIFI), system average interruption SAIFI based on the current placement of devices. Genetic
duration index (SAIDI), average system interruption algorithm (GA) is used to optimize the objective function.
frequency index (ASIFI), average system interruption Advantages of the method used in this paper are minimal
duration index (ASIDI), customer average interruption risk to change the protection devices, cost minimization of
duration index (CAIDI) and average system availability change the location of the devices and system reliability
index (ASAI). These indices have been detailed in several improvement. In order to illustrate the application of this
relevant papers with the reliability of the distribution method, an actual electric power distribution feeder, 20 kV,
systems [1,2]. overhead lines, three-wire with a delta-grounded wye
Optimized and safe designing of distribution systems connection substation transformer is used.
concludes the protective and switching devices in strategic
places of the distribution networks to improve the reliability II. PROPOSED ALGORITHM
and power quality indices. Several papers are found in In the proposed method, in process of optimization, the
literature dealt with the optimized placement of protective algorithm checks the suggested places for install the
and switching devices. References [3-7] survey separately protective devices and compares the proposed placement of
the optimal switch allocation for network energy restoration. the devices by the current conditions of the feeder. Each
Other references have analyzed the optimized allocation of proposed device placement that is different from the
the protective devices in distribution systems [1,8-10]. Also placement of the devices imposes a penalty factor to value of
several papers proposed different methods to optimally place the objective. Although in the end of the each step of the
both switches and protective devices [11-14]. optimization, the algorithm compares the total number of the
In the model proposed in [3], the objective function includes protective devices with the total number of the protective
outage, capital cost and maintenance to find the optimal devices. Other value is added to objective in order to the
placement of the switches. In other reference [4], the additional devices needed.
proposed method has dealt with the comparison between In this method, SAIFI is determined to minimize.
According to the above explanation, it is reasonable to write
the objective function in expression as same as the available
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 577

equation in the (1):
(λ , X )
O.F = w1 × SAIFI j j
⎡ ⎤ (1)
+ w × ⎢C × ∑ ( X ) + C × ∑ ( X × I ) ⎥
1 1 j 2 j j
⎣ j∈β ⎦
j∈β
The objective function is composed by the value of the

SAIFI and the cost of the additional devices needed to
optimize the system. Where W 1, W 2 are respectively weights
for SAIFI and the needed cost to apply the proposed
strategies to the distribution feeder. Other parameters used in
(1) are λ j , X j , I j C1 , C 2 . X j and I j indicate respectively
binary variable demonstrates the section (j) is candidate to
allocate the protection device or not and the binary variable
to show the existence of the protection device in the section
(j). λ j is the failure rate of the section (j). Although the
cost needed to additional protective device and the cost of
the replacement of the devices are respectively shown in (1)
by C1 and C 2 .
The flow chart to present the proposed algorithm to optimize
the placement of the protective devices is shown as Fig. 1. Δn = ?
New method introduced needs to the data of placement of

the protective devices in addition to the network topology
and information about the loads and customers. Genetic
algorithm is used to solve the optimization problem. The ΔX = ?
main difference among proposed algorithm to available

methods to find the optimized protection device allocation is
the evaluation of objective function. In this method, the
position of the devices is considered. By considering the
placement of the protective devices, it is possible to
minimize the investment. Although when the needed change
in protection system is minimized, it is easier to satisfy the
system managers to apply the results.
The definition of the parameter I j is demonstrated in (2) as
below:
⎧0 if exist device in section j (2)
⎪
I =
j ⎨
⎪⎩1 otherwise
New technique is introduced to calculate SAIFI in [15].
The new model used to calculate the SAIFI of system is
briefly shown as (3-5). This model simplifies the calculation
of system reliability. All of the symbols used in (3-5) are
defined in appendix A.
The coefficients used in objective function are the cost of the
additional protection device ( C1 ), device replacement cost (
C 2 ), the weights of SAIFI and investment cost ( W 1, W 2 ).
The all values of them is demonstrated in Table 1. The
information about switch and protection equipment fixed
costs is shown in Table 1 too. These coefficient is similar to Fig. 1. Flowchart of the proposed algorithm
the value assumed in [11,14].
578
2 electric power distribution feeder is selected to illustrate the
∑ factor (i) (2)
performance of the proposed algorithm [16]. Fig. 2 describes
SAIFI = i =1
the single line view of the feeder with 33 load points and 32
T sections. Failure rate of each section, the number of
factor (1) = customers and average load of each section are listed in
Table 4.
⎛ mb i −1,i ≠1
⎞
⎜ ∑ N mj ∑ N mk × A(k + 1, i ) ⎟
+
⎜ j =i k =1
⎟
mb ⎜ flb ( i ) ts ( s ) ⎟ (3)
∑ λ mi ⎜ + ∑ ∑ N (s, p) + ⎟
i =1 ⎜ s =1 p =1 ⎟
⎜ blb ( i ) ts ( q ) ⎟
⎜ ∑ ∑ N ( q, r ) × A( fdmb( q ), i ) ⎟
⎝ q =1 r =1 ⎠
factor (2) =
flb ( i ) ts ( s )
∑ ∑ λ ( s, p ) ×
s =1 p =1
⎛ mb flb ( fdmb ( s ) ts ( t )
⎞
∑
⎜ N mj × A (1, p ) + ∑ ∑ N (t , p) × A(1, w) + ⎟ (4)
⎜ j =1 t =1 p =1
⎟
⎜ blb ( fdmb ( s ) ts ( v )
⎟
⎜ ∑ ∑ N (v, y ) × A( fdmb( s ), fumb ( s )) × A(l , w) ⎟
⎜ v =1 y =1 ⎟
⎜ fumb ( s ) −1 ⎟
⎜ + ∑ N ml × A(l , p ) × A(l , fdmb( s )) ⎟
⎝ l =1 ⎠
TABLE I
SWITCH AND PROTECTION EQUIPMENT FIXED COSTS
Device Cost (US$/year)
Rcloser 6000
Fuse 1200
Fig. 2. A typical 11kV, 32 section overhead three-wire distribution feeder

Switch 3000
TABLE IV
DATA OF THE AVAILABLE SWITCHES AND PROTECTIVE DEVICES OF
ANALYZED FEEDER
TABLE II
COEFFICIENT USED IN PROPOSED ALGORITHM
Parameter Value
1 2,7,11,13,23,27 Placement of the available fuses
C1 1200 2 11,12,21,23 Placement of the available switches
C2 250 3 1 Placement of the available reclosers
W1 1
W2 10^-2
In the selected distribution feeder, there are 6 fuses, 4
switches and one recloser. There are 20 possible locations
for the placement of fuses or sectionalizers. To illustrate the
effeteness of improved technique to optimize the allocation
of the protective devices, the results of the values of the
III. NUMERICAL RESULTS SAIFI and the objective function in current condition of the
system protection and the proposed condition achieved from
The improved GA algorithm is implemented using Matlab the object optimization are compared. In Table 5, there are
on a Pentium-IV personal computer. In this paper, a typical four states explained.
579
TABLE III
DATA OF THE ANALYZED FEEDER
As shown in Table. 5, if it is not possible to invest in order
Branch Initial End Customer Installed Permanent
Number node node numbers load annual failure
to increase the system reliability and improve the protection
rate( f/year) design, the value of SAIFI is 0.6457. Continue with existing
1 1 2 5 100 0.00954 protective system needs no investment. But it is desirable to
2 2 19 6 90 0.0313 increase the system reliability, there are several scenarios.
3 19 20 4 90 0.27108 One scenario is the condition with minimum value of SAIFI.
4 20 21 8 90 0.09568 In this condition, the better possible value of SAIFI is
5 21 22 5 90 0.18746 accessible. The problem of the scenario discussed is the
6 2 3 4 90 0.05022
value of the needed money. By considering the limitation in
investment, the scenario discussed is not feasible. The
7 3 23 2 90 0.06166
feasible scenario is the scenario satisfies the economical
8 23 24 21 420 0.14182
constraints and financial conditions. According to the
9 24 25 15 420 0.14022
objective function discussed in this paper, it is possible to
10 3 4 7 120 0.03728 find the optimized allocation of the protective devices by
11 4 5 1 60 0.03882 considering the economical constraints.
12 5 6 4 60 0.1414
To illustrate the proposed algorithm, the value of the
13 6 26 2 60 0.02068
objective function is compared to the value of the existing
14 26 27 3 60 0.02894
system and the objective function that considers only the
15 27 28 5 60 0.18674
cost of the additional needed devices such as the penalty
16 28 29 8 120 0.14012 factor. The objective function that discussed is shown as
17 29 30 12 200 0.0517 below:
(λ , X )
18 30 31 12 150 0.1926
19 31 32 5 210 0.07238 O.F = w1 × SAIFI j j
20 32 33 4 60 0.10604
⎡ ⎤ (5)
21 6 7 7 200 0.12376
+ w × ⎢C × ∑ ( X ) ⎥
1 1 j
22 7 8 8 200 0.24702
23 8 9 2 60 0.148
⎣ ⎦
j∈β
24 9 10 2 60 0.148
The calculated results of the optimized value of the objective
25 10 11 3 45 0.013
function shown in (1) and (5) are respectively in the third
26 11 12 1 60 0.02476
and fourth rows of Table. 5.
27 12 13 4 60 0.231
By comparing the value of optimization the objective
28 13 14 6 120 0.14258 functions shown in (1) and (5), it is obvious that the needed
29 14 15 2 60 0.1052 value of the proposed algorithm in (1) is less than proposed
30 15 16 3 60 0.109 algorithm based on (5).
31 16 17 4 60 0.3442 The positions of the protective devices achieved from each
32 17 18 6 90 0.1148 discussed scenario are shown in Table. 6. Also the needed
money and cost in each scenario is separately discussed.
TABLE V TABLE VI
SUMMARY VALUES OF THE RESULTS POSITIONS OF THE PROTECTIVE DEVISED IN THE DIFFERENT SCENARIOS
SAIFI O.F FC Cost of Cost of the

Total
the change the Proposed
Existing system 0.6457 ------------ 0 cost to
additional position of positions of the
improve
devices the device devices
Min SAIFI 0.46977 ------------ 19500 ($)
($) ($)
Min objective Existing 2, 7, 11, 13, 23,

0.4867 0.5133 4000 0 0 0
function(1) system 27
Min objective All sections

0.51636 0.53636 2000
function(5) Min SAIFI 19500 19500 0 expect section
(1)
Min
10, 21, 23, 27,
objective 4000 3000 1000
30, 2, 7, 13
function(1)
Min
11, 21, 23, 27, 2,
objective 2000 1500 500
7, 13
function(5)
580
IV. CONCLUSION [2] IEEE Working Group on System Design, "Trial use guide
In this paper, a new algorithm is proposed to allocate the for electric power distribution reliability indices," report. 1366,
Draft no. 14.
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electric power distribution feeder, 20 kV, overhead lines,
protection design," IEEE Trans.on Power Delivery, vol. 16, no. 2,
three-wire with a delta-grounded wye connection substation pp. 292-296, Apr. 2001.
transformer is used. The numerical results illustrate the [10] F. Soudi, K. Tomasovic, "Optimized distribution protection
effectiveness of the new method introduced in this paper. using binary programming," IEEE Trans.on Power Delivery, vol.
13, no. 1, pp. 218-224, Jan. 1998.
[11] L. G. W. Silva, R. A. F. Pereira, J. R. Abbad, J. R. S.
V. APPENDIX A Mantovani, "Optimised placement of control and protective devices
T: total number of customer in feeder in electric distribution systems through reactive tabu search
algorithm," Electric Power System Research, vol. 78, pp. 372-381,
mb: number of sections of the main branch
Apr. 2008.
λ mi : Failure rate of the section (i) from the main branch
[12] L. G. W. Silva, R. A. F. Pereira, J. R. S. Mantovani,
"Optimised allocation of sectionalizing switches and protection
λ ( s , p ) : Failure rate of the section (p) from sth lateral devices in distribution networks by using reactive tabu search
branch algorithm," in 18th International Conference of Electric
Distribution, Turin, 2005.
[13] L. G. W. Silva, R. A. F. Pereira, J. R. S. Mantovani, "Otimized
N mi
: Number of customers for section (j) from the allocation of sectionalizing switches and control and protection
devices for reliability indices improvement in distribution systems,"
main branch
in 2004 IEEE/PES Transmission & Distribution Conference &
flb (i ) : First downstream lateral branch of section (i) Exposition, Latin America, 2004.
from the main branch [14] W. Tippachon, D. Rerkpreedapong, "Multiobjective optimal
N ( s, p ) : Number of customers for section (p) from the placement of switches and protective devices in electric power
th distribution systems using ant colony optimization," Electric Power
s lateral branch
System Research, vol. 79, pp. 1171-1178, Mar. 2009.
ts( s) : Number of the sections from the sth lateral branch [15] H. Hashemi. Dezaki, H.Askarian. Abyaneh, A. Agheli, S. H.
blb (i ) : First upstream lateral branch of section (i) from Hosseinian, K. Mazlumi, H. Nafisi, " Optimized investment to
decrease the failure rate of distribution lines in order to
the main branch
improveSAIFI," The 4th International Power Engineering and
fdmb(i ) : First downstream main branch for ith lateral Optimization Conf. (PEOCO2010), IEEE Conference, Shah Alam,
branch Selangor, Malysia: 23-24 June 2010.
fumb(i ) : First upstream main branch for ith lateral branch [16] Mohamed M. Hamada, Mohamed. A.A. Wahab, Nasser. G.A.
Hemdan, "Simple and efficient method for steady-state voltage
stability assessment of radial distribution systems," Electric Power
VI. REFERENCES Systems Research, vol. 80, pp. 152-160, Sep. 2010.
[1] F. Soudi, K. Tomsovic, "Optimal distribution protection design:

quality of solution and computational analysis," Electric Power and
Energy System, vol. 21, pp. 327-335, Apr. 1999.
581
VII. BIOGRAPHIES
Hamed Hashemi Dezzaki was born in 1986,

Borujen, Iran. He reeceived B.S. degree in
electrical engineering frrom Amirkabir University
of Technology, Tehran, Iran
I in 2009. Presently, he
is a M.Sc. student at thee department of electrical
engineering of Amiirkabir University of
Technology, Tehran, Irran. His main fields of
research are power system m transient and protection
of power systems, power quality, high voltaage, reliability, electrical
insulation and using artificial intelligence in pow
wer system and distributed
generation (DG).
Hossein Askarian Abyaneh was born in Abyaneh, Isfahan on March 20,

1953. He received the B.S S. and M.S. degree both in
Iran in 1976 and 1982 respectively. He also
received another M.S. degree and Ph.D. from
UMIST, Manchester, U.K. U in 1985 and 1988
respectively, all in electrical
e power system
engineering. He publishhed over 140 scientific
papers in international jouurnals and conferences.
Currently, he is a Professor with the Department of
Electrical Engineering and Head of the Electrical Engineering Department,
AUT, Iran, working in the area of the relay protecttion and power quality.
Yahya Kabiri was born in Isfahan, Iran in 1986. He

received the B.S. in electrical engineering from
Isfahan University of Techhnology, Isfahan, Iran in
2008. Currently he is M.Sc. student at Amirkabir
University of Technology, Tehran,
T Iran.
His main fields of reseearch are fuel cell and
photovoltaic hybrid system m, distributed generation
(DG) and DG connection to distribution system.
Hamed Nafisi was bornn in Tehran in the Iran, on

April 31, 1984. He receeived his B.Sc. and M.Sc.
in electrical engineeringg in 2006 and 2008 from
the Amirkabir Universitty of Technology (AUT),
Tehran, Iran. Now, he is the Ph.D. student in the
Amirkabir University of Technology (AUT),
Tehran, Iran. His researcch interests include Smart
Grid, Power System m Protection, Power
Electronic, Using Artificial Intelligence in Power
System and Distributed Generation (DG).
Kazem Mazlumi was born in Tehran, Iran in

1976. He received the B.S degree in electrical
engineering from Am mirkabir University of
Technology, Tehran, Iran,
I in 2000, the M.S.
degree from Sharif Unniversity, Tehran, Iran, in
2003, the Ph.D. from Amirkabir University of
Technology, Tehran, Iran, in 2009. He is
currently an assistant professor with Zanjan
University, Zanjan, Iran.
582
Dynamic Modeling of Interline Power Flow

Controller for Small Signal Stability
Alivelu M. Parimi, Nirod C. Sahoo, Irraivan Elamvazuthi, Nordin Saad
Electrical and Electronics Department
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS,
Tronoh 31750, Perak, Malaysia.
Abstract—This paper addresses the formulation of the non- understanding of system damping in the area of small
linear dynamic model of the power system installed with perturbation stability. It presents an insight into the
Interline Power Flow Controller (IPFC). The linearized operation of the damping control of the FACTS device
model for both single-machine infinite-bus and multi- and is useful in studying the small signal stability of the
machine power system installed with IPFC is developed and power system.
incorporated into the Phillips-Heffron model. These models In this view, the non-linear dynamic model of a power
lay the foundation for small signal stability studies of the system installed with an IPFC is initially developed.
power system using IPFC. The application of the models is Further, the linearized Phillips-Heffron model is modified
demonstrated for a Multi-machine power system. to include the FACTS device, IPFC, which is utilized to
perform the small signal stability analysis. Consequently,
Keywords—IPFC; power system modelling; Phillips-Heffron
in the following sections the non-linear model of SMIB
model power system and MMPS installed with IPFC is
developed. Then the small signal linearized Phillips–
I. INTRODUCTION Heffron model of these systems is derived. The linearized
The Interline Power Flow Controller (IPFC) belongs to model of a power system with an IPFC obtained, is in
the converter-based FACTS Controllers, representing the similar form to that of the unified Phillips-Heffron model
new generation of transmission controllers, employing the presented in [11-14] for other FACTS devices such as,
self commutated, voltage-sourced converters (VSC). An Static VAR Compensator (SVC), Thyristor-Controlled
IPFC consists of a number of VSCs linked together at Series Compensator (TCSC), Thyristor-Controlled Phase
their dc terminals. Each VSC injects a controllable ac Shifter (TCPS) and Unified Power Flow Controller
voltage to its respective transmission line providing series (UPFC) for single machine and multi-machine power
compensation [1, 2], whilst the common dc link facilitates systems. On the basis of linearized system model, the
the transfer of real power flow among the transmission IPFC controllers are designed and their effect is
lines. Thus, real power is transferred from overloaded to investigated on oscillation stability.
under-loaded lines and increases the capacity of the
transmission lines. The IPFC simultaneously compensates II. SINGLE MACHINE INFINITE BUS POWER SYSTEM
multiple transmission lines by equalizing the real and A SMIB system installed with IPFC as shown in Fig. 1 is
reactive power flows in between the lines. IPFC also considered. The IPFC is installed on the two parallel
provides voltage control, improves transient stability, and transmission lines through series transformers. The IPFC
enhances oscillation damping. Recently, modelling of consists of two VSCs which are linked together at the dc
IPFC and its various control functions has come under link.
intensive investigation. Work has been established to
Vb ∠ − δ
model the IPFC into the power systems in a steady-state I1 Vse1
mode of operation for load flow studies and power flow Xt X t1
control [3-5]. Control strategies for damping improvement It
Vse 2
such as supplementary PI controller or lead lag controller Vt X t2 I2
had been suggested for IPFC in [6-9]. These controllers V1
were designed based on linear models of single machine
infinite bus (SMIB) power system installed with IPFC. C dc
Studies on this system reveal good damping
characteristics of IPFC. However, modelling of the IPFC m2 m1
θ2 θ1
into a multi-machine power system (MMPS) for small
signal stability is very limited. The small signal stability Figure 1. IPFC installed in a SMIB system
analysis based on eigenvalue technique is suitable for
planning and operation of the power systems, to examine The voltages injected by the IPFC converters are given
the problems associated with oscillations and to mitigate by [7, 8]:
the power system oscillations using various control
methods [10]. The Phillips-Heffron model of the power v dc v
system with the FACTS device is suitable for V se1 = m1e jθ1 , V se 2 = dc m 2 e jθ 2 (1)
2 2
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 583

where v dc is the voltage at DC link, m1 and m 2 are the x 21q = x tL1 / x Σ 2 , x 22 d = − x ′qt / x Σ 2
modulation indices of VSC 1 and 2, θ1 and θ 2 are the
phase angles of series converter 1 and 2. The dc capacitor x tL 2 = x t 2 + x L 2 , x ′dt = x ′d + x t
voltage is given by
′ = x q + xt
x tL1 = x t1 + x L1 , x qt
3m1
v dc = (i1d cos θ 1 + i1q sin θ1 ) +
4C dc ′ .x tL 2 ) + ( x dt
x Σ1 = ( x dt ′ + x tL 2 )( x tL1 )
(2)
3m 2
(i 2 d cos θ 2 + i 2 q sin θ 2 )
4C dc x Σ 2 = ( x ′qt .x tL 2 ) + ( x qt
′ + x tL 2 )( x tL1 )
where, C dc is the dc link capacitor, i1d and i 2 d are the d- A. Non-linear model of Single Machine Infinite Bus
axis currents in line 1 and 2, i1q and i 2 q are the q-axis The non-linear dynamic model of the power system
current in line 1 and 2 respectively. From the Fig. 1 we incorporated with IPFC is derived as follows [7 - 9]:
obtain,
δ = ω o (ω − 1)
Vt = jx t I t + V1
(3)
ω = (Pm − Pe − PD ) / M
V1 = jx t1 I 1 + V se1 + jx L1 I 1 + Vb (4)
E q′ = (− E q + E fd ) / Tdo
′
= jx t 2 I 2 + V se 2 + jx L 2 I 2 + Vb
E fd = (− E fd + K a (V ref − Vt )) / Ta (9)
where, xt1 and x t 2 are the reactance of the transformers
in line 1 and 2 respectively and x L1 and x L 2 are the where δ is the rotor angle of synchronous generator in
reactance of the transmission line 1 and 2 respectively. radians, ω is the rotor speed in rad/sec, Vt is the terminal
Solving (3) and (4) we get the currents in d-q axis as voltage of generator, M (= 2 H ) is the inertia constant,
follows: '
PD = D(ω − 1) , D is the damping coefficient, Tdo is the
1 open circuit d-axis time constant in sec, K a is the AVR
i1d = x11d E q′ + ( x12 d − x11d )v dc m 2 sin θ 2
2 gain, Ta is the time constant of AVR in sec, Pe is the
(5)
1 electrical power of the generator, Pm is the mechanical
− x12 d v dc m1 sin θ 1 − x11d v b cos δ
2 power input to the generator, E q' is the generator internal
1 voltage, E fd is the generator field voltage, V ref is the

i 2 d = x 21d E q′ + ( x 22 d − x 21d )v dc m 2 sin θ 2 reference voltage,
2 (6)
1 B. Linearized Model of an SMIB System including
− x 22 d v dc m1 sin θ 1 − x 21d v b cos δ
2 IPFC in State Space form
1 non-linear model (9) around an operating condition which
i1q = ( x11q + x12q )vdc m2 cosθ 2 is obtained from power flow analysis. The linearized
2
(7) model in state space form is obtained as ,
1
− ( x12q )vdc m1 cosθ1 + x11q vb sin δ
2 X = AX + BU (10)
1
i 2q = ( x 21q + x 22q )v dc m 2 cos θ 2 where, X = [Δδ Δω ΔE q′ ΔE fd ΔV dc ]T
2
(8)
1
− ( x 22q )v dc m1 cos θ1 + x 21q v b sin δ ⎡ 0 ωo 0 0 0 ⎤
2
⎢ K D K2 K pv ⎥
⎢ − 1 − − 0 − ⎥
′ + x tL 2 ) / x Σ1
where, x11d = x tL 2 / x Σ1 , x12 d = ( x dt ⎢ M M M M ⎥
⎢ K4 K3 1 K qv ⎥
A=⎢ − 0 − −
′ / xΣ1
x21d = x tL1/ xΣ1, x22d = − xdt ⎢ Tdo ′ ′
Tdo ′
Tdo Tdo′ ⎥⎥
⎢ K a K5 Ka K6 1 K K ⎥
⎢− T 0 − − − a vv ⎥
x11q = x tL 2 / ′ + x tL 2 ) / x Σ 2
x Σ 2 , x12 q = −( x qt Ta Ta Ta
⎢ a ⎥
⎣ K7 0 K8 0 − K9 ⎦
584
represented by taking out the buses connecting the lines in
⎡ 0 0 0 0 ⎤ which IPFC is installed.
⎢ K pm1 K pθ 1 K pm 2 K pθ 2 ⎥
⎢ − − − − ⎥ I gn I g2 I g1
⎢ M M M M ⎥
⎢ − K qm1 −
K qθ 1
−
K qm 2
−
K qθ 2 ⎥ Vgn Vg2 Vg1
B=⎢ ⎥
′
Tdo ′
Tdo Tdo′ Tdo′
⎢ ⎥ Yt
K K
⎢− a vm1 K a K vθ 1 K a K vm 2 K a K vθ 2 ⎥
− − −
⎢ Ta Ta Ta Ta ⎥ V2
I1
⎢ K K cθ 1 K cm 2 K cθ 2 ⎥⎦ x L1
V set1
⎣ cm1 I14 V4
x t1
I2 x L2
The control vector u is defined as follows: V1 x14 V set 2
xt 2
V3
T
U = [Δm1 Δθ 1 Δm 2 Δθ 2 ] (11)
C dc
where, Δm1 ( Δm 2 ) is the deviation in pulse width
modulation index m1 ( m 2 ) of voltage series converter
m1 θ 1 m2 θ 2
1 (2) in line 1 (2). By controlling m1 ( m 2 ), the magnitude
of series injected voltage in line 1 (2) can be controlled. Figure 3. An n-machine power system installed with an IPFC
Δθ 1 ( Δθ 2 ) is the deviation in phase angle of the series
injected voltage V se 1 ( Vse 2 ). The network admittance Yt is formed before the IPFC has
been installed, keeping n generator nodes along with the
Fig. 2 shows the modified Phillips-Heffron model of nodes 1− 4 . The equation of the network is given by:
the power system with IPFC. The model has 28 constants
which are functions of system parameters and the initial
operating condition. It should be noted that ⎡ 0 ⎤ ⎡ Y11 Y12 Y13 Y14 Y15 ⎤ ⎡ V1 ⎤
K p , K q , K v and K c in Fig. 2 are the row vectors defined ⎢0⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
as ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ Y21 Y22 Y23 Y24 Y25 ⎥ ⎢V 2 ⎥
⎢ 0 ⎥ = ⎢ Y31 Y32 Y33 Y34 Y35 ⎥ ⎢ V3 ⎥ (13)
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
K p = [ K pm1 K pθ 1 K pm 2 K pθ 2 ] ⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ Y41 Y42 Y43 Y44 Y45 ⎥ ⎢V 4 ⎥
⎢I g ⎥ ⎢ Y Y52 Y53 Y54 Y55 ⎥⎦ ⎢V ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ 51 ⎣ g⎦
K q = [ K qm1 K qθ 1 K qm 2 K qθ 2 ]
where,
K v = [ K vm1 K vθ 1 K vm 2 K vθ 2 ]
[
I g = I g1 I g2 " I gn ]T
K c = [ K cm1 K cθ 1 K cm 2 K cθ 2 ] (12)
[
Vg = V g1 V g 2 " V gn ]T
With the installation of IPFC between the branches 4-2
and 4-3, the network equations are modified as follows:
I 14 = I 1 + I 2
Y11' V1 + I 14 + Y15 Vg = 0
Y22' V 2 − I 1 + Y25 Vg = 0
Y33' V3 − I 2 + Y35 Vg = 0
Figure 2. Phillips Heffron model of SMIB with IPFC Y51V1 + Y52V 2 + Y53V3 + Y55 Vg = I g (14)
III. MULTI-MACHINE POWER SYSTEM

where, Y11′ = Y11 − y14 , Y22′ = Y22 − y 24 , Y33′ = Y33 − y 34
Without loss of generality, we assume that in an n
machine power system, an IPFC is installed on the
From Fig. 3 we have,
branches 4-2 and 4-3, as shown in Fig. 3. For developing
the dynamic model of the system, the network is V1 = jx14 I 14 + V 4
585
V 4 = jx L1 I 1 + V set1 + V 2 E ′q = Td0
′ −1 ( −E ' q − (X D − X 'D )I D + E fd )
(15)
= jx L 2 I 2 + V set 2 + V3
E fd = TA −1 ( −E fd + K A (Vref − VT )) (19)
where, V set1 = jxt1 I 1 + V se1 , V set 2 = jxt 2 I 2 + V se 2
where,
Substituting (1) in (15) and solving for currents we obtain,
Pe = I Q VTQ + I D VTD , VTD = X Q I Q ,
1 V = E ' - X ′ I
I1 = [− j ( x L 2 + xt 2 )V1 + j ( x14 + x L 2 + x t 2 )V 2 TQ q D D
xΣ (16)
− jx14V3 + j ( x14 + x L 2 + x t 2 )V se1 − jx14V se 2 ] δ = [δ 1 δ 2 " δ n ]T , ω = [ω1 ω 2 " ω n ]T ,
I2 =
1
[− j ( x L1 + xt1 )V1 − jx14V 2 + j ( x14 + x L1
[
E 'q = E q' 1 E q' 2 '
" E qn ]T
,
xΣ (17) E fd = E fd 1[ E fd 2 " E fdn ]T ,
+ x t1 )V3 − jx14V se1 + j ( x14 + x L1 + x t1 )V se 2 ] I D = [I d 1 Id2 " I dn ]T ,
where, x Σ = x14 ( x L 2 + x t 2 ) + ( x L1 + x t1 )( x14 + x L 2 + x t 2 ) [
I Q = I q1 I q2 " I qn ]T ,
Substituting (16-17) in (14) and deleting nodes 1-4 we VTD = [Vt1d Vt 2 d " Vtnd ]T ,
obtain,
VTQ = Vt1q [ Vt 2 q " Vtnq ]T , VTi = Vtid 2 + V tiq 2 ,
I g = Yg Vg + Yse1V se1 + Yse2V se 2 (18) M = diag (2 H i ) , D = diag ( Di ) , TD0 '
= diag (Td' 0i ) ,
X D = diag ( x di ) , X Q = diag ( x qi ) , X ′D = diag ( x di )
where,
and, i =1,2 ..n, n is the number of generators.
⎡ Y15 ⎤
Yg = Y55 − Y51 [ Y52 Y53 ] −1 ⎢
Yt′ ⎢ Y25 ⎥
⎥
The terminal voltage of the generators for the n
⎢ Y35 ⎥ machine power system can also be expressed in the
⎣ ⎦ common coordinates as [15]:
⎡ j ( x L 2 + xt 2 ) / x Σ
⎤ Vg = E q′ − jX ′D I g − j (X Q − X ′D )I Q (20)
Yse1 = − Y51 [ Y52 ]
Y53 Yt′ ⎢− j ( x L 2 + x t 2 + x14 ) / x Σ ⎥⎥
−1 ⎢
⎢⎣ j ( x14 ) / x Σ ⎥⎦ Substituting (20) in (18) we get,

⎡ j ( x L1 + xt1 ) / x Σ ⎤
Yse2 = − Y51 [ Y52 ]
−1 ⎢
Y53 Yt′ ⎢ j ( x14 ) / xΣ ⎥ (
I g = Yd E q′ − j (X Q − X ′D )I Q + YAV se1 + YBV se 2 ) (21)
⎥
⎢⎣− j ( x14 + x L1 + xt1 +) / xΣ ⎥⎦
where,
⎡ Y11′ − ⎤
⎢
⎢ j ( xL1 + xt1 + x L 2 + xt 2 )
⎢
j ( xL 2 + xt 2 )
xΣ
j ( xL1 + xt1 )
xΣ
⎥
⎥
⎥
[
Yd = Y -1 g + jX ′D ]-1
, YA = Y -1 g Yse1 , YB = Y -1 g Yse2
xΣ
⎢ ⎥
⎢ Y22' − ⎥
j ( xL 2 + xt 2 ) j ( x14 ) In d-q axis form the generator currents (21) can be
Yt′ = ⎢ j ( x14 + x L 2 + xt 2 ) ⎥
⎢ xΣ xΣ ⎥ expressed as
⎢ xΣ ⎥
⎢ Y33′ − ⎥
⎢
⎢
j ( x L1 + xt1 ) j ( x14 )
j ( x14
⎥
+ x L1 + xt1 ) ⎥ I Gi = I gi e jδi
⎢ xΣ xΣ ⎥
⎣ xΣ ⎦
n
j (900 +δ i −δ j )
∑ Y [E ′ e
A. Nonlinear model of the multi-machine power system
I Gi = di j qj + ( x qj − x ′dj ) × ..
installed with IPFC
j =1 (22)
j (δ i −δ j ) j (δ i ) j (δ i ) ⎤
The nonlinear model of the multi-machine power e + Y A j V se1 e + Y B j V se 2 e
⎥⎦
system with IPFC, is developed as follows:
Denoting
δ = ω o ω
j ( βd ij ) j( βA j )
= M -1 (Pm − Pe − DΔω ) Ydi j = Ydi j e , YA j = YA j e ,
ω
586
j ( βB j ) Fig. 4 shows the block diagram of Phillips Heffron
YB j = YB j e model of a multi-machine system including IPFC. In this
model, Δδ, Δω, ΔE 'q , ΔE fd are n dimensional vectors,
( )
I di = real I Gi , I qi = imag I Gi ( ) K 1 − K 6 are n × n matrices and
δ d ij = δi − δ j + β d ij , K p = [K pm1 K pθθ K pm2 K pθθ ]

δ A ij = δ i + β d ij + β A j + θ 1 , K q = [K qm1 K qθθ K qm2 K qθθ ]
δ B ij = δ i + β d ij + β B j + θ 2 K v = [K vm1 K vθθ K vm2 K vθθ ]
K c = [K cm1 K cθθ K cm2 K cθθ ] (26)
n
I di = ∑ Y [− E ′
j =1
di j qj ′ ) cos δ d ij I qj
sin δ d ij + ( x qj − x dj
(23) The elements of the above vectors are n dimensional
column vectors. All the constants of the model are
+Y A j V se1 cos δ A ij + Y B j V se 2 cos δ B ij ] functions of the system parameters and operating
condition.
n
∑ Y [E ′
K1
I qi = di j qj cos δ d ij + ( x qj − x ′dj ) sin δ d ij I qj ΔPm
j =1 (24)
ΔPe Δω ω o I Δδ
]
1
Σ Σ
+ Y A j V se1 sin δ A ij + Y B j V se 2 sin δ B ij Ms + D s
K4 K5 K pv
Kp K2
K6
B. Linearised Model of an Multi-machine Power System
Ka
including IPFC in State Space form ΔE ′q 1
Σ Σ
ΔVref
′ s
K 3 + Tdo 1 + sTa
The linear dynamic model of the multi-machine power K8
system with IPFC is obtained by linearizing the non-linear Kq K qv Kv K vv
equations (2, 19, 23, and 24) around an operating point of
the power system. The modified Phillips Heffron model of 1
Kc Σ
the multi-machine power system installed with IPFC U K9 + s ΔV dc
along with the capacitor dynamics in state space form is as K7
follows:
Figure 4. Modified Heffron- Phillips model of n-machine system with
⎡ Δδ ⎤ ⎡ 0 ωoI IPFC installed
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ −1

⎢ Δω ⎥ ⎢ − Μ Κ1 − M −1 D
⎥ = ⎢ − T′ K
⎢ ΔE ' −1 IV. SYSTEM INVESTIGATED
0
⎢ q⎥ ⎢ do
−1
4
A three machine example power system [13] shown in
⎢ΔE fd ⎥ ⎢− Ta K a K 5 0 Fig 5 is considered for MMPS analysis. An IPFC is
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ K7 0 installed into the two parallel transmission lines through
⎣ ΔV dc ⎦ ⎣
the transformers between bus 3 and bus 1. The parameters
0 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ Δδ ⎤ of the system are given in the Appendix.
−M K2 −1
0 − M K pv ⎥⎥
−1 ⎢ Δω ⎥
⎢ ⎥
′ −1 K 3
− Tdo ′ −1
Tdo ′ −1 K qv ⎥
− Tdo ⎢ ΔE 'q ⎥
⎥ ⎢ΔE ⎥
− Ta −1 K a K 6 − Ta −1 − Ta −1 K a K vv ⎥ ⎢ fd ⎥
K8 0 − K9 ⎥ ⎢⎣ ΔV dc ⎥⎦
⎦
⎡ 0 0
⎢ − Μ −1 K − Μ −1 K pθ1
⎢ pm1 Figure 5. Three-machine, power system installed with IPFC
+ ⎢ − Tdo
′ −1 K qm1 ′ −1 K qθ1
− Tdo
⎢ −1 A generalized load flow program based on Newton
⎢− Ta K a K vm1 − Ta −1 K a K vθ1 technique with embedded IPFC [16] has been developed
⎢ K cm1 K cθ1 to obtain steady state operating point. For this initial
⎣
condition the system equations are linearized and the
0 0 ⎤ constants of the system model are computed. The study
⎡ Δm ⎤
−1
− Μ K pm2 − Μ K pθ 2 ⎥⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥
−1 focuses on the improvement in rotor angle oscillation
Δθ damping. Table 1 shows the oscillation modes computed
′ −1 K qm2
− Tdo ′ −1 K qθ 2 ⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥
− Tdo from the linearized system. The system has one inter area
⎥ ⎢ Δm 2 ⎥
− Ta −1 K a K vm2 − Ta −1 K a K vθ 2 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ mode where all machines oscillate together, and one local
⎥ ⎣ Δθ 2 ⎦ area modes where machine 2 and 3 oscillate against each
K cm 2 K cθ 2 ⎦ other which is determined using the participation factors
(25)
[10].
587
TABLE I. sensitivity, and dispatch analysis,” Power Engineering Society
OSCILLATION MODES General Meeting, IEEE Vol. 4, July 2003, pp. 13-17.
Multi-machine Local mode Inter area mode [4] J. Zhang, A. Yokoyama, “A Comparison between the UPFC and
the IPFC in Optimal Power Flow Control and Power Flow
system
Regulation,” 38th North American Power Symposium, NAPS 2006
With no IPFC and 0.0146 - 6.7033i -0.0020 + 3.9599i , Sept. 2006, pp. 339–345.
no PSS [5] X. Wei, J. H. Chow, B. Fardanesh, A. A. Edris, “A dispatch
Damping 0.0022 0.0005 strategy for an interline power flow controller operating at rated
Frequency 1.0669 0.6302 capacity,” Power Systems Conference and Exposition, IEEE PES,
With PSS at 10-13 Oct. 2004, Vol.3, pp. 1459 - 1466.
-0.6686 + 6.4833i -0.0868 + 3.9289i [6] A. Kazemi, E. Karimi, “The Effect of Interline Power Flow
machine 3
Damping Controller (IPFC) on Damping Inter-area Oscillations in the
0.1026 0.0221 Interconnected Power Systems,” Industrial Electronics, 2006
Frequency
1.0319 0.6253 IEEE International Symposium, Volume 3, July 2006, pp. 1911-
IPFC along with 1915.
-0.6993 + 6.9322i -0.1151 + 4.0879i [7] A. M. Parimi, I. Elamvazuthi, N. Saad, “Damping of inter area
PSS at machine 3
Damping oscillations using Interline Power Flow Controller based damping
0.1004 0.0281 controllers,” IEEE 2nd International Power and Energy
Frequency
1.1033 0.6506 Conference, 2008. 1-3 Dec. 2008, pp. 67 – 72.
IPFC installed with
[8] A. M. Parimi, I. Elamvazuthi, N. Saad, N, “Interline Power Flow
damping controller -0.6996 + 6.9269i -0.4912 + 4.1193i Controller (IPFC) based damping controllers for damping low
along with PSS at frequency oscillations in a power system,” IEEE International
machine 3 Conference on Sustainable Energy Technologies, 24-27, Nov.
Damping 0.1005 0.1184 2008, pp. 334 – 339.
Frequency 1.1024 0.6556
[9] A. M. Parimi, I. Elamvazuthi, N. Saad, “Interline Power Flow
Controller Application for Low Frequency Oscillations Damping”
The oscillation modes have very low damping. PSS is WSEAS Transactions on Systems, Issue 5, Vol. 9, May 2010.
installed at machine 3, which is designed based on the [10] P. Kundur, Power System Stability and Control. Mc Graw-Hill,
linearized system to increase the damping ratio to 0.1, New York, 1994.
using phase compensation technique. The PSS is able to [11] H. F. Wang, F. J. Swift, and M. Li, “An unified model for the
sufficiently increase the damping of the modes as analysis of FACTS devices in damping power system oscillations
Part I: Single-machine Infinite-bus power systems,” IEEE Trans.
observed from the table. However the damping ratio of the on Power Delivery, Vol. 12, No. 2, April 1997.
inter area modes is still less. The IPFC is now installed in [12] H. F. Wang, F. J. Swift, and M. Li, “An unified model for the
the power system. We observe that in the presence of the analysis of FACTS devices in damping power system oscillations
IPFC there is no significant change in the damping of the Part II: Multimachine power systems,” IEEE Trans. on Power
oscillation modes. The damping controller having a lead Delivery, Vol. 13, No. 4, October 1998.
lag structure [9] is designed using phase compensation [13] H. F. Wang, “An unified model for the analysis of FACTS devices
technique based on the Phillips Heffron model to increase in damping power system oscillations Part III: Unified Power
the damping of the inter area mode. The IPFC based Flow Contorller,” IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol. 15, No. 3,
July 2000.
controller improves the damping of the inter area modes
without effecting the local mode as shown in the Table 1. [14] H. F. Wang, “Applications of modeling UPFC into multi-machine
power systems.”, IEE proc. – C, Vol. 146, N0. 3, pp.306-312, May
1999.
V. CONCLUSION
[15] Y. N. Yu, Electric Power System Dynamics, Academic Press. Inc,
The mathematical modeling of the power system London, 1983.
installed with IPFC is outlined in this paper. A dynamic [16] X. P. Zhang, “Modelling of the interline power flow controller and
model for both SMIB and multi-machine power system is the generalised unified power flow controller in Newton power
developed. Further the procedure for formulation of the flow”, Generation, Transmission and Distribution, IEE
Proceedings-Volume 150, Issue 3, May 2003 pp. 268 – 274.
extended Phillips Heffron model of the power system
installed with IPFC for these systems have been APPENDIX
established. The model also includes the dc capacitor
dynamics. The developed formulation is general and the Parameters of the three machine power system (in p.u
models are applicable for small signal stability analysis. except where indicated) .
The application of the model for small signal stability Generator: H 1 = 20.09 s , H 2 = 20.09 s , H 3 = 11.8s
analysis is using eigenvalue analysis is demonstrated for a
three machine power system. The IPFC based controller, D1 = D 2 = D3 = 0 ,
designed based on the linearized model of the power Td' 01 = 7.5s , Td' 02 = 7.5s , Td' 03 = 4.7 s ,
system, significantly improves the damping of the
concerned oscillation modes. xd 1 = 0.19 , x d 2 = 0.19 , x d 3 = 0.41 ,
REFERENCES x q1 = 0.163 , x q 2 = 0.163 , x q 3 = 0.33 ,
[1] L.Gyugyi, K. K. Sen, C. D. Schauder, “The Interline Power x d' 1 = 0.0765 , x d' 2 = 0.0765 , x d' 3 = 0.173
FlowController Concept: A New Approach to Power Flow
Management in Transmission Systems,” IEEE Transactions on Exciter : K a1 = K a 3 = 20 , K a 2 = 100 ,
Power Delivery, vol. 14, No. 3, July 1999, pp. 1115 – 1123.
[2] N. G. Hingorami, L. Gyugyi, Understanding FACTS: Concepts Ta1 = Ta 3 = 0.05s , Ta 2 = 0.01s
and Technology of Flexible AC Transmission system, IEEE Press,
1999. Transmission lines: Z 13 = j1.2 for each line,
[3] X. Wei, J. H. Chow, B. Fardanesh, A. A. Edris, “A common Z 24 = j 0.03 , Z 34 = j 0.03
modeling framework of voltage-sourced converters for loadflow,
588
Optimization of Micro-Turbine Generation Control

System Using Genetic Algorithm
S. M. Alizadeh M. Sedighizadeh D. Arzaghi-Haris
Islamic Azad University, Saveh Faculty of Engineering and Islamic Azad University, Saveh
Branch, Saveh, Iran Technology, Imam Khomeini Branch, Saveh, Iran
International University, Qazvin,
Iran,
m_sedighi@sbu.ac.ir
Abstract- This paper presents a dynamic modeling and One is a split shaft design that uses a power turbine rotating
simulation of a high speed single shaft micro-turbine generation at 3600 rpm and a conventional generator (usually induction
(MTG) system for grid connected operation and shows genetic
algorithm (GA) role in improvement of control system generator) connected via a gearbox. The power inverters are
operation. The model is developed with the consideration of the not needed in this design. Another is a high-speed single-shaft
main parts including: compressor-turbine, permanent magnet design with the compressor and turbine mounted on the same
(PM) generator, three phase bridge rectifier and inverter. The shaft as the permanent magnet synchronous generator [13].
simulation results show the capability of Genetic Algorithm for Fig. 1 shows a Simulink model of the micro-turbine including
controlling MTG system. The model is developed in Matlab /
Simulink. fuel control, turbine dynamic, and speed governor blocks.
The model is implemented in Simulink of the Matlab. In this
Index Terms--Distributed generation, Genetic Algorithm, paper speed control is modeled by using a lead-lag transfer
Inverter, Micro-turbine,
function. The speed is regulated at a constant value close to
I. INTRODUCTION rated speed by speed control in normal situation.
III. POWER CONDITIONING
Distributed Generation (DG) is expected to play a major
role in the future of power generation systems. DG can help The voltage across the stator terminals of PM generator has
to reduce transmission losses, improve power quality to end a very high frequency. A thyristor rectifier rectifies this high
users, and smooth peaks in demand patterns [1]. Although frequency AC voltage to 800 V DC. The DC voltage is
different works have been undertaken on modeling of micro- inverted back to 50HZ AC by means of an IGBT inverter, and
turbine, it is essential to develop more models with higher then filtered to reduce harmonics generated by the inverter
precision. In [2]-[6] a dynamic model for combustion gas
A. Rectifier
turbine has been discussed. In these references, the model
The rectifier control loop is as given in [13]. It consists on
was used to represent the gas turbine dynamics, including
a PI regulator, acting on the VDC error (VDC, ref -VDC),
speed, temperature, acceleration and fuel controls. However,
that gives as output the firing angle α for the rectifier
these works deal with heavy-duty gas turbine. A non-linear
model of the micro-turbine implemented in NETOMAC
software and a linear modelling of grid connected MTG
system are reported in [7] and [8], respectively. The dynamic
behaviour of the grid connected split shaft micro-turbine is
done in [9]. A dynamic modeling of micro-turbine developed
a generic model of the grid connected micro-turbine converter
is reported in [10]. In [11] the evaluation of the
electromagnetic transients of a grid connected MTG system
that includes an AC-DC-AC converter is discussed. The load
following performance and modeling of split shaft micro-
turbine is developed in [12]. Fig. 1. Simulink model of the micro-turbine
This paper presents a dynamic modeling of MTG system
used genetic algorithm to determine the value of controller thyristor, obtained from (1) :
blocks coefficients in order to achieve the best control
3 2 3X c
performance. Vdc = Vac cosα − I dc (1)
π π
II. DYNAMIC MODELING OF THE MICROTURBINE
There are essentially two types of microturbine designs.
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 589

Vac is the RMS phase to phase voltage level on the ac side information. Each individual has an associated fitness
of the rectifier, X c is the reactance of the elements on the AC measure, typically representing an objective value. The
side of the rectifier; I dc is the DC-link current [13] . concept that fittest individuals in a population will produce
fitter offspring is then implemented in order to reproduce the
B. Inverter next population. Selected individuals are chosen for
reproduction or crossover at each generation, with an
The inverter is used to convert DC voltage to ac in an appropriate mutation factor to randomly modify the genes of
appropriate frequency, as mentioned before. When running in an individual, in order to develop the new population. The
parallel with the power grid, the grid itself fixes the result is another set of individuals based on the original
frequency. Fixed power control is used to control the subjects leading to subsequent populations with better
transmission. On a stand – alone system, the frequency will individual fitness. Therefore, the algorithm identifies the
be defined by the load. a voltage control could be applied to individuals with the optimizing fitness values, and those with
the inverter, and the inverter real and reactive power will be lower fitness will naturally get discarded from the population
defined automatically [14]. So depending on the status of the [15].
power plant, there are two different control strategies for the
inverter:
• PQ control strategy, when MTG system is in grid

connected operation;
• V-f control strategy, for operating in stand-alone
mode;
In this paper the grid connected system is considered and
the genetic algorithm is used to improve the control loop
operation. The inverter controls the active and reactive power
injected to the grid, which have to follow the set-points Pref
and Qref . These set-points can be chosen by customer or by a
remote control [13]. The initial value of Pref is 9kW, Qref is
3Kvar, then Pref steps up to 18kWand Qref steps up to
5.5Kvar in 0.5 s. The inverter is current controlled, and two
PI controllers are used to regulate the grid current
components, i.e. id and iq. Fig. 2 shows the Simulink model
of first PI controller and the inverter control system model is
shown in Fig. 3.
In section V, the values of the coefficients related to each
of these two PI controllers are determined, i.e. kp1 and ki1 for
Fig. 3. Inverter control scheme in grid connected mode
first PI controller and kp2 and ki2 for second one.
In this work we use genetic algorithm to determine the
values of PI controllers coefficients until the active and
reactive power injected to the grid follow Pref and Qref in the
best manner. The fitness function is the difference between
the active power injected and Pref. Some parameters which
should be given while using genetic algorithm are shown in
Table I.
TABLE I
GENETIC ALGORITHM PARAMETERS
Fig. 2. First PI controller schem Parameters Value / type

Population size 20
Type of selection Stochastic uniform
IV. GENETIC ALGORITHM Type of crossover Scattered (probability = 0.8)
Type of mutation Use constraint dependent default
Genetic algorithms are probabilistic search approaches
The best fitness amount was calculated 6.5179, although
which are founded on the ideas of evolutionary processes.
the amount is not constant and the nature of genetic algorithm
The GA procedure is based on the Darwinian principle of
causes it changes in another running. The results obtained by
survival of the fittest. An initial population is created
GA to minimize the fitness function are shown in Table II.
containing a predefined number of individuals or solutions,
each represented by a genetic string incorporating the variable
590
TABLE II
PROPOSED PI CONTROLLERS PARAMETERS
Parameters Kp1 Ki1 Kp2 Ki2
Values 4.9076 968.1035 0.2779 488.6155
To clarify the control strategy in grid connected operation,
a test system is used, as shown in appendix. The test system
has a nominal speed of 66000 rpm / min and a rated capacity
of 55kW. A load of 50 kW with the frequency of 50 Hz is
applied on the MTG system.
Figs. 4 (a) and 4 (b) shows the active power output when Fig. 5. The reactive power of phase a
GA is used. Fig. 5 shows the reactive power output in this
situation. Where, Fig. 4 (b) shows the variation details of the
active power injected over small duration. Fig. 6 and Fig. 7
show the active and reactive power, respectively in [14],
where GA is not used. It is clear that in Fig. 4 (b) , the active
power output reaches Pref after 0.0171 s when Pref steps up
to 18kW , but it takes more than 0.05 s in Fig. 6. The voltage
across the stator terminals of generator is shown in Fig. 8.
The variation of the current in phase a according to the
variation of set-points (Pref and Qref) is shown in Figs. 9 (a)
and 9 (b). Fig. 9 (b) shows the variation details of the current.
Fig. 6. The active power of phase a in [14]
(a)
Fig. 7. The reactive power of phase a in [14]
(b)
Fig. 4. ( a ) and ( b ). The active power of phase a
Fig. 8. The voltage across the stator terminals of generator
591
[7] H. Nikkhajoei and M.R. Iravani, “Modeling and analysis of a
microturbine generation system,” IEEE Power Engineering Society
Summer Meeting, vol .1, pp. 167 -169, 2002.
[8] R. Lasseter, “Dynamic models for micro-turbines and fuel cells,” in
Proc. IEEE PES Summer Meeting, vol. 2, Vancouver, Canada,2001,
pp.761-766
[9] A. Al-Hinai, K. Schoder, and A. Feliachi, “Control of grid-connected
split shaft microturbine distributed generator,” System
Theory,Proceedings of the 35th Southeastern Symposium, pp. 84 –88,
2003.
[10] Lasseter Robert, “Dynamic models for micro-turbines and fuel
cells,” Proceedings ,IEEE PES Summer Meeting, vol. 2, pp. 761-766,
July 2001, Vancouver, Canada
[11] H. Nikkhajoei and R. Iravani, “Electromagnetic transients of a
microturbine based distributed generation system,” in Proc.
International Conference on Power Systems Transients (IPST'05),
(a) Montreal, Canada,2001
[12] Y. Zhu and K. Tomsovic, “Development of models for analyzing the
load-following performance of microturbines and fuel cells,”
Journal of Electric Power Systems Research, vol. 62, pp. 1-11, 2002.
[13] Zhou Yunhai and Stenzel ,J, “Simulation of a microturbine generation
system for grid connected and islanding operation,” Power and Energy
Engineering Conferences ,2009. APPEEC 2009. Asia-Pacific ,27 – 31
march 2009, pp. 1 – 5
[14] Tao Yu and Jia-Peng tong, “Auto disturbance rejection control of
microturbine system,” Power and Energy Society Meeting-Conversion
and Delivery of Electrical Energy in the 21st Century, 2008 IEEE,
pp. 1 – 6, July.2008
[15] Kahouli,A., Guesmi,T., Hadj Abdallah and Ouali,A., “A genetic
algorithm PSS and AVR controller for electrical power system
stability,” System, Signal and Devices, 2009. SSD'09. 6th International
(b) Multi-Conference on, pp. 1-6, 23-26 March 2009.
Fig. 9. ( a ) and ( b ) The current of phase a
VI. CONCLUSION
A modelling of a single-shaft micro-turbine generation
system suitable for connected DG application is developed in
this paper. GA application in modelling of the control system
of the micro-turbine is also given. GA is applied in order to
improve the control system performance by determining the
values of the PI controller’s coefficients. The results show
that the developed model provides a useful tool suitable to
study the various performances of micro-turbines in grid
connected operation. They also show that the use of GA can
improve the control system operation.
REFERENCES
[1] Ghasemi,N., Abedi,M., Rastegar,H, and Gharepetian,G., “Hybrid
distributed generation units PEM fuel cell and microturbine,”
Industrial Technology, 2008. ICIT 2008, IEEE International
Conference on, pp.1-6, 21-24 Aprill 2008
[2] W. I. Rowen, “Simplified mathematical representations of heavy duty
gas turbines,” Journal of Engineering for Power, Trans. ASME, vol.
105, no. 4, pp. 865-869, October 1983.
[3] L.N. Hannet and Afzal Khan, “Combustion turbine dynamic model
validation from tests,” IEEE Trans. on Power Systems, vol.8, no.1, pp.
152-158, February 1993.
[4] Working Group on Prime Mover and Energy Supply Models for
System Dynamic Performance Studies, “dynamic models for combined
cycle plants in power system studies,” IEEE Trans. Power System, vol.
9, no.3, pp. 1698-1708, August 1994.
[5] L.N. Hannett, G. Jee, and B. Fardanesh, “A governor/turbine model for
a twin-shaft combustion turbine,” IEEE Trans. on Power System,
vol.10, no. 1, pp. 133-140, February 1995.
[6] L. M. Hajagos and G. R. Berube, “utility experience with gas turbine
testing and modeling,” in Proceedings, IEEE PES Winter Meeting, vol.
2, pp. 671-677 January /February 2001, Columbus, OH.
592
VII. APPENDIX
PM Generator Parameters:
• Rated power 55 kW.
• The inertia coefficient J=0.005 kg *m2.
• Stator: The resistance Rs =2.91*10-3 Ω , leakage

Inductance Ll=3.09*10-4 H, and d-axis, q-axis
Magnetizing inductances Lmd=Lmq =3.216*10-4 H
• Field: The field resistance Rf=0.0005 Ω and

leakage inductance Llfd' =7.12 H, both referred to
the stator.
• Dampers: The d-axis resistance Rkd =1.19*10-2 Ω

and leakage inductance Llkd' =4.9076*10-4 H.
• The q-axis resistance Rkq1' =2.0081*10-2 Ω and

leakage inductance Llkq1' =1.0365*10-3 H, All
these values are referred to the stator.
593
Dynamic Neural Network for AGC in Restructure

Power System
Kamel Sabahia and Easa Narimania and ahmad faramarzib
a Islamic Azad university- Mamaghan branch, Mamaghan, Iran. Kamel_sabahi@ee.kntu.ac.ir
b
Islamic Azad university- ardabil branch, ardabil, Iran. Ah_faramarzi@iauardabil.ac.ir
Abstract— In This paper, a new adaptive controller based provide best control performance over a wide range of
on unsupervised learning approach, named feedback error operating conditions. Thus, some authors have suggested
learning (FEL), is proposed for automatic generation classical adaptive controllers for LFC [5-8]. Despite the
control (AGC) of power system. In the FEL strategy, both
feedforward and feedback controller are used for control of promising results achieved by these adaptive controllers,
process, simultaneously. Generally, the feedback controller the control algorithms are complicated and require on-
contains the classic controller, i.e. PID controller, and the line some model identifications. Artificial neural
feedforward controller is a neural network based controller. network based controller have been used by some authors
In this paper dynamic neural network (DNN) is used for as an adaptive controllers [9-11]. These controllers have
feedforward controller. The DNN have some memory in his promising results, but they consumed much time in real-
structure and improved the overall performance. The
proposed FEL controller has been compared with the
time applications. Fuzzy logic controllers as a gain
conventional FEL (CFEL) controller and the PID scheduling schemes had been used for LFC [12-14]. In
controllers for two areas restructure power system. these methods, control parameters, the PI gains, can be
changed very quickly since parameters estimations are
Keywords—Automatic generation control, dynamic neural not required. Adaptive fuzzy gain scheduling has been
network, feedback error learning. proposed in [15-17], where the parameters of controller
tuned on- line with changes in power system parameters.
I. INTRODUCTION
In this paper we have used feedback error learning (FEL)
One of the principle aspects of automatic generation approaches for LFC. From a control theoretic viewpoint,
control (AGC) of power system is to maintain of FEL can be conceived as an adaptive control technique
frequency and power change over the tie lines at their [18]. The FEL controller contains a neural network feed-
scheduled values. It is, therefore, a simultaneous load forward controller (NNFC) and a conventional feedback
frequency control (LFC) [1]. In LFC problem each area controller (CFC). For a given set of inputs, neural
has its own generator or generators, and it is responsible network uses the error between the desired response from
for its own load and scheduled interchanges with the teacher, the output of CFC, and the networks actual
neighboring areas. The tie-lines are utilities for output to adjust the interconnection weights between each
contracted energy exchange between areas and provide neuron. In this study, to improve the performance of
inter-area support in abnormal conditions area load overall system the dynamic neural network (DNN) is
changes and abnormal conditions lead to mismatches in replaced instead of multilayer preceptorn (MLP), which
frequency and scheduled power interchanges between used in the original FEL scheme, at NNFC. This neural
areas. These mismatches have to be corrected by LFC, network has memory in its structures and consists of two,
which is defined as the regulation of the power output of initiatory and excitatory, units. A two area interconnected
generators within a prescribed area [2]; therefore the LFC system is assumed for demonstration. The proposed FEL
task is very important in restructure power systems. It is controller has been compared with the conventional FEL
well known that power systems are nonlinear and and PID controller. The remaining part of the paper is
complex, where the parameters are a function of the organized as follows. The dynamic model of a two-area
operating point, and the loading in Power system is never power system is presented in Section 2. An on-line
constant. Over the past decades, many techniques have adaptive controller based on feedback error learning
been developed for the LFC problem [2-17]. Most of approaches for two-area power system is derived in
these techniques were based on the classical proportional Section 3 and 4. Simulations results for a two-area power
and integral (PI) or proportional and integral, derivative system are presented in Section 5. Finally the conclusion
(PID) not only due to its simplicity, but also due to its is given in section 6.
success in a large number of industrial applications.
These controllers are tuned based on trial-error II. MODEL DESCRIPTION
approaches, there for have large frequency deviations. A In a traditional power system structure, the generation,
number of state feedback controllers based on linear transmission and distribution is owned by a single entity
optimal control theory, have been proposed to achieve called a vertically integrated Utility (VIU), which supplies
better performance [3, 4]. These fixed gain controllers are power to the customers at regulated rates. All such control
areas are interconnected by tie lines. Following a load
designed at nominal operating condition and fail to disturbance within an area, the frequency of that area
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 594

experiences a transient change, annd the feedback signals based on the possible contracts between Gencos
mechanism comes into play and generaates an appropriate and Discos, which carry inform mation as to which Genco
rise/lower signal to the turbine to maake the generation has to follow a load demand by which Disco.
follow the load. In steady state, the genneration is matched These new information siggnals were absent in the
with the load, driving the tie line pow wer and frequency traditional LFC scheme. As there
t are many Gencos in
deviations to zero. each area, the ACE signals haas to be distributed among
In the restructured power systems, thet VIU no longer them due to their ACE participaation factor in the LFC task
exists, however, the common objectivess, i.e. restoring the
∑α
n
frequency and the net interchanges to thheir desired values and ij

=1 .
for each control area are remained. In the vertically j =1
integrated power system structure, it is assumed that each The complete equations forr restructure power system
bulk generator unit is equipped with secondary control and dynamic model is illustrated in [28].
and frequency regulation requirementss, but in an open
energy market, Gencos may or may not participate in the III. ON-LINE ADAPTIVE CONTROLLER
C FOR LFC
AGC problem. In that environment, Geencos sell power to A. feedback error learning
various Discos at competitive price. Thuus, Discos have the
liberty to choose the Gencos for contract. The concept of a Originally, feedback error leaarning (FEL) was proposed
“generation participation matrix (GPM M)’’ is used for to from a biological perspective too establish a computational
make the visualization of contracts easier.
e The GPM model of the cerebellum for leearning motor control with
shows the participation factors of eaach Genco in the interval models in the central nervous
n system by Kawato
considered control area and each control area is in 1987[20]. Fig. 2 illusttrates the original FEL
determined by a Disco. The rows of a GPMG correspond to architecture.
Genco and the columns to control areas a that contract
power. For example, for a large scale power
p system with
m control area (Discos) and n Gencos, thet GPM will have
the following structure:
⎡ gpf 11 gpf 12 ... gpf 1 ( m − 1 ) gpf 1 m ⎤

⎢ ⎥
⎢ gpf 21 gpf 22
... gpf 2 ( m −1)
gpf 2m ⎥
GPM = ⎢ # # # # ⎥ (1)
⎢ ⎥
⎢ gpf ( n − 1 ) 1 gpf ( n −1) 2
... gpf ( n − 1 )( m − 1 )
gpf ( n − 1 )( m ) ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ gpf n 1 gpf n2
... gpf n ( m −1)
gpf nm
n ⎦⎥ Figure 2. The orriginal FEL scheme
Where gpfij refer to “generation paarticipation factor” The objective of control iss to minimize the error e
and shown the participation factor off Genco i in load between the command signal r and the plant output y.
flowing of area j (based on a specified bilateral contract). The input u to the plant is commposed of the output uff of
The sum of all the entries in a columnn in this matrix is feedforward controller Ф(w) which contain tunable
unity, i.e. parameters w, and ufb of conveentional feedback controller
(CFC). The FEL adopts two-degree-of-freedom-control
∑ gpf
n
ij
=1 ( 2) scheme, which has, as is well w known, robustness to
i =1 disturbance and perturbation. Moreover, FEL uses an
inverse model of the plant as a feedforward controller in
order to cope with the time deelay in sensing device [22].
The adaptation low for this neeural network feedforward
controller (NNFC) is very identical to the adaptive
controller. If the feedback mootor commands go to zero,
then generally the state error will
w also be zero. Therefore,
the feedback motor commandss as a measure of the error
for the inverse model and is used
u as the error signal to
modify it. By using a feedbaack controller, the system
makes essential use of the errorr between the desired plant
output and actual plant output too guide the learning.
B. control strategy for LFC prroblem
In the FEL, the CFC is esssential to guarantee global
Figure 1. The configuration of
o i-th area asymptotic stability of the whhole system. The stability
proof of this controller was disccussed by ref [21, 22]. This
stability proof was based on thee following Lemma:
To illustrate the effectiveness of thee proposed control
design and modeling strategy, a two control
c area power Lemaa1. Let L(s) be a strrongly positive real (SPR)
system is considered as a test system. It is assumed that transfer function and ζ(t) be an arbitrary time-varying
each control area includes two Gencos and a two Discos. A vector. Then, the solution z(t) of the differential equation
block diagram of the generalized AGC scheme
s for control dz (t )
= −ξ (t ) L( s )ξ (t ) T z (t ) (3)
area i will be obtained in a deregulateed environment as dt
shown in Fig. 1 [28]. The dashed line show the demand
595
Tends to a constant vector z0 such thaat ζ(t) z0→0. If ζ(t) given input pattern, an instanttaneous output is obtained
satisfies the so-called persistent excitatiion(PE) condition; through a linear or nonlinearr mapping procedure. The
the above z0 is equal to 0. history of these neural modeels is strangely related to
In order to improve the performannce of explicit for McCulloch-Pitts neuron moddel. In fact, a biological
control task, Luo et al. modified thee FEL scheme by neuron not only contains a noonlinear mapping operation
adopting both the feedback errors and the outputs of the on the weighted sum of the inpuut signals but also has some
feedback controller to tune the feeedforward control dynamic processes such as the state signal feedback, time
parameters so as to realize the inversee of the controlled delays, hysterics, and limit cyycles. To emulate such a
object [23]. In the adaptive law proposeed by Luo, in order complex behavior, a number off dynamic neuron (DN) has
to realize the convergence of the Invverse model, it is been proposed by M.Gupta [25]. Basic concept and
necessary for the desired signal to sattisfy PE condition definitions of DNs were descrribed in [26]. The main a
during adaptation process. However, in the regulation type of these neurons illustratedd in Fig. 4.
problems the desired signal set as zeroo, thus this signal
cannot serve as a qualified input forr the feedforward
controller. For this reason, ref [24] dessigned an adaptive
control strategy for a typical regulation problem, inverted
pendulum balancing, that the NNFC adoopting inputs from
error signals, output of CFC and output of system. The
objective of AGC design in a restructuree power system are
damping of the frequency and tie-line power deviations in
such a way to minimize transient osccillation under the
different load conditions. Thus, frequeency and ACE are
chosen as the NNFC inputs. Controller design for AGC
can be consider as a regulation problem m. Based on above
discussions, in this section we design thhe control strategy
depicted in Fig. 3 for FEL in AGC probllem.
Figure 4. The structuree of a dynamic neuron
From this figure, DN com mposed of two units: the

inhibitory (negative) unit (Neti) and excitatory (positive)
unit (NetE). The excitatory uniits received the summation
of positive Inputs and a delay of
o own outputs and mines a
delay of inhibitory outputs by multiple to the determined
weights. Similar, the inhibiitory units received the
Figure 3. Proposed FEL for LFC
C problem
summation of negative inputs and
a a delay of own outputs
From this figure, the NNFC acquirres information in and mines a delay of excitatoryy outputs by multiple to the
three ways: 1) From the output of CF FC that adjusts the determined weights.
NNFC as does in the original FEL, 2) from f the deviation The final output of this neuron
n can be written as
of frequency and 3) from the feedback errore signal (ACE) follow:
that serves as an additional input signal. O (t ) = F (OT (t )) (7 )
The response of the CFC, with connsideration of PID
controller, is formulated as: Where
u fb i = − ( K p ACE i + K d A C E i + K i
∫ ACCE )
i
(4)
O T (t ) = O I (t ) + O E (t ) (8)
This output of PID signals is useed for update the
unknown parameters of NNFC parameteers. F is nonlinear sigmoid funcction and OE, OI represent
NNFC is expressed as: the output of excitatory and innhibitory units, respectively
u ffi = Φ ( w, I i ) (5) and can be written as:
Where w is the synaptic weight and I is the input vector
for NNFC and for each area can be writtten as follow: O E (t ) = a 0 X e (t ) + a 11 O E (t − 1) − b12 O I (t − 1) (9)
Ii = [ Δfi, ACEi] ( 6)
O I (t ) = b0 X i (t ) + b11 O I (t − 1) − a12 O E (t − 1)
IV. IMPROVED THE PERFORMANCE OF FEL FOR LFC And
O E (t ) = Net E (t ) , O I (t ) = Net I (t
() (10)
A. Dynamic neural network for NNFC
As the core of the adaptive controoller, a three-layer Where the parameters of ao,aa11 ,a12 , bo ,b11 , b12 are the
neural network, multi-layer perceptron, was adapted in the weights of DN and Xe , Xi are the positive and negative
NNFC by ref [20, 24]. These neuraal networks have inputs, respectively.
conventional (perceptron) neurons in layers that for a
596
In this study, the conventional neuroon in hidden layer, Also, assume the Discos contract
c with the available
which was used by past studies, is replaced by illustrated Gencos according to the following GPM:
DN. Therefore, the dynamic neural networkn (DNN) is
adopted in NNFC for LFC problem. Thee NNFC is updated ⎡0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 ⎤
so as to realize the inverse model of conntrolled plant after ⎢ ⎥
0.25 0.25 0.25 0.0 ⎥
learning. In on-line applications, the FEEL controller don’t GPM= ⎢
⎢0.0 0.25 0.5 0.5 ⎥
need to information about the poweer system model, ⎢ ⎥
where, when the neural network is used as a direct ⎢⎣0.5 0.25 0.0 0.25 ⎥⎦
controller the sensitivity of plant is needed for training of
the network[27]. The structure of the DNND which is used
in the NNFC is shown in Fig. 5. From this figure we use The frequency deviation (∆ ∆f) and area control error
three DNs in hidden layer and two inputts for this network. (ACE) of the closed loop system, s for three control
methods (PID, conventional FEL F (CFEL) and proposed
controller), are shown in Fig. 7-- 10, respectively.
It can be seen that the propossed controller have the best
performances.
0.4
Proposed FEL
0.3 CFEL
PID
0.2
0.1
0
Δf1
-0.1
Figure 5. The structure of dynamic neuural network -0.2
-0.3
Interested readers can find details for the learning
algorithm in [27]. -0.4
V. SIMULATION RESU ULTS -0.5

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
For illustrate the efficiency of prroposed controller Time(s)
design a simulation was performed. For this, a two control Figure 7. The frequency deviattion of first area with three controllers
area power system, shown in Fig. 6, is considered
c as a test
system. It is assumed that each control area includes two 0.5
Gencos, which use the same ACEi paarticipation factor. Proposed FEL
Also, the nominal parameters of the tw wo-area restructure 0.4 CFEL
PID
power system which have been used in the simulation are 0.3
given in Table 1 and 2.
0.2
0.1
Δ f2
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time(s)
Figure 6. The structure of dynamicc neural network
Figure 8. The frequency deviattion of 2nd area with three controllers
The closed loop performance is tessted in the face of
step contracted load demands. Each area is equipped with
proposed controller at Figure 3. It is assumed that a large
step load is demanded by Discos of areas 1 and 2 as
follow:
∆PL1= 0.1 pu, ∆PL2= 0.2 pu, ∆PL3= 0.11 pu, ∆PL4= 0.2pu
597
Table 1
0.15
Proposed FEL
CFEL Applied data for Gencos
0.1
PID
0.05 Ri (Hz/pu) Tti (s) Tgi αi
0 Genco i (for i=1:4) 2.4 0.36 0.06 0.5

Ace1
-0.05
-0.1
Table 2
-0.15
Applied control area parameters
-0.2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time(s) Kpi Tpi Bi Tij
Figure 9. The ACE deviation of first area with three controllers Area i (for i=1,2) 120 20 0.5 0.545
0.2
proposed FEL
0.15 CFEL
PID
0.1
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0.05
0 [1] H. Saadat , Power System Analysis , McGraw-Hill , 2002

Ace2
[2] Kundur, P,'Power system stability and control, McGraw Hill, New
-0.05
York, 1994
-0.1 [3] Aldeen, M., and Trinh, H., 1994, Load-Frequency Control of
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71–88.
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-0.25
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599
Sizing and Locating Distributed Generations

for Losses Minimization and Voltage
Stability Improvement
Karar Mahmoud , Mamdouh Abdel-Akher and Abdel-Fatah A.Ahmed
Aswan Faculty of Engineering, South Valley University
81542 ASWAN, Egypt
Abstract— The paper presents analysis of distribution

system connected with distributed generations. The study
addresses aspects related to optimal sizing and location of
DG units for losses minimization and voltage stability
improvements. Many cases have investigated to highlight
the relationship between the optimum size and location for
losses minimization and the optimum size and location for
stability improvements. The student version of the AMPL
software is used in the proposed study. The objective Figure 1. Distribution system connected with DG
function is formulated with full consideration of both
quality and inequality constraints. On the other hand, the
stability index criterion is used for calculating the best With the rapid increase in electric power demand,
location and size for system stability improvements. The 90 distribution systems are usually operates near their
bus test system from the literature is used for the different boundary limits [6]. Consequently, the voltage stability
studied cases. The results show that calculating minimum issue become not only of interest in transmission systems,
system losses is not necessary to achieve coherence but also in distribution networks. The DGs can offer an
improvement for the voltage stability problem. opportunity to increase the capacity of existing
distribution systems. However, the DGs placement for
Keywords – Distributed Generations; DG size; Optimization
power losses minimization may not guarantee similar
technique; Stability index
enhancement to the voltage stability phenomena. The
focus of this paper is to investigate the optimal size and
location for distributed generations and their impact on
I. INTRODUCTION both distribution system losses and voltage stability
problem. The AMPL optimization tool is used to conduct
Due to the rapid increase of distributed generations many results to assess the correct location and size for
(DGs), distribution systems can no longer be modeled as DGs. In addition, the stability index criterion is used to
passive networks receiving electric power from high find the best location for DGs. Many test cases are studied
voltage transmission networks. The DGs are considered using the 90 bus system from the literature.
one of the fastest-growing technologies in power
industries. They are currently being connected and
implemented in many distribution utilities worldwide. The II. DISTRIBUTION LOSSES MINIMIZATION
DGs installation is expected to increase accompanied with
a reduction in the cost of these technologies. A. Problem formulation
DG units are usually allocated and sized such that The problem is to determine allocation and size of DG
benefit the distribution systems through enhancing the which minimizes the distribution power losses under the
system reliability. In this context, DGs are usually placed condition that number of DGs and total capacity of DGs
close to the load centers. A common strategy to find the are known.
size and location of DGs is to minimize the power loss of Consider a distribution system connecting to as in Fig.
the distribution network [1- 2]. In [3], the authors 1. This system is supplying from the grid and a single
developed a method “2/3 rule” to find the optimal size and distribution generator.
location of DGs into a distribution system for minimum
power losses. This rule is simple and easy to use, but it Pgen − Ploss = PD
(1)
cannot be applied directly to a feeder with distribution
loads or meshed networks. There are also some techniques Where
which use power-flow tools for the optimization problem Pgen = PDG + Pgrid (2)
[4-5]. These methods are simple since they assume that
every load bus is connected to a distribution generator. From (1) and (2),
PDG + Pgrid − Ploss = PD (3)
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 600

Figure 3. Two node test system
Subject to:
∑ Vi V j (Gij cos(θij ) + Bij sin(θij )) = 0

NDG
i − Pi −
PG (9)
D
i =1
N
Qi − Qi − ∑ Vi V j ⎛⎜ Gij cos( θij ) − Bij sin(θij )⎞⎟ = 0 (10)
Figure2. Total power losses variation with DG size for a G D i =1 ⎝ ⎠
distribution system
i = 1 2 " NB −1 (11)
The above equation can be rewritten as:
PDG + Pgrid + Ploss = PD + 2 Ploss (4) Vi ≤ V ≤ Vi ,i = 1,2,...NB -1 (12)
Min i Max
⎛ i ⎞
Since the right hand side for the above equation is ⎜ PDG ⎟ ≤ ⎛⎜ Pi ⎞⎟ ≤ ⎛⎜ Pi ⎞⎟ , i = 1,2,...NDG (13)
function of the total demand power and total power loss. ⎝ ⎠ Min ⎝ DG ⎠ ⎝ DG ⎠ Max
F = PD + 2 Ploss (5) ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
⎜P ⎟
⎜ grid ⎟ ≤ ⎜⎜ P ⎟ ≤ ⎜P
⎟ ⎜
⎟
⎟ (14)
Where the function F equals to the DG and grid ⎝ ⎠Min ⎝ grid ⎠ ⎝ grid ⎠Max
generated power, DG power, and the total power loss. The
demand power (PD) is constant under a certain loading
condition. Thus, the minimum value for the function F is Where KDG ,KL and KG is the weighting factors of
defined at the point of minimum real power loss. This equality constraint. It is noticeable that, when the values
function can also be expressed by this formula: of the three weighting factors is equal, the minimum value
of this function OF is minimum at the same DG size
F = PDG + Pgrid + Ploss (6) which the minimum total power losses is found. However,
with different Weighting factors, the minimum value of
Thus, the minimum value for the function F is also at the function OF is not at minimum value of the total
the minimum value of the Ploss. The value of the generated power loss. The minimization problem (7) is subjected to
power of the grid and the DG has no effect into the some technical constraints (9-14). The real and reactive
minimum value for this function. Figure (2) shows the power injection in buses are treated as equality
variation of total power losses and function F with the DG constraints. The voltage limits at buses and real and
power output for a distribution system. The curve shows reactive generation limits of generators are treated as
that. The minimum value for the power losses and the inequality constraints.
minimum value for the function F is at the same optimal
DG size.
From the above detailed analysis we can consider that III. VOLTAGE STABILITY INDEX
the minimum value of the function F is at the minimum
value for the total power loss. However, this is true only If we considered a two node test system shown in Fig.
for equal Weighting factor of the DG generated power, 3, the static voltage stability index L from a simple power
grid generated power and the power loss. Thus, for system can be calculated as in [6]
different weighting factors of the three members, the
minimum value of the Function F will not at the minimum
value of the total power loss. [(
L j = 4 X Pj − R Q j )2 + (X Q j − R Pj )Vi 2 ] Vi4 (15)
B. Objective Function
Where:
The mathematical formulation of objective function can
be written as: X: reactance of branch j
Minimize R: resistance of branch j
Pj: active power at the receiving bus j
j
NDG NL
OF = K DG ∑ i
PDG + KL ∑P loss + K G Pgrid (7) Qj: reactive power at the receiving bus j
i =1 j =1 Vi: voltage at receiving bus
K DG + K L + K G = 1 (8)
601
13 18 21
5 7 9 11 12 17 19 20 28
Slack Bus
1 2 3 4 6 8 10 14 16 22 24 26 27
15 23 25 74 76
29
30 35
31 32 58 73 75 77
34
33
56 57 69 70 71
36 80
37 38 72
39 40
59 78 79 81
41 42
43 60
82
44 47 64
61
46 49 48 62 63 66 65 86
45 83
50 51 85 88 86
67 68 84
63 53
89 90
54 55
.
Figure 4. The 90 bus distribution system
6.82 0.6
OF
6.8 P loss
0.5
6.78 Optimal
6.76 Point
Power Loss (MW)

0.4
6.74
OF
6.72 0.3
6.7
0.2
6.68
6.66
0.1
6.64
6.62 0
11
2
5
8
14
17
20
23
26
29
32
35
38
41
44
47
50
53
56
59
62
65
68
71
74
77
80
83
86
89
Bus
Figure 5. The objectives function and total power loss values for each optimal DG size for 90 bus distribution system
Lj stands for the voltage stability index of branch j. The branch corresponding to the index value L is called
This formula has an advantage that the effect of node the weakest branch. The voltage collapse must start from
voltages is taken into account in the expression. The the weakest branch. Therefore, the margin of voltage
voltage stability index of total distribution system is stability can be obtained according to the deviation
defined by between L and the critical value 1.0.
L = Max{L1 L2 .... Ln −1}
(16)
602
Table I Losses for different case studies the optimum size of the DG at bus 10 is of 10.99 MW.
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4
The system total loss in this case is 0.3 MW. However,
there is no any improvements in terms of the stability has
DG Bus - 10 42 42 been made due to this optimal sizing and placement for
Power losses reduction. The stability index is found to be of a
0.50 0.30 0.42 0.41
loss (MW) 0.24 pu at bus 42 which is similar to that of the base case
Grid
19.95 8.77 16.87 17.75
Power (MW)
0.25
DG Case 1
- 10.99 3.00 2.11
Power (MW) 0.2
Weakest
42 42 43 43
Branch 0.15
L
Index L 0.24 0.24 0.11 0.11 0.1
0.05
12
17
22
27
32
37
42
47
52
57
62
67
72
77
82
87
2
7
0.25
Case 2
0.2
0.15
L
0.1
0.05
0
Figure 6 the stability index variation at different DG size
2
7
12
17
22
27
32
37
42
47
52
57
62
67
72
77
82
87
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 0.25
Case 3
The 90 bus distribution system in ref. [6] is used to 0.2
study different case studies (fig. 4). The system under
study contains 90 buses and 89 branches. It is a radial 0.15
system with the total load of 19.45MW and 9.72 MVAR.
L
The nonlinear programming problem is solved by using 0.1

the student version of the AMPL solver [7]. The following
0.05
different cases are simulated and studied:
0
Case 1: Without DG.
2
7
12
17
22
27
32
37
42
47
52
57
62
67
72
77
82
87
Case 2: Connecting a DG with optimal size and
0.25
location for minimum power loss. Case 4
Case 3: Connecting a DG at the weakest branch of 0.2
the test system. 0.15

Case 4: Connecting a DG with optimal size at the
L
0.1
weakest branch of the test system.
0.05
Table 1 shows a summary for results calculated from
different studied cases. In case 1, the classical power-flow 0
analysis is performed and the total losses are calculated.
12
17
22
27
32
37
42
47
52
57
62
67
72
77
82
87
2
7
Also for the stability index is calculated using (15). The

power supplied from the grid in Case 1 equals to 19.95 Bus ID
MW with the absence of any DGs. The losses in this case Figure 7 the Stability index for different cases
equals to 0.5 MW and the highest stability index is of 0.24
pu at bus 42.
In case 2, the objective is to find the correct size of the study.
DG such that the losses are minimum. In this test, the In case 3, the DG is allocated at the weakest at bus 42
optimum size of the DG is obtained at all buses of the witout any considerstion to the system losses. The size of
feeder. Fig. 5 shows the variation for both the value of the the DG has been changed in steps to find the best value of
objective function FO as well as the value of the losses at the stability index, this is shown in Fig. 6. The stability
each bus. The figure shows that the best location of the index value in this case found to be 0.11 as given in Table
DG is at bus 11 at which minimum losses occurs whereas 1. Altough, the objective function in (6) does not
considered but a reduction in losses has been made due to
603
1.02
1 Case 1 Case 2
Case 3 Case 4
0.98
Voltage (Pu)
0.96
0.94
0.92
0.9
0.88
0.86
11
16
21
26
31
36
41
46
51
56
61
66
71
76
81
86
1
6
Bus
Figure 8 Voltage profile for different studied cases
allocating the DG at bus 42. The total losses in this case ACKNOWLEDGMENT
found to be of 0.43 MW.
Case 4 is the final case study. This case kept to choose The authors gratefully acknowledge the contribution of
the location of the DG at the weakest or near by the the Science and Technology Development Fund (STDF)
weakest branch. Then, the size of the DG is determined under project no. 346 and the US Egypt Joint Science and
using the optimization solver basedon the objective Technolgy Fund Under the project no. 839 for providing
function given by (6). The results for this test is also has research funding to the work reported in this paper.
been recorded in Table 1. In this case study, the losses has
been decresed with a small value and the stability index
have the same value as case 3. The stability index at all REFERENCES
busses for different studied cases is exhibited in Fig. 7. [1] Mithulananthan N, Oo Than, Van Phu Le. Distributed generator
The fgiure indicates that the recution in system losses does placement in power distribution system using genetic algorithm to
not gurantee oveall system reliabity improvement reduce losses. TIJSAT 2004;9(3):55–62.
[2] Griffin T, Tomosovic K, Secrest D, Law A. Placement of
condidering the system voltage stability. Finally, Figure 8 dispersed generations systems for reduced losses. In: Proceedings
shows the volatge profile for different cases, the figure of the 33rdHawaii international conference on sciences, Hawaii,
exhibts a volatge improvemnet when the DG is installed at 2000.
bus 42 in Case 3 and Case 4. [3] H. L. Willis, “Analytical methods and rules of thumb for modeling
DG-distribution interaction,” in Proc. 2000 IEEE Power
Engineering Society Summer Meeting, vol. 3, Seattle,WA, July
VII. CONCLUSION
2000, pp. 1643–1644.
The paper has presented investigation when more than [4] N. S. Rau and Y.-H.Wan, “Optimum location of resources in
one aspect is considered for DG sizing and allocation. In distributed planning,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 9, pp. 2014–
this paper, both losses reduction as well as voltage 2020, Nov. 1994.
stability are considered. The initial results shows that [5] J. O. Kim, S. W. Nam, S. K. Park, and C. Singh, “Dispersed
more comprehensive studies are required for that topic to generation planning using improved hereford ranch algorithm,”
allocate the DG with considering other important aspects Elect. Power Syst. Res. , vol. 47, no. 1, pp. 47–55, Oct. 1998.
rather than considering only the distribution system losses. [6] H. Chen, J. Chen, D. Shi, and X. Duan, “Power flow study and
The initial results obtained here shows that the allocation voltage stability analysis for distribution systems with distributed
of the DG is not necessary be based on the system losses generation,” in Proc. IEEE PES General Meeting, Jun. 2006, pp.
amount, however the size should be computed based on 1–8.
minimum loses as have been demonstrated by different [7] A Modeling Language for Mathematical Programming, the
studied cases. The allocation and sizing of the DG website can be : http://www.ampl.com/
according the system did not improve the system voltage
stability problem. On the other hand, when the DG is
located at the weakest branch and sized according to the
minimum losses, improvements has been made in both
system voltage stability as well as system losses.
604
Compensating Capacitor Design for Improving

Angle Stability of DGs in a Micro-grid using
Trajectory Sensitivities Approach
Ali Bidram, M.E. Hamedani Golshan and Ahmadreza Tabesh
Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, Iran
a.bidram@ec.iut.ac.ir, hgolshan@cc.iut.ac.ir, a.tabesh@cc.iut.ac.ir
Abstract— This paper presents an algorithm for locating investigated by identifying vulnerable machines.
and design of a capacitive compensator to improve angle Trajectory sensitivity method can be simply formulated
stabilities of synchronous machine DGs in a micro-grid. The for complex systems, which is a significant advantage.
proposed algorithm uses the notion of trajectory sensitivities Furthermore, system parameters that affect stability can be
to determine the sensitivity of DGs rotor angles versus the
susceptance of a compensator. Then, via the sensitivity
readily studied by using this method [8].
analysis of the micro-grid subsequent to a pre-specified Herein, we propose an algorithm to determine the
fault, the minimum required capacitor banks to maintain minimum required compensation using the trajectory
the angle stability of DGs is calculated. The algorithm sensitivities analysis. The algorithm calculates the
formulations can be used for a micro-grid with an arbitrary sensitivities of rotors angles and speeds subsequent to a
number of DGs and under various fault scenarios. The pre-specified contingency which is assumed to be a three-
algorithm also works for both grid-connected and phase to ground fault without loss of generality. The
autonomous (islanded) modes of a micro-grid. Capabilities
of the algorithm are investigated using a modified compensator is located on the bus of a DG with the most
benchmark system of the IEEE standard 399-1997. The advance rotor angle. The initial amount of reactive power
validity of the algorithm is verified based on time-domain to be injected is estimated based on the rotor angles of the
simulations of the benchmark study system using MATLAB most and least advance generators. Then, using
software tools. sensitivities of rotor angles, as elaborated in section III,
Keywords — Micro-grid Stability, Sensitivity Analysis, the minimum reactive power for maintaining the angle
Trajectory Sensitivities, Islanded Mode, Islanding Process, stability will be determined. This algorithm is applicable
Grid-connected Mode, Capacitive Compensator Design. to a micro-grid in both islanded and grid-connected
modes.
I. INTRODUCTION To verify the validity of the proposed algorithm, it has
A micro-grid is a small power system including loads been applied to an IEEE benchmark study system which
and distributed generators (DGs) which are inter- has been modified for a micro-grid study. The algorithm
connected via a distribution system. The micro-grid is was used for calculation of the required capacitive
originally connected to a stiff grid; however, it can also compensation which maintains the stability of the study
autonomously operate in an islanded mode due to system following a pre-specified fault (Section IV). The
disturbances and/or pre-planned events. A micro-grid is benchmark study system was simulated in MATLAB
expected to appropriately operate under both grid- environment. The impacts of calculated capacitors on the
connected and islanded (autonomous) modes.[1-3]. system stability were investigated via time-domain
This paper deals with the first swing angle stability of simulations, showing that the algorithm successfully
micro-grids including synchronous DGs under both grid- determines the minimum required capacitor banks.
connected and islanded modes. Common methods for
II. MICRO-GRID MODEL AND SENSITIVITY THEORY
maintaining the first swing stability are:
i) dedicating appropriate mechanical input power; A. Micro-grid Model
ii) choosing faster protective schemes for decreasing fault A micro-grid is a small power system, therefore, similar
clearing time; to a power system, a micro-grid can be modeled by
iii) inserting VAr using capacitive compensators [4]. differential-algebraic equations (DAE) as: [7], [9]:
In this paper, improving the stability margins using x f x, y, λ 1
capacitive compensators is of concern. The idea is to use g x, y, λ , s x, y, λ 0
trajectory sensitivities analysis for calculating the required 0 2
g x, y, λ , s x, y, λ 0
amount of reactive power to maintain stability of the where x, y, and λ represent the system states (e.g. rotor
micro-grid after clearing a fault. angles and speeds), algebraic variables (e.g. bus voltages
In [5-7] some applications of trajectory sensitivities and angles), and the system parameters (e.g. line
analysis to power systems and stability studies are reactances, and faults clearing time), respectively. The
introduced. In [6] a few critical parameters of a power state vector x, is a continuous vector, however, the
system are estimated by trajectory sensitivities analysis algebraic variables, y, may include discontinuity at
and the impacts of DGs on system stability are switching instants. The functions is a switching function
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 605

such that at s x, y, λ 0, the status of micro-grid Using (17) and (18) the post-switching trajectory
changes from one mode to another. sensitivities will be obtained as:
Assume the initial conditions: x τ x τ f f τ 17
x t x , y t y , 3
where and satisfis : y τ g τ g τ x τ 18
g x ,y ,λ 0. 4 The procedure used for calculating the trajectory
By defining new vectors and matrices as: sensitivities subsequent to a switching instant is similar to
x f that of used for obtaining the trajectory sensitivities
x , f , 5 before switching instant. The initial values for this
λ 0 procedure are calculated using (17) and (18).
Equations (1) and (2) can be represented in a compact
forms as: C. System Modeling Example
x f x, y 6 To explain the modeling method, we use a simple
g x, y , s x, y 0 single machine system connected to an infinite bus via an
0 7 impedance, as shown in Fig. 1.The contingency is
g x, y , s x, y 0 defined as a three-phase fault at the machine terminals,
Where the initial conditions for (6) and (7) are: which is occurred at t=0 and cleared at t=tcl. A reactive
x t x , y t y . 8 power compensator will be connected to Bus 1
immediately after clearing the fault. The first swing
B. Trajectory Sensitivities model of the system is:
Trajectory sensitivity analysis deals with the variations Mδ Dδ PM 0 t
of a system variables due to the variations in the system EV
parameters and its initial conditions. Before a switching Mδ Dδ PM sinδ t t 19
X X BX X
instant, the system model is:
where PM is the machine mechanical input power in
x f x, y 9 per unit. The model can be re-arranged to the DAE form
g x, y 0 10 by augmenting B into state variables as:
By differentiating (9) and (10) with respect to the x x
initial conditions x , we deduce: 1 EV
x f t x f t y 11 x P y sinX DX
M M X X X X X
0 g t x g t y 12 x 0
f , f , g and g are time varying matrices x 1 20
calculated along the system trajectories. The trajectories x t y
g y y 0
x and y are defined as the system trajectory
0 x t y (21)
sensitivities. Initial conditions for x can be calculated g y 0
by differentiating (8) with respect to initial conditions: y 1
x t I 13 where x δ ,x δ ,x B, x t and M is:
H
where I is an identity matrix. M 22
Assuming that g t in (12) is a nonsingular matrix πf
And we assume V 230 kV, S 100 MVA, H 6s,
along the trajectories, then from (12) the initial conditions
X ′ 0.1 pu, X 0.5 pu, f 60 Hz and D 0 as the
for y is deduced as:
system parameters for system analysis in the following
y t g t g t 14 section.
Using trajectory sensitivities method, one can calculate
As a summary, to obtain the trajectory sensitivities, the required reactive power compensation to maintain
equations (9) to (12) can be solved for x and y , using angle stability of a micro-grid at different contingencies.
(8), (13) and (14) as the initial conditions. The method is elaborated in Section III.
After a switching instant, the trajectory sensitivities
will change due to the switching action. To obtain the III. CAPACITOR DESIGN ALGORITHM
post-switching trajectory sensitivities, τ is introduced Fig. 2 shows the block diagram of a micro-grid with m
[8]: synchronous DGs. Assuming the rotor angle of the jth
S g τ g τ x τ
τ 15
S g τ g τ f
where τ is the switching instant, and is defined as:
∂S ∂S ∂S
S … 16
∂y ∂y ∂y
Figure 1. Single machine-infinite bus system
606
calculation of rotor angles if the sign of difference
between two adjacent samples of relative rotor angle
between the most and the least DGs changes before
reaching π, the system will be stable and otherwise it will
be unstable. Checking the stability of these four points an
approximate interval around minimum required B for
preventing angle instability is obtained.
Step 5. Choose two different B from the specified
interval in step 4 and calculate the minimum required B
to prevent angle instability. As B decreases, the
sensitivity norm variations rapidly increase. Therefore it
is more appropriate to work with plot of the reciprocal of
Figure 2. Micro-grid with m synchronous DGs the maximum of SN over the post-fault period as defined
[6]:
machine as reference.We define the sensitivity norm SN 1
as: η 26
max SN
For two values of B and B assume that η
∂δ ∂ω η . Then, a line can be drawn through the two points
SN 23
∂B ∂B B , η /η and B , 1 . The peak sensitivity norm will
significantly increase at the boundary between stable and
where δ and ω represent rotor angle, and rotor speed unstable conditions which means η approaches zero as
of the ith machine, respectively. the system becomes unstable. Therefore, the minimum
Using the nonlinear dynamic model of power systems, required for preventing angle instability can be defined
it has been shown [6] that as the system approach at the intersection of the line with the horizontal axis in
instability the amplitude of the sensitivity norm increases. the B η plane, B in Fig. 3.
We use this fact as a measure of stability to determine To clarify the proposed algorithm, step 1 to 5 were
appropriate quantity for B. applied to a simple single machine system as shown in
If we plot SN as a function of time for different values Fig. 1 to calculate the minimum required susceptance of a
of B, for a stable system this norm is small whereas the compensator. The parameters of this system are as:
amplitude of SN increases as the system approaches S 100 MVA, V 230 kV, X ′ 0.1 pu,
instability. On the boundary between stable and unstable
X 0.5 pu, PM 1 pu, H 6 sec, t 0.25 s
conditions the amplitude of SN is significantly high
compared to stable condition. The minimum B to prevent We assume that the active and reactive powers
angle instability in a micro-grid subsequent to a pre- delivered to the infinite bus are respectively 1 pu and 0 pu.
specified contingency can be calculated using the For the three-phase contingency as explained in Section
following algorithm: II, it can be shown for B=0, the generator becomes
unstable subsequent to this contingency. According to the
Step 1. Calculate the rotor angles for a pre-specified
step 3 of the algorithm the initial value for B is equal to 5
contingency to find the most and the least advanced DGs.
pu. The sensitivity norms are calculated and plotted at
Step 2. Locate the capacitive bank at the bus of the DG four different values of B less than 5 pu. These norms are
with the most advance rotor angle. depicted in Fig. 4.
Step 3. Estimate an initial value for B as: Figure 5 shows the variation of the rotor angle
B B ΔB 25 corresponding to each value of B. The plots show that
where is the susceptance of a compensator before when the system is unstable the sensitivity norm function
fault occurs and herein, we assume B 0 without loss exponentially increases which is not the case under a
of generality. To prevent angle instability a suitable value stable condition. Based on step 4, the minimum required
for is [10]: value of B is approximately determined in the range from
1 to 2 pu. Choosing B =1.75 pu and B =2 pu as two
δ δ different points, the minimum required B 1.6 pu is
ΔB ,δ π 24
∂δ obtained using the step 5 of the algorithm.
∂B
where i is the most advanced and j is the least

advanced synchronous DG of the micro-grid. δ is the
relative rotor angle of two DGs under the steady state
conditions. A micro-grid is considered unstable when the
relative rotor angles between the most and the least
advanced synchronous DGs of the micro-grid becomes
greater than π. Depending on the system features angles
less than π also can be selected as the critical angle.
Considering this fact ΔB is calculated.
Step 4. Check the stability of system for four different
values of B less than B with equal differences. In the Figure 3. Graphical definition of critical B
607
a)B=1 pu a)B=1 pu
14 2000
1800
relative rotor angle(degree)

12
1600
sensitivity norm
10 1400
1200
8
1000
6
800
4 600
400
2
200
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
b)B=2 pu b)B=2 pu
140 150

120
100
sensitivity norm
100
80
50
60
40
0
20
-50
0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
c)B=3 pu c)B=3 pu
80 140
120
70
100
60
sensitivity norm
80
50 60
40 40
20
30
0
20
-20
10 -40
0 -60
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
d)B=4 pu d)B=4 pu
70 120
100
60
80
sensitivity norm
50
60
40 40
30 20
0
20
-20
10
-40
0 -60
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
t(s) t(s)
Figure 4. SN for different values of B Figure 5. Relative rotor angle for different values of B
608
Figure 6. Micro-grid test system.
was cleared by the circuit breakers at the both ends of

IV . APPLICATION EXAMPLE that line after 0.2 s such that the micro- grid still operated
A. Study System in its grid-connected mode. The variations of the rotor
angles of DGs are depicted in Fig. 7(a), showing that the
The bench mark system of IEEE standards 339-1997 micro-grid becomes unstable without using any reactive
was adopted and modified as the study system [11], [1]. power compensator.
Fig. 6 depicts the single line diagram of the study which
is modified to cover both autonomous and grid-connected We applied the proposed algorithm to this micro-grid,
operation modes of a micro-grid. The system includes a resulting in a minimum B=1.1 pu at Bus 1 should
13.8-kV three-feeder distribution subsystem which is stabilize the system. Fig. 7(b) shows that the DGs angles
connected to a large network through a 69-kV radial line. when the reactive compensator is in service. These
The 13.8-kV substation bus bar is connected to the main bounded angles show that the micro-grid preserved its
grid through the substation transformer and a 69-kV line. stability following the fault in a grid-connected mode
The network at the end of the 69-kV line is represented which shows the algorithm properly works in this mode.
by a 69-kV bus with 1000-MVA short-circuit capacity. C. Islanded Mode
System loads are linear RL branches and two 6 MVA
synchronous machine are used as DGs in the micro-grid. In this scenario, a three-phase to ground fault was
Conventional two-axis model of synchronous machines applied on 69 kV line near the PCC. This fault is cleared
with H=3 s were used for time-domain simulation of the by the operations of the circuit breakers at the both ends
system. The following output powers were allocated to of the 69 kV line after 0.22 s. Following the activation of
the DGs corresponding to the grid-connected and the circuit breakers, the micro-grid was operating in an
islanded modes of the micro-grid: islanded mode. Again, the graphs of DGs rotor angles
(Fig. 8(a)) show that the micro-grid became unstable
since no reactive compensator was in service. Then, using
Connected mode: P DG 5.5 MW, P DG 1 MW, the proposed algorithm, a capacitive compensator with
Islanded mode: P DG
5 MW, P DG 1 MW. minimum B=0.48 was obtained to be installed at Bus 1.
Fig. 8(b) shows the variations of the relative rotor angle
of the DGs, which implies the micro-grid was stabilized
DGs in the micro-grid were expected to maintain their by injecting appropriate amount of reactive power.
angle stabilities following three-phase faults in both grid-
connected and islanded scenarios elaborated as follows. To verify the performance of algorithm, in Table I, we
compared the calculated B using the algorithm against
B. Grid-connected Mode those of actual values obtained based on the theoretical
A three-phase to ground fault was assumed to occur at calculations. Closed match among the calculated
the feeder line between bus 2 and the point of common susceptances show the accuracy of the proposed
coupling (PCC on Fig. 6), close to the PCC. This fault algorithm.
609
a)before using the algorithm TABLE 1. The calculated B (algorithm) and the actual B (Theory).
300
Contingency Calculated value of B Actual value of B

realtive rotor angles(degree)
250
Connected mode 1.08 pu 1.05 pu
200 Islanded mode 0.48 pu 0.47 pu
V . CONCLUSION
150
100 A trajectory sensitivities based algorithm for

improving and maintaining the first swing stability of a
50
micro-grid is presented and discussed in this paper. The
proposed algorithm equally works for both islanded and
grid-connected modes of the micro-grid. The algorithm
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

calculates the minimum required capacitor banks for
b)after using the algorithm
maintaining the first swing stability of the micro-grid
140 following a pre-specified fault scenario. The
effectiveness and accuracy of the algorithm was verified
realtive rotor angles(degree)
120
using an IEEE benchmark as the study system. The time-
domain simulation results as well as theoretical
100
80
calculations proved the capabilities of the algorithm in
60 estimation of the minimum required compensation for
40
maintaining the micro-grid stability. The results of
algorithm are limited to pre-specific contingencies.
20
However, the advantage of the algorithm is that it can be
0 simply formulated for complex systems regardless of the
-20 number of DGs in a micro-grid.
-40
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 REFERENCES
t(s)
[1] F. Katiraei, M. R. Iravani, and P. W. Lehn, “Micro-Grid
Figure 7. Relative rotor angles of DG1 and DG2 in grid-connected
Autonomous Operation During and Subsequent to Islanding
mode before and after using compensator.
Process,” IEEE. Transaction on power delivery,
a)before using the algorithm vol.20,NO.1,January 2005.
2000
1800
[2] N. D. Hatziargyriou and A. P. S. Meliopoulos, ‘‘Distributed
realtive rotor angle(degree)
energy sources: Technical challenges,’’ in Proc. IEEE Power Eng.

1600 Soc. Winter Meeting, vol. 2, New York, 2002, pp. 1017---1022.
1400 [3] R. Lasseter et al.. White Paper on Integration of Distributed
1200
Energy Resources-----The CERTS MicroGrid Concept. [Online].
Available: http://certs.lbl.gov/pdf/LBNL_50 829.pdf.
1000
[4] T.J.E Miller, “Reactive Power Control in Electric Systems,”
800 Wiley-Interscience; 1st edition, 1982
600 [5] Ian A. Hiskens, and M. A. Pai, “Power System Applications of
400 Trajectory Sensitivities” Power Engineering Society Winter
Meeting, Page(s): 1200 - 1205 vol.2, 2002
200
[6] Tony B. Nguyen, “Dynamic Security Assessment of Power
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 Systems Using Trajectory Sensitivity Approach,” PHD thesis,
Graduate College of the University of Illinois at Urbana-
b)after using the algorithm Champaign, 2002
150 [7] Tony B. Nguyen, and M. A. Pai, “A sensitivity-based approach for
studying stability impact of distributed generation,” Elsevier,
realtive rotor angle(degree)
Electrical Power and Energy Systems 30 (2008) 442–446.

100
[8] Nguyen TB, Pai MA. “Sensitivity analysis of dynamic stability
indicators in power systems.” In: Savulesku SC, editor. Real time
50 stability in power systems- techniques for early detection of the
risk of blackout. New York: Springer; 2006.p. 233–72.
[9] Hiskens IA, Pai MA. “Trajectory sensitivity analysis of hybrid
0
systems”. IEEE Trans Circuits Syst Part I: Fundament Theory
Appl 2000;47(2):204–20.
-50 [10] Tony B. Nguyen, and M. A. Pai, “Dynamic Security-Constrained
Rescheduling of Power Systems Using Trajectory Sensitivities,”
IEEE. Transaction on Power Systems, vol.18,NO.2,May 2003.
-100
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 [11] IEEE Recommended Practice for Industrial and Commercial
t(s) Power System Analysis, IEEE Std. 399-1997.
Figure 8. Relative rotor angles between 2 DGs (δ1-δ2) in islanded mode
before and after using compernsator.
610
Optimum Design of High Efficiency Power

Conditioning Wind Energy System
Mohamed Hilmy1, Mahrous E. Ahmed1, IEEE Member, Mohamed Orabi1, IEEE Senior Member,
Mahmoud A. Sayed1, IEEE Member and Mohamed El-Nemr2, IEEE Member
1
APEARC, South Valley University, Aswan City, Egypt
2
Tanta University, Tanta, Egypt
Abstract—this paper introduces a study for the small wind service life. Heat will be generated within the battery due
energy conversion system (WECS), which aims to select the to exothermic electrochemical reactions within the cells
optimum design parameters to achieve high performance and currents, both dc and ac, passing through the resistive
system. The main features of the studied system are high components of the cells (I2R). Chemical reactions internal
efficiency, operation at maximum power point tracking to the battery are driven either by voltage or temperature.
(MPPT) and long battery lifetime. The Permanent Magnet The hotter the battery, the faster chemical reactions will
Synchronous Generator (PMSG) operates at variable wind occur. High temperatures can thus provide increased
speed and it is connected to a full controlled active rectifier. performance, but at the same time the rate of the unwanted
The dc-link voltage is controlled to be fixed by using a chemical reactions such as passivation of the electrodes,
storage system through Bi-directional power flow link. As corrosion and gassing will increase resulting in a
the battery is the most costly part in the small WECS, the corresponding loss of battery life that lead to less running
controller should have the ability to reduce the battery cost [4]. So, the valve regulated lead acid batteries
current ripple, which results in longer life for the battery. It (VRLAB) require very low voltage and current ripples to
is found here that the designed dc voltage level is the main avoid the rise in temperature of the battery and get longer
factor that affects the battery current ripple. Therefore, a battery lifetime. Battery heating is caused by current
full study for choosing the optimum dc voltage level that ripple and so rise in temperature. Also it is well known
results in better system performance is provided. A that battery lifetime decreases as temperature increases.
maximum power point tracking control is employed using One of the major parameters that affect the service life of
hysteresis control for the fully controlled active rectifier. battery systems is ripple voltage and current. Among
The complete system is studied, analyzed and simulated other parameters that can affect the health of battery
using PSIM to validate the system performance.
systems include charge voltage, charge current, discharge
events (frequency and duration of discharge), temperature,
Keywords — Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator internal ohmic values (impedance, resistance, and
(PMSG); Hysteresis control; Bi-directional Converter; H- conductance) connection integrity, and quality and design
bridge inverter; of batteries [5].The main idea of the paper is to choose this
optimum dc voltage level. For sure, its minimum value is
I. INTRODUCTION identified by the peak of the required output voltage, for
example 311Vdc. However, its maximum limit is only
Nowadays there is a rapid transition to clean energy due controlled by the switched stress. The minimum is better.
to global problems caused when using petrol, coal and Therefore, the question is: Is it better to design the system
other dirty energies such as pollution and global warming. to have the lowest dc voltage level. Then, in this paper,
Beside it is clean, silent and free source. Wind energy this problem is tackled with the challenge to select the
technologies are one of the means to reduce global optimum dc-link voltage to obtain both less battery
warming pollution from coal and other dirty energies. The current ripple and high efficiency for the complete WECS.
small wind turbine is interested nowadays due to its This paper is organized as follows; Section II proposes
availability, small size, and low installation cost. PMSG is small WECS that applied to variable wind speed turbine.
used more frequently in small wind turbine application MPPT is employed to capture maximum available power
due to its robustness, reliability and high efficiency when from the small turbine using fully controlled active
connected to variable speed wind turbine [1]. Optimum rectifier by employing an incremental conductance
operation of wind energy conversion system is achieved method which changes the generator loading to reach the
by running the wind turbine at variable speed (direct desired optimum condition [6]. The complete control
drive) while using gearbox increases the mechanical circuit guarantees converting the variable voltage and
losses and thus decreases the generator efficiency [2]. variable frequency to constant voltage and constant
Most of used small wind system should include a storage frequency at the load terminal using the dc/ac inverter
system. The storage system can be charged or discharged using hybrid pulse width modulation (HPWM) controller
based on the power captured from the wind. This would [7]. Finally, a battery power flow controller is used to
result in increasing efficiency of the overall WECS in balance the load power as the wind power changes [8]. A
compare to the conventional rectification circuits [3]. This dc/dc bi-directional converter that connected on the dc-bus
storage system is based on battery pack and so battery voltage to manage and control the power delivered to the
becomes one from the main important items in the small load. Section III describes the battery model operation and
wind system. As cleared, the operating temperature is a the optimum dc-link voltage selection method for longer
major factor in the determination of lead – acid battery’s battery lifetime.
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 611

Figure 1. Circuit diagram of the proposed wind energy conversion system.
II. THE PROPOSED WIND ENERGY CONVESION SYSTEM

.
The complete system configuration is shown in Fig. 1. (3)
.
The system comprises wind turbine, PMSG, fully
controlled active rectifier that achieve maximum power (4)
point tracking (MPPT) of the WECS, conventional single
phase inverter (H-Bridge) and bi-directional dc/dc ⁄ (5)
converter. The wind turbine is 1.25 kW power and can be
used with maximum wind speed of 12 m/s. direct drive Where: v is the wind speed in (m/s), A is the rotor swept
PMSG is connected to the wind turbine due to its area,C is the rotor power coefficient, ρ is the air density
robustness and reliability. PMSG efficiency can be (kg/m3), PR wind power (W), T is the shaft torque (N.m),
improved by reducing the generator losses by operating it λ tip-speed ratio, and β is the pitch angle. The constant
at unity power factor [2], [9]. Three phase LC filter is values are: C =0.5176, C = 116, C =0.4, C =5,C =21and
inserted at the generator terminal to reduce voltage and C = 0.0068.
current harmonics. Four batteries with ratings of 12V and
35Ah are used as a battery pack storage system. They are 2500
connected in series to give 48 V total. The bi-directional 12m/s
11m/s
dc-dc converter is used to boost the battery voltage to the 2000
10m/s
Mechanical Power (W)
optimum dc-link one. Through the dc-link capacitor 9m/s

1500
conventional single phase dc-ac inverter is connected to
the full power converter and the load is connected to the 1000
inverter through a second order LC filter to eliminate the

output voltage and current harmonics. A hybrid pulse 500
width modulation controller (HPWM) is applied to the 0

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
inverter to regulate the load voltage and frequency [7]. Generator Speed (rpm)
Figure 2. The wind turbine output power versus rotor speed.

A. Wind turbine model Figure 3.
The wind turbine model has been designed from the
characteristics equations which describe the whole small
wind system [10]. The wind turbine output power is B=0
0.5
Rotor Power C oefficient (Cp)
B=5
proportional to cubic wind speed, rotor swept area, rotor B=10
0.4
power coefficient and air density as given in (1). The B=15
relation between rotor power coefficient as a function of 0.3
tip-speed ratio and pitch angle is given in (2) and (3)
0.2
which are empirical equations. The tip speed ratio is
governed by (4). The input torque to the PMSG is 0.1
governed by (5).
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Tip-Speed Ratio
PR 0.5 ρ A v C λ, β (1) Figure 4. Characteristics of rotor power coefficient over tip-speed ratio
C at different pitch angles.
C
CP λ, β C C β C e C λ (2)
612
The aforementioned equations are characterizing the wind high frequency and the other two switches operate at low
turbine system. From these equations the relationship frequency (load frequency) [7].
between wind turbine power and generator speed at
various wind speed can be drawn as shown in Fig. 2. The
relationship between rotor power coefficient and tip-
speed ratio at various pitch angles (β) can be drawn as
shown in Fig. 3
B. Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) Algorithm

To get fast tracking for maximum power, it is preferable
to use incremental conductance method which is based on
the fact that maximum power occurs when the variation of
dP/dV 0 . Since the dc power across uncontrolled
rectifier is governed by this equation P VI, from which
the following equation can be emerged:
P ∆I
V
I V ∆V (5)
The following constraints are used to calculate MPPT

using the incremental conductance method as follows [6]:
∆I
I V ∆V 0 At MPP (6)
∆I
I V ∆V 0 Left of MPP (7)
∆I
I V ∆V 0 Right of MPP (8)
Equations (5), (6) and (7) are used to determine the
location of the operating point. Based on these equations
the controller can easily determine increasing or
decreasing the operating voltage to reach maximum power
point. Fig. 4 shows the flow chart for the MPPT
Figure 5. The Flow chart of incremental conductance MPPT method.
employed.
C. Bi-directional dc/dc Converter III. BATTRY MODEL AND OPTIMUM OPERATION FOR THE DC
The bi-directional converter connected to the dc-link is LINK VOLTAGE
controlled to adjust the power flow to/from the battery The proposed design algorithm for the dc-link voltage is
pack. When the wind power is larger than the load power, utilized not only to increase the battery lifetime but also to
the buck switch S11 is activated to charge the battery pack. increase the complete system efficiency. First of all, the
On contrary, when the wind power is smaller than the load battery is modeled and simulated in PSIM to study the
power the boost switch S12 is activated to discharge the effect of various parameters on the battery lifetime. Then,
battery pack [3]. The power flow controller determines it is inserted in the complete system to indicate the effect
which switch buck switch S11 or boost switch S12 should of the battery current ripple and the dc- link voltage ripple
be activated to achieve the power balance between the on the complete system efficiency. The third order battery
wind power and the load power. The reference signal of model is shown in Fig. 5, Where Em is the open-circuit
the voltage controller regulates the dc-link voltage to its voltage (EMF) in volts, R1is a main branch resistance in
optimum value according to the proposed algorithm. The Ohms, R2 is a main branch resistance in Ohms, Ro is a
control circuit should guarantee that the two switches resistance in Ohms and Ip is the current loss in the
don’t operate simultaneously. parasitic branch [11]. The charging/discharging result in
Fig. 6 indicates that the battery model is applicable. It
shows the battery terminal voltage and state of charge
D. H-Bridge Inverter (SOC) both at charging and discharging state. The
H-bridge inverter is being used as a dc/ac converter amplitude of the ripple is mainly affected by the rectifier
which can regulate the load voltage in order to obtain design; output filter, and the type and magnitude of the
constant voltage magnitude and frequency. A hybrid pulse load placed in parallel with the battery. All previous
width modulation controller (HPWM) method is applied factors affect the battery current ripple. The resulting
to reduce the switching losses in a full-bridge inverter in ripples in voltage and current have severe effect on the
which two switches of the H-bridge inverter operate at service life of the battery pack and it also affects the
efficiency of the electronic equipment connected to the
613
battery. Consequently, this ripple should be taken into 3.5
consideration when monitoring a battery system. Because 3
batteries have internal impedance or resistance, ripple 2.5
current flowing into a battery at normal float charge
conditions can cause heating due to simple power 2
∆ Vdc %
dissipation heating (based on I2R losses). Battery 1.5
manufacturers typically recommend that the ripple current 1
into a VRLA (sealed lead-acid battery) jar be limited to a 0.5
value of the 20 hour discharge rate Amp-Hour Capacity
0
divided by 20 (C/20 @ 20hr rate) and also under normal
320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540 560 580 600
float charge conditions, battery ripple RMS (Root Mean Vdc (V)
Square) voltage must be limited to <0.5 % of the dc
voltage applied to the battery [12]. This paper proposes a Figure 9. Dc-link voltages ripple versus the dc-link voltage.
technique that makes the designer able to choose the dc-
link voltage to ensure longer life for the VRLA battery. 100 Wind Speed = 12 m/s
The results shown in Fig. 7 indicate that the dc-link 98

Wind Speed = 10 m/s
Wind Speed = 8 m/s
voltage ripple value decreases as the dc-link voltage value 96
increases. The results shown in Fig. 8 illustrates the 94
complete system efficiency, so it is clear that the complete η%

92
system efficiency is higher in the intermediate voltages 90
and it is lower at both low and high dc-link voltage values. 88
Fig. 9 shows the effect of the dc-link voltage on battery 86
current values. It gives an indication for the rate of 84
charging and discharging battery. Also, it is well known 82
that the higher the charging and discharging rate the lower 80
the battery lifetime. It is obvious that the intermediate dc- 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540 560 580 600
Vdc (V)
link voltages values give higher battery current which
mean less battery lifetime. To select the optimum dc-link Figure 10. The dc -dc Bi-directional converter efficiency versus the dc
voltage value, the two main factors in the small WECS are link voltage at different wind speeds.
the complete system efficiency and the battery lifetime so
to achieve both it is preferable to choose the dc-link 20.5
Wind Speed = 12 m/s
voltage between 480Vdc to 520Vdc as it is shown in Fig. 18.5 Wind Speed = 10 m/s
10. Wind Speed = 8 m/s
16.5
14.5
Ibatt(A)
12.5
10.5
8.5
6.5
4.5
320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540 560 580 600
Vdc (V)
Figure 6. The Third order battery model.
Figure 11. The value of charging/discharging current at each wind
Figure 7. speed versus the dc-link voltage.
23 95
Battery Current(A(
21 94
Efficiency
93
19
92
17 91
I batt(A)
15 η%
90
13 89
88
11
87
9 86
7 85
320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540 560 580 600
Vdc(V)
Figure 12. Battery current and converter efficiency versus the dc-link
Figure 8. Battery voltage and state of charge at step change from 20A voltage at wind speed 10m/s.
(discharging current) to -20A (charging current).
614
IV. SIMULATION RESULTS
The complete designed system has been modeled, built
and simulated in PSIM simulation software to validate its
performance. The dc voltage level has been fixed at 500
V based on the previous design section III. Performance
of the bi-directional dc/dc converter controller and the
MPPT can be seen from the fixed dc-link voltage and the
constant value of rotor power coefficient at 0.42 in Fig.
11 that indicates that the controller got the required
performance. The unity power factor (UPF) control from Figure 14. Phase voltage and phase current.
the generator side is shown in Fig. 12. The turbine and
battery power variation to deliver constant power to the
load at various input torque is shown in Fig. 13. The
phase current variation in between the upper and the
lower hysteresis limits is shown in Fig. 14 to prove the
ability of the designed controller to achieve both UPF and
MPPT. The HPWM control results shown in Fig. 15.
With switches S8 and SF operate at low switching
frequency and switches S7 and S10 operate at high
frequency. Also the figure shows the voltage control
applied to the H-bridge inverter which is similar to the
reference voltage.
V. CONCLUSION
The complete study proposes an advanced technique to Figure 15. Turbine, load and battery power variation at various input
increase the battery life time and to ensure high efficiency torque.
for the complete WECS. It is known that the battery pack
is the most costly part in the small WECS; therefore the
prior studies ensure the important to design a system with
the ability of longer battery life time. This can be
obtained by controlling the maximum value of the battery
ac current ripple. Through this paper, the level of the dc-
link voltage is tested for the battery current ripple
contribution. It is found that dc-link voltage level is the
main factor that reduces the battery ac current ripple so
the battery temperature doesn't increase so much.
Therefore, the optimum range for the dc link voltage has
been determined. Based on that, the complete system
Figure 16. Hysteresis control upper and lower reference signal and the
control is designed to achieve MPPT, UPF, power flow
output current signal.
control and load voltage control.
Figure 13. Dc-link voltage, battery current and C at step change in the Figure 17. HPWM control switches signals, Load voltage and reference
wind speed. voltage.
615
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors gratefully thank the ministry of Science,
Egyptian science and technology development funds
(STDF project No 658), for supporting this project.
REFERENCES
[1] N. A. Orlando, M. Liserre, V. G. Monopoli, R. A. Mastromauro
and A. Dell’Aquila, “Comparison of Power Converter Topologies
for Permanent Magnet Small Wind Turbine System” , IEEE
International Symposium on Industrial Electronics, ISIE-2008, pp,
2359 - 2364, Cambridge, June 30 2008-July 2 2008.
[2] A.O. Di Tommaso, R. Miceli, G. Ricco Galluzzo and M.
Trapanese, “Efficiency Maximization of Permanent Magnet
Synchronous Generators Coupled to Wind Turbines” , An. Conf.
of IEEE Power Electronics Specialist Conference, PESC-2007, pp,
1267 - 1272, Orlando, 17-21 June 2007.
[3] O.C. Onar, Y.Gurkaynak and A. Khaligh, “A Brushless DC
Generator &Synchronous Rectifier for Isolated
Telecommunication Stations”, 31st International of
Telecommunications Energy, INTELEC-2009. pp, 1- 6, Incheon,
18-22 Oct. 2009.
[4] Battery and Energy Technologies
http://www.mpoweruk.com/life.htm
[5] Technical notes, Bart Cotton Founder, DPMC “The Importance of
Monitoring AC Ripple Voltage and Current”
[6] T. Esram and P.L. Chapman, “Comparison of Photovoltaic Array
Maximum Power Point Tracking Techniques” IEEE Transactions
On Energy Conversion, Vol. 22, No. 2, June 2007.
[7] R. S. Lai and K. D. T. Ngo, “A PWM Method for Reduction of
Switching Loss in a Full-Bridge Inverter” , Proc. of 9th An. Conf.
of IEEE Applied Power Electronics and Exposition , APEC-
1994.Vol.1, pp, 122 - 127, Orlando, 3-17 Feb 1994.
[8] L. N. Modran , “Power Flow Control on Wind Power Plant with
Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator” , Proc. of 11th An.
Conf. of Optimization of Electrical and Electronic Equipment,
OPTIM 2008. pp, 419 - 426, Brasov, 22-24 May 2008.
[9] M.M. Reis, B. Soares, L.H.S.C. Barreto, E. Freitas, C.E.A. Silva,
R.T. Bascopé and D.S. Oliveira Jr , “A Variable Speed Wind
Energy Conversion System Connected To The Grid For Small
Wind Generator” , Proc. of 23th An. Conf. of IEEE Applied
Power Electronics , APEC-2008. pp, 751 - 755, Austin, 24-28 Feb.
2008.
[10] T. Tafticht, K. Agbossou, A. Cheriti, M.L. Doumbia, “Output
Power Maximization of a Permanent Magnet Synchronous
Generator Based Stand-alone Wind Turbine” , IEEE International
Symposium on Industrial Electronics, ISIE 2006. pp, 2412 - 2416,
Montreal, 9-13 July 2006.
[11] Ceraolo, M. “New Dynamical Models of Lead–Acid Batteries
Massimo Ceraolo” IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, 06
August 2002
[12] A Technical Note from the Experts in Business-Critical Continuity
EMERSON “Effects of AC Ripple Current on VRLA Battery
Life”
616
New Method for Reconnection of Islanded

Wind Turbines to Grid
H. Kazemi Karegar A. Nateghi
Tehran, Iran. Tehran, Iran.
H_kazemi@sbu.ac.ir a_nateghi@sbu.ac.ir
Abstract— Wind turbines are rapidly increasing and are some situations in which excitation field remains
some times are disconnected from the grid intentionally or almost constant and therefore the wind turbine continues
inadvertently and continue to supply local loads. If it was to operate. In this case, the Rate Of Change of Frequency
decided to reconnect to the grid, some problems may (ROCOF) relays have been utilized [3]. Typical ROCOF
happen. This paper deals with the reconnection of islanded
relays installed in 50Hz systems are set between 0.1Hz/s
wind turbines to the grid and proposes a new method to
reduce the high current effects of reconnection. The new and 1.0Hz/s [4, 5]. However, there is a little work on
method is simple and do not need any synchronization modeling this case.
devices, especially for asynchronous wind turbines in Ideally, the anti islanding scheme must trip DG before
which synchronizers are not practical. The simulation the reclosing takes place. Islanding detection techniques
results done by MALAB affirm the validity of the can be broadly classified into two types according to
proposed method. their working principles. The first type consists of
communication- based schemes and the second type
Keywords—Asynchronous Wind Turbine, Islanding, consists of local detection schemes [6, 7].
Reconnection, Synchronization. The serious problem of these methods is that these
schemes don't useful for Induction generator and with
I. INTRODUCTION attention to fast improvement of power production from
these sources one method should be developed.
The objective of this paper is to present a new method
Today's environmental forces are generating a new
for reconnection of islanded asynchronous wind turbines
market for renewable energy resources. It is predicted
to the grid. The proposed method measures voltages of
that by 2010, nearly 10% of the electric energy in Europe
both sides of recloser and then calculates frequency,
will be supplied by this type of sources as wind turbines
amplitude and phase angle of voltages. Whereas, the
attract more attention than the other resources [1].
wind turbine works on islanding conditions then
Connecting wind turbines to the distribution network frequency and voltages’ amplitude are near, but the
produce some problems like islanding. Islanding occurs phase angles are apart from each other. The new method
when a wind turbine becomes electrically isolated from proposes an algorithm to switch on the recloser on a
the grid, but continues to produce electric energy and right time when the phase angle difference are near each
supply local loads [2]. other.
According to IEEE std. 1547, islanding occurs when a The paper is equipped with the simulation of a
portion of the distribution system becomes electrically practical wind turbine in Iran, and the obtained results
isolated from the remainder of the power system, yet show that the proposed method is effective.
continues to be energized by distributed generators
connected to the isolated subsystem.
II. PROBLEM STATEMENT
Note that there could be multiple switchers, reclosers
and fuses between a distributed generator and the supply
substation. The main constraint here is to prevent out-of- The islanding concept is simply shown in Fig. 1. The
phase reclosing of the distributed generators. A recloser wind turbine by a medium transformer is connected to
is typically programmed to reenergize its downstream the grid. Because of a fault, the recloser opens and the
system after about 0.5 to 1 second delay. wind turbine continues to work.
Typically, voltage relays are used to detect islanding In this case, the wind turbine supplies local loads and
of wind turbines use induction generator. However, there works in islanding.
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 617

III. PROPOSED METHOD
As stated before, the both side voltages of the
reclsoer are not synchronous when the wind turbine
works in islanding condition.
On the other hand, the magnitude and the frequency
of the wind turbine and grid is close to each others.
Because, islanding means that the voltage deviations and
frequency deviations of the islanded section should be
Fig. 1 Islanding Concept very small in which voltage and frequency relays could
not detect the islanding.
As shown in Fig.2, Recloser is a protection device What is stated is base of the proposed method and
against high current faults in distribution networks which what important is the phase angle deviations between the
by sequential operations deletes temporary faults or voltages of the recloser both sides. Recloser should be
detects permanent faults and disconnected the faulty closed when the phase angle difference is small. For this
section from the power supply. goal, the delay time of the recloser must be delayed until
Delay times between reclosing operations are mainly the suitable conditions are provided.
depending on the protection network structure. To distinguish the suitable conditions, both voltages
Normally, two reclosing operations are adequate for are measured and the phase angles are detected by a
most of the distribution networks. phase detector. The suitable delay time will be produced
by the command logic circuit as shown in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3 Proposed Method
At the right time, the current disturbance of the

Fig. 2 Recloser Protection Curves
recloser current will be reduced so that the mal-function
will not happened.
To evaluate the proposed method a simulation is done by
The main problem happens when recloser is closed
MATLAB program.
after a delay time. In this case, there are two sources on
both sides of the recloser, but they are not synchronous.
When recloser is closed a high current flow and recloser IV. CASE STUDY
may trip again or is defected. According to Fig. 3, a 660 kW wind turbine is connected
It seems that the solution is using a synchronizer, but to 20 kV by a recloser. When a temporary fault is
asynchronous wind turbines are uncontrollable and the happened, the three-phase recloser opens and the wind
wind turbine’s voltages could not cope with the grid’s turbine works in islanding. Fig. 4 shows the phase angle
voltages. of the turbine in respect with the grid.
618
Fig.4 Phase Angle of the Turbine in Islanding Fig. 6 180-degree Angle Difference Reconnection (Line-Current)
Connection at Zero Voltage
As shown in Fig. 4, the phase angle difference is
zero before islanding, but the difference varies between The nominal current is about 200 A, while it is more
zero and 360 degrees. One cycle from zero to 360 than 6000 A at the time of reconnection. This high
degrees takes 10 seconds. current issue a trip and recloser will be opened. The wind
It is evident that the worst case is closing recloser at turbine is disconnected from the grid because of mal-
180 degrees difference. Fig. 5 shows reconnection of function of recloser.
wind turbine at 180 degree difference. Current will be higher if recloser is closed when the
phase angle be 180 degress and both voltages are in their
maximum amplitude.
Fig. 7 shows the voltages of both side of recloser
when voltages’ amplitude is maximum.
Fig. 5 180-degree Angle Difference Reconnection (Phase-Voltages)-

Connection at Zero Voltage
At time 12.51, the recloser is closed and the grid Fig. 7 180-degree Angle Difference Reconnection (Phase-Voltage)-
voltage and the tribune voltage are dropped. The Connection at Maximum Voltage
dropped voltage is more than 200 volts and low voltage
relay will operate. The wind turbine is disconnected from Comparing Fig. 5 and Fig. 7 shows that more
the grid again, whereas there is no fault. disturbances will be produce on phase-voltage when
Another effect of the unsuitable time reconnection is reconnection happens at maximum voltage.
flowing high current as shown in Fig. 6. Fig. 8 will show the line current of the recloser at this
case.
619
zero, then recloser receives a closing command.
According to the Fig. 4, if recloser is not connected very
fast, then at least 10 second delay should be considered.
Fig. 7 180-degree Angle Difference Reconnection (Line-Current)-

Connection at Maximum Voltage
Fig. 10 90-degree Angle Difference Reconnection (Line-Current)
Comparing Fig. 6 and Fig. 8 show that the current is
higher, but its duration is shorter. In this case the current The volatage and current results are shown in Fig. 11
will reach more than 8000 A. and Fig. 12, respectively.
Reconnection at lower angle difference will improve
the conditions and reduces current and voltage
disturbances.
Fig. 9 shows the voltages of wind turbine and the
gird when recloser is connected at 90 degree phas angle
difference.
Fig. 11 Zero-degree Angle Difference Reconnection (Phase-Voltage)
Fig. 9 90-degree Angle Difference Reconnection (Phase-Voltage)
At this case, voltage disturbances are reduced and

dropped voltage is lower than drops in Fig. 5 and Fig. 7.
It is expected that the current will be lower than the
previous cases. As shown in fig. 10 the current will reach
to 4000 A and its duration is about 0.3 seconds.
It is concluded that the recloser should be connected
when the phase difference between voltages is too small Fig. 12 Zero-degree Angle Difference Reconnection (Line-Current)
and near zero. For this purpose, a phase detector is used
and calculates the phase difference. When it reaches
620
V. CONCLUSIONS
Reconnection of a wind turbine to the grid is normally
done by a recloser. If the wind turbine works in islandig,
then reconnection will produce high current and voltage
disturbance if the closing time does not selected
precisely. In this paper, those cases studied and a new
method was presented. The method was based on the
finding phase angle difference of recloser both sides
voltages. Also, it was shown that reconnection of the
wind turbine should be done when the difference is zero.
If it was not happened, then a suitable delay time should
be considered. This delay is near 10 seconds. So, fast
recloser time must be lower than 0.5 second and the slow
recloser time is about 10 seconds.
REFERENCES
[1] H. Kazemi Karegar, A, Shataee, "Islanding detection of wind

farms by THD," IEEE Conf. DRPT2008 Nanjing China, Digital
Code: 978-7-900714-13-8/08/ ©2008 DRPT, 6-9 April 2008.
[2] IEEE Std. 1547-2003," IEEE Standard for Interconnecting
Distributed Resources with Electric Power Systems".
[3] C.M. Affonso, W. Freitas, W. Xu and L.C.P. da Silva,
"Performance of ROCOF relays for embedded generation
applications," IEE Proc.-Generation. Transmission,
Distribution, Vol. 152, No. 1, pp. 109-114, January 2005.
[4] Wilsun Xu, Konrad Mauch, Sylvain Martel, "An assessment of
DG islanding detection methods and issues for Canada," CETC-
Varennes 2004-074 (TR) 411-INVERT, Canada July, 2004
[5] N. Jenkins, R. Allan, P. Crossley, D. Kirschen, and G. Strbac,
"Embedded generation," IEE Press, London, 2000
[6] Freitas, Walmir, Xu, Wilsun, M. Affonso, Carolina, Huang,
Zhenyu, "Comparative analysis between ROCOF and vector
surge relays for distributed generation applications", IEEE
Trans. on Power Delivery, vol. 20, no. 2, April 2005.
[7] C. M. Vieira, Jose, Freitas, Walmir, Xu, Wilsun, Morelato,
Andre, "Efficient coordination of ROCOF and frequency relays
for distributed generation protection by using the application
Region", IEEE Transaction On Power Delivery, vol. 21, no. 4. ,
October 2006.
621
Development an Efficient Photovoltaic (PV)

Configuration for Low Power Applications
Omar Abdel-Rahim, IEEE Student Member, Mohamed Orabi, IEEE Senior Member, and Mahrous E.
Ahmed, IEEE Member
APEARC, South Valley University
Aswan City 81542, Egypt
orabi@ieee.org
Abstract— this paper proposes a new technique for sensitive for environmental conditions such as shading
connecting PV modules with the grid at high efficiency in phenomena. If any partial shaded strikes any part of any
case of partial shading. Normally many PV modules module, the system acts to remove the whole chain from
connected in series with single unit of dc-dc converter which operation however some modules can run if they are
be affected seriously to a partial shading as the controller
independently works, so the system generates a lower
disconnects the whole string. Here each PV module is
connected with a single dc-dc with high voltage gain power. Therefore, it becomes preferable to attach a dc-dc
converter, and then converters are connected in series to converter into each module using a high voltage gain
provide the required dc voltage level for the H-Bridge converter topology to increase the system efficiency. PV
inverter to be coincident to the grid. So the proposed system Systems are classified according to the connection of the
can operate in the optimum condition even if shading PV modules. Figure 1 shows classification of PV systems
occurs. MPPT control will be applied to each converter which may be central, string or ac module [1]. The past
individually to assure that every PV module operates at its technology, illustrated in Fig. 1 (a) was based on
maximum power at every condition. As a result the whole centralized inverters that interfaced a large number of PV
system efficiency can be increased. A prototype has been
modules to the grid. The PV modules were divided into
built, tested for validation. Some selected simulation and
experimental results have been provided. series connections (called a string), each generating a
sufficiently high voltage to avoid further amplification.
Keywords—PV module; Partial shading; Grid connection; These series connections were then connected in parallel,
MPPT; High Gain; High efficiency through string diodes, in order to reach high power levels.
This centralized inverter includes some severe
limitations, such as high-voltage dc cables between the
PV modules and the inverter, power losses due to a
I. INTRODUCTION centralized MPPT, mismatch losses between the PV
The use of photovoltaic (PV) modules as a source of modules, losses in the string diodes and a nonflexible
renewable energy is gaining a lot of attention nowadays. design where the benefits of mass production could not
PV modules may be operated as isolated system be reached. The string inverter shown in Fig. 1 (b) is a
(standalone system) or grid connected, in both cases it reduced version of the centralized inverter, where a single
must be connected to an inverter to convert the generated string of PV modules is connected to the inverter. The
dc power into ac power. H-bridge Voltage Source Inverter input voltage may be high enough to avoid voltage
(VSI) is a bucking inverter which almost requires a pre- amplification. This increases the overall efficiency
stage boost dc-dc converter to generate a higher dc input compared to the centralized inverter, and reduces the
voltage than its ac peak output voltage. The rated dc prices due to mass production. The multi-string inverter
output voltage that can be obtained from the PV module is depicted in Fig. 1 (c) is the further development of the
approximately a few tenths of voltage. On the other hand, string inverter, where several strings are interfaced with
the H-bridge inverter requires a dc input voltage not less their own dc–dc converter to a common dc–ac inverter.
than 311 V input for 220V grid. Then, few tens should be This is beneficial, compared with the centralized system,
boosted into few hundred which give a requirement for a since every string can be controlled individually. The ac
gain in the range on 10x (ten) or a little higher. This module depicted in Fig. 1 (d) is the integration of the
requires high conversion gain which is the main challenge. inverter and PV module into one electrical device. It
One direct solution to get rid of this challenge is to removes the mismatch losses between PV modules since
connect many PV modules in series forming a string with there is only one PV module, as well as supports optimal
at least one-half to one-third (around 100V) of the adjustment between the PV module and the inverter and
required output voltage. However, this solution has its hence the individual MPPT. It includes the possibility of
limitation for both practicality and technology faces. As a an easy enlarging of the system, due to the modular
practical side, the environmental conditions specially structure. On the other hand, the necessary high voltage-
shadow effects show a high contribution over PV string amplification may reduce the overall efficiency and
system. Unfortunately string configuration is very increase the price per watt, because of more complex
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 622

circuit topologies. On the other hand, the ac module is
intended to be mass produced, whiich leads to low
manufacturing cost and low retail pricess.
AC modules technology provides hiigher efficiency in
case of partial shading and other enviroonmental condition
changes that may affect the perform mance of the PV
module. Figure 2 shows schematic of the proposed
technique as every PV module has itss own dc-dc boost
converter, due to low output voltage off the PV modules.
H-Bridge inverter is a bucking inverter, so that dc voltage
must be higher than grid voltage, then two
t converters are
connected in series and connected to one H-bridge
inverter. MPPT control is applied on each PV module.
This causes each PV module to operrate independently Figure 1. Historical overview of PV
V inverters. (a) Past centralized
from each other. If one PV module is partially
p shaded, it technology. (b) Present string technoloogy. (c) Present and future multi-
will not affect the performance of the other
o PV modules. string technology. (d) Present and future ac-module and ac cell
The paper is organized in the followinng way. Section II technologiees [1].
gives modeling of photovoltaic module. Section III
presents the proposed system. Section IVV presents analysis
and operation of the switched inductoor boost converter.
Section V and IV provide simulation and experimental
results of the proposed system.
II. MODELING OF PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULE

Simple equivalent circuit of ideal phhotovoltaic cell is
shown in figure 3. Equation 1 represents the
mathematical representation of PV moddel
, (1)
G
, , ∆ (2)
G
Where , is photo generated current
c which is
proportional to solar irradiation as show
wn in equation (2),
diode current and I load current. Dioode current can be
computed from equation (2) Figure 2. Schematic of the proposed techniques.
, 1 (3)
, ∆
, ∆ (4)
Where , [A] is the reverse satuuration or leakage

current of the diode [A], q is thee electron charge
[1.60217646× 10−19C], k is the Booltzmann constant
[1.3806503× 10−23J/K], T [K] is the tem mperature of the p-
n junction, the short-circuit currrent/ temperature
coefficient , the open-circuit vooltage/temperature Figure 3. Ideal photovoltaiic cell equivalent circuit.
coefficient K V ,∆T T T , and α is the diode ideality
constant. The previous model is the t ideal model.
However the practical model of thee PV cell should Equation (6) represents a genneral equation for PV cell
include series and parallel resistances as
a shown in figure taking into account the effect of Rs and Rp
4. The value of Rs and Rp can be calculaated in an iterative
method [2]. Although the value of Rs is very small (5)
,
compare to Rp, they have a big influence i on I-V
characteristics of PV model. So (1) is modified to (3) to
Figure 5 shows I-V characcteristics of a practical
take into account the influence of Rs andd Rp.
photovoltaic cell showing thee most important operating
points in the curve where (0,Isc) short circuit point, (Vmp
,Imp) maximum power point , annd (Voc,0).
, , exp 1 /
(6)
623
Figure 4. Equivalent circuit of practical photovoltaic cell
A. Effect of Shadow on The Electrical Characteristics of

PV module
Shading of solar cells not only reduces the cell power, Figure 5. Characteristic I-V curve of a practical photovoltaic device and
but also changes the open circuit voltage , the short the three remarkable points: short circuit (0, Isc ), maximum power point
(Vmp, Imp) and open-circuit (Voc, 0).
circuit current and the efficiency. Partial shading
condition is common situation due to the shadow of
buildings, trees, clouds and dirties. Under partial shading
condition only one of the series strings of PV modules is
less illuminated and which then has to dissipate some of
the power generated by the rest of the modules. It means
that the current available in a series connection of PV
modules is limited by the current of the PV module which
is less illuminated. This can be avoided by the use of
bypass diodes which can be placed across a PV module.
This is to allow the array current to flow in the right
direction even if one of the strings is completely
shadowed. (a) Output power of the PV system without any shading condition.
The effect of shade on the performance of a PV generator
depends on influences such as [3]:
- Reduction of insulation (as average value)
- Distribution of the shade on the PV generator (geometry
of shade)
- Modules with or without by-pass diodes
- Circuit design of PV array (series connection, or strings
in parallel).
A MATLAB model was proposed to study the effect of
environmental conditions on PV modules. Figure 5 shows
a PV system consists of two strings connected in parallel
each string consists of four 85W BP modules [3]. This
system will be taken as an example to study the effect of
partial shading on PV modules. Figure 6(a) shows output (b) Output power of the PV system in case of one module is partially
power of the PV system in case of no shading conditions, shaded.
maximum output power was about 690 W. While Fig. 6
(b) and 6 (c) shows the output of the PV system in case of
partial shading condition. Figure 6 (b) shows the output
power of the PV system with only one module is partially
shaded output P-V curve has a multiple peaks as shown
and also maximum power was reduced to 520 W. While
Fig. 6 (c) shows the output power in case of three modules
were partially shaded with maximum output power was
reduced to 270W. Figure 7 shows output power of the PV
modules using the proposed configuration. Figure 7 (a)
shows output power of the PV system in case of no
shading conditions, maximum output power was about
690W. While Fig. 7 (b) and 7 (c) show the output of the
PV system in case of partial shading condition. Figure 7 (c) Output power of the PV system in case of three modules is
partially shaded.
(b) shows the output power of the PV system with only
Figure 6. String technology connection.
one module is partially shaded output as shown maximum
power was reduced to 680W which is much higher than
520W in case of string connection. While Fig. 7 (c) is the
output in case of three modules were partially shaded with As a conclusion from the previous result, the proposed
maximum output power was reduced to 570W. configuration provides good performance in case of partial
shading.
624
III. THE PRPOPOSED SYSTEM capacitor discharges its energy to the load as shown in
The proposed system consists of two PV modules each Fig.9 (b) and the steady state equations of the on state
modules has its own converter and then the two inverters are:
connected in series to be connected with the grid through an
H-bridge inverter. Traditional boost converter has a gain v Vg (7)
equal to where D: is the duty cycle. The (8)
proposed inverter is based on switched inductor boost 2 (9)
converter [4], where the gain of the emerged boost
converter will be very high compared to the conventional During off state from DTs to Ts, Switch SW1, diodes D1
one. Thus it can enable reducing the required number of and D3 are off while Diodes D2 and D4 are on and the
Series connected PV modules. Figure 8 shows the circuit will be as shown in Fig.9(c) and the equation of
schematic circuit of the proposed system. the OFF state can be written as follow:
/2 (10)
(11)
(12)
From the above equations, the boosting factor equation

can be written as follows:
(13)
Equation (13) shows that the gain of the switched inductor

(a) output power of the PV system without any shading condition. which is higher than traditional boost converter.
(b) Output power of the PV system in case of one module is partially

shaded.
Figure 8. The schematic circuit of the proposed system.
D1 L1
D2 D4
D3
L2 +
Vg Vo
SW1
-
(c) Output power of the PV system in case of three modules is
partially shaded.
(a)
Figure 7. Ac module Configuration.
Ig Il
Il
IV. SWITCHED INDUCTOR BOOST CONVERTER Vg

+ +
Il Vo Vg Vo
After the addition of the switched inductor proposed in
- -
[4], the gain becomes higher and the converter has two
modes of operation, as shown in Fig.9. During the ON (b) (c)
state from 0 to DTs, switch SW1, diodes D1 and D3 are Figure 9. The three states of the proposed circuit (a) switched inductor
ON, and diodes D2 and D4 are OFF. This led to the two Boost converter (b) mode1 (c) mode2
inductors to be charged together in parallel while the
625
V. SIMULATION RESULTS grid and with unity power factor. Simulation results have
The proposed system was simulated using PSIM proved the proposed idea. Then, some selected
software. Two PV modules of the BP485 85W PV module experimental results have been provided to validate the
were used [5]. The two converters were symmetrical and proposed system.
the circuit parameters for each converter are as follow fs =
50 kHz, filter capacitor C = 300µF, switched inductors
L1= L2=1.5 mH and output filter inductor Lf =5 mH and ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
grid voltage and frequency are 311V and 50Hz, The authors gratefully thank the ministry of Science,
respectively. The algorithm proposed in [6] was applied to Egyptian science and technology development funds (STDF
extract maximum power from each converter. Figure project No 346), for supporting this project.
10(a) and (b) show simulation result of the system in case
of no partial shading. Figure 10(a) shows that the injected
current to the grid is sinusoidal and in phase with the grid
voltage. Figure 10(b) shows the output power of each
module. It indicates that each module operates at its
maximum power and the total power injected to the grid is
the sum of the output power of each module. Figure 10(c)
and (d) show simulation result of the system in case of one
module is partially shaded. Figure 10(c) shows that the
current injected into the grid is sinusoidal and in phase
with the grid. Figure 10(b) show that each module
operates at its maximum power with total injected power
into the system is the sum of the output power of each (a) Grid Current multiplied by 50 and grid voltage no shadow effect.
module. It can be noticed that the output power of the
shaded module has decreased but doesn’t affect the
performance of the other modules.
VI. EXPERIMENTAL RESULT
A prototype for the proposed PV system has been
established in the laboratory. The prototype was built
using the following components, each converter consists
of the following two 1.5 mH inductors, three diodes of
MBR40250G and one diode of RURG8060, two
capacitors 100 µF and 300 µF, while H-bridge inverter
was constructed using four IRFP27N60KPBF switches. (b) Output power of the two modules and total power injected into the
The control was applied using FPGA kit. To examine the system no shadow effect.
high voltage gain of the converter, a 15 V is used as an
input voltage. The resulted output voltage is about 172 V
at duty cycle 0.7 for the proposed boost converter system.
Figures 11, 12 and 13 show the experimental results of
the converter at these conditions. Figure 11 shows that
duty cycle of the converter is about 0.7 and switching
frequency is 40 kHz. Figure 12 shows switch SW1
(switched inductor boost converter switch) drain source
voltage and Fig. 13 shows switched inductor boost
converter output voltage is about 172 V. Maximum (c) Grid Current multiplied by 50 and grid voltage with one module is
power point technique was implemented using 16f877 partially shaded.
PIC and to validate the operation of the MPPT the
algorithm was checked on 23 W PV model. Figure 14
shows the experimental result of maximum power point
control using the proposed high voltage gain boost
converter, a simple 23W PV module were used.
VII. CONCLUSION
This paper presents the analysis, operation and
design of a new solution for PV module applications to
provide higher PV performance under shading conditions.
High gain switched inductor boost converter was (d) Output power of the two modules and total power injected into
presented. Modified MPPT techniques were applied to the system with one module is partially shaded
achieve maximum power from PV modules and PI Figure 10: Simulation result of the proposed system.
controller was applied to inject sinusoidal current into the
626
REFERENCES
[1] S. Kjaer, K. Pedersen and F. Blaabjerg, “A review of single-phase
grid-connected inverters for photovoltaic modules,” IEEE
Transactions on Industry Applications, VOL. 41, NO. 5,
September/October 2005.
[2] G. Villalva, J. R. Gazoli, E. Ruppert, “ Modeling and circuit-based
simulation of photovoltaic arrays “ Brazilian Journal of Power
Electronics, 2009 vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 35-45.
[3] R. E. Hanitsch, D. Schulz and U. Siegfried, “Shading effects on
output power of grid connected photovoltaic generator systems,”
Power Engineering Journal, 2001, pp. 93-99.
[4] B. Axelrod, Y. Berkovich and A. Ioinovici, “Switched-capacitor/
switched-inductor structures for getting transformer less hybrid
dc–dc pwm converters,” IEEE Transactions on Circuits and
Figure 11: Duty cycle of the converter. Systems—I: REGULAR PAPERS, VOL. 55, NO. 2, March 2008.
[5] www.solarcellsales.com/techinfo/docs/bp-485.pdf.
[6] Safari. A and S. Mekhilef, “Simulation and hardware
implementation of incremental conductance mppt with direct
control method using cuk converter, “ IEEE Transactions on
Industrial Electronics, Issues 99, paper no. 09-TIE-1352 (in
press), 2010.
Figure 12: MOSFET drain source voltage.
Figure 13: Output voltage of the converter at 0.7 duty cycle and 15
V input.
Figure 14: Maximum power point tracking using the proposed high gain
boost converter.
627
Evaluation of the Solar Hybrid System for

Rural Schools in Sabah, Malaysia
Abdul Muhaimin Mahmud, M.Sc. Renewable Energy (Oldenburg)
Electrical Engineering Branch,
Public Works Department of Malaysia,
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
muhaimin@jkr.gov.my
Abstract - The evaluation of the solar hybrid system in implementing government projects including
which was installed at Penontomon Primary School in Renewable Energy sector.
Sabah, Malaysia has been analyzed in this paper. The
project was initiated by the Malaysia’s Ministry of
Education with the target to electrify rural schools II. GREEN TECHNOLOGY
that do not have grid connected electricity in Sabah FOR EDUCATION IN RURAL AREAS
with alternative power supply; ie, the renewable
energy. The paper looked into the technical and the A. Overview
economical aspects of the system and found that
alternative resources from renewable energy has Malaysia is entirely equatorial (at Lat: 3.164o N,
potential in the rural areas that have difficulties in
accessing to the grid, specifically the rural primary Long: 101.7o E). The ambient temperature remains
schools. uniformly high throughout the year, between 27
and 33°C, with an average daily solar radiation of
Keywords - Solar hybrid, Rural Schools, SCADA,
4,500 Wh per square metre a day and an average
Battery, Inverter
daily sunshine duration of about 12 hours. This
I. INTRODUCTION makes the solar radiation in Malaysia is high by
world standards.
Malaysia has considerable number of widely
deployed small rural areas. Most of these areas still B. Electricity in Rural Area
lack of utilities such as power supply, water,
There was an overall improvement in the
communication and proper road access. This is due
productivity and efficiency of electricity supply
to the geographical condition of the location which
services in Malaysia [3]. It was predicted that in
make the investment cost to provide grid connected
2010, 95.1% of the area in Malaysia will be
power supply, clean water treatment system,
connected by grid electricity as compared to 92.9%
communication infrastructures, road access and
in 2005. However, Sabah still has the most areas
other utilities are too expensive and not cost
that do not have electricity from the grid network
effective.
as shown in figure below.
In line with the government’s aspiration to utilize
and develop more renewable energy by 2010 and to
ensure that more rural areas will get benefit from
the electricity supply program from renewable
energy technology, the Ministry of Education
(MOE) has initiated the Solar Hybrid System for
Rural Schools in Sabah Project. The first phase was
started in 2008 and the aimed was to give Figure 1 : Electricity coverage by region (Source :[3])
alternative electricity solution to 78 rural schools in
Sabah using Solar Hybrid System. The ministry C. Electricity for Education
had appointed the Public Works Department of
Malaysia to be the project manager and consultant Out of more than 10,000 schools in Malaysia;
for the project. The department is a well known 809 schools do not have 24-hour electricity supply
technical and consultant agency for the government which located mostly in Sabah and Sarawak.
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 628

Electricity should be given top priority to the Table 1 : Description of the primary school that was used for the
study purposes
schools as it is very important for education based
facilities like computers, communication system, PV
School School
lighting and etc. All these schools are currently and District Coordinate System
Code Name
for the next five to ten years will still not be able to Sizing
be connected by the grid system from the
SK1
electricity utility company, SESB. Hence, the first XBA11
Penontom
Keninga N 4°52.73’
20 kW
phase was implemented in 2008 and the aimed was 05 u E 116°15.9’
on
to give alternative electricity solution to 78 rural
schools in Sabah using Solar Hybrid System.
III. SOLAR HYBRID SYSTEM A. Description of Loads & Load Profile
The solar hybrid system will integrate two or Pre School

5.59%
Total Load sharing
more power sources. It is a more reliable system as

Canteen
2.44%
compared to stand alone solar PV system for the Block A

37.50%
multiple power sources that connected together.

The system which has been installed at 78 sites, Quarters 1/2/3/4
40.55%
combines PV array with diesel generator and

operates with solar inverter. This can help to Guard Post
Block B
13.79%
0.12%
conserve energy by reducing the use of diesel fuel Block A Block B Guard Post Quarters 1/2/3/4 Canteen Pre School
from generator and maximize the system

efficiency. Figure 3: Distribution of loads in each school building. Block A
consists of class rooms, teacher’s office and computer room,
The solar hybrid system for the rural schools in while Block B consists of class rooms only.
Sabah was designed to supply electricity for every
As shown in figure 3, the load demand for the
load in the school. School buildings like class
school mostly comes from teachers’ quarters
room, computer lab, guard house and teacher’s
(41.55%), Block A and Block B at 37.5% and
quarters were connected to the solar hybrid grid
13.79% respectively. And for the future extension,
system.
a 20% load extension has been considered in the
A total of 78 rural schools in Sabah have been load analysis.
installed with Solar Hybrid System. The schools
The total installed rated load power for SK
were selected from a total of 270 schools in Sabah
Penontomon is 15.23 kW. The load usage has been
that do not have electricity connected to the grid.
distributed over 24 hours load profile which can be
used to identify the maximum peak load during the
day.
The daily energy consumption for SK

Penontomon was calculated from the load profile.
During daytime the energy demand is at 35,964 Wh
which is 69.53% of the total daily energy demand
at 51,722 Wh. While night time requires 30.47% of
the daily energy demand at 15,722 Wh. Daytime is
considered from 06.00 hours to 18.00 hours which
Figure 2 : The rural schools’ location in Sabah. (Source : [11]). is the normal sun rise and sunset for the location.
For the purpose of the analysis study, Penontomon B. System Configuration

Primary Schools have been identified to be the
sample sites for evaluation and analysis processes. The PV array is used to supply power to the
The description of the school is shown in Table 1 load and to charge the battery during day time.
below.
1
SK is Sekolah Kebangsaan in Malay, in English is Primary
School
629
Priority will be given to satisfy the day time load. internet at every schools using cables or satellite
The tubular vented deep cycle lead acid battery connectivity, VSAT (Very Small Aperture
bank use for storage and supply power to the load Terminal), helps to ease the process of the
during night time. The bidirectional inverter will jSCADA system.
convert the DC-AC voltage and vice versa. If there
were insufficient power from the PV or the battery, B. Simulation
the diesel generator set will turned on automatically
Homer simulation was used to give comparison
to supply power to the load. Moreover, any excess
between the simulation results and the actual data
electricity from the generator will be used to charge
measurement. The results also were used to analyze
the battery as well. The generator is configured to
the financial and economical of the installed system
be automatically turned on one hour every week for
as compared to the conventional diesel generator.
warm up and also once every month for several
hours for battery equalization. V. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
A. Design and Actual Load Analysis
Figures 5 and 6 below show the comparison of the

load profile for both schools.
Design Load Profile - SK Penontomon
7,000
6,000
5,000
Load (W )
4,000
Figure 4 : The solar hybrid system configuration diagram. 3,000
2,000
1,000
0
IV. MEASUREMENTS AND 01:00 03:00 05:00 07:00 09:00 11:00 13:00 15:00 17:00 19:00 21:00 23:00
Hour
SIMULATION TOOLS Design Load Profile
Actual load profile - SK Penontomon
A. Remote Monitoring System – JKR Supervisory 7,000
Control and Data Acquisition System (jSCADA) 6,000
5,000
The system called JKR2 Supervisory Control

Pow er (W )
4,000
and Data Acquisition System (jSCADA) is 3,000
developed by JKR itself (inhouse) using open 2,000
structure CPU based hardware and the central 1,000
application is belong to the Government which can 0

00:00 02:00 04:00 06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00 22:00
be used without limit and no license is required. Time
This system is first used for the Solar Hybrid Actual load profile
System for the rural school project in phase 1.

Figure 5 and 6 : The design load profile (left) and the actual load
profile (right) for SK Penontomon. The actual load profile was
The system will act as an early warning where calculated base on the load consumption in September 2009
any problems on the equipments/components of the recorded from the JSCADA system.
solar hybrid system can be channelled directly to
the Centralised Online Helpdesk within a short The actual base load (minimum load) for both
period of time (in seconds or a few minutes) for schools are double the value of the design base
action to be taken by the responsible load. The maximum actual load is half the value of
person/personnel. This can prevent the problem the design load. The maximum actual load for SK
that will affect the school operation and eventually Penontomon occurred during night time instead of
decrease the repair cost. The availability of the daytime as assumed in the design profile.
2
JKR is Jabatan Kerja Raya. In English is Public Works
Department (PWD)
630
The users consumed almost the same amount of Symbol /
energy during day and night time but the total daily Parameter SK Penontomon
Component
energy consumption still less about 30% than the
design values. But the users tend to use more Loss of load LL 0%
energy during night time as compared to the design
profile. PV Generator
CA 1.57
capacity
The actual energy consumption at SK Accumulator

Penontomon was higher during night time, The CS 5.76
capacity
reason might be that, as explained in Part 3, the
teachers’ quarters in SK Penontomon contribute Solar Fraction SF 92%
41% of the total load sharing. Energy

ηWh 94%
Efficiency
B. System Operation Analysis.
Parameter that can determine the reliability of

the PV system to supplies electricity to the load is The system satisfies the entire load required.
Loss of Load (LL). Moreover, another two useful Loss of load value of zero shows that the system
parameters to relate the reliability of the system are which consist of PV, storage and generator is
the Generator Capacity, CA and the Accumulator reliable and can produce sufficient and sustainable
Capacity, CS. CA, is defined as the ratio of the daily energy to satisfy the electricity demand by users.
energy output of the PV generator divided by the
daily energy consumption of the load. CS is defined The combination of the PV and the generator
as the maximum energy that can be extracted from shows that the system is not very dependent on the
the accumulator divided by the daily energy usage of the generator and allows a significant
consumption of the load. Hence the equations will lower quantity of diesel used during the
be; measurement. The data also showed that the system
works so far without any major problems.
CA = EPV and CS = Cu [1]
L L Table 4 : Summary of the system operation and comparison with
the simulation value from HOMER.
Where EPV is the daily energy output of the PV SK Penontomon

generator, L is the daily energy consumption of the Compon
Parameter
ent
load and Cu is the maximum energy that can be Simulation Actual
extracted from the battery. For rural electrification
2,862,665.00 1,420,528.85
purposes as mentioned in [7], the values of both CA PV
Wh Wh
and CS are commonly used as CA ≈ 1.1 and 3 ≤ CS
≤ 5. But CA is also depending on the local solar Monthly
Genset
139,160.80 126,076.67
climate condition. Energy Wh Wh
Production
Battery
Solar fraction, also known as renewable energy 487,050.70 698,167.08
(dischar
fraction, is defined as the amount of energy Wh Wh
ge)
provided by the solar technology system divided by
the total energy required [13]. This will show the 1,299,323.70 914,083.16
Load
Monthly Wh Wh
system dependency on the diesel generator as Energy
compared to the solar PV and storage system. Consumption Battery 615,030.30 741,150.31
(charge) Wh Wh
The battery energy efficiency, ηWh is the ratio of
the energy discharged from the battery to the
energy charged to the battery within a certain
period of time. In this study one month energy C. Economic Analysis
efficiency is calculated.
Generally, for either systems (diesel generator only
Table 3 : Summary of the system energy parameters for both or solar hybrid system), the Cost of Energy (COE)
systems. is depending on the sizing of the system. A bigger
631
system capacity reduces the COE. But, it will also years and inverter and charge controller at 15 years.
increase the investment cost. It is clearly shows that the batteries system is the
heart of the system where it contributes 45% of the
Table 5: Result from Homer simulation on the economic aspect
lifetime project cost.
for SK Penontomon.
Project Total Cost with lifetime at 25 years

SK Penontomon
Electrical, 4.31%
Civil, 3.45%
Parameters Fuel, 0.91% PV, 16.59%
Solar Hybrid
Genset only
System
O&M, 25.80%
Investment cost €134,371.00 €568,131.00
Diesel Generator, 2.24%

Cost of Energy 3.83€/kWh 5.86€/kWh Charge Controller, 0.36% Batteries, 44.56%
Converter, 1.78%
Operating cost 59,787.00€/yr 49,415.00€/yr

PV Batteries Converter Charge Controller Diesel Generator O&M Fuel Civil Electrical
Generator
energy 29.36 MWh/yr 2.06 MWh/yr Figure 7 : Project total cost of the solar hybrid system. The
produced project lifetime is at 25 years.
Diesel VI. CONCLUSION

12,514.00 L/yr 778.00 L/yr
consumption
In general the solar hybrid system offers better
Cost of Diesel3 18,771.00€/yr 1,167.00€/yr electricity in providing power supply to the rural
schools than the old and conventional diesel
generator system. The measurements and
The operating cost of the systems shows that the simulation of the system shows that the solar
client will be burden by the higher cost for hybrid system can produce reliable power supply
operating the diesel generator system as compared system to meet the rural schools’ electricity need.
to the solar hybrid system. For a solar hybrid The system was designed and configured correctly
system, the service and maintenance routine can be but predicting the load pattern to be as accurate as
done at least twice a year excluding the corrective the actual load consumption has always been the
maintenance. The generator will have less services challenging part.
every year since the operation hours is minimum.
The combination of the PV-batteries-generator
The only concern for the system lies on the
reduces the dependency of the fuel consumption
batteries system which one can consider as the
and fully utilizes the clean energy from the sun.
weakest point of the solar hybrid system. But if a
Even though a diesel generator system cost less
proper maintenance and services schedule applied
than a solar hybrid system, but the fact that its
on the batteries and to the system as a whole, the
operating cost in providing a proper service and
system can be long lasting with effectively
maintenance makes the system less favorable as
operating cost.
compared to the solar hybrid system. The study
Figure 7 below is the total cost of the project in shows that the heart of the system lies on the
twenty five years of its lifetime. The costs are base batteries system where it contributes almost half of
on the components cost including their replacement the total lifetime cost and almost half of the daily
cost, civil works for building the power house, load consumption serves by the batteries. Improper
electrical works especially for mini grid conducts on the system may directly affect the
installation, fuel costs and the operation and batteries performance which may lead to the failure
maintenance costs. Replacement of batteries is of the system.
considered to be every 6 years, diesel generator at 8
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
3 My deepest gratitude to my supervisor; Mr. Hans

Diesel price is assumed at €1.50 per litre of diesel at the sites.
The diesel selling price in Malaysia is at € 0.34/litre due to Gerhard Holtorf of University of Oldenburg,
subsidized by the government. The higher price as compared to Germany, my family, officers/friends at Electrical
the normal selling price is due to logistic cost to supply the
diesel to the remote areas. Engineering Branch, Public Works Department of
632
Malaysia, and Public Service Department of
Malaysia for sponsoring my study. Also thanks to
my entire PPRE and EUREC classmates.
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Development, (2006). Ninth Malaysia Plan 2006-2010.
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Representation of Energy and Power Analysis
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MDG7 – Achieve Universal Primary
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Batteries An Introductory Handbook (Second Edition),
Hoppecke Batterien.
[7] Luque, L., Hegedus, S., (2003), Handbook of

Photovoltaic Science and Engineering, Wiley.
[8] NASA, Surface meteorology and Solar Energy,

http://eosweb.larc.nasa.gov
[9] National Renewable Energy Laboratory, HOMER – The

Micropower Optimization Model,
http://www.nrel.gov/homer
[10] Wikipedia, Solar Saving Fraction,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_fraction
[11] Mahmud, A.M., (2008), Country Report – Malaysia,

Postgraduate Programme Renewable Energy, University
of Oldenburg.
[12] Public Works Department of Malaysia, (2009),

Intergrated JKR SCADA – jSCADA, Anugerah Kualiti
Teknologi Maklumat & Komunikasi.
[13] Public Works Department of Malaysia, (2008),

Cadangan Merekabentuk, Membina, Membekal,
Menyiapkan dan Menyelenggara Sistem Solar Hibrid
Bagi Sekolah Luar Bandar Negeri Sabah Pakej 1,
Contract Document.
633
Wind Power Integrated with Compressed Air

Energy Storage
Ali Daneshi Nima sadrmomtazi Hossein Daneshi Mojtaba khederzadeh
Young Researcher Club Royal Institute of Technology LCG Counsulting Power and Water University
Islamic Azad University Stockholm, Sweden Los Altos.USA Tehran,Iran
Bojnord, Iran nimasm@kth.se hdaneshi@energyonline.com kheder@pwut.ac.ir
a.daneshi@daryapala.com
Abstract—Global concerns over climate change and  Increasing the usability of renewable energies.
sustainability have led to recent worldwide push toward
generating electricity from renewable and sustainable  Increasing the usability of existing transmission
resources. Wind energy is a fast-growing form of renewable and distribution equipment that eliminate the need
resources worldwide. Integration of wind resources into the for expensive T&D additions.
power system brings new challenges to the planning,
operation, and control of power system in either short-term
 Can be used in stand-alone applications (e.g. UPS).
or long-term time interval. It’s an intermittent resource,  Generating electricity through a much
which is not dispatchable in the traditional sense. environmental friendly way.
Fortunately, a number of new technologies are making wind
energy friendly, and promising continued growth in its  Improving the flexibility and reliability of the
share of total energy. These include better wind forecast, system as a reserve electricity supply.
advanced power electronic devices, enhanced control
techniques and energy storage. In this paper we discuss In figure.1 the considerable influence of using storage
compressed air energy storage (CAES) as an alternative technologies on balancing the fluctuations in supply and
solution to store energy. After giving an overview about complementing primary generation can clearly be seen
wind energy and CAES technology some CAES power [1].
plants in the world will be introduced and the integration of There are many types of electricity storages including
CAES with green power plant will be evaluated. Pump hydro power, Compress air energy storage (CAES),
Batteries, Flywheels, Super conducting magnetic energy
Keywords—Wind power; Compress air energy storage; storage (SMES), Super Capacitor and Hydrogen storage.
Energy storage; Renewable energy;. In this paper after giving an overview about storage
technologies, the effective role of CAES on networks
I. INTRODUCTION including renewable energies especially wind power
One of the major reasons of global warming, air pollution generation, would be discussed.
and green house phenomena is enormous increase in
consumption of fossil fuels. These concerns result to a
worldwide push toward renewable energy resources. The
increasing electricity generation from intermittent and
unpredictable renewable resource has faced the power
system with new obstacles like power quality and
reliability issues. Using storage technologies in
combination with green powers is one of the proven
solutions for reducing the negative effects of these
resources on power systems. Energy storages are able to
balance the fluctuation of the power generation and
consumption, they also can be use as the complementary
of primary generation, in other words they can play a
multi conception-role in efficiency management of power
generation. Besides deriving electricity from storages in
load peak times would lead to a drop in the energy Figure 1. Influence of using storages on system demand graph
generation costs, due to the low cost of energy
generation. Some of the attractive features that storage
technology is able to provide are listed below in brief:[1]
II. ELECTRIC STORAGE TECHNOLOGY
 Bring about a reduction in operating cost or capital Although power system may operate effectively
expenditure. without storage, cost-effective ways of storing electrical
energy can help make the grid more efficient and reliable.
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 634

Electrical energy can be stored in different ways. A D. Super conducting magnetic energy storage(SMES)
number of major electric storage technologies are: A SMES device main component is a super conducting
 Pump hydro power coil that energy could be stored in its magnetic field. The
coil must be kept at a very low temperature to maintain its
 Compress air energy storage (CAES) super conducting capabilities. SMES energy devices are
 Batteries able to provide high power, very fast but few seconds so
these technologies are only used for power quality
 Flywheels applications.
 Super conducting magnetic energy storage(SMES) Example: Hitachi built and tested a 5 MJ SMES system
in 1986, which was connected to the 6.6 kV power lines of
 Super Capacitors the Hitachi Works to evaluate transmission line stability.
In 1998, a 100 kWh SMES was constructed in Japan by
 Hydrogen storage the ISTEC program.[6]
E. Super Capacitors
A. Pump hydro power Super capacitors store energy by physically separating
negative and positive charges like traditional electric
Conventional pump hydro station is consist two capacitors. They can charge and discharge a large amount
reservoirs, that are built at two different levels. During the of power in a very short time. Self discharge rate of super
off-peak periods water is being pumped from lower into capacitors (10% per day) is the main reason for being less
upper reservoirs and stored as potential energy. When suitable for long term storage.
demand requires electricity in peak load periods the flow
is discharged through a turbine which generate electric F. Hydrogen storage
power as high as 1000 MW. In a hydrogen storage device hydrogen is being gained
Example: There is over 90 GW of pumped storage in and is stored in a gas tank. the fuel cell can use the stored
operation world wide, which is about 3 % of global hydrogen to produce electricity when required. During the
generation capacity. In 2009 the United States had 21.5 process of electricity generation just pure water will be
GW of pumped storage generating capacity, accounting produced. This technology is among the most pure types
for 2.5% of base load generating capacity. The Ludington and the device is able to store large amount of power. It`s
Pumped Storage Plant was built from 1969-1973 at a cost efficiency is low that is about 25%.
of $327 million in lake of Michigan. it is owned jointly by
Consumers Energy and Detroit Edison and operated by
III. COMPRESS AIR ENERGY STORAGE (CAES)
Consumers Energy. The plant can produce 1,872
megawatts of electricity. [2, 3] A. Compress air energy storage background
B. Batteries Compress Air Energy Storage (CAES) is proven
Energy stores in battery due to reactions generated in technology that has exist nearly 30 years with a number of
electrochemical components of the battery while charging. successful facilities in the world. CAES use low-cost off
Based on demand, reserves chemical reactions lead to peak energy to store Air into an underground reservoir by
electricity flow of the battery to the grid. Nowadays using means of powering a motor connected to a compressor.
of this technology has become very popular. There are Energy is recapture after expansion of the compressed air
different types of battery such as: Lead-acid batteries, Ni- through a high pressure air turbine. During the process
Cd Batteries, Li-ion batteries, Nas Batteries and etc. that natural gas is mixed with the air and finally their mixture
are being used in grids by considering their characteristics is fired in a low pressure natural gas turbine. To improve
and the girds condition. the efficiency of the system, waste heat is used to preheat
the turbine inlet air by a heat exchanger. Typical
Example: In Japan 4 MW of vanadium redox battery capacities for a CAES system are around 50-300 MW.
storage was used to smooth wind farm output from a 32 The storage period is also the longest due to the fact that
MW wind farm and operated successfully cycling up to its losses are very small. Figure 2 shows the layout of a
600 times per day.[4] CAES unit.
C. Flywheels
A rotating mass (rotor) spinning at a very high velocity
and an integrated motor-generator are two main
components of flywheel storage device. The motor-
generator operates as motor to burn the flywheel and store
energy or as a generator to produce power. The discharge
rate of flywheel make it not suitable to be used for long
periods but its long life time, high energy density , large
maximum power output ,short access time, high efficiency
and small environmental impacts make it to be considered
as an applicable device for improving the range,
performance and efficiency of electric vehicles.
Example: The Coral Bay plants was built in 2007 in
Coral Bay, North Western Australia, by Verve Energy. It Figure 2. Layout of compressed air energy storage (CAES) unit
have 0.825 MW wind, 500 kW short-term flywheel
energy storage and 2.24 MW low load diesel.[5]
635
B. Advantages and disadvantages [7,8] self-healing characteristics of solution-mined salt cavities
a) Advantages virtually eliminate air leakage. Many sites are suitable and
the solution mining technology is commercially available
 High efficiency. More efficient than a with warrantees. [7,9]
conventional natural gas plant.
b) Hard rock mind
 Stable heat rate at low capacity. Hard rock formations are currently used to store natural
gas and other hydrocarbons, with operating experience of
 High output in hot weather, since the air flowing over 40 years. Many sites are suitable and the hard rock
into a CAES turbine is at a constant heat and excavation technology is commercially available with
pressure. warrantees. A hard-rock cavern is more expensive than a
 Emissions are 30% lower than combined-cycle salt cavern, due to added labor and equipment expenses.
natural gas-fired plants, and 50% lower than Hence, the smallest possible rock cavern volume per unit
simple cycle plants. of output is desirable. This can be accomplished by
hydraulic compensation, which is achieved by water from
 Fast ramp rates because the air is already a surface reservoir flowing down a vertical shaft into the
compressed: 0–100% in less than ten minutes; 50– cavern, displacing stored air during generation, sure. The
100% in less than 15 seconds. process reverses during the charging operation. Such a
design would need only about 1/5th the volume of a salt
 Much less expensive than some other storage cavern operating at variable pressure (constant volume)
options, including pumped hydro, advanced for the same energy storage capability. [7,9]
batteries and superconductors. c) Aquifer
 Can be built and made operational within three The use of aquifer to store natural gas is a technology
years of selecting equipment, completing with over 50 years of experience. Using aquifer for CAES
preliminary engineering and obtaining permits. is the cheapest of the three possible geologic Medias. An
aquifer, applicable for CAES, is a porous rock (e.g.
 Uses significantly less fuel than a conventional sandstone or a fractured rock) with high porosity and
combustion-turbine facility. permeability to permit have an impermeable overlying
 Large capacity potential (~300 MW). domal cap rock structure to inhibit upward and lateral air
movement. it is isolated from irrigation or drinking water
 Can withstand frequent starts and stops, and can aquifers. On of the unique characteristics is that it can be
easily switch between compressing or releasing or change from daily usage to weekly usage without
even both at same time. performing any excavation. The only change required is to
enlarge the bubble underground via extra compression
 Can respond quickly to market demand — shorter energy whenever needed. This attribute makes this type of
ramp rates than natural gas turbine alone CAES storage media very flexible and particularly
Abbreviations and Acronyms attractive to utility dispatchers and planners.[7,9]
b) Disadvantages
 Requires natural-gas combustion. D. Example of CAES
 Requires large airtight reservoir, which may be The first commercial CAES was a 290 MW unit built in
site specific. Hundorf, Germany in 1978. The second commercial
CAES was a 110 MW unit built in McIntosh, Alabama in
 Temperature sensitive. 1991.[10]. The third commercial CAES, the largest ever,
is a 2700 MW plant that is planned for construction in
C. Site requirements Norton, Ohio. This 9unit plant will compress air to 1500
The most important component of a CAES facility is its psi in an existing limestone mine some 2200 feet
underground storage reservoir for compressed air. underground.[11]
Compressed air may be stored in man-made Having discussed all the different types of energy
excavations or in natural aquifers. CAES reservoir can be storage, comparison of the different technologies are
located in various geographical formations, including salt provided in table1.[1,12,13,14] Figure 3 also make
domes, hard rock mind and aquifers. A suitable site is comparison between the technologies in term of their
selected upon geological characteristics such as:[7] rated power and discharge time. As they both are showing,
 Location of a suitable formation at a dept of 200 CAES is one of the best options to be chose as the
to 1000 meter. complementary facility for large scale renewable
storages.[15]
 Tightness of the formation.
 Stability of the formation under changing pressure
a) Salt Reservoirs
Salt Reservoirs are used to store oil, natural gas and
many other hydrocarbons with operating experience of
over 60 years. Such cavities are typically produced by
solution mining wherein water is pumped and the
resulting brine brought to the surface for disposal. The
636
renewable energy policies even fortify the marketability
of wind power in power markets. For these reasons,
wind power market penetration is continuously
increasing.
Intermittency of wind power generation is considered
as a major market barrier against further wind power
penetration into regional power markets. Significantly
increased intermittent resource capacity can impose a
heavy burden in system operation and portfolio
scheduling with extra costs, even though enhanced wind
forecasting and operation schemes might reduce the
concern. The feasible solutions for these problems can
be:[16] better wind forecast or introduction of wind
energy storage. The wind forecast is, although much
improved, still very complex and not very exact. A
storage used as a power and energy buffer can smooth
Figure 3. comparison between the technologies in term of their the power output fluctuations from a wind farm and
rated power and discharge time remedy the volatility of wind energy. Dispatchable wind
power would eliminate the market barrier caused by
wind energy intermittency. Generally a dispatchable
IV. WIND INTEGRATION WITH CAES wind farm is the combination of a classical wind farm
and energy storage technology. Dispatchable wind
Wind power takes a major role in renewable energy
power can add more value on the classical wind farm
expansion. The technology is well proven and now the
providing the capabilities of price arbitrage, ancillary
economics can be competitive even with conventional
services and congestion management additionally
generation resources. The incentives and supports from
TABLE I. STORAGES TECHNOLOGIES COMPARISON
Facility
Technology Advantages Disadvantages Efficiency Application Estimate Cost
size range
High power and energy Special site requirements;
Spinning/ standing
Pump Storage capacity, medium access time, adverse impact Up to
70-85% reserve energy 500-1,600 $/kW
long life time, lower energy on environment; expensive to 2.1GW
Arbitrage
generation cost site built, long construction time
Variability reduction
high power and energy Production cost; safety Uninterruptible power
NaS Battery 100 W-
capacity, high power and Concerns, relatively expensive, 80-90% supply (UPS), T&D 350-1000 $/kW
20 MW
energy density, long life time production challenges application,
Power quality
No large energy market Variability reduction
Li-ion Battery Short access time; high application so far Uninterruptible power 100 W-
85-95% 350-1000 $/kW
energy density because of technical supply (UPS), 20 MW
and cost issues Automobile
High power capacity; short
Low energy density, low energy
access time; long life time; low Power quality and
Flywheel capacity, large standby losses,
maintenance effort; small 90-95% Transportation 500-6000 $/kW KW scale
potentially dangerous failure
environmental impact, quick defense
mode
recharge
Low energy density; Power quality,
7-10W
few power system emergency bridging
Super High efficiency; long life commercial
applications, expensive, sloped 90-95% power, consumer 250-500 $/kW
Capacitor cycle, quick recharge 10-20KW
voltage curve require power electronics
prototype
electronics transportation defense
Spinning/ standing
350-500 $/kW
Very high energy and power Geographical limited, require reserve energy 25-350
CAES 70-80% (commercial plant
capacity; long life time; fuel (gas) input Arbitrage, frequency MW
estimates)
regulation
Variability reduction,
High power and energy
Hydrogen High cost, low efficiency 45-65% Spinning/ standing 350-1500 $/kW KW scale
capacity
reserve
Low energy density; From 1-10
SMES High power capacity; short high production cost; Power quality and 1,000 $/kW (1-2 MW (micro
90-95%
access time; long life time potential adverse T&D application MW, 1 sec) SMES) to
health impact 10-100MW
637
CAES is often considered for a dispatchable wind diameter (volume 5.32 million cubic meters) which
power implementation technology option due to its large supports pressures from 45 to 74 bar. The unit can supply
storage capacity that make it possible to provide energy power for 26 hours, and takes between 9 (normal) and 13
for longer period in peak-load time. It is also a very high minutes to start. The construction took 30 months and cost
accessibility and reliability in comparison with other $65M (about $591/kW). [19]
options while being the most economic storage technology In figure 5 the regions with site requirements potential
one of the most economic options from many storage of CAES and also region with suitable condition of
options and the technology itself is quite mature as it can constructing wind farm can be seen[20]. It is obvious that
be seen from the comparison table1. During off peak time combination of this to region will provide as with suitable
or when the power consumption is low and wind is places for building a dispatchable wind power generating
available the motor-compressor stores air in the cavern. by using CAES. As the figure shows best places for
During on peak time or when power consumption is high construction of dispatchable wind generating using CAES
and wind is not available for the wind park the gas turbine covers almost 75% of US area.[21]
uses the stored air in the cavern. The effect for the grid is a
power in feed that can be controlled by operators or the
market demands. The system allows improving the power
balance and results in a higher utilization. The stochastic
character of wind power can be adapted to the consumers
and grid demands.
E. Wind Energy worldwide
The world wide installed wind power generation is
growing very fast, only in 2006 was installed 15.2 GW of
wind generators worldwide, making the total of 74.2 GW
of installed wind generation. The status of wind power
deployment and the growth rate until 2004 is illustrated in
Figure 4. It shows the exponential growth for the world as
a whole and Germany in particular. [17]
Figure 5. Regions suiteable for construction of dispatchable wind
power generation by using CAES in USA
b) Wind Energy in Europe

The development of wind farms in Europe enjoys
greater public acceptance and creates a larger share of
energy. Germany has the biggest wind turbine to be
established offshore, and the largest number of wind farms
in the world.
In Germany total installed capacity of wind generation
was 19300 MW (June 2006) with new installation of
Figure 4. Power Growth for the World and Select Countries about 900 MW in the first 3 months in 2006. In 2010 the
contribution of renewable energy to the gross electricity
a) Wind Energy in America consumption shall be 12.5 per cent and in 2020 20 per
The U.S. has several of the largest wind farms in the cent.[22]
world. Three of the largest, Altamont, San Gorgonio and Denmark has a total capacity of a little more than 3,200
Tehachapi Pass, are located in California. The largest U.S. MW of wind power - approximately 2,800 MW from land
wind farm is the Stateline Wind Project on the Oregon- turbines and 400 MW offshore. In 2007, around 21 per
Washington line, with a peak capacity of 300MW. cent of domestic power consumption was supplied by
In the USA 2005 the total capacity increased by wind power. In a normal wind year, Danish wind turbines
37GW. At the end of 2009; the installed capacity of wind generate the equivalent of approx. 20 percent of the
power in the United States was just over 35,000 MW Danish electricity demand. In 2008, the number was 19.3
(35 GW). Over 9,900 MW of new wind power capacity percent. [23]
was brought online in 2009, up from 8,800 in 2008.Texas Wind power is the second largest source of renewable
keeps about 136,000 MW of wind energy potential, energy in the UK after biomass. As of January 2010, the
second among United States. In the McCamey area of installed capacity of wind power in the United Kingdom
West Texas, 683 MW of new wind capacity was added in was over 4 (GW). Over 1 GW of new wind power
2001 and 758MW of total wind power capacity presented capacity was bought online during 2009, 800 MW
in the beginning of 2002.[17,18] onshore and 285 MW offshore. [24]
Integration of wind with CAES In December 2009, 1,975 wind turbines were installed
In 1991 the Alabama Electric Company commissioned in the Netherlands, with an aggregate capacity of 2,221
the McIntosh CAES plant. It incorporated several MW. The Dutch are trying to meet the EU-set target of
improvements over Huntorf, including a waste heat producing 9% of total electricity from renewable sources
recovery system that reduces the fuel usage by about 25%. by 2010.[25]
The system has a rated capacity of 110 MW, from a Italy ranked as the world’s sixth largest producer of
roughly cylindrical salt cavern 300 m deep and 80 m in wind power with an installed capacity of 3,736 GW in
638
2008. The 1999 Italian ‘White Book’ targeted to install [2].Consumers Energy and Detroit Edison. " Ludington Pumped Storage
2,500 MW of wind power capacity by 2010; Italy Plant " 12/2006
exceeded this in 2007. The Italian government targeted [3].http://www.electricitystorage.org/site/technologies/pumped_hydro/
12,000 MW by 2020. [26] [4].http://peswiki.com/index.php/PowerPedia:Vanadium_redox_batterie
[5].http://ecogeneration.com.au/news/coral_bay_wind
Integration of wind with CAES diesel_power_system/004197/
The Huntorf plant was the first compressed air storage- [6].Ishigaki,Y. Shirahama,H. Kuroda, " Power control experiments
gas turbine power station in the world. The experience using a 5 MJ superconducting magnetic energy storage system " Power
after 20 years of operation is that the Huntorf plant runs Electronics Specialists Conference,PESC '88 Record., 19th Annual
IEEE, 11-14 April 1988, Kyoto, Japan
reliably on a daily cycle and has successfully accumulated
7000 starts. The plant has reported high availability of [7]. R. B. Schainker, M. Nakhamkin " compressed -air energy storage
(caes): overview, performance and cost data for 25MW to 220MW
90% and a starting reliability of 99%.[27] plants " IEEE Transactions Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol.PAS-
In figure 6 the region with aquifer suitable for 104,No.4,April 1985 .
constructing CAES is determined.[20] As it can be seen, [8].Dustin Shively, John Gardner, Todd Haynes, James Ferguson "
countries like Italy, Portugal, Spain, Denmark, UK and Energy Storage Methods for Renewable Energy Integration and Grid
Germany that are the biggest wind generators of Europe, Support " IEEE Energy2030 , Atlanta, Georgia, USA , 17-18 November
2008
have quit a suitable potential for construction of CAES. [9] A. J. Karalis,E. J. Sosnowicz " air storage requirements for a 220
mwe caes plant as a function of turbomachinery selection and operation
" IEEE Transactions Power Apparatus and Systems,Vol.PAS-104,
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[10].BINE informationsdienst " Compressed air energy storage power
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[11].http://electricitystorage.org/tech/technologie_technologie_caes.htm
[12]. Bo Yang1, Yuri Makarov , John Desteese, Vilayanur
Viswanathan, Preben Nyeng, Bart McManus and John Pease " On the
Use of Energy Storage Technologies for Regulation Services in Electric
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Electricity Market, EEM 2008.5th International Conference on
European, 28-30 May 2008, pages:1– 6
[13]. Roger Peters, P.Eng, The PEMBINA institute " Storing Renewable
Figure 6. Regions suitable for construction of dispatchable wind Power " June 2008
power generation by using CAES in Europe [14]R.Walawalkar, J.Apt "Market Analysis of Emerging Electric
Energy Storage Systems " National Energy Technology Laboratory,
V. CONCLUSION July 31, 2008
[15].www.Electricity storage.org
Increasing pollution rate due to enormous usage of [16]. Spahic, E. Balzer, G. Hellmich, B. Munch, W." Wind energy
fossil fuels in power plants led to a worldwide push storage- posiibilities" Power Tech, IEEE Lausanne, 1-5 July 2007,
toward renewable recourses, especially wind power. It is pages: 615 - 620
clear that utilization of wind energy led to a considerable [17]. http://peswiki.com/index.php/Directory:Wind_Farms
[18]. You Seok Son " Dispatchable Wind Power Valuation in Texas "
decrease in both pollution and cost rate, but it makes Power Engineering Society General Meeting, 2005. IEEE, Vol.2 Pages:
improvement of power system necessary due to its 1944 -1947
inherent intermittent characteristics. One proven solution [19]. Sang-Seung Lee, Young-Min Kim, Jong-Keun Park, Seung-Il
to overcome power quality and reliability issues caused by Moon, Yong-Tae Yoon" Compressed Air Energy Storage Units for
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compressed air energy storage as the most efficient of its [20]. Samir Succar and Robert H. Williams " Compressed Air Energy
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[23]. http://www.wind-energy-the-facts.org/en/home--about-the-
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639
Robust Current Controller

for PM Synchronous Motor
Petr Blaha∗ and Pavel Vaclavek∗∗
∗
Brno University of Technology, Brno, Czech Republic. Email: blahap@feec.vutbr.cz
∗∗
Brno University of Technology, Brno, Czech Republic. Email: vaclavek@feec.vutbr.cz
Abstract—This paper presents design of robust current con- quadrature current parts of the motor to two independently
troller. It takes the motor parameters as uncertain values. Com- operating and linear parts which can be also controlled by
paring with other approaches it takes into account imprecision two independent linear controllers works accurately. The in-
of decoupling which linearizes the motor model. The controller
design uses error signals between coupling and decoupling terms accuracy is caused by the fact that the block with decoupling
and treats them as uncertainties. This approach preserves the lin- utilizes motor parameters which are uncertain. This simplifi-
earity for the price of treating model as multivariable system with cation again enables to use robust control methods to design
uncertainties. The current generating part is treated as TITO current controllers for two linear systems [7], [8].
system. The current controller is designed using µ -synthesis The linear model can also be obtained using the trick when
by D-K iterations. The obtained controller is of a high order
therefore its order is reduced. The paper shows the simulation instead of providing feedback linearization the cross couplings
results of designed controller and also the overall behavior of the are substituted with uncertainties. This uncertainties cover
vector control algorithm with PID speed controller and robust wide range of speed changes which usually leads to high
current controller. degree of conservatism in the controller design and therefore
Index Terms—PMS motor; robust control; vector control; low control performance.
feedback linearization This paper describes the robust controller design for the
case when the feedback linearization is used to approximately
suppress the cross couplings and the error between coupling
I. I NTRODUCTION
and decoupling is substituted with parametric uncertainty. This
Permanent magnet synchronous (PMS) motor is good can- decreases conservatism of the controller design.
didate for actuator for precise position systems, robots and The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. A PMS
machine tools due to their higher power density and lower motor model is presented in Section 2. Section 3 describes the
inertia comparing with the other types of motors [1]. The performed steps towards design of robust current controller.
performance as well as the stability can be influenced with the Section 4 slightly outlines the speed PID controller. The next
motor parameters changes during its operation. The classical section contains the description of simulation experiments
control design is performed for nominal motor parameters and realized in the environment of Matlab Simulink. The last
assumes that the functionality of the control algorithm will be section concludes the obtained results.
preserved also form varying parameters.
Nowadays, the robust control theory is elaborated in details. II. PMS MOTOR MODEL
Besides the rich amount of tools for robust analysis of the
The three-phase synchronous motor with permanent mag-
systems also several synthesis methods were developed. The
nets is studied in this paper. It can be described in d − q
approaches like H∞ loop shaping design, mixed sensitivity
coordinates using following formulas
design and μ synthesis are good examples. These methods are
described in many books, e.g. [1], [2] and [3]. These books dΨd
= ud − Rs id + ωΨq
define several basic types of uncertainties as parametric and dt (1)
nonparametric, as well as affine and polytopic systems with dΨq
= uq − Rs iq − ωΨd
uncertainties. dt
The attempts for utilization of robust control design tech- where the magnetic fluxes are described with equations
niques for PMS motor control started during 90th when this
theory started to evolve. Many articles with this subject have Ψ d = Ld id + Ψ f
tried to design the robust speed controllers for the motors [4], (2)
[5] and [6]. This was realized under simplification of the motor Ψ q = Lq iq
to mechanical part only. The electrical part is often said to be The mechanical equation describing the motion of the motor
fast enough comparing with the mechanical one and therefore is given by
it is neglected. This rough simplification bypasses the fact that dωm 1
= (T − F ωm − TL ) (3)
the robust control theory is designed for linear systems only. dt J
The second group of papers imprecisely assumes that the dθ
input-output feedback linearization used to decouple direct and ωm = (4)
dt
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 640

Torque produced by the motor Where x0 means nominal value and δx represents relative
perturbations for which equation −1 ≤ δx ≤ 1 is valid and ex
3 3 is degree of relative error. We assume the same level of these
T = zp (Ψd iq − Ψq id ) = zp [Ψf + (Ld − Lq )id ] (5) errors as in [7], i.e. eRs = eLd = eLq = 0.7.
2 2
The cross coupling can be theoretically decoupled using
The meaning of variables and parameters used above is as
feedback linearization. It is the truth under the assumption
follows. is = id + jiq is stator current, us = ud + juq is
that the parameters of the motor are known. In the case of
stator voltage, Rs is stator resistance, Ld and Lq are direct
uncertain parameters the feedback linearization can’t be done
and quadrature inductances, Ψf is magnetic flux level. zp is
perfectly and it should be taken into account during the robust
number of pole pairs, ωm is mechanical speed, ω is electrical
controller design. There are three couplings whose actions are
speed, θ is rotor angular displacement, TL is load torque and
usually eliminated. The first one is ωLq iq /Ld , second one
J is moment of inertia.
is ωLd id /Lq and the last one is ωΨf . The last one is not
PMS motor model can be described by state space descrip-
interesting from the control point of view since it acts as
tion in rotor flux coordinates.
a disturbance which is moreover approximately known. This
term can be seen in figure 1 but it is not further treated during
⎞ ⎛ Rs ωLq robust controller design. First two couplings can be treated as
⎞
did
⎛
− 0 ⎟⎛ ⎞
⎜ dt ⎟ ⎜ Ld Ld uncertainties. Doing this makes the system linear.
ωLd Rs ⎟ id
⎜ diq ⎟ ⎜
⎜ ⎟=⎜ − −
−zp Ψf ⎟ ⎝
iq ⎠ + Let us analyze the coupling ωLd id /Lq . The current is
⎜ dt ⎟ ⎜ Lq Lq Lq ⎟
measured and transformed according to rotor position and
F ⎠ ωm
⎝ dω ⎠ ⎜ ⎟
m ⎝ 3zp 3zp the electrical speed is measured as well. Both quantities are
dt (ΔL)iq Ψf −
2J 2J
⎛ 1
J measured with some precision and therefore they can be
viewed as uncertainties
⎞
0 0 ⎛ ⎞
⎜ Ld ⎟ ud
⎜ 1 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ (6)
⎜ 0 0⎟⎟ uq id = id0 (1 + eid δid ) (12)
⎜ Lq ⎠ Tl
1
⎝
0 0 ω = ω0 (1 + eω δω ) (13)
J
where ΔL = Ld − Lq . In following controller design it is assumed that both mea-
The state equations are nonlinear. The feedback linearization surements are performed with error of 2% which makes
can be used to linearize the system and to divide (6) into two eid = eω = 0.02.
mutually independent parts. The first parts is the one which The resulting coupling after approximate decoupling is
generates the excitation of the motor given by equation
1
did Rs
= − id +
1
u (7) (id ω0 Ld0 − id ωLd ) =
dt Ld Ld d Lq 0
id ω 0 L d 0
This part is usually controlled to zero to keep the level of the = 0 (1 − (1 + eid δid )(1 + eω δomega )(1 + eLd δLd )) =
Lq
excitation on the same level. The exception is the employment
id
of field weakening due to necessity of running the motor above = ω0 Ld0 (1 − 1 − xδΔωLd ) 0 ≈
nominal speed. The second part generates the torque Lq
id
diq Rs 1 ≈ 0(1 + eΔωLd δΔωLd ) 0 (14)
= − iq + u (8) Lq
dt Lq Lq q
The term ΔωLd = 0(1 + eΔωLd δΔωLd ) can be treated as
where ud and uq are the input signals for the linearized parametric uncertainty with nominal value equal to zero where
and decoupled AC induction motor. These modified equations eΔωLd = ωrn zp Ld0 x.
resemble the equations which describe the DC motor with Because the electrical speed changes slowly it can be
external excitation. These linearized equations have the same assumed as a constant. The coupling ωLq iq /Ld can be treated
shape but in general with different constants. They are equiva- in the same fashion as uncertainty ΔωLq . This modification
lent for synchronous motors with saliency ratio χ = L Lq equal
d
makes current generating part of the motor linear with uncer-
to one. tain parameters as can be seen in Figure 1.
The state space description of this system is given by
III. D ESIGN OF THE ROBUST CONTROLLER matrices
Let’s assume motor parameters expressed as parametric ΔωLq ⎞
⎛ Rs ⎛ 1 ⎞
− 0
uncertainties Ld Ld ⎟
A = ⎝ ΔωL B = ⎝ Ld 1 ⎠ (15)
⎜ ⎜ ⎟
Rs = Rs0 (1 + eRs δRs ) (9) d Rs ⎠
− − 0
Lq Lq Lq
Ld = Ld0 (1 + eLd δLd ) (10)
1 0 0 0
C= D= (16)
Lq = Lq0 (1 + eLq δLq ) (11) 0 1 0 0
641
T eu1
With voltage vector vd vq as input and current vector

T Wu (s)
which is the state vector and the output vector.
id i q
eu2
ud id 0
1
id
Ld
0 K
K F iq es
Wp (s)
Rs d
ΔωLd Fig. 2. Scheme used for robust controller design
ΔωLq The Figure 3 shows step responses of the multi variable

ωΨf system with three inputs (disturbance acting on the output of
the iq generating part which can be seen as a load torque
uq iq divided by 32 zp and required values of the d and q currents)
1

Lq and outputs (d and q currents). It is possible to see that
load torque disturbance will be completely eliminated (From:d
To:iq in Figure 3). The control of torque producing current iq
Rs can ge seen in From:iqref To:iq in Figure 3. The rise time
changes approximately in the range tr ∈ (0.015, 0.08)s which
is comparable to the value which was obtained in article [7]
Fig. 1. Current generating part of PMS motor where only one response is drawn with rise time tr = 0.011s.
The Figure 4 shows worst case sensitivity function of the iq
The parameter uncertainties were defined using the com- part of the closed loop system. It can be seen that the robust
mand ureal. The uncertain system from Figure 1 was described performance is not maintained in the overall frequency range.
in Matlab using using state space description and using the Even thought it can be said that the controller behaves very
command uss. This system was augmented with the weighting well since the peek of the sensitivity function is recommended
filters for the purpose of proper controller design. The weight to be between 6dB and 8dB. It means that the modulus margin
for the sensitivity function was set to is for worst case motor parameters settings still around 0.4.
s + 100
Wp (s) = 0.5 (17) 10
S(dB)
s + 0.1
The inverse of this sensitivity function can be seen in Figure 4. 0
This inverse defines template for sensitivity function shaping.
The control action was limited for both controllers outputs -10
using the weighting function
Wu (s) = 0.01 (18) -20
The scheme which is used for the controller design can be -30
seen in Figure 2 where F is uncertain current generating part
defined by uss command, d is disturbance for modeling the -40
load torque and defining the sensitivity function. The scheme 1

is opened at a place of assumed controller which is shown -50
Wp (jω
by grayed K. This interconnection can be realized in Robust
Control Toolbox using textual description and the command
-60 Sq
sysic. Note that inputs to the controller must be defined as last
two outputs an last two inputs expect the connection of the
-70
controller outputs. 10
-10
10
0
10
10
The robust controller was designed using the command ω(rad/s)

dksyn. It gave the controller of a 25 order. The order of the
controller was reduced using the command reduce to fourth Fig. 4. Worst case sensitivity function of q - current part
order.
The behavior of the closed loop system which was com-
posed of the current generating plant, the reduced order IV. S PEED CONTROLLER
controller and the disturbance input d can be seen in Figures The robust controller designed in previous section was used
3 and 4. to control model of PMS motor in vector control scheme. The
642
From: d From: idref From: iqref
1.5
M ag(A)
1
To: id
0.5
0
2
M ag(A)
0
To: iq
-1
-2
-3
0 0.1 0.2 0 0.1 0.2 0 0.1 0.2
t(s) t(s) t(s)
Fig. 3. Step response of the current controller in feedback with current generating part
speed controller was realized as a PID controller. Its behavior both robust control design methods. Stator resistance Rs0 =
is described by the transfer function 0.6Ω, direct inductance Ld0 = 1.4mH, quadrature inductance
1 Lq0 = 2.8mH, number of pole pairs zp = 4, flux produced by
FR (s) = kr (1 + + Td s) (19) permanent magnet Ψf = 0.12Wb, motor’s moment of inertia
Ti s
J = 1.11 · 10−3 kg · m2 and dumping F = 1.4 · 10−3 Nms/rad.
The controller parameters were tuned to kr = 20, Ti = 0.025 Nominal speed was ωrn = 230rad/s. Maximum rating
and Td = 0.0075. The output of the speed controller was values were current iqmax = 20A and load torque TLmax =
saturated to maximal allowable current, i.e. to 20A. The anti 8.5Nm.
wind-up of the controller was realized by limiting integrating
part.
ω(rad/s)
250
ωm
V. S IMULATION R ESULTS
This section shows the results from simulation experiments. 200
The simulation experiments were realized in the environment
of Matlab-Simulink. The scheme for the vector control algo-
rithm in rotor flux coordinates was used where PI type current 150 ωref
controllers were replaced with one robust TITO controller. The
Simulink scheme can be seen in Figure 5.
It consists of PMS motor model which gives the three phase 100
current and the mechanical angular speed. The three phase
current is converted to static α − β coordinates. It is converted
to d − q coordinate system which is fixed with the rotor. The
50
input-output feedback linearization is used to eliminate cross
nonlinear couplings.
The cascaded control strategy is used to control motor. The
inner loop is composed from robust current controller. The 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 t(s) 0.5
outer loop is created by the speed PID controller. Computed
control voltage is transformed first from d − q to α − β
Fig. 6. Simulation results of motor speed
coordinates and secondly to three phase stator voltage which
is fed to PMS motor model. The robust controller is realized
as a LTI system. The simulation experiment shows the results of the robust
The nominal parameters of PMS motor were taken from vector control algorithm of PMS motor in rotor flux coordi-
the article [7] to be able to perform comparison between nates. We assume that the required speed is changed from
643
i_d,q req
0
i_d_req K1 u_d,q
x_dq PM Synch . Motor iA,B,C
Subtract 1 Robust x_ab u
Subtract 3 2>3 A,B,C
i_q_req current 
[phi] phi
controller
wz 
phi1 dq−ab 2to3 r
iqz TL
Required
ws M
speed e
Speed PMSM
omega _r Load torque
controller
1 omega
[phi] 4
s
Phi Integrator 1 zp
ab−dq
omega
x_ab 3>2
Id phi3
x_dq
u_d,q comp Iq
phi [phi]
3to2
w
Decoupling
i_d,q
Fig. 5. Simulink PMS motor control scheme with robust current controller.
20 VI. C ONCLUSION
iq (A)
iqref
15 This paper presents robust current controller design for PMS
motor with parametric uncertainties. It is designed using μ
10 iq synthesis by D-K iteration. The problem is treated as design
of the robust controller for TITO system. This is caused by
5
taking into account imprecision in the process of decoupling
caused by uncertain motor parameters. Obtained simulation
results are accordance with the ones obtained in paper [7].
0
The presented controller gives a bit worse control performance
for nominal motor parameters. The open question is whether
-5
the situation does not change in favor of presented algorithm
for uncertain parameters. As a future work we would like
-10
to provide deeper analysis of the obtained controller and its
practical implementation on target hardware to be able to test
-15 is on a real PMS motor.
-20
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 t(s) 0.5 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The research has been supported by Czech Science Foun-
Fig. 7. Simulation results of motor current iq dation under the project GA P103/10/0647 ”Intelligent Elec-
trical Drives Predictive and Robust Control Algorithms”, the
Ministry of Education of the Czech Republic in the frame of
MSM 0021630529 Research Intention ”Intelligent Systems in
0 to 175 rad/s of mechanical speed at time t = 0.1s. The Automation” and by Freescale Semiconductor Czech Republic
torque on the shaft is changed in one step in time t = 0.3s (former division of Motorola)
from 0 to 4Nm which is approximately half of the maximum
allowable load torque. The corresponding progresses of motor
R EFERENCES
angular speed can be seen in Figure 6 and of quadrature axis
current in Figure 7. The speed step response contains relatively [1] K. Zhou, K. Glover, and J. Doyle, Robust And Optimal Control. Prentice
high overshoot. It can be eliminated by using reference which Hall, 1995.
[2] K. Zhou and J. Doyle, Essentials of Robust Control. Prentice Hall,
changes according to ramp signal. The resulting control per- 1998.
formance for nominal parameters is little bit worse than than [3] S. Skogestad and I. Postlethwaite, Multivariable Feedback Control-
the one obtained in paper [7]. Further comparison would be Analysis and design. Wiley, 2005.
[4] A. R. Ghafarri-Kashani, M. J. Yasdanpanah, and J. Faiz, “Robust
necessary also for uncertain parameters to be able objectively speed control of pmsm using mixed nonlinear h∞ /smc techniques,” in
confront both controllers. Proceedings of 17th IFAC World Congress, 2008, pp. 8413–8418.
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[5] T. L. Hsien, M. C. Tsai, and Y. Y. Sun, “Robust speed control of for the pms motor,” Acta Electrotechnica, vol. 49, no. 4, pp. 393–403,
permanent magnet synchronous motors: Design and experiments,” in 2008.
Proceedings of 22nd International Conference on Industrial Electronics, [9] T.-S. Lee, C.-H. Lin, and F.-J. Lin, “An adaptive h∞ controller design
Control, and Instrumentation, vol. 2, 1996, pp. 1177–1182. for permanent magnet synchronous motor drives,” Control Engineering
[6] A. A. Hassan and M. Azzam, “Robust control of a speed sensorless Practice, vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 425 – 439, 2005.
permanent magnet synchronous motor drive,” in Proceedings of 5th [10] Y. H. Chang, T. H. Liu, and C. C. Wu, “Design and implementation
International Conference on Technology and Automation, 2005, pp. 1–6. of an h∞ controller for a micropermanent-magnet synchronous motor
[7] A. A. amd Y. Ramdani and A. Merkoufel., “Design of robust control position control system,” IET Electr. Power Appl., vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 8–18,
system for the pms motor,” Journal of Electrical Engineering, vol. 58, 2008.
no. 6, pp. 326–333, 2007.
[8] F. Z. Azaiz, A. Bounoua, and A. Azaiz, “Design of robust control system
645
Application of Non-superconducting Fault Current

Limiter to Improve Transient Stability
Mehrdad Tarafdar Hagh1, Member, IEEE, Seyed Behzad Naderi2 and Mehdi Jafari2, Student Members, IEEE
1
Mechatronic Center of Excellence, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, IRAN
2
Faculty of Electric & Electronic Engineering, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, IRAN
Emails: tarafdar@tabrizu.ac.ir, s.b.naderi87@ms.tabrizu.ac.ir, m.jafari87@ms.tabrizu.ac.ir
Abstract —In this paper, enhancement of transient stability of high technology and cost of superconductors, these devices are
Single Machine Infinite Bus (SMIB) system with a double circuit not commercially available. Especially in third world countries,
transmission line using a Non-superconducting Fault Current design, manufacture and operation costs providing is
Limiter (NSFCL) is proposed. Stability analysis for such system impossible approximately. Secondly, resistance that RSFCL
is discussed in detail. It is shown that, the stability depends on the shows in fault condition is not constant during the fault due to
resistance of NSFCL in fault condition. To effective improvement its quenching characteristics [11]. So, it is not possible to
of stability, the optimum value of NSFCL resistance is calculated. equate RSFCL’s resistance to the calculated optimal value.
Simulation results by PSCAD/EMTDC software are presented to
confirm the analytic analysis accuracy. The optimum value for resistor of FCL that is installed at
the beginning of the parallel lines is calculated infinite at [10].
Keywords-fault current limiter; transient stability; non- In this state, faulted line will be isolated. But we will show that
superconducting coil; optimum resistor the optimal value for FCL resistor should have finite value and
rotor speed swings in this case will be reduced to lower values.
I. INTRODUCTION In this paper, a structure of NSFCL is introduced. Transient
Power systems have become more expanded due to the stability analysis for SMIB system with a double circuit
increasing electric power demand. To increase the reliability transmission line is studied and the optimum value for resistor
for power supply, the electric power systems are of NSFCL is computed. The optimal value is finite and
interconnected each other to give and take the electric power synchronous generator will has better stability than the optimal
[1]. Therefore, the available fault currents level may exceed the value computed at [10]. Finally, EMTDC/PSCAD software is
maximum short-circuit ratings of the switchgear. Traditionally, used to show the effectiveness of optimum resistor value for
to moderate the cost of switchgear and bus replacements, the enhancement of transient stability.
most common ways to limit high-level fault currents are:
splitting the power grid and introducing higher voltage II. POWER CIRCUIT TOPOLOGY OF NSFCL AND ITS
connections, using current-limiting fuses or series reactors or OPERATION
high-impedance transformers, and using complex strategies
like sequential network tripping [2, 3]. The three phase topology of proposed NSFCL is shown in
Fig. 1. This circuit is composed of following main parts: Three
A better idea to limit the fault currents and prevent high sets of single phase transformers, utilized as power isolation
costs is usage of FCLs. FCLs in electric power systems are also transformer, are connected to a three phase diode rectifier
utilized to variety of performances such as the power system bridge; A non-superconductor (copper coil) magnet that is
transient stability enhancement, power quality improvement, modeled by a resistor ( rd ) and an inductor ( Ldc ); A parallel
reliability improvement, increasing transfer capacity of system
equipment, and inrush current limitation in transformers [3]- connection of a resistor ( R ) and a semiconductor switch
[6]. (IGBT) that are connected in series with the dc reactor; A dc
voltage source ( Vdc ) used to compensate the voltage drop that
Some studies are done on system applications of FCLs take place in both dc reactor resistance and semiconductor
recently. For transient stability studies, they are focused on devices. So, it equals to [12]:
superconductor type FCLs generally, and on Resistive type
SFCLs (RSFCL) specially. Because the RSFCLs can consume
the accelerating power of generators in fault condition and Vdc = 2VDF + VIGBT + rd I dc (1)
therefore, enhance the stability of the power system [6]-[11].
To the best knowledge of authors, [10] and [11] are Where VIGBT stands for the voltage drop across IGBT and
discussed on the optimum value of resistor of superconductor. the forward voltage drop across rectifier diodes is defined as
They try to make a RSFCL that has optimal resistor value in VDF .
fault condition. But there are two problems. Firstly, because of
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 646

When fault occurs at point F, without using NSFCL,
because of reducing transfer power, synchronous generator will
be unstable, probably (depends on fault type and mechanical
power of generator ( pm )). Using NSFCL at the beginning of
the parallel lines can ensure stability of generator. Fig. 3 shows
the equivalent circuit at fault state with NSFCL after applying
star to delta transformation in Fig. 2.
To compute output power of generator, firstly, we calculate
output current of generator ( I g ) in Fig. 3. So we have:
I g = ( E ∠δ Zb ∠α 2 ) + ( ( E ∠δ − V ∠0 ) Z a ∠α1 ) (3)
Figure 1. Power circuit topology of proposed NSFCL

⎧ Z a = b + c + ( bc a )
In normal operation of power system, IGBT switch is ON. ⎪
So, the resistor is bypassed. By compensating the voltage drop ⎪ Z b = a + c + ( ac b )
⎪
on diodes, IGBT and rd , total voltage drop on FCL becomes ⎪ a = Z F + ( jRX L ( R + j 2 X L ) )
almost zero. Therefore, FCL does not affect normal operation ⎨ 2
(4)
of power system. ⎪b = − X L ( R + j 2 X L )
⎪c = jX ′ + ( jRX ( R + j 2 X ) )
As fault occurs, dc current starts to increase. When control ⎪ L L
circuit detects fault conditions, IGBT turns off. So, R enters to ⎪X ′ = X ′ + X

⎩ d t
the current path and limits the fault current. By removal of
fault, IGBT turns on again and power system returns to the
normal state. Where Z F and X d ′ are fault impedance and unsaturated
transient reactance, respectively. In the worst condition that
It is important to note that, if the value of the resistance that three phase fault occurs, Z F is equal to zero, approximately.
NSFCL shows in fault condition at ac side of rectifier bridge,
RFCL, ac , be optimum from the stability point of view, it will In fault condition, output power of generator can be
lead to the best improvement of power system transient expressed by:
stability. On the other hand, the value of RFCL, ac is proportional
to the value of R . So, it is possible to achieve to the best
enhancement of stability by selecting a proper value for R . ( ) ( )
Pf = real ( I g ∗ E ∠δ ) = E 2 Z a cos α1 + E 2 Z b cos α 2
(5)
Note that the value of Ldc does not affect the impedance of + ( EV Z a ) sin(δ + α1 − π 2)
NSFCL.
III. TRANSIENT STABILITY ANALYSIS USING NSFCL

Fig. 2 shows single line diagram of power system with
NSFCL at the beginning of one of the parallel lines. We
assume that reactance of parallel lines ( X L ) are equal. At pre-
fault condition, transfer power can be expressed by:
P = ( EV X ) sin δ 0 (2) Figure 2. Single line diagram of power system with NSFCL
where:
E : RMS line to line synchronous generator voltage
V : RMS line to line infinite bus voltage
X : Total reactance ( X t = X d + X t + X L 2 )
X d : Unsaturated reactance of generator
X t : Transformer reactance
X L : Line reactance Figure 3. Equivalent circuit in fault condition with NSFCL
δ 0 : Load angle
647
It is clear that (5) depends on RFCL , ac and it is sum of the PFCL ,ac = PFCL ,dc (9)
consumed power of NSFCL resistance and the transfer power.
To achieve the minimum rotor speed swing of synchronous
generator after fault, the optimal value of RFCL , ac must be 2 2
⎛ Vm ⎞ ⎛6 π ⎞
chosen. It is obvious that minimum rotor speed swing results in ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ π sin( 3 )Vm ⎟
2⎠
maximum critical load angle. To obtain the optimal value of 3⎝ =⎝ ⎠ (10)
RFCL , ac , output power of generator in fault condition and pre- RFCL ,ac RFCL ,dc
fault condition should be equated. In this state, consumed
power of RFCL , ac be equated faulted line transfer power before Where, Vm is the peak of isolation transformer secondary
fault. In addition, because of same characteristics of parallel voltage.
lines, transfer powers of each line are equal. So we have: As a result:
(
2
PFL = VPCC )
RFCL, ac = ( EV 2 X ) sin δ 0 (6)
R FCL , dc =
⎛ 18
⎜ 2
⎞
⎟ RFCL ,ac (11)
⎝π ⎠
RFCL , ac = ( 2VPCC
2
X ) ( EV sin δ 0 ) (7)
Simulations are performed on a power system such as Fig.
Where VPCC and PFL are point of common coupling 2. Parameters of simulation are as Table I.
voltage and faulted line transfer power in fault duration, Fault occurs at 20 (sec) and lasts 0.16 (sec) (8 cycles of
respectively. In addition, VPCC can be expressed by: power system frequency).
Fig. 5 shows the phase A voltage of generator terminal
VPCC = E ∠δ − jX ′I g (8) without NSFCL in the system. It is observed that voltage
distortions take place and system becomes unstable. But by
installing the NSFCL at the beginning of faulted line, voltage
where I g is computed from (3). of generator is restored and instability is prevented. Fig. 6
shows the phase A voltage of generator terminal with NSFCL
Fig. 4 shows the power-angle curves of synchronous and proves this fact.
generator. For optimal value of RFCL , ac , power-angle curve in
Generator current with and without NSFCL is shown in
fault duration is passes work point of generator before fault. Fig. 7 and 8. Fig. 7 shows that without using NSFCL, fault
It should be noticed that RFCL ,ac is not equal to numerical current is not limited and therefore, generator can not hold its
stability. By using NSFCL, as shown in Fig. 8, the fault current
value of resistor at dc side of diode rectifier bridge ( RFCL ,dc ). is limited properly and generator became stable.
Therefore, value of RFCL ,dc must be calculated according to Fig. 9 shows the consumed power of NSFCL during the
the optimum RFCL ,ac value. fault for three values of R as follows: 3 (p.u.), 6.85 (p.u.) (the
optimum value) and 12 (p.u.). Considering Fig. 9, it is clear
To obtain the relation between RFCL ,ac and RFCL ,dc , ac and that the consumed power by NSFCL during the fault for
optimum value of R is closer to the pre-fault value of the
dc sides active powers ( PFCL, ac and PFCL, dc , respectively)
must be considered equal. So:
TABLE I. SIMULATION PARAMETERS
4 poles, 200V, L-L RMS , 50Hz,

Generator Sb = 18.25kVA , Pm = 0.6 p.u.
Power X d = 1.227 p.u. , X d′ = 0.394 p.u.

system Transformer 200/200 V , 20kVA , X t = 0.00145H
parameters data
Infinite bus 210V, L-L RMS
Transmission X L = 0.0064 H
lines
dc side Ropt = 15Ω , rd = 0.3Ω , Ld = 0.15 H
parameters VDF = VSW = 1V
FCL data
Isolation
transformer 50Hz , 5kVA , a = 1
Figure 4. Power-angle curves of synchronous generator parameters
648
transmitted power from the faulted line. So, it leads to decrease 0.04
the accelerating area and consequently, minimize the
oscillations of generator rotor speed. Fig. 10 shows the rotor 0.03
Power (MW)
speed oscillations of generator for different values of R after 0.02 pre-fault power of faulted line
the fault. It is important to note that the best response is
observed for the case that NSFCL had the optimum value of 0.01
R . In this case, rotor speed oscillation is lower than the cases

that NSFCL has other values of R . 0
19.98 20.03 20.08 20.13 20.18
Time (s)
0.3
R=6.85 p.u. R=12 p.u. R=3 p.u.
Fault duration
Generator terminal voltage (kV)
0.15
Figure 9. Consumed power of NSFCL during the fault for three values of R
0
19.9 20.1 20.3 20.5 20.7 20.9 1510
-0.15
1505
Rotor speed (rpm)

-0.3 1500
Time (s)
1495
Figure 5. Phase A voltage of generator terminal without NSFCL 1490

19.5 20.5 21.5 22.5 23.5
Time (s)
0.3
Fault duration
without NSFCL for R=6.85 p.u. for R=12 p.u. for R=3 p.u.
Generator terminal voltage (kV)
0.15
Figure 10. Rotor speed oscillations of generator

0
19.9 20.1 20.3 20.5 20.7 20.9
V. CONCLUSION
-0.15
In this paper transient stability improvement of power

-0.3 system with double circuit transmission line using NSFCL is
Time (s) presented. Proposed structure can enter an optimum value of
resistor to the utility without needing to isolate faulted line.
Figure 6. Phase A voltage of generator terminal with NSFCL Optimum resistor leads to proper enhancement of transient
stability. Analytical analyses are performed for pre-fault and
0.4
fault conditions. Simulation results by EMTDC/PSCAD are
involved for different values of resistor to validate the
effectiveness of optimum resistor value. In general, proposed
0.2 structure with low cost and available technology has good
Current (kA)
capability to improve the transient stability.

0
19.9 20.1 20.3 20.5 20.7 20.9 REFERENCES
[1] Y. Shirai, , K. Furushiba, Y. Shouno, M. Shiotsu, and T. Nitta,
Fault duration
-0.2 “Improvement of Power System Stability by Use of Superconducting
Time (s) Fault Current Limiter With ZnO Device and Resistor in Parallel,” IEEE
Trans. Appl. Supercond., vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 680-683, June 2008.
Figure 7. Generator current without NSFCL [2] Lin Ye, LiangZhen Lin, and Klaus-Peter Juengst, “Application Studies
of Superconducting Fault Current Limiters in Electric Power Systems,”
IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond., vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 900-903, March 2002.
0.06 Fault duration
[3] Mehrdad Tarafdar Hagh, Mehdi Abapour, “Nonsuperconducting Fault
Current Limiter With Controlling the Magnitudes of Fault Currents,”
0.03 IEEE Trans. Power Elc., vol. 24, no. 3, pp. 613-619, March 2009.
[4] M. M. R. Ahmed, G. A. putrus, L. Ran, “Power Quality Improvement
Current (kA)
0 Using Solid State Fault Current limiter,” IEEE, Transmission and

19.9 20.1 20.3 20.5 20.7 20.9 Distribution Conference, Asia Pacific, vol. 2, pp. 1059-1064, Oct. 2002.
-0.03
[5] M. Tarafdar Hagh and M. Abapour, “DC reactor type transformer inrush
current limiter,” IET Electr. Power, vol. 1, no. 5, pp. 808–814, Appl.,
2007.
-0.06
Time (s)
[6] M. Tsuda, Y. Wlitani, K. Tsuji, K. Kakihana, “Application of Resistor
Based Superconducting Fault Current Limiter to Enhancement of Power
System Transient Stability,” IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond., vol. 11,
Figure 8. Generator current with NSFCL no. 1, pp. 2122-2125, March 2001.
649
[7] K. Furushiba, T. Yoshii, Y. Shirai, K. Fushiki, J. Baba and T. Nitta,
‘‘Power System Characteristics of the SCFCL in Parallel With a Resistor
in Series With a ZnO Device,” IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond., vol. 17,
no. 2, pp. 1915-1918, June 2007.
[8] H. Hooshyar, M. Savaghebi, “RSFCL Optimum Shunt Resistance
Determination to Enhance Power System Transient Stability,”
Universities Power Engineering Conference, UPEC, 43rd International,
pp. 1-5, September 2008.
[9] Hiroyuki Hatta, Shinichi Muroya, Tanzo Nitta, Yasuyuki Shirai, and
Masaumi Taguchi, “Experimental Study on Limiting Operation of
Superconducting Fault Current Limiter in Double Circuit Transmission
Line Model System,” IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond., vol. 12, no. 1, pp.
812-815, March 2002.
[10] Y. Ye, L. Xiao, H. Wang, and Z. Zhang, ‘‘Research on resistor type
superconducting fault current limiter in power system,” in Proc.
IEEE/PES Transmiss. Distrib. Conf. Exhib., Asia Pacific, 2005.
[11] Byung Chul Sung,, Dong Keun Park, Jung-Wook Park, and Tae Kuk
Ko, “Study on a Series Resistive SFCL to Improve Power System
Transient Stability: Modeling, Simulation, and Experimental
Verification,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Elec., vol. 56, no. 7, pp. 2412-2419, July
2009.
[12] M. Tarafdar Hagh and M. Abapour, “Non-superconducting fault current
limiters,” Euro. Trans. Electr. Power, vol. 19, no. 5, pp. 669-682, 27
Mar. 2008.
650
Indirect Rotor Position Detection in a Field

Assisted Switched Reluctance Motor by Utilizing
Aligned Resonant Frequency
H.Amiri, E.Afjei, H.Torkaman
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Shahid Beheshti University, G.C., Tehran, Iran
Abstract— This paper presents a novel method to indirectly instantaneous phase inductance variation information has
detect the rotor position at standstill and also at low speeds been used in some way or another to detect the rotor
in a field assisted switched reluctance motor. In this method, position indirectly. In general, the indirect rotor position
a high frequency sine wave signal is applied to the field sensing can be obtained from terminal measurements of
assisted winding on the stator and then the phase of induced the voltages, currents, and associated derivatives or, by
signals on each phase winding is monitored to detect the injecting low level high frequency signals into the non-
rotor position at standstill. The method utilizes current energized phase inductance and then measuring the
phase variation with respect to input voltage at a resonant related outcomes [1].
frequency which is obtained at aligned rotor position. Each In phase current magnitude detection method, the
phase circuit consists of an external sampling resistance, R,
testing voltage pulses are placed on the non-energized
motor phase inductance, L (θ), and an external capacitance,
phase windings and the resulting current magnitudes
C which are fed by an external sinusoidal voltage having the
which are directly proportional to phase inductance and
aligned resonant frequency. Of course, there are two
that in turn is related to rotor position are measured and
different selections for the resonant frequency namely,
aligned or un-aligned rotor position inductances which can
compared to detect the rotor location. In the current
be used. The current flowing through the resistor has the waveform detection, the shape of the current or in another
same frequency as the input voltage which is the resonant words the gradient of the current is monitored to
frequency but it can have different phase shift when determine the rotor position [2].
compared to the input voltage due to the variation of phase In modulation technique, high frequency carrier signals
inductance, L (θ) which is directly proportional to rotor are injected into the non-energized phase. The signal
position. At resonant frequency the variations are large containing the phase inductance information has smaller
therefore; the produced resistor voltage waveform frequency variation compared to the other carrier signals
compared to the input sinusoidal voltage waveform can and then it can be decoded using a demodulation
produce a pulse width proportional to the position of the technique to yield the rotor position. Some of the
rotor. The width of the pulse is determined accordance to modulation techniques are AM, FM, and PM [3].
the phase inductance value which is directly proportional to In flux-Current method the flux linkage (λ) together
the rotor position. In this paper aligned position inductance with the phase current of the motor are measured. Using
is employed for the detection of rotor position. Finally, the these two information and the non-linear static
paper presents the results obtained which demonstrates the magnetization curve (λ, i, θ) of the motor the rotor
feasibility and practicability of the method and outlines the position is estimated [4].
advantages of this technique.
In observer based method, the state of the motor based
Keywords — Switched Reluctance Motor Control, Indirect on known system inputs are re-constructed and modeled
Shaft Position Sensing, Sensorless control. in state space, the developed mathematical model is then
run in parallel with the real motor. Now using the same
I. INTRODUCTION inputs for both systems, the differences between the
calculated and measured outputs are minimized. The
Switched reluctance motor (SRM) is a very attractive position information produced by the mathematical model
and promising candidate in the area of variable speed is used for the commutation of the actual motor [5].
drives for different applications used in the industry. The The principle of Mutual Voltage technique is based on
high performance of SRM drive is dependent on the measuring the mutually induced voltage in an un-
timing of the phase excitation in relation to the motor energized phase winding either adjacent or opposite to the
inductance profile hence, the rotor position information is energized phase. The magnitude of the induced voltage
essential for the proper operation of the motor. This varies significantly as the rotor belonging to the energized
objective has been traditionally achieved by utilizing a phase moves from un-aligned position to the full
discrete shaft position sensor. Due to more ruggedness alignment [6].
and reliability of the motor especially in harsh
environment, the trends for the past decades have been to There are different ways in the Intelligent-based
eliminate the direct shaft position sensor. In this regards, Estimation methods such as artificial neural networks
many different indirect position-sensing techniques for the (ANN) [7] and fuzzy control [8] that found applications in
SRM drive have been proposed and presented by different the detection of rotor position in switched reluctance
researchers. In all of the methods utilized, the motor.
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 651

The authors in the previous work [9] proposed a new There are two stators and rotors sections placed on both
Amplitude Modulation (AM) technique based on injecting sides of the field coil assembly which has the rotor shaft
a 2 KHz sine wave signal into the motor field winding and as its main core and two front-end caps plus the motor
detecting the induced pulses on the other phase windings. housing [10]. This machine is treated as a 12 by 8 field
In this paper, a new method for indirect sensing of the assisted switched reluctance motor/ generator.
rotor position in SRM’s using phase variation at a
resonant frequency is proposed. III. THE NOVEL METHOD
The switched reluctance motor can be considered as a
II. MOTOR/GENERATOR DESCRIPTION doubly salient, singly excited motor. As the rotor turns,
The novel motor/generator consists of two magnetically the phase inductance of the motor, L, varies between two
dependent stator and rotor sets (layers), where each stator extreme values. The maximum inductance, Lmax occurs
set includes twelve salient poles with windings wrapped when the rotor poles are completely aligned with the
around them while, the rotor comprises of eight salient corresponding stator poles, while the minimum
poles. Every stator and rotor pole arcs are 14º and 16º, inductance, Lmin occurs when the poles are in complete
respectively. The two layers are exactly symmetrical with unaligned position. The ratio of maximum inductance to
respect to a plane perpendicular to the middle of the motor minimum inductance in a SR motor must be much greater
shaft. This is a three phase motor/generator, therefore, than one in order to produce torque therefore; it is possible
four coil windings from one layer is connected in series to sense the rotor position by monitoring the phase
with the other four coil windings in the other layer. In the inductance. This method makes the use of phase
motoring operation each layer can operate independently, inductance variation to detect the rotor position by
in series or parallel with each other. There is a stationary utilizing the motor phase winding connected in series with
reel, which has the field coils wrapped around it and is the external capacitor and a resistor for the rotor position
placed between the two-stator sets. This reel has a rotating detection as done for a standard SR motor in [11].
cylindrical core, which guides the magnetic field. The A sine wave signal is generated and applied to the field
magnetic flux produced by the coils travels through the winding and the resulting induced signals are obtained in
guide and the motor shaft to the rotor and then to the the stator pole windings, respectively. Fig. 3 shows a
stator poles, and finally closes itself through the motor series resonant circuit which consists of motor phase
housing. In this motor, the magnetic field has been winding denoted as a variable inductance and a resistor
induced in the rotor without using any brushes [10]. A cut R1, a capacitor, and a sampling resistor, R.
view of the motor/generator is shown in Fig. 1. C
R1
AC La L1( R
Auxiliary Field Stator Phase
Figure 3. The circuit model
There are two resonant frequencies that can be obtained

in order to be used for the frequency of the input voltage,
one for minimum phase inductances when the rotor pole is
in unaligned position with respect to the stator pole and
the other one for maximum phase inductance for the fully
Figure 1. a cut view of the motor/generator aligned rotor and stator poles. This technique can utilize
either frequency. The resonant frequency and output
In order to get a better view of the motor/generator voltage can be readily found by;
configuration, the complete motor /generator assembly is
R
shown in Fig. 2. V s V s (1)
Z R
Where
L .C.
Z s R L θ .s R
C. C.
At resonant frequency;
L. C. ω 1 Z jω R R R
Therefore;
R
V s V s (2)
R R
Figure 2. The complete motor/generator assembly
652
For phase variations of input and output voltages can
obtained by;
| |
tan
(3)
.
To take the unaligned position as resonant point, we

have;
Figure 4. Block Diagram of the Controller
tan φ 0
L L ΔL The induced signals on each phase are transferred to the
L C position estimator block through analog switches shown
tan φ ⇒ in Fig. 4. The position estimator block in conjunction with
R .C
L the microcontroller detect the rotor position and produce
tan φ (4) the transistor gate signals for the proper motor phase to be
R .C
turned on. Fig. 5 shows the general building block of the
rotor position detector unit.
The above equations can used to calculate the aligned The position estimator block consists of an amplifier,
position resonant point as well. The capacitor and band pass filters, and phase variation detectors. The
resistance value can be obtained by; incoming signals are amplified and filtered as shown in
Figs. 6-a, and b.
L. C. ω 1 C (5) As shown in Fig. 6-a, channel one shows the generated
L.
1.9 KHz input sine wave while channel two depicts the
And induced signal on one of the stator phase windings which
B ⇒ has its poles in full alignment with the rotor poles (Lmax).
Q
As seen, these two sine waves are in phase with respect to
.L
Q , L. C. ω 1 each other.
R
R Fig. 6-b shows the generated signal and the induced
⇒ B (6) signal on the stator phase winding when the phase is in
√L.C
complete un-aligned position (Lmin). In this rotor position,
Where, B is the band width and Q is the quality factor the induced signal has different phase when compared to
of resonant circuit. input generated signal. The magnitude of induced voltage
on each phase can be shown as;
In order to run the field assisted SRM, two modes of
operation namely, at standstill and running conditions
must be considered. The general block diagram of the V V sin ωt cos θ (7)
controller circuit is shown in Fig. 4.
A high frequency sin wave generated and applied to the Where; θ is the angle between a rotor pole with its
auxiliary field winding positioned between the two stator corresponding stator pole and ω is the frequency of
assemblies. The frequency of this sine wave is determined injected signal.
to be the resonant frequency of the circuit consists of the
motor phase inductance plus a capacitor in series in fully
aligned rotor position. This frequency is obtained to be 1.9
KHz.
Figure 5. The general building block of the rotor position detector unit
653
(a) (a)
(b) (b)
Figure 6. Resulting voltages at a) aligned poosition b) unaligned Figure 7. generated pulses for inputt voltage and one induced phase
position (CH1 =Input voltage, CH2= induced stator
s phase voltage) voltage at a) aligned positionn b) unaligned position
The reasons for the changes in magnitudes

m of the
induced signals are due to the variationns in the difference
in rotor and stator angles (i.e. cos θ) for each phase.
The rotor position estimator unit consists of zero
crossing detectors and XOR logic gatess. In this block, the
incoming signals are compared with zero z level voltage
and square pulses are generated. Thee phases of these
square pulses vary according to the channge in motor phase
inductance which is directly proportiional to the rotor
position. Figs. 7-a and 7-b show the geenerated pulses for
the input generated voltage and resultiing induced phase
voltage plus the outcomes of the zeroo crossing parts at
aligned and unaligned positions, respecttively.
There is no phase shift between the sines waves at fully
aligned rotor position shown in Fig 7--a while the phase
shift due to the variation of rotor position
p is clearly
evident for completely un-aligned case shown
s in Fig. 7-b.
The square pulses send to the XOR R logic gates. The Figure 8. input and output voltage waaveforms plus the generated pulse
resulting outcomes of the XOR logics are a then fed into a widthh
microcontroller. The width of generrated pulse varies
according to the change in the rotor position. Fig. 8 shows A. First mode of operation- In this mode, the motor is
input and output voltage waveforms plus p the generated at stand still. A 1.9 KHz sine wave
w is applied to the motor
pulse width. field winding. It induces 1.9 KHz sine wave on each
Finally, the outcomes are fed into a Microcontroller
M for motor phase winding with diffferent phases depending on
decision making and transistor gate signal production. the rotor position. Fig. 9 showws the resulting signals for
There are two modes of operations considered
c for the the three phases out of the posiition estimator at stand still
detection of rotor position in this paper. mode.
654
Figure 9. the resulting induced voltages (sstand still mode) Figure 10. The square signal of input voltage (CH 1) plus the tree
resulting signals out of the position estimator
e (CH 2 to 4) at running
mode.
As shown in Fig. 9, the generatedd induced voltage IV. CONC CLUSION

pulses for the three stator phases (at stand still mode)
In this paper, a new methodd for direct sensing of the
showing different pulse width accordding to the rotor
rotor position in a field assistedd switched reluctance motor
position. The minimum pulse width occcurs for the phase
that can work in a very harrsh environment has been
that has the highest rotor/stator poles allignment while the
introduced and implemented. This technique can work
maximum pulse width occurs for thee ones with least
properly in low speeds but when the motor speed
rotor/stator poles alignment.
increases this technique does not have enough time to
These square signals are fed into the microcontroller to compare the pulse widths off the un-energized phases
determine logically the proper phase too be turned on by hence it fails. In order to be ablee to produce large variation
measuring the width of each pulse. Noow a gate signal is for the induced phase voltage, a sinusoidal voltage wave
generated and sent to the proper motor drive unit. At this form having the aligned resonnant frequency 1.9 KHz is
time, the motor starts turning and thhe next mode of used and applied to the motor assisted
a field winding.
operation begins.
Refereences
B. Second mode of operation- In this mode, the motor [1] B. Fahimi, A. Emadi, and Raaymond B. Sepe, “Fourquadrant
begins to turn. The following explanatiion is necessary in position sensorless control in SRRM drives over the entire speed
order to shed light on how the decisionn making is being range”, IEEE Trans. on Power electronics, vol. 20 , no . 1, 2005,
implemented when the motor is runningg. When the motor pp. 154-163.
is turning, one phase is always energizzed. Therefore; the [2] E. Ajei, M.M. Nezamabadi, andd M.A. Saati . “A Self¬Tunable
Sensorless Method for Rotor Position Detection in Switched
other two phases can be used to detect the rotor position. Reluctance Motor Drives”, Iranian Journal of Science and
In this mode, the microcontroller allowws only two of the Technology, vol. 31, no. B3, 2007, pp. 317-328.
three analog switches belonging to the un-energized [3] M. Ehsani and B. Fahimi. “Eliimination of position sensors in
phases to operate. Switched Reluctance Motor Drives: State of the Art and Future
Trends”, IEEE Trans. on Industtrial electronics, Vol. 49 , No. 1
Rotor position detection is then madem possible by ,2002, pp. 40-47.
comparing the width of the two square pulses
p produced by [4] I.p. Lyons, MacMinn, S.R., Prestton, M.A. “Flux/ Current methods
the position estimator for the two un--energized phases. for SRM rotor position estimationn”. IEEE - IAS Conf. Rec . ,1991,
When these two pulses have the samee width then rotor pp . 482-487.
belonging to the energized phase has reached its full [5] I. Husain, Sodhi, S., Ehsani, M. M “Sliding mode observer based
control for switched reluctance motors”. IEEE-IAS Conf. Rec.,
alignment and it must be turned off. Fig.
F 10 shows the 1994 .pp. 635-643.
square input voltage (Channel 1) plus the three resulting [6] I. Husain, Ehsani, M. “Rotorr position sensing in switched
signals out of the position estimator (Channels
( 2 to 4) reluctance motor drives by measuuring mutually induced voltages”.
which will be fed into the microcontrolller when the motor IEEE Tran. On Ind. Appl., vol. 300, 1994 , no. 3, pp. 665-672.
is turned. [7] A. Bellini, Filippetti F., Franceschini G., Tassoni C., Vas P.
“position sensorless control of o a SRM drive using ANN
As shown in this Fig. 10 when a squaare pulse belonging techniques”, Conf. Rec. IEEE Indd. Appl. Soc., Oct. 1998, pp. 709-
to one of the phases has minimum pullse width, the two 714.
other phases have square pulses with thee same widths. The [8] Z. Wang, A. D. Cheok, L. K. Wee, “Sensorless rotor position
microcontroller is programmed in such way as to be able estimation algorithm for switcheed reluctance motors using fuzzy
to determine when these two un-energizzed phases have the logic”, Proc. Power electronics Specialist conf., vol. 3, Cairns,
Australia, June 7, 2001, pp. 1701-1706.
same width. At this time according too the direction of [9] H. Amiri, E. Afjei, S. Ataei, “A Novel
N Sensorless Technique for a
rotation the energized phase must be turned
t off and the New field Assisted Switcheed Reluctance Motor”, IEEE
other proper phase must be energized. The
T gate signal for International Symposium on Pow wer Electronics, Electrical Drives,
the correct motor phase is then producedp by the Automation and Motion, SPEEDA AM 2008, pp 1077-1081.
microcontroller and applied to the mottor phase winding [10] E. Afjei and H. Toliyat, “New Hybrid Reluctance Motor/ Field
transistor. Assisted Generator”, Electric Machines
M & Drives Conference,
IEMDC 2007 IEEE Internationnal, Volume 1, Issue , 3-5 May
2007, pp 543 - 547.
[11] A.Najafi, E. Afjei, H.Khalili, “R
Rotor Position Detection in SRM
drive by Utilizing Aligned Rotoor Position resonant Frequency”,
International Aegean Conferencce on Electrical Machines and
Power Electronics, ACEMP 20077 IEEE, pp 282 – 286.
655
A Novel Low Cost Bipolar-Starting and Unipolar-

Running Converter for Extended Torque-Speed
Characteristics of Spindle Motor
Narasimham PVRL Sarma AVRS Vargil Kumar E
Electrical Engineering Dept. Electrical Engineering Dept. Electrical Engineering Dept.
Gudlavalleru Engineering College College of Engg. Osmania University Gudlavalleru Engineering College
Gudlavalleru-521 356, India Hyderabad- 500 007, India Gudlavalleru-521 356, India
email: pvrl2005@yahoo.co.in email: avrs2000@yahoo.com email: vargilkumar@gmail.com
Abstract- Spindle motors are driving to high speed and operation can be achieved. But this scheme has a problem
compact size in Hard Disc Drive (HDD) area, where the switch voltage rating is to be enhanced and it
particularly those in servers. In order to read and write requires a current protection to limit the current during low
the huge data with fast rate, the spin speed of spindle
motor should be high with high starting torque. This speeds. This also adds cost and safety hazard to the system.
paper presents a novel topology to a low cost converter Apart from the above three methods, the forth
which drives a spindle motor at high speed with high method is to use a converter which can provide high speed
starting torque utilizing the bipolar starting and with high starting torque. To get high torque BLDC motor
unipolar running algorithm. This topology is simple needs to be operated in bipolar mode and to get high speed
and developed with only eight switches in the converter BLDC motor should be operated in unipolar mode. In [2], a
to drive the spindle motor at high speed with high new converter is proposed which can achieve high starting
starting torque. The proposed scheme has been
simulated on MATLAB/SIMULINK platform, the torque with high speed by using 14 switches of same rating.
results are presented and discussed. Drawback of this circuit is, using numerous gate drives and
switches.
Index Terms- Bipolar starting and unipolar running In this paper a novel inverter topology is proposed
drive, HDD Spindle Motor, Unipolar drive.
which uses bipolar operation to achieve high torque during
I. INTRODUCTION starting and unipolar operation later to achieve high speed
The Hard Disk Drive (HDD) was made in the year using only 8 switches. The proposed inverter is similar to
1956, since then it has grown to be the most effective mass conventional 3 leg inverter with one additional leg. The
data storage device for computers [1]. Each HDD consists model has been verified with an inverter-motor model
of a spindle motor to turn one or multi platters with the developed using Matlab/Simulink.
storage media, where the data is stored. So the spindle
motor is one of the most important components of a HDD II. PROPOSED INVERTER OPERATION
and its performance has a direct impact on HDD
performance especially on data access speed and capacity. In conventional BLDC motor during bipolar operation, at
The spindle motors used in computer hard disk drives are to any time across DC bus, two phases come in series. Only
possess high speed characteristics for fast data access. half of the DC bus voltage is applied to each phase,
Spindle motor is a brushless DC (BLDC) motor which has resulting in addition of torque constant on both phases there
been used in high speed applications due to its high by achieving high starting torque. But speed will be
efficiency, high power density and wide range speed limited. To get higher speed, full DC bus voltage is to be
controllability. Several methods were proposed in literature applied to each phase. This can be achieved in unipolar
[2]-[10] to achieve high speed operation. High speed operation, where each phase conducts only in one direction
operation could be achieved by any of the four schemes. which in turn reduces the starting torque. Thus in order to
The first method is to design the electromagnets in such a get high torque, motor should operate in bipolar mode and
way that, the machine possess low back emf which offers to get high speed motor should operate in unipolar mode.
high speed for a given system voltage [4]. But the Shifting of modes between unipolar and bipolar operation
disadvantage is that a low back emf constant results in low is achieved based on speed requirement. The proposed
starting torque. The second method is winding method i.e., inverter consists of 4 legs. The 3 phases of BLDC motor is
a series winding start and parallel winding run to run the connected to first 3 legs and neutral point is connected to
motor at high speed with large starting torque [5], this the fourth leg as shown in Fig.1. In bipolar operation first 3
requires additional switching devices and more complex legs are active and the 4th leg is inactive.
control logic. The third method is to use a higher dc bus In bipolar operation by switching on Q1 and Q4,
voltage, where a high starting torque with high speed phase A conducts in positive direction and phase B
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 656

Fig. 1 Proposed Inverter Circuit Fig. 3 Free-wheeling of positive conducting A phase
conducts in negative direction By switching off Q4 and through diode D4 which in turn produces negative torque.
switching on Q6, a free-wheeling path is established This problem has been overcome in [2] by using 6
through phase B, diode D3, switch Q1 and Phase A as additional switches in series along with the free-wheeling
shown in Fig. 2. diodes. In proposed converter this problem is overcome by
By switching off Q1 and switching on Q3 and Q6, adding a high value resistor Rs in series along with the free-
the free-wheeling energy in positive conducting phase A wheeling diode. Hence in comparison with [2] almost the
flows through resistor Rs, D2, phase A, phase C, and Q6, as same performance is achieved with lower number of
shown in Fig. 3. While free-wheeling, the energy from a switches and gate drives with minimum complexity in
positive conducting phase is partially converted into useful control. So the drive is to be operated in bipolar mode
torque, where as the rest of the energy is dissipated in during starting and unipolar mode during running to get
resistor Rs. But the free-wheeling energy from a negative high starting torque with high speed operation.
conducting phase is completely converted into useful As the same inverter is being used for both bipolar
torque. and unipolar modes of operation, in unipolar mode the
For unipolar operation switch Q8 is permanently closed so current limitation is required as the entire dc voltage is
that Q2, Q4 and Q6 are bypassed as shown in Fig. 4. Here applied across only one winding. The torque speed
by switching Q1, phase A conducts in positive direction. In characteristic of BLDC motor based on mathematical
unipolar operation when phase A is conducting in positive
direction phase B has negative back EMF which free wheel
Fig. 4. Proposed Inverter Circuit in Unipolar mode

Fig. 2 Free-wheeling of negative conducting B Phase
657
Fig. 7 MatLab/Simulink model of BLDC Motor
model with proposed converter topology operation with

current limitation are shown in Fig. 5 and Fig. 6 for two III .SIMULATION RESULTS
different speeds. In Fig.5 the changeover speed is selected
as the speed at which the characteristics of the both bipolar The mathematical model of BLDC is given
and unipolar intersects and in Fig. 6 it is selected as a speed appendix and is used for simulation purpose. Macon EC6
after the intersecting point of both curves. 215550, a 6 volts 1.2W motor [11] was considered for
validating the proposed converter. A MatLab/Simulink
based model was developed for the motor and the inverter.
Fig. 7 shows the Simulink model of BLDC motor. It
consists of 4 main blocks. The first one is Torque speed
block. In this block electromagnetic torque and load torque
Torque (N-m)
are compared speed and position output is generated.

Second block is trapezoidal back EMF block, in this block
based on position information trapezoidal back EMF’s are
generated. Third block is converter block. Back EMF,
Voltage and position information are inputs for converter
block and Current is output.
Based on speed information the converter block
selects bipolar switching logic or unipolar switching logic.
Fourth block is Electromagnetic torque generator block.
From the current and position information torque block
generates electromagnetic torque.
Fig. 5 Torque Speed Characteristic with current limitation
Fig. 8 shows the speed vs. time plot of the motor at
0.5 m N-m of load torque. It is clearly shows that higher
Tstalling_bipolar
speed is achieved as soon as the system is switched from
bipolar mode to unipolar. Fig. 9 shows the Back EMF and
Bipolar
corresponding phase current of one phase in bipolar and
unipolar mode.
Torque (N-m)
Tstalling_unipolar Fig. 10 and Fig. 11 show the extended torque vs. speed
Unipolar characteristics of the motor with a changeover speed from
bipolar mode to unipolar mode as 20000 rpm with and
without current limitations respectively. The changeover
speed can be taken as any desired value. Unipolar mode
operation without current limitation requires higher rating
devices in the topology and is not preferred. This converter
N topology can work in three modes of operation.
Extended region
of speed (1) Continuously in bipolar mode (2) Continuously in
Nunipolar
Nbipolar
Speed (rpm) unipolar mode and (3) bipolar starting and unipolar running
Fig. 6 Torque Speed Characteristics with current limitation in unipolar mode with current limitation
mode
658
Fig. 8 Speed Vs time of motor
Fig. 11 Extended speed torque characteristic without current limitation in
unipolar mode
IV. CONCLUSION
The proposed cost effective inverter topology
uses only eight switches. It drives a BLDC motor at high
speeds with high starting torque using bipolar-starting and
Unipolar running algorithm. The torque speed
characteristics of spindle motor can be extended to get high
speeds with this low cost topology. This topology is best
suited for low power drives like HDD, since a high power
drive would require a high powered resistor Rs,
V APPENDIX
Fig. 9 Back EMF and phase current The three phase star connected BLDC motor can be
described by the following four equations in bipolar mode
of operation.
d
v ab = R (i a − i b ) + L (i a − ib ) + e a − e b (1)
dt
d
v bc = R (ib − i c ) + L (ib − i c ) + e b − e c ( 2)
dt
d
v ca = R (ic − i a ) + L (i c − i a ) + e c − e a (3)
dt
dω m
Te = Bω m + j + TL ( 4)
dt
The symbol v , i and e denote the phase to phase voltages,
phase currents and phase back EMF’s respectively, in three
phases a, b and c. The resistance R and the inductance L are
per phase values and Te and TL are the electrical torque and
Fig. 10 Extended speed torque characteristic with current the load torque. J is the rotor inertia, B is a friction constant
limitation in unipolar mode and ωm is the rotor speed. The back EMF’s and the
electrical torque can be expressed as
659
Ke dω m
ea = ω m F (θ e ) (5 ) Te = Bω m + j + TL (16)
2 dt
K 2π For implementation in Matlab/Simulink, (13)-(16) are also
eb = e ω m F (θ e − ) ( 6) written in state space form.
2 3
K 4π VI REFERENCES
ec = e ω m F (θ e − ) (7 )
2 3 [1] R. Civilian, and D. Stupak, "Disk drive employing multi mode
spindle drive system," US patent 5471353, Oct 3, 1995.
[2] G.H. Jang and M.G. Kim, “A Bipolar-Starting and
Kt ⎡ 2π 4π ⎤
Te = ⎢⎣F(θe )ia + F(θe − 3 )ib + F(θe − 3 )ic ⎥⎦ (8)
Unipolar-Running Method to Drive an HDD Spindle Motor at High
2 Speed with Large Starting Torque,” IEEE Transactions on Magnetics,
Vol. 41, no.2, pp. 750-755, Feb. 2005.
K e and Kt are the back EMF and torque constants. [3] E.Grochowski and R.F. Hyot,”Future trends in hard disk drives”,IEEE
Tran. On Magnetics,vol.32,no.3,pp1850-1854,May 1996
The function F( θ e ) gives the trapezoidal [4] J.D.Ede, ,Z.Q.Zhu and D.Howe,”Optimal split ratio control for high
waveform of the back EMF. One period of this waveform speed permanent magnet brushless DC motors”, in Proc.5th
can be written as Int,Conf..Electrical Machines and Sytems’,vol.2,Aug 2001,pp 909-912
[5] S.X.Chen, M.A.Jabbar, O.D. Zhang and Z.J.Lie,”New Challenge:
2π Electromagnetic design of BLDC motors for high speed fluid film bearing
F (θ e ) = 1 0 ≤ θe < spindles used in hard disk drives”,IEEE Trans. Magnetics ,vol32,no.5,
3 pp3854-3856,Sep. 1996.
6⎛ 2π ⎞ 2π [6] T.Kenzo and S. Nagamori, Permanent Magnets and Brushless DC
=1− ⎜θ e − ⎟ ≤ θe < π Motors, Tokyo,Japan,Sogo Electronics,1984.
π ⎝ 3 ⎠ 3 [7] J.R.Hendershot and Miller,”Design of Brushless Permanent Magnet
Motors, Oxford Univ. Press,1994
5π [8] S.W.Cameron.”Method and apparatus for starting a sensorless
= −1 π ≤ θe < (9 ) polyphase dc motors in dual coil mode and switching to single coil mode
3 at speed”, U.S.Patent 5455885,, Nov.28,1995
6π ⎛ 5π ⎞ 5π [9] T.Gopalaratnam and H.A.Toliyat, “A new topology
= −1 + ⎜θ e − ⎟ ≤ θ e < 2π for unipolar brushless dc motor drives”,. IEEE Trans
3 ⎝ 3 ⎠ 3 Power Electronics, vol.18,No.6, pp 1397-1404,Nov.2003
[10] Bhim Singh and Sanjeev Singh, “State of art on permanent magnet
brushless Dc motor Drives”, Journal of Power Electronics”, vol.9 no.1 pp
1-17 Jan.2009
As phase currents are balanced, [11] Maxon Precision Motors Inc., http://www.maxonmotor.com.
i a + ib + i c = 0 (10)
By eliminating one phase current variable ic the
two independent voltage equations can be written as
d
v ab = R(ia − ib ) + L (ia − ib ) + ea − eb (11)
dt
d
vbc = R (ia + 2ib ) + L (ia + 2ib ) + eb − ec (12)
dt
For implementation in Matlab/Simulink, (11), (12) and (4)

must be written in state space form.
In unipolar mode of operation, the BLDC motor
can be described by the following equations.
d
v an = Ri a + L ia + ea (13 )
dt
d
v bn = Ri b + L ib + e b (14 )
dt
d
v cn = Ri c + L i c + e c (15 )
dt
660
Fuzzy Logic Controller on DC/DC

Boost Converter
*N.F Nik Ismail , Member IEEE ,Email: nikfasdi@yahoo.com
* I. Musirin, Member IEEE . Email:i_musirin@yahoo.com
* R. Baharom, Member IEEE, Email: rahimi@salam.uitm.edu.my
* D.Johari, Email:dalinaj@yahoo.com
Abstract – This paper describes the design of a fuzzy logic

controller using voltage output as feedback for significantly
improving the dynamic performance of boost dc-dc converter
by using MATLAB@Simulink software. The objective of this
proposed methodology is to develop fuzzy logic controller on
control boost dc-dc converter using MATLAB@Simulink
software. The fuzzy logic controller has been implemented to
Figure 1: A basic Boost DC-DC Converter
the system by developing fuzzy logic control algorithm. The
design and calculation of the components especially for the
inductor has been done to ensure the converter operates in
continuous conduction mode. The evaluation of the output
has been carried out and compared by software simulation 1.2 DC/DC Controller
using MATLAB software between the open loop and closed
loop circuit. The simulation results are shown that voltage
DC-to-DC converters have been dominating controlled
output is able to be control in steady state condition for boost
dc-dc converter by using this methodology. by analogue integrated circuit technology and linear
system control design techniques. In recent years, with
Keywords – Fuzzy Logic Controller, Boost Converter, rapidly development of advanced high-speed digital
Dc-Dc Converter, MATLAB @Simulink Software circuits, digital control will slowly replace the currently
used analogue controller in high frequency switching
converters. The intelligent power supplies are expected
1.0 INTRODUCTION to play an important role in aerospace, communication,
and automobile industries in the near future [2].
Nowadays, the control systems for many power
electronic appliances have been increasing widely. Conventionally, PI, PD and PID controller are most
Crucial with these demands, many researchers or popular controllers and widely used in most power
designers have been struggling to find the most electronic closed loop appliances however recently there
economic and reliable controller to meet these demands. are many researchers reported successfully adopted
The idea to have a control system in dc-dc converter is Fuzzy Logic Controller (FLC) to become one of
to ensure desired voltage output can be produced intelligent controllers to their appliances [3]. With
efficiently as compared to open loop system. respect to their successful methodology implementation,
control closed loop boost converter and opened loop
boost converter will compare the efficiency of the
1.1 Boost DC/DC Converter converters. This kind of methodology implemented in
this paper is using fuzzy logic controller with feed back
The boost converter is one of the most important by introduction of voltage output respectively. The
nonisolated step-up converters. A boost converter is a introduction of voltage output in the circuit will be fed
power converter with an output dc voltage greater than to fuzzy controller to give appropriate measure on
its input dc voltage [1]. It is a class of switching-mode steady state signal. The fuzzy logic controller serves as
power supply (SMPS) containing at least two intelligent controller for this propose. This methodology
semiconductor switches (a diode and a transistor) and at can be easily applied to many dc-dc converter
least one energy storage element. Filters made of topologies such as Buck, Boost and Buck-Boost.
inductor and capacitor combinations are often added to a
converter’s output to improve performance. Boost L. A. Zadeh presented the first paper on fuzzy set theory
converter is a dc-to-dc converter that steps up the dc in 1965. Since then, a new language was developed to
voltage from its fixed low level to a desired high level. describe the fuzzy properties of reality, which are very
difficult and sometime even impossible to be described
using conventional methods. Fuzzy set theory has been
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 661

1
widely used in the control area with some application to
dc-to-dc converter system. A simple fuzzy logic control
is built up by a group of rules based on the human
knowledge of system behaviour. Matlab/Simulink
simulation model is built to study the dynamic
behaviour of dc-to-dc converter and performance of
proposed controllers. Furthermore, design of fuzzy logic
controller can provide desirable both small signal and
large signal dynamic performance at same time, which
is not possible with linear control technique. Thus, fuzzy
logic controller has been potential ability to improve the
robustness of dc-to-dc converters. The basic scheme of a
fuzzy logic controller is shown in figure 2 and consists
of four principal components such as: a fuzzyfication
interface, which converts input data into suitable
Figure 3: Block diagram of the Fuzzy Logic Controller (FLC)
linguistic values; a knowledge base, which consists of a for dc-dc converters [5].
data base with the necessary linguistic definitions and
the control rule set; a decision-making logic which,
simulating a human decision process, infer the fuzzy
control action from the knowledge of the control rules
2.0 METHODOLOGY
and linguistic variable definitions; a defuzzification
This section explains the methodology to be employed
interface which yields non fuzzy control action from an
in this project. Figure 4 shows the procedures that will
inferred fuzzy control action [4].
be taken in the process of completing this project.
Figure 2: General structure of the fuzzy logic controller on

closed-loop system [4].
The fuzzy control systems are based on expert

knowledge that converts the human linguistic concepts
into an automatic control strategy without any
complicated mathematical model [5]. Simulation is
performed in boost converter to verify the proposed Figure 4: Methodology Flowchart.
fuzzy logic controllers.
2.1 Fuzzy Logic Controller for Boost
Dc-Dc Converter
An analysis of boost converter circuit revealed that the

inductor current plays significant task in dynamic
response of boost converter. Additionally, it can provide
the storage energy information in the converter. Thus,
any changes on the inductor current may affect output
voltage and output voltage will provide steady state
condition information of converter. However, the three
main parameters need to be considered when designing
662
2
boost converters are power switch, inductor and
capacitor. In this objective to achieve the desired output
voltage and the stability is by designing the power
switch [6].
2.2 Analytical Expressions
There are few types of power switches in order to

develop the design. The common power switches are Figure 6: The Membership Function plots of error.
BJT, power MOSFET, IGBT etc. Since the
characteristics of the MOSFET are fast switching and
voltage driven, they have been chosen for the power
switching in this designing requirement. In this case, the
parameters value of design requirement for the boost dc-
dc converter is been set. The value of the parameter can
be determined as illustrated in Table I below:
Table I
The parameters and values for the boost dc-dc converter. Figure 7: The Membership Function plots of change error.
Figure 8: The Membership Function plots of duty ratio.
2.4 Fuzzy Logic Table Rules
The objective of this dissertation is to control the output

voltage of the boost converter. The error and change of
error of the output voltage will be the inputs of fuzzy
logic controller. These 2 inputs are divided into five
groups; NB: Negative Big, NS: Negative Small, ZO:
2.3 Fuzzy Logic Membership Function Zero Area, PS: Positive small and PB: Positive Big and
its parameter [8][9][10]. These fuzzy control rules for
The boost dc-dc converter is a nonlinear function of the error and change of error can be referred in the table that
duty cycle because of the small signal model and its is shown in Table II as per below:
control method was applied to the control of boost
converters. Fuzzy controllers do not require an exact Table II
mathematical model. Instead, they are designed based Table rules for error and change of error.
on general knowledge of the plant. Fuzzy controllers are
designed to adapt to varying operating points. Fuzzy
Logic Controller is designed to control the output of
boost dc-dc converter using Mamdani style fuzzy
inference system. Two input variables, error (e) and
change of error (de) are used in this fuzzy logic system.
The single output variable (u) is duty cycle of PWM
output [7].
663
3
voltage, mosfet voltage, diode voltage, step response etc
for the open
3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The evaluation on this dc-dc boost converter, analyzes loop and closed loop circuit had been evaluated and the
had been performed. The input voltage was set at 20 V simulation results were taken. The simulation had been
and the voltage reference was set at 40 V. The output carried out accordingly based on the calculated value as
voltage, output current, inductor current, capacitor follows:
Vin = 20 volt, Vref = 40 volt, R = 80 ohm, C = 2100 µF,
L = 1.55 mH, Sample time, Ts = 5 µsec, PWM sample time 10 µsec
Figure 12 (a): Results on Output Voltage for Figure 12 (b): Results on Output Voltage for
open loop circuit boost dc-dc converter. closed loop circuit boost dc-dc converter.
Figure 13 (a): Results on Output Current for Figure 13 (b): Results on Output Current for
Figure 14 (a): Results on Inductor Current for Figure 14 (b): Results on Inductor Current for
Figure 15 (a): Results on Capacitor Voltage for open loop circuit boost dc-dc converter.
664
4
Figure 15 (b): Results on Capacitor Voltage for closed loop circuit boost dc-dc converter.
Figure 12 (a) and 12 (b) shows the simulation results on rise time, peak time and settling time. This comparison
the output voltage of the open loop and closed loop is based on the 2nd order Step Response System. This
circuit. At output voltage of the open loop circuit analysis is shown as Figure 16 where the reading on
showed that voltage boost up for a value of 72 V. This overshoot ratio, rise time, peak time and settling time
showed that open loop circuit produced an overshoot were taken.
voltage however this scenario did not happen in closed
Table III
loop circuit. In closed loop circuit the output voltage
boost up till 40 V. The fuzzy logic controller plays it The reading on Peak Overshoot Ratio, Rise Time, Peak Time and
roles to control the voltage output as the desired Settling Time from open loop circuit boost dc-dc converter.
requirement. It proved that the fuzzy logic controller
successfully control the overshoot value better than Voltage Voltage Peak Rise Peak Settling
system without fuzzy logic controller with the same Input Referenc Overshoot Time Time Time
input voltage 20V and the settling time for the closed (V) e (V) Ratio (%) (mS) (mS) (mS)
loop converter is much faster. 20 30 0.86% 5.535 10.600 391.2000
0 0
Next take a look at the output current simulation results 20 35 0.84% 6.272 12.800 363.4000
on Figure 13(a) for open loop circuit and Figure 13(b) 0 0
for closed loop circuit. The system with fuzzy logic 20 40 0.79% 7.405 13.700 311.4000
controller had controlled the current of output by driving 0 0
it to produce the desired current that needed by the
system and eliminating the overshoot current. The Table IV
scenario is at the inductor current simulation results The reading on Peak Overshoot Ratio, Rise Time, Peak Time and
when the inductor current closed loop circuit and the Settling Time from closed loop circuit boost dc-dc converter.
settling time for the closed loop converter is much
faster. Figure 14(b) shows a constant value very fast. Voltage Voltage Peak Rise Peak Settling
Neither happened on the inductor current of open loop Input Reference Overshoot Time Time Time
circuit in Figure 14(a). It did not give a constant value (V) (V) Ratio (%) (mS) (mS) (mS)
very fast and moreover it also produces a high overshoot 20 30 0.17% 6.3784 6.4264 6.6648
value on the early stage. Thus, the comparison on 20 35 0.15% 7.0102 7.0445 7.1615
simulation results between open loop circuit and closed
20 40 0.08% 7.6852 7.7031 7.7345
loop circuit obviously can be continued in determining
on the others components in the circuit such as capacitor
voltage results in Figure 15(a) and 15(b). All the Based on the simulation results obtained and shown in
simulation results between open loop circuit and closed Table III and Table IV, those circuits shown that both
loop circuit shows that the closed loop circuit gives a are having a different rise time, peak time and also have
fast settling time value that was controlled by fuzzy a different settling time. However, the analysis shows
logic controller. This purposely achieved in order to that the closed loop circuit with fuzzy controller is
correspond on the output desired of the system. having the faster rise time and settling time.
Table VI
The deviations of voltage resulted from open loop circuit
boost dc-dc converter.
Voltage Voltage Voltage

Deviation Deviation
Input Referenc Output
(V) (%)
(V) e (V) (V)
20 30 29.8613 0.1387 0.46%
20 35 34.8551 0.1449 0.41%
20 40 39.8643 0.1357 0.34%
Table VII
Figure 16: 2nd Order of Step Response Reading on Overshoot Ratio, The deviations of voltage resulted from closed loop circuit
Rise Time, Peak Time and Settling Time. boost dc-dc converter.
The comparison analysis between open loop and closed Voltage Voltage Voltage
loop were continue on the simulation result based on the Deviation Deviation
Input Reference Output
output voltage deviation, voltage overshoot percentage, (V) (%)
(V) (V) (V)
20 30 29.9497 0.0503 0.17%
20 35 34.9473 0.0527 0.15%
20 40 39.9684 0.0316 0.08%
665
5
6.0 REFERENCES
The analysis on the deviation of voltage resulted that the
difference between reference voltage setting and the [1] Maksimovic D, Stankovic AM, Thottuvelil VJ,
output voltage is always lesser. The comparison Verghese GC. “Modeling and simulation of power
between open loop and closed loop in Table VI and electronic converters”. Proceedings of the IEEE
Table VII show that the open loop circuit having a bit Volume 89, Issue 6, June 2001 Page(s):898 - 912
higher on the deviation of voltage. The closed loop
circuit boosts has a lesser deviation of voltage and [2] Ranganathan Gurunathan and Ashoka K. S. Bhat.
“A Zero-Voltage Transition Boost Converter Using
proved that it is such a better performance on control the
a Zero-Voltage Switching Auxiliary Circuit”. Power
deviation of voltage during the boost mode. Electronics, IEEE Transactions on Volume 17,
Issue 5, Sept. 2002 Page(s):658 - 668
4.0 CONCLUSION [3] Guang Feng, Wanfeng Zhang, Yan-Fei Liu. “An
adaptive current mode fuzzy logic controller for dc-
to-dc converters”.Applied Power Electronics
Design of a fuzzy logic controller on control boost Conference and Exposition, 2003. APEC '03.
dc-dc converter by using MATLAB has been Eighteenth Annual IEEE
successfully achieved. A simple algorithm based on the Volume 2, 9-13 Feb. 2003 Page(s):983 - 989 vol.2
prediction of fuzzy logic controller, possibly using the
fuzzy rules parameter, is showing to be more convenient [4] Mattavelli, P., Rossetto, L., Spiazzi, G., Tenti, P.
than the circuit without fuzzy. As the 20 V input on the “General-purpose fuzzy controller for dc/dc
output voltage for the closed loop circuit (with fuzzy converters”.Applied Power Electronics Conference
and Exposition, 1995. APEC '95. Conference
logic controller) with 0% overshoot shows the better
Proceedings 1995., Tenth Annual
performance compared to the open loop circuit (without Issue 0, Part 2, 5-9 March 1995 Page(s):723 - 730
fuzzy logic controller) whereby it has 80% overshoot. vol.2
Moreover, the value of the output current also [5] Yan-Fei Liu, P. C. Sen. “Digital control of
improving corresponds to the system and produce a switching power converters”. Proceedings of the
constant value for the output current as 0.5 A. This 2005, IEEE Conference on Control Applications,
scenario would not happen to the output current of the Toronto, Canada, august 28-31, 2005.
open loop circuit. Using a closed loop circuit with fuzzy
logic controller, it is confirmed that the boost dc-dc [6] W. C., & Tse, C. K. (1996). “Development of a
fuzzy logic controller for DC/DC converters:
converter gives a value of output voltage exactly as Design, computer simulation, and experimental
circuit requirement. Hence, the closed loop circuit of evaluation”.IEEE Transactions on Power
boost dc-dc converter controlled that by fuzzy logic Electronics.
controller confirmed the methodology and requirement
of the proposed approach. These studies could solve [7] W. C., Tse, C. K., & Lee, Y. S. (1994). “A fuzzy
many types of problems regardless on stability because logic controller for DC–DC converter”. In IEEE
as we know that fuzzy logic controller is an intelligent power electronics specialists conference records.
controller to their appliances.
[8] V. S. C. Raviraj, P. C. Sen, “Comparative Study of
Proportional- Integral, Sliding mode, and Fuzzy
Logic Controllers for Power Converters”. IEEE
5.0 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Trans on Industry Applications, Vol. 33, No. 2,
March/April 1997.
The author thanks En Nik Fasdi Nik Ismail for his [9] K. Viswanathan, D. Srinivasan and R. Oruganti, “A
valuable support in the fuzzy logic controller rules and Universal Fuzzy Controller for a Non-linear Power
parameter development activities of dc-dc boost Electronic Converter”. IEEE International
converter. Conference on Fuzzy Systems, 2002, Vol. 1.
[10] L. Guo, J. Y. Hung and R. M. Nelms, “PID

controller modifications to improve steady state
performance of digital controllers for buck and
boost converters”. IEEE Applied Power Electronics
Conference and Exposition, 2002, Vol. 1.
666
6
A Novel Power Line Communication Controller

Designed for Point-of-load DC-DC Converters
Zhuochao Sun and Liter Siek
VIRTUS-IC Design Centre of Excellence
School of Electrical and Electronic engineering, Nanyang Technological University
50 Nanyang Anenue, Singapore 639798
Email: sunz0008@e.ntu.edu.sg
Abstract—This work investigates power line communication baud rate is quite low. Another similar design in [4]
(PLC) in a dc power management system comprising overcomes the data rate limitation; however, it has the
multiple point-of-load (POL) dc-dc converters. The restriction on number of loads that can be controlled in
communication, including a feed-forward signal from the one PLC system.
central control unit (CCU) at the source end to the The current work proposes a simple design that
controller at the load end and a feedback signal from the modulates the communication signal in time domain to
load-end controller to CCU, is achieved by using the high- realize transferring both energy and communication signal
low voltage patterns of the power line, which is inherently simultaneously through a single power line. In the circuit
generated by the on/off of the power MOSFET when of Fig. 1, a load-controlling signal, modulated in terms of
regulating converter output voltage. In the proposed
various switching cycle time, is generated by the central
solution, both energy and communication signals can be
transferred simultaneously through one single dc power
line, without using an additional power amplifier for the
communication signal injection. The Matlab/Simulink
simulation results have verified the features of the proposed
design.
Keywords—DC-DC converter; Point-of-load (POL); Power

line communication (PLC)
I. INTRODUCTION
Over the past decade, a lot of research interests have
been devoted to the study of power line communication
(PLC), whereby the power line is used concurrently for
signal transmission to effectively reduce the number of
signal wires required in an electrical system. PLC can be
usually categorized into two main groups, ac PLC and dc (a)
PLC. The ac PLC, such as indoor network, home
automation and automatic meter reading [1], [2], has been
researched extensively, partially due to the wide existence
of ac power main. On the other hand, the dc PLC is still at
its infant stage. It is only being investigated in recent few
years in applications such as communication between
distributed point-of-load (POL) converters, PLC based
load controlling system and battery PLC for in-vehicle
network [3]-[6].
Fig. 1(a) shows the circuit topology for dc PLC system
as reported in [3]. The communication signal is modulated
in frequency domain and sent through the power line by
using very complicated coder/decoder circuits. The
communication signal is sent to all loads at the same time.
The incapability to specify a destination load has made it
impossible to send distinct signals to different loads
simultaneously. In addition, this design demodulates
communication signal from switching noise generated by
the power MOSFET, hence the signal accuracy is not
guaranteed if an input EMI filter is located along the
power line, which is usually the case. Furthermore, by (b)
applying frequency-shift-keying (FSK) modulation, only
one bit of communication signal can be sent in about Figure 1. Dc PLC solutions: (a) conventional, and (b) proposed.
every 25 switching cycles, thus the maximum achievable Rectangular blocks drew in dashed line are on-chip integrated circuits.
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 667

control unit (CCU) and sent to a load through the power
line. This signal is demodulated by the PLC circuit at the
load-end controller and used to control the load. At the
same time, the load voltage is monitored and fed back to
the CCU by the load-end controller. The CCU then uses
this feedback to adjust the duty ratio and thus regulates the
load voltage. This proposed solution is potentially
effective for those applications with POL converters in dc
power system, to eliminate the use of a dedicated signal (a)
cable.
II. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
A. Sending a Load-controlling Signal
The basic idea of the dc PLC system shown in Fig. 1(b)
is to send the load-controlling signal from the CCU to the
load by varying the cycle time T of the main power switch
(S1/S2). As will be explained later, the PLC operation
under continuous conduction mode (CCM) can be
considered as a special case of its discontinuous (b)
conduction mode (DCM) counterpart. This paper will
focus on the design for DCM buck converter PLC circuit
with three different switch cycle time: one short cycle
time Tzero for bit 0, another long cycle time T one for bit 1
and a third cycle time Tidle in between Tzero and Tone for the
no transmission state.
The voltage relationship in a normal DCM buck
converter is
ଶ ଶ
ܸ௢ ൌ ܸ௚ ఴಽ
ൌ ܸ௚ ఴಽ೅
. (1)
ଵାටଵା ଵାටଵା
ೃ೅ವమ ೃ೟మ
೚೙
Hence when T is varying, the ratio of T/ton2 must be a

constant to maintain a constant Vo, where Vg and Vo are
source and load voltages, T and ton are switching cycle
time and switch on time of the main power MOSFET, L
and R are filtering inductor and load resistance values, and
D is the duty ratio. This is equivalent to a constant kVm (c)
product under different cycle time conditions as shown in
Fig. 2(c), where k1Vm1 = k2Vm2 = k3Vm3. k is the ramp Figure 2. Proposed ramp generator circuit: (a) Integrator (INT) with
rising edge slope controlled by signal “select” in the reset, (b) Cycle detector including one comparator (CMP) and one
integrator (Fig. 2(a)) with a value of k = Ich/Cramp, and Vm rising edge detector (RED), (c) Overall ramp generator with waveform.
is the peak ramp voltage controlled by signal “select” in
the comparator (Fig. 2(b)). B. Receiving the Load-controlling Signal
This special ramp will be sent to the trailing edge PWM
The proposed receiver as shown in Fig. 3(a) handles
modulator and compared with Vcg to generate power
signal in time domain, which realizes more simplified
MOSFET control signals. The voltage Vcg in CCU is
implementation and less sensitiveness of power line noise
always adjusted to be equal to the error amplifier output
as compared to a frequency domain receiver in [3]. The
voltage Vc by the feedback mechanism, which will be
receiver shown works in such a way: when Vxo (power
discussed in section C. The clock of the modulator should
line voltage at the load end, as indicated in Fig. 1) falls
use the pulse output of the cycle detector in Fig. 2(b). The
from source voltage level to ground, i.e., the main power
modulator and error amplifier can use the normal design
switch turn-off instant, the cycle detector generates a short
as in [7], hence will not be discussed here.
pulse, which is the beginning of two pre-defined time
Furthermore, it is worth noting that for dc PLC periods indicated by voltage-low period of the waveforms
operation under CCM condition, the duty ratio D at steady VA and VB. As illustrated in Fig. 3(b), if the (N+1)th pulse
state has to be a fixed value to maintain a constant Vo of the cycle detector appears within the duration of VA
when cycle time varies, which implies that only a single high and VB low, no communication signal will be
value has to be assigned to Vm since D = Vo/Vg = Vc/Vm. transmitted, i.e., communication channel is idle. The
Thus only the ramp slope k needs to be adjusted according communication status signal “EN” will be low. On the
to the communication signal. Hence, the CCM PLC other hand, if the (N+1)th pulse arrives when both VA and
control can be considered as a special DCM PLC control VB are low/high, a communication signal of bit 0/1 will be
where Vm is constant. generated by the decoder. At the same time, the new pulse
will initiate the following time periods.
668
(a)
(a)
(b)
(b)
Figure 3. (a) Load-controlling signal decoder (VH and VL are voltages

used to define A, B periods, and Vmid has a value in between Vg and Vo).
(b) Possible arrival time for cycle detector (CD) output pulse.
C. Feedback from Load to CCU

To maintain a constant voltage level at the load, the
error amplifier output voltage Vc is converted into a time
period (i.e., the voltage-low period of signal “A” in Fig. (c)
4(d)) and fed back to CCU by the freewheeling switch Sfw
in Fig. 1(b). This time period defines the voltage-low
period of signal “B” in CCU by adjusting Vcg. In this way,
the error amplifier output voltage Vc has been fed back to
CCU as the voltage Vcg.
The small freewheeling switch Sfw only turns on for a
short while at low inductor current level, thus it has a
limited influence on the overall power conversion
efficiency. Its control circuit is shown in Fig. 4(a). The
cycle detector and integrator blocks have the same circuit
schematic as discussed previously, except that the
charging current of the integrator capacitor is fixed at a
predefined value to generate a ramp slope greater than the
largest ramp slope used for signal communication. In this
design, the signal communication circuit has a largest
ramp slope k3 when sending a bit 0, thus the ramp slope of
the integrator in Fig. 4(a) is set to be 2k3. As a result, the
freewheeling switch Sfw will conduct for a short while in
the main power switch off state, which is depicted as the
short pulse in Fig. 4(d) appearing near the middle of v xg
low period. (d)
The Vcg-adjusting circuit shown in Fig. 4(b) activates Figure 4. Load voltage regulation circuits: (a) Freewheeling switch
the SR flip-flop at each falling edge of the main power controller at the load end, (b) and (c) Vcg-adjusting circuit in CCU, and
switch control signal (S1), and resets the flip-flop when (d) Waveform for process of Vcg reduction (0 < Vl < Vo).
detecting the short pulse generated by Sfw. The output
(signal “A”) of the flip-flop together with the comparator
output (signal “B”) are used to generate Vchg and Vdch to III. DISCUSSION ON NON-IDEAL TERMS
adjust the voltage Vcg in circuit of Fig. 4(c). The signal Due to reasons such as process variation and chip
waveforms for Vcg reducing process are presented in Fig. supply voltage fluctuation, the ramp generators, located at
4(d). The two integrators in Fig. 4(a) and (b) are designed CCU and different load-end PLC circuits, may generate
to be exactly matched. Any non-ideal situation will lead to slightly different ramp slopes kg and ko. Ideally, when kg
unequal Vc and Vcg values, which will be discussed in and ko are equal, Vcg in CCU will duplicate the voltage
details in the following section.
669
level of Vc in load-end controllers. However, when TABLE I
mismatch occurs, the two voltages will follow the CIRCUIT PARAMETERS OF PROPOSED DC PLC SYSTEM
relationship below: Source voltage 9~14V
Load voltage 5V
Filtering capacitor C 60μF (ESR: 40mΩ)
௞೒
ܸ௖௚ ൌ ܸ. (2) Filtering inductor L 3µH
௞೚ ௖
Load resistance 5Ω
Switching cycle time 3.5μs (bit “0”)
In the case of kg > ko, the larger Vcg, compared to the 5µs (no transmission)
expected Vc level, will lead to a longer duty cycle time 7.2μs (bit “1”)
and result in a higher load voltage. Negative feedback will
be obtained at the error amplifier, effectively reducing Vc
and thus Vcg. At steady state, although Vcg and Vc are
slightly different, they will be kept at stable levels to
maintain the load voltage same as the reference. When
kg < ko, the opposite process will occur.
This slope mismatch will also affect the open loop
transfer function T(s), which is derived using the reduced
order approach for DCM buck converter by ignoring the
equivalent series resistance of the filtering inductor [8]:
ଵା௦ோ೎ ஼ ௞೒
ܶሺ‫ݏ‬ሻ ൎ ‫ܭ‬ ಾషభ ‫ܣ‬ሺ‫ݏ‬ሻ, (3)
ଵା௦ ோ஼ ௞೚
ಾషమ
where K is a constant, Rc is the equivalent series

resistance of the filtering capacitor C, A(s) is the gain of
the error amplifier, and M = Vo/Vg. The ratio of kg/ko will
Figure 5. Load voltage regulation for step change of source voltage
modify the loop gain slightly and has minor influence on (Vc and Vcg are overlapped).
circuit stability.
Sending signals
In order to demonstrate the operation of the proposed 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
dc PLC system, the Matlab/Simulink model of a system
with two identical POL converters is built to test on the Receiving signals
ability of simultaneous communication. Circuit
parameters are summarized in Table I. 0 1 0 1 0 11 0 1 0
The feedback mechanism in load voltage regulation has
been simulated as shown in Fig. 5. The voltage Vcg
follows the error amplifier output Vc quite well when the
source voltage has a step change. The small load voltage
overshoot/undershoot can be recovered within 0.05ms
time.
Another simulation is conducted for testing
simultaneous communication between CCU and two POL
converters. As shown in Fig. 6, two different signals
(“signal 1” and “signal 2”) are both sent at the time range
of about 5ms~5.4ms. The correct signal patterns can be Figure 6. Simulation results of two signals sending simultaneously
obtained by the load-end receivers after a short delay. (unit of horizontal axes: 10-4 s)
Because the communication signal is extracted from the
time information of the power line voltage, i.e., switching V. CONCLUSIONS
cycle time of the main power MOSFET, the signal
This paper has investigated a novel dc PLC method for
accuracy is much improved as compared to that when the
POL dc-dc converters. Without using additional power
signal demodulation employs amplitude information of amplifier for communication signal injection, the
the power line voltage including the MOSFET switching proposed design achieves to send energy and load-
noise [3]. controlling signal concurrently through a single dc power
line by varying the power MOSFET switching cycles. It
realizes sending different signals to multiple loads
simultaneously. The signal speed can be as high as the
switching frequency of the converter.
670
REFERENCES [5] L. Chushan, W. Jiande, and H. Xiangning, “Realization of a
general LED lighting system based on a novel power line
[1] H. A. Latchman and L. W. Yonge, “Power line local area communication technology,” Twenty-fifth Annual IEEE Applied
networking,” IEEE Communications Magazine, vol.41, no.4, pp. Power Electronics Conference and Exposition (APEC), pp. 2300-
32-33, Apr. 2003. 2304, 2010.
[2] A. Lotito, R. Fiorelli, D. Arrigo, and R. Cappelletti, "A complete [6] N.Pavlidou, A. J. Han Vinck, and J. Yazdani, “Power line
narrow-band power line communication node for AMR," IEEE communications: State of the art and future trends,” IEEE
International Symposium on Power Line Communications and Its Communications Magazine, vol.41, no.4, pp. 34-40, Apr. 2003.
Applications 2007 (ISPLC’07), pp. 161-166, Mar. 2007.
[7] D. Ma, W.-H. Ki, C.-Y. Tsui, and P. K. T. Mok, “Single-inductor
[3] W. Stefanutti, S. Saggini, P. Mattavelli, and M. Ghioni, “Power multiple-output switching converters with time-multiplexing
line communication in digitally controlled dc-dc converters using control in discontinuous conduction mode,” IEEE Journal of
switching frequency modulation,” IEEE Transactions on Solid-State Circuits, vol. 38, no. 1, Jan. 2003.
Industrial Electronics, vol. 55, no. 4, pp.1509-1518, Apr. 2008.
[8] D. Mitchell, DC-DC Switching Regulator Analysis. New York:
[4] Y. Maryanka, “Wiring reduction by battery power line McGraw-Hill, 1988.
communication,” IEE Seminar of Passenger Car Electrical
Architecture, 2000.
671
Hybrid SFS and Q-f Islanding Detection Method

for Inverter-Based DG
H. Vahedi*, R. Noroozian**, Member, IEEE, A. Jalilvand***, Member, IEEE, and G.B. Gharehpetian****,
Senior Member, IEEE.
*, **, *** Zanjan
University, Electrical Engineering Department, Zanjan, Iran. Email: h_vahedi@znu.ac.ir
**** Amirkabir University of Technology, Electrical Engineering Department, Tehran, Iran.
Abstract—Sandia Frequency Shift (SFS) Islanding Detection rate of change of frequency (ROCOF), rate of change of
Method (IDM) has been widely applied to inverter-based frequency over power, voltage and power factor changes,
distributed generators due to its small Non-Detection Zone phase jump detection, voltage unbalance and total
(NDZ). The NDZ of the SFS is highly depends on its design harmonic distortion all are addressed in [6].
parameters. In this paper, a new hybrid islanding detection Passive islanding detection methods suffer from large
method has been introduced, which is based on SFS and Q-f Non-detection Zones (NDZs) [4]-[6]. NDZs are defined as
droop curve methods. The optimal SFS configuration is loading conditions for which an islanding detection
calculated by using instability criterion of phase angle and method would fail to operate in a timely manner.
Bacterial Foraging Algorithm. The results are verified on
MATLAB / Simulink environment. Active techniques have been designed to force the DG
to be unstable in islanding mode and interact with the
Keywords—Distributed Generation; Sandia Frequency shift; operation of the power system directly [7]. The main
islanding; inverter; Bacterial Foraging Algorithm. advantage of the active techniques over passive techniques
is their small NDZ [5]. Active methods include slide-
I. INTRODUCTION mode frequency shift, active frequency drift or frequency
bias, Sandia frequency shift which all addressed in [6].
The islanding protection is the most important issues to Active methods have smaller NDZ and also can degrade
address in Distributed Generation (DG) applications. In the power quality of the power system [4], [5].
[1] and [2], the islanding is defined as a condition in Communication-based methods have no NDZ, but are
which a portion of an electric power system is energized much more expensive than the former methods.
solely and separated from the rest of the electric power
In this paper, instability criterion of the SFS method is
system. The DG unit should detect the islanding and
briefly presented from [3] and [8]. Instability criterion and
disconnect the islanded system in a timely manner to
Bacterial Foraging optimization algorithm has been
avoid damages [1]. Unintentional islanding of DG may
applied to find optimum gain of Sandia Frequency Shift
result in power quality issues, interference with grid
method in order to eliminate NDZ. Also Q-f droop curve
protection devices and unsafety for customers.
[4] which is a passive islanding detection method has been
There are three main method of islanding detection; shortly reviewed. A hybrid method based on both Q-f
Passive, Active and Communication-based methods [3]. droop curve and SFS method has been proposed in order
Passive methods continuously monitor the system to have a negligible NDZ. The results are then validated
parameters such as voltage, frequency, harmonic through MATLAB / Simulink.
distortion, etc. In this technique, one or more of these This paper is organized as follows: section II consist of
parameters have been considerably changed when the grid brief introduction on the instability criterion of the SFS
is islanded. Setting a proper threshold can help to method. Section III presents proposed method.
differentiate between the islanding and grid connected Performance of the proposed method is evaluated in
conditions. The over-/under frequency protection method Section IV and the paper ends with conclusions in Section
uses upper and lower frequency thresholds, which are V.
usually set at 60.5 and 59.3 Hz, respectively [4], [5]. The
over/under voltage protection method uses upper and II. INSTABILITY CRITERION OF SNADIA FREQUENCY
lower voltage thresholds, which are set at 110% and 88% SHIFT
of the nominal voltage value , respectively [4], [5]. Upper
and lower thresholds have been provided to avoid The system, which has been studied in this paper, is
unwilled tripping of the DG due to other system shown in Fig. 1. This system consists of a distribution
disturbances [5]. Sometimes the load closely matches the network, modeled by a three-phase voltage source behind
DG capacity. In this case, the amount of frequency or impedance, a load, presented by a three-phase constant
voltage deviation will not be sufficient to trigger the impedance and DG system. The DG is designed to
islanding detection system [5]. operate as a current controlled source and the interface is
equipped with the SFS islanding detection system. The
Several passive islanding detection methods are rating of this inverter is 100kW. The other parameters
available like: under voltage/over voltage, under have been given in [5].
frequency/over frequency, rate of change of active power,
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 672

Fig. 1. System under study with 100 kW DG.
Fig. 2 shows the constant current control scheme based

on dq synchronous reference frame. For steady-state
islanded operation, the inverter phase angle and load
phase angle must be equal. This equilibrium condition is
expressed as the phase criteria, which is a closed form
expression that depends on the islanding detection
method and the R, L, C of the load [3].
For the SFS islanding detection method, the inverter
phase angle can be expressed as a function of the island
frequency, fis, the frequency of the grid prior to islanding,
fg and the chopping function parameters cfo and k [8].
π
ϕinv = (cf 0 + k ( f is − f g )) (1) Fig. 2. Block diagram of DG inverter controller.
2
The load phase angle is a function of island frequency,
the load resonant frequency, f0, and the load quality
factor, Qf [3] and [8]:
f 0 f is
ϕ Load = − tan −1[Q f ( − )] (2)
f is f 0
The equilibrium equation of the two phase angles is
expressed by (3), as follows [3] and [8]:
f tan[π (cf0 + k ( fis − f g )) / 2] f 0
f 02 + − f2 =0
Qf
(3)
In this equation, it can be seen that the NDZ depends
on SFS parameters (cfo and k) and load parameters (fo and
Qf). The equilibrium point defined by the phase criterion
in (3) must be an unstable equilibrium in order to ensure
islanding detection and to eliminate the NDZ.
In Fig. 3, the phase angle as a function of the islanded
frequency is plotted for the load angle and for two cases
of the SFS IDM, k = 0.1 and k = 0.9. In both cases, cfo
was set equal to 0 and fo to 59.5 Hz. Prior to islanding,
the frequency is equal to the grid frequency of 60 Hz and
the phase angle of the inverter is zero, while the phase Fig. 3. Phase angle-frequency curves with k = 0.1 and k = 0.9.
angle for the load is approximately 20°. When k = 0.1, the
system will converge to a stable island point within the The impact of a load with different values for Qf and fo
non-detection zone, but for k = 0.9, the frequency drifts on the load phase-frequency curve is shown in Fig. 4. The
downwards eventually exiting the non-detection zone. To phase angle equal to zero at f = fo, so increasing or
eliminate the non-detection zone it is necessary to ensure decreasing fo will shift the curve to the right or left,
that for all possible loading scenarios, the load and DG respectively. On the other hand, the slope of the phase
phase angle intersection point is an unstable operating angle curve is affected by changes in the load Qf. It can
point. This condition can be expressed by following this be seen in Fig. 4 that increasing the load’s Qf results in an
inequality [3]: increase in the load phase angle slope. Hence, the value
dφload dφinv of fo will primarily affect the location of the phase
< (4) criteria’s critical point, whereas Qf will affect both, i.e.,
dfis df is its location and stability [3].
673
Fig. 4. Impact of Qf and fo on phase-frequency curve Fig. 6. K-Qf curve of SFS method.
III. PROPOSED METHOD B. Q-f Droop curve method

A. Optimal SFS Parameter Selection DGs are usually designed to operate at unity power
factor to supply the full capacity as active power with
The SFS slope k should be set greater than the load
phase angle slope, which is leading to the following zero reactive power output [4] and [5]. During an
condition for instability [3]: islanding situation, with a DG designed to supply zero
reactive power, the system frequency will deviate such
⎛ f f ⎞ that the load consumes zero reactive power [4]. This
Q f ⎜ 02 − ⎟ technique have been using for islanding detection that
2 ⎜f f 0 ⎟⎠
k > max ⎝ (5)
relies on equipping the DG interface with a Q−f droop
characteristic [4].The proposed idea relies on examining
π ⎛
2 f0 f ⎞
2
1 + Qf ⎜ − ⎟ the Q−f characteristic of both the DG and load, and

⎜f f 0 ⎟⎠ determining the best operating characteristic for the DG
⎝ that will aid in islanding detection. The Q−f droop is
In order to determine the maximum value of (5),
chosen such that the DG maintains its stable operation
Bacterial Foraging Algorithm has been used in MATLAB
environment. Qfmax represents the highest expected load while grid-connected and loses its stability once an
quality factor. The parameters fmin and fmax represent the islanding condition occurs. With a DG equipped with the
UFP/OFP thresholds and are taken to be 59.3 Hz and 60.5 proposed Q−f, a simple islanding detection method such
Hz in this paper. Table I lists the results obtained from as the OFP/UFP is sufficient for efficiently and
the Bacterial Foraging Algorithm [9] for different values accurately detecting islanding that reduces the complexity
of Qfmax. Thus, to eliminate the NDZ for loads with of the detection method [4]. The flowchart of
Qf<Qfmax, the SFS parameter k should follow the implemented Q-f droop curve, presented in Fig.7.
constraint provided in Table I. the SFS parameter k
versus quality factor (K-Qf) curve is used here to quantify
the relationship between these two factors. Fig. 6 shows
the K-Qf curve for the constant current-controlled
inverter. This figure reveals the proportional relationship
between K and Qf.
TABLE I.
THRESHOLD ON SFS PARAMETER FOR DIFFERENT LOAD QUALITY

FACTOR
Qfmax K> Fig. 7. Q---f characteristic.

1 0.021191181
1.5 0.031786772 C. Hybrid Islanding Detection
1.8 0.038144126
In this section, in order to improve performance of SFS
2.5 0.052977953 method and reduce NDZ, a new hybrid islanding
3 0.063573544 detection method based on both SFS and Q-f droop curve
4 0.084764725 has been carried out. The proposed method is a
5 0.105955907 combination of both schemes shows in Fig. 2 and Fig. 7.
7.5 0.158933861 Its well known that, k determines the strength of the SFS
method. The larger the k is, the more effective the anti-
BFA avg. Iterations 500 islanding scheme is. But a large value of k may result in
unwilling system failure and make SFS method
674
profoundly sensitive to any perturbation, which would
happen in the distribution system. However, the higher Qf
of the load will prohibit the better islanding detection
capability and make the islanding system more stable. It
is better to keep k in a safe value and add Q-f droop curve
method to make SFS islanding detection method more
effective.
In this section, the test system shown in Fig. 1, has been
simulated by MATLAB / Simulink. The system, DG and
load parameters are taken from [4]. The DG interface is a
constant power controller which is equipped with two
islanding detection methods. The system and controller
parameters are given in Table II.
A. Optimal SFS IDM Fig. 10. Frequency deviation during an islanding condition, cf0 is set to
0.001 and k 0.05.
The SFS method is implemented by controlling the
inverter current angle considering (1). To verify the results B. Hybrid Islanding Detection Method
presented in Table I, the frequency has been plotted
during an islanding condition with different values of k. In this section a hybrid IDM based on both the SFS
Fig. 9 and Fig. 10 show the frequency deviation with method and Q-f droop curve method has been used. To
different values of k and cfo. It can be seen that in Fig. 9, show the performance of the proposed method, PCC
where k is set to 0.02, the loads with Qf up to 1 are easily frequency has been plotted during an islanding condition
detectable. For loads with Qf greater than 2, the frequency with k = 0.05 and cfo = 0.001 in Fig.11.
will stabilize within the OFP/UFP frequency thresholds It can be seen that the loads with Qf of 5 and 7.5 are not
and thus islanding would not be detected. The simulation detectable with single SFS method and will stabilize
results correspond with the analytical results presented in within the OFP/UFP frequency thresholds and thus
Table I. It has been shown that to detect islanding islanding would not be detected. Using proposed hybrid
efficiently for loads with Qf up to 1, the SFS ‘‘k’’ method, islanding condition can be easily detected in a
parameter should be set higher than 0.02119.
timely manner and there is no necessity to increase gain
In Fig. 10, it can be seen that islanding could be factor of SFS method in order to reach better detection
detected efficiently for loads with a quality factor that is
less than 2. For loads with Qf is higher than 3, the method.
frequency will settle and stabilize within the OFP/UFP
threshold limits.
As a result, (5) provides an evaluating performance
index to eliminate NDZ of loads with determined quality
factor. Regarding Table I, to guaranty the system with
load quality factor greater than 3, k must set higher than
0.06357 and large value of k, might bring unwanted
tripping for the system. It is better to keep k in a low value
and using a hybrid islanding detection method.
Fig. 11. Frequency deviation for hybrid IDM, cf0 is set to 0.001 and k
0.05.
I. CONCLUSION
A new hybrid islanding detection method has been
presented. This method established upon Sandia
Frequency Shift and Q-f droop curve methods. The paper
has been used an analytical formula to optimally
determine one of the SFS parameters and Bacterial
Foraging Algorithm has been used to search the optimal
Fig. 9. Frequency deviation during an islanding condition, cf0 is set to solution. A new K-Qf curve has been presented.
0.01 and k 0.02 Simulation results have been shown the effectiveness of
this method. It is shown that, it’s better to use hybrid
675
IDM and keep SFS gain parameter in a low value to Transaction on Energy Conversion, Vol. 21, No. 1, pp. 171-180,
protect system from an unwanted tripping. March 2006.
[9] K. M. Passino, “Biomimicry of bacterial foraging for distributed
optimization and control,” IEEE Control Syst. Mag., Vol. 22, No.
TABLE II.
3, pp.52–67, Jun. 2002.
SYSTEM AND CONTROLLER PARAMETERS
Grid and Inverter Parameters

Switching frequency 8000 Hz
Input DC voltage 900 V
Voltage (Line to Line) 480V
Frequency 60Hz
DG filter inductance 2.1 mH
Grid Resistance 0.02 Ω
Grid Inductance 0.3 mH
DG Controller Parameters
P-Q PI control Kp = 0.01, Ki = 100
Id – Iq PI control Kp = 0.2, Ki = 100
TABLE III.
LOAD QUALITY FACTOR LIST
Qf R (Ω) L (H) C (F)

0.5 2.304 0.0122 0.000575
1 2.304 0.0061 0.00115
2 2.304 0.0031 0.00225
3 2.304 0.00203 0.00345
4 2.304 0.00149 0.004708
5 2.304 0.0012 0.00584
7.5 2.304 0.000819 0.008577
12 2.304 0.000506 0.0139
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of the Sandia Frequency Shift method,” in PSCE '09 conference.
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Detection of Inverter-Based Distributed Generation, ’’ IEEE
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676
Power Quality Problem Classification Based on

Wavelet Transform and a Rule-Based method
Chuah Heng keow*, Perumal Nallagownden**, K.S. Rama Rao***.
Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department, University Technology PETRONAS.
*hkchuah@yahoo.com,**perumal@petronas.com.my, ***ksramarao@petronas.com.my
Abstract— This paper describes a Wavelet Transform and so that the sources of the trouble can be pinpointed and
Rule-Based method for detection and classification of corrective measures can be applied to mitigate them.
various events of power quality disturbances. In this model, Power disturbance signals are mostly non-stationary
wavelet Multi-Resolution Analysis (MRA) technique was
waves, the disturbances occur just for a short duration of
used to decompose the signal into its various details and
approximation signals, and unique features from the 1st , 4th time and are non repetitive except a few other such as
, 7th and 8th level detail are obtained as criteria for harmonics, flicker and etc. To analyze the signals, a
classifying the type of disturbance occurred. These features method that can provide both time and frequency
and together with the duration of disturbance of occurrence information is needed. A normal Fourier Transform is not
obtained from 1st level of detail, they form the criteria for a a suitable tool to be used to analyze the signal because it
Rule-Based software algorithm for detecting different kinds
only provides spectral information of the signal without
of power quality disturbances effectively. It is presented in
this paper that the choice of sampling frequency is the time localization information which is necessary to
important since it affects the average energy profile of the determine the time and the duration of occurrence of the
details and eventually may cause error in detection of power disturbance [2].
quality disturbances. The model is tested by using Time frequency analysis technique is more
MATLAB toolbox. The simulation produces satisfactory appropriate for analyzing non-stationary signal because it
result in identifying the disturbance and proof that it is
provides both time and spectral information of the signal.
possible to use this model for power disturbance
classification. Since the method can reduce the number of Among them Short Time Fourier Transform (SFT) and
parameters needed in classification, less memory space and Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT) have been frequently
computing time are required for its implementation. Thus it used by many researcher to analyze this type of signal.
stands up to be a suitable model to be used in real time However, SFT uses a fixed window to shift in time to
implementation through a dsPIC- based embedded system. analyze the signal is inadequate for the practical power
disturbances which usually involve a wide range of
Index Terms—power quality, multi resolution analysis,
wavelet, Rule- Based algorithm. frequencies. DWT is preferred because it employs a
flexible window to detect time-frequency variations
I. INTRODUCTION which results in a better time-frequency resolution as
compares to SFT [3].
B OTH Electric utilities supplier and end user are
increasingly aware of the effects of power quality of
the power supply on the load equipments. The
T. Jayasree, at al. [4] proposed a wavelet based Radial
Basis Neural Network method to classify type of transient
concern is growing because equipments are now more disturbance. In this paper, disturbance signal is
sensitive to power quality variation than in the past. The decomposed into its’ details and approximation by using
equipments used are mostly digital or processor-based or Wavelet Multi Resolution Analysis technique (MRA) and
contained power electronic components which are features are extracted from these signals by applying
sensitive to power disturbances. A poor quality supply Shanon entropy. This feature vector representing a
may cause the equipment to malfunction or shorten their specific disturbance signal is then fed into a Radial Basis
life span. Malfunctioned equipment may in turn add more Neural Network for classification.
disturbances into the power system, and these effects can Zwe-Lee Gaing [5] also used wavelet MRA technique
be critical and can have serious consequences if these to decompose the signal into its’ approximation and
equipments are life saving equipments installed and used details and features of the signal are obtained by
in the hospitals and medical centres. Power quality events computing the average energy for each detailed level of
such as voltage transients may cause a microprocessor to the signal. This paper proposes a Probabilistic Neural
read voltage levels incorrectly, resulting in incorrect data Network for classification based on the features extracted
processing (ones being read like zeros) or altered stored from the details. Both proposed method need a large
data/settings [1]. Therefore, mitigation of power quality amount of training sample for the network to learn and
disturbances becomes essential in order to safeguard both facing the same difficulty in selecting the
these critical and sensitive load equipments, as well as to
appropriate sample for each set of disturbance in order to
improve their efficiency. But before mitigation measures
obtain optimized performance for classification.
can be deployed, it is imperative to monitor and detect the
Zhang Ming et al. [6] proposed a method that
type of disturbances that have occurred in the power line
simultaneously adapts RMS and FFT technique for
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 677

feature extraction from the disturbance signal. A Rule N −1
Based Decision Tree (RBDT) algorithm is then used to W [ j , n] = ∑ W [ j − 1, m]h[ 2n − m ] (2)

m =0
classify the power signal. This method reduces the N −1
computational burden as it does not employ a Neural Wh [ j, n] = ∑ W [ j − 1, m ]g [ 2 n − m ] (3)
Network for classification. m=0
This paper proposes an alternative wavelet based

Where,
method and a Rule based Algorithm using features
W[j,n] is the output of the low pass-filter representing
extracted from decomposed signal by MRA technique for
the scaling coefficient at level j.
signal disturbance classification. As it does not employ
Wh[j,n]is the output of the high-pass filter representing
Neural Network for classification, it has less
the detailed coefficient at level j.
computational burden and is suitable for real time
n is the number of sample of the input signal to filter.
application using DSP chip.
Fig. 1 illustrates the decomposition of the signal using
the filter bank concept. The output from the filter is down
II. WAVELET TRANSFORM AND MULTI RESOLUTION
sampling so that the number of output samples is half of
ANALYSIS (MRA)
the number of input signal samples. Down sampling is
The discrete wavelet transform resolves sampled signal done by eliminating every alternative value of the output
into its’ approximation and details by using the scaling sample.
function and wavelet function respectively. The MRA Fig. 2 illustrates the MRA technique using filter bank
technique of the wavelet transform decomposes the concept. It generates 3 details and one approximation.
original signal into several other details and
LPF
approximation with different levels of resolution. From
these decomposed signals, the original signal in time ↓2
h[k] W[1,m]
domain can be recovered without losing any information x[n
by applying inverse wavelet transform. ]
The recursive mathematical representation of MRA [5]
is presented as in (1). ↓2 Wh[1,m]
g[k]
Vj = Wj+1 ⊕V j+1 = Wj+1 ⊕Wj+2 ⊕ ... ⊕Wj+n ⊕Vn (1)

HPF
Where
Vj+1 is the approximated component of the sampled
Fig. 1. Implementation of wavelet transform using filter bank concept.
signal at level j+1.
Wj+1 is the detailed component of the sampled signal at g[k] ↓2
Wh[1,m]
level j+1. x[n]
⊕ denotes the summation of two decomposed signals
n is the decomposition level.
h[k]
For example, to get the original signal V0 (the original
signal is equal to finding the approximated component at
↓2
j = 0) with decomposition level of n = 3, the original
g[k] ↓2
signal can be reconstructed by substituting j = 0 and n = 3 Wh[2,m]
into (1). The result will be as follows: h[k]
V0 = W1 ⊕ W2 ⊕ W3 ⊕ V3 ↓2
g[k] ↓2
Wh[3,m]
The original signal is equal to the sum of all retails
h[k]
and the approximation of the last level. In another word,
the signal can be decomposed into 3 details and one
approximation at level 3 decomposition. ↓2
Actually, the wavelet function h acts like a digital
W[3,m]
high- pass filter to generate the detailed component of the
original signal while the scaling function g acts as low- Fig. 2. 3 level decomposition implemented by filter bank concept. .
pass filter to produce the approximated component of the
original signal. In general both functions can be defined III. FEATURE EXTRACTION
as in (2) and (3). From the above analysis, it is observed that different
disturbances have the signal average energy distributed
among the decomposed details in a different pattern. By
using Daubechies 4 wavelet function, these signals are
678
decomposed into 13 levels and the energy of each detail The transient distortion causes the distributed average
is calculated to obtain the feature profile. The energy for energy to be more in level 8 (for 12.8 KHz sampling
each detailed level is as in (4). frequency) than in level 7.
1
⎛ 1 N j −1 ⎞2 TABLE I
Ej = ⎜ ∑Wh[ j, m]2 ⎟ (4) FREQUENCY BANK DISTRIBUTION FOR 12.8KHZ SAMPLING RATE
⎜ N m=0 ⎟ Decomposition Frequency range
⎝ j ⎠ level (fs=12.8KHz
Approximation (a) Detailed (d)
Fig. 3 shows example of the energy profile plotted for 1 0 to 3.2KHz 3.2K to 6.4kHz
5 types of disturbances; transient, harmonic interrupt, 2 0 to 1.6KHz 1.6K to 3.2KHz
pure sine and sag. By observing the average energy 3 0 to 800Hz 800Hz to
distribution profile of each disturbance, all signals have a 1.6KHz
4 0 to 400Hz 400Hz to 800Hz
decomposition energy peak at the 7th level except for
transient disturbance which has a peak at the 8th level. 5 0 to 200Hz 200Hz to 400Hz
This feature can be used as one of the criteria for 6 0 to 100Hz 100Hz to 200Hz
identifying one transient signal from the other. 7 0 to 50Hz 50H to 100Hz
8 0 to 25Hz 25Hz to 50Hz
Transient peaks at
level 8. TABLE 2
FREQUENCY BANK DISTRIBUTION FOR 6.4KHZ SAMPLING RATE
Decomposition Frequency range
level (fs=6.4KHz) Approximation (a) Detailed (d)
1 0 to 1.6KHz 1.6K to3.2KHz
2 0 to 800Hz 800Hz to
1.6KHz
Harmonic has
3 0 to 400Hz 400Hz to 800Hz
higher energy value at
level 4 than the other. 4 0 to 200Hz 200Hz to 400Hz
5 0 to 100Hz 100Hz to 200Hz
6 0 to 50Hz 50H to 100Hz
7 0 to 25Hz 25Hz to 50Hz
Fig. 3. Average energy distribution profile for the decomposed signal 8 0 to 12.5Hz 12.5Hz to 25Hz
Nevertheless, the level where the peak appears for the

signal is relied on the sampling rate. In MRA, since both Fig. 5 shows the 1st level detail of transient
the high pass filter and the low pass filter are half band, disturbance. The waveform has almost zero value for
the decomposition in frequency domain for a signal most of the points except around the points where the
sampled with a sampling frequency of fs can be transient occurred. The amplitude varies for a very short
demonstrated as in Fig. 4. Table 1 shows the frequency period of time and settles down quickly to zero. The
range for each approximated and detailed level by using a duration of variation is usually less than half a cycle of
12.8 KHz sampling rate. And Table 2 presents the results the fundamental frequency. This duration together with
table using 6.4 KHz as sampling rate. From Table 1, it is the unique peak average energy which only occurs at
clear that the fundamental frequency of the signal which level 8 (for fs equals to 12.8 KHz) can be taken as the
signal criteria for identifying transient disturbance from other
disturbances.
a1 d1 Fig. 6 shows the 1st level detail of harmonic
disturbance. Since it is a stationary wave, it shows the
a2 characteristic of repetition which is not found in the other
a3
5 disturbances. Therefore this feature is used as one of the
d3
factor for identification of harmonic signal. The other
feature is shown in Fig. 3. Its’ average energy at 4th level
fs/16 fs/8 fs/4 fs/2 detailed sub-signal is higher than all the others. A
minimum threshold value can be used so that the
Fig. 4. The wavelet decomposition in the frequency domain waveform which has an average energy at 4th level
detailed higher than this threshold value, together with
is 50 Hz in this case lies between level 7 and 8 and thus
the characteristic of repetition, should be identified as
level 7 contains the highest average energy distributed
having harmonic distortion.
after decomposition. But with sampling rate of 6.4 KHz, A pure sine wave contains no high frequency
the fundamental frequency is between level 6 and 7, components. Therefore it shows no variation in its 1st
therefore the peak appears at level 6 instead of level 7.
679
Fig. 8. 1st level detailed sub-signal for sag disturbance.
Fig. 5. 1st level detailed sub-signal for transient disturbance.
Fig. 9. 1st level detailed sub-signal for swell disturbance.
Fig. 6. 1st level detailed sub-signal for harmonic disturbance. Fig. 10. 1st level detailed sub-signal for interrupt disturbance.
IV. SIMULATION AND RULE-BASED ALGORITHM

MATLAB tool is used to test for the feasibility of the
proposed method for power disturbances detection and
classification. The input signal is generated by MATLAB
Fig. 7. 1st level detailed sub-signal for pure sine. programming language using formulas in [9]. Some of
these signals are shown in Fig. 11. Six classes of discrete
level detail as shown in Fig. 7. A momentary waveforms are generated; each consists of 40 test signals.
swell/overvoltage or momentary sag/undervoltage supply These samples are pure sine wave (frequency = 50 Hz,
problem will also show the same characteristic. To amplitude = 1) with d.c. offset, sag, swell, interrupt,
differentiate them from each other, RMS value for half a transient and harmonic. To create a variety of test signals
cycle of the signal is calculated and the value obtained is the signals in the same class are generated so that they are
used to make the decision. The RMS value for half cycle different from each other by having different amplitude
is calculated as in (5).
and duration of occurrence of the disturbance. All signals
⎛ 1 n+m ⎞ are generated with 256 points per cycle (fs = 12.8 KHz)
V rms = ⎜
⎜ ∑ X [ n ]2
m n
⎟
⎟
(5) for 50 cycles.
⎝ ⎠ By referring to the Rule-Based Algorithm shown in
Fig. 13, the generated test signal is first decomposed by
Where, using the MATLAB’s wavelet commands; wavedec() and
m is the number of point in half cycle, wrcoef(). This signal is decomposed into 13 levels by
n is the starting point of the half cycle. using Daubechies wavelet (db2) [10]. Fig. 12 illustrates
The 1st level detailed waveform of sag, swell and these sub-signals of sag disturbance after decomposition.
interrupt disturbances all show distinctive variation in Table 3 summarized features that are unique for each
amplitude during the start and the end of the disturbance disturbance. Based on these features, an algorithm as in
as shown in Figs. 8, 9 and 10. The duration of occurrence Fig. 13 is constructed to classify the type of disturbance
can have a value between half a cycle to 30 cycles which occurred in a signal.
is equivalent to 0.01 sec to 0.6 sec (fundamental
The energy of the detailed versions for 4th, 7th and 8th
frequency = 50 Hz) [8]. This feature can be used as one
are then calculated using (4). The duration of
of the factor for detecting the occurrence of these signals.
disturbance, the starting time, ending time of disturbance
To differentiate them from each other, the RMS value for
a half cycle after the start of the disturbance is calculated and whether it is repetitive or not are obtained by
using (5). According to IEEE specification [8], the referring to the 1st level detailed version of the signal.
voltage magnitude ( RMS value ) for swell is 1.1 pu to If the duration is zero, the signal may be a pure sine, a
1.8 pu, if the RMS value calculated is 1.1 times higher momentary swell/overvoltage or a momentary
than the normal signal (which is equal to 0.707 Vp) then sag/undervoltage. Under this situation, the RMS value is
we have a swell disturbance. If this value is in the range calculated using (5). If the RMS value (Vrms) obtained is
of 0.1 to 0.9 pu [8] of the normal value (Vn), then the 1.1 higher than the pure sine Value, Vn then it is
disturbance is classified as sag. If it is below 0.1 part of classified as momentary swell or may be overvoltage
normal value, it is classified as interrupt. because the duration of disturbance last longer than 30
cycles [8].
680
TABLE 3
Unique features for the disturbance signal
Feature
From 1st level Level 4 Peak ½ cycle
signal detailed detail energy Vrms after
duration repeat energy occurrence
Pure sine 0 no - At -
Level (a)
7th
transcient <1/2 no - At -
cycle Level
8th
harmonic - yes highest At -
Level
7th
interrupt >1/2 no - At <0.1Vn (b)
cycle Level
7th
Sag >1/2 no - At >0.1Vn
cycle Level And <0.8Vn
7th
swell >1/2 no - At >1.1Vn
cycle Level
7th
(c)
If Vrms is lower than 0.9 of Vn , the signal will be Fig. 11. (a) sag signal (b) swell signal (c) harmonic
identified as having momentary sag or undervoltage
disturbance. Otherwise, it will be a pure sine wave
without disturbances.
A non-zero repetitive duration denotes that harmonic
distortion is present in the signal. Next, level 4th average
energy is compared to a threshold value (Vth), if it is
lower, the harmonic distortion level is low, else it is quite
substantial.
If the duration obtained is non-zero but with a time
value less than the time for half a cycle (0.01 s for 50Hz
signal) of the signal, further tests on whether the peak Fig. 12. Decomposed signals using MRA
average energy is on level 8th is needed to confirm that
in detecting the sag with a shallow dip. The program is
an impulsive transient disturbance has occurred in the
fast because it is not computational intensive. The effect
signal.
of noise disturbance on this model is not covered in this
For duration of disturbance greater than half a cycle,
paper. It will be reported in the future research work. A
the disturbance in the signal is either sag, swell or
further research work also can include employing real
interrupt. To distinguish one from the other, the RMS
distorted signals measured by the digital recorder as test
value for half a cycle after the start of the disturbance is
signals instead of the simulated signals, and the real time
calculated. This value is used to compare with the Vn and
implementation through a dsPIC based hardware.
if it is greater than 1.1 of Vn, the disturbance is identified
as swell. If it is greater than 0.1 of Vn, it will be sag,
otherwise it is interrupt. TABLE 4
CLASSIFICATION RESULT
Test signal No. of test signal accuracy
V. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Pure sine 40 100%
The results of the simulation in Table 3 shows that it is Transient 40 100%
Interrupt 40 100%
feasible to classify the type of power quality disturbance
Sag 40 95%
using MRA technique together with Rule Based Swell 40 100%
Algorithm even though there is some difficulty Harmonic 40 100%
681
Start
MRA
decomposition
Calculate energy level at level 4th , 7th

and 8th
Determine Duration
from 1st level sub signal
Yes Calculate RMS

Period=0? value
No
No
Yes >1.1Vn ?
Repetition
?
Yes
No
Yes Momentary No
E4>Vth ? <0.9Vn ?
swell/overvoltage
Yes
No Period<1/2cycle?
Yes
Low level Momentary
harmonic No
harmonic sag/undervoltage Pure sine
Calculate Vrms for ½

cycle after occurrence
End
End
Yes
>1.1Vn? Peak at No
level 8th ?
No
swell
Yes
No
>0.1Vn?
transient Un-identified
interrupt Yes
sag End
End
Fig. 13. Rule Based Algorithm Flowchart
[5] Z. L Gaing, “Wavelet based neural network for power disturbance

recognition and classification”, IEEE trans. Power Delivery,
VI REFERENCES Vol.19, no.4,pp-1560-1568, Oct 2004.
[1] Syed M. Islam, Tom Larsen, William . B. Lawrance, D. Ramírez- [6] Zhang Ming , Li Kaicheng, Hu Yisheng. “DSP-FPGA Based Real-
Castro , E. Neil-Carrillo J. Santiago-Pérez, Power Quality Issues time Power Quality Disturbances Classifier”, Metrol. Meas. Syst.,
In hospital,available: Vol. XVII (2010), No. 2.
http://www.itee.uq.edu.au/~aupec/aupec01/013_Islam_AUPEC'01 [7] Michael Weeks, Digital Signal Processing Using MATLAB And
paper%20revised.pdf Wavelet, Infinity Science Press LLC,2007,pp.275-338
[2] Quinquis, Digital Signal Processing using Matlab, ISTE WILEY, [8] IEEE Recommanded Practice For Monitoring Electric Power ,
2008,pp.279-305. IEEE Standard 1159, 2009
[3] Robi Polikar (07 March 1999), The Engineer’s Ultimate Guide to [9] M. Karthikeyan, V. Malathi, Wavelet Support Vector Machine
Wavelet Analysis, available: Approach for classification of Power Quality Disturbances,
http://users.rowan.edu/~polikar/WAVELETS/WTtutorial.html International Journal of Recent Trends in Engineering , Vol 1, No.
[4] T. Jayasree, D. Devaraj, R. Sukanesh. Classification of Transients 3, May 2009.
using Wavelet Based Entropy Radial Basis Neural Networks, [10] James S. Walker, A Primer On Wavelets And Their Scientific
International Journal of Computer and Electrical Engineering Applications, Chapman & Hall/CRC, 1999, pp.2-92
,Vol.1, No.5, December, 2009.
682
Testing of Contactors under Voltage Sag and

Non-sinusoidal Voltage Conditions
Surya Hardi, I. Daut and M.Irwanto
Laboratory of Electrical Energy and Industrial Electronic Systems Cluster Research at School of Electrical System
Engineering, UniMAP, Kangar, Malaysia.
Email: surya@unimap.edu.my
Abstract—Sensitivity of electromagnetic contactors for

voltage sags and non-sinusoidal voltage supply has been
carried out by laboratory testing. Effects of sag
characteristics such as; sag magnitude, sag duration and
point on wave of sag initiation to be considered on
contactors behavior. Contactors are subjected to voltage
sags of depth varying, sag duration varying 5 ms to 600 ms,
different point on wave and under different non-sinusoidal
conditions. A Schaffner Profline 2100 EMC has been used
as sag generator to create sag characteristics. The results
show that sensitivity curves of the contactors depend on sag
magnitude, sag duration and point on wave, whereas
influence of non-sinusoidal voltage is slightly different.
Keywords—Contactors; Voltage sag; Point on wave; Non-

sinusoidal supply; Sensitive curve.
Figure 1. Basic motor control circuit [4].
I. INTRODUCTION
Industrial process equipment may be affected by a A contactor drops out when the field strength of the
variety of different power quality disturbances (e.g., magnetic field becomes smaller than spring presure that
voltage sags, voltage swells, over voltages, interruptions, tries to push the yoke away from armature. During
transients, voltage unbalance, voltage flickers, and voltage sag, the magnetic circuit will disengage if the
harmonics). Voltage sags are one of them that the most
important problem faced by many industrial customers [1, electromagnetic force Fmin is less or equal to the force
2]. Therefore voltage sag can result in tripping the provided by the spring. Acording to reference [5], the
customer equipment and shutting down of production loss electromagnetic force Fmin can be designated as,
and expensive restart procedure [1, 3]. One of the most
common pieces of the equipment used in industrial system
is contactors. The voltage sags can cause electrically held- 1
in contactors to drop out. The contactor most common is Fmin = φ 2 min (1)
2μ o A
to control electric motor which prevents it from suddenly
restarting when voltage recovered.
Circuit diagram connection of a contactor and a motor Where, μ 0 is the free space permeability, A is the cross
is shown in Fig. 1. This figure is a basic motor control sectional area of the electromagnetic pole and φ min the
circuit. By pushing the start button (N/O) voltage is minimum flux needed to prevent the electromagnet from
connected to coil. The contactor and its auxiliary contacts
are pulled in and current can flow via the normally open disengaging.
bridging contact after the Start button is released. The To obtain the voltage required to keep the contactor
Stop button (N/C) interrupts the circuit when pressed; the from dropping out, the coil self inductance is assumed to
contactor drops out and stays out after the Stop button is be constant and is dominant. The minimum rms hold in
released because the bridging contact has opened as well. voltage can be derived as [5],
An AC coil contactor is electromechanical devices,
which act as a switch to connect and disconnect a variety N c ωφ min
of electric systems for both power and control purpose Vhold ,min = (2)
that have been identified as weak link to voltage sags and 2
interruption [5, 6]. One manufacturer has provided data
that indicates their line of motor contactors will drop out Where Nc is the total number of turns in the electromagnet
at 50% voltage if the condition lasts for longer than one coil and ω is the fundamental frequency of supply
cycle. This data should be expected to vary among voltage.
manufacturers, and some contactors can drop out at 70%
of normal voltage or even higher [1].
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 683

The sensitivity of ac coil contactor to voltage sag is also important aspect that affects behavior of contactors
often expressed in terms of only their magnitude and [5].
duration which called rectangular voltage-tolerance
(sensitivity) curve. Sensitivity of contactors will drop for III. REVIEW OF EXISTING STANDARD AND PREVIOUS
sag to below 80% with duration 20 ms are classified as RESEARCH
worst case and for sag about 40% with duration 80 ms A. Voltage tolerance curve
and above are best case. The sensitivity contactors are Generally, equipments are sensitive to magnitude and
most likely trip for between sag of 40% to 50%, 10 ms duration of sags. Away to characterize the behavior of
duration and above [7]. equipment to voltage sag is to use voltage tolerance curves
With the increasing use of electronic equipment in or sensitivity curve. Existing standard for testing
office buildings, household, industrial, etc that connected equipment voltage sag immunity focus primarily on
to supply system will create harmonics pollution. The verifying a minimum immunity requirement response to
equipments are non-linier load have been known as voltage sags. Several popular standard equipment
tolerances curve which usually used namely; the
harmonic sources. Effects of harmonics supply on the
information technology industry council (ITIC) curve
equipment voltage tolerance have been investigated by [10], the SEMI F47 curve [11] and IEC Standard 6100-4-
Barros [8]. Test was carried out to computers. From the 11 curve [12]. Each point on the curve indicates how long
results that the voltage tolerance curve of the equipment this piece of equipment is able to ride through certain
used in the test depending on both the magnitude of voltage sags.
voltage harmonics distortion and phase difference The first curve, ITIC curve, was formerly called the
between harmonics. The equipment more sensitive to low computer and business equipment manufacturer
association (CBEMA) curve. It represents the voltage
order harmonics and lower voltage crest factors.
variation tolerance requirements of information
This paper presents behaviours of contactors during technology equipment as defined by the information
voltage sags and interruption. Testing of different of the technology industry council, formerly known as CBEMA.
contactors was carried out for different characteristics of On the other hand, the second curve specifies the voltage
voltage sags such as magnitude, duration and point on sag immunity of semiconductor manufacturing equipment.
wave. Sensitivity of the contactors was presented with It is widely used by semiconductor vendors in evaluating
sinusoidal and also under non-sinusoidal supply their needs for protection against voltage sags. IEC 61000-
conditions. 4-11 is a standard that equipment must tolerate voltage
dips on the AC mains. The standards specify the same
depths and durations of voltage dips, and explain how to
II. CHARACTERISTIC OF VOLTAGE SAG apply these dips to single-phase and three-phase
equipment. 61000-4-11 applies to equipment rated up to
16 amps per phase. As these curves are characterized by
Voltage sag is defined in [1, 2] as being a decrease in the sag magnitude and duration, a proper representation of
the RMS voltage between (10-90) %, at the power the system performance in terms of these parameters is
frequency, for duration from a half cycle to one minute. needed in order to evaluate the consequences of voltage
If the duration is greater than 1 minute it is considered as sags. Comparison of third voltage tolerance curves is
under voltage. Voltage sag is classified as instantaneous shown in Fig. 2.
when its duration ranges from 0.5 cycles to 30 cycles,
momentary lasting between 30 cycles and 3 seconds, and
temporary extending from 3 to 60 seconds.
Voltage sag is normally characterized by magnitude
and duration which influenced on behaviour of equipment
[1, 2, 6]. The magnitude is determined by electrical
distance to fault (impedance) and types of faults. The
duration is given by the fault clearing time of protection
system and the circuit breaker. When the faults are
cleared, the voltages return to their normal values. The
others characteristics such as balanced and unbalanced
voltage sags, phase angle shift or phase angle jump, point
on wave of initiation and recovery have been found to
influence significantly the equipment’s sensitivity to the
voltage sags [6].
Figure 2. Voltage tolerance curve (ITIC, SEMI F47 and IEC)
A short circuit in a power system not only causes a
drop in voltage in magnitude but also a change in the B. Previous work
phase angle of the voltage [6, 7]. It is due to the change of Previous work showed for testing of ac coil contactors
the X/R ratio. Phase angle shift is the phase angle
to voltage sags in various references [4, 6, 13] give
difference between voltages the pre-fault and during
results for depth and magnitude influence only. This is
fault. The phase shift is generally assumed to be a factor
also according to Ref. [2], which expressed the other
of influence for power electronic converter [6]. The point
parameters such as phase shift, point on wave initiation
on wave is the point where voltage sag occurs and it is
and point on wave recovery should not be considered
684
during voltage tolerance testing of low voltage
equipment.
Reference [4] presents results of drop off time for
different contactors. The drop off time is shortest when
the coil voltage is near peak value and longest at zero
crossing. Reference [6], expressed result of contactors
testing which the contactor tolerates any voltage sag
down to about 70% of nominal voltage. When the sag
magnitude is below 70% for longer than few cycles, the
contactor drops out. Ref [13], describes that there are
two conditions observed while a contactor subjected to
voltage sags i.e., drop out and chattering that are being
defined as follow; drop out voltage: is the voltage below
the coil nominal voltage at which the contactor trip or
drop out and chattering is a phenomenon that is observed
when the voltage supplied to the contactor coil falls
below a certain value. It refers to the distinct impact
sound caused due to the repeated making and breaking of
the armature circuit inside the contactor. Sag Figure 3. Schaffner Profline 2100 EMC tester used for generating
characteristics to achieve these conditions are different. voltage sags.
Values of the sag characteristic that caused contactor
chattering event is lower than drop out. For sag depth of V. TESTING OF AC COIL CONTACTORS
60%, there is chattering observed for sag duration greater
than 30 cycles. In the case of 50% sag depth and 40% sag A. Contactor tested
depth, the contactor trip for all sag duration. Laboratory experiments were carried out to investigate
Investigation that considered the point on wave effects of voltage sags. Three small contactors of
initiation found in references [5, 14]. Reference [5], different manufactures were tested. Their rating is such
which described for points in wave ranging between 00 as in Table 1.
and 900 in 150 increments. Since the contactor behaves
symmetrically about the half cycle, a 00 and 900 range TABLE 1.
was sufficient to show its behaviour when subjected to AC CONTACTORS USED IN EXPERIMENTAL TEST
voltage sags. The experimental results shown identify the
point in wave where voltage sag occurs as a very Specification of contactor A B C
important aspect of contactor behaviour. The results Coil Voltage (VAC) 240 240 240
observation during this experiment was the contactor Continuous Current Rating (A) 25 20 20
drop-out after voltage sag was over. Ref. [14], has
investigated sensitivity contactors to voltage sags. Testing Frequency (Hz) 50 50 50
of different contactors was carried out for different of
characteristics of voltage sags such as magnitude,
B. Test procedure
duration and point in wave. Influence of point on wave of
initiation for investigating only 0 and 90 degrees. Sags were applied in various depth, duration and point
Especially interesting is the deepest 00 sags and outage. A on wave of sag initiation. Each characteristic was
contactor may tolerate an outage of several hundred reproduced repeatedly two to three times to avoid errors
milliseconds but trips when exposed to 50% sag lasting caused by in contactor performance.
only one cycle. For 900 of point on wave, the sag duration The sag magnitude was set to depth varying from 70%
is not relevant. All contactors tripped during a 20 milli to 10% in step of 10% increments, whereas sag duration
second (ms). varying from 5 ms to 600 ms. Point on wave was adjusted
from 00 to 900 in 150 increments. If the sags of certain
magnitude, duration and point on wave causes the
IV. TESTING FACILITY contactor to trip was assumed to be sensitive to this type
Electrical Energy and Industrial Electronic Systems of sags then were recorded. Based on the obtained data
Cluster Research Laboratory at School of Electrical was plotted as voltage tolerance curve. Fig. 5 shows an
System Engineering UniMAP set up equipment for example sag waveform of this process. One of the
analyzing and testing power quality problems. A Profline contactors was subjected to a sag initiation that occurs at
2100 EMC tester is capable of producing any arbitrary a point on wave of 150 and sag of 30% with duration of
waveform and event at 3x3 kVA power rating and 0-300 45 ms. In this condition the contactor did not trip. This
V rms amplitude. Personal computer has been used for figure shows the line voltage supply and current flow
adjusting to produce sag characteristics desired. The through in coil contactor.
equipment is shown in Fig. 3.
685
Figure 4. Sag waveform of 30%, 150 point on wave, duration 45 ms
Figure 7. Sensitivity curves for Contactor C

VI. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
From Fig. 5, the performance of contactor A, when
The testing results of contactors A, B, and C are subjected to 30% sag depth has a significant effect of sags
represented in the form of sensitivity curves such as in on them. Contactor trips for all point on wave at this
Fig. 5 to Fig. 7. The figures show the influence of the voltage level, although different in sag duration. The
point on wave of sag initiation on each tested contactor contactor become sensitive when point on wave of 900
for point on wave of 00, 450, and 900, respectively. There initiation sag and trips for 20 ms and above.
was no effect on the performance of the contactors for The result test on contactor B is presented in Fig. 6.
sags of depths 60% and above for all sag durations. This figure shows the contactor trips in different voltage
sag level. The contactor is less sensitive to sag duration if
it is initiated at the zero crossing (00 on point wave) rather
than others. It trips for 40% depth and 70 ms sag duration.
Sensitivity of the contactor is decrease when the point on
wave of 900 and 450 initiations sag. Threshold of voltage
in this case of 40% sag depth.
Fig. 7 represents result test on contactor C. Influence of
point on wave is slightly different in sags duration that
cause the contactor trips. 00 on point wave is more
sensitive to sags magnitude, but less sensitive in sag
duration on lower sag magnitude level.
Comparison behaviors of different contactors while
subjected to different point on wave of sag initiations are
illustrated in Fig. 8 to Fig. 11. The sensitivity of each
Figure 5. Sensitivity curves for Contactor A contactors performance is different. The sensitivity
threshold to sag magnitude for contactor C is definite
namely 50% sag depth, whereas for contactors A and B
are indefinite and have sensitivity threshold of 40% sag
depth for point on wave of sag initiations of 300 and 600 .
It’s means that the contactors trip depend on the point on
wave of sag initiation. Contactor C is most sensitive to
this condition.
From these figures can be shown that the contactors
will trip faster when voltage sag initiation occurs at point
wave 750 (Fig. 11). Value of the sensitivity threshold of
sag duration for contactor B is 20 ms and contactor C is
lowest i.e.,10 ms. The sensitivity threshold of contactor A
is decrease when the sag initiation occurs at point wave
750 and it is starting to trip for sag of 20% depth or less.
Figure 6. Sensitivity curves for Contactor B
686
supply conditions: first using a pure 50 Hz sinusoidal
voltage sag supply and second when the voltage sag
supply content harmonics distorted of third, fifth and
seventh at point on wave of 00 and 750, respectively.
From Fig. 12, the contactor is faster to trip when was
supplied by non-sinusoidal for voltage sags of 50% sag
depth or less. Harmonics 5rd and 7th have same influence
on the contactor. Fig. 13, the contactor trips in 5 ms
duration for depth sag 20% of nominal voltage. Presense
harmornic distorted to be slight faster to trip but the
contactor trip at lower sag depth i.e., has range 50% to
30% of nominal voltage.
Figure 8. Sensitivity curves at point on wave 150.
Figure12. Sensitivity curves on contactor C in different supply at point

Figure 9. Sensitivity curves at point on wave 300. on wave 00.
Figure 10. Sensitivity curves at point on wave 600.

Figure 13. Sensitivity curves on contactor C in different supply at point
on wave 750.
VII. CONCLUSION
The behavior of the electric contactors for voltage sags

is discussed. When the contactors trip, they are affected
by three parameters i.e., depth of sag, duration of sag and
point on wave initiation of voltage sag. Laboratory tests
were carried out to three contactors having different
manufacture. The test results clearly show that the
magnitude and the duration of voltage sag are not the
Figure 11. Sensitivity curves at point on wave 75 degrees
only parameters that influenced on the sensitivity of a
contactor to voltage sag. The point on wave initiation has
Influence of input non-sinusoidal voltage on contactor also significant influence on the behavior of AC
C can be shown in Fig. 12 and Fig. 13. These figures contactor. Supply non-sinusoidal voltage has only a slight
show sensitivity curves under sinusoidal and harmonics influence on the contactor.
687
REFERENCES [8] J. Barros, R.I.Diego.,”Effects of nonsinusoidal supply on the
voltage tolerance of equipment”. IEEE power Engineering Review
2002.
[1] M.F.McGranaghan, D. R. Muller and M. J. Samotyj.,”Voltage [9] M.H.J. Bollen, and E. Styvaktakis.” Characterization of Three-
sags in industrial systems.” IEEE Transaction On Industry Phase Unbalanced Dips.Available: http://www.elkraft.chalmers.
Applications, Vol. 29. N0.2, March/April 1993.
[10] ITI (CBEMA) Curve Application Note. Information technology
[2] IEEE Recommended practice for monitoring electric power industry council (ITI). Avaiable:http://www.itic.org
quality,1995, IEEE Standard 1159, 2005.
[11] SEMI F47-0200 Specification for semiconductor processing
[3] A.K.Goswani, C.P.Gupta, and G.K. Singh,”Voltage sag equipment voltage sag immunity”
asssesment in a large chemical industry.” Power system Avaiable:http://www.semi.org/pubs/semipubs.nsf .
Teechnology and IEEE Power India Conference 2008. PowerCon..
[12] IEC 6100-4-11, Voltage dips, short interruption and voltage
[4] IT De Villers,”The Behavior of contactors during voltage sags,” variations immunity test , March 2004.
DIP-Profing Technologies , Inc.
[13] Karady George, G., Saurabh Saksen, Baozhuang Shi, Nilanjan
[5] Collin, E.R. Jr., and Fernando Zapardiel.“An experimental asses- Senroy . Effects of Voltage Sags on Loads in a Distribution. Final
ment of ac contactor behavior during voltage sags”.ISIE’97, Project Report, Power system engineering research center,
Portugal. Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on October, 2005.
Industrial Electronics, 1997.
[14] P.Pohjanheimo and M.Lehtonen.”Equipment sensitivity to voltage
[6] M.H.J. Bollen,” Understanding of power quality problems: sags –Test results for contactors, PCs and Gas Discharge Lamps,”
Voltage sag and interruptions”, IEEE Press Series On Power Harmonics and Power Quality of Power 2002, 10 th International
Engineering, 2000. Conference IEEE 2002.
[7] M.H.J. Bollen, , M. Stephens, K.Stockman, S. Djokic, McEachern
and J.R. Gordon.“ Voltage dips Immunity of Equipment in
Installation”. 19th International Conference on electricity
distribution, (CIRED),. Vienna, 21-24 May 2007., paper 0173.
688
Investigation on Impact of Current Harmonic

Contents on the Distribution Transformer Losses
and Remaining Life
Mohammad Yazdani-Asrami*, Mohammad Mirzaie* and Amir Abbas Shayegani Akmal**
*Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Babol University of Technology, Babol, Iran.
Email: yazdani@stu.nit.ac.ir
** Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran.
Abstract—Transformers are one of the main equipments of for various order of harmonics (h), which is derived from
distribution systems. Increase in transformer loss is mostly the dc winding resistance and the rated load loss. These
the source of the damages, and caused by increased two factors are related to eddy current loss in winding
harmonic contents, especially current harmonic. These
losses will result in an increase in temperature of various
and other stray loss. The assumption that the eddy-current
parts of transformer, especially its hot-spot temperature, losses in transformer windings are proportional to the
and this temperature increase leads to insulation life square of frequency is correct only for small transformers
reduction. Therefore, it seems necessary to know the using conductors whose dimensions are less than 3 mm.
harmonic orders and estimate hot-spot temperature of the For transformers using wider or thicker conductors the
transformer, which can help predicting the remaining life of method given in the standard leads to conservative results
the transformer. In this paper, relations associated with
transformer life and losses are reviewed. The equivalent
[3, 4].
losses and capacity of a typical distribution transformer Kelly et al. [5] describe an improved measuring
have been evaluated using simulation in technique of the equivalent effective resistance as a
MATLAB/SIMULINK based on its model under harmonic function of frequency of single-phase transformers, which
condition. Then, hot-spot temperature and remaining life of allows the direct calculation of transformer loss at
the transformer are estimated. In addition, the transformer harmonic frequencies from 10 Hz up to 100 kHz. This
has been simulated using Finite Element Method in
MAXWELL software. Finally, results are discussed and
equivalent effective resistance takes into account the total
compared. losses of the transformer: the copper losses plus the iron-
core losses. Based on the fact that the iron-core losses do
Keywords—Current Harmonics; Distribution Transformers; not depend on harmonic currents, but depend on
Finite Element Method; Load Loss; Loss of Life harmonic voltages (amplitudes and phase shifts), the total
losses determined by [5] are not accurate. In addition,
I. INTRODUCTION temperature-dependent operating conditions cannot be
Transformers usually designed for utilizing at the rated considered in [5]. Arri et al. [6] present an analog
frequency and linear load. Nowadays, present of nonlinear measurement circuit to directly measure the total losses
load, leads to higher losses and reduction of useful life in of transformers. However, employment of many PTs and
transformer. If the transformer cannot be operated up to its
standard lifetime, there will be an economic loss. The CTs in the three-phase transformer measuring circuits
measurement of a transformer’s losses and calculation of decreases the measurement accuracy of that work. Fuchs
its efficiency is applied in the power and distribution et al. propose a new digital data-acquisition method for
transformer [1, 2]. measuring de-rating and reactive power demand of three-
Temperature rise in transformers due to non-sinusoidal phase transformers under full or partial load conditions
load currents was discussed in IEEE Transformer [7].
Committee in March 1980. This meeting recommended Three methods of estimating harmonic load content
providing a standard guidance for estimation of the are the crest factor, harmonic factor (percent total
loading capacity of the transformers with distorted harmonic distortion-THD) and K-Factor. The first two
currents. After that, standard IEEE C 57.110 entitled, methods are most common methods of harmonic
“Recommended Procedure for Determination of the estimation but are limited because harmonic frequencies
Transformer Capacity under Non-Sinusoidal Load are not considered, and K-factor is the most complex [8].
Currents” was published. This procedure determines the Supplying non-linear loads by transformer leads to
reduction in the rated current for the harmonics present. higher losses, early fatigue of insulation, and reduction of
Reducing the maximum apparent power called de-rating the useful life of transformer. To prevent these problems,
has been proposed in many papers [3]. IEEE rated capacity of transformer supplying non-linear loads
Recommended Practice C57.110 computes the must be supposed smaller. Harmonic voltages increase
transformer de-rating based on two harmonic loss factors losses in its magnetic core while harmonic currents
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 689

increased losses in its winding and metallic structure [2, determined by subtracting DC loss from the load loss
9]. measured by the impedance test, i.e.
In general, transformers life reduction is due to
increase in winding hot-spot temperature, and this PTSL = PEC + POSL = PLL −R − PDC ( 3)
temperature is affected by harmonics. In fact, the most
limiting factor in transformer loading is hot-spot
There is no experimental method to distinguish the
temperature. Exact determination of this temperature can
winding eddy losses from the other stray losses [11, 12].
help to better evaluation of loading capacity, loss of life,
The winding eddy current loss is calculated by
and remaining life of transformers.
assumption 2 in section 6.2 of [3] for oil-filled
This paper reviews the harmonic loads effects on the
transformers:
transformers under distorted currents. Then, the
equivalent capacity of a typical 15 kVA distribution
PEC − R = 0.33PTSL ( 4)
transformer has been evaluated using analysis and
simulations in MATLAB/SIMULINK and MAXWELL Also, equation (5) can be used to calculate the other
softwares. Then, life reduction for this transformer is stray loss.
calculated using a MATLAB written algorithm. Finally, POSL = PTSL − PEC ( 5)
the results are compared.
Effect of voltage harmonic on no-load and load losses
II. REVIEWING DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER LOSSES
is usually negligible and therefore, is not taken into
AND DE-RATING DEFINITIONS
account. Effect of current harmonic on no-load losses is
Please use Transformer losses consist of no-load or negligible as well, though it has important effects on load
core loss and load loss. This can be expressed by (1). loss. To understand this it should be considered that, not
only these losses are proportional to the square of the
PT = PNL + PLL −R (1) load current but also there are lots of harmonic current in
distribution networks [9]. In fact, under harmonic loads,
Where, PNL is no-load loss, PLL-R is load loss, and PT is eddy current losses in winding and other stray losses must
total loss of transformer. be multiplied by harmonic losses factor, i.e. FHL and FHL-
No load loss or core loss appears because of time STR [12].
varying nature of electromagnetic flux passing through 2

h =max 2 ⎛ I h ⎞
the core and its arrangement is affected the amount of this ∑ h ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
h =1 ⎝ I1 ⎠
loss. Since distribution transformers are always under FHL
2
(6)
h =max ⎛ I h ⎞
service, considering the number of this type of ∑ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
transformer in network, the amount of no load loss is high h =1 ⎝ I1 ⎠
2
but constant. Many experiments have shown that core h = max ⎡ I
h ⎤ 0.8
∑ h
temperature increasing is not a limiting parameter in ⎢
h =1 ⎣ I 1
⎥⎦
determination of transformers permissible current in the FHL −STR = (7)
2
h = max ⎡ I ⎤
non-linear loads [9, 10]. Furthermore, considering that ∑ h
⎢
h =1 ⎣ I 1
⎥⎦
the value of voltage harmonic component is less than 5%,
only the main component of the voltage is considered to
calculate no load loss, the error of ignoring the harmonic Therefore, under harmonic conditions load loss can be
component is negligible. calculated by following equation:
Load losses consist of ohmic loss, eddy current loss, PL L ( pu ) = I 2 ( pu ) × [1 + FH L × PEC − R ( pu )
and other stray loss, or in equation form:
+F ×P ( pu )] (8)
H L −S T R OS L −R
PLL −R = PDC + PEC + POSL (2) The permissible transformers current is expressed as
Where, PDC is loss due to load current and DC [3]:
I m ax ( p u ) =
resistance of windings, PEC is winding eddy loss, and
POSL is other stray loss in clamps, tanks, etc. P L L − R ( pu )
(9 )
PDC can be calculated by measuring the DC resistance 1 + ⎡ F H L × Pec − R ( p u ) ⎤ + ⎡ F
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ H L −S T R
×P
OS L −R
( pu )⎤
⎦
of the windings and multiplying it by the square of the
load current. The stray losses can be further divided into
winding eddy losses and structural part stray losses. Using above-mentioned equation, the permissible
Winding eddy losses consist of eddy current loss and current of the transformer can be derived. The process of
reducing the capacity of transformer under harmonic load
circulating current loss, which are considered as the
is called “Derating”.
winding eddy current losses. Other stray losses are due to
losses in structures other than windings, such as clamps,
tank or enclosure walls, etc [11]. The total stray losses are
690
III. REVIEWING DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS
REMAINING LIFE DEFINITIONS TABLE I.
Transformer life depends on its insulation life, and
insulation life depends on thermal, mechanical and TRANSFORMER TECHNICAL PARAMETERS
chemical effect, but thermal effect is more important. Parameters Values
Therefore, transformer life is mainly depends on hottest Rated Apparent Output Power 15 kVA
spot temperature of transformer and can be calculated Rated Frequency 50 Hz
with (10) to (13) equations [13]. In this method, first Primary Voltage 20000 Volt
hottest spot temperature of transformer is calculated, and Secondary Voltage 230 Volt
then, aging factor and remaining life is calculated [14]. Rated Primary Current 0.75 Ampere
Rated Secondary Current 65.2 Ampere
0.8 Primary Ohmic Resistance 436 Ω
⎛ P + PNL ⎞
θTO = θTO − R ⎜⎜ LL ⎟⎟ (10 ) Secondary Ohmic Resistance 0.04 Ω
⎝ PLL − R + PNL ⎠
Primary Leakage Inductance 2.475 Henry
Secondary Leakage Inductance 0.00033 Henry
0.8
⎛ P ⎞ Primary Other Stray Loss Resistance 94.32 Ω
θ g = θ g −R × ⎜⎜ LL ⎟⎟ (11) Secondary Other Stray Loss Resistance 0.00837 Ω
⎝ PLL −R ⎠
Core Loss Resistance
9.2 Ω
Referred to Secondary Side
⎛ 15000 15000 ⎞
FAA = exp ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ (12) Magnetizing Inductance
0.225 Henry
⎝ 383 θ H + 273 ⎠ Referred to Secondary Side
No-Load Loss 120 Watt
Remaining Life = insulation life

FAA (13) Load Loss 550 Watt
Core Steel Type M5-0.3 mm
Cooling Type ONAN
In above equations, θTO and θTO-R are oil temperature Average Winding Temperature Rise 65ºC
rise and nominal oil temperature rise with respect to Nominal Conductor Hot-Spot Temperature
5ºC
ambient temperature, respectively. Also, θg and θg-R are Rise with Respect to Oil Temperature (θg-R)
conductor hot-spot temperature rise and nominal Ambient Temperature 35ºC
conductor hot-spot temperature rise with respect to oil
temperature, respectively. In addition, θA , θH and FAA are TABLE II.
ambient temperature, winding hot-spot temperature and
aging coefficient, respectively. Real life of distribution HARMONIC LOAD SPECIFICATION
transformer with average winding temperature rise of 65oc
and reference temperature of 110oc is assumed about 30 Harmonic Order Normalized Harmonic Current
years [3, 14]. st
1 0.978
IV. AN EXAMPLE FOR CALCULATION OF DISTRIBUTION 5th 0.171
7th 0.108
TRANSFORMERS LOSSES AND REMAINING LIFE UNDER
11th 0.044
NON-LINEAR LOADS 13th 0.028
In this section, calculation and simulation of losses, 17th 0.015
capacity and remaining life of a typical distribution
transformer under harmonic load will be performed using Table III shows the transformer losses under harmonic
three different methods. Then, results are compared with load. Total loss is increased about 13% under harmonic
each other. The generic parameters of this single-phase load. This increase in total losses results from significant
transformer and specification of harmonic load are increase in eddy current loss in winding. In addition, from
summarized in Tables I and II, respectively. (7), the rms value of the maximum permissible non-
sinusoidal load current with the given harmonic
A. IEEE C 57.110 Approach
composition is:
The total stray loss, winding eddy current loss, other
1.312
stray loss and their harmonic loss factors can be I max ( pu ) = = 0.928 pu
1.516
calculated by (3) to (6), as follow:
I max = 0.928× 65.2 = 60.5 A
PTSL = PSC − PDC = 130.92 Watt

The relative aging factor and real life of this
PEC = 0.33(130.92) = 43.2 Watt transformer based on a MATLAB written algorithm are
POSL = 150.93 − 43.2 = 87.73 Watt as follow:
FHL = 2.73
FAA = 1.24 ⇒ Remaining Life = 24.19 years
FHL −STR = 1.14
691
The harmonic load with the specifications as
mentioned in Table II causes aging acceleration factor to
be 1.24, and the remaining life of transformer will be
reduced about 19.3%.
B. MATLAB/SIMULINK Based Method
Transformers model consist of ordinary parameters Figure. 1. Transformer model under harmonic load used for simulation
such as leakage inductances, dc resistances, magnetizing
inductance and core resistance that can be obtained from
TABLE III.
traditional tests of transformer. In this model, stray losses
that consist of eddy current losses in windings and other CALCULATED LOSSES UNDER HARMONIC LOAD USING FIRST METHOD
stray loss do not considered. When transformer supplies
harmonic loads the losses that are proportional with Harmonic Losses under
Type of Rated Losses
frequency is more considerable. Losses (watt)
Losses Harmonic Load
Fig. 1 shows the proposed transformer model with the Factor (watt)
proximity effect loss represented as a potential difference PNL 120.12 - 120.12
defined as the second derivative of the load current and PDC 419.9 - 419.9
the other stray losses represented as a resistor in series PEC 43.2 2.73 117.93
with the leakage inductance and dc resistance [9]. POSL 87.73 1.14 100.01
The time-varying winding eddy current per unit is PT 670.94 - 757.96
used to approximate the induced winding eddy current
voltage on the winding for the HV and LV side are as TABLE IV.
follow:
CALCULATED LOSSES UNDER HARMONIC LOAD USING SECOND
I R ,LV × R EC −R ,1 d 2i 2
V EC ,LV = × 2 = 6.261×10−8 d i 2 METHOD
I R ,LV × ω 2 dt 2 dt 2
1
Type of Rated Losses Losses under rms Harmonic Load
Losses (watt) Current (watt)
I R ,HV × REC −R ,1 d 2i 2
V EC ,HV = × 1 = 3.136 ×10−4 d i1 PNL 122.24 122.24
I R ,HV × ω12 dt 2 dt 2 PDC 417.87 420.20
PEC 32.13 102.15
In addition, the winding eddy-current and other stray POSL 88.52 101.12
loss resistance HV voltage referred to the LV sides are as
PT 660.76 745.71
follow:
d 2i 2'
V EC ,HV = 4.174 × 10−8
dt 2 C. Finite Element Analysis (FEA)
R 'OS L − HV = 4.12 m Ω In the past few decades, the Finite Element Method
(FEM) has been developed into a key indispensable
MATLAB/SIMULINK is used to simulate the technology in the modeling and simulation of various
transformer model. Current sources with different engineering systems. In the development of an advanced
frequencies are put in parallel to model the harmonic load. engineering system, engineers have to go through a very
Load losses are determined through simulations and rigorous process of modeling, simulation, visualization,
summarized in Table IV. analysis, designing, prototyping, testing, and finally,
According to (7), rms value of the maximum fabrication/construction. As such, techniques related to
permissible non-sinusoidal load current with the given modeling and simulation in a rapid and effective way
harmonic composition is: play an increasingly important role in building advanced
1.287 engineering systems, and therefore the application of the
I max ( pu ) = = 0.942 pu
1.448 FEM has multiplied rapidly. Currently the finite element
I max = 0.942 × 65.2 = 61.41 A method (FEM) is clearly the dominant numerical analysis
method for the simulation of physical field distributions.
The relative aging factor and real life of this In general, the finite element method finds the solution to
transformer based on a MATLAB written algorithm are any engineering problem that can be described by a finite
as follow: set of spatial partial derivative equations with appropriate
FAA = 1.18 ⇒ Remaining Life = 25.42 years boundary and initial conditions. It is used to solve
problems for an extremely wide variety of static, steady
state, and transient engineering applications from diverse
With such a load, aging acceleration factor will be 1.18
markets such as automotive, aerospace, nuclear,
and the real life of transformer will be reduced about
15.26%. biomedical, etc. Finite element analysis (FEA) solves the
692
electromagnetic field problems by solving Maxwell's
equations in a finite region of space with appropriate
boundary conditions and, when necessary, with user pre-
specified initial conditions in order to obtain a solution
with guaranteed uniqueness [15].
The finite element analysis of any problem involves
basically four steps [16]:
• discretizing the solution region into a finite number
of sub-regions or elements,
• deriving governing equations for a typical element,
• assembling of all elements in the solution region,
• solving the system of equations obtained
In this paper, the time-harmonic analysis with transient Figure. 2. The 2-D modeling of studied transformer for FE Analysis
solver has been used. In the time-harmonic case,
Ampere's equation includes the displacement current:
e
∇ × H = J = σ (E + v × B ) + j ωD + J (14)
Here, Je is an externally generated current density and

v is the velocity of the conductor. Note that B and E are
used uniquely in magnetic or electric solution
respectively. In the transient case, the inclusion of this
term would lead to a second-order equation in time, but in
the harmonic case there are no such complications. Using
the definition of the electric and magnetic potentials, the
system of equations becomes:
Figure. 3. The B-H or saturation curve of the transformer core
( 2 e
)
−∇. ( jωσ −ω ε0)A −σv ×(∇×A) +(σ + jωε0)∇V −(J + jωP) = 0 (15)
2 −1 e
( jωσ −ω ε0)A +∇×(μ0 ∇×A −M) −σv ×(∇×A) +(σ + jωε0)∇V = (J + jωP)
In this section, a two-dimensional (2-D) model of

transformer is presented to simulate behavior of the
transformer under harmonic load currents.
In Figs. 2 and 3, Two-dimensional model of studied
transformer and saturation curve of the transformer core
are shown in MAXWELL v.11 software, respectively.
First, the transformer winding excited with rated
sinusoidal current and load loss has been calculated.
Then, a non-sinusoidal load current (harmonic current) is
applied to the transformer winding and losses have been
evaluated, too.
Figure. 4. The flux density distribution in transformer core
Figs. 4 and 5 show flux density and flux lines in the
core of transformer after simulation for harmonic load.
Also, Table V shows the results of loss calculation using D. Discussion
finite element method. In addition, based on this Table’s
The comparison between three methods (Table VI)
results, rms value of the maximum permissible non- shows, the predicted values using analytical (IEEE C
sinusoidal load current is as follow: 57.110 standard procedure) and simulation
(MATLAB/SIMULINK and FEM) methods are similar
I max ( pu ) = 0.952 pu but simulation methods show smaller losses than the
I max = 0.961× 65.2 = 62.05 A analytical method. The reason is that in the analytical
method it is assumed that the eddy current losses are
The relative aging factor and remaining life of studied proportional with the square of the harmonic orders that is
transformer are as follow: a conservative assumption. In [4], a corrected winding
eddy current loss factor is presented which confirms this
FAA = 1.12 ⇒ Remaining Life = 26.8 years result.
693
studied transformer in rated condition, but in presence of
harmonic, the life of transformer will be reduced.
Transformer hot spot is extremely sensitive to dimensions
and distribution of winding eddy current. Increased
transformer loss, caused by non-linear load current, leads
to an increase in transformer temperature, fatigue and
premature failure of insulator and also, transformer life
reduction. Therefore, it is better for power and
distribution systems, to carry out monitoring on voltage
and current, in order to reach useful capacity and real life
of transformers.
REFERENCES
[1] J. C. Olivares-Galvan, P. S. Georgilakis, and R. Ocon-Valdez, “A
Review of Transformer Losses,” Electric Power Components and
Figure. 5. The flux lines distribution in transformer core
Systems, vol. 37, pp. 1046-1062, 2009.
[2] A. Damnjanovic, G. Feruson, “The Measurement and Evaluation
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V. CONCLUSION Distortion on Electrical Drives and Transformer Life in Paper
The effects of harmonic loads on transformer losses Industries: Simulation and Real Time Measurements,” in Proc.
IEEE Pulp and Paper Industry Technical Conference, 2006, pp. 1-
based on the conventional method (IEEE C.57.110 9.
standard) and simulation methods have been studied for [14] IEEE Guide for loading mineral-oil-immersed transformers, IEEE
de-rating and life estimation purposes. In this paper, a Std.C.57.12.91, 1995.
[15] G. R. Liu and S. S. Quek, The Finite Element Method: A Practical
proposed MATLAB written algorithm and finite element Course, Butterworth-Heinemann, 2003.
method (FEM) is used for calculating the losses of the [16] J. Jin, The Finite Element Method In Electromagnetics, 2nd
transformer under linear and harmonic load currents. In Edition, John Wiley & Sons Inc., 2002.
addition, the effect of harmonic loads on transformer loss
of life has been studied. The real life is about 30 years for
694
1
Impact of Medium Power Inverter-Based

Residential Harmonic Loads and PFCs on Low
Voltage Lines
Mau Teng Au*, John Steven Navamany**, and Eng Chin Yeoh***
* Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Malaysia. Email: mtau@uniten.edu.my
** Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Malaysia. Email: johnsteven@uniten.edu.my
*** Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Malaysia. Email: yeohec@uniten.edu.my
currents. To improve distribution losses, there is often the

need to install power factor correction capacitors along low
Abstract—Combination of a large amount of harmonic voltage overhead lines supplying to residential loads to
currents produced by nonlinear/power electronic loads and generate the required reactive power so as to reduce the I2R
capacitance in the network usually results in harmonic resonance losses. With the interaction of inductance from system
which is detrimental to the performance of the distribution
components and power factor correction capacitors located
systems. Over the last few years, there has been a very significant
increased in the usage of power electronic loads such as the along overhead lines, issues on harmonic resonance have to be
inverter air-conditioners, inverters refrigerators, compact addressed. Resonance phenomena are analyzed and reported
fluorescent lamps, etc. in residential households and in [2] and [3] of which the number of resonance modes is
small/medium commercial premises. At the same time, there is dependent on the number of capacitive elements in the circuit.
also a growing concern of meeting the required reactive power This paper presents samples of harmonic measurement results
necessary for voltage regulation and minimize technical losses of
of inverter control air conditioner and washing machine, as
the distribution network. This paper presents results of harmonic
measurements of new types of individual harmonic loads such as well as aggregate residential loads connected at distribution
the inverter control air conditioner and inverter refrigerators transformers. The harmonic measurement results are used to
which contribute more than 50% of total energy used in analyze possibility of major harmonic resonance problem
residential households and analyze their impact on harmonic occurring in the LV network, voltage rise and increased in
resonance in the presence of small power factor correction (pfc) THDV in particular with regards to the acceptable level of 5%
capacitors installed extensively at low voltage (LV) service lines.
for LV network.
Results of the analysis indicate that a continuous growth in the
numbers of inverter control loads in residential households is
likely to cause harmonic resonance, and increased in total II. LOW VOLTAGE RESIDENTIAL DISTRIBUTION NETWORK
harmonic voltage distortion (THDV) at point of common
coupling (PCC). A. LV Distribution Network.
The utility LV distribution network in Malaysia is a three-
Index Terms—Harmonic resonance, residential harmonic phase, four wires 440 V, 50 Hz system. Distribution supply
loads, power factor correction capacitors, low voltage.
voltage is stepped-down from 11kV to 400V by distribution
transformers and connected to LV distribution boards. From
I. INTRODUCTION
the LV distribution board, feeders can be overhead lines or
T he need for energy efficiency due to increasing energy

costs and the advancement in power electronics and
control has led to various new types of harmonic producing
underground cables connected to the different types of
residential loads.
Residential loads will fall into basically two or three
loads being used in the residential buildings. Some the most categories. The high-end residential loads are generally fed by
recent examples of harmonic loads which have penetrated into underground feeders from the LV distribution board to the
the residential sectors are the inverter air-conditioners, inverter premises. Two or three similar single premises will be fed
refrigerators and the inverter washing machines. When along the same feeder. Occasionally, these high-end
compared to most of the other types of harmonic producing residential loads will be fed directly just to one premise, if the
loads used in residential buildings such as compact fluorescent load demand for the premise justifies it. The medium-to-low
lamps and television, these inverter control air-conditioners, end residential loads are typically fed from overhead lines.
refrigerators and washing machines could have a greater The feeder cable from the LV distribution board feeds the
impact on the power systems harmonic performance as their overhead lines. The overhead lines then feed the terraced-type
power ratings are much higher. In terms of power losses, it is link residential loads on five-foot-way mains. Typically, the
reported in [1] that the increase in harmonic losses slightly terraced-link premises are all on single-phase, 240V 50Hz.
exceeds the decrease in losses at fundamental frequency for
certain types of harmonic loads due its high harmonic
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 695

2
B. Nonlinear Residential Loads. occurring over a wide range of harmonic frequencies and
Residential loads have increasingly become nonlinear over thereby increases the THDV at each node beyond acceptable
the years and keep increasing. Particular mention can be made limits.
to inverter-based air-conditioner, inverter-based refrigerators
and compact fluorescent lamps which have been introduced
over the last few years as technology improves. These
III. HARMONIC MEASUREMENTS OF INDIVIDUAL AND
nonlinear loads produce current waveforms that are rich in
AGGREGATE HARMONIC LOADS
harmonics. This harmonic current flowing in the network
causes a power quality issue as they distort the voltage A. Individual Harmonic Loads
waveform.
Residential loads typically comprise of compact fluorescent
Harmonic power losses in the network are caused by the
lamps, televisions, refrigerators, water heaters, and air
harmonic currents flowing in it. The combined effect of these conditioners, of which the major producer of harmonic
nonlinear loads can become very significantly fatal as one currents are the compact fluorescent lamps and televisions.
large harmonic source [1]. Another significant aspect is that of However, with the inverter type air conditioners aggressively
capacitors connected in the network act as current sinks for penetrating into the electrical appliances market, it may
high frequency harmonic current produced by nonlinear loads. become the single most dominant medium power nonlinear
Mitigation of the harmonic distortion caused by the loads in the near future. Harmonic measurements indicated
combined effect of all these nonlinear loads is difficult in the that current total harmonic distortion (THDI) of inverter air
network due to its dispersed nature. One large harmonic conditioners is as high as 95%.
source is easier to mitigate than a multitude of distributed In this paper, harmonic measurements of a one horse-
small harmonic sources. Studies conducted in a similar LV power inverter air conditioner were taken over a period of
residential distribution network where underground and approximately ten hours of continuous operation. Based on the
overhead feeding systems exist [1], indicated that most current profile as shown in Fig. 2, the operation of the inverter
harmonic losses occurred in the household loads, the next air conditioner can be divided into three modes of operations,
highest harmonic losses occurred in the LV feeder and most of namely T1, T2 and T3 mode. T1 mode is the initial period of
the fundamental frequency losses occurred in the LV feeder. operation where the appliance is consuming power close to its
rated power of 1000 Watts. In T1 mode, THDI is in the range
of 35 – 40%. Subsequent to the T1 mode is the T2 mode
C. Harmonic Resonance Considerations where there is a significant reduction in energy consumption
in this mode. THDI at the T2 mode is about 67%. Next, is the
In a network of rich harmonics over a wide spectrum, the
T3 mode where there is a drastic increased in THDI to about
worst case is that some harmonics could coincide with the
95%. Current waveforms at T1, T2, and T3 mode are shown in
natural frequencies of the circuit formed by power factor
Fig. 4, 5 and 6 respectively.
correction capacitors pole mounted at various locations of the
overhead lines and the supply system impedance in the
upstream. When this happens, the harmonics injected into the
supply system will be amplified and cause B. Aggregate Harmonic Loads at Point of Common Coupling
overvoltage/overcurrent in the system. To analyze the At the PCC, harmonic currents distortion is expected to be
situation, harmonic current flow analysis for a typical lower than the sum total of individual harmonic loads due to
residential distribution network is modeled by a simple phase cancellations [4]. Harmonic measurements taken at the
equivalent circuit of the network as shown in Fig. 1. The PCC of a residential customer with typical loads such as the
network supply is represented by 230V, 50 Hz AC source with inverter air conditioner, compact fluorescent lamp, television,
source impedance X S , X 1 and X n is reactance of the and refrigerator, etc. over the same period of time as the single
inverter air conditioner in section III A are shown in Fig. 3
overhead line for the respective sections, and C1 …C n which clearly indicates a significant reduction in current
represents the pole mounted pfcs. harmonic distortion at PCC when compared to the harmonic
current distortion of the inverter air conditioner.
XS X1
… Xn The aggregate harmonic current distortion level could be
approximated by applying a diversity factor (DF) to the total
sum of harmonic currents produced by individual loads [4]. In
230 V, AC,
50 Hz
C1 this case study, total power consumption profile indicates that

Cn the peak demand is at the time when the inverter air
conditioner is switched on and operating at T1 mode. See Fig.
Fig.1. LV overhead line with pole mounted PFC capacitors feeding 3.
nonlinear load From Fig. 3, it can be observed that the total power
consumed at PCC is approximately 2 kW, of which 1 kW is by
With multiple capacitors connected along the LV lines, the the inverter air conditioner. The contributing factor associated
network is expected to have multiple resonance modes [3]. As to the inverter air condition load a1 is therefore equal to 0.5 as
a result, there is a higher chance of parallel resonance shown in Table 1. Similar approach is used to determine
696
3
contributing factors associated with other loads, i.e, compact

fluorescent lamp (CFL), television (TV), and linear loads as
shown in Table 1. To determine the THDI of the aggregate
loads, a DF of 0.5 is used. Fig. 7 shows the measured average
THDI at the PCC varying at different times of day.
Fig. 5. Current waveform of an inverter based air conditioner

during T2 mode
Fig. 2. Power consumption profile of an inverter based air conditioner over

a 10 hour period

during T3 mode
TABLE I
Fig. 3. Load profile at PCC AGGREGATE LOAD MODEL
Harmonic Inverter CFL TV Linear Aggregate

Order, h AC a2=0.1 a3=0.2 Load Load
a1=0.5 a4=0.2 (DF=0.5)
1 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%
3 35% 90% 85% - 21.8%
5 23% 72% 71% - 16.4%
7 11% 24% 54% - 9.0%
9 9% 30% 36% - 7.4%
IV. HARMONIC RESONANCE ANALYSIS – LOW VOLTAGE

FEEDERS SUPPLYING RESIDENTIAL LOADS
In section III, measurements have shown that significant
levels of harmonic currents are produced by residential loads
during T1 mode with inverter-based air conditioners. Harmonic currents
697
4
distortion of 3rd, 5th, 7th and 9th order are present and its
respective level of distortion at PCC is approximately 22%,
16%, 9% and 7%.
Along the LV feeder, it is often necessary to place pole top Effects of multiple pfc on
LV Line
power factor correction capacitors for reactive power
compensation as shown in Fig. 8, and this may result in
harmonic resonance.
Single pfc on LV line
Figure 10 Frequency responses with multiple pfcs
Frequency scan analysis of the LV feeder with pole top pfc

placed 200 meters apart along a feeder of 1000 meter length is
shown in Fig. 9 and 10. It can be observed from Fig. 10 that
there are four distinct resonance frequencies. The lowest
resonance frequency is close to the 7th harmonic order, while
the second lowest is above the 21st harmonic. In comparison as
observed in Fig. 9, placing a single pfc at the feeder source
(substation) results in resonance close to the 9th harmonic.
Fig. 7 Average THDI at PCC Additionally, pfcs at adjacent feeders further impact the
frequency response curve by decreasing its resonance
frequency.
However, the used of pfcs results in one primary
advantage in terms of voltage level which is shown in Table II
where the fundamental voltage at each node is increased as a
result of connecting pfc at node 1, 3 and 5. Consequently,
higher energy efficiency of the LV network is achieved.
With higher penetration of harmonic loads, in particular the
inverter air conditioner and the connection of pfcs along the
LV lines, THDV at PCC supplying residential loads is shown
to increase significantly. See Table II. From a nominal THDV
Fig. 8. Low voltage overhead line feeding residential loads installed with
of between 4 and 7%, it has gone up to a high of 17% at node
pfcs
5.
TABLE II
VOLTAGE AND THDV RISE DUE TO PFCS
Node Fundamental RMS Voltage [V] THDV [%]

Voltage [V]
No Pfc at No Pfc at No Pfc at
pfc node 1, pfc node 1, pfc node 1,
Effects of pfc from adjacent 3, 5 3, 5 3, 5
feeders 1 231.5 236.2 231.7 237.8 4.1 11.7
2 227.1 232.2 227.4 234.3 5.4 13.5
3 223.8 229.3 224.3 231.9 6.4 15.2
4 221.6 227.3 222.2 230.3 7.1 16.2
5 220.5 226.4 221.2 229.7 7.5 17.1
Fig. 9. Effect of pfc on frequency response curves
698
5
V. CONCLUSIONS
It is shown from harmonic measurements that residential
loads are potential contributors of harmonic currents when
medium range power loads such as the inverter type air
conditioners are widely used in households. Hence, the
increasing trend of using inverter air conditioners in
residential households together with the drive for higher
energy efficiency of LV distribution network using pfcs will
inevitably caused deterioration in harmonic performance.
Incidences such as harmonic resonance and other power
quality problems may then be the norm in future LV network
supplying residential loads.
VI. REFERENCES
[1] Neville R. Watson, Tasman L. Scott, and Stephen J. J. Hirsh,
“Implications for Distribution Networks of High Penetration of Compact
Fluorescent Lamps,” IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 24, No. 3, July
2009.
[2] Zhenyu Huang, Yu Cui, and Wilsun Xu, “Application of Modal
Sensitivity for Power System Harmonic Resonance Analysis”, IEEE
Trans. Power System, vol. 22, No. 1, Feb. 2007.
[3] Wilsun Xu, Zhengyu Huang, Yu Cui, and Haizhen Wang, “Harmonic
Resonance Mode Analysis”, IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 20, No.
2, April 2005.
[4] A. Mansoor, W. M. Grady, A. H. Chowdhury, and M. J. Samotyj, “An
Investigation of Harmonic Attenuation and Diversity among Distributed
Single Phase Power Electronic Loads,” IEEE Trans. Power Delivery,
vol. 10, No. 1, Jan. 1995.
699
Effect of Impedances Line Length to Voltage Sag

Propagation
R.F. Mustapa, M.S. Serwan*, N. Hamzah, Z. Zakaria
Faculty of Electrical Engineering
Universiti Teknologi MARA
40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
*Advanced Power Solutions Sdn. Bhd.
Shah Alam Selangor Malaysia
Abstract— Occurrences of faults in power system problems is one of the most serious problems that
contribute extensive voltage sags (dips) in a network. These affecting process of industrial consumers. Due to the
occurrences have introduced problems to consumers mainly awareness developed from time to time, consumers and
at 415V where sensitive control equipment is located. This utilities have become concerned with the inconvenience
paper investigates the propagation and travelling of voltage caused by voltage sag.
sag event under the influence of transformer connections The term interruptions and voltage sags is important to
and impedance line length. PSS/ADEPT (Power System distinguish. Both are power quality problems but are
Simulator Advanced Distribution Engineering Productivity different in terms of occurrence. Interruptions (zero
Tool) was used to construct and simulate the test system for voltage) results when a fault occurs and protection devices
the study. Installation of monitoring devices cannot be done operate at particular times and at a particular bus. Whilst
in every part of voltage level because it increases cost and is the feeder in parallel that share the same bus will
difficult to manage. The test system used allows major particularly experienced voltage sag during the period of a
variations in network parameter for understanding its fault when the breaker takes time to clear the fault for
influence on voltage sag propagation. It is important to faults in any area of the power system network. The
understand on how voltage sag propagates and travels
travelling and the propagation of the faulted voltages may
through different voltage levels in power system network as
change it to sagged voltage depending on the transformer
whether it reaches and harms consumer equipment.
connections. Voltage sag does not cause any interruption
but in the case of sensitive equipment it tends to result in
Keywords — voltage sag (dip), power system fault,
cease of a certain process.
propagation, transformer connections and impedance line
length. Several studies [5, 6] shows that from all types of
power quality disturbances known, voltage sags have the
I. INTRODUCTION most significant severity to consumer equipment.
Reference [7] specified that almost 80% of the
Power quality problems have become serious and disoperation in distribution systems cause the failure and
common issues that are being discussed due to its effect interruptions of power system. The behaviour of voltage
on power system networks. Deviation of voltage, current, sag in embedded generation in distribution networks is
or frequency from its allowable range that contributes to discussed in [8, 9]. The study of faults that occur in
disoperation and malfunction of an electrically powered transmission (EHV), subtransmission (HV), medium-
equipment is potentially a power quality problem [1]. voltage (MV), low-voltage (LV) systems and the voltage
IEEE standard 1159-1995, defined voltage sag as a sags propagate through out the power system can be seen
decrease of root mean square (rms) voltage between 0.1 in [10] and is being concentrated as the frequency of
and 0.9 p.u. at the power frequency for durations of 0.5 voltage sag occurrences. Reference [11] focuses on
cycle to 1 min [2]. studying the propagation characteristics of sag and
Power system fault has been recognized as the main harmonics in medium voltage distribution systems by
factor of the occurrence of voltage sag [3] and sagged using EMTP simulation, analysing the effects of fault
voltage have been the large contributor of power quality locations on sag levels, nature of sag produced by
problems. Other causes of voltage sag includes of starting different types of faults, effects of line length on sag/swell
of large induction motor, energizing of transformer and propagation, transformer connection effects on the nature
changing of load. When a fault occurrs in a system, the of sag and swells effects, swell propagation characteristics
voltage on the particular phase will drop to certain amount and the total harmonic distortion in different parts of the
and sometimes drop to zero. When certain voltage drops systems. In addition detail of the sag propagation
to zero, particularly it will lead to an interruption. characteristics in medium voltage busbar has been
Interruption cannot be tolerated as it gives a very bad discussed in [12] .
impact to the utilities. Thus it is important to ensure that Voltage sag is a serious power quality problem such
the consumer side will not experience any problems that it can propagates through transformer to all
related to the power quality. Voltage sags can generally be distribution networks and travel to the consumer voltage
characterized by sag magnitude, duration and frequency level. Voltage sags that are caused by symmetrical three-
[4]. Voltage sag is a common power quality problem that phase faults propagate without changes through
always occurred in power system network. Voltage sag transformers but in the case of unsymmetrical faults,
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 700

however, the transformer connections have a strong effect side of the transformers. The resistor that is used for
[13]. Moreover the propagation of voltage sag through grounding at TX3 and TX4 is called Neutral Earthing
transformer that is caused by transmission fault is Resistor (NER). The basic purpose of the NER is to
dependent on the location of voltage source of the protect the transformer from being damaged during fault
transmission system. by limiting the fault current to be equaled to the
This research focuses on the investigation of the transformer’s capacity or the transformer’s full load
propagation of the faulted voltage to other busbar under current. Fault event will be simulated at B6. The
an influence of the transformer connections, system propagated faulted voltage through TX4 will be discussed
grounding and the effect of line length impedance to the and characterized in results and discussion. Different
faulted voltages. In this research, the appropriate features types of transformer and transmission lines parameters in
of the travelling and the propagation of sagged voltage Table II and Table III will be used to analyse the
will be analyzed. Thus upon the completion of this vulnerability of the fault event by at the neighbouring
research it is hope that an empirical rule can be developed busbar B7 by expanding TL3.
to monitor the propagation of voltage sag in every level of
distribution network on the consumer side.
II. METHODOLOGY
In power system, the monitoring equipments are
installed at strategic places such as the place in which
utilities suspect that might have the worst severity. Thus
the data that are recorded only at the respective feeder that
installed with monitoring equipment i.e. 33/11KV busbar.
Under this circumstance several questions can be posed on
how to acquire the data at different level of voltage
busbar. In this research, a simulation package that has Fig 1: Single line diagram of test system
been used is the PSS/ADEPT. This work is a continuation TABLE I
from the previous work in [14]. The result that is TRANSFORMER CONFIGURATIONS FOR SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM
concluded from [14] is single line to ground fault that TEST SYSTEM
occurs near by or at busbar transformers with Neutral
Earthing Resistance grounding, results in dip at the faulted Transformer Rated Vector NER
phase and swell at the non-faulted phases. Futrthermore MVA Group (Ω)
three cases of interchanging the winding of transformer TX1 1000 YNd1 -
have been done in [14] to investigate the resulting of
sagged voltage from single line to ground fault and its TX2 1000 YNd1 -
respective propagation through the transformers. In this TX3 1000 YNd1 8
paper, the effect of transformer and transmission lines TX4 1000 Dyn11 8
parameters on voltage sag due to single line to ground
fault will be presented in phasor diagram. TABLE II
A. Simulation Test System TRANSFORMER PARAMETERS FOR SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM
TEST SYSTEM
The simulation test system for this work is shown in Transformer Rated Leakage Half Winding
Figure 1. This simplified system was used in the analysis MVA Impedance Impedance
as it allows major variation being introduced in network
parameter, hence, effects to voltage can be understood Type 1 1000 0.26553+ 0.39064+
better. Transformers connections in the test system are j0.14489 j0.45824
modeled as they resemble the transformer connections Type 2 1000 0.25909+ 0.37725+
that are used by the utilities. The source is producing j0.16364 j0.47691
11.5kV. The voltage level at B2 and B3, B4 and B5, B6 Type 3 1000 0.16705+ 0.29030+
and B7, B8 and B9 are 132kV, 33kV, 11kV and 0.415kV j0.14491 j0.50858
respectively. Type 4 1000 0.42273+j 0.54956+
The transformers connections are described in Table I. 0.15019 j0.50663
In Table 1, the vector group of the transformer
configurations, capital letter represents the high voltage TABLE III
winding and small letter represents the low voltage TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS S FOR SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM
TEST SYSTEM
winding. The number 1 and 11 in Table 1 represents the
phase shift in between high voltage and low voltage angle Transmission Positive Positive Zero Zero
where 1 is -300 and 11 is +300.Transformer and Lines Sequence Sequence Sequence Sequence
transmission lines parameters for different types of Resistance Reactance Resistance Reactance
impedances are presented in Table II and III respectively. Type 1 0.26553 0.14489 0.39064 0.45824
In the test system single, the system grounding is being Type 2 0.25909 0.16364 0.37725 0.47691
implemented in all of the transformer connection. System
grounding is referred to the method of how the entire Type 3 0.16705 0.14491 0.29030 0.50858
system or network is being grounded. The grounding in Type 4 0.42273 0.15019 0.54956 0.50663
electrical distribution system is being at the Y-connected
701
B. Transformer Phase Angle III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The voltage and phase angle of busbars are equal to the A. Propagated Fault Event
transformer voltage and phase angle. The positive
sequence voltage of the 3 phase Yd11 connected The simulation results that are presented is a single line
transformer line to neutral voltage is given by the to ground fault and double line to ground fault using type
following equations (1) – (2): 1 parameters for transformer and transmission lines. The
results of the simulations are represented by phasor
diagram as shown in Figure 2, 3 and 4. For all the figures,
V AN = V RMS ∠0 0 (1)
the bold line represents the transformer primary voltage
V BN = V RMS ∠ − 120 0
(2) and for dashed line represents the transformer secondary
voltage. Figure 3 depicts the situation of a single line to
VCN = V RMS ∠120 0 (3) ground fault is being applied at B6 (33kV). The red phase
at B6 experiencing an interruption due to the fault but the
other two phases experiencing increase in voltage and
To obtain the line to line voltage for the Yd11
phase angle jumps. The voltage during fault may not
connected transformer is given by the equations (4) – (6):
necessarily drop to zero but the value of the voltage is
very minuscule that it can be assumed as zero during fault.
V AB = V AN − VBN (4) Figure 4 shows that at B8 the voltage has been restored
after propagating through TX4 (Dyn11). Research from
VBC = VBN − VCN (5) [4, 15] stated that sag that is caused by single phase fault
is given by the equation in Table IV due to solid
VCA = VCN − V AN (6) grounding, and is classified as type B and after traveling
to Dyn11 transformer transform into type C but in this
By substituting the equation (1) – (3) in equation (4) – scenario the situation is different because the presence of
(6), voltage equations (7) – (9) are given as, NER restore the voltage to a normal voltage level at B8
(11kV). Figure 5 depicts the situation when line to line
fault is simulated at B5. The voltage at B5 during this type
V AB = 3 V RMS ∠30 0 (7) of fault follows the explanation in [15] but after
propagated through TX3 the blue phase at B6 disappears
VBC = 3 V RMS ∠ − 90 0 (8) due to the presence of NER.
VCA = 3 V RMS ∠150 0 (9)
0
VB = 1.04∠60
For a Yd1 transformer the phase voltage is lagging the VY = 1.03∠150

0
line to line voltage for -300 300 VB = 1.03∠30
0
1200
0 300
V AB = 3 V RMS ∠ − 30 (10)
1200
0
0 VY = 1.04∠180
VBC = 3 V RMS ∠90 (11) 1200
VCA = 3 V RMS ∠ − 150 0 (12) 300
To simplify all the transformer phase angle calculations 0

later on, line to neutral voltage are being changed to per 0 VR = 1.04∠300
VR = 1.03∠270
unit value by taking the V RMS as base yields,
Fig 2: Voltage phasor diagram at B5 and B6
V AB = 3 ∠30 0 (13) 0
VB = 1.78∠61
0
VY = 1.78∠121
VBC = 3 ∠ − 90 0 (14) 0
VB = 1.02∠60
0
VCA = 3 ∠ − 150 (15) 1200
0
V AB = 3 ∠ − 30 (16)
0
1200
VY = 1.02∠180 1200
0
VBC = 3 ∠90 (17)
VCA = 3 ∠150 0 (18)
0
VR = 1.02∠300
Fig 3: Voltage phasor diagram due to single line to ground fault at B6
702
0 l 1 ≤ V INTERUPTION ≤ l100 (19)
VB = 1.78∠61
0
VY = 1.78∠121 l 100 < V SAG ≤ l 6000 (20)
0
VB = 1.02∠60
Voltage at the particular length was propagated through
1200
TX4 (Dyn11) but at the length from 1 meter to 100 meter
1200 the voltage at B8 is in normal conditions. At the length of
0
VY = 1.02∠180 1200 100 meter up to 2900 meter voltage at this particular
moment is experiencing swell. From 3000 meter until
6000 meter voltage at B8 is experiencing sagged. This
relationship is shown in (21), (22) and (23).
0
VR = 1.02∠300
l 1 ≤ V Normal ≤ l100 (21)
Fig 4: Propagated voltage phasor diagram at B7 and B8 from B6 l 100 < V SWELL ≤ l 2900 (22)
0 l 3000 < V SAG ≤ l 6000 (23)
V B = 0 .52 ∠120
0
VY = 0 .52 ∠120
0 But during normal conditions, without fault is simulated at
VY = 0 .89 ∠121
B6 voltage at B8 and B9 when the length of TL3 is being
increased from 1 meter to 100 meter, the voltage is in
normal conditions. The length is being increased from 100
meter to 3300 meter. Voltage at this particular moment is
V R = 0 .89 ∠ 301
0 experiencing swell. The length is being increased again
from 3300 meter up to 6000 meter and now B8 and B9 is
experiencing voltage drop. The situation of this conditions
have been simplified in (24), (25) and (26)
0
V R = 1 .04 ∠ 300
l 1 ≤ V Normal ≤ l100 (24)

Fig 5: Voltage phasor diagram of YNd1 connected transformer
l 100 < V SWELL ≤ l 3300 (25)
TABLE IV
VOLTAGE SAG IN EQUATION FORM
l 3000 < V DROP ≤ l 6000 (26)
Voltage during single Voltage during line to From the conditions of the length that causes sagged
line to ground fault line fault voltage in (20) propagates through TX4 resulting (23) the
VR = VSAG VR = 1 point of interest is that during normal operations voltage
at B8 and B9 in (26) in which it experiences voltage drop.
1 1 1 1 Based on the graph in Figure 1 it is shown that sagged
VY = − − j 3 VY = − − Vj 3 voltage that propagates through TX4 from B7 have a
2 2 2 2
tendency to move towards and converging to the same
1 1 1 1 value of voltage drop during normal conditions. It can be
VB = − + j 3 VB = − + Vj 3 summarized that that during the conditions in (23), B8 and
2 2 2 2
B9, it experiences voltage drop rather than voltage sag.
Mitigation of voltage sag might not be needed during the
B. Vulnerability of sagged event conditions in (23) but must be compensated because the
problem can be seen as voltage drop. The same
The neighbouring bus B7 is of concern when there is a experiment have been conducted for the value of type 2, 3
fault. In order to test the vulnerability of the propagation and 4 transformer and transmission lines in Table II and
of sagged voltage at the neighbouring busbar B7, B8 and III. The results is almost the same where the value of
B9 the length of the transmission lines TL3 is being propagated sag voltage at B7, B8 and B9 is converging to
increased. Fault that was simulated was single line to the same value as in normal conditions at B8 and B9. The
ground fault. Reference [4] shows that method of critical result can be seen in Figure 7 – 9.
distance of the vulnerability of sagged event increase to a
constant value. Figure 6 depicts the situation of voltage at
B6, B7, B8 and B9 during fault simulated at B6 and
voltage at B8 and B9 during normal conditions. Type 1
impedances in Table II and III are being used for
transformer and cable impedance. The length of TL3 is
increased until 6000 meter. At the length from 1 meter to
100 meter B7 is experiencing interruption but from 100
meter up to 6000 meter, B7 is experiencing voltage sag.
The relationship is given in (19) and (20)
703
1.4 IV. CONCLUSIONS
1.2
Sag Magnitude (p.u.)
1 B6(faulted voltage) This paper has investigated the effect of transformer

0.8 B7(propagated voltage) connection, configuration and parameters on the
0.6 B8(propagated voltage) propagation of voltage sag. This paper has also
0.4 B9(propagated voltage) highlighted the effect of transmission line parameters on
0.2 B8(normal conditions) voltage sag propagation.
0 B9(normal conditions)
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
This paper has shown that as whether, the severity of
Length(m)
the sagged voltage that is being developed will affect
consumer. From the simulation of fault at bus 11 kV (B6),
the propagated faulted voltage does not appear at the
Fig 6: Faulted voltage and non faulted voltage for type 1 transformer 11/0.415 kV bus after propagated through Dyn11
and transmission line parameters transformer. The vulnerability may overcome the severity
of sagged voltage but up to a certain point at which the
1.4
voltage drops. This severity may also due to cable length
1.2
which may provide under voltage to the power system
network. From the investigation, it has been found that:
1 B6(faulted voltage)
0.8 B7(propagated voltage)
• The faulted phase of a single line to ground fault
0.6 B8(propagated voltage)
may or may not drop to zero.
0.4 B9(propagated voltage) • The propagated faulted event through transformer
0.2 B8(normal condition) connections will change the magnitude and phase
0 B9(normal condition) shift.
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
• The winding connections of transformer play an
Length(m) important part of the propagated voltage as it can
be seen that it changes the characteristics of the
faulted voltage.
Fig 7: Faulted voltage and non faulted voltage for type 2 transformer
and transmission line parameters • Different transformer winding connections will
determine the type of sag that occurs at different
1.6
bus level.
1.4 This paper proposed an alternative approach to monitor
1.2
B6(faulted voltage)
voltage levels in power system by predicting the voltage
1
B7(propagated voltage)
sag propagation. Thus this practice can reduce the
0.8
installing cost of the monitoring equipment. The findings
0.6
of the studies will be adopted to develop an empirical rule
0.4
in predicting the propagation of voltage sag in a power
0.2 B8(normal condition)
system network.
0 B9(normal condition)
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
Length(m) V. REFERENCES
[1] M. F. M. Roger C. Dugan, H. W. Beaty, Electrical Power
Fig 8: Faulted voltage and non faulted voltage for type 3 transformer Systems Quality. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996.
and transmission line parameters [2] "IEEE Std. 1159-1995," IEEE Recommended Practise for
Monitoring Electric Power Quality, June 1995.
1.2
[3] "IEEE Std 1250-1995," IEEE Guide for Services to
Equipment Sensitive to Momentary Voltage Disturbances,
1 Mar 1995.
0.8 B6(faulted voltage) [4] M. H. J. Bollen, Understanding Power Quality Problems, in

Voltage Sags and Interruptions: IEEE Press, 1999.
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0.2 B8(normal conditions) Intergrated Application for Voltage Sag Analysis," IEE
0 B9(normal conditions) Transaction On Power System, vol. 13, pp. pp 930-935,
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 1998.
[7] J. E. B. R. Billinton, "Distribution System Realiability
length(m)
Indices," IEE Transaction On Power System, vol. 13, pp. pp
930-935, 1989.
[8] R. Gnativ and J. V. Milanovic, "Voltage sag propagation in
Fig 9: Faulted voltage and non faulted voltage for type 4 transformer systems with embedded generation and induction motors,"
and transmission line parameters presented at Power Engineering Society Summer Meeting,
2001. IEEE, 2001.
[9] E. Y. Ahmet Serdar Yilmaz, "Behaviour of Embedded
Generation during The Voltage Sags in Distribution
Networks," Academic Journals, 2009.
[10] M. L. Pirjo Heine, "Voltage Sag Distributions Caused by
Power System Faults," IEE Transaction On Power System,
vol. 18, 2003.
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[11] R. V. A. J. Xu, V. Rajagopalan, "Propagation of Sag and
Harmonics in Medium Voltage Distribution System," IEEE
Power Engineering Society Winter Meeting, vol. Vol 4, pp.
pp 2582-2587, Jan. 2000.
[12] J. Xu, R. V. Annamraju, and V. Rajagopalan, "Propagation
characteristics of sag and harmonics in medium voltage
distribution systems," presented at Power Engineering
Society Winter Meeting, 2000. IEEE, 2000.
[13] D. P. K. I. J. Nagrath, Modern Power System Analysis, 2nd
Edition ed. New Delhi, India: TATA McGraw-Hill, 1989.
[14] R. F. Mustapa, M. S. Serwan, N. Hamzah, and Z. Zakaria,
"The propagation of voltage sag through transformer
connections in a power system network," presented at Power
Engineering and Optimization Conference (PEOCO), 2010
4th International, 2010.
[15] M. H. J. Bollen, "Characterisation of voltage sags
experienced by three-phase adjustable-speed drives," Power
Delivery, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 12, pp. 1666, 1997.
705
Control Action based on Steady-State Security

Assessment using an Artificial Neural Network
A. N. AL-Masri *, M. Z. A. Ab. Kadir *, H. Hizam *, N. Mariun * and S. Yusof **
* Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engineering
Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, Selangor, Malaysia.

** Advanced Power Solutions Sdn. Bhd, 40675, Selangor, Malaysia.
Abstract— In this paper, the application of an Artificial system and give an optimal amount of generation re-
Neural Network (ANN) for remedial action of a power dispatch and load shedding.
system is presented. The aims of this study are to find the Under contingency events the system should operate
significant control action that alleviates a bus voltage within the security criteria of the thermal line flow,
violation of a power system and to demonstrate the ability
frequency, phase angle and bus voltage. The problem
of a neural network in terms of evaluating the generation
re-dispatch and load shedding amounts. The remedial formulation of line overload alleviation presented in [1],
action is based on a steady-state security assessment of the generation rescheduling and load shedding gives a proper
power system. The proposed algorithm has been sequence of control actions to improve the system
successfully tested on a 9-bus test system. The results are security. The work in [2] was the first study to
compared with other conventional methods and it reveals demonstrate the ability of a supervised neural network to
that an ANN can provide the required amount of help the operator in making a decision. The proposed
generation re-dispatch and load shedding accurately and method considers generator shedding as a control action
instantaneously compared to other methods. On average, when a fault occurs for improving power system stability.
remedial actions were shown to have a positive effect for
Several studies investigating ANN techniques have been
reducing the number of bus voltage violations and
improving system security. applied in many power system applications such as static
and dynamic security assessment, load flow, contingency
Keywords— Steady-State Security Assessment; Artificial analysis and fault diagnoses, etc [3-8]. The developments
Neural Network; Back-propagation; remedial control in computer programming have heightened the efficiency
action; Contingency analysis. of ANN and gives further opportunities to use it in power
systems control [9].
I. INTRODUCTION This paper aims to demonstrate the ability of the ANN
The push for the use of artificial intelligent systems has technique to make a decision using system knowledge and
become a major aspect related to the implementation of contingency analysis. The results obtained have been
new technologies involved with a large interconnected compared against a steady-state security assessment
electrical power plan. Obviously, in normal operation method using conventional corrective action analysis
there are increases in the thermal line flow and bus programs. Simulations were performed using Power
voltage limit violation cases. Researchers and engineers System Simulator for Engineering (PSS™E) on a 9-bus
are focusing their efforts to enhance power system test system for the corrective action analysis. A
reliability and security. In other words, the system has to simulation code was written using the Python language
bear unexpected emergency situations especially during for the ANN learning and testing process to be used as an
contingencies such as line outage, generation failure, etc. alternative method for system control.
In fact, line overloading occurs due to the loss of a
transmission line or load increases in the network, which II. CONTINGENCY ANALYSIS
often cause line limit violations and bus voltage One of the important events in power system operation
instability. Consequently, the operator has to intervene is contingency analysis. Contingency analysis allows the
with an optimal corrective or preventive control action to designer and operator to examine the system under
bring the system back to a more secure operation point. different operational conditions within the system criteria.
For this reason, effective approaches that could alleviate Eventually, the designer engineers are required to
overloading of the lines are generator rescheduling and maintain a secure system operation within the system
load shedding. criteria based on the test results. In addition, the operator
In this paper, a smart system has been developed for a will have the ability to deal with most contingency events
control action scheme using an artificial neural network such as line outage and generation trip for (N-1), (N-2)
and (N-3). The operator must act quickly before
(ANN). The new system is totally dependent on system
cascading failures occur, which may cause a system
experience, which uses historical and contingency blackout or separate the system into islands. In the
analysis data for training. This will allow the neural proposed algorithm, by using contingency analysis data
network to be able to solve the nonlinear changes in the supported by the historical data of the system operation
the ANN is able to provide the optimal amount of
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 706

generator re-dispatch and load shedding under different
contingency cases. These parameters are based on a
model of the power system that is used to study the
outage events and make an automatic decision rather than
alert the operators to overloads or voltage limit violations.
Contingency events correspond to changes in network
admittances. As a result, the network reconfiguration can
be estimated using the sensitivities of voltages, reactive
outputs and thermal flows with respect to the admittance
changes [10].
III. ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS (ANN)
The application of Artificial Neural Networks in power
systems is already prevalent in many aspects. Neural
Network architectures have been classified into several
types based on their learning mechanisms [11]. Fig. 1 Figure 2. Architecture of the Backpropagation model
shows the most intensive classification of ANN models
that are used to solve different types of mathematical
models [12]. Back-propagation is one of the simplest and back-propagation learning algorithm has a highly
general learning algorithms and it is more instructive than mathematical foundation.
other methods, which give more advantages for power
system security. In this current study, a developed feed BP algorithm in the training process
forward back-propagation algorithm is used to solve the The ANN input data that are considered are the
power control (generation dispatch/ load shedding) thermal line flows and bus voltage for all buses in the
problem due to changes in aspects of contingencies. power system, which are calculated using a steady-state
This method is similar to one with more than one layer. Newton-Raphson load flow method. The training and
This method has a highly mathematical foundation and testing data sets were generated using the PSS™E
good application potential. software.
Due to the rescheduling of generators, there are some
ANN negative values for generator re-dispatch. Thus, the vector
data xi is normalised for the inputs and targets are
Feed- required to put all the data in the range -1 to 1 to prevent
Feed-Back
Forward any volatility in the weights (the normalization proceeds
based on equations 1, 2 and 3). For the same reason,
Constructed Trained Linear Non-linear choosing the activation function for the hidden and output
nodes is based on the input and output data ranges. In
Adaptive
addition, there is no specified number of neurons in the
Hopfield Unsupervised Supervised
Resonance hidden layer. An optimization method is used for this
matter [13]. The input layer has the same number of
Back- neurons as the number of inputs. The output layer has the
Kohonen Propagation
(BP)
same number of neurons as the number of outputs [14,
15].
Figure 1. General classification of ANN models
xi (max) + xi (min)
midrange = (1)
The Back-propagation algorithm 2
This method is similar to the perceptron network range = xi (max) − xi (min) (2)
algorithm with more than one layer as shown in Fig. 2. xi − midrange
There are three layers, the first one is connected to the x norm = (3)
inputs followed by the second layer which contains the range / 2
activation function and the third layer is the output of the
network. During the training process the inputs are applied
The back-propagation learning technique is an against their output targets and propagate through the
extension of the delta rule as shown in equations 12 and network layers and then calculate the sum of the errors.
13, which give the ability to adapt the weights when new The inputs are then applied into the network through the
inputs are introduced. Finally, the error is calculated first weights between the inputs and the hidden layer into
during every single iteration and the learning procedure the activation function as given in equation (4). The
repeated for all patterns ( p = 1,2,..., N ) or epochs ([Input, output is calculated in the first layer by equation (5):
Output]) until the specified threshold value of error is
reached or until a total iteration is reached. However, the net k = ∑ wki Oi + bk (4)
707
net o = ∑ wok Ok (5) contingency analysis is implemented to deal with such
cases and a corrective and preventive control action can
be taken.
Where:
wki is set to a random number in the beginning of the
training process.
bk is set to 1 to speed up the convergence process.
The activation function of the hidden neurons and
output neurons are a hyperbolic tangent function as given
by:
e λnet k − e − λnet k
Ok = f (netk ) = (6)
e λnet k + e − λnet k
Figure 3. 9-bus test system (base case)
e λnet O − e − λnet O
Oo = f (neto ) = (7) At this stage of the research, line overloading and
e λnet O + e − λnet O
bus voltage violations have been created by simulating a
single contingency (N-1) under varying load conditions.
λ determines the shape of the function = 1.
These data are considered as the pattern ( p ) for the
The error is back-propagated until one of the stopping
factors is obtained. Two error signals are calculated for ANN cases. Furthermore, the thermal line flow and bus
weights adaption. First, the error signal between the voltage are calculated using a steady-state Newton-
output and hidden layer. Second, the error signal between Raphson load flow method.
the hidden layer and the input layer. These error signals
are calculated based on the following equations: B. ANN implementation
The important information for the test system is
δ o = (t o − Oo )(1 − Oo )Oo (8) gathered into one matrix which is suitable for ANN
input. In this study, an object-oriented program (Python)
(9) language is used for the ANN implementation to run in
δ k = Ok (1 − Ok )∑ δ o wok
the same environment as the PSS™E program for control
and automation of the simulation process. The input
The new weights are adopted using equation (10) and parameters must be normalized. In the training process,
(11), respectively: the inputs and outputs are given to each pattern from the
steady-state load flow. Each contingency is taken into the
Δwok (t + 1) = ηδ o Ok + αΔwok (t ) (10) input pattern against a control action that should be
(11) considered as the target of the same pattern. A total of
Δwki (t + 1) = ηδ k Oi + αΔwki (t ) nine bus voltages and six power flow lines were
considered as input to the ANN.
Thus, the changes of weights in the network are Three different load profiles are considered (light
calculated as follows: load, medium load (+5% of the total load) and heavily
congested (+10% of the total load)). A total number of 39
wok (t + 1) = wok (t ) + Δwok (t + 1) (12) cases with the same security criteria were used to
generate the data set for the training process. The ANN
(13)
wki (t + 1) = wki (t ) + Δwki (t + 1) was then tested using different data sets with different
load scenarios (+1% and +6% of the total load) of the
IV. SIMULATION RESULT load flow cases that were not used in the training process.
After the training process, the remedial action obtained
A. System model for 12 single contingencies for each load scenario was
The proposed approach was designed for any power recorded.
system. A simple 9-bus test system is used for The training process is performed by using the Root
demonstrating the ability of using the ANN for Mean Square Error (RMSE) equation to back-propagate
generation rescheduling and load shedding. The system the error in the next epoch. Once the entire pattern has
as shown in Fig. 3 consists of 9 buses, 6 transmission been trained, the total error is calculated and begins to
lines, three generators and three loads. back-propagate. The network was tested for the different
The percentage rate of the transmission lines are load profiles that were not included in the training data.
based on their MVA rating, which represent the line The percentage of the thermal line flow loading rate and
limits. In the base case, all the loads are supported by the bus voltage were selected as input data for the ANN. The
amount of generation in a secure operation. The system results were compared with the simulation output for
can stand some contingencies but only up to the point generation re-dispatch and load shedding for the two
when a heavy line is disconnected. For this purpose, a testing load scenarios as shown in Fig. 4,5,6 and 7.
708
The output result from the neural network has been However, this happened in time to satisfy the entire
compared to the result from the PSS™E simulation. For line power flow and bus voltage limit to return to a
the three generators, the re-dispatch amount of secure operation.
Megawatts (MW) are intensively enough to bring system Comparing the two results from PSS™E and the
back into a secure state and there is no limit violation on ANN, it can be seen that the error difference is a
all the buses. constantly small value for all tested data. In addition the
ANN takes 0.078 seconds to determine the corrective
action values for all generators and loads where the
PSS™E takes 0.46 seconds. The ANN computation time
during the training process is not very important against
the error value because it is a one-time running
simulation only, and the weights are adapted when new
data is added.
Figure 4. Generation re-dispatch for each contingency scenario 1
The generators are rescheduled based on the amount of

load. This could be an increase or decrease of the
generation MW based on the contingency type. The base
case was considered in the testing data to evaluate the
efficiency of the ANN at the beginning of the testing
process. For the base case, the ANN gave an almost zero Figure 7. Load shedding for each contingency scenario 2
value which is a true value as a secure condition does not
require any type of remedial action. The correlation coefficient between the PSS™E
simulation and the ANN results was tested. Table 1
illustrates the accuracy of the ANN for each generator
and load in all testing data. Strong evidence of the ANN
was found, which means that the ANN has the ability to
apply proper control actions to bring the system to a
secure operation.
The effectiveness of the corrective actions for the first
tested load scenario is shown in Fig. 8 and 9. This is
followed by Fig 10 and 11 for the second tested load
scenario.
Figure 5. Load shedding for each contingency scenario 1
Load shedding is required when the voltage violation

on some buses reaches a high degree of risk as shown in
Fig. 5 and 7 for two different testing load profiles. It is
clear that at contingency 2 (transformer between line 2
and 8), 5 (line 4-9 outage) and 6 (line 5-6 outage), load
shedding is required as well as generation rescheduling.
Figure 8. Bus Voltage before the action scenario 1
The generator buses 1, 2 and 3 are not affected by a

contingency because it is controlled by the generator
itself under an Automatic Voltage Regulator controller.
Contingencies 1, 4 and 5 are the most risky contingencies
as they require a high generation re-dispatch and load
shedding as shown in Fig. 4 and Fig 5 (note that the
contingency number 1 in Fig. 4 and Fig 5 represents the
Figure 6. Generation re-dispatch for each contingency scenario 2 base case).
709
required values of generation re-dispatch and load
TABLE I. shedding were applied as shown in Fig. 6 and Fig 7.
CORRELATION COEFFICIENT FOR DIFFERENT LOAD SCENARIOS
The performance of the Root Mean Square Error
1% load increase 6% load increase (RMSE) formula attains a value of 0.04116. The
Momentum factor and learning rate were 0.1 and 0.01
G1 0.999939 0.999722
respectively. By using a low learning rate the learning
G2 0.999942 0.999711 process might be slow but this increases the network
G3 0.999997 0.999999
performance which is of most concern in this study. An
optimized number of 18 neurons were used in the hidden
L5 0.999997 0.999998 layer. The numbers of input and output neurons were
L7 1 1 fixed to 15 and 6 neurons respectively based on the
inputs and outputs of the network.
L9 0.999927 0.999984
V. CONCLUSION
An Artificial Neural Network using a back-

propagation algorithm for remedial actions was
developed in this paper. The proposed ANN has the
ability to assess the generators that need to be re-
dispatched and the loads that need to be shed. Based on
the results, the neural network provides a corrective
action based on the security criteria of the transmission
lines and buses. One of the more significant findings to
Figure 9. Bus Voltage after the action scenario 1 emerge from this study is that the values of generation re-
dispatch and load shedding are virtually instantaneously
The action that been taken is enough for most buses and accurately estimated by the ANN.
to bring them back to the secure region (minimum is 0.95 The use of the RMSE equation in the training process
and maximum is 1.05). is more sensitive when a small error value obtained. This
technique has been implemented on a simple 9-bus test
system. The result shows good promise to provide an
appropriate solution for keeping the system under secure
operation.
Further research could explore the possibility of
generating the patterns from new cases for adapting the
weights to include these cases. This enhancement of
using an ANN provides the ability for individual
learning, which is thus considered as a smart system.
The most important limitation lies in the fact that in
big system the input features will increases. Power
Figure 10. Bus Voltage before the action scenario 2 system clustering into areas is an intriguing solution,
which could be usefully explored in further research in
In the second load scenario (+6% load increase) a order to solve the ANN limitation problem.
high risk is observed on the buses. For this reason, more
generation is required to be re-dispatched and more loads
to be shed. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial
support of the University Putra Malaysia in carrying out
this research and also to thank Advanced Power
Solutions Sdn. Bhd. for the facilities provided in their
industry.
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711
A Review on Optimal Placement Methods of

Distribution Generation Sources
K. Abookazemi *, M. Y. Hassan ** and M. S. Majid ***
Centre of Electrical Energy Systems (CEES), University of Technology Malaysia (UTM), Johor, Malaysia
*Email: kvhab@yahoo.com, **Email: yusrih@fke.utm.my, ***Email: mdshah@fke.utm.my
Abstract – Distributed Generation (DG) sources have The economical advantages are entailed the reducing
attracted serious attention due to their potential of transmission and distribution operating cost, to
solution for some issues, like the deregulation in power save the fossil fuel and decreasing in electricity price.
system, increasing the power consumption and the Environmental advantages are covered the reductions
shortage of transmission capacities. The optimal
in emission of green house gases and also sound
placement of DG is necessary for maximizing the DG
potential benefits in power system such as maintaining pollutions [1-7].
and/or improving reliability and stability. There are
several research studies to determine the optimal DG One of the important part of DG research study is
location by their imposed constraints and objectives. related to its proper siting at strategic points of power
However, the systematic principle for this issue is still systems which allows energy companies to reduce
an unsolved problem. This paper is reviewed some of investments in power system development such as
the most popular DG placement methods, including 2/3 decreasing additional control equipment and the
Rule, Analytical Methods, Optimal Power Flow and reinforcement of transmission and distribution lines.
Evolutionary Computational Methods (Genetic Also, it can effectively cut the operational costs by
Algorithm, Fuzzy Systems and Tabu Search). The
increasing the reliability of supply and quality of
related applications and advantages of each technique
are expressed briefly. This paper provides helpful marketable energy and to reduce power and energy
information and resources for the future studies in this losses [2].
area.
Several techniques have been proposed in
Keywords – Distributed Generation (DG); Optimal determining the optimal location of DG [2-20]. The
Location; 2/3 Rule; Analytical Methods; Optimal Power major objective of DG placement techniques is to
Flow; Evolutionary Computational Methods minimize the losses of power systems. However,
other objectives like improving the voltage profile,
I. INTRODUCTION reliability, maximizing DG capacity, cost
minimization and etc have also been considered in
In recent years, Distributed Generation (DG) has
different studies.
been one of the most attractive research areas in the
field of power generation. This ever-increasing A simple rule was presented in [3] to install DG on
attention can be related to several important reasons a radial feeder with uniformly distributed load in
such as DG great potentials and advantages, approximately 2/3 capacity of the incoming
increasing of electrical demands, technical and generation at approximately 2/3 of distance to the
economical constraints in construction of new power feeder. Some researchers [4-6] have applied the
plants and new transmission lines. analytical approaches for optimal DG placement in
terms of different load types.
The DG advantages can be divided into technical,
economical and environmental benefits. Technical References [7-11] have used power flow
advantages are included wide ranges of benefit such algorithms to find the optimal site and size of DG at
as efficiency, grid reinforcement, power loss each load bus in network assuming that DG source
reduction, reliability, eliminating or deferring the can be located at every load bus. Moreover, many
upgrades of power system, improving load factors researchers have applied the evolutionary
and voltage profile and thus increased power quality. computational methods for finding the optimal DG
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 712

location [12-20]. The Genetic Algorithm [12-16, 20], However, these techniques have wide and basic
Fuzzy Systems [2,15,17,18] and Tabu Search [18-20] differences and diversity in analysis, one popular
have been used more in comparison of other sample is explained briefly to illustrate their abilities
evolutionary techniques in this field. and functions. In this analysis method [4], firstly the
theoretical feeder calculations were applied for
This paper reviews the proposed optimal placement finding power loss and voltage drop while DG was
methods of distributed generation sources. These added to system:
approaches are various according to their objectives
and loads modeling. A summary and application of , .
each technique are considered and the strengths and
weaknesses of each method are highlighted. The , . (1)
reviewed methods in this study includes 2/3 Rule,
Analytical Methods, Optimal Power Flow,
Evolutionary Computational Methods (Genetic
Algorithm, Fuzzy Systems and Tabu Search).
, . , 0
II. DG PLACEMENT METHODS
, .
A. 2/3 Rule
, . ,
This method often used in proper placement of
shunt capacitors in distribution systems. This was (2)
presented in [3] to find DG optimal location on a
radial feeder with uniformly distributed load. It was where , is the density of load current in time
proposed for minimizing the losses and voltage period and line length . Also, is called DG
impacts and for using in feeders with uniform loads. injected current in point , while is impedance of
This approximate and useful approach has presented line.
that the best capacitor size is 2/3 of the load which is
located 2/3 of the distance out the feeder. It also can At the second step, for minimizing the total
be extended to the “2/(2N+l) Rule” for N capacitors. average power loss and ensure that the feeder
For instance, the optimal locations for two units with voltages are in the acceptable area, the following
approximately 2/5 capacity for each of them, might equation for optimal DG location was used:
be located at 2/5 and 4/5 length of line [3].
0 (3)
Based on this method, it was suggested to install
DG unit with nearly 2/3 capacity of the incoming which the solution of was provided the point of
generation at approximately 2/3 of the distance. optimal DG placement in case of power loss
However, this is a simple and easy to use reduction. If the voltage was not satisfied, the DG
approximate technique, it cannot be applied directly could be located around to assure voltage
to network systems or to feeders with other types of regulation.
loads.
The obtained result, regarding to different loads
B. Analytical Methods types i.e. uniformly load, centrally load and
increasingly load had optimal DG points at ⁄2 , ⁄2
The analytical methods [4-6] are usually based on
theoretical, mathematical analysis and calculations. and 1 √2⁄2 respectively. These optimums
Their common goals are to reduce the power losses, could decrease the power loss dramatically i.e. more
finding optimal size and improving the voltage than 75%.
profile. The placement of DG in this kind of analysis
In addition, the network systems have been
are entailed the theoretical optimal locations for
considered for loss reduction and voltage regulation.
adding DG owing to types of loads in radial feeders.
It was supposed that slack bus (bus 1) and DG bus
Also, they may be extended to network systems to
were connected together. In fact, this was an
find the optimal bus for placing DG in these networks
imaginary line which could help in finding the
regarding to generation information, bus admittance
optimal DG placement. So new bus admittance
matrix and load profile.
matrix and then bus impedance matrix were provided
with new conditions.
713
In the next step, one objective function has set up where the total cost of DG is
for finding optimal place for DG: , also, and are weighting factor and total
active loss respectively.
∑ | | ∑ | | ,
2, … (4) Based on voltage considerations, both the lower
OF and lower voltage buses was evaluated to satisfy
where is DG bus, is the equivalent resistance the related objectives i.e. loss reduction, voltage
and the complex load power is . improvement and cost reduction. Also, the DG
optimal size was considered regarding to minimum
Consequently, this approach was obtained the voltage variations and OF ranges [7].
optimal bus for DG placement where was the
minimum value of proposed objective function [4]. This method has some advantages economically
and technically like cutting the cost, reduction in loss
Although it is a helpful and effective analytical and improving the voltage regulation. But the load
technique of DG placement for different types of types and its effects on DG placement were not
loads and systems but if the voltage regulation studied. Moreover, this was assumed that the DG
criterion is not satisfied, it can make the process could be placed in any system buses while this
imprecise with long time analysis especially for large assumption is not practically true.
systems. Also, other factors such as DG sizes and
operational cost were not considered in this analysis. D. Evolutionary Computational Methods
C. Optimal Power Flow These methods cover a wide range of Artificial

Intelligence (AI) techniques such as Genetic
This technique is based on technical and Algorithm [12-16, 20], Fuzzy Systems [2,15,17,18],
economical aspects of load flow approaches. Tabu Search [18-20] and etc which have been applied
Different power flow methods [7-11] have been in most optimization problems as well as DG optimal
studied and evaluated for utilizing its potential in placement. The applications and goals of these
finding the best location to place DG. The common techniques vary owing to their great potentials to
objectives are loss reduction, maximizing the size optimize technical and economical DG challenges.
and voltage improvement. The fundamental of these techniques are considered
below.
In an optimal power flow and based on DG
participation in wholesale electricity market The Genetic Algorithm (GA) [12-16, 20] is an
(deregulation), there are some more issues for finding optimization procedure or stochastic search based on
optimal DG placement such as profit maximization the application of natural selection and genetics. It is
and welfare maximization. One of the proposed a powerful search algorithm which has been solved
approaches to cover these subjects is locational many non-linear and large-scale problems of power
marginal price (LMP) [11] which was based on systems.
Lagrangian multiplier along with power flow
equation for each bus. In fact, the consumer The GA is initialized with a population of
payments were assumed as a product of LMP and individuals (solution-optimal location) and a binary
load at each bus. Also, it was used as operational way representation of the decision variables to perform
to identify suitable DG location [11]. the search by using genetic operators i.e. selection,
crossover and mutation. The quality of an individual
Moreover, techniques like Newton-Raphson (N-R) is assessed by its fitness, which is based on fitness
method [7] was proposed to use a simple search function. In case of DG placement, this fitness is
approach for determining DG optimal size and evaluated based on minimizing real power losses, to
location. This optimization method was entailed both reduce investments and operational costs, and
cost and loss simultaneously. Indeed, the problem providing optimal size.
was solved by utilizing N-R method and proposing a
mixed objective function which include the sum of The population is randomly created at the
the loss and cost functions. beginning of each search step. The fitness assessment
is used to select the best solutions (individuals) from
(5) the current generation to upgrade into the next
generation. The GA operators are applied for the next
generation for having new and better individuals.
714
This process is continued until the best solution (DG The simplicity and fast operation of the
optimal location) in the population is found [20]. evolutionary methods have been attracted wide DG
research studies in case of loss reduction, minimizing
As another technique, the fuzzy methods were cost, optimal DG size and increasing reliability level.
generally used in power systems optimizations for However, they have critical convergence problems,
fuzzy load modeling [15], fuzzy economic cost infeasibility in large-scale systems and they also have
[15,18], fuzzy reliability level [18] and etc. Also, not considered some factors, like cost, size and
because of its high-quality explanations, it has been voltage profile at the same time.
applied in decision making and uncertainty concepts.
III. DISCUSSION
In general and in this approach, by utilizing the
numerical analysis, the relationships of inputs and Different techniques along with their strengths and
outputs are defined as fuzzy rules. Indeed, all weaknesses for finding optimal DG location were
objective functions i.e. optimal site and size of DG in reviewed in this study. Each method has been tried to
this study are converted to fuzzy objective functions. solve the problem with various and limited objectives
The calculations of membership function related to and constraints. So, the effective comparison for
the fuzzy optimal solution are performed individually these techniques is difficult however some objectives
and finally, the maximum value of the membership like loss and pollution reduction are common in most
function can be defined as optimal solution (optimal of them.
location) [2].
For instance, all the methods have had suitable
Tabu Search is a heuristic algorithm for leading the effects on pollution reduction. Also and in case of
search process to find optimal solution like DG active loss, evolutionary methods were reduced the
optimums for site, size and reliability level [18-20]. loss nearly 60% while other techniques such as
To apply this algorithm for selecting optimal DG power flow and analytical methods have been
location, several steps should be repeated. succeeded to decrease it around 75% and 88%
respectively.
At first, an initial population along with control
variables including active DG power and imposed In addition, the process speed in the evolutionary
constraints is selected randomly. The load flow is techniques is higher, compared to power flow and
solved for each member of this population. Then, the then analytical methods. But, the analytical
objective function for each member is calculated techniques have the best precision factor while power
individually to selecting good members with flow and evolutionary methods have next levels.
minimum objective function. The selected members
are transferred to a list which is called Tabu List. IV. CONCLUSION
Afterward, the mutation and cross over operators are
applied to create new population. The proper DG unit sizes should be placed in the
optimal location to provide the maximum
A new population is composed with the new and environmental, economical and technical benefits.
current populations. The individuals of this new Despite of proposing many different research studies
population are ranked owing to their objective for DG proper placement, the systematic principle for
function value. The best solution would achieve the this issue is still an unsolved problem. In practice, the
highest rank. In the next step, to prevent local main problem is the complexity of this process.
minimum problems, each individual of this Indeed, a lot of constraints should be considered
population is evaluated based on its distance to Tabu simultaneously such as power loss, reliability, load
list. The best solution (the highest rank) has the factors, voltage profile (quality), operational cost,
longest distance from Tabu list. emission of green house, the related capacity and so
on. That’s why the most of researchers have been
The fitness function is evaluated based on the divided the problem into limited parts along with
individual’s ranking in sum of distance and objective imposed constraints and then they were tried to
function value. The individuals with the best fitness propose their solutions.
function are selected in this section and they are
replaced with current individuals for the next To maximize the DG placement profits, it is
population in Tabu list. In the last step, if the important to do more studies in this field. To do so
convergence criterion is satisfied, the search will be and in this work, several popular methods to select
stopped; otherwise the new population would create the DG site have been considered along with their
and above steps should be repeated respectively [20]. potentials and applications. The provided useful
715
guidelines and references can be lead researchers for algorithms”, Electric Power Systems Research, 2010, 80, pp. 869–
877.
future studies.
[17] K.-H. Kim, Y.-J. Lee, S.-B. Rhee, et al., “Dispersed generator
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optimal benefits of distributed generation using genetic
716
Three phase grid connected anti-islanding

controller based on distributed generation
Interconnection
Maher. G. M. Abdolrasol and Saad Mekhilef
Department of Electrical engineering, Faculty of engineering
University of Malaya
50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Abstract— this paper proposes three phase grid connected guidelines. Inverters usually operate with current control
anti-islanding controller based on distributed generation and unity power factor and employ passive monitoring
interconnection. This method is a combination of two for islanding detection methods based on locally
detection methods namely active and passive. Firstly, Active measured parameters. Under islanding conditions, the
islanding detection generates disturbances at the output of
magnitude and frequency of the voltage at the point of
the distributed generation by use of Positive feedback and
Continuous feedback signal injection which is based on DQ common coupling (PCC) tend to drift from the rated grid
implementation. Secondly, passive islanding detection values as a function of the power imbalance (ΔP and
method is based on measuring the system parameters such ΔQ). As it is known that distribution system does not
as voltage, frequency, active and reactive power and total have any active power generating source and does not
harmonic distortion (THD). This method use three phase receive power in case of a fault in transmission line.
RLC load and compares the performance of the technique However, with Distributed Generation this presumption is
with and without the anti islanding controller. Islanding no longer valid. In current practice DG is required to
conditions are simulated and verified with full analysis disconnect the utilities from the grid in case of islanding.
simulation and experimental result.
IEEE 929-1988 standard [9] requires the disconnection of
DG once it is islanded and IEEE 1547-2003 standard [10]
Keywords — anti-islanding; distributed generation; non
stipulates a maximum delay of 2 seconds for detection of
detection zone.
an unintentional island and for DG to interrupt the power
I. INTRODUCTION supply to the distribution system. The main issues about
islanding are [11]:
In contemporary world interconnection of distributed
generations (DG) which operate in parallel with electrical 1). Safety issues since a portion of the system remains
power networks, is currently changing the paradigm we energized while it is not expected to be;
are used to live with. Distributed generation is gaining 2). Islanded system may be inadequately grounded by the
worldwide interest because of environmental issues and DG interconnection;
rising in energy prices and power plant construction costs 3). Instantaneous reclosing could cause out of phase in
[1]. Distributed generations are relatively small and many the system;
of them make use of renewable energy such as fuel cells, 4). Loss of control over voltage and frequency in the
gas turbines, micro-hydro, wind turbines and system;
photovoltaic[2][3]. Many DGs use power electronic 5). Excessive transient stresses upon reconnection to the
inverters, instead of rotating generators. The inverters grid;
typically have fast current limiting functions for self- 6). Uncoordinated protection;
protection, and may not be damaged by out-of-phase
reclosing [4-7]. The operation of distributed generation The strategy of islanding detection is to monitor the DG
will enhance the power quality in power system and this output parameters for the system and based on the
interconnection especially with reverse power flow may measurements decide whether an islanding situation has
lead to some problems like voltage and frequency occurred from monitoring of these parameters. Islanding
deviation, harmonics, reliability of the power system and detection techniques can be divided into remote and local
islanding phenomenon. Islanding is one of the most techniques [12]. Local techniques can further be divided
technical concerns associated with the proliferation of into;
distributed generation connected to utility networks.
Islanding can be defined as a condition in which a portion 1) Passive methods [13][14][15].
of the utility system contains both load and distributed
generation remains energized while being isolated from The idea of passive method is to measure system
the remainder of the utility system [8]. Islanding parameters such as variations in voltage, frequency,
detection is a mandatory feature for grid-connected harmonic distortion etc. based upon the thresholds set for
inverters as specified in international standards and these parameters if these parameters has exceeds more
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 717

that it is normal rate Islanding can be detected. This along with total harmonic distortion (THD). The
method is fast to detect the islanding. But it has large non proposed method utilizes not only two new monitoring
detection zone and it need special care to set the parameters but also incorporates voltage magnitude in the
thresholds for it is parameters. Passive method can conventional islanding detection techniques. The method
classified into: monitors the changes in four parameters and diagnoses
the operating conditions of DG by using different loading
· Rate of change of output power conditions, which are the combination of resistance,
· Rate of change of frequency inductive and capacitive loads connected in parallel.
· Rate of change of frequency over power
· Change of impedance
· Voltage unbalance II. METHODOLOGY AND SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
· Harmonic distortion
A single-line diagram of the proposed system
2) Active methods [11][15][16]. configuration is depicted in Fig1; we assume that the
three-phase DG system consists of a dc source, an
Active method tries to overcome the shortcomings of inverter, a filter, a transformer, and a controller. This kind
passive methods by introducing perturbations in the of dc-ac inverting DG structure is easily found and
inverter output. commonly used in photovoltaic systems, fuel cell
Active method can detect the islanding even under the systems, micro-turbines, and modern wind power systems
perfect match of generation and load, which is not connected in parallel to the grid and feeding RLC load at
possible in case of the passive detection schemes but it the same time. The controller plays a key role in
caused degradation of power quality. Active method can operating, managing, and protecting the DG system. In
be classified into: this model, the controller uses unintentional islanding
technique which means that once the islanding occurs the
· Reactive power export error detection DG disconnects itself from the rest of the system to
· Impedance measurement method prevent itself and the load [19-20]. By opening switch
· Phase (or frequency) shift methods Circuit Breaker (CB) the system will become islanded as
· Active Frequency Drift shown in Fig. 2 After interrupting of CB there will be
· Active Frequency Drift with Positive Feedback Method variations in system voltage, frequency, active and
· Adaptive Logic Phase Shift reactive power and THD.
· Current injection with positive feedback
3) Hybrid methods [17][18].
Hybrid method based on implementing of two assortment

of active and passive method. The active technique is
implemented only when the islanding is suspected by the
passive technique. It can be classified into:
· Technique based on voltage and reactive power shift
· Technique based on positive feedback and voltage
imbalance
In general, once the main grid source supply is lost the

DG has to take charge of the remaining network and the
connected loads. Therefore, the loading condition of the
DG is suddenly changed after islanding. Since the
distribution networks generally include single-phase
loads, it will be highly possible that the islanding changes
the load balance of DG. Additionally, different loading
conditions might result in different harmonic currents in
the network since the amount and configuration of the
load are changed. Therefore, this paper proposes hybrid
detection techniques which use active and passive Figure 1. Islanding test circuit for inverter grid
detection techniques. Active detection scheme disturbs connected.
the system and causes it to go out of it is boundaries by
using Positive feedback and Continuous feedback signal
injection based on DQ implementation. The controller contains both active and passive detection
Passive detection scheme, on the other hand, monitors controllers. Active detection controller method injects
parameters for detecting the islanding operations of DG: current through the system and causes a disturbance and
voltage unbalance, frequency, active and reactive power continuous feedback signal during islanding. Whereas,
718
This mechanism, however, will not be effective when the
grid is connected. Because of the DQ implementation,
two voltages, Vd and Vq, can be used as the feedback
signals. In Fig. 4 for example, Vd is chosen as the
feedback signal. One positive feedback can be designed
as follows: the voltage feedback Vd is passed through a
band-pass filter (BPF), a gain block, and a limiter, and
then injected to the current reference Idref. This feedback
will establish the mechanism that cloud change the
voltage that will be fed back, the inverter will then
Figure 4. Active islanding circuit contain of band pass

filter, gain and limiter.
Figure 2. Islanding test circuit for islanding mode.
respond with active power changing (by commanding

more current), and in turn causing further voltage change
the passive detection scheme decides whether the system due to the load characteristic .
is islanded or not. Fig. 3 shows the complete controller Fig. 5 shows the current regulator used. It is composed of
for Anti Islanding scheme using MATLAB-Simulink. PID controllers, two input signals Id and Iq, and two
injection signals Idref and Iqref.
Figure 3. Hybrid Anti Islanding controller contain active and

passive controller.
Figure 5. Current regulator with PID controller for control
purpose.
2). Passive Scheme design implementation

1). Active scheme design implementation
This scheme’s task is to measure the thresholds for
The philosophy of the voltage feedback schemes is to parameters and in case the controller exceeds the limits to
create a technique that, when the inverter senses a change order the controller to stop PWM generation and stop
it should command more real power, because of the load power generation from DG side. This controller is
characteristics as in equation (1). constructed from logical controller in MATLAB. After
measuring the voltage if the voltage is not between 0.88
P = V2 / R (1) to 1.1 Vpu (which is normal range according to
standards) the system will check the frequency. If the
frequency is the in range of 50.5 to 49.3 Hz then the
The voltage will steadily increase or decrease in order to
system checks active power and reactive power based on
balance the real power. Finally, the voltage will exceed
DQ. If the variation in active and reactive power is (ΔP
its limits upon sensing this change the passive controller
and ΔQ) more than 15 % then the system checks if the
will confirm the Islanding. Fig. 4 shows Band pass filter,
THD is more than 0.5 %. The system’s islanding can be
gain and limiter.
719
confirmed with any of the two control parameters.
Islanding can be confirmed if the conditions are satisfied
for the voltage plus any of the remaining four parameters,
starting with frequency and active power, reactive power
and total harmonic distortion [21]. This scheme is
explained in the flow chart given in Fig. 6.
Figure 7.Vd and Id after the controller and circuit breaker signal
Figure 6. passive controller Flow chart for islanding

detection.
III. SIMULATION ANALYSIS AND EXPREMNTAL

RESULT
MATLAB Sunilink software has been carried out to Figure 8. Passive mongering parameters without controller (voltage,
verify the feasibility of proposed islanding detection frequency, active and reactive power, THD and circuit breaker signal)
method in simulation as well as in hardware
implementation. MATLAB has been used again to
produce the codes for the DSP to generate PWM for the
inverter IGBTs with help of the cod e composer studio.
According to IEEE Std 929-2000. Non Detection Zone
(NDZ) can be defined as the region where the voltage and
frequency at the connection point are located between
0.88<VPCC<1.10pu, and between 49.3<fPCC<50.5Hz
without escaping for 0.5sec [9]. In this simulation, it is
verified that the proposed method is effective to detect
the islanding state. Vd and Id decrease because of the
effect of the positive feedback signal at the moment of
islanding as shown in Fig.7 At the instant of 0.4Sec when
the CB has tripped to show the islanding operation of the
system. Fig.8 shows system parameters without active
controller. The voltage decreases to 0.89Vpu frequency
49.62Hz Active and reactive power increase from their
normal level. THD has overshot at the trip time and Figure 9. Passive mongering parameters with controller (voltage,
reached at 0.064 then it reduced to 0.019. These values frequency, active and reactive power, THD and circuit breaker signal)
could not confirm the islanding. Fig.9 shows system
parameters with the active controller. In this case the
change of all parameter is shown clearly and effectively.
The voltage with active controller it reaches 0.87Vpu and
720
the frequency reach 49.3Hz and the frequency goes distortion even without controller.Fig.13 shows the
back to 50Hz but it keeps swinging. The active and system with anti islanding it represent both grid and
reactive power increase after the CB is tripped. THD also inverter voltages and currents at the instant of islanding.
has a greater effect compared to the previous case when The islanding can be detected after 0.8 sec which is
the islanding occurs. THD at the instant of CB trip has an satisfied with the IEEE standers [10]. It can be clearly
over shot that reaches 0.078 then it reduces to 0.03 with
seen that in all cases the voltage has slightly dropped.
distortion then at 1.64 sec the harmonic settles down to
0.02. The effect of the controller is obvious on the system This drop in the voltage depends on the loading at the
parameters. When these parameters are actually reached to instant of the islanding. The Inverter current before the
their thresholds the passive controller could confirm the islanding is 4A when the grid is disconnected the current
islanding and interrupt the DG directly. rises to 6A.
The experimental has been conducted first case without In both of the cases after the inverter and load were
Without any active anti-islanding scheme, the inverter can islanded, the current apparently increases, but in case
run for more than 20 seconds and, in several cases, could with controller it can be seen that the injected current has
run indefinitely till it was manually shut down. Fig. 10 more effect on the current wave form which it has been
shows the test results without anti islanding scheme for increased until the passive parameters reach their limits
grid and inverter voltages. Fig. 11 shows the results of the which cause the DG shut down.
voltage and current of the inverter without anti islanding
scheme in different loading condition.
Fig.12 Inverter voltage, grid voltage, Inverter current and grid

Fig.10 Grid voltage and Inverter voltage at instant of islanding current respectively from top to bottom, (Without anti islanding
(without controller).
Fig.13 Inverter voltage, grid voltage, Inverter current and grid

Fig.11 Inverter voltage and inverter current without anti islanding current respectively from top to bottom, (With anti islanding
scheme.
This investigates how the islanded system voltage and IV. CONCLUSION
current responded to the different loading type without
anti islanding controller. Fig.12 shows the grid and By combining of active and passive schemes it can be
inverter voltage and current without anti islanding seen from the above results that it has succeeds not only
scheme. The voltage it has dropped and the signal after in the simulation but also in hardware. In spite of the
islanding of the voltage and current it has a small simplicity, but the proposed method can detect the
721
islanding situation in the experimental part 0.8 sec Power Engineering Society Winter Meeting, Page(s):800 - 806
vol.2, January 2002.
effectively without decreasing the power quality of
[14] Jang S.-I.; Kim K.-H., “An Islanding Detection Method for
interconnected DG because it injects small amount of Distributed Generations using Voltage Unbalance and Total
disturbance. The islanding can be detected and the Harmonic Distortion of Current”, IEEE Transactions on Power
distributed generation can be shut down quickly. Delivery, Vol: 19, Issue: 2, April 2004.
[15] Z. Ye, L. Li, L. Garces, C. Wang, R. Zhang, M. Dame R. Walling,
Furthermore, this method has a small non-detection zone.
N. Miller “A New Family of Active Anti-Islanding Schemes
Based on DQ Implementation For Grid-Connected Inverters”,
The method presented in the paper will help the scheme 35th Annul IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conference,
optimization use a positive-feedback concept. The design 2004.
[16] W-J. Chiang; H-L .Jou; J-C. Wu; Y-T. Feng, “Novel Active
for the positive feedback has proved it is efficiency. In
Islanding Detection Method for Distributed Power Generation
addition, clear evidence is provided for a crucial approach System” International Conference on Power System Technology,
to show the design to ensure the detection of the Page(s):1– 7 22-26 October 2006.
islanding, at the same time the power quality degradation [17] P. Mahat, Z. Chen, B.B-Jensen, “A Hybrid Islanding Detection
Technique Using Average Rate of Voltage Change and Real
is minimized.
Power Shift”, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 24,
Issue 2, Page(s):764 – 771, Apri 2009.
[18] T. N. T Chairman; D. Boroyevich” Control of Power Conversion
ACKNOWLEDGMENT Systems For The Intentional Islanding of Distributed Generation
Units” Blacksburg, Virginia September 26, 2005.
The authors would like to acknowledge that this research [19] T.H. Chen, M.S. Wang, and N.C. Yang, Impact of Distributed
has been supported by IPPP, University of Malaya. Generation on Voltage Regulation by ULTC Transformer using
Various Existing Methods, Proceedings of the 7th WSEAS
International Conference on Power Systems, Beijing, China,
2007, pp. 158-163.
[20] Wen-Yeau Chang ”An active islanding detection method for
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Islanding Detection Method for Distributed Resources”, IEEE
722
The benefits of looping a radial distribution

system with a power flow controller
M.Saradarzadeh*, S.Farhangi*, J.L.Schanen** P-O.Jeannin** D.Frey**
* School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Tehran., Tehran, Iran
** Laboratoire d’Electrotechnique de Grenoble, CNRS UMR 5529 INPG/UJF, Grenoble, France.
Abstract—In this paper the benefits of looping the SSSC is able to inject a voltage which its quadratic part
conventional radial distribution system by a series power to the line current is used to control power flow, while
electronic system to control power flow has been the in phase part maintains the DC bus voltage at its
investigated. The conventional radial electrical distribution reference value. By varying the injected series voltage,
system will change to loop or even meshed system due to the
the line impedance and therefore the line current and
deregulation of electrical system and connection of
Distributed Generation to Medium and Low voltage in power flow will change. This D-SSSC is capable to inject
future. However looping the feeders in the conventional a voltage as much as line to line voltage, in this way it is
distribution system has some benefits which are discussed used as a fault current limiter in the network [4].
more precisely in this paper. Controlling the power flow This paper is focused more on the benefits of using the
between two feeders from different substation by placing a LPFC in the available radial networks. For demonstrating
D-SSSC in the connection point will be source of many the achievable benefits, two real case studies are
advantages. These advantages will be voltage regulation, considered and the effect of looping the distribution
increasing reliability, loss reduction, avoiding congestion in system by an LPFC is investigated. Parts of Tehran
cables and facilitating use of distributed generation. The
distribution network are used for the case studies, which
real data of Tehran electrical distribution network is used
as case study to investigate the advantages of looped power are shown in Fig. 4 and Fig. 5. In these figures, two
flow controller versus conventional radial distribution different feeders from two separated substations are
system. connected together by an LPFC.
Keywords — radial distribution system; meshed system;

reliability; contingency
I. INTRODUCTION
In the conventional available network, the energy of
customers is produced in large power plants which are
distributed all over the electrical system. As shown in Fig.
1 the electrical network is divided in 3 parts which are the
generation system, transmission system and distribution
gird. By restructuring the electrical network and
government supports for Distributed Generation, many
new small DGs start to feed electrical network, which
most of them are connected directly to medium voltage
level. Available networks cannot handle this new scheme
and need to be reconfigured to use different type of DGs
[1]. Figure 1. Conventional electrical network [2]
Fig. 2 shows the scheme of future electrical network.
In this network DGs play an important role in producing
energy and the conventional radial distribution system is
changed to meshed and looped system [2], whereas the
power electronic devices are used to manage the power
flow in the new network. In spite of the future needs of
the meshed distribution system structure, changing the
available conventional radial system to a Looped Power
Flow Controlled (LPFC) structure is the source of many
advantages. For looping the conventional radial system
and controlling power flow a Distribution Static
Synchronous Series Compensator (D-SSSC) can be used
to connect two different feeders together [3]. Fig. 3
shows the connection of D-SSSC in the network. This D- Figure 2. Future electrical network [2]
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 723

Vs-a Each feeder data is shown in Table 1. In the case study
Vgrid1 V grid2
1, one feeder is shorter and less loaded to the other feeder,
but in the case study 2, two feeders are loaded in the same
INVERTER 1 manner approximately. These different conditions help to
get better sense about the benefits of looping the available
distribution network.
Phase A
INVERTER 2 Enhancement of voltage regulation is shown in the first
part, in the second part ability of loss reduction is
INVERTER n
described, the third part shows the congestion in the
cables, in the fourth part the effect of using LPFC on
Phase B
reliability is investigated and the last part demonstrate
Phase C facilitation use of Distributed Generation.
Figure 3. A multilevel D-SSSC connected to the distribution network
YOSEF ABAD 63/20KV KOR DESTAN 63/20KV

SUBSTATION MOSTOFI SU BSTATION
SADR
LCT
RAD
HESABDARI
HAMKAR
DISPACHING
VANAK PARK
MABER
GHEZEL GHALEH
JAHAN ARA
MODABER
714m
80m
279m
700m
612m
259m
270m
315m
348m
271m
417m
476m
403m
340m
317m
612m
LPFC
Figure 4. Case 1; loop connection between “Yosef Abad” and “Kordestan” substations
K O R D E S T A N 6 3 /2 0 K V 2 2 B A H M A N 6 3 /2 0 K V
S U B S T A T IO N S U B S T A T IO N
BISTOON
TRAFIC
PARDIS
714m
GHASRE YAKH
SAEI
BAHARAN
HAKIM ZADEH
524m
PAHLAVAN
MIR TAHERI
279m
676m
464m
321m
608m
276m
326m
616m
396m
312m
320m 227m
206m
742m
140m
225m
385m
156m
303m
518m
120m 241m
382m 160m
518m
121m
LPFC
234m
92m
Figure 5. Case 2; loop connection between “Kordestan” and “Bahman” substations in Tehran distribution network
724
voltage regulation is at the time the power flow gets near
TABLE I. FEEDERS DATA zero.
Nominal voltage 20KV Reactance 0.165 ohm/km
Nominal current 0.33KA Resistance 0.22155 ohm/Km TABLE II. VOLTAGE REGULATION IN CASE STUDY1
Injected Power Flow Current
Phase number 3 Frequency 50 Hz VD
Voltage (V) (MW) (A)
Radial 0 0.0489 0
707 3.7592 0.0348 109.6
848 2.6647 0.0367 77.6
II. VOLTAGE REGULATION 919.2 2.1090 0.0383 61.4
By connecting two different feeders by an LPFC, 1060 0.9840 0.0426 28.7
enhancement of voltage regulation is achievable. Fig. 6.a
1131 0.4162 0.0454 12.1
shows voltage unbalance of two feeder voltages versus of
different load profiles. By simply looping the system the 1183 0.00001 0.0478 0.2
voltage profile gets better as shown in Fig. 6.b [5]. 1272 -0.7261 0.0526 21.4
1414 -1.8721 0.0620 55.5
TABLE III. VOLTAGE REGULATION IN CASE STUDY 2
Injected Power
Voltage Flow VD Current (A)
(V) (MW)
Radial 0 0.0972 0
353 5.2829 0.1047 161.5
707 3.0621 0.1005 91.1
1060 0.5571 0.0970 16.4
1131 0.0314 0.0969 1
1202 -0.5002 0.0974 14.8
1343 -1.5770 0.1007 46.9
1414 -2.1195 0.1039 63.3
1555 -3.2059 0.1142 96.9
III. LOSS REDUCTION

In transmission of energy from the sources to the
customers always there are losses in lines and other
Figure 6. Voltage profiles in radial and loop feeder
devices. From this point of view, the LPFC can help to
As we see overall voltages come closer to 1Pu and total reduce the power losses in the distribution network. The
error becomes less. Equation (1) shows the voltage loss reduction can be investigated with two goals. The
deviation in all buses. first goal is to minimize the total network loss and the
nb
best amount of power flows between the feeders which
VD = ∑ (V
i =1
i − 1) 2 results in the total minimum loss is calculated. This goal
is preferred for the future electrical network which is
(1)
highly inter-connected and the communication system is
Where nb is the number of buses and V i is the spread all over it.
voltage of bus i . The second goal is minimizing the local losses. When
In table 2 and 3 VD is shown before and after looping the a radial system is looped, by wisely controlling the power
system for different power flows in cases 1 and 2, flow between the feeders, losses can be minimized.
respectively. As we see by varying the injected voltage, Tables 4 and 5 show the loss amounts for the two case
the power flow is changed and new VD is obtained. In the studies before and after using LPFC for different power
first case the voltage regulation is more effective and flows.
when the power is transmitted from the shorter feeder As we see for the first case study the losses can
(RAD Feeder) to the longer feeder (GHEZEL GHALEH improve better than the second one. Also it shows that for
feeder) the voltage regulation is better. But in the case 2 different power flows, there are not large differences in
which two feeders are loaded in the same manner the best losses and the LPFC is able to control power flow but not
changing too much the losses.
725
TABLE IV. THE LOSS CALCULATION OF CASE STUDY1 5
RAD Feeder
4.5 Ghezel Ghaleh Feeder
Injected Power Power Current Power Flow
Voltage (V) Flow (MW) Loss (KW) (A) 4
Radial 0 17.61 0 3.5
707 3.7592 28.35 109.6 3
Power(MW)
848 2.6647 15.75 77.6 2.5
919.2 2.1090 12.36 61.4

2
1.5
989.9 1.5481 10.98 45.1
1
1007 1.4072 10.95 41
0.5
1060 0.9833 11.61 28.7
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
1272 -0.1550 19.14 4.6 Time(s)
1414 -1.8721 46.77 55.5 Figure 7. Case 1feeders power levels before and after controlling
power flow
8
Bistoon Feeder•
Saei Feeder
7 Power Flow
TABLE V. THE LOSS CALCULATION OF CASE STUDY2
6
Injected Power Power Loss Current
Voltage (V) Flow (MW) (KW) (A) 5
Power(MW)
Radial 0 73.806 0 4
353 5.2829 189.426 161.5

3
707 3.0621 107.286 91.1
2
1060 0.5571 73.809 16.4
1131 0.0314 73.764 1 1
1202 -0.5002 76.134 14.8 0

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Time(s)
1272 -1.5770 81.015 30.8
Figure 8. Case 2 feeders power levels before and after controlling
1343 -1.5770 88.509 46.9
power flow
1414 -2.1195 98.730 63.3
One more great aspects of using LPFC can be revealed
when two feeders with different kinds of loads are
connected together. The loads are often divided in to
residential, commercial and industrial loads. The load
IV. FEEDER CURRENT CONGESTION demands of these kinds of loads are not similar to each
other over the day. It would be great benefit connecting
One of the most issues in the distribution electrical two feeders with the different kinds of loads by an LPFC
system is unpredictability of the loads. By adding the and exchanging power in the daily hours. In Fig. 9 and
new loads to the electrical system, always the Fig. 10 the case study 2 is considered to have two feeders
reconfiguration in feeder’s load is required which is an with the different kinds of loads. The power of each
overwhelming work. New demands and unpredictable feeder and the transmitted power are shown before and
loads make congestion in feeders, which most of the time after using LPFC in two different times of the day. Each
makes some damages to the cables and network time one feeder has higher load in comparison with the
other.
unavailability. The looping distribution system by a
power flow controller can be the best way of avoiding the 7
congestion in the feeders saving money, time and Bistoon Feeder
Saei Feeder
reliability. 6 Power Flow
By controlling the power flow between two feeders 5
from different substations, the balancing between two 4
feeder’s currents is achievable. Fig. 7 shows the power of

Power(MW)
each feeder and the transmitted power flow between the

3
feeders before and after using LPFC for case study1, and 2
Fig. 8 shows the same results for the case study 2. 1
As we see in both cases there are balancing in feeder’s 0
powers after using LPFC. Other amount of power can be

transmitted upon the system demand.
-1
-2
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Time(s)
Figure 9. Feeders power and transmitted power when the “Saei

feeder” has high load
726
∑Customer
12
Bistoon Feeder• Interruptions Durations (5)
Saei Feeder
CTAIDI =
Total No . Customers Interrupted
Power Flow
10
8
Customer Hours Service Availibility (6)
ASAI =
Customer Hours Service Demand
Power(MW)
2 VI. DISTRIBUTED GENERATION

In the future electrical network, DGs will play an
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Time(s)
0.5 0.6 0.7 important role to produce electrical energy for customers.
By changing in the electrical network, the DGs are
Figure 10. Feeders power levels and transmitted power when the connected directly to the distribution system. By
“Bistoon Feeder” has high load
increasing supporting of government to use clean energies
and deregulations in the electrical system, the DGs usage
grows faster and faster. The most important aim of using a
As demonstrated, the LPFC can balance the powers of DG is to achieve as much as power it can deliver to the
feeders in different times. system. By increasing the number of DGs the new
electrical distribution system should be provided to
facilitate the usage of them. In this new system, the
V. RELIABILITY LPFCs can connect all part of electrical network together
and a communication link will help them to manage the
Delivering the electrical power to the customers is the power flow in the network.
aim of electrical distribution system. In this way the But in current distribution system DGs are already
reliability of such a system is a major issue [6],[7]. The used. As a matter of economic issues, the system should
customers demand higher reliability in the new be able to receive the maximum power from these DGs
competitive environment of electrical system. Also the and deliver it to the nearest customers for reducing the
consequences of losing one part of electrical system are power losses. By looping the radial system with power
inconvenience of customers, economic losses or a threat flow controller, this aim will be accomplished. In the case
to health and safety. Therefore every effort to improve 2, a DG with different power is considered to be
the reliability is appreciated. connected to the “Bistoon Feeder”.
We demonstrate the effect of looping by using an Fig. 11 shows the powers of feeders, DG and the Power
LPFC in the system reliability. Reliability indices are used Flow between two feeders. As we see after connecting the
to facilitate comparing the systems. In this paper we only DG to the network the feeder’s power is changed but after
focus on the definition of indices and how changing from using LPFC there is balancing in feeder’s power. Fig. 12
the traditional radial distribution system to a loop power shows the time when the “Bistoon Feeder” has a low
flow controlling system can affect these indices. By demand load. In this case before using LPFC, some part of
looping system with an LPFC customers are able to DG’s energy is not useable or should be transferred to the
receive power from two independent sources without high voltage network, but by adding the LPFC this energy
adding more devices (like switch gear, breakers, lines, … can be consumed locally.
). So in the case of interruption or damage failure to one
source, the second can handle delivering power to the
customers. Therefore the total number of customer’s 8 Bistoon Feeder
interruption and customer’s interruption duration can be Saei Feeder
Power Flow
reduced. Also the customer’s service availability is 7
DG Power
increased. Some important indices for example SAIFI, 6
SAIDI, CAIDI, CTADI, ASAI (which are defined as 5
follow) will improve in comparison with the conventional 4
radial system.
Power(MW)
2
Total No . Customers Interruptions (2)
SAIFI = 1
Total No . Customers Served
0
∑Customers
-1
Interruptions Durations (3)
SA IDI = -2
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Total No . Customers Served Time(s)
Figure 11. Power flows of DG, feeders and LPFC with …..
CAIDI =
∑Customer Interruptions Durations (4)
Total No . Customers Interruptions
727
Bistoon Feeder
8
Saei Feeder
Power Flow
DG Power
6
4
Power(MW)
-2
-4
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Time(s)
Figure 12. Power flows of DG, Feeders and LPFC with …
VII. CONCLUSION
In this paper the benefits of looping a radial electrical
distribution network using a Loop Power Flow Controller
has been investigated. The effect of using an LPFC for
looping the system in the case of voltage regulation, loss
reduction, avoiding congestion, increasing reliability and
facilitating the usage of DG’s is demonstrated. The results
show the great impact of this device to achieve the
numerous advantages of sharing the power between
feeders. Two different real case studies have been
considered to show the benefits. One feeder of case 1 was
a short feeder with low demand load. It has been
demonstrated that in this case the looping improves
voltage regulation and loss reduction much better than the
case 2. Also in case study 2 which represents two different
feeders with approximately the same load demand, the
balancing of power flow of feeders indifferent operation
points is the major benefit of using LPFC in the
distribution network.
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728
Transmission Loss Allocation in Power Systems

Using Artificial Neural Network
Mohammad Hadi Salar Mahmoud Reza Haghifam
Semnan Regional Electric Company Senior Member IEEE
Islamic Azad University-South Tehran Branch Tarbiat Modares University
M_h_salar @yahoo.com haghifam@modares.ac.ir
Abstract— Cost allocation and determining the part of the by the power plants is lost in the transmission system which is
operators in a power system from the total costs are among the highly depended on the level and the distance between the
most important issues appeared along with the restructuring in generation and consumption areas and is economically
the power industry. One of these imposed costs in the utilization consequential.
domain is the cost of the power losses which should be fairly
distributed between the participants in the electric power There are a broad amount of studies in the literature about
market. In this paper, using the load flow calculations, the part of the power loss allocation in general. In pro rata method [1], is
each bus in the power losses is determined by the Z-Bus method. simplest loss allocation method. The losses are allocated to
These results are compared with those obtained from the load each generator or load, regarding their power injection to
flow calculations using the artificial neural network. It is shown network. In incremental transmission loss (ITL) methods [2-5]
that the artificial neural network is an efficient tool for power allocate the system losses to network participant through
loss allocation in the large and complicated power systems which assigning a coefficient known as ITLs to each one that
may have a nonlinear nature. The proposed method is then represent the total network losses sensitivity to that particular
applied to two test bench systems, the IEEE 5-bus and 30-bus test user injection.
benches, and the results from two approaches are compared and
the differences in term of error are reported. A real case study Artificial neural network for transmission power loss
including a 400kV transmission system is also studied and the allocation is employed in [6], [7]. In these studies, training the
annual peak-load power loss allocation assuming the peak hour neural network requires the results from the Z-Bus method. Z-
in a month is determined and the related errors are computed. Bus method is completely described in [8] and is briefly
explained in Section II. A combination of artificial neural
Keywords- Loss Allocation, Neural Network, Load Flow, Error network and game theory are employed in [9] for transmission
power loss allocation in the electric power market.
I. INTRODUCTION
This paper is organized as follows. In section II, the
Restructuring in the electric power industry has been the methodology used in Z-Bus is described. Artificial neural
most important subject in the power system studies in the last network is explained in Section A and the results of the test
decade. Such changes in the electric power industry have benches are reported in Section III. A real case study is
created a movement from a government-based market toward a illustrated in Section IV. Finally, the paper is concluded with a
private and competitive market which, in turn, leads to lower summary of the results.
price and more services. In a restructured power system, the
generation and distribution parts which are the sellers and II. METHODOLOGY
buyers of the generated power respectively should have a fair
access to the transmission system for maintaining an effective
operation. Transmitting the electric power through the power There are a lot of methods for power loss allocation. In this
lines imposes the costs of voltage and frequency regulations, paper, we use the Z-Bus method for transmission power loss
maintaining the power system stability and so on. Besides, a allocation [8], [10]. The base of this method is to distribute the
significant percent of the power losses are pertained to the total power losses among the n current-injecting buses. The
transmission systems which should be carefully calculated and n
losses are calculated as follows Ploss = ∑ L K
allocated to the agents in the power market. However, such
K =1
calculations are difficult due to the numerousness of the agents
in the market which use the same system. In other words,   n 
regarding the fact that in a restructured system the generator LK = ℜ I K∗  ∑ RKj I j  (2)
and consumer agencies use a common transmission system and   j =1 
a complete competition would exist through the free access of
the all agencies to the transmission system and repaying the
network costs by them, it is necessary to determine the portion Rkj in Eq. 2 is the real part of the impedance matrix ZBus and
of each generators or consumers from the power losses in the shows the connectivity between k bus and other buses in the
network. Usually 4 to 8 percent of the generated active power system.
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 729

After the analysis made on the different neural networks,
the two-layer one-to-two neural network is recognized to be
The features of this method are sufficient for optimal calculations. In this method, one input is
• Circuit-based equations in the power system are used given to five neurons and each neuron gives a weight and bias
for loss detachment to the input according to the predefined function and then the
output of the first layer is delivered to the second layer [11].
• ZBus method may allocate negative loss percentage to
some buses Figure 2 shows the general structure of the aforementioned
neural network
• The losses due to the common current injection of two
buses are distributed between them equally
• The losses due to the active and reactive current
injection are not detached.
Considering 5-Bus test network depicted in Fig. 1 as the
test system, the load flow calculations using the Newton-
Raphson method are reported in TABLE I.
Figure 2. General structure of the neural network
The weights and biases are given to the inputs as illustrated in

Fig 3.
Figure 1. Single line diagram 5-Bus test network
TABLE I. RESULT OF LOAD FLOW
Newton Raphson Loadflow Analysis

Figure 3. Two-layer neural network for allocating the weights and biases
Bus V Angle Injection Generation Load
NO pu Degree MW Mvar MW Mvar MW MVar For our study, the portion of losses for each bus is
1 1.0600 0.0000 131.122 90.816 131.122 90.816 0.000 0.000
considered as the output and the current and angle of each bus
is considered as the inputs. 70% of the points are considered
2 1.0000 -2.0612 20.000 -71.593 40.000 -61.593 20.000 10.000
randomly for training the neural network and 30% for the
3 0.9872 -4.6367 -45.000 -15.000 0.000 0.000 45.000 15.000
testing. The training is continued until the number of iterations
4 0.9841 -4.9570 -40.000 -5.000 0.000 0.000 40.000 5.000 exceeds 1000 times or the input-output error becomes lower
5 0.9717 -5.7649 -60.000 -10.000 0.000 0.000 60.000 10.000 than 10-6. The output of the program is the power loss portion
of each bus which is compared to those obtained from the load
Total 6.122 -10.777 171.122 29.223 165.000 40.000
flow calculations and the error is determined.
The total power losses are 6.123MW and the portion of III. RESULTS
each bus is shown. According to this results, Bus 1 (slack A power network is a dynamic system which continuously
bus)has maximum amount among all the buses. changes its state. Therefore, the operating point of the system
will change accordingly. Therefore, the study of changes near
A. Artificial Neural Network the operating point is from crucial importance. Following this
In this section for declaring the training structure and then concept, we assume a change in the loads of the system in the
employing the neural network, some points are defined as the range of 0.7 to 1.2 of their nominal values. Then the power loss
inputs and outputs of the neural network. In other words, these portion of each bus and the corresponding phase and
points are introduced to the neural network so that it finds a magnitude of the injected current for a certain level of nominal
relation between the input and the output [11]. load are calculated.
730
The power loss allocation of Bus3 in the 5-bus test system
obtained by the LF method as a function of percent of the
nominal load is shown in Fig. 4.
Figure 5.Compairsion curve loss allocation of L.F and ANN method
Figure 4. Power loss allocations for Bus3 obtained by the L.F method versus
the percentage of the nominal load
For more analysis and evaluation of the method for a larger
network, the IEEE 30-Bus test system shown in Fig. 6 is
Incremental trend in power loss allocation, as shown in Fig. assumed.
4, is identical for all the buses in 5-bus test system.
Power loss allocation by means of the LF and ANN
methods are reported and compared in TABLE II.
TABLE II. POWER LOSS ALLOCATION USING LF AND ANN METHODS
loss allocated of loss allocated of

LOAD LOAD NEURAL ERROR
FLOW(MW) NETWORK(MW)
0.71 0.2141 0.2145 0.04

0.74 0.2335 0.2337 0.02
0.75 0.2402 0.2401 0.01
0.81 0.2824 0.2822 0.02
0.82 0.2898 0.2897 0.01
0.84 0.3049 0.3052 0.03
0.88 0.3363 0.3363 0
0.9 0.3526 0.3527 0.01
0.92 0.3693 0.3693 0
0.96 0.404 0.404 0
0.99 0.4311 0.4312 0.01
1.02 0.4591 0.4592 0.01
1.06 0.4981 0.4981 0
1.1 0.5387 0.5387 0
1.13 0.5703 0.5702 0.01
1.18 0.6252 0.6254 0.02
Regarding the findings in TABLE II, it is clear that the

calculated values using the two mentioned methods (LF and
ANN) are almost equal and the error, in terms of the difference Figure 6. Single line diagram of the IEEE 30-Bus system
between the two values at each column, ranges from zero
percent to 0.04%, which is negligible. This fact is graphically The load flow results for IEEE 30-Bus system are reported
in TABLE III. Total power loss allocation of the 30-Bus
shown in Fig. 5.
system is 17.528 MW in which Bus1 has the maximum amount
of power loss allocation of 260.928 MW.
Incremental trend in power loss allocation is shown in Fig.
7 as a function of percentage of the nominal load. As the
loading factor increases so does the power loss portion.
731
TABLE III. RESULT OF LOAD FLOW Regarding the findings in TABLE IV, it is clear that the
calculated values using the two mentioned methods (LF and
Newton Raphson Loadflow Analysis
ANN) are almost equal and the error, in terms of the difference
Injection Generation Load between the two values at each column, ranges from zero
Bus V Angle
No pu Degree percent to 0.04%, which is negligible. This fact is graphically
MW Mvar MW Mvar MW Mvar
shown in Fig 8.
-
1 1.0600 0.0000 260.928 260.928 -17.118 0.000 0.000
17.118
2 1.0430 -5.3474 18.300 35.066 40.000 47.766 21.700 12.700
3 1.0217 -7.5448 -2.400 -1.200 0.000 0.000 2.400 1.200
4 1.0129 -9.2989 -7.600 -1.600 0.000 0.000 7.600 1.600
5 1.0100 -14.1542 -94.200 16.965 0.000 35.965 94.200 19.000
6 1.0121 -11.0880 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

-
7 1.0035 -12.8734 -22.800 0.000 0.000 22.800 10.900
10.900
8 1.0100 -11.8039 -30.000 0.691 0.000 30.691 30.000 30.000
9 1.0507 -14.1363 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
10 1.0438 -15.7341 -5.800 17.000 0.000 19.000 5.800 2.000
11 1.0820 -14.1363 0.000 16.270 0.000 16.270 0.000 0.000
12 1.0576 -14.9416 -11.200 -7.500 0.000 0.000 11.200 7.500
13 1.0710 -14.9416 0.000 10.247 0.000 10.247 0.000 0.000
14 1.0429 -15.8244 -6.200 -1.600 0.000 0.000 6.200 1.600

Figure 8.Compairsion curve loss allocation of L.F and ANN method
15 1.0384 -15.9101 -8.200 -2.500 0.000 0.000 8.200 2.500
16 1.0445 -15.5487 -3.500 -1.800 0.000 0.000 3.500 1.800

TABLE IV .Loss allocation of L.F and ANN method
and the percentage error rate
17 1.0387 -15.8856 -9.000 -5.800 0.000 0.000 9.000 5.800
loss allocated
18 1.0282 -16.5425 -3.200 -0.900 0.000 0.000 3.200 0.900 loss allocated of
of
LOAD NEURAL ERROR(%)
19 1.0252 -16.7273 -9.500 -3.400 0.000 0.000 9.500 3.400 LOAD
NETWORK(MW)
FLOW(MW)
20 1.0291 -16.5363 -2.200 -0.700 0.000 0.000 2.200 0.700
- 0.78 0.0266 0.0267 0.01
21 1.0293 -16.2462 -17.500 0.000 0.000 17.500 11.200
11.200
0.83 0.0302 0.0303 0.01
22 1.0353 -16.0738 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.85 0.0318 0.0317 0.01
23 1.0291 -16.2528 -3.200 -1.600 0.000 0.000 3.200 1.600 0.88 0.0342 0.0342 0
24 1.0237 -16.4409 -8.700 -2.400 0.000 4.300 8.700 6.700 0.91 0.0367 0.0369 0.02
0.94 0.0393 0.0392 0.01
25 1.0202 -16.0539 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.97 0.042 0.0417 0.03
26 1.0025 -16.4712 -3.500 -2.300 0.000 0.000 3.500 2.300 1 0.0448 0.0448 0
27 1.0265 -15.5558 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 1.03 0.0481 0.0485 0.04
1.08 0.0531 0.0534 0.03
28 1.0109 -11.7436 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
1.11 0.0569 0.0568 0.01
29 1.0067 -16.7777 -2.400 -0.900 0.000 0.000 2.400 0.900 1.16 0.064 0.0644 0.04
1.19 0.0674 0.0673 0.01
30 0.9953 -17.6546 -10.600 -1.900 0.000 0.000 10.600 1.900
Total 17.528 20.921 300.928 147.121 283.400 126.200

Comparing the Figs. 5 and 8, it is apparent that by
increasing the number of buses the mean error is increased
slightly. This comparison is illustrated in Fig. 9.
Figure 7. Power loss allocation of the IEEE 30-Bus system obtained by the
LF method as a function of loading factor
Power loss allocation by means of the LF and ANN

methods are reported and compared in TABLE IV.
Figure 9. Comparison of the mean error for power loss allocation for each bus
732
IV. CASE STUDY TABLE IV. POWER LOSS ALLOCATION FOR THE 400KV TRANSMISSION
SYSTEM AT PEAK LOAD IN A MONTH
The power network in Iran is a unified system which
includes 53,000MW installed capacity. The power losses in the BUS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
transmission and distribution network are about 3 to 4 percent. 1 1.8464 1.33924 2.09052 2.13477 1.77267 1.75278 1.90905 1.43158 1.79805 1.5318
Along with the restructuring in the power system and
privatizing the electric power market, the power loss allocation 2 0.47043 0.6727 0.28417 0.38029 0.15876 0.54316 0.48956 0.47322 0.48978 0.48962
becomes more important. The costs power losses in the 3 9.16731 9.80977 10.2544 10.3339 10.024 10.1535 10.219 9.84481 10.178 9.94817
transmission systems which connect the local area power 4 2.10134 0.48395 0.43934 0.38909 0.91391 0.35415 0.31321 0.56026 0.41056 0.44914
agencies to each other should be fairly distributed between
these agencies and the part of each agent should be determined. 5 1.15709 0.61244 0.3177 0.27234 0.43163 0.38685 0.352 0.58316 0.36309 0.52115
Figure 10 depicts the single line diagram of the 400kV Total 14.7426 12.9181 13.3862 13.5104 13.3009 13.1904 13.2828 12.893 13.2395 12.9399
transmission system in Semnan local area network in which the
case study is carries out. BUS 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
1 2.65091 4.22629 2.18749 2.6861 3.1709 3.01239 1.37435 1.51826 3.37572 2.13823
2 0.52151 0.22041 0.35942 0.41574 0.37274 0.28616 0.25259 0.48686 0.49046 0.61603
3 10.5978 11.0635 10.3213 10.5521 10.7905 10.6516 9.66747 9.99431 10.9089 10.3792
4 0.24266 0.23264 0.32153 0.24239 0.25598 0.2529 1.32423 0.73635 0.23905 0.24281
5 0.13896 -0.0658 0.28715 0.16179 0.05184 0.10759 0.64517 0.4447 0.00099 0.26611
Total 14.1518 15.6771 13.4769 14.0581 14.642 14.3106 13.2638 13.1805 15.0151 13.6424
BUS 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
1 1.94742 1.32374 1.61069 1.38672 1.62853 2.58759 1.42521 1.48408 1.34055 2.51374
2 0.50294 0.55384 0.61842 0.56413 0.7364 0.68836 0.64037 0.59888 0.52422 0.47747
3 10.2335 9.72943 10.0669 9.84958 10.1407 10.678 9.92131 9.9513 9.44083 9.09661
4 0.27989 0.61696 0.33537 0.62168 0.31379 0.24461 0.47438 0.40881 1.54161 2.85698
5 0.34961 0.66175 0.44974 0.56105 0.39827 0.10491 0.5273 0.52068 0.77224 1.33651
Total 13.3133 12.8857 13.0811 12.9832 13.2177 14.3034 12.9886 12.9638 13.6194 16.2813
TABLE V. REPORTS THE POWER LOSS ALLOCATION FOR THE CASE

STUDY SYSTEM BY TWO METHODS , , NAMELY THE TRAINED NEURAL NETWORK
AND THE LOAD FLOW CALCULATIONS
Loss allocated of Loss allocated of

Figure 10. Single line diagram of transmission system in Semnan local area LOAD(P.U) LOAD NEURAL ERROR(%)
network. FLOW(MW) NETWORK(MW)
0.74 10.90887862 10.8741 3.50
0.76 10.79053122 10.76 3.10
0.83 10.59778266 10.6074 0.96
0.85 10.67795726 10.6695 0.85
0.91 10.25443478 10.2609 0.64
0.97 10.02398045 10.0557 3.20
0.98 10.17803386 10.1778 0.02
1.06 9.994306808 10.0092 1.50
1.09 9.844805844 9.8632 1.80
1.15 9.729431972 9.74 1.10
Figure 11. Single line diagram of the 400kV transmission system in Semnan 1.33 9.250427202 9.3076 5.70
local area network
733
• If for power loss allocation the load flow calculations
are necessary, it is not an easy task to carry out in large
scale power systems. The well-trained neural network
is able to fulfill such tasks and provide more realistic
results in large scale power systems. For reducing the
errors, more efficient training methods should be
employed for training the neural network.
REFERENCES
[1] M. Ilic, F. Galina, and L. Fink, Power system restructuring: Engineering
and Economics. Norwell, MA:Kluwer,1998.
[2] F. D. Galiana and M. Phelan, “Allocation of transmission losses to
bilateral contracts in a competive environment,” IEEE Trans. Power
Syst.,vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 143-150, Feb. 2000.
[3] Fradi A, Brignone S., Wollenberg B. F., “Calculation of energy
transaction allocation factors,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 16, no.
2,pp. 266-72, May, 2001.
[4] F.D. Galiana, A.J. Conejo, I. Kockar, “Incremental transmission loss
allocation in a transaction framework,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., Vol.
17,no. 1, pp. 26-33, 2002.
[5] Moon Y. H., Jung J. S., Ryu H. S. and Choi B. K. , “Slack bus
independent penalty factor for spot pricing,” IEEE PES Winter
Meeting,Singapore, pp. 1017-21, Jan. 2000.
[6] R.Haque and N.Chowdhury ;"An artificial neural network based
Figure 12.Compairsion curve loss allocation of L.F and ANN method transmission loss allocation for bilateral contract ";Electrical and
computer Engineering,2005.Canadian Conference;pp.2203-2207;May
2005.
Figure 12 shows the comparison between the results from [7] S.Arunachalam and et.al.;"ANN based Z-bus loss allocation for pool
the two mentioned method. The error is limited between 0.02 dispatch in deregulated power system";Power India Conference ,2006
to 5.7%. These results show that the mentioned method is IEEE;April 2006
sufficient for power loss allocation. [8] A. J. Conejo, F. D. Galiana and I. Kockar, “Z-bus allocation,” IEEE
Trans. Power Syst, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 105-110., Feb. 2001.
[9] N.B.Dev Choudhury and S.K.Goswami," Transmission Loss
V. CONCLUSION Allocation Using Game Theory Based Artificial Neural Networks"IEEE
Power loss allocation by the propagation of the 2009
restructuring in the power system draws more attention. The [10] A.G.Exposite and et. al."Disscussion of Z-bus loss allocation";IEEE
Transaction on power systems ,vol.17;issue 2;pp.525;May
basic subject of the power loss allocation is to fairly distribute 2002,Engineering,2005.Canadian Conference;pp.2203-2207;May 2005.
the costs of the losses between the agents in the electric power
[11] A.Poeltl, K.Frohlich, "Two New Methods for Very Fast Fault Type
market. The method used here is the artificial neural network Detection by Means of Parameter Fitting and Artificial Neaural
for power loss allocation. It is applied to the IEEE 5-Bus and Networks", IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol. 14, No. 3, pp. 1269-
30-Bus test systems and the results show that 1275, October 1999,.
• Due to the dynamic behavior of the loads in the

network the operation point of the system continuously
changes and the power loss portion of each bus is also
changes.
734
Electroluminescence as Pre-breakdown
Phenomenon in Polymers used for
Underground Cable Insulation
N. Mat Tajudin* and A. Mohd Ariffin
College of Engineering, Universiti Tenaga Nasional (UNITEN)
Jalan IKRAM-UNITEN, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia
*Email: Nurhazwani@uniten.edu.my
Abstract—The existence of space charge within a dielectric mentioned earlier has lead to more research at the atomic
material can perturb the overall field of an electrically scale where space charge can play a fundamental role in
stressed polymer; causing long term degradation to the ageing processes.
polymeric insulation. As a result of this, there has been In principle, ‘space charge’ can be defined as all charge
increasing emphasis in understanding the behaviour of carriers; electrons, holes, charged particles and ions, that
space charge in polymeric materials, together with the can exist within the dielectric material and can be trapped
injection mechanisms responsible for its existence. One of or transported through the material on application of an
the ways to investigate the role of space charge is by external electrical field. The accumulation of space charge
examining the energy dissipation of these charges. This at the interface of an electrically stressed polymer can lead
dissipation process is associated with the emission of visible
to electric field modifications; causing further
photon, known as electroluminescence (EL). The paper
deterioration in the insulator [8]. Under the influence of an
attempts to outline some of the developments in modelling of
electric field, these charges may interact with each other;
EL under uniform alternating field that may assist to assess
causing the emission of faint light known as
the performance of insulating materials used in
underground power cables.
electroluminescence (EL). The mechanism of EL is
therefore associated with the accumulation of space
Keywords – Electroluminescence; power cables; aging; space charge within the dielectric material. Since the existence
charge of space charge has been widely regarded as one of the
major causes for failure of solid dielectrics, it can be said
I. INTRODUCTION that EL measurements may provide a way to investigate
electrical ageing and degradation of polymer [9].
When cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) insulated
cables were first installed in the late 1960’s, cable
manufacturers expected them to perform reliably for 20 or
II. MEASUREMENTS OF ELECTROLUMINESCENCE
even 30 years. However, history has shown that the
service life of some of these early cables was far shorter By measuring space charge and EL, their correlation
than expected. At that time, cable engineers were not with one another may be deduced. It was observed by
aware that moisture, voltage stress, omitting jackets and Cao et al [10] that under ac conditions, the onset voltage
imperfections such as protrusions, contaminants and for EL was found to be the same as the onset voltage for
microvoids within the cable structure would combine to space charge accumulation within the material.
initiate electrical ageing processes. These defects Therefore, it was concluded that the formation of EL is
degraded the cable performance so severely that many
associated with the formation of space charge and hence
cables failed after only 10 to 15 years in service [1].
Therefore it is of essential interest to understand the the two processes are linked.
physical mechanisms leading to insulation failure.
While in service, the electrical insulation is usually A. Detection Method
subjected to many ageing factors such as thermal, In observing EL, extra-sensitive optical detection
electrical, mechanical, chemical and environmental stress methods have to be used as the light emitted is
simultaneously [2,3]. As manufacturing technology considerably faint. For this reason, EL observations are
improves however, insulation systems are becoming performed by using photomultiplier tubes (PMT)
cleaner, allowing greater reliability for distribution class technology and/or charge-coupled device (CCD) imaging
cables. A high level of quality and reliability has been sensor [11-13] as shown in Figure 1 since they both have
achieved by Vogelsang et al [4] with the technology of high sensitivity and operating over a very broad spectrum.
single piece prefabricated and pretested insulation bodies The EL images taken by CCD camera were then
of silicone rubber (SiR) which are characterized by long transferred to a computer and the light intensity level can
electrical lifetimes. Other researchers on the other hand, be measured. This is the simplest way to ensure that the
were exploring the use of nanoparticles in the matrix of intensity measured is not due to other modes of discharge.
polymeric materials which could enhance the thermal, EL pulses detected by the PMT on the other hand, were
mechanical and electrical breakdown strength [5-7]. The counted by a fast digital oscilloscope or photon counter
reduction in concentration and size of impurities as and the data were transferred to a computer for analysis.
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 735

Under divergent electrical field, metal or semicon tip
HV bushing (radius ~ 1-3 µm) was embedded in polymeric block
Specimen
(volume ~ 650-2500 mm3) with the tip of the semicon
Chamber
was held 3-5 mm from the bottom surface of the polymer
as shown in Figure 2(b).
PMT CCD camera The needle is attached to the HV electrode while the
bottom surface of the sample is held at ground potential.
When the voltage is applied to the sample due to stress
enhancement at the semicon tip, above a certain threshold
Photon Counter or field light is emitted at the insulation tip [11]. This light is
Digital Oscilloscope very faint and occurs in a very small volume, close to the
tip of the HV electrode in the insulation.
An advantage of the pin-plane electrode geometry is
Figure 1: Detection methods to observe EL phenomenon.
that electric field enhancement at the pin tip ensures that
injection of charge and therefore the generation of EL
occurs at one electrode only. This allows EL to be studied
B. Sample Material and Electric Field Configuration as a function of the polarity of the applied voltage. This is
EL measurements have been undertaken for various not possible in plane-plane electrode geometry where
types of insulating polymer, including those that are charge injection and EL will occur at both electrodes. The
commonly used in electrical engineering as shown in detected light in this case will be the summation of the
Table 1. A few reports suggested [14, 17] that all intensities of EL that occur at both electrodes.
polymers exhibit almost the same behaviour of EL. In
addition, Mills et al [19] has observed that there is a Light
Needle
discrepancy in EL characteristics when low-density HV detector Conducting
Polymer
polyethylene (LDPE) films are ultraviolet and thermally block
electrodes layers
aged, due to change in molecular structure of the
polymer. Optical
axis
There are two commonly used sample configurations Polymer
to investigate the behaviour of EL; uniform (the plane- ~ 3- 5 mm
films
plane geometry) or divergent (the pin-plane geometry) (a) (b)
electric field. In order to allow uniform electrical field
Figure 2: Typical (a) uniform and (b) divergent field sample
across the polymer as illustrated in Figure 2 (a), the configurations.
samples were usually prepared as thin films with
thickness ranging from 15 µm to 1 mm for different types
of polymer. Both sides of these films were coated with C. Effect of Voltage Form
gold or aluminum electrodes by sputtering or thermal
evaporation processes. For XLPE, the films were treated EL detected under dc stress had been proposed [20,
in vacuum oven for a certain period of time to decrease 21] to occur within the bulk of the material while the light
the cross-linking byproducts to a negligible level before emission observed under an ac field [22] is more likely an
introducing the metallic layer [13, 15]. interfacial phenomenon. Work by Hozumi et al [20] had
The thickness of semi-transparent metal layer is shown a gradual increase in EL intensity when a polymer
ranging from 30–45 nm so that light can be directly is subjected to a dc stress after a long period of time
detected to provide electrical contact with the metallized (more than 600s). This effect could be due to the
surface of the sample. recombination of positive and negative charge carriers in
the bulk of the material as the long period of time is
TABLE 1 required for the migration from the electrodes into the
Measurements of EL from different polymeric materials bulk. This is supported by the observation made by
Type of polymer
Literature Laurent et al [21] which recorded EL is ancillary to the
Reference formation of a recombination domain in the bulk of the
Crosslinked Polyethylene (XLPE) 11, 13, 15 material from the space charge analysis.
Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE) 12, 14, 16, 17, 19 Under ac stress however, EL was observed to occur
Polyethylene Naphthalate (PEN) 14, 17 relatively quicker than in DC field; suggesting that the
Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) 14, 17 phenomenon is more likely an interfacial rather than a
bulk process [22]. Charges are injected into and extracted
Polypropylene (PP) 5, 14, 16
from the polymer in every cycle of the alternating applied
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) 16 voltage so recombination can occur almost
Polyetherimide (PEI) 18 instantaneously after the field is applied. This is
Polyimide (PI) 14 understandable since charge injection and extraction will
Polybutadiene 10 occur continuously each half cycle so charge carriers will
not have sufficient time to migrate and recombine with
those from the opposite electrode within the bulk of the
736
insulating material. Nevertheless, some of these injected ensure steady state is achieved, as shown by Figure 4(a).
charges might not be able to de-trap themselves during Figure 4(b) on the other hand, illustrates the two cycles of
extraction and thus they will form a region of ‘trapped’ E0 under this condition. From these figures, it can be seen
space charge. As a result of this, the recombination of that the electric field distribution at the injecting electrode
these space charges with the subsequent ones from the is shifted away from the corresponding Laplacian field
next half-cycle of the alternating voltage will lead to EL. (dashed-green line) and the peak values are less than 80
kV/mm due to the presence of space charge at the
III. MODELLING OF EL interface region between the polymer and the metallic
A. Theory electrode.
It is hypothesized that by developing an EL model
based on simple theories of charge injection and
recombination processes, the computation results may be
compared with experimental measurements in order to
validate the assumption that EL is due to a bipolar
Electric Field (V/m)

recombination process. For dc, a bipolar charge transport
model which features trapping, detrapping and
recombination of positive and negative charge carriers is
developed by Laurent et al [23]. Under ac stress however,
a bipolar charge recombination model has been proposed
by Alison et al [24] which involves the recombination of
mobile injected charge with charge trapped of the
Time (s)
opposite polarity under a divergent field.
(a)
B. Model Flowchart
This model simulates EL in a uniform alternating field
having plane-plane electrodes in which EL can occur at
the two metal polymer interfaces which is an extension to
a previous model developed by Alison et al [24]. By using
Electric Field (V/m)
the solutions obtained for the electric field at the electrode,

E0(t), the corresponding current density at the electrode,
j(t) can be determined and these will assist in the
computation of the phase-resolved EL emission as
illustrated in Figure 3. A detailed model has been
described elsewhere [8, 25].
Time (s)
Find the solution for Calculate the corresponding
Electric Field, E0(t) current density, j(t) (b)
Figure 4: Electric field at the injecting electrode, E0 for (a) 8 cycles and
(b) the last 2 cycles.
In order to solve for EL, the corresponding current

density, j due to the charge injection process needs to be
determined. Hence, Figure 4(c) represents the plotting of
Obtain the numerical values for current density against time. It was observed that the
EL intensity, I(t) phase is shifted to an earlier phase angle which is in
accordance with Figures 4(a) and (b).
Figure 3: Basic computation in order to simulate EL in a uniform
alternating field.
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A set of five figures will be obtained from the
Current Density (A/m2)
simulation model as shown by Figure 4(a-e). These are

the computation results by applying 50Hz sinusoidal
voltage of 80kV/mm applied field.
A. Simulation of EL at 80kV/mm
Figures 4(a) and 4(b) both show the computation
results of electric field at the injecting electrode, E0. Due
to the iteration process using Runge-Kutta method to Time (s)
solve for E0, the values are computed for 8 cycles to Figure 4(c): Current density, j due to the significant charge
injection.
737
Figures 4(d) and (e) illustrate the first 200 and the last B. Simulation of EL under various applied field
two cycles of the computed EL emission respectively. Figure 5 shows the simulation of EL as a result of
These results are based on the numerical values applying 50Hz sinusoidal voltage with peak values of 10-
calculated for E0 and j for 200 cycles of the applied 50kV on a 100µm thick polymer. By increasing the
voltage shown in Figures 4(b) and (c). voltage applied, more electrical charges are injected into
It can be seen from the simulated EL in Figure 4(d) the material and this will lead to more recombination
that the light intensity increases with time and then processes; causing a higher EL level. This trend closely
achieves steady-state condition. Steady-state is achieved resembles a number of established results by other
when amount of charge injected into deep traps each half researchers [26-28].
cycle is balanced by that lost due to recombination of
charge carriers each half cycle.
EL Intensity (a.u.)
EL Intensity (a.u.)
Time (s)
Figure 5: EL emission under various applied field.

Time (s)
Figure 4 (d): The first 200 cycles of EL emission. From the simulation of EL, the effect of applied field
on the phase difference can be analyzed and the result is
plotted in Figure 6. From this result, it can be seen that
The similarity in the wave shape in Figure 4(e) EL phase difference increases with the increase of
compared with that of current density, as shown voltage applied. As the applied field gets higher, more
previously in Figure 4 (c) demonstrates that EL is charges are injected into the polymeric sample and the
proportional to j and that the phase corresponding to the accumulation of these charges will saturate the overall
peaks in the EL intensity are also shifted to earlier times electric field distribution. This will then cause EL peaks
(and hence, increasing phase differences) when applied to be shifted away from their Laplacian counterparts.
voltage is increased. Similar observation was found from various phase-
It was also demonstrated that there are two points resolved experiments to measure EL [15, 29-30].
where the light intensity measured is highest, and these
peaks occur prior to the positive and negative peaks of
the alternating voltage waveform. Thus it can be deduced
that bipolar recombination processes might be the main
cause responsible for the occurrence of EL when polymer
Phase Difference (degrees/o)
is subjected to alternating electrical field.

EL Intensity (a.u.)
Applied Electric Field (kV/mm)
Figure 6: Phase difference of EL with respect to various applied field

under uniform alternating field.
CONCLUSION
Time (s) A model to simulate EL due to the application of ac
Figure 4 (e): Two cycles of EL emission at the steady state region. voltage under uniform field configuration was developed.
The model was based on the theories of charge injection,
space charge region formation and bipolar recombination
processes. However, more work still needs to be done on
738
the model in order to compare different types of Conference on Electrical Insulation and Dielectric Phenomena,
2007, pp. 772-5
experimental measurements accomplished by other
[16] K. Yang, G. J. Zhang, M. Dong and Z. Yan,
researchers. “Electroluminescence and Surface Trap Distribution in Polymeric
Insulation”, International Conference on Solid Dielectrics, July
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 2007, pp. 235-8
The authors would like to thank Ministry of Higher [17] A. Mohd Ariffin, P.L. Lewin and S.J. Dodd, “Comparison of
electroluminescence phenomenon in LDPE, PET and PEN under
Education (MOHE) for the funding and also Universiti the application of high electrical stress”, Annual Report
Tenaga Nasional (UNITEN) for the tremendous support. Conference on Electrical Insulation and Dielectric Phenomena,
2006, pp. 260-3
[18] D. Mary, D. Malec, M. Q. Nguyen, P. Werynski, B. Gornicka, L.
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[4] R. Vogelsang, O. Sekula, H. Nyffenegger and W. Weissenberg, July 2004.
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Materials under DC Stress”, Proceedings of 2001 International
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739
Evaluation of Fourier and wavelet analysis for

efficient recognition of broken rotor bar in
squirrel- cage induction machine
Mohammad Rezazadeh Mehrjou , Norman Mariun ,
Mohammad Hamiruce Marhaban , Norhisam Misron
Faculty of Engenering, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
University Putra Malaysia, 43400, Serdang ,Selangor, Malaysia
Mehrjou.mo@gmail.com , Norman@eng.upm.edu.my
Abstract—Incipient fault detection of the induction fails. Signal processing techniques are applied to the
machines (IM) prevents the unscheduled downtime and measured signals to generate parameters, which are
hence reduces maintenance costs. The Motor Current sensitive to the presence or absence of specific faults.
Signature Analysis (MCSA) is considered as an effective
fault detection method in any IM. However, a signal
Signal processing provides underlying information on
processing technique, which enhances the fault signature
and suppress the dominant system dynamics and noise must specific problems for the purpose of decision making. It
be considered. Frequency analysis as well as time-frequency can be carried out either in time domain, frequency
analysis is the most common signal processing methods. In domain or time-frequency domain. Time domain graphs
this paper, the effectiveness of these two analysis methods show how a signal changes over time and the analysis of
were investigated for incipient broken rotor bar detection. mathematical functions or physical signals is done with
Wavelet transform provides more accurate failure detection respect to time. In this case, the signal or function's value
in different operational circumstances. However, there are is known for all real numbers, for the case of continuous
different families in the wavelet analysis that affect the time, or at various separate instants in the case of discrete
efficiency of encoding, denoising, compressing, decomposing
time. However, this technique requires a very long data
and reconstructing the signal under observation.
Accordingly, it is desirable to select the powerful wavelet sequence and therefore the computational cost is high.
family, which produces the best results for the signal being Frequency domain graphs illustrate how much of the
analyzed. This research also investigated the analysis of signal lies within each given frequency band over a range
current signal using different families of wavelet for of frequencies. Analyzing the signal in frequency domain
effective detection of broken rotor bars in IM. often gives valuable information of the process operation.
For example, the current spectrum for a motor with
Keywords—Induction machine; Broken rotor bar; Motor broken rotor bar shows the characteristic frequencies
Current Signature Analysis; Fourier analysis; Wavelet
equal to (1±2s)fs sidebands around the fundamental
analysis
frequency. Where “s” is slip and “fs” is fundamental
I. INTRODUCTION frequency.
Squirrel-cage induction machines have large ranges of Recently, signal processing methods in time-frequency
the types and applications. Although the squirrel-cage domain like Wavelet transform have been proposed and
rotor is rugged, broken rotor bar does occur. Once a bar developed. Simultaneous time and frequency analysis can
breaks, the condition of the neighboring bars also be performed by wavelet analysis techniques:
deteriorates progressively due to increased stresses. To decomposing original signal into different frequency
prevent such a cumulative destructive process, the levels. Fourier analysis of a given signal generates the
problem should be detected early, that is, when the bars similar coefficients all the time, because the basis
are beginning to crack. The rotor failures do not initially functions are always the same family of complex
cause the induction machines to fail, but they bring about exponentials. The coefficients producing from wavelet
secondary effects that lead to serious malfunctions in analysis however are different depending on the wavelet
motors. The severity of the failures inevitably increases family selected. There are some circumstances that must
and reaches the unacceptable operating conditions [1]. be fulfilled for a function to be considered as a wavelet
function [4]. These conditions require the function to be
The machine problem and irregularity can be detected at orthogonal as well as oscillatory, and also to decay
an early stage using a suitable condition monitoring and rapidly to zero. Some examples of the common wavelet
signal processing techniques. There is a consensus in functions include the wavelet functions from Daubechies,
scientific literature that motor current signature analysis Coiflets and Biorthogonal.
(MCSA) is the most constructive and reliable technique
for broken rotor bar detection [2,3]. However, without an There are two kinds of wavelet transform: continuous
effective signal processing method, the fault detection wavelet transform (CWT) and discrete wavelet transform
(DWT). CWT is defined as the sum over all time of the
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 740

signal multiplied by scaled, shifted versions of the data acquisition system, namely NI-PCI 6052E and SCXI
wavelet function. CWT takes a long time due to 1125&1140 (National Instrument). The motor current
calculating the wavelet coefficient at all scales and it data was sampled at 20kHz, i.e., 32768 samples was
produces many data. To overcome such a disadvantage, obtained at measured time of 1.63s. For Fourier analysis,
discrete wavelet transform (DWT) has been defined to 32768 sample was used. For wavelet analysis, 2048
analyze the signals with a smaller set of scales and sample was used. Data analysis was performed using
specific number of translations at each scale [5]. DWT MATLAB software.
utilizes a discrete range (in power of 2) of scales and
shifts. In practical applications, DWT is more beneficial
because of the shorter computational time [6]. Fig.1
illustrates the implementation procedure of a Discrete
WT (DWT), in which signal is the original signal, LPF
and HPF are the low-pass and high-pass filters
respectively.
Figure1. Implementation of DWT Figure2. Experimental setup
Lee et al. [7] carried out induction motor fault detection

using Wavelet and Fourier transformations of stator
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
current. However, the motor condition tested was not
fully described, for example, the number of broken rotor This study is intended to study the accuracy of two
bar and motor load were not mentioned. Besides that, a common signal processing namely, Fourier analysis and
single family was applied for wavelet analysis. In a wavelet for incipient diagnosis of broken rotor bar in
relevant study, Faiz et al. [8] also investigated Fourier induction machine. In this respect, a current signal from
and wavelet analysis of the stator current for broken rotor healthy motor and motors with different number of
bar detection. Abbaszadeh et al. [9] studied wavelet broken bars were first sensed. The primary current was
analysis for broken rotor bar detection. Faiz et al. [8] and measured during the steady-state working of a motor.
Abbaszadeh [9] used Daubechies as wavelet function for Fluctuations in current waveforms were then analyzed by
signal analysis. It is worth mentioning that the Fourier and discrete wavelet transform (DWT) using the
decomposed signal depends on the type of wavelet MATLAB environment. It was then tried to found
function used. This research is intended to investigate the diagnostic information in the spectrum of the signal.
ability of both techniques, Fourier and wavelet analysis,
for incipient broken rotor bar detection. Besides that, the Fig.3 to Fig.6 illustrates the frequency domain of current
performance of different wavelet function for signal for healthy and faulty machines at different load. It is
analysis was examined. clear that when the level of load is low, fault detection is
not possible using the current frequency domain. In other
words, presence of one or two broken bars is not detected
II. EXERIMENTAL at low torques, 0.4 and 2.6 Nm. This observation can be
Experimental data including current, voltage, torque and attributed to the dependence of the fault related frequency
speed was acquired from the healthy motor and faulty component, (1±2s)fs , to slip (s). At low load condition,
motor in identical condition with different loads. The where the slip is small, this component corresponding to
motor was coupled to AC generator that acts as a load. fault will be near to the fundamental component, fs.
Fig.2 shows the experimental setup used in this study. Therefore, the sidebands are obscured by supply
The main characteristics of the tested motors were star frequency. In other hand, when the motor is under full
connection, rated voltage: 415 V, rated power: 750W, 6 load, the fault related component is far enough from the
poles, primary rated current: 2.2 A, rated speed: 1000 fundamental component and then it can be clearly
rpm. The number of rotor bars is 28. The rotor bar detected in frequency domain of the motor stator current.
breakage was forced in the laboratory, opening the Accordingly, Fourier analysis cannot provide reliable
motors and drilling artificially. The current signals were information for broken rotor bar detection when the
measured under a fixed condition. The sensor board motor is under light load as well as when only one of the
comprised of Hall Effect current and voltage sensors, LA- rotor bar has been broken. This achievement confirms
25P and LV-25P by LEM . Torque and speed were used the strong requirement of more advanced signal
for checking the same situation in each test. The processing for incipient broken rotor bar detection.
experimental results were obtained using a high-speed
741
Figure3. Frequency domain of the motors current at 0.40Nm Figure6. Frequency domain of the motors current at 6.25Nm
In this study, the original current signal was decomposed

into 10 levels using wavelet transform. Each level has its
own detailed coefficients and a determined range of
frequencies, as shown in Tables 1. It is clear that the
frequencies of sidebands are located in the frequency
range corresponding to detail 8. Therefore, this level of
decomposition is selected for wavelet analysis of stator
current for broken rotor bar detection.
TABLE.1.
FREQUENCY RANGES FOR WAVELET DECOMPOSITION OF SIGNAL.
Decomposition details Frequency ranges
(Hz)
Detail at level 1 20000-10000
Figure4. Frequency domain of the motors current at 2.60Nm
Detail at level 5 625-312.5
Detail at level 6 312.5-156.25
When a signal is decomposed, a number of detailed

coefficients are generated at each detail. 10 sets of data
(10 signals) were acquired for each circumstance. The
energy of detail 8th for each test was computed from the
transformed signals by using different wavelet functions,
such as Daubechies, Coiflets and Biorthogonal. The
Figure5. Frequency domain of the motors current at 4.00Nm average and standard deviation of the energy for each
condition was computed and summarized in Table 2.
These information was used for extraction of features
related to the fault. The energy ratios for the wavelet
In further study the current signal was analyzed by more signals using Daubechies 6 and Biorthogonal 6.8 show a
advanced signal processing technique, wavelet. Multi clear energy increase in faulty conditions. However,
resolution analysis was used for decomposing of the Coiflet 5 does not follow the trend in one cases at the
signal to extract suitable features related to fault. In load equal to 4 Nm. Therefore, this family can not
multiresolution analysis (Fig. 1), a signal is decomposed provide an accurate predictive diagnosis method.
into different sub-bands, levels, that each band covers a Comparing the standard deviation of the Daubechies 6
certain frequency range. and Biorthogonal6.8, it is fair to infer that
742
Biorthogonal6.8 provides more reliable information for
incipient broken rotor bar detection.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
TABLE.2. The authors gratefully acknowledge Universiti Putra
The average and standard deviation of the energy for healthy and faulty Malaysia for their support.
motor under different conditions
Wavelet Biorthogonal REFERENCES
Coiflet 5 Daubechies 6
Function 6.8
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Mean STD Mean STD Mean STD IEEE Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 20, pp. 135–141, 2005.
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IV. CONCLUSIONS Motors Using Starting Current Analysis,” Power Electronics and
Applications,European Conference, pp. – p.10, 2005.
In this study, two common signal processing namely, [7] S. H. Lee, S.-P. Cheon, Y. Kim, and S. Kim,“Fourier and Wavelet
Fourier analysis and wavelet analysis were investigated Transformations for the Fault Detection of Induction Motor with
for incipient broken rotor bar detection at different levels Stator Current,” Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg,ICIC, pp. 557
of load. Frequency analysis does not provide predictive – 569, 2006.
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motors using finite element method”, Energy Conversion and
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depends on which wavelet function is used. Detecting of Toliyat,”Broken bar detection in induction motor via wavelet
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Industrial Electronics Society, IECON 2001, vol.1, pp. 95-99,
significant achievement using Biorthogonal 6.8 analysis 2001.
of current signal. Moreover, small number of sample was
used for wavelet analysis compared to Fourier analysis.
743
A new rotor position detection method using

bifilar windings and resonant circuit in SRM drive
A. R. Kazemi, M. Asgar, E. Afjei, A. Siadatan
Evin, Tehran, IRAN
m_asgar@sbu.ac.ir
Abstract – This paper presents a new method for indirect have found applications in the detection of the rotor
sensing of rotor position in a switched reluctance motor position in switched reluctance motors [12], [13].
using bifilar windings in a resonant circuit. The detection
method stems from the fact that the changes in sine wave II. PRINCIPLE OF RESONANT CIRCUITS
magnitude produced in a RLC resonant circuit by motor
variable phase inductance can be used to detect the rotor Rotor position detection in this paper is performed by
position. The proposed method is applicable at standstill as the measurement of the gain variations in a series
well as the running mode. The use of bifilar windings for resonant RLC circuit, where L is the phase inductance of
rotor position detection makes the control circuit to be SRM. Resonance frequency in a circuit can be determined
completely isolated from main winding and the power
transistors. It also results in simple hardware which by the capacitance, and inductance values. For the series
minimizes the cost of drive circuitry. The proposed method resonance the condition of resonance is straightforward
was implemented on a 3-phase 6/4 SRM with bifilar and it is characterized by minimum impedance and zero
windings and the experimental results demonstrated the phase angle for the output voltage. A series RLC circuit
accuracy and function ability of this method. is shown in Fig. 1.
Index Terms—Switched reluctance motor, Bifilar drive,
Resonant circuit.
I. INTRODUCTION
S witched Reluctance Motor (SRM) has become one of

the attractive ALTERNATIVES in the different variable
speed applications. Simple structure and low cost are
two of the most important reasons for this popularity [1-
4]. Fig.1: Series RLC circuit.
Having no windings or permanent magnet in rotor are
the most significant advantages of this motor, but they In this circuit it is assumed that the values of resistance
need a mechanism to detect the rotor position for proper and capacitance are fixed but the inductance varies
operation of the motor. The use of direct shaft position between Lmin and Lmax. In this circuit the impedance can
sensors for this task increases the cost of the drive system be expressed as follows:
and machine size in addition to reducing the system ⎛ 1 ⎞
reliability. The use of SRMs in the sensitive applications Z ( jω ) = R + j ⎜ Lω − ⎟ (1)
such as aerospace and automotive industries requires the ⎝ Cω ⎠
need for highly reliable and fault tolerant methods.
Therefore several approaches to eliminate the position Therefore, the voltage gain can be rewritten as:
sensors have been reported [4-10].
The main idea for rotor position detection is to use the
relationship between the rotor position, the phase current, V ( jω )
R
G( jω ) = (2)
out
and the flux linkage [2]. The measurements of different =
motor parameters can be performed on an energized or V ( jω ) ⎛ 2⎞
in ⎜ R 2 + ⎛ Lω − 1 ⎞ ⎟
un-energized phase. By measuring the electrical
⎜ ⎜ ⎟
parameters of active phase and processing the results, ⎝ Cω ⎠ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
rotor position can be detected. The mutual induced
voltage and current gradient sensing methods are among
the examples of this group [8], [9]. Considering (2), at resonant frequency, the gain will be
In the other group rotor position is extracted by at its maximum value and is equal to unity:
injecting high frequency and low level signals to an
1
unenergized phase and processing the result. Modulation
techniques and injection of diagnostic pulses are the
f = (3)
2π LC
examples of these methods [10], [11].
There are also some intelligent control methods based
on artificial neural network (ANN) and fuzzy control that
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 744

At this frequency the impedance is at its minimum Table1: Motor Ratings
value. In other words when the impedance is at its Stator core outer diameter 72mm
minimum value then the resonant frequency is produced. Stator core inner diameter 62mm
In proposed method the resonant frequency is selected Rotor pole arc 32°
using the minimum inductance value (Lmin), meaning, the Stator pole arc 28°
rotor pole and stator pole are completely in unaligned Stack length 35mm
position. In this position the gain has maximum value Air gap .25mm
and with an increase in phase inductance value the gain
Rotor core outer diameter 39.5mm
will decrease. As the rotor turns, the phase inductance
will increase therefore the gain will be reduced. Rotor shaft diameter 10mm
Number of turns per pole 100
III. PROPOSED METHOD Maximum inductance Lmax 25mH
Minimum inductance Lmin 5mH
The proposed method is based on inductance
variations in each phase of SRM, these variations will
change the gain of a resonant RLC circuit which is made
up of the phase inductance and a capacitor in series and
rotor position is detected by measurement of these gain
variations. In order to control and run a SRM, two modes
of operation namely standstill and rotation modes are
considered. In standstill mode the first phase for initial
excitation must be selected, for this purpose a sinusoidal
voltage is applied to RLC circuit in each phase (where L
is the phase inductance) and by comparing the output
voltage magnitude in three phases and considering the
direction of rotation proper phase is selected. In rotation
mode, only one phase is excited and a sinusoidal voltage
is applied to RLC circuit of an un-energized phase and
output voltage magnitude is measured to detect the rotor
position. The frequency of sinusoidal voltage is selected Fig. 2: 6/4 three- phase SRM
to be equal to resonance frequency of RLC circuit when L
(phase inductance) has its minimum value. Fig. 3 shows the control block diagram of whole
The motor is a 6/4, 3- phases, 12V switched reluctance control system, which completely controls and runs SRM
as shown in Fig. 2 with the following specifications: in two modes of operation. This control block diagram
consists of several blocks.
Fig. 3: Block Diagram for the motor control
The first block is a bifilar converter which has a switch, a diode and two windings per phase. When the
745
switch is on, the current passes through main winding square waves are generated. The microcontroller
and energizes the related phase and when the switch is measures and compares the pulse width of these square
turned off, the current passes through secondary winding waves and therefore compares the aligning between rotor
in the shown direction and returns energy back to power pole and stator pole in three phases. Fig. 5, shows the
supply. Also, an RLC circuit exists for each phase, in square waves for three phases. As it is seen from this
which L is the inductance of secondary winding. The figure the pulse width of phase A is lower than phase B
second block is a sine wave generator which produces a and C, therefore the alignment between rotor pole and
sinusoidal voltage that has its frequency equal to stator pole in phase A is more than phase B or C.
resonance frequency of RLC circuit. There is an analog
switch for each phase. When this switch is on, the
sinusoidal voltage is applied to RLC circuit of related
phase.
The next section is the comparator. This section
receives the output voltage of RLC circuit and compares
it with a reference voltage and gives a pulse voltage. By
measuring the pulse width of output voltage, the
magnitude of input sinusoidal voltage is approximated.
The last part is decision section which consists of an
AVR microcontroller ATMEGA16. Microcontroller
receives and analyses the input signal and makes the
proper decisions for the correct selection of the motor
phase. The PWM which is an internal part of the
microcontroller produces the proper pulse-width. Also
the microcontroller determines the proper timing to turn
on the analog switches to apply sinusoidal voltage to
RLC circuit of the related phase. This system goes from Fig. 4: Output voltage for three phases
one to other mode automatically according to the rated
speed and vice versa. The direction of rotation is selected
by user prior to standstill mode.
A. First mode of operation: Standstill mode
In this mode the proper phase for initial excitation
must be selected. Two factors are considered to select the
first phase, first is the direction of rotation and second is
the amount of aligning between rotor pole and stator pole
for the three phases. Considering that the direction of
rotation is selected by the user and the other factor must
be determined in standstill mode. For this purpose a
sinusoidal voltage is applied to three phases. The
frequency of this voltage is equal to resonance frequency
of RLC circuit when the phase inductance (L) has its
minimum value and that is when the rotor pole and stator
pole are completely in unaligned position. The value of R Fig. 5: Comparator output for three phases
and C are fixed, but the value of L varies between Lmin B. Second mode of operation: Rotation mode
and Lmax. The minimum inductance (Lmin) of the motor
In this mode one of the motor phases is energized and
phase and the value of capacitor (C) in RLC circuit is
freewheeling current still exists in the previous active
equal to 5mH and 100nF, respectively. Therefore, by
phase. In the rotation mode the proper time to turn off
considering (3) the frequency of input sinusoidal voltage
active phase and turn on the next phase must be
is calculated. This frequency is equal to 14.55 kHz.
determined. The measurements are conducted only on
There is an inverse relation between phase inductance
one of the motor phases which is, in fact, the next phase
(L) and the gain of RLC circuit and consequently the
in the sequence of excitement. The sinusoidal voltage is
magnitude of output voltage. It is note worthy to mention
applied to RLC circuit of the next phase in sequence of
that the more aligned is the rotor pole with respect to
excitement and the magnitude of output voltage varies by
stator pole, the higher is the phase inductance and
variation of alignment between rotor pole and stator pole.
therefore the lower is the output voltage magnitude. By
With excitement of the active phase the aligning in this
measuring and comparing the magnitude of RLC output
phase increases while the aligning in next phase
voltage for the three phases and considering the direction
decreases. When rotor pole in active phase reaches its full
of rotation the proper phase for initial excitation is
alignment with respect to stator pole, this phase must be
selected.
turned off and next phase must be turned on. In this
Fig. 4, shows the output voltage of three phases. These
position the rotor pole in next phase reaches its full
voltages are compared with a reference voltage and three
746
unalignment with respect to stator pole and the phase Fig. 8, shows the output voltage of RLC circuit in an
inductance has its minimum value and as it has been unenergized phase at the time of excitation of active
mentioned before the RLC circuit resonates, therefore the phase. The input sine wave and the excitation voltage of
magnitude of output voltage has its maximum value. the active phase are also shown in fig. 9. As shown in
Fig. 6, shows the control algorithm for standstill and this figure the amplitude of output voltage increases until
also running modes. As shown in this figure, after that in reaches its maximum value. At this time the active phase
standstill mode the first phase for initial excitation is is turned off and next phase is turned on.
selected, the sinusoidal voltage is applied to an
unenergized phase and the magnitude of output voltage is
compared with maximum value. When it reaches
maximum value, the active phase is turned off and by
considering the direction of rotation the next phase is
turned on. This procedure is repeated for other phases and
the motor continues its correct rotation.
Fig. 7: Gate signal for power transistors
Fig. 8: Sine wave applied to RLC circuit for three phases
Fig. 6: The control flowchart for two modes
IV. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

The proposed method was implemented on a 3-phases
6/4 bifilar SRM. The experimental results demonstrated Fig. 9: The input sine wave and output voltage in unenergized phase at
the functionalability of proposed method. Fig. 7, shows the time of excitation of active phase
the gate signal used for the three power transistors used
to drive the motor. The sinusoidal voltages applied to
RLC circuit of three phases are shown in fig. 8. As it has
been mentioned before, the frequency of these voltages is
14.55 kHz.
747
[4] E. Afjei, M. Asgar, S. Ataei, “A New modified bifilar Drive
V. CONCLUSIONS Circuit for Switched Reluctance Motor” Power system technology
Different issues such as importance and various kinds and IEEE Power India Conference, 12-15 Oct. 2008.
of sensorless methods were studied and a new sensorless [5] Lyons, j. p., MacMinn, S.R. and Preston, M.A., Flux/ Current
methods for SRM rotor position estimation. IEEE – IAS Conf.
method using resonance circuit on bifilar windings was Rec., 19991, pp. 482-487.
described. The proposed method was implemented on a [6] Husain, I., Sodhi, S. and Ehsani, M., “Sliding mode observer
3-phase SRM with bifilar drive and experimental results based control for switched reluctance motors,” IEEE-IAS Conf.
demonstrated the functionality and performance of the Rec., 1994, pp. 635-643.
[7] Husain, I. and Ehsani, M., “Rotor position sensing in switched
method. The most important advantages of the proposed reluctance motor drives by measuring mutually induced voltages,”
method can be summarized as follows: IEEE Tran. On Ind. Appl., Vol. 30, 1994, No. 3, pp. 665-672.
1- It is applicable at standstill and rotational modes. [8] Bellini A., Filippetti F., Franceschini G Tassoni C., and Vas P.
2- In order to use the secondary winding for rotor “position sensorless control of a SRM drive using ANN
techniques, Conf. Rec. IEEE Ind. Appl. Soc., Oct. 1998, pp. 709-
position detection the control circuit is 714.
completely isolated from main windings and [9] Mese E., and D. A. Torrey, “Sensorless position estimation for VR
power transistors. machine using artificial neural networks”, Conf. Rec. IEEE Ind.
3- Simplicity of hardware and algorithm minimizes Appl. Soc., Oct. 1997, pp. 540-547.
[10] Z. Wang, A. D. Cheok, and L. K. Wee, “Sensorless rotor position
the cost of drive. estimation algorithm for switched reluctance motors using fuzzy
logic”, Proc. Power electronics Specialist conf., vol. 3, Cairns,
Australia, June 7, 2001, pp. 1701-1706
[11] R. Krishnan, “Switched Reluctance Motor Drive: Modeling,
VI. REFERENCES simulation, Analysis, design and application”, Magna physics
[1] Perl, T.; Husain, I.; Elbuluk, M. “Design trends and trade-offs for publishing, 2001
sensorless operation of switched reluctance motor drives.” Ind. [12] Babak Fahimi, Ali Emadi, and Raymond B. Sepe, “Four-quadrant
Appl. Conf., 1995. Thirtieth IAS Annual Meeting, IAS ’95, position sensorless control in SRM drives over the entire speed
Conference Record of the 1995 IEEE. Oct. 1995. Akron Univ., range”. IEEE Trans. on Power electronics, Vol. 20, No. 1, 2005,
OH, USA, PP. 278-285. pp. 154-163.
[2] Acarnley, P.P., Hill, R.J. and Hooper, C.W, “Detection of rotor [13] S. Housain, I. husain, H. Klode, A. Omekanda, and S.
position in stepping and switched reluctance motors by monitoring Gopalakrishan, “Four quadrant and zero speedsensorless control
current waveforms,” IEEE Trans. Industrial Electronics, Vol. IE – of switched reluctance motor,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl.,vol. 39, no.
32 (1985), No. 3, pp. 215-222. 5, sept. 2003 pp. 1343-1349.
[3] Ehsani, M., Husain, I., Mahajan, S. and Ramani, K.R. “new
modulation techniques for rotor position sensing in switched
reluctance motors,” IEEE Trans. on Industry Applications, Vol. 30
(1994), No. 1, pp. 85-91.
748
Optimizing the Magnetic Dimensions for

Maximum Thrust in High Density Transverse Flux
Linear Motor
M.R.Zare*, M.Norhisam*, N.Mariun*, I.Aris*, Wakiwaka**, M. Nirei***

*
University Putra Malaysia, norhisam@eng.upm.edu.my
**
Shinshu University, Japan,
***
Nagano National College of Technology, Japan
Abstract— This paper describes the optimization of the are larger magnetic leakage flux in coils, larger inductance,
magnetic dimensions for maximum thrust for a High Thrust which leads to a low power factor, complex structure with
Density Transverse Flux Linear Motor (HDTFLM). 3D magnetic circuit. High Density Linear Motor (HDLM)
HDTFLM is a novel structure with combination of a typical has a high density flux flow in the air gap with small
High Thrust Density Linear Motor (HDLM) and Transverse magnets compared to TFLM [9].
Flux Linear Motor (TFLM) structure. The magnetic circuit of HDTFLM is a combination of High thrust density Linear
HDTFLM is different compared to conventional three phase
Motor (HDLM) and Transverse Flux Linear motors
linear motor because it has independences magnetic circuit on
each phase. The optimization of maximum thrust is achieved (TFLM). With this structure, motor has 3D magnetic
by varying the thickness and height of the permanent magnet. circuit. The flux flow is perpendicular to the motion
This paper reports the optimized dimensional values for the direction that means it is a well-known transverse flux
HDTFLM structure for maximum thrust development. motor, and structure of the mover poles is similar to the
high thrust density linear motors. Since each phase has four
Keywords— permanent magnet, linear motor, high thrust separate magnetic circuits the robustness of the system is
density, transverse flux enhanced with high fault tolerance capability. These
magnetic circuits also are separate from other phases so
unlike the HDLM, each phase of this model able to produce
I. INTRODUCTION the required thrust force. The three phase symmetrical
structure reduces the normal force to zero and the cogging
Linear motors have been used in wide application in the force is also near zero.
transportation systems and factories as the there is no The main objective of this paper is to study effect on
necessity for gearbox and rotary to linear converters [1-2]. thrust of HDTFLM by changing the permanent magnet
Most of the linear motors are longitudinal with the flux dimension. The width and height of permanent magnet are
flow is parallel to direction of movement. Some advantages varied with the mover size unchanged. 3D-FEM is used for
of the linear motors are low noise, reduce operation cost, simulation to determine the thrust and cogging force.
and increase flexibility (gearless feature) , But the most
important disadvantage of Linear Motor is low power II. STRUCTURAL FEATURES
density[3]. To overcome to this problem, the transfer flux
structure with permanent magnet exciter is proposed in The basic structure of the HDTFLM is shown in Figure
recent years. In transfer flux linear motors (TFLM) with 1. HDTFLM is a hybrid structure TFLM and HDLM that
permanent magnet exciter flux flow is three-dimensional has the motor has a 3D-magnetic circuit, the flux flow
(3-D) and perpendicular to direction of movement and being perpendicular to the motion direction. The mover
permanent magnet increase the flux density in air gap [1]. pole is similar to the high density linear motors with the
The power density, efficiency and power factor are all normal force near to zero due to the symmetrical structure.
greater than an conventional linear motor[4]. Most Also the magnetic circuit of each phase does not depend on
advantages of TFLMs are: direct linear motion with high the magnetic circuit of another phase and therefore each
power density, high force density per volume and high phase is capable of producing the thrust force. The mover
efficiency and also there is not rivalry between iron space consists of three phase, two side, eighteen coils and 54
and coil space [1-2, 5-8], but the disadvantage of TFLMs magnets. The permanent magnets embedded in the mover
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 749

are magnetized along the moving direction with alternative Figure 2 shows flux flow in single phase of the
polarity. These arrangements produce a high flux density in HDTFLM model. This model is a combination of HD and
the air gap. By using six surfaces in each phase the thrust TF structures. The flux flow is perpendicular to the motion
force is increased and also robustness of the system is direction that means it is a well-known transverse flux
enhanced with its high fault tolerance capability. In motor. Each phase has six surfaces in two sides and each
compared with HDLM the magnetic circuit of each phase in phase has four separate magnetic circuits that this enhances
of HDTFLM is independent and the polarity of produced robustness of motor.
force depends only on current and not the relative position
of mover. Any change in coil current, the flux flow path in
tooth of the mover gets changed by permanent magnets and I. PARAMETRIC VARIATIONS
direction of attraction between mover and stator thereby
changes. Table 1 gives the specifications of the HDTFLM. Using
these characteristics the available total force can be
calculated as a function of flux density[10]. Figure 3 shows
the various dimensioning on a single pole.
Table 1. Specification of the HDTFLM

Parameter Sy Valu Unit
mbol e
Airgap g 0.1 mm
Pole pitch 16 mm
Height of PM Hpm 8- 14 mm
Width of PM Wpm 3-6 mm
Length of PM Lpm 30 mm
Number of PM 54
Number of Phase 3
Number of Coil 18
Number of turn N 200 Turns
Current of coil I 5 A
Figure 1. HDTFLM internal structure
τ
Figure 3. Dimensioning the model
Figure 4 shows the prototype model of HDTFLM.

Dimension of permanent magnet that is used for
experimental are 4 mm width and 10 mm length with single
phase excitation. The thrust and cogging forces are
measured using the load cell and a displacement sensor is
Figure 2. Flux flow in single phase
used to measure the displacement. Figure 5 shows the
simulation and experimental results for the thrust on 500AT
750
of three phases with 120 degree of equal phase and 14mm). The maximum thrust force obtained at 4mm
displacement according to the mover position for one pitch. width that is 643.9N.
This figure shows the static thrust of the motor. By using Figure 7 shows the thrust characteristics with 6mm
three phases, the cogging is reduced and does not have permanent magnet width and with different permanent
major effect on thrust force. The experimental results of the magnet height. This figure shows that increase on
prototype motor are in good agreement with the simulation permanent magnet width cause saturation on iron and thrust
results. By using a special drive and switch the current force gets decreased.
between phases a constant thrust can be produced.
Figure 4. Prototype model of the HDTLM
Figure 6. Thrust force characteristics

(width:4 mm height:8mm,10mm,12mm and14mm)
Figure 5. Thrust characteristics
IV. THRUST OPTIMIZATION OF HDTFLM

Figure 7. Thrust force characteristics
To get maximum thrust, permanent magnet dimensions
(width:6 mm height:8mm,10mm,12mm and14mm)
are selected as variable for finding the optimum dimension.
With a fixed pole pitch dimension and by optimizing the
dimensions the required changes on mover iron is achieved. Figure 8 compares flux density for 3 mm and 6 mm
However the optimization is limited to the saturation in the width of permanent magnet flux flow. The dense area
mover iron and ability of make a permanent magnet with marked in Figure 8 shows the saturation area. With increase
minimum thickness. For these reasons the height of magnet the permanent magnet width the iron thickness decreases
is selected from 5mm to 14 mm and for each height the that causes the iron to saturate in Figure 8-b easily. Figure
thickness of permanent magnet are changed from 3 to 6 9 shows the maximum thrust force by changing in the
mm. Figure 6 shows the variable of thrust characteristics permanent magnet dimension. This figure shows that the
for fixed width (4mm) on permanent magnet at four optimal dimension of permanent magnet for getting
different height of permanent magnets (8mm,10mm, 12mm maximum thrust is 4mm width and 14 mm height of
permanent magnet. This maximum thrust force is 643.9N
751
that is 49.27% bigger than the lowest maximum thrust force V. CONCLUSION
achieved by permanent magnet width 3mm and 8mm height
(431.35 N). This figure also shows that increase in In this paper, a novel HDTFLM is introduced and the
thickness of permanent magnet more than 4 mm reduces the optimal dimensioning to generate higher thrust is presented.
thrust force due to decrease in iron thickness and saturation. The magnetic circuit of this model is different in compared
to the conventional three phase linear motor because it has
separation magnetic circuit as each phase can produce
thrust force. Thrust and cogging force are calculated by 3-D
FEM. Optimum parameter of mover to produce maximum
thrust in fixed pole pitch is derived. The results show that
increase in permanent magnet thickness more than 4mm
reduces the thrust force. The dynamic thrust with rated
current at rated load will measure in future after providing a
special drive.
REFERENCE
a: flux density with 3 mm PM width
[1] J. Chang, et al., "Development of Transverse Flux
Linear Motor with Permanent-Magnet Excitation for
Direct Drive Applications," IEEE Transaction on
Magnetic, vol. 41, 2005.
[2] J.-Y. Lee, et al., "Computation of Inductance and
Static Thrust of a Permanent-Magnet-Type Transverse
Flux Linear Motor," IEEE Transaction on Industry
Application, vol. 42, 2006.
[3] J.-Y. Lee, et al., "Analysis of Permanent Magnet Type
Transverse Flux Linear Motor by Coupling 2D Finite
Element Method on 3D Equivalent Magnetic Circuit
b: flux density with 6 mm PM width Network Method," presented at the IAS, 2004.
[4] D. H. Kang, et al., "Analysis and optimal design of
Figure 8. Flux flow density for two models transverse flux linear motor with PM excitation for
railway traction," in IEE Proc.-Electr. Power AppL,
2003.
[5] Y. Guo, et al., "Development of a PM Transverse Flux
Motor With Soft Magnetic Composite Core," IEEE
Transaction on Energy Conversion, vol. 21, 2006.
[6] G. Baoming, et.al., "Design of Transverse Flux Linear
Switched Reluctance Motor," IEEE Transactions on
Magnetics, vol. 45, 2009.
[7] H. Polinder, et al., "Conventional and TFPM linear
generators for direct-drive wave energy conversion,"
Energy Conversion, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 20,
pp. 260-267, 2005.
[8] L. Ji-Young, et al., "Determination of Parameters
Considering Magnetic Nonlinearity in Solid Core
Transverse Flux Linear Motor for Dynamic
Simulation," Magnetics, IEEE Transactions on, vol.
44, pp. 1566-1569, 2008.
[9] M. Norhisam and et.al., "Design of a high thrust
Figure 9. Maximum thrust force chart for optimising the interior permanent magnet linear synchronous motor
PM dimension and its characteristics," presented at the The third
international symposium on linear derives for industry
applications, 2001.
752
Fuzzy Logic based DTC for Speed Control of

Matrix Converter fed Induction Motor
Chitra Venugopal*
* University of Kwazulu Natal/School of Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering, South Africa.
Abstract—This paper presents the fuzzy inference system semiconductors is the major disadvantage of matrix
for selecting the switch states of matrix converter using converter.
Direct Torque Control Technique to control the speed of The control of torque and speed in variable frequency
induction motor. In this system, two fuzzy controllers are induction motor drives can be achieved by two common
used. One fuzzy controller estimates the voltage and the strategies namely, direct torque control and field oriented
other fuzzy controller is used to select the switching vector control. Field oriented control involves co-ordinate
based on the voltage vector selected by the first fuzzy transforms and current regulators. Direct Torque Control
controller. DTC using fuzzy controller is designed and (DTC) technique is attractive due to its simplicity and
implemented for Matrix Converter fed Induction Motor robust control scheme which achieves quick and precise
The results are compared with the conventional DTC
torque control response. The combination of the
controller fed Matrix Converter drive The speed and torque
advantages of the matrix converter with those of the DTC
response of both the controllers are analyzed under various
method has gained much attraction in recent research. The
operating conditions. It is observed that the fuzzy controller
performance is better than the conventional controller.
common disadvantages of DTC are high electromagnetic
torque ripple which leads to the raising stator current
Keywords — Matrix Converter; Direct Torque Control;
distortion noise and slow transient response to the step
changes in torque during start-up. These disadvantages
Fuzzy logic Controller; Induction Motor
can be removed by artificial intelligence techniques like
neural networks, fuzzy logic and genetic algorithms.
I. INTRODUCTION
In DTC technique stator flux and torque can be
Many of the industrial applications require AC-AC controlled directly and independently by properly
converters to achieve variable amplitude and variable selecting the switching state configuration. The switching
frequency outputs. There are two AC-AC conversion state is the control variable for matrix converter. In this
topologies available namely, Cycloconverters and Matrix paper, fuzzy logic technique is used to select the voltage
Converters. Cycloconverter can change the output vectors and hence the switching states.
frequency lower than the input frequency perfectly but
changing of output frequency higher than the input The aim of this paper is to investigate the performance
frequency has got limitations due to the amount of ripples of matrix converter fed induction motor where the
at the output. Matrix converters can change the output switching states of matrix converter is selected by using
frequency higher than the input frequency highly better fuzzy logic controller and DTC technique. Simulation
than cycloconverters because there is no limitation on the model of matrix converter is designed. Fuzzy logic based
output frequency but only on the amplitude of the output DTC technique is implemented to control the induction
which is smaller than the input. This limitation can also be motor parameters. Simulation results demonstrating the
solved by over modulation technique. Hence, matrix effectiveness of the proposed control scheme is presented.
converters drives for induction motors has become widely In Section II, Matrix Converter topology and switching
popular in recent years not only because of its capability combinations are discussed. In Section III, conventional
of variable frequency but also due its advantages such as DTC method is presented. In Section IV, Design of Fuzzy
bi-directional power flow, sinusoidal output voltage and logic controller is shown. In Section V, the simulation
sinusoidal input current with adjustable displacement model of complete fuzzy logic based DTC controller with
angel. Due to the lack of energy storage dc link, the matrix converter is described. In Section VI, the results of
converter size is also reduced considerably. As a result, it conventional DTC control for Matrix converter are
has become good alternative for the conventional Voltage compared with Fuzzy based DTC control for Matrix
Source Inverters. Converter under different input conditions.
One of the important limitations of matrix converters is II. MATRIX CONVERTER SWITCHING STATE
the requirement of large power semiconductors to
implement the bi-directional switches. This has overcome A. Basic Topology of Matrix Converter
now with the introduction of power modules which has The matrix converter (MC)[1] shown in Fig. 1 is single
got the complete power circuit of the converter in a single stage converter with m x n bi-directional power switches
chip. Matrix Converters uses nine bi-directional switches to connect three phase voltage source to 3 phase load
to connect the input to load at the desired output typically an induction motor. Each switch is used to
frequency. It is very difficult to achieve the simultaneous connect or disconnect any phase of the input to any phase
commutation of the switches without generating over of the load. This can be achieved only by selecting proper
current or over voltage spikes that can spoil the power switching configuration.
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 753

instantaneous input to output transfer matrix and T
denotes the transpose of M(t)[2].
Where M(t) can be,
1
M Aa = (1 + 2 q cos (ω m t + θ ))
2
1 ⎛ ⎛ 2π ⎞ ⎞
M = ⎜⎜ 1 + 2 q cos ⎜ ω m t + θ + ⎟⎟
3 ⎠ ⎟⎠
Ba
2 ⎝ ⎝
1 ⎛ ⎛ 4π ⎞ ⎞
M = ⎜⎜ 1 + 2 q cos ⎜ ω m t + θ − ⎟⎟
3 ⎠ ⎟⎠
Ca
2 ⎝ ⎝
1 ⎛ ⎛ 4π ⎞ ⎞
M = ⎜ 1 + 2 q cos ⎜ ω m t + θ − ⎟⎟
2 ⎜⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎟⎠
Ab
⎝
1
M Bb = (1 + 2 q cos (ω m t + θ ))
2
1 ⎛ ⎛ 4π ⎞ ⎞
M = ⎜ 1 + 2 q cos ⎜ ω m t + θ − ⎟⎟
2 ⎜⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎟⎠
Cb
⎝
1 ⎛ ⎛ 2π ⎞ ⎞
M = ⎜ 1 + 2 q cos ⎜ ω m t + θ − ⎟⎟
2 ⎜⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎟⎠
Ac
⎝
Fig. 1 General Structure of Matrix Converter 1 ⎛ ⎛ 4π ⎞ ⎞
M = ⎜ 1 + 2 q cos ⎜ ω m t + θ − ⎟⎟
In order to avoid the interruption of load current 2 ⎜⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎟⎠
Bc
⎝
suddenly, at least one switch in each column must be M =
1
(1 + 2 q cos (ω m t + θ ))
closed. Cc
2
Each switch can be defined with a commutation Where, , is the modulation frequency, is
function described as below: the relative phase of the output and q is the voltage
transfer ratio. The switching states of matrix converter is
(1) shown in Table. 1.
Where is input phase and is III. CONVENTIONAL DIRECT TORQUE CONTROL

output phase. The two conditions in equation (1) can be Direct Torque Control (DTC) method involves no co-
expressed as ordinate transforms which allows direct control of torque
S Ao + S Bo + S C 0 = 1 (2) and flux and selecting an optimal switching state[6]. DTC
technique provides fast torque response. DTC technique is
The equation (2) shows that a 3 x 3 matrix converter has advantageous over the Field Oriented Control Technique
got 27 possible switching states. The duty cycle of each by the following points
switch , can be defined as
1. Optimal switching state selection
where lies between 0 and 1. is the 2. Use of open loop flux and torque estimators to
sampling time and is the time during which switch improve the performance at low speeds
is ON 3. Introduction of fuzzy techniques to improve the
Where, effect of ripples on the torque output.
⎡ 1 2v v ⎤ It is required to maintain short sampling period time in
2q
t io = Ts ⎢ + i 2 o + sin(ωi t + α i ) sin(3ωi t )⎥ (3) order to maintain the electromagnetic torque ripple within
⎣ 2 3v im 9 q m ⎦ an acceptable hysteresis band. Hence DTC algorithm is
In order to select appropriate combinations of open and usually implemented on a DSP board.
closed switches and to generate the desired output DTC allows the compensation of instantaneous errors
voltages, modulation strategy for the MC must be in flux magnitude and torque under the constraint of unity
developed for which it is necessary to develop the input power factor[4]. Using the measured output currents
mathematical model. It can be derived from equation(1) and voltages, the motor flux is estimated and then the
as follows electromagnetic torque is estimated. The electromagnetic
v v = M (t )vi torque is compared with electromagnetic torque reference
using the three level hysteresis comparator and hence
⎡v a ⎤ ⎡ M Aa M Ba M Ca ⎤ ⎡v A ⎤ decreases increases or maintains the torque depending on
⎢v ⎥ = ⎢ M M Cb ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢v B ⎥⎥
⎢ b ⎥ ⎢ Ab M Bb the comparator output. The conventional DTC scheme for
⎣⎢ vc ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ M Ac M Bc M Cc ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢vC ⎦⎥ selecting the switch state for matrix converter is shown in
ii = M T (t )vi
Fig. 2.
In the same way, flux value is compared with a flux
⎡iA ⎤ ⎡M Aa M Ab M Ac ⎤ ⎡ia ⎤ reference using a two level hysteresis comparator to
⎢i ⎥ = ⎢M M Bb M Bc ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ib ⎥⎥ increase or decrease the output flux level. It is important
⎢ B ⎥ ⎢ Ab to maintain a narrow hysteresis band of the hysteresis
⎣⎢iC ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ M Ac M Cb M Cc ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ic ⎦⎥
comparators to get smooth flux waveforms.
Where v_0and v_i represents the output phase voltages The angular sector of the actual flux is to be calculated
and input phase voltage vectors respectively. i_0 and i_i to select the proper switching state. The comparator
represents the output phase current and input phase outputs and switching sector is then used to select the
current vectors respectively. M(t) represents the voltage vector . The selection of the appropriate voltage
vector is shown in Table 2. Based on the selected voltage
754
vector the switching configurations and hence the
switches to be fired is shown in Table 3.
Fig. 4a Input membership function for torque error
Fig. 2 Conventional DTC for Matrix Converter

Fig. 4b Input membership function for flux error
IV. FUZZY LOGIC SWITCHING STATE SELECTION
METHOD
Fig. 3 shows the generalized fuzzy system which
consists of 4 units. One is error unit which computes error
into two variables second is fuzzification unit, third is
inference mechanism and the last unit is defuzzification
unit.
Here two fuzzy logic controllers are used. One is to
estimate the voltage vector and other is to find the optimal
switching configuration. In the first fuzzy controller, the
inputs are torque error from the three level hysteresis
torque controller, flux error from the two level hysteresis
Fig. 4c Input membership function for flux state
flux controller, angular sector of the actual flux.
The membership functions chosen for each input are
shown in Fig. 4a, 4b and 4c. The membership functions
chosen for output are shown in Fig. 5. The surface view of
the rules is shown in fig. 6. The center of gravity
defuzzification method is used to estimate the output,
The selected voltage vector is chosen as one of the
input to the second fuzzy controller where the other inputs
to the second fuzzy controller are flux level and angular
sector of the actual flux. The output of this fuzzy
controller selects the appropriate switching configuration.
Based on the switching configuration selected the
appropriate switches to be fired to meet the required speed Fig. 5 Output membership function for voltage vector
is fixed as shown in Table 3.
Fig. 6 Surface view of rules
Fig.3 Fuzzy Control System
755
Fig. 7 Fuzzy Controller based DTC for Matrix Converter fed Induction Motor
V. IMPLEMENTATION controller is higher than fuzzy controller. The speed

The fuzzy logic based Direct Torque Control technique response of conventional controller for change in load
for Matrix Converter Induction Motor Drive is shown in torque of 500Nm and 100Nm at 1msec and 3msec can be
Fig. 7. The technique proposed is designed on observed from Fig. 14 and Fig. 15. The conventional
Matlab/Simulink and implemented. The speed and torque controller experience hump when there is a change in
response of induction motor based on the Fuzzy logic torque value from 0 to 500Nm at 1 msec and from
controller is investigated under various operating 500Nm to 100Nm at 3 msec and that overshoot is
conditions. The results are compared with conventional eliminated by the fuzzy controller and speed control is
DTC technique for Matrix converter fed induction motor achieved at 300 rad/sec.
speed and torque response. The speed response of 350
conventional controller method and fuzzy controller

under no load torque condition is shown in Fig. 8 and Fig.
300
9 respectively. The torque response of conventional 250
controller and fuzzy controller under no load torque 200
condition can be observed from Fig. 10 and Fig. 11. The

wm in rad/sec
150
torque response of conventional controller method and 100
fuzzy controller under torque variation from 0-500Nm-

100Nm is shown in Fig. 12 and Fig. 13. The reference
50
speed is maintained at 300 rad/sec for both the cases. 0
The response of conventional controller for -50

0 1 2 3
Time in msec
4 5 6
4
x 10
7
reference speed of 300 rad/sec under no load torque

Fig. 8 Speed response of conventional controller (TL=0)
condition shows an overshoot at 0.8msec and settling
time of 1.2msec. In the fuzzy controller, the overshoot is 350
eliminated and the settling time is 0.8msec. The torque 300
response of conventional controller shows that high 250
starting torque of 750Nm and reduces to 300Nm at

0.2msec and settles at 0 in 0.8Nm. In the fuzzy controller
200
wm in rad/sec
it can be observed that the starting torque under no load 150
torque condition is 300Nm and settles at 0Nm at 100
0.8msecs.The change in load torque of 500Nm and 50
100Nm is applied at 1msec and 3msec. The conventional 0
controller and fuzzy controller responses occur at the

same time whereas it can be observed from Fig. 10 and
-50
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time in msec 4
x 10
Fig. 11 that the torque ripple in the conventional Fig. 9 Speed response of Fuzzy controller (TL =0)
756
800 350
700 300
600 250
500 200
wm in rad/sec
400 150
Te in Nm
300 100
200 50
100 0
0 -50
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time in msec 4
x 10
-100
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Fig. 15 Speed response of fuzzy controller (with TL)

Time in msec 4
x 10
Fig. 10 Torque response of conventional controller (TL=0)

The two hystereis controller is the reason for the poor
350
behavior of conventional controller because the change in
bandwidth affects the dynamic behavior of selecting the
switch and hence the performance of matrix converter. In
300
250
the fuzzy controller fuzzy rules helps to track the change
200 in torque and flux values and selects the appropriate
switching vectors for matrix converter.
Te in Nm
150
100
VI. CONCLUSION
In this paper, fuzzy logic based intelligent controllers are
50
0
proposed to calculate the voltage vector and flux state and
-50
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
then to select the switching state for matrix converter.
Time in msec 4
x 10 The PI controller equation introduces zero and hence the
Fig. 11 Torque response of Fuzzy Controller (TL=0) overshoot is higher whereas, in fuzzy controller doesnot
use any mathematical relationship. It uses input and
output membership functions, if-then knowledge base to
estimate the output and hence the overshoot is avoided.
800
700
600
As it is not using mathematical equations, the learning
500
time is less and hence it provides quicker response.The
400
Design and implementation of fuzzy logic controller
based Direct Torque control of matrix converter fed
Te in Nm
300
200
Induction motor has been investigated. The results of
100
fuzzy controller based induction motor drive are
0
compared with conventional DTC controller. The
-100
simulation results verify that under no load torque and
with load torque conditions, the fuzzy controller fed
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time in msec 4
x 10
Fig. 12 Torque response of convention controller (with TL ) motor reaches the reference speed quickly without
overshoot and also the ripples in the torque response and
the starting torque values are highly reduced. Due to the
robustness and efficiency, fuzzy logic controller based
600
500
DTC technique for matrix converter fed Induction motor
400
is suitable for high performance applications.
300
REFERENCES
Te in Nm
200
[1] E.Erdem, Y.Tater, and S.Suntar, “Modelling and Simulation of

100
Matrix Converter using Space Vector Control algorithm”,
0 EUROCON 2005, Nov 2005.
-100
[2] A.Alesina and M.G.B. Venturini, “Analysis and design of
optimum amplitude nine-switch direct ac-ac converters,” IEEE
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time in msec 4
x 10
Trans. Power Electronics, vol 4, no. 1, pp. 101 – 112, Jam. 1989.
Fig. 13 Torque response of fuzzy controller (with TL)
[3] A. Miloudi, E.A. Al Radadi, A. Draou, “A Variable Gain PI
Controller Used for Speed Control of a Direct Torque Neuro
350 Fuzzy Controlled Induction Machine Drive”, Turkish Journal of
300
Electrical Engineering, vol. 15, No. 1, 2007.
[4] G. Buja, “A new control strategy of the induction motor drives:
The direct flux and torque control,” IEEE Ind. Electron Soc.
250
200
Newslett, vol 45, pp. 14 – 16, Dec. 1998.
wm in rad/sec
150
[5] P. Vas, “Sensorless Vector and Direct Torque Control”, Oxford,
100 UK: Oxford Univ Press, 1998.
50 [6] Fatiha Zidani, Rachid Nait Said, “Direct Torque Control of
Induction Motor with Fuzzy Minimization Torque Ripple,”
Journal of Electrical Engineering, vol. 56, No. 7-8, 2005, pp. 183
0
-50
0 1 2 3
Time in msec
4 5 6
4
x 10
7 – 188.
Fig. 14 Speed response of conventional controller (with TL)
757
[7] A. Miloudi, E.A. Al Radadi, A. Draou and Y. Miloud, “Simulation [8] Nabil Taib and Toufik Rekioua, Bruno Fracois, “An improved
and Modelling of a Variable Gain PI Controller For Speed Control fixed switching frequency Direct Torque Control of Induction
of a Direct Torque Neuro Fuzzy Controlled Induction Machine motor drives fed by Direct Matrix Converter”, International
Drive”, in Proc. PESC’ 04, Aachen, Germany, June 20-25, 2004, Journal of Computer Science and Information Society, Vol.7, 3,
pp: 3493-3498. 2010
TABLE I MATRIX CONVERTER SWITCHING STATE [8]
TABLE 2 VOLTAGE VECTOR SELECTION
φ V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6
0 18 21 24 9 12 15
1 7 10 13 16 19 22
0 8 11 14 17 20 23
1 18 21 24 9 12 15
0 16 19 22 7 10 13
1 8 11 14 17 20 23
0 9 12 15 18 21 24
1 16 19 22 7 10 13
0 17 20 23 8 11 14
1 1 12 15 18 21 24
0 7 10 13 16 19 22
1 17 20 23 8 11 14
TABLE 3 MATRIX CONVERTER SWITCHING STATE SELECTION
φ τ θ(1) θ(2) θ(3) θ(4) θ(5) θ(6)

1 1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 V1
1 0 V7 V0 V7 V0 V7 V0
1 -1 V6 V1 V2 V3 V4 V5
0 1 V3 V4 V5 V6 V1 V2
0 0 V0 V7 V0 V7 V0 V7
0 -1 V5 V6 V1 V2 V3 V4
758
Improved Speed Operation of Sensorless BLDC

Motor Drives Using IIR Digital Filter
Maher Mohammed. Dahaman Ishak and Khaleel Hammadi
School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Engineering Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia
14300 Nibong Tebal. Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
Abstract— This paper presents improved sensorless speed, PWM frequency and characteristics of the low-
operation of permanent magnet brushless DC motor pass filter [1],[2]. A direct back-EMF-sensing scheme in
(BLDC) based back-EMF digital filtering using the which back-EMF signals can be directly extracted for
dsPIC30F6010 microcontroller. Normally, the back-EMF each phase without sensing the motor neutral point is
signal of the unexcited phase winding has significant noise presented in [3]. This is done by synchronously detecting
distortion PWM signals which are used to vary the applied
the back EMF of the floating phase during the high-side-
voltage, and therefore the speed of the motor. So it is
relatively difficult to detect the zero-crossing event of the switch PWM off time. This back-EMF sensing scheme
back-EMF waveform due to the coupled PWM noise. has advantages over the conventional method [4]. There
Improved back-EMF signal can be generated via infinite is no attenuation in the back-EMF signal, and no high
impulse response digital filter (IIR filter) so that the back- common mode voltage issue since the motor neutral
EMF looks more like ideal signal for easier zero-crossing voltage is not used for zero-crossing comparison. Precise
detection. The proposed voltage controlled scheme together back-EMF zero-crossing detection can be achieved
with IIR digital filter includes control capability for both without low pass filtering. As a result, this control
low speed PWM control and high speed phase advance method has wider speed range and better startup
commutation to obtain an extended speed range operation.
performance. However, since this direct back-EMF-
Design of IIR digital filter and control simulation are
performed in Matlab Simulink to optimize the proposed sensing scheme requires a minimum PWM “off” time, the
control algorithm which could be particularly suitable for duty cycle is limited to something less than 100%. In
cost sensitive products such as air purifiers, air blowers, many automotive applications, it is often desired to
cooling fans, and related home appliances. Theoretical operate the motor up to 100% duty cycle in order to fully
analysis and experiments are conducted over a wide utilize the low dc bus voltage.
operating speed range and different back EMF waveforms
to validate the effectiveness of the proposed method.
II. CHARACTERISTICS OF BACK-EMF
Keywords—Sensorless operation; BLDC motor; Back-EMF. In six-step trapezoidal sensorless algorithm, one
electrical cycle has six sectors as shown in Fig1. During
I. INTRODUCTION every third sector, this phase is not being driven. This
Operation of permanent magnet brushless DC back-EMF signal is symmetrical around 0V. This figure
motor (BLDC) is usually operated with rotor position also shows the back-EMF signal during the non-driven
sensor since the electrical excitation must be in sector. If the back-EMF signal was a straight line, the
synchronism with the rotor position. For reasons of cost, signal would cross the 0V line halfway through the
reliability, mechanical packaging and especially if the sector. This point is called the zero-crossing point (ZCP).
motor work in fluid, it is desirable to run the motor The zero-crossing point always occur 30o degree before
without position sensor. The most popular category is the next commutation should occur [1], [5]. Ideally, the
based on detection of back-EMF zero crossing point undriven sector back-EMF signal would be a straight line.
(ZCP). The current commutation can be estimated by the However the back-EMF signal has noise from the driven
zero crossing point of back-EMF and a 300 phase shift. sector coupled onto the signal so it is difficult to detect
Unfortunately, in this scheme the position error from a the zero-crossing event due to the coupled PWM noise.
phase shifter and requirement of virtual motor neutral Also at very low speed, no noticeable back-EMF is
point deteriorate the performance of sensorless drive. It generated, the back-EMF signal is essentially flat during
may not be easy to identify the zero-crossing position the non-driven sector for a particular phase. Consequently
because high frequency components due to pulse width the zero-cross point is indistinguishable at low speed as
modulation (PWM) switching are involved in the shown in Fig 2. From this figure we show that at low
terminal voltage [1].This method generally uses hardware speed, there is a high probability of detecting the zero–
low pass filter to remove high frequency component of cross event at some point other than half–way through the
the terminal voltage due to PWM. However, it results in sector due to shallow slop of the back-EMF, Fig 2. Also
the detection error of rotor position switching, i.e. the shown is the phase delay of the ideal filtered signal. This
phase delay between the exact and the detected position filtered signal has some delay with actual signal but this
information of a rotor which is mainly affected by rotor
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 759

delay is relatively small in comparison to the sector III. FAST FOURIER TRANSFORM ANALYSIS
length at low speed operation. With FFT, we are able to identify the frequency
Fig 3 shows the waveform of the back-EMF at high speed contents of the signal for both the magnitude and phase
operation. The main characteristic of this waveform is the spectrum. It is possible to predict what frequencies such
large voltage spike at the start of the sector. This is signal contains [7],[8]. The parameters of BLDC motor
because a relatively wide voltage pulse due to the used in this research are listed in table1. The motor is
freewheel diode conduction appears in the terminal assumed to have a trapezoidal Back-EMF with 120
voltage of the unenergized winding [6]. This voltage electrical degree flat-top. The carrier frequency of PWM
pulse will be significantly large if the motor electric is 20 KHz, and the duty varies from 0% to 100%. The
constant is big or the motor is heavily loaded. It is also terminal voltage is a combination of a DC component and
shown in Fig 3, the back-EMF signal slope at high speed harmonic component generated by PWM operation.
is much steeper so it is much easier to detect a zero Trapezoidal back-EMF with its frequency and magnitude
crossing event. Also because the frequency is higher at varies directly with rotor speed. The magnitude of DC
high speed, the phase delay of the filter is much longer in component varies directly with the duty cycle of PWM
comparison to sector width, as a result, detection of the [11], and the frequencies of harmonic components are
zero-crossing event on the filtered signal occurs after the several times the carrier frequency. Back-EMF spectrum
next commutation should expire. At constant sample of chopped pulses generated by PWM operation and
frequency over the entire speed range of the motor, fewer back-EMF are shown in Fig 4.
ADC samples of the back-EMF are taken per sector at
high speed, the resolution for detecting a zero –crossing
IV FILTER DESIGN
event decreases with motor speed.
One method of designing digital filter is to first
obtain a satisfactory analog filter and then derive from it
a discrete equivalent filter using one of several sampled-
data transformation. The continuous transfer function
H(S) of an analog filter is derived for the required
specifications. This transfer function is then converted to
z domain (H (z)), which represents the z transform of the
transfer function of the desired digital filter. The
conversion from s domain to z domain can be done by
any of the popular methods like Bilinear Transformation
[8]. Matlab digital filter design toolbox is used to carry
out the design of digital filter specification as in Table 2.
Filtering a signal does have one drawback, however.
Figure 1. Ideal phase back-EMF and current waveforms
Table 1 Motor parameters

parameter Value
number of poles 4
phase resistance 0.8Ω

phase inductance 0.85mH
maximum speed 1200rpm
Rated DC voltage 50V
Figure 2. Low speed Back-EMF waveform with coupled PWM pulses
Figure 3. High speed Back-EMF waveform with coupled PWM pulses Figure 4. Frequency spectrum of back-EMF coupled PWM pulses
760
Whether done digitally or in hardware, a filtered signal These coefficients will be used in practical software
exhibits some phase delay as compared to the actual implementation. Fig 6 shows the terminal voltage before
signal as illustrated in Fig 2, the phase delay can be filtering and the signal output from the digital filter
precalculated given the filter specifications and the captured from dsPIC30F6010 microcontroller buffer of
frequency of the back-EMF signal. The delay can then be the filter coefficients in equation (2).
compensated in software. For experimental realization of
this transfer function, a cascade transposed direct form II V. Experimental Results
structure will be used. The transfer function should be
transferred to three second order cascade section as A. Sensorless Operation and Software Structure
shown in Fig 5. To do this Matlab function is used to The experimental setup consists of a 50Vdc, 6A,
obtain 3×6 matrix coefficients (three section, six 1200 RPM, four-pole BLDC motor drive loaded with a
coefficients for each section). Discussion of the cascade permanent magnet DC generator. The load can be
transport structure is beyond the scope of this paper. changed by varying the value of the resistor connected to
the generator. Fig 7 shows the block schematic of the
developed experimental sensorless drive system. The
Table2: Parameter of IIR digital filter
entire drive system is controlled using the dsPIC30F6010
parameter Value Digital Signal Processor (DSP). The DSP has a high-
speed 16-bit Analog-to-Digital (A/D) converter which
Filter type Low-pass Butterworth has four independent channels. The first step for
Sampling frequency 49000 Hz development of the sensorless algorithm is to initialize all
the peripherals on the DSP board, which includes
Pass-band frequency 4000 Hz initialization of the PWM ports, timer interrupt, Analog-
Stop-Band Frequency to-Digital (A/D) converters, and Digital-to-Analog (D/A)
8000 Hz
converters. The next step is to develop a starting
Pass-Band ripple 2 db algorithm. In the low-speed implementation of the
algorithm, all three motor phases are sampled by the
Stop-band ripple 30 db dsPIC30F ADC module. After the three samples are
obtained, an ADC interrupt is generated.
Filter order 5th
The samples are then fed through three identical
IIR filters, one for each phase, to generate three filtered
samples. Sampling occurs at a frequency of 49,000 Hz for
⎡ b 01 b11 b 21 a 01 a 11 a 21 ⎤ each phase, which is more than two times faster than the
sos = ⎢⎢ b 02 b12 b 22 a 02 a 12 a 22 ⎥⎥ PWM frequency (20 kHz). Zero-cross events are
⎢⎣ b 03
determined by comparing the filtered signal against half
b13 b 23 a 03 a 13 a 23 ⎥⎦
(1) Vdc voltage. The dsPIC30F6010 digital signal controllers
have five onboard, 16-bit timers. Timer1 is used to
measure the amount of time elapsed from one zero-cross
where sos= second order section event to the next. This time is equivalent to 60 electrical
degrees. Assuming there is no phase delay when a zero-
bxy= numerator coefficient x , section y
axy= denominator coefficient x, section y
=
⎡0.041137 0.082305 0.041137 1 − 0.5597 − 0.8499⎤
⎢ 0.0431 0.0862 0.0431 1 0.6194 − 0.6705⎥⎥
⎢
⎢⎣ 0.1680 0.1680 0 1 0.2242 0 ⎦⎥
(2)
(a)
b01
b11
− a11
(b)
b21
− a21 Figure.6. (a) Input back-EMF and (b) filtered output signal from
digital filter.
Figure 5. Second order filter section
761
cross event is detected, the next commutation should
occur in 30 electrical degrees. Dividing the Timer1
capture value by two gives the time for 30 electrical
degrees. Theoretically, this value can be loaded into the
Timer1 Period register for another timer, referred to as
the commutation timer. When the interrupt for the
commutation timer occurs, it is time to commutate the
motor windings to the next state. Several sources of delay
must be subtracted from the 30-degree time. The first is
the phase delay of the digital filter. Using Matlab filter
design tool, this delay was determined approximately
about 90 μs. Another source of delay is the time it takes
to process the ADC interrupt. The ADC Interrupt Service (a) 30% duty cycle
Routine (ISR) executes three IIR filters before
determining whether a zero-cross event has occurred.
This process takes approximately 1.7 μs. Each of these
delays must be subtracted from the 30° time before it is
loaded in the Commutation Timer Period register. Fig 8
shows the back-EMF and current waveforms when
sensorless operation over a wide speed range and PWM
duty cycle, the minimum speed reach is 150 RPM and the
range of PWM from 30% to 100%.
(b) 60% duty cycle
(c) 80% duty cycle
Figure 7. Block schematic of the experimental sensorless drive

system.
B. Phase Advance Scheme

An extended speed range BLDC motor drive using a
voltage controlled scheme is implemented in this paper. It
possesses extended operating speed range and cost
effective merits. In this scheme, as the rotor speed is
below the base speed, the PWM method of reference [9] is
used. While the speed is over the base speed, the phase
advance commutation and 120-degree conduction interval
scheme is adopted. In order to provide a smooth speed
transition from the low speed region to the high speed
field-weakening region, the inverter switches are
controlled by using 120-degree quasi-square gating (d) 100% duty cycle
patterns with proper phase advance angle determined in
Figure 8. Terminal voltage waveforms at different PWM duty
the voltage control loop for the field weakening control. ratio (a)150 RPM (b) 340 RPM (c) 900 RPM (d) 1158 RPM.
While the proposed voltage control scheme does not have
a current control loop, no current sensor is needed in the
drive. In the low speed constant torque limit region, a
maximum rotor speed to the duty ratio relationship is
762
measured as shown in Fig 9. In the high-speed field
weakening region, a phase advance angle limit to the
rotor speed can also be measured as reported in [10].
These two groups of information are used as constraints
of the controller to achieve over load protection. As
reference to Fig 7, the input signal to commutation and
control block is the speed command and the actual rotor
speed which is calculated from digital filter output. The
control variable u* is the output of the PI Speed
Controller. The function of the commutation and phase
advance Control Scheme block is to decide the proper
gating signals of the inverter and whether it operates in
normal commutation (30 electrical degree after zero-
crossing point) or operates in field-weakening region
(phase advance commutation) according to three input
information over extended speed range. For convenient
explanation, Fig 10 shows the flowchart of the Extended
Speed Range Control Scheme block.
Figure 10. Phase advance scheme
Figure 9. Maximum duty ratio to the rotor speed plot for the tested
BLDC motor.
As reference to Fig 10, the program calculate the actual

speed ω r using Timer1 to measure the amount of time
elapsed from one zero-crossing event to the next. And to
check if ω r is less than a threshold speed ω rTH (speed at
which phase advance commutation is implemented) or
not. If yes the program is to go to low speed loop, and it
will calculate the error speed signal, then the output is
used to control PWM duty ratio. In contrast, if actual
speed is greater than threshold speed ( ω r ≥ ω rTH ), the
program switch to high speed loop and determined the (a)
phase advance time (corresponding to phase advance
angle) and then calculate the proper new commutation
time for commutation timer. According to the algorithm
of the flow chart in Fig 10, the drive can operate over an
extended speed range with indirect over load protection
without using current sensors. Hence, it is a quite
practical and cost effective BLDC motor drive. Fig 11(a)
show the waveforms of current and terminal voltage at
low speed (600 RPM) with PWM and (b) high speed
sensorless operation (1400 RPM) with phase advance
commutation scheme. The improved direct back-EMF-
sensing scheme eliminates the duty-cycle limitation as the
direct sensing which requires a minimum PWM “off”
time, the duty cycle is limited to something less than Figure 11. (a) Low speed operation with PWM
100% as in [13]. (b) high speed operation with phase advance
763
VI. CONCLUSION automotive fuel pumps,” IEEE Transaction. Ind. Appl., vol. 39,
no. 6, pp. 1734–1740, Nov./Dec. 2003
In this paper, an improved sensorless controller using the [4] J. C. Moreira, “Indirect sensing for rotor flux position of
IIR digital filter instead of the direct terminal voltages permanent magnet AC motors operating over a wide speed range,”
sensing has been developed. Its principle and IEEE Transaction. Ind. Appl., vol. 32, no. 6, pp. 1394–1401, Nov.
implementation are presented, and its enhanced 1996.
performance is verified with simulations and [5] R.Krishnan " Permanent Magnet Synchronous and Brushless DC
Motor Drive" CRC Press 2010.
experiments. Moreover, the digital filter is designed to [6] Shen,JX, Iwasaki “Sensorless Control of Ultrahigh-Speed PM
extract the back EMF from the terminal voltages of Brushless Motor Using PLL and Third Harmonic Back-EMF”
BLDC motors. FFT analyses of terminal voltage contents IEEE Transaction Industrial Electronic, Vol. 53,No(2),April 2006.
of the BLDC motor, the results of theoretical analysis and [7] John G. Proakis, Dimitris G. Manolakis "Digital Signal
simulation are presented. The proposed voltage controlled Processing, Principles, Algorithms and Applications", Pearson
Prentice Hall, 2007
scheme together with IIR digital filter demonstrates
[8] Taan S, Elali, "Discrete System and Digital Signal Processing with
control capability during both low speed PWM operation MATLAB", CRC Press. 2004.
and high speed phase advance. The effectiveness of the [9] Jianwen Shao "An Improved Microcontroller-Based Sensorless
proposed method is in agreement with the obtained Brushless DC (BLDC) Motor Drive for Automotive Applications"
experimental results. IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, Vol. 42, No. 5,
September/October 2006
[10] S. K. Safi, P. P. Acarnley, and A. G. Jack, “Analysis and
Simulation of the High-Speed Torque Performance of Brushless
DC Motor Drives,” IEE Proc.-Electric. Power Application., vol.
REFERENCES 142, no. 3, pp. 191-200, May 1995.
[1] Cheng-Hu Chen,Ming-Yang Cheng "A New Cost Effective [11] Li Qiang,Lin Mingyao, Hu Minqiang, "Research on Filters for
Sensorless Commutation Method for Brushless DC Motor Back EMF Zero-Crossing Detecting in Sensorless BLDC Motor
Without Phase Shift Circuit and Neutral Voltage" IEEE Drive ". IEEE Transaction.Power Electron.,Sept. 2004:747-756.
Transaction on Industrial Electronic.Vol.22,NO2,March 2007. [12] Application Note 852 ,''Implementation FIR and IIR Digital Filter
[2] H.C.Chen, Y.C.Chang and C.K.Huang "Practical Sensorless Using PIC18 Microcontroller'' microchip technology 2002
Control for Inverter-Fed BDCM Compressor" IET Electric. [13] J. Shao, D. Nolan, M. Teissier, and D. Swanson, “A novel
Power Application, Vol 1, No 1, January 2007, pp127-132. microcontroller based sensorless brushless dc (BLDC) motor drive
[3] J. Shao, D. Nolan, M. Tessier, and D. Swanson, “A novel for automotive fuel pumps,” IEEE Transaction. Industrial
microcontrollerbased sensorless brushless (BLDC) motor drive for Application., Vol. 39, no. 6, pp. 1730–1740 Nov./Dec. 2003 .
764
Dynamic Performance of Series-Connected

Wound Rotor Induction Motor
Essam Eddin M. Rashad
Faculty of Engineering, Tanta University, Tanta, Egypt. Email:emrashad@ieee.org
Abstract— Series-connected induction motor has the ability experimental verification. The presented results show
of operation either at two speeds; the first one is less than poor relative stability of the motor in terms of speed and
the synchronous speed depending on the load, while the torque oscillations. However the paper shows the ability
second speed is exactly double the synchronous speed. The of motor self starting to the high speed mode which is
motor has the capability of self-starting to reach the first practically not possible.
speed. In addition to special arrangements required to In this paper, dynamic behavior of SCIM is investigated
attain the second (higher) speed, instability problems have for the whole speed range. The motor is supplied from a
been noted in experimental operation. This paper presents a variable voltage variable frequency (VVVF) supply. The
complete dynamic analysis of motor when supplied from a starting and frequency change responses are presented in
variable voltage variable frequency power supply. The
details with experimental verification.
starting behavior has been presented as well as frequency
change for both no-load and loaded conditions. II. INVERTER-FED SCIM SYSTEM
Experimental results are given to check model validity in
dynamic conditions. The adopted drive system composes of an SCIM
supplied from an inverter as VVVF supply.
Keywords — Induction motor; Variable Speed Drive;
Dynamic analysis A. Dynamic model of SCIM
The dynamic voltage equation of SCIM is given as
I. INTRODUCTION follows [6]:
It has been proved previously that the process of
electro-mechanical energy conversion is possible when ⎛ vd ⎞ ⎛ Ra + Ld p − ( P 4)ω m Lq ⎞⎛ id ⎞
⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ (1)
stator and rotor windings of a wound rotor induction ⎜ v ⎟ ⎜ ( P 4) ω L Ra + Lq p ⎟⎠⎜⎝ iq ⎟⎠
machine are connected in series [1]. An essential
⎝ q⎠ ⎝ m d
requirement has to be satisfied for successful operation; where: vd= Vm sin δ , vq=Vm cos δ
the phase sequence of the rotor magneto-motive force is
in the reverse sense to that of the stator. This condition The parameters Ra, Ld and Lq are defined as follows:
can be achieved if the stator and rotor windings are R a = R s + Rr
properly connected. In its motoring mode, the machine
can run at two speeds; the first one is less than the Ld = Ls + Lr + {K +(1/K) +2} M
synchronous speed depending on the load in a similar Lq = Ls + Lr + {K +(1/K) – 2} M
manner to that of the conventional induction motor The values of Ls, Lr, M and K can be obtained from the
operation [2]. It has been shown that in this speed mode, conventional tests of the machine as an induction motor.
series-connected induction motor (SCIM) has superior The numerical values of the employed motor parameters
characteristics compared to those of conventional are given in the Appendix section.
induction motor, when stator-to-rotor effective turns ratio
approaches unity [3]. In the second mode of operation, The phase stator current is related to id and iq according
SCIM runs at exactly double the synchronous speed, to the following relation:
which is independent of the load for the stable range of
operation [4]. In this mode, the motor is not capable of
self-starting. A special arrangement is required to attain
Ia = (i2
d )
+ iq2 2 (2)
that high speed. For example, the motor is externally The developed electromagnetic torque Te is given by:
driven by another motor at no-load to the proper speed.
Then the main voltage is applied to the motor. Te = (3 / 2 ) (P / 4 ) (Ld − Lq ) id iq (3)
Unfortunately, in high-speed mode, experimental
instability problems have been reported [4, 5]. Both The mechanical equation of motion is given by:
starting and instability problems have been solved
satisfactorily, when vector control technique is applied Te − TL = J p ωm + B ωm (4)
[6]. However, the reasons of instability have not been
explored yet.
B. Inverter
The first step to investigate such problems is to obtain
a satisfactory well-checked dynamic model. In [7] a A voltage source three-phase inverter has been
purely theoretical analysis of SCIM is given without employed in the experimental work as a VVVF power
supply.
978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 765

The inverter is manufactured to drive a three-phase A. Starting response
motor of 1.1 kW/1.5 HP. The technical data is as follows: Figures 2, 3, 4 and 5 show the no load results when
Input: 50/60 Hz, 200-240 V, 6.5 A fb=50 Hz for fs= 15, 25, 50 and 65 Hz, respectively. The
Output: 1-360 Hz, 200-240 V, 5 A values of fs are selected to investigate both cases of
constant Vs/fs and constant Vs. In order to check the effect
The inverter is provided with facilities to adjust the of varying base frequency, Figs. 6, 7 and 8 show the same
voltage and frequency according to a pre-determined response when fb=75 Hz for fs= 15, 25 and 50 Hz
pattern. The ratio Vs/fs is defined by the base voltage Vsb respectively.
and frequency fb. For values fs less than fb, the ratio is
The first note, in all cases, is that the motor starts to the
kept constant, else Vs is kept at Vsb which means flux
low speed mode, where speed is less than the
weakening operation. Figure 1 shows three patterns of the
synchronous speed. From Figs. 2-4, it is noted that
employed Vs/fs control. It is noted that Vsb is 220 V.
response speed is approximately the same for fs=15, 25
Therefore, the value of fb determines the level of Vs/fs
and 50 Hz because of constant flux operation. The
ratio in a reverse proportion way as determined by the
response becomes slower for fs=65 Hz as shown in Fig. 5.
slope of the line.
That is because the operation is at flux weakening mode,
250 where developed torque decreases with increase in
frequency. Figures 6, 7 and 8 show that the response
200 speed is lower compared with the corresponding response
in Figs. 2, 3 and 4 respectively (i.e for the same fs) in the
150 constant flux region. This is because of the reduction in
flux for higher base frequency. These observations are
V ,V
100 Hz
similar to that obtained when applying V/f control
s
100 50 Hz
technique to the conventional motor types.
f = 25 Hz
50
b
At steady state, all figures show the presence of current
subharmonic, which represents a feature of SCIM
0 operation in low speed mode [3]. This subharmonic is at
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 slip frequency. This means it increases with speed drop
f , Hz
s from the synchronous speed so that it can be employed to
Fig. 1 Inverter Vs/fs patterns for different values of base frequency fb determine the motor speed. It is to be mentioned that the
given measured current response is clipped when it
exceeds 10 A. In this case, output voltage of the available
III. STARTING AND FREQUENCY CHANGE RESPONSE current transducer, used in the digital recording system,
exceed the voltage limit of 5 V for the data acquisition
The dynamic model given by (1-4) has been used to
card.
compute the speed and current response for different
values of supply voltage and frequency. The
corresponding experimental response has been measured
and digitally recorded.
800
600
speed, r/min
400
200
0 1 2 3
1 div = 200 r/min 1 div = 1 s time, s
10
8
6
4
2
Ia , A
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
0 1 2 3
1 div = 2 A 1 div = 1 s time, s
Measured Computed
Fig. 2 Starting speed (upper) and current (lower) response for fb =50 Hz and fs=15 Hz at no-load
766
1500
1000
speed, r/min
500
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
1 div = 500 r/min 1 div = 0.5 s time, s
15
10
Ia , A
0
-5
-10
-15
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
1 div = 5 A 1 div = 0.5 s time, s
Measured Computed
3000
2000
speed, r/min
1000
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
1 div = 1000 r/min 1 div = 0.5 s time, s
20
15
10
5
Ia , A
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
1 div = 5 A 1 div = 0.5 s time, s
Measured Computed
4000
3000
speed, r/min
2000
1000
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
20
15
10
5
Ia , A
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
0 1 2 3 4 5
1 div = 5 A 1 div = 0.5 s time, s
Measured Computed
767
600
speed, r/min
400
200
0 1 2 3 4
1 div = 200r/min 1 div = 1 s time, s
10
Ia , A
0
-5
-10
0 1 2 3 4
Measured Computed
1,200
1,000
speed, r/min
800
600
400
200
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
10
5
Ia , A
-5
-10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 div = 5A 1 div = 1 s time, s
Measured Computed
3,000
2,500
2,000
speed, r/min
1,500
1,000
500
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
20
10
Ia , A
-10
-20
-2 0 2 4 6
1 div = 5A 1 div = 1 s time, s
Measured Computed
768
B. Response to frequency change experimental trials have been done It was not possible to
Figure 9 shows the speed and current response to get any successful operation. Once the supply voltage is
change in fs from 25 to 35 Hz for fb =50 Hz at no-load applied, the motor speed decreases and operation
condition. Figure 10 shows the same response for load stabilizes at the low speed mode. Moreover, the
torque of 3 Nm. simulation dynamic program emphasizes the same notice,
for a very wide range of conditions. In addition to the
The results presented in Figs. 2-10 shows the validity previously reported instability problems at high speed
of the given dynamic model. mode, the failure of the adopted motor to achieve such a
mode, even with low relative stability, makes it interested
C. Operation at high speed mode and important to investigate that issue. A stability
The necessary arrangements to drive the motor at the analysis based on the dynamic model given before has
high-speed mode have been prepared. The motor has been performed. The results will be presented in the near
been started using a dc motor and driven to the proper future
high speed before supply voltage is applied. Many
2500
2000
speed, r/min
1500
1000
500
0
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
15
10
5
Ia , A
-5
-10
-15
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Measured Computed
Fig. 9 Speed (upper) and current (lower) response to change in frequency from 25 Hz to 35 Hz then to 25 Hz for fb =50 Hz at no-load
2000
1500
speed, r/min
1000
500
0
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
15
10
5
Ia , A
-5
-10
-15
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 div = 5 A 1 div = 1 time, s
Measured Computed
Fig. 10 Speed (upper) and current (lower) response to change in frequency from 25 Hz to 35 Hz then to 25 Hz for fb =50 Hz
at load torque of 3 Nm
769
IV. CONCLUSIONS VI. NOMENCLATURE
The dynamic behavior of SCIM has been analyzed and fs Supply frequency, Hz
investigated in this paper. The operation in both low- and id & iq transformed d- & q-axis currents, respectively, A
high-speed modes is considered. Effect of varying supply Ia Phase rms motor current, A
voltage and frequency under V/f scalar control technique
K Rotor to stator effective turns ratio.
has been investigated. Experimental and simulation
results show possible operation at low speed mode, while Ls & Lr Stator & rotor leakage inductances respectively, H
attaining high-speed mode was not possible. For low- M Maximum mutual inductance between one stator
speed mode, the dynamic behavior is similar to that phase and one rotor phase, H
obtained when applying V/f control technique to the P Number of poles.
conventional motor types. A main difference is the Rs & Rr Stator & rotor phase resistances respectively, Ω.
presence of subharmonic current component at slip Te Electromagnetic developed torque, Nm.
frequency, which is a known feature of SCIM operation
TL Mechanical load torque, Nm.
in low-speed mode.
vd & vq transformed d- & q- axis voltages, respectively, V
Based of the validity of the given model, a stability
analysis has been performed to investigate the problems Vm &Vs Maximum and rms values of supply voltage,
associated with operation at high speed mode e. g. respectively, V
starting and poor stable behavior. The results are given in δ Angle between supply voltage phasor and q-axis
a companion paper (Load angle), electrical rad
ωm Rotor speed, mechanical rad/s
V. APPENDIX
The adopted two-pole wound-rotor induction motor in REFERENCES
this paper has the following nameplate data: [1] A. S. Mostafa, A. L. Mohamadein and E. M. Rashad, “Analysis of
series -connected wound-rotor self-excited induction generator”,
1.1 kW, 380/220 V,

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Table of Contents Technical Program Overview

Welcome Message Technical Program

Organizing Committee Author’s Index

International Advisory/Liason Manuscripts

MESSAGE FROM THE CONFERENCE CHAIR

Assalamualaikum warohmatullahi wabarakatuh and Good Day,

Ladies and Gentlemen,

Associate Professor Dr. Ismail Musirin

Exhibition and Sponsorship:

Tutorial and Keynote:

Publicity and Website:

Prof. Abdullah Ashuhaimi, MALAYSIA

Abd Kadir Mahamad Hosein Farzanehfard Mokhtar Ali

TECHNICAL PROGRAM OVERVIEW

S3I S2H Karar Mahmoud S1C

S2G Mithun Bhaskar S1A Mohd Wazir Mustafa S1A

Nurhazwani Mat S3C Saiful Nizam Abd. S1A Syed Bahauddin Alam S1C

Optimal Placement of Distributed Generation Using

978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 1

A. Basic principles of CLONALG C. PCLONALG

0,1 , (4) k: is the number of network lines,

V. CASE STUDY 3 628 470

1 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000

2 0.9709 0.9885 0.9925 0.9954

3 0.9441 0.9796 0.9874 0.9932

4 0.9378 0.9778 0.9866 0.9931

5 0.9268 0.9759 0.9865 0.9944

7 0.9146 0.9755 0.9886 0.9982

8 0.9117 0.9728 0.9959 1.0000

9 0.9108 0.9719 1.0000 0.9991

10 0.9106 0.9717 1.0000 0.9989

11 0.9129 0.9800 0.9870 0.9988

12 0.9116 0.9788 0.9858 1.0000

13 0.9136 0.9746 0.9876 1.0000

Fig. 4. The process of convergence with two DG units

A Music Based Harmony Search (MBHS)

978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 7

VG1(pu) 1.0 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05

TABLE IV Figure 3. Comparison of shunt vaalues using diverse algorithms

Real Power Transfer Allocation via Continuous

978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 12

where x ∈ R , y ∈ R and ϕ (.) : R → R h is a mapping to

a high dimensional feature space. The following optimization

where A-1 is inversion of matrix A, PLk is load at bus k, PGi is

Note that σ2 is a parameter associated with RBF function

IV. CONTINUOUS GENETIC ALGORITHM

The property of regularization parameter γ and Kernel RBF

Figure 5. Flow of CGA-LSSVM.

Figure 6. MSE vs. Iteration.

B. Pre-testing and simulation

Figure 7. Training for 48 samples data.

Thyristor Controlled Series Compensator

978-1-4244-8945-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE 18

where IC is the installation cost of TCSC, CTCSC is the cost

Figure 3. Flow of developed EPs optimization algorithms for

Rank Gen Outage No. Line No. SVSI (p.u)

Rank Line Outage No. SVSI (p.u)

λ factor Analysis SVSI Total % X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 Vm

λ Pre TCSC Post TCSC

Total Loss (MW)

Figure 5. Transmission loss profiles for bus 26 loaded

Voltage at bus 26 (p.u)

Artificial Neural Network-based Forecast for