Demolition Work in Malaysia The Safety P PDF

MiCRA 2010 – Management in Construction Researchers Association 9th Annual Conference and Meeting
MANAGEMENT IN CONSTRUCTION
RESEARCHER’S ASSOCIATION 2010
(MICRA 2010)
9th ANNUAL CONFERENCE AND MEETING
PARADIGM SHIFT IN
BUILT ENVIRONMENT
RESEARCH
1-2 December 2010
Faculty of Architecture, Planning & Surveying

UiTM Shah Alam
ISBN: 978-967-0171-02-9
EDITED BY:
MOHD. HISHAM ARIFFIN
EZLINA MOHD. AHNUAR
SYARIFAH NUR AINA SYED ALWI
ROSHANA TAKIM
MARIATI BAGDAD
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PANEL OF REVIEWERS
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Dasimah Omar, Department of Town and Regional Planning, Faculty of
Architecture Planning & Surveying, Universiti Teknologi MARA
Assoc. Prof. Ahmad Ezanee Hashim, Department of Building Surveying, Faculty of

Architecture Planning & Surveying, Universiti Teknologi MARA
Assoc. Prof. Fadzil Hassan, Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Architecture

Planning & Surveying, Universiti Teknologi MARA
Assoc. Prof. Aini Jaapar, Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Architecture

Dr. Hjh. Faridah Ismail, Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Architecture

Dr. Zulhabri Ismail, Department of Building, Faculty of Architecture Planning & Surveying,
Universiti Teknologi MARA
Dr. Zarita Ahmad Baharom, Department of Estate Management, Faculty of Architecture

Dr. Intan Rohani Endut, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA
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ORGANISING COMMITTEE
Patron Assoc. Prof. Dr. Wan Mohd Naim Wan Mohd, Dean,
Faculty of Architecture, Planning & Surveying, Universiti
Teknologi MARA
Chairman Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mohd Hisham Ariffin, President, MICRA
2010
Co-Chairman Assoc. Prof. Dr.Roshana Takim, Co- President, MICRA 2010
Secretary Ezlina Mohd Ahnuar
Treasurer Sharifah Nur Aina Syed Alwee
Norlia Saba
Publicity Division Shazwan Mohd Shaari
Mariati Bagdad
Technical Division Dr. Hjh. Faridah Ismail
Sharifah Nur Aina Syed Alwee
Ahmad Arzlee Abu Hassan
Mysarah Maisham
Hazwani Ramli
Sarah Mazhar Iqbal Khan
Afzan Ahmad Zaini
Nur Hidayah Idris
Haryati Mohd Isa
Khairul Firdaus Anuar
Roshartini Omar
Kharizam Ismail
Faridah Mohd. Halil
Ani Saifuza Abdul Shukur
Shamsida Saidan Khaderi
Nurmaizura Ahmad Norhani
Saiful Hadi Mastor
Special Task Division Thukiyyah Misnan
IT & Multimedia Division Shazwan Mohd Shaari
Logistics Division Ahmad Shazrin Ahmad Azmi
Radin Md. Miswari Mahboh Hirzih
Abrur Kamal Jamal
Edie Ezwan Mohd. Sopian
Mohd. Afiq Mohd. Nazeri
Siti Hasniza Rosman
Azi Izwani Nor Hamzah
Siti Syariazulfa Kamaruddin
Hamsiah Wahid
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MiCRA 2010- 9th ANNUAL CONFERENCE AND MEETING
TABLE OF CONTENT
Theme A: Facilities Management and Real Estate (Maintenance)
No Title Page
A1 Development of a Framework for Managing the Maintenance of University 1-8

Buildings in Malaysia
Olanrewaju Abdul Lateef, Mohd Faris Khamidi, Arazi Idrus.
A2 Contribution of Education in UiTM to Facilities Management in Malaysia 9-18

Zarina Isnin, Ahmad Ezanee Hashim, Sri Rahayu Mohd Sa’ad, Norimah Madding.
A3 User Satisfaction on Cleaning Services in Higher Learning Institutions 19-30

Zarina Isnin, Hikmah Kamarudin, Irwan M. Ali, Mohd Nurfaisal Baharuddin.
A4 Faulty Design and Construction in Building Maintenance 31-46

Hani Muftah .R Alriwaimi, Zainal Abidin Akasah.
A5 The Development of Government Property Management Procedure: Key Factors 47-56

to be Considered
Shardy Abdullah, Abd. Hamid Kadir Pakir, Arman Abdul Razak, Izran Sarrazin Mohammad.
A6 Towards Systemic University Building Maintenance Initiatives 57-66
Olanrewaju Abdul Lateef, Mohd Faris Khamidi, Arazi Idrus.
A7 Satisfaction Level of Facility Management in Shop-Apartment Stratified 67-80

Buildings
Mohamad Ridzuan Yahya.
A81 Design Maintainability: Problems and Challenges Facing Facilities Management 81-88
Sheelah Sivanathan, L. Jawahar Nesan.
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Theme B: Sustainable Development (Economics, Heritage& Conservation,

Green Energy Efficiency, Environment, Construction Technology)
No Title Page
B1 How Can Architectural Design Guide One Building Toward Green Building? 89-96
Peyman Behtash, Seyedeh Atefeh Asoudeh Khalajani.
B2 Perception Towards Green Roof In Malaysia 97-105

Wan Zuriea Wan Ismail, Sabarinah Sh Ahmad, Ahmad Ezanee Hashim, Zarina Isnin, Irwan
Mohammad Ali.
B3 Cultural Shift Towards Successful of Environmental Management in 105-110

Construction Organization In Malaysia
Raja Rafidah Raja Muhammad Rooshdi, Shahela Mamter, Mohd Esham Mamat, Nur Adilla Abd
Rahaman.
B4 Model dan Konsep Universiti Lestari 111-122

Elia Syarafina Abdul Shakur, Choong Weng Wai.
B5 The Methodologies Used to Evaluate 123-130

Post-Disaster Housing Reconstruction Projects
Asal Kamani Fard,Mohd Hamdan Ahmad, Dilshan Remaz Ossen.
B6 Modernizing Construction Using Rapid Construction Concept 131-142

Muhamad Azani Yahya.
B7 The Seismic Analysis of Malaysian Bridges 143-154

Muhammad Umar Zulkefli.
B8 The Way Forward of Sustainable Construction and Green Technology in 155-166

Malaysia
Zuhairi Abd. Hamid, Mohd Syarizal Mohd Noor, Kamarul Anuar Mohamad Kamar, Mohd
Khairolden Ghani, Maria Zura Mohd Zain, Ahmad Hazim Abdul Rahim.
B9 Design Buildings Optimally: A Lifecycle Assessment Approach 167-174

Ossama A. Hosny, Ahmed A. Elhakeem.
B10 Architectural Building Preservation for Structural and Fabrics Integrity: 175-182
A Literature Review
Zainal Abidin Akasah, Siti Nor Fatimah Zuraidi.
B11 Integrating Life Cycle Costing Model: A Literature Review 183-190

Zainal Abidin Akasah, Nor Azizah Mohammed Rum.
B12 Maintenance Management System for Industrialized Building System: A Review 191-198
Zainal Abidin Akasah, Ng Ban Kiong.
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Theme C: Professional Integration (Services, Education, Knowledge

Management)
No Title Page
C1 Authoring Publishable Research in Construction Management: 199-212

Experience of a Doctoral Postgraduate
Sia Mal Kong.
C2 Applicability of Pre-Priced BOQ for Construction Work at Saudi Arabia 213-222

Abdulrahman Al-Sinaidi.
C3 Development of Production Rate Database for Construction Industry by Direct 223-236

Observation: Substructure Works
Arazi Idrus, Mohd Saiful Zakaria, Sana Muqeemi.
C4 Competitive Strategies and its suitability in Quantity Surveying Firms: A Review 237-250
Nur Azila Adros, Nazirah Zainul Abidin.
Theme D : Construction Project Management (VM, WM, RM, Safety, ICT)
No Title Page
D1 The Implementation of Value Engineering Among the Malaysian 251-258

Construction Consultants
Arazi Idrus, Olanrewaju Abdul Lateef, Mohd Faris Khamidi, Mohd Syahrin Ab Rahim.
D2 Demolition Work in Malaysia: The Safety Provisions 259-270

Ily Hanisah Mohd Fauzey, Faridah Ismail.
D3 Risk Analyze of Factors Affecting Cost in Construction Projects 269-278

Peyman Behtash, Seyedeh Atefeh Asoudeh Khalajani.
D4 Application of Industrialised Building System (IBS) in Malaysia: Barriers and 271-290

Implementation Strategies
Suzana C. Alih, Christopher Preece.
D5 Marketing VM services to achieve competitive advantage in the Malaysian 291-298

Construction Sector
Mohamad Saifulnizam,Vaughan Coffey, Christopher Preece.
D6 Construction Waste Management Plan on Site for contractors in Malaysia 299-308

Anis Adila Abdullah, Christopher Preece
D7 Septic Tank: Effluent Discharge in Compliance to the Standard Regulation 309-316

Hemyza Budin, Natasha Khalil, Husrul Nizam Husin.
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Theme E: Contracts Management, Procurement and Dispute Resolutions
No Title Page
E1 Disputes Among Stakeholders of Construction Industry in Malaysia: The Case of 317-330

Contractors
Noraziah Wahi.
E2 Legal Issues of Partnering In Construction 331-340

Faraziera Mohd. Raslim, Nur Emma Mustaffa, Jamaluddin Yaakob.
E3 Readiness of the Malaysian Contractors in Adopting Mediation 341-350

Haryati Mohd Isa, Fadzil Hassan, Roshana Takim, Mohd Fisal Ishak.
Theme F: Strategic Planning, Urban Management and Architecture

Management
No Title Page
F1 Comparison between Hausa and Malay Vernacular 351-362

Hanga Nabila Jamila, Abdul Razak Sapian.
F2 Preferred Public Art Forms for Designers and Non-Designers 363-370

Fahimeh Malekinezhad, Hasanudin Lamit, Abdullah Sani Ahmad.
F3 The Effect of Different Housing Street Width on Fire Emergency Access 371-382
Muhammad Zaly Shah Muhammad Hussein, Chai Yun Ooi.
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DEVELOPMENT OF A FRAMEWORK FOR MANAGING THE

MAINTENANCE OF UNIVERSITY BUILDINGS IN MALAYSIA
Olanrewaju Abdul Lateef, A

Department of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS
Bandar Seri Iskandar 31750 Tronoh, Perak Darul Ridzuan
abdullateef.olanrewaju20002000@ymail.com
Dr. Mohd Faris Khamidi;
Associate Professor Dr Arazi Idrus
ABSTRACT
Buildings exist in order to satisfy the user’s space requirements. All activities, processes and
operations must be carried out in a building for higher productivities. The essence of building
maintenance is, to maximize the service life of a building, by delaying deterioration, decay and
failure. Building maintenance management involves planning, directing, controlling organizing, and
making use of resources for the sustenance of the building performance. A number of studies have
investigated maintenance management for buildings; however, most of the studies have observed
maintenance management systems that are cyclical, corrective and inspection-based. However, these
practices are adversely affecting the building performance, users’ satisfaction and productivities and
maintenance needs. This paper reports a study that aimed to offer an alternative maintenance
management model for university buildings in Malaysia. Although the research specifically concerns
university buildings, many public and private sector institutions face similar maintenance
management problems. Thus, this research has broader applications. The outcome of this research is
to come up with a comprehensive maintenance management model that can facilitate universities in
achieving better value in their investments in building maintenance.
Keywords: maintenance management; universities buildings; users; Malaysia
1 INTRODUCTION
This paper reports the initial stage of an ongoing research. The main research is concerns
with the development of systemic maintenance management model for Malaysia university
campuses. The prime purpose of this paper is to expose the research’s aim, objectives,
methodologies and theoretical framework to criticisms. It is felt noteworthy to submit this aspect of
the research to the examination of other researchers and writers. The comments and suggestions
received will be incorporated into the main research that is ongoing. Therefore, your suggestions
and comments are very important in developing a user-driven university building maintenance
management model. For the purposes of this study, maintenance is defined as the required
processes and services undertaken in order to preserve, repair, protect, enhance and care for the
university building structure and services after completion, repair, refurbishment or replacement to
current standards to enable it to serve its intended functions throughout its entire life span without
drastically upsetting its basic features and use. From this definition, it is clear that maintenance is a
process or programme but not a project. More importantly, it is clear that maintenance is about
ensuring that the building meets it functional performance as required by the users. Thus,
maintenance is not necessarily a factor of the condition of the building rather of the performance.
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Management, though a generic term, can be applied to specific fields like science, technology
and engineering. It involves the process of forming a strategic vision, setting objectives,
formulating a strategy and then formulating methods of implementing and executing the strategy.
Essentially, its aim is to deliver results efficiently and effectively in line with recipients’
expectations. Broadly, management functions are planning, directing, controlling and organizing
(Daft, 2004). Every manager must be competent to perform these four broad functions (Bateman
and Snell, 2009) irrespective of the field of application. Thus building maintenance management
involves the processes of planning, controlling, organizing and directing maintenance services to
improve the value of a building. However, it could be argued that the more specialized or complex
the field of applications, the more the required skill diverge from the pure management principles.
For instance, maintenance managers must be expected to be well-grounded in construction
technology and engineering in addition to possessing knowledge of the business and commercial
perspectives.
Building maintenance management is technically oriented and user-focused. Business
management assumes a wider knowledge on business. Nevertheless, in maintenance management a
broader knowledge of the business management is equally required in addition to the specific
knowledge of maintenance technology, engineering and building life cycle and building user
perceptions and expectations. The concept of building maintenance management combines
engineering, cultural, technology and scientific analyses with sound business practice,
administration and economic theory. Building maintenance management can thus be defined as a
comprehensive and structured approach to the long-term management of buildings as tools for the
efficient and effective delivery of value to the clients, users and the public. The major emphasis of
building maintenance management is to care for the building users and for the buildings themselves
in the most effective and efficient ways. This also includes improving the maintenance organisation
productivity. The prime activity in maintenance management system includes:
i) The identification of the need for maintenance

ii) The establishment of the maintenance performance indicators (MPI)
iii) The establishment of maintenance policies and strategies
iv) The formulation of a maintenance organizational chart
v) Making decisions on maintenance schedules and programmes
2 BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE REVIEW
The economy of Malaysia has, since independence, been planned on five-year strategic
plans. For each of the plans, the education sector has featured prominently in terms of value and
policy formulation and implementation. During each of the successive plans, educational
institutions at all levels were expanded to meet the increasing demand due to the inadequacies in the
available facilities. Education constitutes 2.1% of the GDP (Ministry of Higher Education, 2006).
Concurrently, the national gross expenditure on research and development (GERD) expanded at an
average rate of 9.4% annually from RM 1.1 billion in 1990 to RM 4.3 billion in 2005 and the
GERD and GDP improved from 0.4% in 1990 to 0.9% in 2005 (Government of Malaysia, 1996-
2006) (US$1=RM3.62). Under the Sixth Malaysian Plan, some RM7, 469.8 were allocated to the
educational sector while this has expanded to RM40, 356.5 under the Ninth Plan. This Suggests
there has been an expansion of more than 400% on the allocation to the education sectors over the
last 20 years. With specific reference to tertiary education, in terms of allocation, under the Eighth
Malaysian Plan, the sum of RM8, 900 million was allocated to institutions of higher learning out of
the RM18, 660 million allocated to the total education sector (Government of Malaysia, 2001)
while under the Ninth Malaysian Plan, the allocation to institutions of higher learning was increased
to RM16, 069 million (Government of Malaysia, 2006). This represents an expansion of more than
80% as compared to the previous plan.
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The quest to transform Malaysia into a knowledge-based economy (K-economy) where

well-educated skilled workers (K-workers) are the main source of national prosperity and wealth is
high. However, for this pragmatic transition to happen, the university system must be adequate in
all respects. There must be adequate provision of necessary infrastructural facilities like buildings to
provide a stimulating and supporting environment for students and staff in addition to supporting
teaching, learning, researches and other academic related activities. The corporate objectives of a
university organization have placed buildings in a strategic position. For an academic institution
like a university, buildings are the most important assets apart from the human resources. In fact,
universities these days use the nature, design and performance of their buildings to woo students.
As an illustration, universities that in the past relied on applications sent to them through the
Ministry of Education know use the performance of their buildings as a variable to attract students.
The surge in student enrolment is increasingly putting pressure on the available space. Thus any
inadequacy with the building facilities, will seriously affect the achievement of the prime objectives
of the university. However, many of the university buildings in Malaysia have been constructed
since the 60s. Many of the universities have inherited or bought a substantial part of their start-off
building stocks though some of these building were not actually meant for academic purposes and
to carry the current loads. Thus, we are presented with buildings that are aging, deteriorating,
decaying and failing.
Therefore, the size and complexity of maintenance works in the university building is large
and on the increase. While there is still the need for an expansive supply of university building
facilities, the need to maintain the existing ones has increased consequently. The maintenance of
buildings consumes a great portion of the university’s budget. While, there is no comparable
numerical data on the state of disrepair, decay, deterioration and unfitness of university buildings, it
is possible that they suffer from a similar degree of care and neglect like other public buildings.
Based on inconclusive data obtained from the Ministry of Higher Education, maintenance
expenditure on the public university had expanded from about RM340 million in 2004 to more than
RM600 million in 2008. However, despite the huge sum of money invested on building
maintenance, problem of poor service delivery, poor users’ satisfactions and increase in
maintenance backlogs are increasing unabated.
However, previous findings have found that the maintenance practices of university
buildings in Malaysia can broadly be categorized as corrective, cyclical and inspection-based
(Ishak, 2006; Zakaria, and Ali, 2006; Zakaria, et. al., 2008 and Ruslan, 2008). Corrective
maintenance is initiated after the building has failed and is intended to restore the building to its
original condition. This practice is, in most cases very expensive, and usually leaves the users less
satisfied. It often leads to a maintenance backlog since the available resources are often inadequate
to address the maintenance needs. Another major shortcoming of this approach is that it disrupts
and disturbs the activities that are carried out in and around the building.
Conditional-based maintenance is a preventive maintenance initiated as a result of some
knowledge of the condition of the building on the basis of inspection prior to failure. As long as the
parameters of the building are found to be within specification, it will be considered to as fine and
no action will be taken. Condition-based maintenance is sometimes based on a time scale. That is,
maintenance is initiated on the agreed time period regardless of whether there is a problem with the
building or its element or not. Under the conditional-based maintenance system, the basis of
formulating the annual maintenance budget is hypothetical as the estimate depends on the existing
condition of the building plus allowance for uncertainty. Stock condition at best provides only an
overview of the condition of a building during the inspection period (Jones and Sharp, 2007). It is
difficult to assess the amount of risk posed by an identified non-critical problem to future operations
and productivity (Reffat, Gero and Peng, 2004). A non-critical problem during inspection might
deteriorate further or become more serious during the actual implementation due to the reliability
and validity of the outcomes of the condition survey. Condition-based maintenance practices have
various other shortcomings including inconsistence in data collection, unrealistic assumptions
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regarding data accuracy, software not being able to interrogate or manipulate data and over
emphasize on detail that might not even be required (Marshall, Worthing and Thomas, 1996 and
Chapman and Beck, 1998). O’Dell (1996) opined that a stock condition survey could underestimate
the volume and costs of maintenance needed by as high as 60% of the actual works / costs (Jones,
2002).
3 PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
However, times have moved on, maintenance demands are no longer based on building
conditions rather on the building performance and user value systems. It is the performance of the
buildings that is major concerns of the building users. To the extent that the building is capable of
allowing the users to perform their functions, the building is a source of value creation to the
functional service of accommodating, learning, teaching and doing research-with specific reference
to the university buildings. Thinking is reflect current consideration on the need for the building
itself. Buildings are factors of production. In other words, buildings are not wanted for their sake
rather for the services they provide to the users. Evidently, this is where the definition of the
maintenance should stem from. Unfortunately, maintenance is often wrongly initiated because of
the building physical outlook. In addition, empirical studies have revealed maintenance demands in
Malaysia are not based on thought process. In other words, there is lack of thoughtful decision
making process rather the practices have are based on try by error process. For instance,
maintenance budgets are developed on historical data, sometimes with allowance for contingency
which is sometimes in the region of 20%. While the correctness of the historical data is an issue, the
contingency is not based on actual needs. Thus there is a need for a value-based maintenance
management framework capable of guiding and facilitating decision making process. The lack of
this will lead to poor service delivery. Therefore, questions that could probably come to minds
include:
i) What are the criteria to measure in building performance?

ii) What are the criteria required in order to develop maintenance framework?
iii) What are the criteria within the user value system?
iv) On what basis is maintenance need prioritise?
Answers to these questions will guide towards improving maintenance management practices.
4 AIM OF THE RESEARCH
Based on the problems identified above, this research aimed at proposing a value-based
building maintenance management model for universities in Malaysia.
5 OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH
To achieve the above aim, the following objectives were developed:

i) To determine the criteria influencing the management of university building
maintenance
To develop value-based maintenance management, the maintenance managers must
know the criteria that affect the maintenance management of the building under their
purview. This will facilitate the decision making processes
ii) To prioritize maintenance criteria with the users value system
Similarly, the maintenance manager must be familiar with the criteria with the users’
value system. This will facilitate the prioritization of the maintenance needs
iii) To prioritize defects in university buildings
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The identification and prioritization of the defects in the university buildings this
will focuses the maintenance organizations resources to defects that affect users’
satisfaction–user care. Thus an effective maintenance programme and schedule can
be optimized.
iv) To formulate a maintenance reporting system
For effective communications between the users and the maintenance organisation,
there must be a user-friendly complaint reporting systems.
v) To formulate maintenance performance indicators (MPI)
The maintenance manager must be able evaluate the quality of the maintenance service as
well as establishing the minimum acceptable condition of the buildings and of the
maintenance services. The MPI will also enable continuous consideration of the user value
systems through feedback and feed forward processed. The MPI will also reveal the success
or failure of the maintenance plan
6 THE HYPOTHESIS FOR THIS RESEARCH
Based on the problems stated above, this paper hypothesized that:
Poor service delivery

Lack of maintenance is Poor user satisfactions
management framework related to Maintenance backlogs
Increase in maintenance
cost
7 SCOPE OF THE RESEARCH
This research is limited in scope to public universities in Malaysia and focused mainly on
those located within the Klang Valley. The Klang Valley spans the capital city of Malaysia, Kuala
Lumpur, Selangor and part of Negri Sembilan. The Klang Valley has the highest concentration of
public universities (IPTA) in Malaysia. The population of the Klang Valley is estimated to be
around 5 million, based on the 2006 estimate. About 30% (28.57% specifically) of the public
universities in Malaysia are located in the Klang Valley. Out of the twenty-one public universities
in Malaysia, six are located in the Klang Valley. Most of the public universities in the Klang
Valley are the oldest in the country, with most of them having been in operation for more than 30
years. With these, most would actually depict the want of maintenance since age is a variable in
building maintenance. As a result, new universities will not be included in the research.
Specifically, those universities that this research will focus on are Universiti Malaya, Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia, Universiti Teknologi Mara, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Universiti Kebangsaan
Malaysia and the International Islamic Universiti Malaysia. However, the research felt it is
necessary to include the apex university in Malaysia, University Science Malaysia (USM) in the
study even though the apex university does not fall into the study area. USM was selected as the
apex university in Malaysia based on last year’s assessment. Thus it serves as a model for public
universities in Malaysia. Therefore, the total number of universities to be included in the survey is
seven. This represents about 33% of the public universities in Malaysia.
8 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND METHODS OF DATA ANALYSIS
In order to achieve the set objectives, the research uses data collection through triangulation
methodology. The triangulation methods involved three data sources that cross-examine the validity
and reliability of one another. The three sources that will be used for this research are questionnaire
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(1), interviews (2) and focused group (3). The respondents for this research are “maintenance
managers”: people that are actually involved in making decisions on university building
maintenance. The questionnaire is divided into five parts: part one contains information on the
respondent profile and the information about the university’s buildings. The questionnaire is mainly
closed-ended closed questions, but provisions are made for respondents in case none of the options
provided is appropriate to the respondent.
With respect to the first, second and third objectives, the lists of criteria that influence the
management of university building maintenance, the users’ maintenance criteria and maintenance
defects in buildings were developed based literature review and discussions with those concern with
managing university buildings. The review involved published and unpublished data such as
conference, seminar and symposium proceedings, journals, magazines, newspapers, texts books and
theses. The reviews include both local and international reading material. With respect to the first
objective, 40 criteria that can influence the maintenance management of university buildings were
identified. The criteria will be measured on Likert / continuum scales of Extremely Influential, Very
Influential, Influential, Somewhat Influential, Not Influential, Not Very Influential or Not
Influential At All. With respect to the second objective, nine criteria that could enhance satisfaction
will be addressed to the respondents to express their importance to the university building users. For
the third objective, 37 maintenance defects that were particular to university buildings were
identified and addressed to the respondents to rank on the level of urgency to users.
The defects will be measured on Likert scales of Extremely Urgent, Very Urgent, Urgent,
Somewhat Urgent, Not Urgent, Not Very Urgent or Urgent Not All. Objectives four and five will
be achieved through focus groups with those concerns with the management of university building
maintenance. However, while selecting and defining the categories of the scale, it was decided to
use “do not know” instead of “neutral”. It was felt that “do not know “and “(neutral) neither often
nor often” are not the same both as terms and as concepts. “Do not know” means the respondent is
unaware of the existence of the product or services. In fact, “neutral” or “neither often nor often”
can be regarded as a double entry. However, deductively “do not know” to the respondent is
interpreted to mean the variable is not applicable.
Two methods of data analysis software will be used: SPSS and Microsoft Excel software for
windows: while the SPSS will be used to produce descriptive and inferential statistics, Microsoft
Excel will be employed for illustrative statistics. The developed conceptual maintenance
management model will be validated against criteria including simplicity, logical, systematic and
user friendly and easy to understand and ease of applications by selected maintenance experts.
However, missing data (where the respondent refused to tick where applicable or there is a multiple
entry), could impact negatively on the outcome of the findings. However, such an effect could be
improved during data analysis by either replacing the missing data with the mode or mean of the
data depending on the types of data. However, in this research, the missing data will not be treated
as such; instead, we prefer to leave the data raw, as it were, so that the outcomes will not in any way
be influenced by the authors.
9 CONCLUSION
In anticipation of the main research, this paper has outlined a plan to proceed with the
research. This paper has been able to establish that the current maintenance management systems
for university buildings in Malaysia cannot guarantee best value maintenance practice. It is also
established that the current systems are reactive rather than proactive and systematic. Maintenance
service must be user-driven to be systemic. The satisfactions of the university building users
correspond to providing service that exceeds their expectations within the minimum time.
Considering the condition of the building as the major focus of maintenance is to regard
maintenance as a burden and to limit maintenance to the technological aspect of the process.
Maintenance management is a process not an event. Unfortunately, aintenance management is not
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usually regarded as part of the top management functions or duties in most public organizations
rather it often regarded as an operational function.
The value based maintenance management model takes into account the condition of the
buildings, its performance, the users’ value systems and the resources used to meet the needs. A
user’s value system is the most important element in building maintenance management. This
current thinking is entirely consistent with the principle of value management. The user value
system sits at the heart of the value management practice. Value management is an organized and
systematic approach to obtain the best functional balance between cost, quality, reliability, safety,
aesthetics and time (Olanrewaju and Khairuddin, 2007). The need to manage building maintenance
in terms of the user requirements cannot be emphasized enough, as this is the only way that the ever
inadequate funds are positively managed.
…in this competitive business environment “you have got to run faster than you are currently
doing so that you can remain in the same position”...
Note:
This paper was originally prepared and accepted for the Fourth International Conference for
Postgraduate Researchers of the Built & Natural Environment (PRoBE) which took place at
Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow, Scotland from the 19th to 20th November 2009. But due
to logistic reasons (i.e. conference payment was not pay on time); the paper was not presented and
was not included in their proceedings albeit all review process was finalized. However, it was felt
that the framework and contents are still much relevant for the MiCRA 2010. Useful comments and
suggestions could still be received from this conference, even though the main research has reached
an advance stage. Major modifications have been made on the main research. Further than that,
other researchers could as well use the research design for future works. Readers would also see
what we have done (or is it what we had intend to do?) and if possible make meaning comparison
with later findings, conclusions and recommendations. The research model which was included in
the initial submission to PRoBE was removed, however.
REFERENCES
Bateman, T. S. and Snell, S. A. (2009) Management: leading and collaborating in the competitive
world, 8th Edition. New York: McGraw Hill / Irwin
Chanter, B and Swallow, P. (2007) Building maintenance management, Oxford, Blackwell
Publishing,
Chapman, K and Beck, M (1998) Recent experience of housing associations and others registered
social landlords in commissioning stock condition surveys. COBRA 1998 Conference. RICS
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8
CONTRIBUTION OF EDUCATION IN UITM TO FACILITIES

MANAGEMENT IN MALAYSIA
Zarina Isnin, MSc.

Lecturer, Universiti Teknologi MARA
zarinasf@gmail.com
Ahmad Ezanee Hashim, PhD.
Associate Professor, Universiti Teknologi MARA
ezanee54@yahoo.com
Sri Rahayu Mohd Sa’ad, MSc.
srirahayumohdsa’ad@yahoo.com
Norimah Madding, BSc.
MSc. Candidate, Universiti Teknologi MARA
imah_amieras@yahoo.com.my
ABSTRACT
Facilities Management is increasingly important in providing effective and productive environments
which meet the needs of today’s businesses. Although it is still in its infancy in Malaysia, teaching
FM in Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) has spread over several disciplines, including interior
architecture, management, business and construction to ensure they gain the skills necessary to fully
realise the potential of FM to the business success of companies and organizations. This paperwork
aims to determine the extent of FM in Malaysian Higher Education and reviews the changes in the
built environment that may positively contribute to opportunities in FM education and the challenges
that need to be taken into account. Several case studies carried out by UiTM students on FM practices
in the building management sector are highlighted. The review focuses on areas where FM is being
actively implemented, management method used and the extent of FM being adopted specifically to
understand the limits of growth for FM in Malaysia.
Keywords: Facilities Management, Higher Learning Education, Challenges, Opportunities
1 INTRODUCTION
Facilities Management (FM) is important to the business success of companies and

organizations. It demands the business to become dynamic and global causing the strategic
management of higher education to become increasingly complex. Thus teaching of FM has been
recognised as one of the fundamental approach to assist Malaysian asset and facilities management
industries in meeting the increasing demand and challenges of FM in Malaysia.
Quoting a speech by the Malaysian Minister of Works at the CWorks International Facility
Management Conference (CIFCM) in 2009:“With the changing landscape of building and
infrastructure, Facility Management has become very demanding. Facilities are not only more
complex, but they are also bigger, taller and more hi-tech. This demanding environment challenges
the operation skills of facility and property managers to facilitate good returns on investment as
well as ensuring that these facilities can be sustained for longer life and optimum usage“.
Due to these demands and challenges in FM Malaysia, UiTM started conducting a post-
graduate program in Master of Science (MSc.) in Facilities Management since 2002 and four post-
graduate students successfully graduated as the first batch in 2004. The number of student
enrolments has gradually increased each year and as in 2009, each enrolment was not less than 30
students.
9
This course meets the requirements of the Malaysian Quality Assurance (MQA) and Royal
Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS) including market and industry demands of FM in the
current Malaysian business landscape. Globalization and modernization of buildings, facilities and
the environment scenario also required graduates to be able to work in multicultural teams, adapt to
fast changes and new atmosphere.
2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF MSc. in FACILITIES MANAGEMENT, UiTM
This program is aimed to facilitate learning and developing the knowledge required in
understanding the strategic importance of FM. It is also intended to provide studies of an integrated
nature, comprising of theoretical, operational, practical knowledge and skill at the leading edge of
FM development. It is expected that graduates develop an in-depth understanding of the operation
and coordination of facilities that relate to planning, designing and management ability in a rapidly
changing world.
MSc. in Facilities Management, UiTM intends to produce graduates who are able to perform
FM activities to the standards required in employment and industry, using an appropriate mix of
knowledge, skill, attitude and managerial competencies. It is also to enable the development of
competence and business acumen of graduates towards effective management of major facilities
peripheral in an organization.
The program has been designed for all associated disciplines within the built environment
namely: Building Surveying, Building and Construction Management, Quantity Surveying, Interior
Design, Landscape, Land Surveying, Architecture, Estate Management, Town Planning, Electrical,
Mechanical and Civil Engineering. Nevertheless, in recent enrolments, graduates from other
discipline such as Business Finance, Law and Industrial Manufacturing with experience in property
market have also joined the program.
3 TEACHING METHODOLOGY AND PROFESSIONAL RECOGNITION
Teaching courses of FM in UiTM has spread over several disciplines, including architecture,
management, business and construction to ensure they gain the skills necessary to fully realise the
potential of FM in providing effective and productive environments which meet the needs of
today’s businesses. These post-graduate students require knowledge and have high expectations on
how facilities should be planned, designed and managed since many are working in construction,
management, factory and academic institutions.
The courses taught in the program incorporate strategic and operational competences as well
as mixture of generic and specialist/technical areas. The courses include facilities framework and
planning, information and communication technology (ICT), computer aided system, management
subjects in human resource, value and financial, strategic and risk planning, building fabric,
services and environmental as well as integrated simulation projects. These course contents
comprise of broad managerial and practical competences, technical skills, and also international
perspective of different subject areas. Students are also exposed to course administration and
faculty interrelation through program flexibility, personnel friendliness, faculty professionalism and
the institution, UiTM as a known university.
The program intends to provide flexibility by catering for different organisational
requirements and steering individual needs such as for professionals who are moving up in the
corporate hierarchy or are offered more wide-ranging responsibilities. It also furnishes wider choice
for companies when appraising individual experience, skills, knowledge, development needs as
well as training needs.
The core value of education is delivered by qualified UiTM teaching staff as well as
experienced practitioners from industries. Guest lecturers from industries also provide insights into
the changing business environment in the country, region and industry. In knowledge economy, no
10
university program provides students with the knowledge and skills sufficient and relevant during
their professional career. Thus, graduates are expected to be able to identify the need for additional
education or training, be able to use upcoming opportunities, find and analyse possible alternatives
and plan their professional and personal development in an effective and efficient way.
This program is prepared based on detailed reviews of syllabus to fulfil the requirement of
Ministry of Higher Education and indirectly able to enhance the quality of teaching and learning for
the MSc. in Facilities Management, UiTM. It also meets the professional external examiner
requirements and”Educational Frameworks” of RICS as it has successfully obtained professional
recognition from the notable institute.
4 CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES ENCOUNTERED
With the current economic downturn, UiTM continue to provide education and seek
opportunities despite facing new challenges in terms of learning environment. It is vital to meet the
requirements of all universities’ stakeholders, as well as dealing with modern complicated and
dynamic world. Thus it is necessary to emphasise the importance of considering not only university
product offerings but the overall study experience students have. The MSc. in Facilities
Management UiTM is therefore designed to achieve the purpose and to promote public confidence
by ensuring quality in higher education is being maintained through MQA assessment.
One of the challenges for UiTM is to teach adequate knowledge and practical skills of FM
education. Based on MQA requirement, student need to be encouraged to inquire, to critically
appraise problems, evaluate and offer creative solutions as well as to develop a sense of
professionalism and attitudes that are desirable for society, in particular Malaysian society. Hence,
it is vital for the program to use a variety of teaching-learning assessment methods that will enable
students to acquire a range of competencies to participate in the education process, national and
global development and the growth of their own disciplines through a process of continuous
improvement.
Several methods outlined in MQA include self-directed learning and use of ICT that bring
diversity to students’ learning experiences. Traditional methods such as lectures, tutorials and
practical classes should be combined with problem-based learning and computer assisted learning
to promote analytical thinking, problem solving, effective communication, use of computer and
digital technology as well as life-long learning.
Students have the opportunity to encounter real problems faced by facility managers through
tasks, assignments and case studies. The students collected the data and information which are then
analyzed through appropriate presentation and reporting skills. The objective of the assessment
based on real case study is to expose them to issues on policy, demands and requirements from
numerous users and other stakeholders. It is expected that through a structured post-graduate
program, graduates will have the potential to improve the physical performance and appearance of a
building and its systems, as well as to increase the users' level of satisfaction, and to improve the
efficiency with which building and infrastructure are maintained and operated.
5 CASE STUDIES
This paper highlights several contributions made by UiTM students on several aspects of
FM, such as management of facilities of hospital support services in Malaysia, application of value
management and understanding of FM during design stage. In these case studies, the students apply
individual competences such as communication and interpersonal skills by adapting to FM and
corporate environments in order to study the subject matter. Interdisciplinary and cross-functional
knowledge and skills are required for them to obtain information and data. They also successfully
11
incorporate suitable business ethics and corporate social responsibility to acquire and produce
informative study.
5.1 Case Study 1
Title: A Study on Facilities Management of Hospital Support Services at Public

Hospitals in Malaysia
Author: Buyong, J. (2007),
Unpublished MSc. in Facilities Management Dissertation, Universiti Teknologi MARA
Supervised by Associate Professor Sr. Dr. Ahmad Ezanee Hashim.
i) Introduction
The objectives of the study were to overview the maintenance system in Malaysian public
hospitals and to analyze the performance and effectiveness of FM which are being practiced
by public hospitals.
ii) The study

It was found that the government has privatized five (5) Hospital Support Services (HSS)
since 1997 that includes Facility Management Services. Services include maintenance of
civil engineering works, systems, including buildings, infrastructure, landscaping and also
the maintenance of all mechanical and electrical engineering systems and plants. Three
concession companies have been appointed to provide the service for 127 hospitals and
institutions and 20 more new hospitals have been added making a total of 147.
Maintenance system for the public hospitals has been standardized through the privatization
project. All three concession companies are required to provide services and maintenance
work in compliance with their Concession Agreement.
Interviews and questionnaires to hospital staff and patients were carried out to gauge
effectiveness of the current FM in hospital. Questionnaires were distributed to all 147
contract hospitals by email and by hand.
iii) Findings and Analysis
Based from the analyses on performance and effectiveness of maintenance management

system in public hospitals, it was found that there was a huge gap between data obtained on
all maintenance activities captured in Central Management Information System (CMIS) and
respondent’s satisfaction level through questionnaire distribution and interview with related
parties as shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Data obtained in analysing the performance and effectiveness of maintenance

management system in public hospitals
Description Data obtained

CMIS for breakdown work order completed within 15 days 91.58% - 98.86%
Questionnaire 54.61% - 65.06%
12
iv) Interpretation
Based from the findings carried out, the performance and effectiveness of maintenance
management system in public hospitals showed significant difference with responses
obtained. This did not mean that the services by the concession companies were poor, but it
indicated that the respondents were not satisfied with the quality of services.
v) Reason
a) Concession Companies concentrate more on monitoring their services through

Management Information System and have sacrificed the human factor that should
be the most important factor in maintenance management.
b) Performance measured by Ministry of Health is through deduction of fee for non
conformance using CMIS. This is the only indicator that directly links service to cost
and is taken seriously by the Concession Contractors.
vi) Proposed Recommendation

In order to improve on the performance and effectiveness of FM system in public hospitals,
below were some of the recommendations made by the student:
a) The performance measured by deduction of fees need to be revised. Other criteria

should be looked into such as performance data analysis on concession companies
and customer satisfaction survey.
b) Shorten period of days allowed for breakdown maintenance from 15 days to seven
days because work could be done faster with new technology and equipment
available. As the Concession Agreement was made 10 years ago, the 15 days period
seems outdated to measure the standard of performance by the Concession
Contractors.
c) A professional approach and attitude should be adopted to all customers including
hospital staff to avoid failure in being responsive to the needs of customers.
d) Maintenance team should understand the relative influence and specific requirements
of stakeholders involved in hospitals such as Ministry of Health, patients, doctors,
nurses and other related parties.
e) The service specification should not be regarded as fixed statements of service
requirements but as a basis for continuous improvement as circumstances and
customer requirements would always change. Concession Companies should update
and improve service specifications in order to draw experience from the actual action
in providing the service as this could result in better improvement.
f) The overall performance of Concession Companies can be determined by monitoring
adherence to standards and targets under the following headings:
Conformance to the Concession Agreement, Technical Requirement
Performance Indicator (TRPI) and Master Agreed Procedure (MAP);
Time related target;
Interaction between customer and Concession Companies
g) Appointment of independent supervisor or in-house professional/competent person to
monitor Concession Companies’ performance.
13
5.2 Case Study 2
Title: Incorporating Value Management Solutions into FM: Towards Maintenance

Cost Optimization
Author: Raja Aminuddin, R.M. (2009)

Supervised by Associate Professor Dr. Aini Jaapar.
i) Introduction
Value Management (VM) has been extensively used internationally and currently its usage
is indeed on the rise in the Malaysian construction industry. In Malaysia, VM has been
recognized as worthy to apply during design and construction phase but there is lack of
research being done on its successful factor when it is incorporated in building Facilities
Management (FM).
ii) The Study

The objectives of the study were to establish linkage between Facilities Management (FM)
and Value Management (VM), to study the possible cost optimization in FM through VM
integration and to investigate various VM approach at Malaysian Airport Holdings Berhad
(MAHB) that is used for cost optimization in planned and maintenance projects.
iii) Findings and Analysis

Based on case study conducted at MAHB, the author saw potential in applying VM in
government sector because government policy requires a budget that is fully utilized. By
conducting VM, perhaps the money will be well distributed to more important projects or
the application of VM technique could be saved and also spent on value added facilities to
achieve quality result.
iv) Proposed Recommendation

The VM evaluation techniques must also evolve and be flexible. This is in view of the
integration of strategic management into VM where there are possibilities of evaluating the
function analysis by using strategic management approach as follows:
a) SWOT Analysis – analyzing Strength, Weakness, Opportunity and Threat;

b) Six Sigma Strategy – Quality driven that seeks perfection (‘define, measure, analyze,
improve” and “control or define, measure, analyze, design and verify”) (Wheat &
Mills et. Al. 2003 in Raja Aminuddin, R.M. (2009);
c) TRIZ Theory – Teoriya Resheniya Izobreatetelskikh Zadatch in Soviet language
translated as Theory of Inventive Problem Solving. It analyzes the five pillars –
contradiction, ideality, functionality, resources and space-time interface (Mann &
Spain, 2008 in Raja Aminuddin, R.M. (2009);
d) De Bono Theory – thinking of different perspectives or known as Six Thinking Hats
(white hat – facts and figures; red hat – rage and emotions; black hat – pessimistic or
defensive or careful; yellow hat – positive and optimistic; green hat – creativity and
blue hat – director’s process control) (Bono, 2000 in Raja Aminuddin, R.M. (2009);
e) Mind Maps – technique of mind mapping (Buzan in Raja Aminuddin, R.M. (2009);
f) Blue Ocean Strategy – making competition irrelevant, minimizing risk and cost but
increasing in value, creating a class of its own.
14
v) Summary
The VM study in FM can be summarized as a technique that has potential to optimize cost
and value of function. The integration of VM and FM are viable as they have similar
characteristics and possible to be integrated to achieve cost optimization.
Incorporating VM into FM will lead to a better project outcome. It will indirectly contribute
to economic growth and business success. It will also strive to increase the functional
sustainability of a building in order to reach users benefit of convenience and contribute to
the property book value.
5.3 Case Study 3
Title: Facilities Management Approaches During Design Stage For Redevelopement

Of Police Headquarters And Residential Projects.
Author: Komar, Z. (2010),
Supervised by Puan Zarina Isnin (Ithnin)
i) Introduction
Syarikat Pembinaan BLT Sdn. Bhd (PBLT), a subsidiary of Ministry of Finance
Incorporated was set up to undertake 52 projects worth RM2.5 billion of fast-track
construction for development of police headquarters and residential projects throughout
Malaysia. The projects are carried out under the build, lease and transfer approach. It is to
ensure that opportunity for Bumiputera contractors to implement the projects would spur the
local construction industry
ii) Scope of Study

The study was done to define FM understanding among construction professional such as
Architect, Engineer (Civil, Mechanical, Electrical) and Quantity Surveyor in PBLT project
during design stage. It also intended to discover the implementation of FM during design
stage at PBLT project using checklists derived from construction project requirements and
identified the problems embedded in involvement of FM during design stage.
The study was carried out to projects that were currently implemented with more than 50%
progress of work and also to completed projects. 25 projects were selected that involve
Architect, Civil and Structure Engineer, Mechanical and Electrical Engineer and Quantity
Surveyor. Four (4) sets of questionnaires for each profession were created based on
construction checklist and distributed to the professionals involved. The questionnaires
contained background and project information of the respondents, level of understanding
based on definition of FM and also assessment of respondents’ opinion such as advantage,
disadvantage and solution to apply FM during design stage. These questionnaires were
designed based from literature review and adaptation from guidelines and requirement by
local authorities, Economic Planning Unit, Public Works Department, Uniform Building By
Law and also related to Client and Consultant’s meeting. 25 respondents for each profession
answered the questionnaires, resulting in 100 respondents for the overall study.
iii) Data Collection

Prior to distributing four sets of questionnaires to 100 professionals, a pilot test was carried
out to determine the validity and reliability of the questionnaire and the measurement
15
instruments to be used. Cronbach Alpha method was chosen to test 80 items from ten initial
professionals from all the four main disciplines. The value coefficient of Cronbach Alpha
obtained was 0.954 which was highly reliable and valid for the application of the research.
To help strengthen the information obtained from questionnaire results, interview sessions
were also carried out to personnel directly involved in the project implementation either the
client or consultants. The purpose was to obtain clearer picture regarding involvement of
FM during design stage in the construction industry.
iv) Findings and Analysis

From the study carried out, it was found that there was a moderate understanding of FM
amongst the professionals and the level of implementation of FM during design stage at
PBLT project was partly applied. All of the professionals have more than two years of
experience and more than 20% have more than ten years of experience. More than 93%
respondents have worked with projects that were more than RM10 million.
Based from the findings, 69% respondents agreed that by applying FM during design stage
will create better collaboration between all the consultants involved in the project. 60%
agreed that high quality of work could be achieved whilst 49% said it could reduce cost and
only 36% responded applying FM during design stage could save time.
On the disadvantages of not applying FM during design stage, high maintenance recorded
the highest response rate of 69% followed by creation of many variation works (58%) and
prolongation of construction time (53%). Other disadvantages were wastage, reworks at site
and low quality of product.
v) Opinions
Several opinions were obtained from the study and it was recommended by more than 60%
of respondents that the client should understand the benefits of FM prior to implementing a
project. 53% of respondents proposed to ensure that FM requirement or approaches be made
compulsory by the government or authorities and become part of the design process. 46% of
respondents also agreed that it is important to prepare a comprehensive or master checklist
for FM to ensure a smooth project. These could avoid problems and provide valuable
information on building performance and operating costs (Preiser, 1995 in Komar, 2010).
6 CONCLUSION
Due to the increasing number of students in MSc. in Facilities Management, UiTM, it is

vital to fulfil the requirement set by Ministry of Higher Education and Educational Frameworks of
RICS that help to enhance the quality of teaching and learning as well as gaining professional
recognition. The program also faces challenges in meeting requirements from the university’s
stakeholders, as well as to deal with modern complicated and dynamic world. Future development
of this program needs to emphasize the importance of considering not only university product
offerings but the overall study experience students have through quality academic assessment
including international and industrial recognitions. Graduates are expected to be able to identify the
need for education or training and find opportunities for their professional and personal
development that are desirable for Malaysian society and industry. It is also expected that they will
have the potential to improve the physical performance, efficiency and appearance of buildings and
facilities that will benefit the management of major facilities peripheral in an organization.
16
REFERENCES
Buyong, J. (2007), A Study on Facilities Management of Hospital Support Services at Public

Hospitals in Malaysia, Unpublished MSc. in Facilities Management Dissertation, Universiti
Teknologi MARA
Komar, Z. (2010), Facilities Management Approaches During Design Stage For Redevelopement
Of Police Headquarters And Residential Projects. Unpublished MSc. in Facilities Management
Dissertation, Universiti Teknologi MARA
Raja Aminuddin, R.M. (2009), Incorporating Value Management Solutions into FM: Towards
Maintenance Cost Optimization, Unpublished MSc. in Facilities Management Dissertation,
Universiti Teknologi MARA
Code Of Practice Quality Assurance In Public Universities Of Malaysia, Quality Assurance
Division, Ministry Of Higher Education
Program Master of Science in Facilities Management (2010), Semakan Kurikulum Program
Akademik, UiTM.
17
18
USER SATISFACTION ON CLEANING SERVICES IN HIGHER

LEARNING INSTITUTIONS
Zarina Isnin,MSc.
zarinasf@gmail.com
Hikmah Kamarudin, MSc.
hikmahkamarudin@gmail.com
Irwan M. Ali, BSc.
irwanmohdali@gmail.com
Mohd Nurfaisal Baharuddin, BSc.
mohdnurfaisal_727@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Cleaning service quality has become an important part of any organisation’s strategic plans especially
to academic and educational success in higher learning institutions. However, quality services are
difficult to measure. More attention has been focused on the service quality as cleaning services are
inseparable, difficult and also participated by students and staffs in the process. Its trend follows the
changing orientations of the built environment. This research discusses user satisfaction on the
cleaning services carried out in higher learning educations in Malaysia. The study comprised of
literature reviews, observations, interviews and survey questionnaires to three public and two private
universities. This research aims to find out satisfaction level of staff members and students on
cleaning services provided through collection of opinions. The identified gaps in this service will help
the higher learning educations management to set a direction for future development and provide
better services for the community.
Keywords: Cleaning services, Higher Learning Institution, User satisfaction, User survey
1 INTRODUCTION
There has been little research on user or customer’s viewpoints of cleaning service quality
and expected levels in higher learning institutions. These could sometimes lead to misallocation of
resources while attempting to improve the perceived quality (Buys, 2004 in Buys, Cumberlege &
Crafford, 2009) of the institutions. Several researches conducted in most higher learning institutions
showed that cleaning service constitutes among the highest budget allocation for maintenance
budget and it increases every year (Isnin, 2007; Kurdi, 2010). The misdirected efforts could result
in user dissatisfaction and negative consequences with the institutions. Managing a maintenance
organisation for a higher learning institute is a highly complex work. The organisation involves
with multiple interactions especially with technical, social, legal and financial determinants which
govern the use of buildings. The condition and quality of buildings and facilities are amongst the
most fundamental components as it involves education, academic and research purposes. It is also a
process of managing assets that deals with the sourcing and use of the institution’s entire assets.
Deducing from Wordsworth (2001), higher learning institution end users comprised of students,
academic and non academic staffs (users/customers) and majority of them spend over 95% of their
time in a building be it an academic block (during office hours) or even hostel.
19
Unfortunately, evaluating service quality is difficult for users because to judge quality
involves many intangible evidences. Measuring service quality is quite different from measuring
product quality because service involves the user in the experience (Lindberg et. al, 2002). Daily
comments concerning facilities services are most probably negative. However, it does not mean that
these services are bad, just that people are more likely to react when something is wrong, than when
it is working well. To improve the services it is important to be aware of the performance by
ensuring whether the user’s expectations have been met. This is important because the perception of
cleaning services in institute of higher learning is likely to have impact on the stakeholders in the
future (Isnin, 2007).
A clean, safe and sanitary condition throughout all buildings and area is the primary goal of
any higher learning institutions. Cleaning is a systematic process in nature that aims to remove dirt,
soil or unwanted matter from any surface. Cleaning services is one of the main components in
Facility Management (FM). It can be seen as encompassing the processes to do with the
management of the space that supports organisational activities by ensuring unwanted matter is
cleaned and maintained to a certain safe degree zone that reduces risk level to human health.
Education is about excellence and unsatisfactory services and facilities will affect the ability
of institutions of higher learning to achieve their mission. Institutions of higher learning are
dependent on their facilities and supporting services, therefore FM acts as a vital component to
strategic thinking for these institutions to produce, manage, disseminate, access and control
knowledge. It could also be implied as an activity which involves planning, designing, managing
complex facilities and building components to enable the institutions to meet its core business i.e.
academic and education functions. FM encompasses a vast spectrum of perspectives about people,
organisations and change processes to realise the value of any organisation (Nutt, 1992; Then &
Akhlaghi, 1992; Williams, 1994 in Isnin, 2007).
In recent years, Malaysia has been increasing pressure on its government institutions and
agencies to become more aware of performance, quality and, more in general, good management
especially in FM although it is still a new concept in Malaysia. These organisations need to identify
their performance in providing a good service. In order to do that, performance has to be assessed
and if possible measured. User expectations are standards against which performance can be
measured. User will continue using the service based on these standards that are formed based on
previous knowledge and experience with the service.
This research aims at collecting opinions from the selected higher learning educations
community to find out how far are the staff members and students satisfied with cleaning services
provided. It seeks to provide information about factors contributing to service quality and insight
into the means of meeting user needs and improving their perception to the higher learning
institutions.
2 USER SATISFACTION THEORY
User or customer satisfaction is a key component of effective FM. FM involves actions

(process) as quality services in built environments (space) are delivered and sustained to meet
strategic needs of stakeholders (people). According to Zineldin (2000), satisfaction is emotional
reaction towards the difference between what users anticipate and what they receive, or user's
estimated experience of the extent to which a provider's services satisfy his or her expectations
(Gerpott et. al., 2001 in Singh, 2006).
User’s involvement and satisfaction are important in FM as user’s satisfaction is needed to
support continuous improvement within the organization (Becker, 1990). The users or the various
stakeholders must feel their needs are heard, understood, and acted upon. Various tools must be in
place to assure communication effectiveness through assessment and assimilation of what is said,
and implementation of procedures to act on expressed needs. It is very important to maintain
facilities and assets in the organizations with a satisfactory delivery to the users and the higher
20
learning institutions. However users often judge a maintenance service on how it has directly
affected them rather than on the quality of the service done. The daily nature of the service and
constant contact with stakeholders of the service means that there is constant informal feedback
regarding the quality and provision of the service and any feed back or complaint on "non-delivery"
of service is immediate and vociferous. Johnston (2001) claims that managing complaint not only
results in user satisfaction, but also leads to operational improvement and improved financial
performance.
In the case of cleaning services, it should not be just to optimise running costs of buildings,
but also to raise efficiency and satisfaction of the space and related assets for people (user and
stakeholder) and processes (cleaning services) in order that the mission and goals of the
organisation may be achieved at the best combination of efficiency and cost. This is further
supported by assumption of a strong correlation between satisfaction and performance (Kaplan &
Norton, 1992 & 1993; Letza, 1996; Eccels, 1992; in Amaratunga et. al., 2000).
2.1 Effect of User Satisfaction Towards Cleaning Services
According to Lindberg et. al. (2002), user became aware of quality on services in the late
1970’s. Therefore, any organisation has to find out who the users are and what their needs are. This
information should be based on the development of a service or a product that can satisfy the needs,
and the development of a functioning process to produce and deliver it. Any user or provider of a
service or a product has his own opinion on quality as the service or product. The quality is said to
be seen as a part of the performance. Many service providers focus on achieving user satisfaction
and loyalty by delivering superior value which is the most important element for a competitive
advantage. User satisfaction brings many benefits such as user is less sensitive on price, buys
additional products, is less influenced by competitors and stays loyal longer (Zineldin, 2000).
Satisfied and properly served users are more likely to return to an organisation than are dissatisfied
users who could choose simply to go elsewhere (Ovenden, 1995).
Stauss et al. (2001) indicated that satisfaction is merely a step towards the goal of user
retention, and that retention effects increase with the degree of satisfaction. People look at an
organisation through the eyes of its users (Amaratunga et al., 2002). Many organisations have a
corporate mission that focuses on the user. But what is important is, how an organisation performs
from its users’ perspective is a priority for top management. User’s main concerns are on time,
quality, performance, service and cost. In general, it is rather difficult to measure user satisfaction
although it provides feedback on how well the organisation is doing as organisation’s performance
measures depend on users’ evaluations.
Cleaning services has an increasing demand and supply in Malaysia due to its low initial
cost; small workforce and non skill requirements; minimal management; ease of obtaining supply
of chemicals and equipment and big potential for further expansion (Malaysian Entrepreneur and
Development Corporation, 2006). However, this service does not naturally derive satisfaction in
users as it is something which has to be directed, managed and monitored. Thus in any service
quality management, firstly it is important to gain a thorough understanding of the user’s need and
expectations. Secondly, it needs to establish a service strategy expressed in policies and procedures
that reflects the organisation’s unique service proposition (Kotler and Fox, 1995). In most higher
learning institutions, although learning remains the main mission, changing conditions cause new
demands that need to be satisfied to achieve good performance and maintain user’s loyalty for
preserving the good image of the institution.
21
3 METHODOLOGY OF STUDY
In conducting a survey, a study is valid if an instrument actually measures what it claims to

measure (Salonen, 2006). The objective of the study was to find whether the findings and results
from compilation of data and survey from user satisfaction of cleaning services could be applied to
FM of higher learning institutions in Malaysia and whether the results could be generalised. Three
public universities and two private university colleges in Selangor and Kuala Lumpur were selected
randomly which were Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
(UKM) and Universiti Malaya (UM), UCSI University Kuala Lumpur Campus (UCSI) and
Limkokwing University of Creative Technology (LUCT) in Cyberjaya.
As the study required measuring a fairly large sample group of users in higher learning
institutions, qualitative research method was adopted to fit the research aim and objectives of the
expected results of the study. Questionnaires were used and emailed to selected staff/student based
on locations of their workplace/study course/ hostels. However, several questionnaires were also
sent personally to relevant respondents. This helped to explain any unclear questions or doubts on
the spot. It is also an advantage to the researchers because the questionnaire could be collected
within a short period. It also gives an opportunity to explain the study topic and encourage the
respondents to provide frank answers and deals with perception and attitudes of people (Sekaran,
2003).
Survey questions were prepared based on common cleaning works requirement for higher
learning institutions. The questionnaires were structured for easy understanding by the researchers
and respondents. Bilingual questionnaires in English and Bahasa Melayu were designed on the
basis of level of understanding to the selected respondents. The questionnaires further used a
combination of Dichotomous Scale using yes or no to ensure that most respondents were more
comfortable and familiar with answering the satisfaction questions. Itemised Rating Scale was used
to obtain the attitudinal responses of subjects toward the cleaning services rendered at their space.
The questionnaire form was filled in anonymously. Thus this survey generally supports the findings
for this study.
Several interviews based on the questionnaire were also carried out in order to establish a
more comprehensive view of how respondents observe and monitor service quality. By conducting
interviews it was also possible to collect surrounding information like behaviour, which was
especially important when the experience of service quality is affected by numerous factors. These
interviews and feedbacks from questionnaires were considered as the most common way of
measuring service quality (Lindberg et. al., 2002). The interview notes were then compiled together
with questionnaire data to facilitate the analysis as the basis for the findings for this research.
However, some of the data obtained from questionnaire to the users have the potential of being bias
despite explaining to them to offer honest and truthful answer because some of the respondents
were rather busy with their work and some were researchers’ friends.
The interviews with the users were done in groups consisting of four to seven members to
obtain respondents’ impressions, interpretations and opinions as the members were asked to talk
about the cleaning services in their area. The researchers will initiate the discussions in a manner
that would draw out the information sought, and try to keep the members on track. The discussions
were held mostly at a convenient location and time to the interviewees to provide the opportunity
for a flexible, free-flowing format for the members. The unstructured and spontaneous responses
given reflect the genuine opinions, ideas and feelings of the members about the cleaning services at
their areas. Complaints were also conveyed and these complaints could help FM organizations to
determine what aspects of quality perception that do not meet the customers’ expectations (Kasper
et al.,1999). Moreover, complaints should be used as a complementary management tool because
not everyone will tell you when there is a negative experience. Adapting from Sekaran (2003), these
types of interviews are relatively inexpensive and can provide fairly dependable data within a short
22
time frame although it requires a lot of effort and communication skills by the researchers to coax
respondents to reply to the questions.
3.1 Data Collection
This research was required to achieve a uniform and consistent number of respondents. For
the first stage, a total of 150 questionnaires were emailed or distributed to each higher learning
institutions. Out of the total 750 questionnaires to five institutions, 121 responded from UiTM, 37
from UKM, 57 responded from UM, 40 from LUCT and 21 from UCSI. Total overall percentage of
responses rate was 36.8% (276 respondents). Responses from staff were 30.4% (84 respondents)
compared to 192 students (69.6%). Furthermore, students are the majority population of the
institutions. However, a second survey was required to ensure number respondents for each
institution is at least 100 respondents. Emails and distributions of questionnaires as well as
interviews were carried out intensively for five working days at all the institutions. Finally,
minimum of 100 responses from each institutions were obtained and for this study, only 100
responses for each institutions were used for the study.
Nevertheless, in this research, there were several weaknesses of the survey carried out which
relates to the data capturing method. Firstly, the survey was not done to all users in each higher
learning institutions due to the limited time frame. Thus, differences between different users, the
designations, gender, and level of academic qualifications could not be observed. Secondly,
limitation was related to the sample. Even though the response rate only represents 100 people for
each institution, it was also noted that statistically the total numbers were insufficient in terms of
total student and staff numbers in all the institutions involved. However, it was significant in
providing useful feedbacks from users and to meet the objective requirements of finding user
satisfaction on cleaning services in their institutions.
4 FINDINGS FROM THE RESEARCH
Higher learning institutions have a number of different populations to serve mainly students,
academic staffs, administration staffs and board of management. The stakeholders also include
visiting professors, parents and future students. For public funded universities such as UiTM, UKM
and UM, Malaysian government is also its stakeholder with suppliers, contractors and community
of the neighbouring area as the external stakeholders. These are the primary stakeholders that have
an intrinsic interest in how higher learning institutions perform and demand changes which directly
influence the success of the institutions. However, students are perhaps the main stakeholder as they
constitute of more than 85% of the total stakeholders in these institutions. Therefore any process
and outcome of a service quality affect their judgement. The process is how these users are treated
during the service interaction; the outcome is the actual end result as experienced by the users. They
have certain expectations on what they will receive and how they expect to be treated. The
performance of the service provider is then measured against these expectations. If the service
provider fails to meet their expectations, they will feel dissatisfied due to poor quality. On the other
hand, if the service exceeds their expectations, the customer is delighted and the service is said to be
high in quality.
Data collected were reviewed and descriptive statistics using mean and standard deviation
were used. Below is the summary of responses for questionnaire on user satisfaction on cleaning
services in higher learning institutions:
Question 1: Are you aware of some improvements in the cleanliness of the buildings as
compared to the previous performance?
The average result from respondents of all the five institutions indicated more than
23
54% are aware of some improvements in the cleanliness of the buildings as

compared to the previous performance.
Mean result indicated 62.2% and Standard deviation is 6.02%.
Question 2: Do you find any area not cleaned properly?

More than 60% respondents from each institution did not find any area not cleaned
properly. However, more than 38% respondents from all institutions found several
areas not cleaned properly for example in toilet bowls and sinks. Classrooms were
also reported not to be properly cleaned.
Mean result showed 66.3% and Standard deviation is 5.13%.
Question 3: Based on the responses received, below is a summary of findings on the satisfaction
level of services provided for all institutions:
i) Provision of Tissues - more than 67% responded seldom or never.
ii) Provision of Soap - more than 68% responded seldom or never.
iii) Provision of Air Freshener - more than 52% responded seldom or never.
iv) Provision of Rubbish bins - 100% responded always or most.
Question 4: Are you satisfied with the cleanliness of toilets in your work/study/accommodation
place?
More than 52% respondents answered Yes.
Question 5: Are you satisfied on cleanliness of office/classrooms/labs/studios?

Question 6: Are you satisfied on cleanliness of corridor/stair/common area?

Question 7: Are you satisfied on toilet fittings and fixtures conditions?

Question 8: Responses on dysfunction of systems by 500 responses from all institutions:

i) Cistern - 46 responses
ii) Drain / Floor traps - 67 responses
iii) Water flush - 112 responses
iv) Doors – 57 responses
v) Lights, switches – 19 responses
vi) Ventilation – 11 responses
vii) Water taps – 102 responses
viii) Others – 24 responses : sinks, ceiling at toilets, slow water pressure
There are similarities on dysfunction of systems that appear in each higher learning
institutions.
24
Question 9: Did you find a lack of cleanliness in any particular time of day?
From the overall 500 respondents, more than 63% of respondents from each
institution did not find a lack of cleanliness in any particular time of day. On the
other hand, 161 responses found there are times that the cleaning was not
satisfactory.
Several common complaints were pointed out such as cleanliness of toilets was not
acceptable during weekends and ceremonies. In several common areas such as
cafeteria, corridor and surau areas are not properly cleaned while rubbish bins in
offices are not cleared everyday.
Mean result for this question showed 67.8% and Standard deviation is 5.07%.
Question 10: Satisfaction level on cleaner’s appearance, helpfulness and time of cleaning.
More than 75% answered Good and more than 23% answered Average. However,
based on interviews, 13 people responded poor as they think that some of the
cleaners do not co-operate, lack of helpfulness and not proactive.
Mean result indicated 76.8% and Standard deviation obtained is 1.30%.
Question 11: Elements most often found not cleaned in classroom, lab, studio, corridor, praying
area:
• Ceiling – 53 responses
• Lights – 68 responses
• Fans, Air Cond. – 16 responses
• Floors – 92 responses
• Windows – 65 responses
• Doors – 22 responses
• Others - 70 responses : Staircase, carpet and praying matt in surau.
The findings showed similarities on elements most often found not cleaned in
classroom, lab, studio, corridor, praying area in each higher learning institutions.
Question 12 Common complaints on major problems in cleaning from all institutions surveyed:
a) Toilets are unsatisfactorily cleaned.
b) Rubbish bin in office not cleared every day.
c) Inadequate rubbish bin during week ends.
d) Cleaning not according to specifications.
Question 13 Assessment of cleaning performance.

More than 78% of all respondents from each institution responded Good, more than
11% for Average but nearly 6% said that the cleaning performance is Poor.
Question 14 Cleaning contractors’ supervisor performance.

More than 44% of the responses from each institution said they are Average and 1%
Poor but majority responded Good.
Question 15 Do you know the procedures for reporting any shortcomings (complaints) in
cleaning services?
More than 90% of the overall respondents say they know the procedures.
Question 16 Several complaints were obtained from respondents:

a) Need more rubbish bins in common areas such as in corridors, foyers and
multipurpose halls.
b) Cat’s litter mostly in hostels.
25
c) Toilets are quite dirty especially during weekends and during ceremonies.
d) Faulty water taps and showers are mainly due to slow water pressure and the
water stained the surfaces.
e) Toilet floors, walls, bowls, sinks are not properly cleaned.
f) Cleaners are not proactive – have to be informed.
Below are several opinions obtained from the respondents:

a) Building layout.
Building designs have multiple entrance and these created problems for cleanliness. Users
could come into the building from paved area and tiled floor surfaces or even from the muddy grass
and muddle of earth. On top of that, rainy days and heavy wind created wet and dirty floors on open
spaces between blocks of buildings and along the corridors. Some suggested to have a more
controlled entrance to avoid the cleaning problems and also for security purpose.
b) Building conditions.
Several buildings in universities (UM, UKM and UiTM) are mostly more than 15 years of
age. Some of the building materials have deteriorated. Unfortunately newer buildings also have
major problems such as water seepage from the wall. This contributed to leakage and causes
unclean conditions.
c) Insufficient toilets.
Insufficient numbers of toilets especially during major ceremonies resulted in dirty and
smelly conditions despite being cleaned several times. The problems are likely to continue in the
future since student intake increased yearly.
d) Low quality and poor workmanship for renovated areas.

Many toilets, offices and faculties have undergone renovations and refurbishment. However,
there are quite a number of areas with low quality materials and fixtures which are often faulty or
not properly working. Poor workmanship also contributed to the problems such as blocked
drainage, chipped floor tiles and improper installation of window frames. These problems created
an uneasy perception of users/customers towards the cleanliness and image of the buildings.
e) Attitude of users / customers.

There are many problems due to improper attitude, mishandling of facilities and
irresponsible behaviour for example leaving waste or sanitary pads into the toilet bowls and leaving
stacks of rubbish in the classrooms. Cigarette smoking in the toilets also contributed to the dirty
environment of the campus as the smokers will throw outside the windows and the nicotine tar
thrown on the floor is difficult to clean. These improper behaviours and attitudes resulted in bigger
problems of handling the cleaning works and cause inconvenience to other users.
User’s negative attitude contributes to the problems on cleaning services and its
performance. Mishandling of facilities and irresponsible behaviour resulted in malfunctioning of
equipments, defective space and resulted in bigger problems of handling the cleaning works and
cause inconvenience to other users. However, several students (UiTM) expressed their
dissatisfaction on the double standard practised by UiTM because student’s toilets are not supplied
with soap, air freshener, insufficient tissues and even worse, they are barred from using staff’s toilet
even during emergency.
26
5 DISCUSSION
The study shows that even though more than half of the respondents were aware of some
improvements in the cleanliness of the institutions, more than 38% respondents from all institutions
found several areas were not cleaned properly such as in the toilets and classrooms. From the
findings, even though a considerable percentage of more than 78% of respondents rated good on the
assessment of cleaning performance, considerable attention should be given to the dissatisfaction of
services provided in the institutions. Many complaints were obtained in toilet fittings and fixtures
such as water flush, water taps, drains, cistern and others. Additionally, there were spaces such as
classroom, lab, studio, corridor and praying area most often found not cleaned. Several common
complaints were raised and mostly pertaining to cleanliness, provision of services and worker’s
attitude.
Cleaning services provide a range of services that comprise of daily and periodic cleaning
services to the contracted buildings. The services manage the provision of public conveniences.
According to Malaysian Entrepreneur and Development Corporation (MECD), there are many
companies in Malaysia involved in the cleaning contract services due to low initial cost; small
workforce and non skill requirements; minimal management; ease of obtaining supply of chemicals
and equipment and big potential for further expansion. Yet, there are several failures in delivering
good quality cleaning services in Malaysia mainly due to lack of integrated knowledge of the built
environment, stakeholder relations and facility performance. The problem of how organisations
should assess and measure their performance has been a challenge to any FM management for
many years although they are becoming a formal and regular operation (Amaratunga & Baldry,
2000). Optimising performance in FM supports any organisational business goals in the most
effective, efficient and equitable way. Unfortunately, for higher learning institutions, dissatisfied
users may still stay with a provider only because of lack of alternatives (Eriksson & Löfmarck
Vaghult, 2000 in Hansemark & Albinsson (2004).
5.1 Need of obtaining feedback
Wordsworth (2001) indicated that user’s perception on satisfaction of the overall service
work is a key indicator of service quality. Surveys, request forms, feedbacks and other methods are
used to identify user requirements, expectations, and satisfaction levels. From several interviews
carried out with users in each institution, it was found that survey or feedback on customer
satisfaction is seldom carried out either by written feedbacks or dialogues. User feedback is used to
build positive relationships, drive processes, and effect improvements. It is also vital for campus
stakeholders to have a clear understanding and positive view of the services provided by any FM
organisation. McDougall & Hinks, 2000 in Tucker & Pitt (2008) suggested that shifts from cost-
orientated motives to user satisfaction is representative to the shift towards strategic FM. Modern
business requires dynamic measures that motivate continuous improvement in critical areas such as
user satisfaction, flexibility and productivity (Varcoe, 1993). However, it is very rare for any FM
organisation to immediately fulfil any requirements and desire of the stakeholders. Therefore, it is
utterly important for each personnel especially managers to cultivate the ‘people’ skills of
informing, listening and explaining to be able to meet the end users need. This could also promote a
positive image of the FM managers as an essential service provider.
Cleaning service encompasses a vast spectrum of perspectives about people, organisations
and change processes to realise the value of the organisation. It is also a management process of the
space that supports organisational activities that maintain the cleanliness and sanitary condition of
any physical infrastructure and the support services which operate within the space that support
those services. Although FM, a wellknown management “tool” internationally, is still a new
concept in Malaysia, any processes of change involving FM in large organisations for example
public universities such as UiTM, UKM and UM, understandably raise many questions regarding
27
the quality and performance of FM for instance: Are we doing the right things? How well or
otherwise do we perform? How can we improve our performance? These questions are easy to
visualise but difficult to define from standard specifications to meet service delivery process that
contributed to any variations identified or in simpler definition as “conformance to requirements”. It
deals with the ability of the service to perform successfully exceeding the customer’s needs and
expectation while simultaneously consumed as it is produced (Lindberg et. al., 2002).
Any user or provider of a service or product has his own opinion on quality as the service or
product. The quality is said to be seen as a part of the performance. Measuring the performance has
an important role in monitoring past achievements and providing the basis for planning and control
decisions and it guides management decisions such as organising, commanding and co-ordinating.
This information should be based on the development of a service or a product that can satisfy the
needs, and the development of a functioning process to produce and deliver it.
Performance of any FM activities should be continuously improved and developed to have a
level of quality that fits the customers changing needs. In order to ensure a continuous quality
improvement, the management of any organisation has an important role in encouraging and
supporting the implementation of quality services. Any organisation must know the right level of
quality to be delivered however it is important to emphasise that working with quality is not static
but a dynamic process.
6 CONCLUSION
Most of higher learning institutions have corporate missions that focus on customer. Even
though the performance ability of an organisation from its users’ perspective is a priority for most
top management, survey or feedbacks on customer satisfaction is seldom carried out. User’s main
concerns are on quality, performance, time and cost. In general, although it is rather difficult to
measure how well the organisation is doing as organisation’s performance measures depend on
output results and outcomes obtained from processes, products, and services that could be
quantified, survey and feedback could become a tool to measure user satisfaction.
In Malaysia, many clients are mostly interested in reducing the cost for the facilities not
seeing the facilities as possibilities although many organisations began to recognise that emphasise
on cost systems only is inadequate for today’s powerful competition. FM organisations in higher
learning institutions that deal with thousands of stakeholders especially students and staffs have to
realise the importance of strategic feedback such as satisfaction survey to gauge performance and
quality of services to enable them to manage their business operations effectively.
REFERENCES
Amararatunga, D. and Baldry, D. (2000), “Assessment of Facilities Management Performance in

Higher Education Properties”, Proceedings of BVFM VI: The Sixth FMGC Conference on
best value FM Research: More from the Leading Edge, Sheffield, UK.
Amaratunga, D., Baldry, D. & Sarshar, M., (2000), “Performance Evaluation in Facilities
Management: Using The Balanced Scorecard Approach”, COBRA 2000 Conference
Becker, F. (1990) “The Total Workplace”, Van Nostrad Reinhold. New York
Buys, F., Cumberlege, R & Crafford, G. (2009), “Comparative analysis of the performance of
tertiary institutions in managing its assets”, RICS COBRA Research Conference, University
of Cape Town, 10-11th September 2009, pp 658-671
Hansemark, O. & Albinsson, M. (2004), “Customer satisfaction and retention: the experiences of
individual employees; Managing Service Quality”, Volume 14 Number 1 2004 pp. 40-57
Isnin, Z. (2007) “Performance Benchmarking of Cleaning Contract Services in UiTM Shah Alam”;
Unpublished MSc Dissertation, Universiti Teknologi MARA
28
Kasper, H., van Helsdingen, P. and de Vries jr. W. (1999) “Service Marketing Management: An
International Perspective”
Kurdi, M. K., (2010) “Decisive Factor to Ensure the Effectiveness of Outsourcing in Facilities
Management in Universities”; Unpublished MSc Dissertation, Universiti Teknologi MARA
Lindberg, P., Pettersson, K., Svensson, S., (2002), “Monitoring the Quality of Support Services in
Facilities Management”
Sekaran, U. (2003), “Research Methods for Business: A Skill Building Approach”, 4th Edition,
John Willey & Sons, Ltd.
Singh, K. (2006) “The Importance of Customer Satisfaction in Relation to Customer Loyalty and
Retention”; UCTI Working Paper WP-06-06
Tucker, M. and Pitt, M. (2008) “Update on the Development of a Customer Performance
Measurement System (CPMS) for Facilities Management: Enabling Generic Market
Benchmarks”, CIB W70 Conference 2008, Edinburgh, UK.
Varcoe, B.J. (1993). “Facilities performance: achieving value for money through performance
measurement and benchmarking”; Property Management, Vol. 11 No. 4.
Wordsworth, P. (2001) “Lee’s Building Maintenance Management”, 4th Edition, Blackwell
Science
Zineldin, M. (2000) “TRM Total Relationship Management”, Studentlitteratur, Lund.
29
30
FAULTY DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDING MAINTENANCE
Hani Muftah .R Alriwaimi

Master student, University Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
hanialriwaimi@yahoo.com
Zainal Abidin Bin Akasah,PhD
Lecturer, University Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
zainal59@uthm.edu.my
ABSTRACT
Building maintenance is becoming an increasingly important field of study and it is even more
important in developing countries. Malaysia is a fast developing country and new building is being
erected everyday to cater for the needs of accommodation in both public and private sectors. In order
to meet the high demand of the above mentioned sectors of new housing in a short pace of time, it is
anticipated that many deficiencies will arise especially during design and construction phases. This
will inevitably resulting in high maintenance costs. This study is aimed to discuss the effect of faulty
design and construction factors on maintenance. Data and information will be collected through
distribution of questionnaire to responses by construction and maintenance contractors, consultants
and building owners, and also from interviews and discussions with the same people mentioned
above. The area of the survey will cover a wide range of causes in faults and deficiencies and their
degree of impact on new and existing constructions. The severity of these effects will be measured by
their level of impact and will be ranked according to the severity index after gathering all the results
(information and data) from respondents. The severity of the fault factors will be analyzed using the
statistical method and Computer program (Microsoft Office Excel and SPSS (Statistical Package of
Social Sciences)). Therefore, this study will shade more light on solution to this kind of problems
which will in turn help the contractors. The outcome of this research might cover areas such as
construction maintenance works, architectural and civil maintenance, formulation of hypothesis from
the results will be obtained and giving suggestions for future research.
Keywords: Faulty Design, Construction, Building Maintenance
1 INTRODUCTION
Building maintenance is becoming an increasingly important field of study and it is even

more important in developing countries. Since developing countries often have an ineffective
organizational setup and a high demand for housing, the cost of building maintenance can have a
significant detrimental effect on future development. These factors are also responsible for
worsening the condition of existing buildings to the point where existing finance and management
facilities are stretched beyond their capabilities (Ahmad Ramly et al, 2007).
With the increasing costs of new construction, the effective maintenance of the existing
building stock has become even more important. Increasingly, building owners are beginning to
accept that it is not in their best interest to carry out maintenance in a purely reactive manner, but
that it should be planned and managed as efficiently as any other corporate activity. Inevitably, this
has placed new demands on building owners, requiring them to adopt a more systematic approach
to their work. Modern buildings are designed to meet higher builder standards which demand longer
life span and control of the decaying processes. This demands high maintenance budget. Therefore,
it is of great importance to consider maintenance of building aspects during design stage for the
future performance of the building. Somehow, with the help of modern technology, new inventions
in building equipments and design software, building design becomes easier.
Malaysia is a fast developing country and new building are being erected every to
accommodate the needs of public and private sectors. Many building construction projects have
been built due to the demand of both the public and private sectors. In order to meet the high
31
demand of both the public and private sectors in new building constructions in a short space of
time, it is anticipated that many defects will arise especially during design and construction phase.
This will inevitably resulting in high maintenance costs. Maintenance costs of a building during
their functional lifetime could easily surpass the initial outlay of a new building. Therefore it's
important to consider maintenance aspects at the very outset of the life cycle of a building because
decisions made at planning, design and construction stages have a large effect on the maintenance
costs and works incur later in the life cycle of a building. Aged building doesn't necessary have to
be associated with high maintenance cost as a new building with numerous defects from faulty
design and construction could easily equal or surpass the maintenance cost of an aged building.
Under normal condition all building begins to deteriorate the moment after they are
constructed, and of course maintenance is needed. One research conducted in United Kingdom
revealed about 20% of the average annual expenditure on repairs in building arises from defects
(Sadi Assaf et al, 1996). As consequences if the number of defects could be reduce it would reduce
the maintenance expenditures.
It is obvious that the need of maintenance is very important and needed for all sectors
including properties sectors. Regard to the highly cost of maintenance it is important to study
maintenance problem so that an effective maintenance can be carried out.
1.1 Failure of Buildings
Buildings may fail for a number of reasons. Figure 1.1 shows a breakdown of the most
common reasons for this.
Figure 1.1: Breakdown of the Most Common Reasons (Ahmad, 2006)
1.1.1 Faulty Design
Faulty design accounts for a significant number of building failures, but this is not a
representation of the poor performance of building designers. The nature of construction work does
not enable the building of prototypes to test in every conceivable situation. If we compare the
production of cars, for example, a car is designed and then built; it is tested exhaustively, faults
identified and then rectified. The model is then tested again and again and the cycle repeated until
32
all faults are eliminated. If you relate this to building work, you would need to construct a building,
test it over time and then demolish and rebuild, removing all the problems in the next design. This
is obviously unfeasible, and the reason why most designers will specify systems of construction that
have been tried and tested over the years. This does, however, lead to a restriction in the amount of
‘design flair’ that can incorporate into building design, and sometimes designers will specify using
a system that has not been tried and tested. These systems can fail either quickly or over a longer
period of time, but essentially if they were not used the built environment would be far less
interesting aesthetically were these new systems not to be tried (Ahmad, 2006).
They can also arise from faulty design decisions. Faulty design decisions are the most
common faults which may be grouped as follows (GIBSON, 1979):
i) Failure to follow well established design criteria in the choice of structural system
and selection of materials.
ii) Ignorance of the basic physical properties of the materials. e.g. failing to make
allowance for the differing thermal and moisture movements of materials used in
combination.
iii) Use of new materials or innovative forms of construction which have not been
properly tested in use. This is often the result of uncritical reliance on manufacturer's
literature quoting simulated laboratory tests.
iv) Misjudgment of user and climatic conditions under which the material has to
perform.
v) Impractical or very difficult to execute design .
vi) Poor communication between different members of the design and construction
teams.
1.1.2 Faulty Construction
Faulty construction is one of the most common causes of early deterioration. Common
construction faults include inadequate compaction and failure to position the reinforcement so that
it has adequate concrete cover. Under almost any exposure conditions these faults will eventually
reduce the service life of the structure as a result of reinforcement rusting after the concrete has
become carbonated, (SEELEY ,1987) .
Faulty construction accounts for many building failures and this can be linked to the above.
If a new system has not been specified or used previously, then the builder will have no experience
of this system and may build it incorrectly. Sometimes lack of suitably qualified supervision can
lead to this problem, as can the lack of testing that is carried out during construction work, such as
concrete tests. An example of using systems that have not been used before creating this problem is
that of the use of precast concrete structural frames. During the 1950s, in order to increase the
amount of housing the development of high-rise blocks of flats became endemic. As precast
concrete frames were used extensively and successfully in Europe, they were adopted for use as the
structural frame in these flats in the UK. However, builders and supervisors had no experience of
this type of construction and problems have arisen with this type of construction – or more
specifically with the in situ concrete joints used to form the joints between precast concrete
members. Water has penetrated the joints and corroded the steel reinforcement, which in turn has
led to spalling of the concrete around the steel, so that the joints are no longer rigid. Some of these
structures have been demolished, but some are still standing and essentially it is only the sheer
weight of the structure that holds them together. The term buildability is commonly used these
days, and basically means that designs have been developed from the perspective of the person who
is to construct them and that the details should be very clear. Furthermore, the increasing demand
for quality from clients is leading to better qualified supervision of construction work. This should
lead to fewer problems of faulty construction and, very importantly from a health and safety
33
perspective, the design should be able to be constructed with a reduction of risk to site workers
(Ahmad, 2006).
1.1.3 Faulty Maintenance
Faulty maintenance accounts for a similar number of building failures and this can be
broken down into two parts: maintenance that has been carried out incorrectly, or more commonly
where no maintenance has been carried out during the life of the building. A large section of this
book is dedicated to building maintenance, and how it can lead to the improved performance of
buildings over their lifespan. If the procedures specified in this book are adopted then this figure
should be reduced. However, maintaining buildings costs money, and therefore although building
maintenance can be planned and specified correctly, if the funding available is not adequate this
will ultimately lead to building failure (Ahmad, 2006).
1.1.4 Faulty Materials
Faulty materials account for fewer, but still substantial, amounts of building failures, and the
reasons for this are to a certain extent the same as for faulty design. We cannot test all materials for
60 years before they are used for construction, and we cannot test all materials in conjunction with
all of the materials that they may potentially come into contact with. However, as a general rule,
materials that are manufactured in factories will be of better quality than materials manufactured on
site (in situ). More prefabrication should reduce this problem, but it can be argued that
prefabrication reduces design flair and flexibility (Ahmad, 2006).
1.1.5 Faulty Use
Faulty use accounts for some building failures, and this generally occurs where the building
is not being used for the purpose for which it was designed. For example, occupiers may wish to
create more space and therefore knock down walls without the advice of the designer, which can
have major implications and possibly cause a collapse (Ahmad, 2006).
1.2 Maintenance Background
Building maintenance is a major activity in most countries. Any reduction in resources

applied to building maintenance will have a visible effect on the economy. Few years ago, a rapid
growth of housing construction clearly appears as a part of the country development. The number of
modern houses increases and more houses are being constructed. As a result, more maintenance
work is required in order to cope with this type of construction.
Few building owners regard planned maintenance as a matter for serious concern, and yet
cannot afford to allow buildings, old or new, to decay through neglect. As it is clearly impractical
and even undesirable to replace building, whether as owners, designers, constructors, or users
should take a serious interest in this vast problem of building maintenance.
Maintenance assists retaining economic life of buildings. Moreover, it is a productive
activity both at the private and the national levels. At the private level, proper maintenance leads to
lower depreciation costs (due to longer economic life) and consequently leads to higher
profitability. While at the national level, proper maintenance leads to lower expenditures on
replacement. Thus, allowing more expenditure on expansion into new productive investment
(Ikhwan, 1996).
The Committee on Building Maintenance in British defined maintenance as: “Building
Maintenance is the work undertaken in order to keep, restore or improve every facility, i.e. every
part of a building, its services and surrounds to a currently acceptable standard, and to sustain the
34
utility and value of the building”(Mills, 1980).In addition, maintenance is defined in the British
Standards (BS 3811:1974) as “A combination of any action carried out to retain an item in, or
restore it to an acceptable condition” (Mills, 1980).
A more functional definition is that “Maintenance is synonymous with controlling the
condition of a building so that its pattern lies within specified regions” (Shear, 1983).
The objectives of building maintenance are therefore (Alner and Fellows, 1990) :
i) To ensure that buildings and their associated services are in a safe condition.
ii) To ensure that the buildings are fit for use.
iii) To ensure that the condition of the building meets all statutory requirements.
iv) To carry out the maintenance work necessary to maintain the value of the physical
assets of the building stock.
v) To carry out the work necessary to maintain the quality of the building.
Maintenance can be done in different stages. Each stage will have different characteristics.
(Liska,1988) defined those stages as follows:
I. Planning and Design Stage
The planning and designing of the facility should be based on the identified function and be
as maintenance free as possible. In this stage a lot of money can be saved with the proper plan and
design. For this reason, the building manager and maintenance personnel should be consulted
during the early stages of the building design.
II. Construction Stage
In order to achieve minimum level of maintenance during the building life, work performed
during the construction phase must be done with the highest quality in term of workmanship. As a
result, expert contractor should be selected to perform the project.
III. Maintenance Stage
In this stage, maintenance is performed after the building has been constructed and occupied.
British standard (BS 3811: 1984) classified maintenance as three parts as follow:
a) Planned maintenance; described as organized maintenance and carried out with forethought,
control, and the use of records to predetermined plan.
b) Preventive maintenance, it is carried out at predetermined or to other prescribed criteria and
intended to reduce the likelihood of an item not meeting an acceptable condition.
c) Running maintenance, which can be carried out whilst an item is in service.
1.2.2 Maintenance Consideration
According to Sharma S C (1998), the function of building maintenance is to keep the facilities
and the building in optimum operating conditions so that the intended functions are performed
satisfactorily. The aim of maintenance is to reduce the frequency and severity of failures so as to
ensure the availability, efficiency and performance of the existing plant, equipment and building at
a maximum level and to the standard of acceptance. In order to make the maintenance function
more effective all the divisions or departments within the particular building must be involved and
co-operate. The concept of involving other departments in maintaining a building is known as
35
terotechnology, which is concerned with the specification and design for reliability and
maintainability of a building and its plant as well as installation and commission, modification and
replacement along with feedback of information on various aspects. Indeed it should be taken as a
positive approach in order to obtain good results for all maintenance work. In reality, a maintenance
department and its staff would not be able to monitor every corner of the building, to check every
defect or overcome every problem related to building performance without getting co-operation
from the other staff in the building. To enable tero-technology to function well there are a few
aspects and actions that need to be satisfied before a total maintenance process can be operated.
Below is the illustration of how the tero-technology concept was established:
In general there are five objectives of building maintenance to:
i) Maximize the availability of plant/equipment for productive usage.
ii) Extend the life-span of a building and its plant/equipment by minimizing their wear
and tear and deterioration.
iii) Reduce the cost of lost production due to breakdown.
iv) Ensure health and safety of building users and occupants.
v) Uphold or give added value to the building for better market price.
Many cases have shown that most buildings fail to meet their objectives right from the
moment they were declared complete. Many factors can be associated with these failures, such as
poor construction, low quality of materials, site problems and bad design approaches. Moreover,
after the building was occupied, cases such as vandalism, graffiti, incorrect use of facilities,
pollution and poor maintenance are among the significant causes of building defects. Research has
shown that 40 to 60 per cent were due to bad design (Ahmad R, 1989) and ( Ahmad R, 2001). This
is something very serious because defects have been built-in since the building was on the drawing
board. Our question here is, who is supposed to be blamed for these problems, is it the inefficient
designer or the maintenance manager and his staff for not being able to cope with their jobs. As we
have observed, both parties never sit together to settle the issues amicably before the design gets off
the drawing board. The same problems are repeated over and over again from one building to
another.
In practice, those who are engaged in maintenance works must have a basic understanding of
building design, building materials, regulations, structural systems and finishes. BOMI Institute
(2003) has suggested that these persons must be familiar with maintenance procedures and
equipment, ground condition and maintenance systems as well as construction techniques. In fact,
when we link to the needs of health and safety of users or occupants, it seems that as well as fire
risk and escape route measurements or dampness that can cause health problems, the building must
also satisfy the needs of indoor air quality. This requirement must be fulfilled from initial design
right through to building operation and maintenance. In this aspect, it was found that many of the
problems are the result of mistakes made on the job sites that are directly related to design and
failure to plan for the unexpected (Wilson A, 2002).
Although most building defects can be associated with bad design, at the same time maintenance
works are also inevitable, because it is the nature of materials to deteriorate over time with usage
and exposure to the climate (Chanter B & Swallow P, 1996). However, the rate at which the
deterioration of materials and components takes place to some extent is controlled by decisions that
are made during the design stage. In the worst scenario, if maintenance works are badly neglected,
decorations are filthy, gardens overgrown, fixtures and fittings damaged and the building
vandalised, there is a real danger that the owner most probably cannot recover his investment on the
property. Therefore, it is the job of a designer to reduce the source of defects as well as preventative
actions by the maintenance manager to look after the building with more sensitivity and
commitment. These can only be done effectively from the design stage, leading to correct choices
of materials and proper supervision of construction works.
36
1.3 Statement of the Problem
A large amount of the country’s maintenance resources is being expended on corrective or

remedial measures to buildings and their services due to design or construction defects. Therefore,
by reducing the number of design defects, the amount of maintenance expenditure can be reduced
(Assaf et al., 1996). Malaysia as one of the development countries in South East Asia is growing
rapidly almost in all sectors, including construction sector. Large and complex project have been
built due to the demands of both the public and private sectors. To meet the high demand of both
sectors' need, it is expected that many error and defects will have occurred during the design and
construction phase of the project, later resulting the high cost of maintenance.
One research conducted in United Kingdom revealed about 20% of the average annual
expenditure on repairs in building arises from defects (Sadi Assaf et al, 1996). As consequences if
the number of defects could be reduce it would reduce the maintenance expenditures.
A large amount of money from the UTM maintenance resources is being used on corrective
or remedial measures to buildings in UTM to preserve them in optimal functional states. Most of
the defects are avoidable if maintenance aspects are being considered during design and
construction stage of the buildings (Au Wai Hoe, 2008). Therefore, this research will be conducted
and hope to become a useful reference for local architects and design engineers to incorporate
Maintenance considerations and the effect of faulty design and construction during design stage to
ensure a successful implementation of design for maintenance concept, particularly for future
projects in Malaysia.
1.4 Objectives of Study
The main objectives of this research are to:
i) To identify civil and architectural defects in design and construction that affect
building maintenance.
ii) To analyze and test hypothesis on contractors in building maintenance, consultants
and owners on agreement of faulty factors.
iii) Recommendations for further researches.
1.5 Scope of Study
This study is limited only to building design and construction defects that affect maintenance
only. Faulty use and material are excluded and also electrical and mechanical defects are excluded
from the study. It will be restricted to Malaysian construction. Information and data were collected
from local library and journals.
1.6 Significance of Study
Most design and construction defects that affect maintenance are avoidable if sufficient care
is being exercised during design and construction. These defects have large implication on
maintenance costs and works incurred later in the life of a building.
Defects in the building’s design and construction increased and decreased according to the
designer's and construction contractor's education, as well as the experience and compliance with
the codes and standards. If these factors are not limited the owner will suffer the maintenance cost
at the end. In some cases the law forces the contractor and the designers to share the maintenance
and repair expense.
By conducting this research and identifying the faults and defects which are expected to occur
in design and construction and identifying their severity index, for the public and private sector, the
37
design firm and the contractor will benefit each according to his discipline. In the meantime the
owner will minimize maintenance expenditure and the substantial life of the building will increase.
The designer will improve the quality of the design by recognizing the faults and avoiding them,
and as a result he will have better recognition and liabilities or losses to the owner. The contractor
will improve the quality of work and minimize time delay and expenditure on repair work; also, he
will benefit and have a better recognition in the market.
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
The British Former Minister of Public Building and Works recognized the importance of
research in various aspects of building maintenance when he established the committee on building
maintenance in 1965. In the three decades after World War II, research in the field was mainly
directed at properties of materials and few of the results were actually implemented. Therefore, the
relationship between design, maintenance, execution of maintenance, economic significance of
maintenance, and the actual performance of the materials and components under varying condition
should be considered (Al-Shiha, 1993).
In the early nineties, researcher notes the heavy need to conduct such types of studies.
Moreover, many researchers did specific studies related to their countries.
In 1993, Al-Shiha conducted a research discussing the effect of faulty design and construction
factors on building maintenance. As a result, the most severe factors which affect the maintenance
works and causes the high maintenance cost are determined as: inadequate structural design such as
foundation, hiring unqualified designers, not complying with specification, not relating exterior
materials selection to climate conditions, inadequate waterproofing and drainage, unqualified
workplace, inability to read the dawning’s.
(Jalal, 2003) The criteria affecting the priority rating of public building maintenance works
were studied by Al-Majed in the late nineties. Twenty three criteria were identified (i.e. Function of
the building, location, initial cost… etc.). These criteria were classified into two major groups as
follows:
i) Building performance group: Twelve criteria which emphasis on the building.
ii) Managerial group: Eleven criteria which deal with decision-making process and
behaviour of decision maker.
(Jalal, 2003) Iqhwan in the early nineties proposed some concrete measures that can lead to
the improvement of maintenance status in Saudi Arabia along the following dimension:
i) Developing and enforcing sound of maintenance practices.
ii) Supporting researches in maintenance management systems appropriate to Saudi
Arabia.
These measures are:

i) Study and assessment of maintenance status along with the two dimensions.
ii) Development of adequate maintenance management information education program.
A research by Arditi and Nawakorawit (1999) has shown that design plays a major role in
determining the condition of buildings after completion, especially in the aspects of defects and
maintenance. Indirectly, design influences the performance and physical characteristics of the
building and its durability to stand against environmental elements, noise and social interferences
such as graffiti and vandalism. Therefore, the link between design and maintenance should not only
be seen from the point of increasing number of repair works or cost involve, but it needs to consider
also the impact of a design on structure and materials installed as well as the life cycle for each of
the components or elements of the building.
38
Arditi and Nawakorawit (1999) have listed 22 sources of the major maintenance related
complaints on building defects that designer and property owners each reported receiving from
clients. The complaints are categorized in 5 groups:
i) Safety
ii) Design quality
iii) Maintenance
iv) User comfort
v) Building services
Results from the survey show that complaints on user comfort become the clients’ number
one concern followed by maintenance. Design quality category was almost not in their list as most
clients (and designers themselves) believe building design and building operation/maintenance are
entirely separated and both building owners and designers did not consider serious enough.
Unrealistic and impractical design or design details can contribute to the lack of quality and
to high maintenance cost. This problem can be reduced or avoided if there is a better understanding
between the consultants and the owner or his representatives (Ahmad, 2003).
The researcher believes that the neglect of building maintenance in Malaysia is serious that
intervention at national level must be done. Since maintenance problems in building facilities are
heavily attributed to many factors, whereby the most important ones are design limitations and
construction knowledge, owners must be made aware that insufficient funding of design and
construction will impact future maintenance capabilities. Owners will continually be challenged to
meet greater demand for improved maintenance standard with less staff, less capital and in less time
than ever before if nothing is to be done (Chong, 2004).
Problems in buildings can be broadly categorized as defects or deterioration. Defects arise
due to errors or omission or negligence by the designers or contractors. Deterioration on the other
hand, is the natural process which is unavoidable, although maybe minimized by exercising care in
design, material selection and proper construction method. A research by Gibson (1979) found that
while most building defects are associated with the structure, others are associated with unsightly
patterns of soiling of the elevations and lack of accessibility to services. Whereas, for a building not
more than 25 years old, Ranson (1981) showed that design faults and specifications comes the
second after the wear and tear factor.
Assaf et al.(1996) identified 11 major groups of faults; they are, the defects in civil design,
architectural defects in design, design defects in maintenance practicality and adequacy, defects due
to consultant firm administration and staff, defects due to construction drawings, defects due to
construction inspections, defects due to civil construction, defects due to contractor administration,
defects due to construction equipment, defects due to construction materials and defects due to
specifications.
The English Building Research Establishment conducted a survey of building failure
patterns and their implications. Based on their study on a sample of 51 buildings, 58% of the
defects originated from faulty design, 35% from faulty execution, 12% from faulty materials,
components or proprietary systems and 11% from unexpected user requirements but there was some
overlap among these categories (Seeley, 1987).
In this perspective Seeley (1987) adds that, design team frequently neglects the
consideration of maintenance aspects and there is great need to reduce the gap between design and
maintenance. Seeley identified the problem of design and maintenance as the gulf between design
and maintenance. Conceivably Seeley stress that maintenance is important issue to be consider right
form the design stage to prevent its unplanned reappearance at post occupational stage of building,
which could be more implicating and affecting on the building. But how this gap could be reduced,
the answer may be found in developing understanding for design and maintenance in the light of
definition given by the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS) (1990) that building design
39
should be considered as the design of the auto. The auto are usually provided with schedule of
planned and emergency manual, thus it could be recommended that one way to reduce the gap
between the maintenance and design is to provide the residents with manual of house/building
design and product used in that design.
The caption of this research has gained certain momentum and attracts good number of
researchers to address the similar problem in other parts of globe and they have highlighted the
vitality of topic through their publications and also developed a reliable link between the design and
maintenance issues. One of the researchers has recorded the views as, design plays a major role in
determining the conditions of the building after completion, mainly in aspects of defects and
maintenance (Ramly, 2006). The research further stress that, indirectly design influences the
performance and physical characteristic of building and its durability to withstand against
environmental condition, social interfaces such as graffiti and vandalism. Therefore the link
between design and maintenance should not only seen from the point of increasing the repair work
or cost involve, but it need to consider also the impact of design on structure and material installed
as well as the life cycle of each component of building.
Recording the views about using computer based knowledge for improvement of design
quality, Mitchell (1977) mention that architectural design can be viewed as special kind of problem
solving processes involving search through alternative states to discover a state that meets certain
specific criteria. Mitchell further stresses that planning and design of housing/building/urban
services could be aligned with computation resource to obtain affordable design. The study further
reveals that such objectives can be resolved through Generative System, which is an answer to
variety of potential solution. Mitchell concluded with remarks that a design problem can be
characterized in term of data structure, constraints, objectives and a solution generating to produce a
potential solution for consideration. However a computer can be used in the design process to store
and retrieve data describing a design to test the potential solution for the set goals, and to
automatically generate solution to well defined problems. Study also recommends that, in case a
computer is used as an automated design synthesis machine, it supplement some of the traditional
function of designer.
Low and Chong (2004) had shown that design is the most important driver of latent defects
in building as the condition survey showed that design could have prevented at least 66% of all
latent defects found during the early stage of occupancy.
Atkinson (2003) found that managerial errors accounted for more than 82% of all errors
committed and that managerial errors have hidden or latent characteristics, suggesting that these
errors are not visible at the construction stage and both clients and designers might have huge
impact on such defects.
Richardson's (1991) research on defects had stressed the importance of weather,
environmental conditions, soil impact, poor design, chemical attack, structural movement (due
to poor structural design), installation method, workmanship, maintenance issues, and site
working conditions. These suggested that defects could have been prevented if considerations
were made on the conditions building elements were subjected to.
Al-Shiha (1993) conducted research on the effect of faulty design and construction factors
on the maintenance of facilities. One of his strongest conclusions is that A/E poor selection effects
not only the design and construction stages of the projects, but also forms a major foundation for
financial obstacles causing a gradual increase in the running or maintenance costs of buildings and
may shorten the effective life span of the facilities.
According to (Rozita Binti Aris, 2006) In Malaysia, most designers claimed to have
knowledge and experience on building maintenance aspects but only few are aware of the
importance to consider maintenance factors during design stage. A survey was carried out on 38
designer firms (architectural, civil & structural consultant firms) and 30 maintenance firms located
in Shah Alam and Kuala Lumpur districts. The aim was to find out the building defects and other
maintenance problems that are heavily attributed to design deficiencies, inadequate information
40
gathering, material limitations and lack of maintenance knowledge. The data were analyzed using
SPSS (Statistical Package of Social Sciences). Findings show that main problems that the
maintenance firms are currently facing are caused by building design deficiencies, poor
construction quality and poor performance of building which is directly related to functional layout,
choice of building material and choice of building equipment. Lack of communication between
designer firms and maintenance firms as well as building users or owners resulted in designer firms
not fully aware of the maintenance-related problems frequently reported by building owners.
Designers seem to be neglecting the benefits of designing for ease of maintenance that can prolong
the building lifespan, reduce defects rate and therefore reduce maintenance costs. Therefore, it is
important for project team management to develop awareness and policy from the very early start of
project to ensure the concept for ease of maintenance can be understood and implemented
successfully in local construction practice. It is also recommended that the outlined critical factors
for building designer firms consideration be carried out on pilot projects in order to determine its
effectiveness on the local construction industry and local practice to enable further improvement be
made for the benefits of other future projects. In conclusion, many researchers highlighted the
importance of maintenance.
3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
The first step of the study will be identifying research problem which covered the significance,
objective and scope of study followed by exploratory research of the literature. Information will be
gathered through two sources; firstly, through journals, book, and reports, then secondly, through
pre-liminary interviews. A questionnaire will be developed using information obtained from
potential respondents. This information will distribute and receive by hand or email.
3.2 Methodology Process
To achieve the objectives of this research, the following steps will be carried out:
i) A literature search was made on the factors that affect maintenance.

ii) Site visit, interviews and discussions with owners, designers and contractors. They
will help to get the data and to know the design and construction factors that affect
maintenance.
iii) From the preliminary interviews and the literature review, a questionnaire will be
formulated.
iv) A pilot study will be performed before distribute the final questionnaire draft to the
respondents. This pilot study will serve to:
• Test the adequacy of the questions and review the adequacy of provided
space for each question.
• Estimate the time needed to fill out the questionnaire.
• Review the more possible answers and increase the lists of choices.
v) Then questionnaire will distribute by hand or email to the concerned respondents
(evaluators).
vi) The questionnaire will collect but the uncompleted questionnaire will exclude.
Examining the questionnaire collected from evaluators and obtaining the weighted overall factors
affecting building maintenance. The flow chart (Figure 3.1) shows the methodology for the
research.
41
3.3 Preliminary Interview
Interview is very important and main source to obtain the data for this study. On this step we
will discuss the defects (factors) that might affect maintenance and their degree of effectiveness.
The discussion will be with five strata: owners, consultants, building contractors (construction &
maintenance), maintenance staff in UTHM and lecturer in UTHM. This will be a very helpful stage
to give the direction and assisted the researcher in generating new ideas to develop the
questionnaire.
3.4 Site Visit
It is one of methods to obtain the exact data and to know the design and construction factors
that affect maintenance in Malaysia, so this cannot be done without site visit. Also site visit is very
important to know which defect has strongly, moderately, slightly or does not affect. In this
research there are some places has to visit in JB and KL.
3.5 Data Analysis
The data will collect from the questionnaire but the uncompleted questionnaire will exclude.
This stage consists of examining the questionnaire collected from the evaluators and obtaining the
overall factors affecting building maintenance in Malaysia construction. To measure the data
obtained from respondents, the questionnaire’ data will be analyzed using statistic methods,
Microsoft Office Excel and SPSS (Statistical Package of Social Sciences).
3.6 Questionnaire Design
Literature review and discussion with supervisor will help to know the design and
construction factors that affect maintenance. They will play a very important role to formulate the
questionnaire. This questionnaire will be divided into two sections:-
i) Section A: General information of your organization such as services offered,
number of employs, type of buildings designed, year of experience and workplace.
ii) Section B: Information on design and construction aspects and defects of design and
construction that effect maintenance in Malaysia. These defects will be divided to
groups according to the degree of importance. The respondents will have four
choices in each question. The options are: strongly affects, moderately affects,
slightly affects and does not affects.
Site visit, interviews and discussion with owners, consultants, contractors, maintenance staff
and lecturers will help to get the exact data and to know the design and construction factors that
affect maintenance in Malaysian construction. All of this information will be collected to develop
the questionnaire and make the questionnaire very suitable to Malaysian construction. Finally the
questionnaire will be formulated and ready to distribute by hand or email to the concerned
respondents (evaluators).
42
3.7 Methodology Flow Chart
Discussion with Supervisor Identify Brainstorming

Research Problem
Literature Review
Preliminary
Interview
Site Visit
Questionnaire
Launching
Reply from Respondents

Follow up
Data Collection Recommendation and

and Analysis Conclusion
Figure 3.1: Methodology Process.
3.8 Expected Result
From this study hopefully there will few results to be used by contractors are related to
construction maintenance such as:
i) Different types of architectural and civil maintenance defects.
ii) Hypothesis results on contractors, consultants and building owners.
iii) List of suggestion to be done for future research.
43
REFERENCES
Ahmad Ramly, Afaq Hyder Chohan and Sr Nor Haniza Ishak. (9th February, 2007). “Implications
of design deficiency on building maintenance at post- occupational stage.”
Assaf, S., Al-Hammad, A.M and Al-Shihah, M., (1996). “Effects of Faulty Design and
Construction on Building Maintenance.” Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities.
23(3):175-181.
Ahmad Ramly, Nur Azfahani Ahmad and Nur Haniza Ishak., (april 2006). “The effects of design on
the maintenance of public housing buildings in malaysia – part one”
Gibson, E.1., (1979). “Developments In Building Maintenance – 1”, Applied Science Publishers.
Seely, Nor H., (1987) “Building Maintenance”, Mac Millan Education - 2nd Edition.
Ikwan, M. Haq, A. and Burney, F., (1996) “Maintenance Management in Saudi Arabia.” Journal of
King Saud University, Eng. Sci., Vol. 4, PP. 67-80.
Mills, E. D., (1980). Building Maintenance and Preservation – A Guide to Design and
Management, Butterworths.
Shear, M., (1983). “Building Maintenance Management.” Virginia, Reston Publishing Co.
Alner, G.R. and Fellows, R.F., (1990) “Maintenance of local authority school buildings in the UK:
a case study.” Building Maintenance and Modernization Worldwide.
Liska, R., (1988). “Means Facilities Maintenance Standards.” R. S. Means Company Inc.
Sharma, S C (1998): Inspection Quality, Control and Reliability.Publ. Khanns Publishers, Delhi.
Ahmad R., (1989). “A Study on Building Problems in the Management of Public Housing
Buildings in the Kuala Lumpur City Council Housing Schemes.” Unpubl. Master Degree
Thesis, UTM, Skudai, Johor.
Ahmad R., (2001). “Building Defects and the Source of Its Problems.” The Malaysian Surveyor.
Professional Journal of The Institution of Surveyors, Malaysia. 36.1 1st. Quarter 2001 ISSN
0127-4937.Publ. ISM, P Jaya
BOMI Institute (2003): Building Design and Maintenance. http//www.bomi-edu.org/12061.html
Wilson A., (2002): Construction IAQ Management: Job-Site Strategies for Ensuring a Healthy
Building. Environmental Building News. Publ. Building Green, Inc.
Chanter B & Swallow P., (1996). “Building Maintenance Management.” Publ. Blackwell Science.
Lond.
Au Wai Hoe., ( 2008). “The effect of faulty design and construction on building maintenance” (case
study Kolej Perdana)
Al-Shiha, M., (1993). “The Effect of Faulty Design and Construction on Building Maintenance.”
Master Thesis, KFUPM, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Jalal A. Al-khatam., (2003). “Buildings Maintenance Cost.” Master of Engineering Report ( CEM-
600 ). King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Arditi, D. and Nawakorawit, M., (1999). “Designing Buildings for Maintenance : Designers’
Perspective.” Journal of Architectural Engineering. United States of America.
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Management and Maintenance. May 12-13. Kuala Lumpur.
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preventing latent defects in buildings.” Proc., Joint Int. Sympo. of CIB Working
Commissions, Singapore, 554-566
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Ramly, A., (2006). “Link between Design and Maintenance.” Building Engineers, Vol 81, No 5,
May 2006.
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Constr., Archit. Manage., 9(1), 53-61.
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Richardson, B. A., (1991). “Defects and deterioration in buildings.” E&FN Spon, London.
Al-Shiha, Mohammad., (1993). “The Effects of Faulty Design and Construction of Building
Maintenance.” Master Thesis in Engineering and Construction Management, King Fahd
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Technology Malaysia.
45
46
THE DEVELOPMENT OF GOVERNMENT PROPERTY MANAGEMENT

PROCEDURE: KEY FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED
Shardy Abdullah, PhD.
Lecturer, Universiti Sains Malaysia
shardy@usm.my
Abd. Hamid Kadir Pakir, PhD.
Lecturer, Universiti Sains Malaysia
hamka1@usm.my
Arman Abdul Razak and Izran Sarrazin Mohammad
School of Housing, Building and Planning
Universiti Sains Malaysia
Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
Procedures are referred to as a series or an arrangement of actions and steps that have been properly
designed to be followed by certain parties in a consistent manner to implement the related tasks in
order to generate an expected outcome. A procedure would be created in an organisation to always
obtain the same results under similar circumstances. In terms of the property management aspect in
the public sector, the lack of proper procedures has been detected as a weakness that contributes to
the failure among government agencies in managing their properties efficiently and effectively. By
realising the need to set up a proper government property management procedure that is capable to
increase the level of effectiveness in managing these public sector properties, this working paper is
produced in order to discuss via previous literatures, the key factors that should be considered in
developing the related procedures. Towards meeting this purpose, references from secondary
resources such as journal articles, conference papers, reports and books were comprehensively
reviewed. Through this extensive review, several key factors have been identified as being necessary
and vital in the development of proper property management procedures within the government
agencies. These identified factors include organisational goals and planning, property characteristics
and information, adequate resources, comprehension and skills, training and exposure, as well as
assessment and relevant modification.
Keywords; Procedure, Property Management, Public/Government Sector
1 INTRODUCTION
A myriad of categories of property has been developed or owned by various government
agencies either at federal, state or local level as part of the assets required for the provision of
various services to the public in Malaysia. The federal government for instance develops schools in
order to fulfil the education needs. Public halls are also provided as facilities for social activities.
Annually, the government spends greatly for developing, providing and owning these different
types of property. The government also spends a huge amount of money for the management of the
assets in order to ensure that they are able to function as intended by their development/profit
requirements. The costs borne by the government involve expenditures for maintenance, taxes (i.e.
land and evaluation taxes), operations cost (expenditures for electricity, water, telecommunication,
etc), and other related costs. According to Shaziman (2009), the government has allocated 60% of
the RM 694 billion or RM 416 billion under the development budget from 1st Malaysian Plan to the
9th Malaysian plan for the development of physical infrastructure. The physical infrastructures are
partly assets of the government. With such scenario, it can be seen that the provision and usage of
an asset by a government agency involve a high cost not only in its acquisition but also its
management. Thus, the management process of a government asset has to be carried out
systematically to ensure efficient management cost as well as to ensure the achievement of its
47
development and provision goals. A government-owned asset that does not function well will
inevitably disrupt the process of its service provision by the government for the community. This
will also lead to wastages as the government is unable to benefit from the asset’s provision or
acquisition after the big investment.
The urge to effectively and efficiently manage government assets has been indirectly
mentioned by Shaziman (2009) who stated that in parallel to time changes and service period, these
assets (including land properties) will experience a downfall, particularly physical decline. He
further added that this has to be given attention as these assets are government investments,
developed from the taxes obtained from the community and provided as an effort to improve the
people’s quality of life. In the effort to achieve effectiveness and efficiency in the management of
assets, including properties on government land, a complete management procedure is no longer an
advantage but more of a requirement. This is due to the fact that the procedure functions as a
guideline for all the staffs involved in the management of the assets and properties. The absence of
a complete procedure will complicate the related parties to implement asset management activities
systematically. It is only logical for the procedure be properly documented to ease the relevant
parties to make references based on their own needs. Furthermore, the well documented
management procedure of government assets will assist a government agency to update, check, and
improve the management process of a particular asset or property effectively and efficiently. The
availability of a well documented procedure will also enable government agencies to carry out
specific programmes to improve their service quality particularly through the implementation of the
ISO 9000 Quality Management System.
Based on the above discussion, it can be directly seen that the availability of property
management procedure specifically designed for government agencies in this country greatly
benefits the related parties. However, recent inquisitions have shown that such procedures have yet
to be structured by any government agencies. This occurrence has also been discussed by Arman et
al. (2010) in his study of comparing the focus of the present asset management practices by the
Malaysian government. Arman et al. (2010) stated that the Malaysian government agencies are
actually focusing on aspects of maintenance management rather than actual property management.
The absence of a property management procedure is perceived as a major disruption to the
management of government assets and properties and negatively impacts the whole process of
government property management. At present, the best property management guideline provided by
the federal government for its agencies is the “Manual Pengurusan Aset Menyeluruh (MPAM)”.
This manual was recently launched by the government on the 31st of March 2009 during the “Majlis
Pelancaran Dasar Pengurusan Aset Kerajaan”. The decree of its practice was brought through the
2009 General Circular, Bil. 1. The MPAM was prepared as a guideline for all ministries and
departments in carrying out total asset management (Azizul, 2009). However, scrutiny on the whole
manual content indicates that the guideline and management procedure brought forward are generic
and not solely focused on property management. In fact, property assets are broken down into two
categories, namely land asset and building asset. Apart from this manual, there are other
procedures, government circulars or related methods that have been used as guidelines by
government agencies for managing their assets such as the 2007 Treasury Circular –“Tatacara
Pengurusan Aset Alih Kerajaan (TPA)”, “Akta Acara Kewangan 1957”, “Arahan-arahan
Perbendaharaan”, “Pekeliling-Pekeliling Kontrak Pusat - Kementerian Kewangan, Surat-surat
Pekeliling Perbendaharaan, Garis Panduan Pelaksanaan Program Penyelenggaraan Infrastruktur
Awam Tahun 2006”, etc. Developed countries such as the United States of America, the United
Kingdom, Australia, and Canada are seen as practicing more systematic property management in
their public sector. Their government agencies have developed and documented their own property
management procedures. At the very least, their governments have provided a comprehensive
guideline for managing their properties at national level. This situation clearly demonstrates the
need for procedures to smoothen the process of managing government assets.
48
Orienting towards the importance of the development of government property management

procedure, this paper is presented as a preliminary effort to discuss the availability of specific
factors that need to be considered as the basis or main requirement for the development of the
related procedures, based on literature findings. It is hoped that the findings can be utilised by
researchers or related stake holders to carry out further in-depth studies which lead to the
development of a sound government property management procedure and can be practiced by all
the related agencies in the management of their assets.
2 THE SCENARIO OF PROPERTY MANAGEMENT PRACTICE IN THE

MALAYSIAN GOVERNMENT SECTOR
Despite the inability to accurately pinpoint the exact moment property management
practices was initiated in Malaysia, it can be logically postulated that the practice has long taken
place as the Malaysian government has owned land properties for decades. That ownership must
have directly demanded the government to manage the properties to ensure that they are able to
function well. In such situation, the government can be assumed to have directly involved in the
management of properties despite questionable methods and the effectiveness of the methods. There
is also strong evidence indicating the involvement of the government in property management
practices where a number of government agencies were established to carry out property
management functions and activities. For instance, the Road Works Department (JKR) was formed
to carry out maintenance of government buildings; the Department of Director General of Lands
and Mines carries out land and property acquisition management functions; and the Property
Management Division, Department of Prime Minister is fully responsible for management of
federal government properties that include quarters, federal accommodations, etc. From the legal
aspect, there has been no legal provision related to property management practices in detail.
However, through the Act of Valuers, Appraisers and estate Agents Real (1981), descriptions
relating to property management have been explained. Through the acts, it can also be
comprehended that a registered valuer is given the consent or right to carry out property
management practices.
It is found that most government agencies in Malaysia, federal government, state or local
posses their own properties. The properties are owned for various reasons and targets or at the very
least used as administrative buildings for related agencies. However, not all the government
agencies own work division/ units that are formed specifically to manage the related properties. The
function or activities of property management has been generally carried out separately by other
work divisions/ units formed within the government agencies. For example, the property acquisition
and disposal management function is commonly performed by the administrative division, the
property finance and risk management function is performed by the finance division, the property
maintenance management function is carried out by the maintenance division/ unit, etc. The
implementation of property management functions by various work divisions/ units occasionally
leads to weaknesses and discrepancies such as redundancy of work between divisions, task
undertakings by non-skilled or incompetent workers, as well as the lack of focus given to the
implementation of property management activities as it is not the core business for the divisions
involved. Due to these shortcomings, a number of agencies have taken their own initiative to form a
specific property management division in their organisations, for example the local authorities,
particularly the municipal and city councils.
Apart from not having a specific division for the implementation of all functions and
activities related to property management, most government agencies are also found to not
possessing employees that are educated and experienced in property management practices. The
appointed officers are mostly from the literature, public administration, management, community
science, biology, and other unrelated backgrounds. This scenario is regretted as the appointment of
staffs/ officers for property management tasks is the same as the appointment of administrative
49
staffs/ officers and not as specific as the appointment of civil engineers, urban planners,
accountants, valuers, etc. This clearly shows that anyone is eligible to carry out property
management tasks in the government agencies, without the need to possess relevant education
backgrounds and experience. This causes property management activities in government agencies
to be carried out lightly. The staffs/ officers appointed for property management tasks should not
merely come from relevant education backgrounds but also given the appropriate training and
courses consistently.
Apart from the problem mentioned above, it is also found that government properties are
managed in ad-hoc manners where until 2009, there has been no procedure or written guideline
formed to specifically guide the process of related government properties. The absence of
procedures causes non-standardised approaches to managing properties among the government
agencies. The approach to property management changes constantly according to criticality and the
property manager of the time. The absence of a specific procedure also leads to non-uniformity of
work implementation, postponement, unjustified distribution of work, differences of achievement,
etc. The hash in property management that is followed by various embarrassing mishaps such as
roof collapse, breakdowns, and sky-rocketing maintenance cost has led the government to take the
initiative to find the solution for the problems. Commencing from the organisation of the National
Asset and Facilities Management convention (NAFAM2007), the government has stated to become
aware that something has to be done to ensure that government assets and facilities (including land
property) are well managed. Thus, according to Mohd Sidek (2009), a Government Asset
management Committee was formed in September 2007, with JKR as the secretariat, with the
purpose to focus on the effort to strategically and effectively elevate the quality of asset
management for all government agencies. In 2009, through the input and collaboration of various
ministry representatives, higher education institution, and experts from the industry, a policy was
successfully structured to delineate the direction and implementation of government asset
management. The Total Asset Management Manual (MPAM) was drawn up to explain the whole
concept of property management, starting from the planning process, establishment, utilisation, and
disposal. The policy and manual was formally launched by the then Prime Minister of Malaysia,
Dato’ Seri Abdullah Haji Ahmad Badawi on the 31st of March 2009. Today, the MPAM has been
taken effect by the government as the guideline that contains specific practices in the management
of government assets.
3 THE CONCEPT OF PROPERTY MANAGEMENT PROCEDURE
Through various books, working papers, articles in journals, etc., various definitions of
property management either general or specific have been given by scholars, researchers,
academicians and professionals. Thorncroft (1965), Scarrett (1983), Stapleton (1986) and Singh
(1995) define the term property management as a process carried out specifically to ensure that a
particular type of property is able to function as intended to fulfil the requirements and goals set by
the stakeholders. Three critical components of property management can be derived from the
definition, namely “the management process”, “type of property” and “the goal/objective of the
stakeholders”. Thus, to create a systematic and effective practice of property management, the
parties involved in its implementation should understand and be well versed with the property
management discipline, and able to integrate every management component or function with the
criteria and requirements of a specific type of property, as well as the goal or objective that has been
set by the stakeholders.
Procedure is “a particular way of accomplishing something or of acting” or “a series of
steps followed in a regular definite order” (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, 2010). According
to Steffenhagen (2010), a procedure is a specified series of actions, acts or operations which have to
be executed in the same manner in order to always obtain the same result under the same
circumstances. Meanwhile, according to Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka (1992), a procedure is a
50
common approach to carry out a specific business, arrangement, or manner of work. In simple
words, a procedure can be referred to as a set or sequence of activities that is commonly carried out
to produce an output within a fixed time frame. A procedure functions to answer the question
“how” by explaining in detail the activities, steps or actions that need to be taken for a particular
task to produce or achieve the objectives. A procedure is different from a policy and manual. In the
general context, a policy is a plan or direction of certain parties either individuals, groups,
organisations, or governments on a particular issue/ matter. A manual on the other hand is referred
to as a form of basic reference to the implementation of a certain business but does not provide
detailed steps that have to be followed in the implementation of the business.
It was discussed in 1.1 and 2.1 that there has been no specific formal property management
procedure in the government agencies. However, the launching of the recent National Asset
Management Policy (MPAM) on the 31st of March 2010 by the government has given hope, ideas,
and specific approach in the management of its assets including land properties. The National Asset
Management Policy (MPAM) functions to explain the responsibility and specific practices in
accordance to the classification of assets which are divided into three categories namely land asset,
infrastructure, building and special movable assets, and movable assets and living assets. Through
MPAM, it is found that the process of asset management particularly those related to land and
building assets are mainly organised according to 4 main phases namely the asset planning phase,
the provision/acquisition phase, the asset utilisation phase, and the asset disposal phase. The order
of the management phases is in accordance to the cycle levels of a property asset. However, the
content of MPAM does not specifically focus on property asset yet at least the existence of the
MPAM has led to innovations in the government property management in Malaysia. The MPAM is
able to become the basic structure to mobilise certain programmes that will improve the level of
effectiveness and efficiency of the process of property management, particularly for the formation
of a government property management procedure for its agencies.
4 THE CONSIDERATION TOWARDS THE DEVELOPMENT OF GOVERNMENT

PROPERTY MANAGEMENT PROCEDURE
Based on the explanation in 3.1, it is found that the provision of a specific property
management procedure is critical for government agencies in Malaysia for systematic and
standardised implementation of property management practices. This will enable staffs in different
agencies with different portfolios to carry out their tasks with a standard guideline. With the same
management standard, the staffs are able to discuss and convey the best technique for the solution
of problems currently occurring in the process of managing related properties. With this scenario,
the collaboration between the staffs will be stronger and more effective. In fact, the standardisation
of property management procedures will reduce problems and weaknesses caused by the job
placement shifting system, or work portfolios that are practiced in the administrative system of this
country.
There have not been much discussions or studies undertaken on the components, factors or
major considerations that have to be given attention during the structuring of a property
management procedure either for the public or private sector. Based on the availability of resources,
only Steffenhagen (2010) has discussed in detail the scope of a property management procedure and
the rules that have to be followed in structuring related procedures. However, the discussion by
Steffenhagen (2010) is focused on all types of property and not specifically for land property. Thus,
to fulfil the needs of this article that to identify (from the literatures) the key factors that should be
considered in developing the real property management procedure, direct references have been done
on several procedures, manuals or guidelines published by various government agencies related to
aspects of property management, specifically government agencies in a number of countries such as
the United Kingdom, the United States of America, Canada, Australia and others. The procedures
involved are “Carnegie Mellon University Property Management Policies and Procedures”,
51
“Montana State University Property Management Procedure Manual”, “Guide to the Management
of Real Property – Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat”, “Real Property Asset Management-
U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, D.C.”, “Real Property Management- The National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)”, “Texas A&M University Departmental
Property Management Procedures Manual”, “Property Management Policies And Procedures -
University of Southern Maine”, “Government Real Property Management - Department of the
Premier and Cabinet Circular, Government of South Australia", ” Manual Pengurusan Aset
Menyeluruh (MPAM), Kerajaan Malaysia” and The Department of Commerce (DOC) Real
Property Management Manual, U.S”.
Based on the guidelines, manuals and procedures aforementioned, 6 factors have been
identified as important for the structuring of a sound property management procedure. The key
factors were found to have a direct link with organisational goals and planning, property features
and information, resource adequacy, comprehension and skills, training and exposure, assessment
and modification as well as others. As a whole, all six factors are related to the ability and
internal capacity of a government agency/organisation. Considerations on the six factors can be
elaborated as follows:
i) Organisational Goals and Planning
According to Mullins (2010), organisational goal can be referred to as something that the
organisation is striving to achieve, a future expectation, a desired future state and something
towards which the activities of the organisation are directed in a effort to attain this state. More
narrowly, "organisational goal" may be used to refer particularly to the constraint sets that define
roles at the upper levels of the administrative hierarchy (Simon, 1964). While according to Daft
(2000), planning is the process of determining the goal for future organisational performance and
deciding the works as well as the use of resources for the achievement of the goal. In simpler
words, the planning process is mainly about the action taken to determine the direction and target of
an organisation. The planning process also involves identifying, structuring, and setting strategies
and action plans that have to be carried out within a fixed time frame for target achievement or the
requirements of related organisations and stakeholders.
Structuring and forming a sound property management procedure demand the government
to give considerable consideration on the goal and main planning factors of each of its agencies.
The goal and planning factors of a government agency is commonly formed by considering several
policies that have been set by the government, as an established policy will demonstrate the
government’s stand of point on a given matter. Thus, every activity or implementation approach
contained in a government property management procedure has to be able to lead the related
government agencies to achieving their goals. Consider the Education Ministry, whose aim is to
create a safe, comfortable and conducive learning environment, will require a property management
procedure that explains the steps and actions needed to ensure every land property involved (such as
school buildings, laboratories, student hostels, etc) are effectively managed in order to provide a
safe, comfortable and conducive learning environment. Through the planning aspect of an
organisation, related strategies and action plans have to be brought forward to ensure that the
established property management procedure can be implemented and adhered to by all parties
involved in managing the property. Through the organisational goal and planning factor, the priority
to be given on every activity related to property management can also be determined. With proper
and logical prioritising, it is possible to effectively and efficiently manage the properties according
to the management procedure that has been established.
52
ii) Property Features and Information
The next factor to consider is the features and information pertaining to a property. The variety
of property categories contributes to the variety of types and information of properties. Structuring
the related procedure demands clear understanding of the characteristics and attributes of the
properties owned by government agencies. This is due to the need for improvisation of management
suitable with the needs of the properties. For example, to form a management procedure for a
laboratory requires matching the related management approaches to the objective and function of
the laboratory whose safety aspect is more critical than other types of property such as quarters,
apartments, etc.
The development of a sound government property management procedure also requires
complete and accessible property information. Gibson and Hedley (1999) stated that information is
critical to the management process. Complete and updated information will enable thorough,
accurate and informed procedure development. Generally, there is various information needed for
the management if properties such as attribute profiles, policy information, financial information,
ownership information, stakeholders information, etc. Structuring the government property
management procedure requires information in order to fulfil several needs such as determining
management approaches, prioritising implementation, setting implementation time frames, setting
implementation scopes, etc. Thus, insufficient information may lead to various problems in
developing a systematic and applicable procedure for all parties related to the management of the
government property.
iii) Resource Adequacy
Another important factor is resource adequacy. The resource adequacy factor is important as
land property is a unique and high-value asset that requires other additional resources apart from
humans such as equipment, machines, etc. The cost to manage property is high. The resource
adequacy factor covers financial resources, equipment, man power, etc. The resource adequacy
factor is important as it influences the ability to carry out the tasks delineated as the procedure to
implement a task of business. For example, the problem of insufficient financial resources has been
found to be the obstacle to establishing programmes or activities of building/ property maintenance
consistently and effectively. If the problem is let to persist, it is most likely that the procedure of
building maintenance will not be able to be fully carried out. Insufficient manpower is another
serious problem as without sufficient manpower, any procedure will not work. Thus, insufficient
resources are clearly a great threat to the implementation of a procedure that will lead to the failure
of achieving the procedure’s objectives.
iv) Comprehension and Skills
Comprehension and skills is also considered to be important in the development of a

government property management procedure. Comprehension refers to the level of in-depth
understanding of the parties involved in property management. Skills on the other hand refer to the
ability and expertise of the parties involved in the implementation of activities and specific
functions pertaining to aspects of property management. One’s level of comprehension and skills
can be measured or determined based on his education background, working experience,
involvement in related courses, etc. To carry out a procedure, the content of the procedure has to be
fully understood and the design of the procedure has to take the level of comprehension and skills
of the implementer into consideration. The language used must be easy to understand as well as the
action layout or approach that has been set. The skills of the parties involved needs to be identified
to ensure successful implementation of the procedure.
53
v) Training and Exposure
Training and exposure also needs to be considered in the development of a government property
management procedure. Training refers to ease and frequency of staffs to undergo relevant
trainings. However, in this context, this factor is closely related to the comprehension and skills
factors. Structuring the content of a procedure demands the involvement of every party that will
carry out the procedure in trainings and programmes pertaining to aspects of property management.
Based on the training and exposure factor, it is also vital to ensure that the content of the to-be-
formed procedure can be easily taught to the staffs. Equally important is the collection of inputs
from trainings and exposure programmes that can be analysed and used in the structuring of the
property management procedure.
vi) Assessment and Modification
Assessment and modification of a property management procedure is important to ensure that

the procedure remains viable and relevant as changes takes place. Thus, a mechanism has to be
developed to enable the procedure to be evaluated periodically and continuously to see its
effectiveness and efficiency. A specific approach that will enable the users to convey they thoughts
or suggestions with regards to the performance of the procedure is needed.
5 CONCLUSION
The government plays the role as the main entity that is responsible to provide substantial
service to the people. By the virtue of fulfilling this responsibility, the government through its
agencies, possesses various properties, either specifically built, bought, acquired, rented or leased
by certain parties. Ownership of these properties as well as their management acts underlines the
support for the smooth-running of their services. However, property ownership also demands the
agencies to manage the properties effectively. The complexity and challenges of managing
properties can be lifted by having a documented procedure that explains the approaches or actions
that need to be followed in detail for the tasks and activities related to property management.
Nevertheless, until now, government agencies in Malaysia have yet to establish specific property
management procedures that can be utilized and implemented. Structuring and developing
government property management procedures is certainly a formidable task and requires research,
discussions, thorough considerations, expertise as well as experience particularly in public sector
property management. This paper set out to capture key pertinent factors that should and ought to
be considered when developing effective government property management procedures. Through
review and cross-referencing of journal articles, conference papers, reports, text books as well as
several established procedures, manuals and guidelines by other relevant parties, a number of
important factors for the development of a systematic and sound property management procedure
were identified. These key factors basically hinge on the notion that the inherent capabilities of any
organization, in this context, the government agencies, will enable such an organization to
effectively manage and administer their properties through the utilization of relevant and precise
procedures. Since the development of established procedures was found to be the cornerstone of
efficient property management, these identified factors should be considered to be adopted or at the
very least, adapted within these government agencies. As these factors range from the aspects of
organizational structure to adequate and skilled resources, government agencies should take heed
that the desire to change for the better must and can only start from within. With proper planning
and strategies, adequate property information, skilled and trained personnel as well as a desire to
continuously review and modify property procedures, the government on the whole would be able
to deliver effective services via properties that are well managed and maintained. The findings of
this working paper however, are by no means exhaustive and conclusive. There is still much to be
54
studied to confirm the relevance, importance and practicality of these identified factors.
Nonetheless, the findings of this paper is hoped to provide a starting point for further extensive
studies on procedure development specifically for government property management in the future.
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56
TOWARDS SYSTEMIC UNIVERSITY BUILDING MAINTENANCE

INITIATIVES
Olanrewaju Abdul Lateef
abdullateef.olanrewaju20002000@gmail.com
Dr. Mohd Faris Khamidi
Associate Professor Dr Arazi Idrus
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this paper is to reports part of on ongoing research. Studies have investigated the
maintenance management of university buildings in Malaysia; however, the studies have observed
maintenance management procedures that are corrective and cost-driven. These are contributing to
the spate of maintenance backlogs, unnecessary increase in maintenance costs and poor users’
satisfactions. The outcome of this research is to devise a prototype maintenance management model
that can facilitate university institutions to carry out buildings maintenance management services that
meet the expectations, needs and perceptions of the stakeholders with optimum use of resources.
Although the research specifically focused on university buildings, many public and private sector
organizations face similar maintenance management problems. Therefore, this research has broader
applications.
Keywords: maintenance management, university buildings; model, value, Malaysia;
1 INTRODUCTION
This paper is part of an ongoing research project on building maintenance management

systems. The overall aim of the main research of which this paper forms part is to develop a
building maintenance management model that is based on the concept of value. A building requires
maintenance to ensure its optimal performance over its life cycle. The value of a building from the
users’ perspective is the measure of how efficiently and effectively a building meets the’ needs and
wants. Although there is no conclusive literature on how well university buildings are maintained in
Malaysia it is contended that university buildings, like other buildings, are not well maintained.
This is based on the premises that, across the whole spectrum, maintenance is cost driven and
corrective based. Under such circumstances, maintenance demands are initiated based on the report
of a condition survey without recourse to the stakeholders’ perceptions and expectations. However,
the only reason for procuring buildings is to enable them to be efficiently used by their occupants. It
is not the condition of the building that really matters but the functions which the building design /
procure to perform.
It is, therefore, the needs of the buildings users that should dictate the maintenance
management processes in terms of policy, culture, purposes and objectives. It is pertinent for those
reasons to consider maintenance management as a value added initiative that address user value
systems. Such a consideration is entirely consistent with the principle and philosophy of value
management. Value is used in this research to define the users’ satisfactions with the quality of the
maintenance service provided, on the one hand, and the resource used, on the other hand. Value
based maintenance management (VbMMM) that puts the users’ value system at the centre of
initiating maintenance services.
57
However, there is a lack of systemic (effective and efficient) maintenance management

model which drives the value added initiatives. Therefore the development of such drive is critical.
There have been huge and increasing reports in media and literature that much of the building in
Malaysia and including those in the university campuses are not effectively and efficiently
managed. This is even though maintenance expenditures on maintenance are on the increase.
Comments from dissatisfied university buildings users provide indications: “please change the
maintenance officers in our block” and “they do not take good care of the buildings” and our toilets
are always dirty” suggests the buildings conditions are poor. The most common identified items or
areas that require maintenance is doors locks, toilet and doors leave. In fact, a well rated university
in Malaysia was recently been described by students as “nice environment, nice buildings, lousy
maintenance, and lousy service”.
The research disciplines which informed this research primarily fall within three disciplines
of literature and theory: building, maintenance and value based management. The premise for this
study is the move from the building and its management as the main focus for the maintenance
management process towards the value chain (enhance productivity and user satisfaction) as the
main focus. In this, way, value is created along the demand and supply chains. The value chain is
the focus for more effective and efficient strategy of creating value to maintenance organization and
building users. Value creation is increasingly viewed as a processes of facilitating through a
networks of relationships within which organization are positioned (Pryke, 2009).
The purpose of VbMMM is to add value to buildings, increase user satisfactions and
increase maintenance organization’s productivity. Based on the literature review, part of the
primary data of the main research and discussion with university maintenance organisations, a 5 x 5
building maintenance management matrix is formulated. The top hierarchy of the model is divided
into five blocks of planning, organisation, directing, implementation and control. Each of the five
blocks contains five supporting functions which are essential to value based maintenance
management model or VbMMM. The VMMM illustrate a linear process. This linearity exists most
dominantly at the upper level of the abstraction. The proposed model reflects current philosophy on
building maintenance management.
The remainder of this paper is structured as follows. In the next segment, the issues related
to building maintenance its management were brought to focus. The proposed value based
maintenance management concept was preliminarily introduced. This is followed by the concluding
comments and recommendations for future studies.
BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE REVIEW
The overall vision of Malaysia is the achievement of developed status by the year 2020. To
achieve this status, education is to play a significant role. In fact, the Government is seeking to
transform the economy to a knowledge-based economy (or K-economy). In Malaysia, higher
education is both a source of employment as well as a source of foreign exchange and it is gradually
becoming a contributor to the economic sector and becoming a strong export source. Malaysia is
now an educational hub for nationals from different countries particularly those from Africa,
Europe, Australia, Pacific, Middle East and the rest of Asia. The quest to transform Malaysia into a
knowledge-based economy where well educated, skilled workers (knowledge workers: K-workers)
will be the main source of national prosperity and wealth is not open to compromise (Government
of Malaysia, 2006).
In order to achieve this objective however, the assets and resources of the universities must
be adequate in all respects. Buildings, like other capital assets and resources of the university
organization, require effective and efficient maintenance. Buildings are a factor of production. In
other words, buildings are assets and liability requiring systemic management philosophy and
principles. Building is not initiated for the sake of the building itself-but for the value it contributes
to the organization’s mission and vision (Boyd and Chinyio, 2006). University buildings are
58
procured to create a suitable, conducive, and adequate environment that can support and encourage
learning, teaching, innovation and research. A failure in the supply of these essential services is a
loss in value to the university institution, the community, the students, staff and other stakeholders.
Through the university buildings, future leaders, captains of industry, entrepreneurs,
professionals and scientists are produced (Mat et al., 2009). It is within the walls of the university
buildings that major scientific and technological discoveries are made. The increase in university
enrolment is also putting pressure on the existing buildings. As an illustration, there are about 1,
300, 000 students in the universities of Malaysia (Government of Malaysia, 2006). The continuous
functioning of the university buildings has become a matter of significant interest to government
and other private stakeholders that seek to increase the effectiveness of educational provision and
maximize value for money.
However, like other types of buildings, university buildings in Malaysia suffer from similar
degrees of care and neglect. The mismanagement of the maintenance of public buildings has been
recently highlighted and the spate of cases involving privately owned buildings is no different
either. Based on inconclusive data obtained from the Ministry of Higher Education (2008), it
appears that maintenance expenditure expanded by nearly 85% from 2004 to 2008. For instance,
expenditure on building maintenance was about RM340 million in 2004 while it increased to more
than RM600 million by 2008 and even then the RM 600, 0000 was as of July 2008. Nevertheless,
discussions with those concerned in the management of university building maintenance revealed a
great concern about the amount universities wish to have compared to the amount they are actually
receiving.
Although, there is no comparable numerical data on private university’s investment on
maintenance, it would not be difficult to argue that they also invest substantial parts of their
expenditure on building maintenance just like the public universities. Based on extensive literature
review, it was concluded that the management of university building maintenance was corrective,
cyclical, and inspection based (Olanrewaju, 2010). On the other hand, the effectiveness of those
approaches to building maintenance is questionable (Umeadi et al., 2003; Jones et al., 2007; Jones
et al., 2008; Olanrewaju, 2010). The physical condition of the building cannot in any way serve as a
basis for initiating maintenance services. What is critical to the building users or client-occupiers of
a building is the ability of the building to support the performance of the activities within and
around the building and not necessarily the physical condition of the building per se (Chapman et
al., 1998; Jones et al., 2007).
While maintenance issues are becoming more complicated, multifaceted and interrelated, its
management is also becoming more challenging. Unlike in the past when buildings were not
recognized as a factor of production, that notion has now changed. Concurrently, maintenance is no
longer viewed as a burden but as one of the building’s natural stages or phases. The prime objective
of maintenance is to ensure, as far as practicable, that the building continues to perform at it peak
throughout its design life / service life. In the same vein, the major pre-occupation of building
maintenance management organization is to meet the complex requirements of the users and
buildings themselves effectively and efficiently considering the organization resource, thereby
creating value for investment.
However, under the conditional-based maintenance system, the basis of formulating the
annual maintenance budget is hypothetical as the estimate depends on the existing condition of the
building plus allowance for uncertainty. For one, the contingency amounts are often. Stock
condition at best provides only an overview of the condition of a building during the inspection
period. It is difficult to assess the amount of risk posed by an identified non-critical problem to
future operations and productivity (Reffat, Gero and Peng, 2004).
A non-critical problem during inspection might deteriorate further or become more serious
during the actual implementation due to the reliability and validity of the outcomes of the condition
survey. Condition-based maintenance practices have various other shortcomings including
inconsistence in data collection, unrealistic assumptions regarding data accuracy, software not being
59
able to interrogate or manipulate data and over emphasize on detail that might not even be required
(Marshall, Worthing and Thomas, 1996 and Chapman and Beck, 1998). O’Dell (1996) opined that a
stock condition survey could underestimate the volume and costs of maintenance needed by as high
as 60% of the actual works (and costs).
However, there are continuous realizations that the consideration of value should form the
basis of maintenance demands. Building and the maintenance services must be viewed as factors of
production that require efficient management in order for the organization to meet its core business
objectives. While there is a need to increase funding for university building maintenance, it is very
unclear, whether increasing the maintenance budgets can ever improve the situation. Because even
if there is increased in allocations maintenance could only be given tactical attention rather than
proactive and systematic consideration. This paper argues that if there is information on the criteria
that influence maintenance of university buildings, the characteristics of defects in university
buildings and criteria within the users’ value system, the maintenance management of university
buildings will be more effectively and efficiently initiated and implemented as compared to how it
is currently executed. Maintenance per se cannot be blamed if things went wrong rather it is the
management that is requires some step changes. However, the shortcomings of the current
maintenance management processes have been well documented.
Therefore, a standard solution to these failings and shortcomings is to have a framework (i.e.
model) capable of systemic facilitating decision making process that meets the value added
initiatives. The model provides reference points to ensure that every time maintenance is initiated
and implemented, it is consistent, systematic, proactive and holistic. In this way, it provides a
supporting configurations / algorithms in defining the scope, quality, and expectations of the
maintenance services as well as identifying the procedures to apply. Maintenance management
model underpinned any systemic decision making processes. The model is required to align
maintenance resource to users’ satisfactions and to also align performance with university corporate
strategy. The proposed model is introduced in the next segment.
RESEARCH DESIGN
The proposed VbMMM consists of summary of literature review and the outcomes of the
primary data collected through the case study survey and interview. The model is the entire series of
organizational processes that add “value” at each stop beginning with the process of resources to the
finish services. The main research emerged based on the hypothesis that information and
knowledge on the criteria that influence maintenance of buildings, characteristics of defects in the
buildings and criteria within the users’ value system are correlated with the management of the
maintenance services. The lack of these knowledge and information would imply that the scarce
resources are poorly managed. A poor maintenance management system will leads to unnecessary
increase in maintenance costs, poor user satisfactions and low productivity. The main research
collects primary data by questionnaire survey method. The questionnaires were administered on 50
recognized universities in Malaysia and five hundred and fifty university building users (i.e.
students). The data for the building users is limited to 3 public universities and two private
universities. Data obtained were analyzed by two data analysis software: namely SPSS and
Microsoft Excel office for windows. SPSS was used to produce inferential and descriptive statistics.
Microsoft Excel was used to produce illustrative statistics.
PROPOSED VALUE BASED MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT MODEL
The traditional approaches to maintenance are inadequate to cater for the satisfaction of
modern forward thinking building users. The classical approaches to maintenance management, are
based on culture of fragmentation, disperse and reactive. However, in reality maintenance is not
essentially about building itself per se but about the users. It is the performance not the physical
60
condition of building that building users desire (Jones and Sharp, 2007). To the extent that the
building allows its users to comfortably and conveniently meet their needs and wants to their
optimum satisfaction, the building is a source of value creation. Building is procured to provide
functional services to its users. Thus, this must underpin the object of maintenance. It is not until
when buildings are seen as enabler, assets and factor of production, the proper maintenance
management cannot be influenced. In actual reality the traditional approaches to maintenance make
us believe that is only about the buildings and that the condition of a building is the object of
maintenance. This is premises of the condition (or structural) survey. However, rather it should be
performance survey if at all that should dictate maintenance needs.
In the classical maintenance management, the needs and wants of users are not adequately
factored in due to poor management principle and philosophy. This is leading to poor service
delivery, poor users’ satisfactions and unnecessary increase in maintenance cost. Factoring in, user
performance requirements or criteria of user value system into the maintenance management system
are critical. It forms the basis of maintenance budget and control (Kelly, 2006). Formulating
maintenance objectives involves active participation of the users that signify their expectations and
perception from the buildings.
Maintenance management ought to be value based, value maintenance management stem
from the user value system. This is contrary to the classical maintenance management that focused
on building condition and availability of funds. Value based maintenance management is based on
the philosophy and principle of value management. In value management, the functional
performance requirements of users are critical. Value maintenance management model improves
building functional performance by integrating perspective and activities which traditionally
separated, biased and fragmented. Value maintenance management integrate and combined the
providers and recipients (users’ performance requirements) interests and requirements when making
decision on maintenance demand.
Users’ satisfactions and providers’ productivity are significant in maintenance management
system. The two perspectives must be combined for meaningful analysis (Parasuraman, 2002 and
Enquist, Edvardson and Sebhatu, 2007). When the two perspectives are separated, improvement in
one will lead to deterioration in the other. Value-based maintenance management therefore, is
maintenance management centred on enhancing building users’ satisfaction and increasing
maintenance service provider productivity.
The schematic diagram of the value based maintenance management model consists of 30
blocks. Broadly it consists of five major partitions defined in terms of the four functions of
management; planning, control, organization and directing as well as a block on implementation.
The elements of the Value based building Maintenance Management Model is shown in Figure 1.
The elements must form parts of the university maintenance management processes. The different
maintenance management functions play a significant role within each of the building blocks. This
provides a step by step framework for maintenance demand and implementation. This sequential
arrangement, strategically and consistently steer maintenance initiation for the organisation. This
will facilitate achieving users’ satisfactions at the minimum life cycle cost while still maintaining
the building fabrics and services integrity at same time increase provider productivity. In Table 1,
the major activities in each of the 5 functions were outlined.
61
Figure 1: Schematic diagram of the Value Maintenance Management Model
Sequentially the blocks drive maintenance objectives as profit generating function by

incorporating maintenance with the university’s corporate mission and vision. By this maintenance
will receive the attention it deserves at the top management level. Thus maintenance will not be
viewed as mere tactical operations and as a burden as it were used to be.
The model is a unification of criteria that influence maintenance management, criteria
within the user value system, procedures involves in reporting maintenance complaints as well as
maintenance demand procedure. The maintenance management demand categorizes maintenance
initiation into the four main functions of management business management; planning,
organization, directing and control. Universities’ organizations must consider and accept
maintenance as a factor of production that requires strategic attention like other organization’s
resources. The conventional building maintenance management has been altered.
A user’s value system ought to be the most important element in building maintenance
management. There is no one who can understand the problems of the building more the people
themselves, because the person who wears the shoe knows where it pinches him or her. This
thinking is the entirely consistent with the principle of value management. The user functional value
of the building sits at the heart of the value management practice.
Value management is an organized and systematic approach to obtain the best functional
balance between cost, quality, reliability, safety, aesthetics and time (Olanrewaju and Khairuddin,
2007). All decisions rely on user requirements. In value management, a design or building is
explained by the function it performs; every part or element is a valid expression of one or more
functions it performs. The need to manage building maintenance in terms of the user requirements
cannot be emphasized enough, as this is the only way that the available resource can be put to
maximum application. While a number of criteria will have to be considered when taking decisions
on building maintenance, the dominant criteria should always be that of the worthiness of the
building to the users.
62
Table 1: Key functions in the elements of the VMMM
Link university corporate mission and vision with maintenance
Formulate maintenance policy
PLANNING Formulate maintenance standards
Maintenance procurement system
Develop maintenance performance measurement (MPM)
Develop maintenance reporting procedure
Estimate works requirements
ORGANIISATION Provide resource (i.e. components, materials, technology…)
Develop organization charts
Define line of communication (e.g. with university management
Inspire team work
Communicate maintenance objectives
DIRECTING Staff motivation
Provide education and training
Promote trust and confidence
Inspect building
Identify problem
IMPLEMENTATION Analysis user value system
Carry out work in house (at least 75% of all work)
Implement work: (e.g. repair, replace
Monitor progress
Check if target is achieve (plan v actual)
CONTROL Improve resource
Analyze data for feed word and feed back
Measure performance
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CONCLUDING COMMENTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Maintenance offers significant potential of improving efficiency, productivity and

profitability in any organization. However, maintenance service must be user focused. Considering
the condition of the building as the major focus of maintenance is to regard maintenance as a
burden and to limit maintenance to the technological aspect of the process. Maintenance
management is not usually regarded as part of the top management functions or duties in most
university organizations rather it often regarded as an operational function. It only receives
management attention when everything has gone wrong. Ultimately, users will not be satisfied with
the quality of the service they are receiving and the maintenance backlogs will be on the increase. It
is in respect of this that this paper outlined the needs for the development of value based
maintenance management model.
The value based maintenance management model takes into account the condition of the
buildings, its performance, the users’ value systems and the resources used to meet the needs. It
involves the efficient and effective utilization of an organization’s resources by planning, directing,
and implementation, controlling and organizing in order to meet the maintenance needs of the
building users since the ultimate essence of the building is to enable the users to perform their task
effectively and efficiently. However, taking a cue from a case study conducted on a large
university organization, it was revealed, that university organization lack a defined structure on
building maintenance that further contributing also to the poor users’ satisfactions and unnecessary
increase in maintenance cost.
The continuous use of maintenance strategies without the well defined supporting structure
is inadequate in today competitive business environment. With the consideration / understanding of
the maintenance framework, maintenance demand will be systematically considered rather focusing
on the technical consideration. The prime objective of the framework therefore is to ensure that
maintenance is effectively and efficiently initiated and implemented so that the value of the
maintenance service delivers is more than the resource use.
VMMM is a composite of criteria that increases service delivery, improves users’
satisfaction and reduce unnecessary maintenance costs. While the VMMM is constructed to provide
a snapshot of the proposed model, the development of the main model is ongoing. The final model
will be empirically tested. The schematic VMMM is still at the preliminary stage, suggestions and
comments received at this - CIB - 2010 conference will be incorporated into the final model. Your
criticisms and comments are very much welcomed!
REFERENCES
Boyd, D and Chinyio, E (2006) Understanding the construction client. UK: Blackwell Publishing
Limited
Chapman, K and Beck, M (1998) Recent experience of housing associations and others registered
social landlords in commissioning stock condition surveys. COBRA 1998 Conference. RICS
Research. ISBN 1–873640-23-4
Enquist, B., Edvardsson, B and Sebhatu, S P (2007) Values-based service quality for sustainable
business International Journal of Managing Service Quality Vol. 17 No. 4, pp. 385-403
Government of Malaysia (2006) Ninth Malaysian Plan 2006-2010. Putrajaya: Economic Planning
Jones, K. and Sharp, M. (2007). A New Performance Based Process Model for Built Asset
Maintenance. Facilities, Vol. 25 No. 13/14, pp525-535
Kelly, A (2006) Strategic maintenance management: as essential guide for manages and
professionals in engineering and related fields. UK: Butterworth Heinemann
Marshall, D. Worthing, D and Thomas, S (1996) Condition Survey for Housing Association- Some
Potential Pitfalls”, COBRA, 1996 RICS Research, ISBN 0-85406-894-5
64
Mat, S., Sopian, K., Moktar, M., Hashim, S. H., Abdul Rashid, A., Zain, M. F. M., Abdullah, G. N
(20 09) Managing Sustainable campus in Malaysia – organizational approach and measures.
European Journal of Social Science – Vol. 8 No. 2 pp 201- 214
Parasuraman, A (2002) Service quality and productivity: a synergetic perspective Journal of
Managing Service Quality. Volume 12 No. 1 pp6-9
Umeadi, B. B. N and Jones, K. G (2003) From condition to performance assessment of built
component, In Proceedings of The RICS Foundation Construction and Building Research
Conference, School of Engineering and the Built Environment, University of Wolverhampton,
1st to 2nd September, 2003. Edited by David Proverbs. ISBN COBRA 2003: 1-84219-148-9
O’Dell, A. (1996) Taking stock: a Review of Stock Condition Survey Methods in the UK. User-
oriented and Cost Effective Management, Maintenance and Modernization of Building
Facilities, CIB W70, Kesinki 1996 Symposium, 2-3 September 1996
Olanrewaju, A. (2010) Case for alternative approach to building maintenance management of
public universities Journal of Building Appraisal 5, pp.201–212.
Olanrewaju, A. A., and Khairuddin, A. (2007). The Prospects of Introducing Value Management
into the Nigerian Construction Industry. In: Proceedings of the Management in Construction
Researchers Conference Malaysia (MICRA). 6th Annual Conference of Management in
Construction Researchers Conference Malaysia (MICRA). Jointly organized by UiTM and
MICRA on 28-29th August 2007
Pryke, S (2009) (Ed) Construction supply chain management: concepts and case studies. UK:
Wiley Blackwell Publishing
Reffat, R. M., Gero, J. S. and Peng, W (2004). Using Data Mining on Building Maintenance During
the Building Life Cycle, In Proceedings of the 38th Australian and New Zealand Architectural
Science Association (ANZASCA) Conference, School of Architecture, University of Tasmania,
Tasmania, Australia, pp.91-97
65
66
SATISFACTION LEVEL OF FACILITY MANAGEMENT IN SHOP-

APARTMENT STRATIFIED BUILDINGS
Mohamad Ridzuan Yahya
PhD candidate, Kulliyyah of Architecture and Environmental Design, International Islamic
University moham643@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Currently Shop-apartment stratified buildings are becoming trendy among the commercial areas in
Malaysia. The main variation as compared to a landed property is the necessitate for owners (O) to
deal with facilities management (FM), as a body to control and handle all the services and facilities
provided in the buildings as predetermined in the Strata Title Act 1985. To a certain level, the idea
seems to work effectively for about a few years after the shop-apartment stratified building types are
established with the final title. Afterward, being so long with the facilities provided, coupled with
unsuccessful management, a gap is identified between the owners as stakeholders and the facilities
management personnel, which also comprised of members of the same building. This research looked
into the matter, with particular focus on the facility management construct. The satisfaction level
formed the primary measurement criteria in identifying and measuring the gap between the Owners
and the Facilities Management. The findings of this research revealed that there were significant
difference in terms of satisfaction between the Facilities Management and the Owners, where the FM
reported a higher level of satisfaction compared to the owners of every criterion. The sample selected
for this study was medium and high-cost shop-apartment stratified buildings only, thus making the
results limited within this particular focus group. Further research is suggested to find ways to
minimize the gap identified as well as to develop an effectiveness management model as a tool to
measure the performance of the facilities management body.
Keywords: Facility Management, Owners, Stratified Building
1 INTRODUCTION
Shop-apartment stratified building has become well-liked in Malaysia nowadays in

particular among urban people. One of the reasons they prefer to dwell in a shop-apartment
stratified building is the facilities provided in the building and its surrounding. They have to pay a
fee for the facilities provided. The FM is the responsible party to manage all the facilities.
According to (DBKL 1999; HBA 2003; Sapian 2003), the management of stratified building
in Malaysia can be classified into three periods namely, before the establishment of FM, during the
initial period and after the developer had handed over the management responsibilities to the
owners. The stratified building is governed by the Strata Title Act 1985 (herein after is called STA,
unless otherwise specified). The concept of STA in Malaysia is inherited from the New South
Wales Conveyance (Strata Title) Act 1961 (Alinah 2004).
2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
This paper focused on shop-apartment stratified building managed by the FM. The former
two periods are not included in this study because the management is temporary in nature and the
owners have no say at all in managing their own property. Theoretically, in managing stratified
building, both parties, i.e. FM and the owners have to attain a consensus in all management-related
matters. This is to ensure an effective management for the building. This study found that there
were some trends of management gap between FM and owners who are the beneficiary of the
facility management services. In discussing this matter, the paper starts briefly on several key issues
that led to a management gap. It is then followed by the methodology in identifying the
management gap and the important findings from this study.
67
3 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
Shop-apartment stratified building is a unique building and it differs from landed building,
such as factories and terrace houses. Its uniqueness presents itself during the management era after
the buildings have been occupied, where facilities management became an issue (Linariza and
Ashok 2003). To handle the issues pertaining to the management and maintenance activities, STA
was implemented in 1985, to accommodate the insufficiency of the National Land Code that was
ineffective in handling the issues that arose in stratified building types (Tiun 2006). According to
STA, the FM is accountable for all the management and maintenance aspects of the building and
common facilities in the building (Teo 1993; Jamila 1994). Unfortunately most of the stratified
buildings found were not effectively managed. Owners complained through the mass media and the
issues were always about incompetent facility management i.e. dysfunctional lifts, rubbish not
collected according to schedule, vandalism, misuse of sinking funds; as well as disputes among
owners. In short, all the issues raised were centred a round the 3 aspects in providing effective
facility managements, namely financial, maintenance and people, i.e., the owners themselves.
Referring to (Liias 1998; Jamila 1994; Malaysia Government 1999; Sapian 2003; Tiun
2006; Eddy 2004a) on the management side, the most challenging issues faced by them in
managing the stratified buildings were collecting monthly maintenance charge and to run facility
management activities. According to (Malaysia Government 2003d), maintenance charge is a fee
imposed on all the owners to maintain the facilities. For stratified building, the amount charged is
based on the share unit for every parcel (Malaysia Government 2003d). Unfortunately, there are
some owners who think that the amount charged is higher than what they expected and refused to
pay.
Illogical excuses were created, for example, they claimed that they did not fully use the
facilities provided (Jamila 1994) and the charge was not reasonable as compared to the service
quality (Malaysia Government 1999; Tiun 2006). According to Teo (1993), although the FM can
prosecute through a court of law in collecting the arrears as stipulated in Sect. 52(2), Sect 53A, Sect
53(2) and Sect 55A of the STA, it is rarely enforced due to its impracticality (Tiun 2006) and it
might affect the overall building occupants’ pride and image (Sapian 2003). When most occupants
neglect to pay the charge, consequently, the fund was insufficient. As a result, most of the facility
management activities cannot be carried out on time and thus affect the facility management
effectiveness for the building as a whole (Malaysia Government 1999; Tiun 2006).
These issues led to the management gap in managing facilities of shop-apartment stratified
building. The management gap occurred when the expected services by the owners cannot be
delivered by the FM. The owners were paying on a monthly basis and expected the facility
management to be effective. Under STA, there is a legal provision for the FM to engage the
services of a Management Agent (MA) as the party responsible for running the facility management
activities. In practice, most FM functions in that way because they do not have the expertise to run
and maintain the high rise building. If the FM fails to function well as stipulated in STA, the owners
of the particular building have the right to summon the said FM. Therefore in order to avoid this
case, the FM normally engages a Management Agent in order to transfer their liability towards the
building.
Even so, the management gap continued to exist as referred to the on-going issues reported
in mass media (Tiun 2006). Owners continued to complain about the low service quality of facility
management provided by the MA, as well as the responsibility of FM in ensuring effective facility
management.
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4 RESEARCH FRAMEWORK
The research framework is categorized under 3 constructs namely financial, maintenance as

well as awareness and alertness; there is respondents’ category namely Facilities Management
(FM), Owner (O) and Management Agent (MA).
The first construct is based on the financial which is in running the day-to-day activity, the
FM needed resources, otherwise there is little can be done. In medium and high cost shop-apartment
stratified building, the problem of monthly collection was not threatening since the collection of
maintenance charges was just fair enough to run the activity. On top of this, the financial aspect
needed to be planned via allocation and monitoring of its expenses. As an example, allocation for
cosmetic recovery should be the last agenda in building maintenance activity (Amarilla et al.,
2002). An effective facility management is not merely based on the collection of fund itself, the
management of the limited resources by the FM need to first be looked into (Hui, 2005).
The second construct is focused on the maintenance aspect of the building which was one of
the crucial tasks in facility management (Thompson 1994). It also played the main role in providing
sustainable building. Theoretically maintenance can be seen from a ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ perspective.
The ‘hard’ perspective referred to the maintenance output or product, which the owner can see and
feel the impact of maintenance work. As an example, landscaping provided good scenery and a tidy
environment, in which the owner can view and enjoy. The ‘soft’ perspective looked into the service
quality demonstrated on the process of carrying out the particular work and more to human respond
i.e. counter service. For the safety and health, it was also put under the maintenance consideration
to safeguard the owner’s health interest, so that they felt secure and comfortable within their
compounds.
The last construct is looked at the awareness and alertness. In providing effective facility
management, all the parties have to respond accordingly to the management. The participation of
owners was crucial since all the facility management and management agent activities were
designed for and dedicated to them. In addition, the owners were paying the maintenance charges.
The involvement of owners was really needed during the Annual General Meeting to set-up the FM,
to determine the amount of monthly fee and to agree upon a few things as stipulated in the STA.
Other than involvement, the owners had to understand their responsibilities as those occupying in
the building i.e. having neighbourhood spirit and avoiding selfishness; which were largely
dependent on the owners’ company background and status (owner or tenant). The owners’ alertness
were towards the on-going changes i.e. housing rules and occupancy activities within their building
unit, environmental condition as well as maintenance service standard (especially routine
maintenance work).
4.1 Variables
The subject in a sample is called variable. Variables can be divided under the categories of
independent variables and dependent variables. The independent variable is about the respondent
profile; meanwhile the dependent variable is about the respondent satisfaction level regarding the
topic (ordinal data of quantitative variable).
4.1.1 Independent Variables:
i) Independent Variable (X1)

Type of financial aspects interms of resources, allocation and expenses provided.
ii) Independent Variable (X2)
Reliability and well managed of the financial.
iii) Independent Variable (X3)
69
the types of building maintenance activities conducted and alertness and awareness
aspect in the shop-apartment stratified building.
iv) Categories of respondents (nominal data of qualitative variable)
4.1.2 Dependent Variables:
i) FMs’ satisfaction of financial, maintenance and contribution of alertness and

awareness aspects in participation for the building.
ii) Owners’ satisfaction of financial, maintenance and contribution of alertness and
awareness aspects in participation for the building.
iii) MAs’ contribution of alertness and awareness aspects in participation for the
building.
4.2 Sampling and Sampling Level
The population of sampling is 1000 samples but the sampling frame of surveying is 100
samples of respondents for 10 shop-apartment stratified building in Klang Valley, Malaysia. They
are interviewed (a personally assisted questionnaire) and the sampling level is 10%. There are four
(4) respondents from FM, six (6) respondents from O and one (1) respondent from MA of every
building. For this research, the sampling method is a stratified random sampling for the respondents
and applies cluster method for the buildings.
5 HYPHOTHESES OF RESEARCH
This research will test the following hyphotheses which are based on the research problems
(refer to Figure 1):
Research Problems Research Hypotheses
i) The financial aspect interms of resources, i) The degree of FM’ and O’ satisfaction is high
allocation and expenses provided in the shop- when the financial aspect interms of resources,
apartment stratified building either they are allocation and expenses provided in the shop-
reliable and well managed or not. apartment stratified building is reliable and well
managed.
ii) Types of building maintenance activities interms ii) The degree of FM’ and O’ satisfaction is high
of planned, unplanned, health and safety when the types of building maintenance activities
conducted in the shop-apartment stratified interms of planned, unplanned, health and safety
building either they fullfil the standard of conducted in the shop-apartment stratified
quality or not. building are fullfil the standard of quality.
iii) FM’ and O’ satisfaction of the shop-apartment iii) There is positive correlation between the FM’
stratified building is influenced by the reliability and O’ satisfaction and reliability and well
and well managed of the financial aspect and managed of financial aspect provided.
the building maintenance activities that fullfil
the standard of quality or not.
iv) FM’, O’ and MA’ satisfaction of the shop- iv) There is a difference in the alertness and
apartment stratified building can be measured awareness in the shop-apartment stratified
through how much they respond to alertness and building between FM, O and MA towards their
awareness in the building. satisfaction.
Figure 1: The framework of research hypotheses in relation from the research problems
70
6 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
This research embarks on the following research questions which are based on the research
problems in order to formulate the question in the questionnaire survey (refer to Figure 2):
Research Problems Research Questions
i) The financial aspect interms of resources, i) Do the financial aspect interms of resources,
allocation and expenses provided in the shop- allocation and expenses provided in the shop-
apartment stratified building either they are apartment stratified building either they are
reliable and well managed or not. reliable and well managed condition?
ii) Types of building maintenance activities ii) Do the types of building maintenance
interms of planned, unplanned, health and safety activities interms of planned, unplanned,
conducted in the shop-apartment stratified health and safety conducted in the shop-
building either they fullfil the standard of apartment stratified building either they
quality or not. fullfil the standard of quality?
iii) FM’ and O’ satisfaction of the shop-apartment iii) Is there any positive correlation between the
stratified building is influenced by the reliability FM’ and O’ satisfaction and the reliability
and well managed of the financial aspect and and well managed of the financial aspect
the building maintenance activities that fullfil provided?
the standard of quality or not.
iv) FM’, O’ and MA’ satisfaction of the shop- iv) Is there any difference in the response of
apartment stratified building can be measured alertness and awareness in the shop-
through how much they respond to alertness and apartment stratified building among FM, O
awareness in the building. and MA towards their satisfaction?
Figure 2: The framework of research questions in relation to the research problems
7 OBJECTIVE OF RESEARCH
Based on the theoretical framework and statement of problem, the goal of the research is to
study on the relationship between the financial aspect provided and the building maintenance
activities conducted in facilities management in the shop-apartment stratified building towards
FMs’ and Owners’ satisfaction in participation for the building. The effectiveness of facilities
management in that particular building as a tool is also measured through the satisfaction of owner
alertness and awareness aspect (refer to Figure 3).
71
Independent Variable (X1) Dependent Variable (Y)

Type of financial aspects interms of FM’, O’ and MA’ satisfaction in
resources, allocation and expenses participation for the building.
provided.
Is there any relationship?
Independent Variable (X3)

the types of building maintenance activities conducted
and the alertness and awareness aspect in the shop-
apartment stratified building.
Is there any relationship?
Independent Variable (X2) facilities management in the shop-

Reliability and well managed of the apartment stratified building as a tool.
financial.
Figure 3: Framework of dependent variable and independent variables of the research study
The objective of the research will emphasize on:

i) To identify the type of financial aspect provided in the shop-apartment stratified
building.
ii) To identify the reliability and well managed of the financial aspect provided in the
shop-apartment stratified building.
iii) To identify the types of building maintenance activities conducted in the shop-
apartment stratified building.
iv) To identify the FM’, O’ and MA’ alertness and awareness in the shop-apartment
stratified building.
v) To identify the relationship between the financial aspect provided and building
maintenance activities conducted in the shop-apartment stratified building.
The objective of the present study will lead to the justification of what are the variables that
plays important roles to create an effective of facilities management as a tool in the shop-apartment
stratified building. The findings will help the building professional for better understanding the
elements of facilities management for that particular building. The practical significance of findings
will help in restructuring facilities management for the shop-apartment stratified building that will
sustain the Facilities Management, Owners and Management Agent needs.
The research strategy adopted was quantitative in nature and data collection technique was
through a personally assisted questionnaire. The questionnaire was formulated based on the
described facility management variables above which consisted of financial, maintenance and
owner constructs. The respondents had to respond accordingly to a Likert scale of 1 to 5, which
expressed the respondents’ satisfaction level. The range of the scale were 1=not satisfied, 2= less
satisfied, 3= neutral (neither satisfied nor dissatisfied), 4= quite satisfied and 5= very satisfied. The
software for data analysis was Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 13.
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In identifying the management gap, this study looked into the differences in satisfaction level
via the analysis of Chi-Square, Correlation and ANOVA. Before proceeding with the ANOVA, the
statistical pre-test had to be conducted via Levene and Box’s M test to determine the equality of
variance assumption and the variance-covariance matrix. In order to proceed, both pre-test should
get the result of non-significance i.e. p value > 0.05. It was only then that the ANOVA can be
conducted. To further study the differences between respondent categories, this study proceeded
with the Bonferonni test. The gap existed when there was a significant difference in levels of
satisfaction between respondents.
9 HYPOTHESIS TESTING
After collecting the data from questionnaire survey, the collected data will be analyzed
through inferential statistic for hypothesis testing. The inferential statistic is used to analyze the
level measurement of nominal, ordinal and scale data by using 3 inferential statistic methods which
are Chi-Square Test, Correlation Test and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Test. All the data were
analyzed by using Statistical Package of Social Survey (SPSS) software.
The hypotheses testing were carried out based on the elements of significant test which are:
i) The assumptions (type of data, form of population distribution, method of sampling
and sample size).
ii) The hypothesis (Null Hypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis).
iii) The test statistic (statistic calculated from sample data to test the Null Hypothesis).
iv) The p-value (probability value that provide strong evidence against Null
Hypothesis).
v) The conclusion (interpretation of what the p-value or decision about Null Hypothesis
tells us the test original question motivating the test).
9.1 Chi-Square Test (x²)
Assumptions:
i) Type of data tested are ordinal data
ii) Samples of respondents have been randomly sampled
iii) Sample size is 100 and represent of the population
Hypothesis:
Hο: The degree of FMs’ and Owners’ satisfaction is high when the financial aspect interms of
resources, allocation and expenses provided in the shop-apartment stratified building is
reliable and well managed.
H1: The degree of FMs’ and Owners’ satisfaction has no relationship with the reliability and
well managed of the financial aspects in the shop-apartment stratified building.
Test Statistic:
Case Processing Summary
Cases
Valid Missing Total
Percent Percent Percent
The reliability and well managed condition of 100. .0 10
financial provided * category Respondent 00 0% % 00 0.0%
73
Category Respondent * the reliability and well managed condition of financial provided Cross tabulation Count
The reliability and well managed condition of

financial provided Total
Less Neutral (neither satisfied Quite
satisfied or dissatisfied satisfied
category
Respondent
FM 0 27 13 40
O 23 37 0 60
Total
23 64 13 100
Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 34.961(a) 2 .000

Likelihood Ratio 47.448 2 .000
Linear-by-Linear Association 34.061 1 .000
N of Valid Cases 100
(a) 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 5.20.
Table 1: Chi-Square Test for relationship between degree of FMs’ and Owners’ satisfaction and the
reliability and well managed of the financial aspects in the shop-apartment stratified
building
9.2 Chi-Square Test (x²)
Assumptions:
i) Type of data tested are ordinal data
Hypothesis:
Hο: The degree of FMs’ and Owners’ satisfaction is high when the types of building
maintenance activities interms of planned, unplanned, health and safety conducted in the
shop-apartment stratified building are fullfil the standard of quality.
H1: The degree of FMs’ and Owners’ satisfaction has no relationship with the standard of
quality of the building maintenance activities in the shop-apartment stratified building.
74
Test Statistic:
Case Processing Summary
Cases
Valid Missing Total
N Percent Percent Percent
Category Respondent * quality of
maintenance activities conducted 100 100.0% .0% 100 100.0%
Category Respondent * quality of maintenance activities conducted Cross tabulation
Count
Quality of maintenance activities conducted Total

Neutral (neither satisfied or
Less satisfied dissatisfied
Category Respondent
40 40
FM 0
O 60 0 60
Total 60 40 100
Chi-Square Tests
Asymp. Sig. Exact Sig. Exact Sig. (1-

Value df (2-sided) (2-sided) sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 100.000(b) 1 .000
Continuity Correction (a) 95.877 1 .000
Likelihood Ratio 134.602 1 .000
Fisher's Exact Test .000 .000
Linear-by-Linear
99.000 1 .000
Association
N of Valid Cases 100
(a) Computed only for a 2x2 table

(b) 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is
16.00.
Table 2: Chi-Square Test for relationship between degree of FMs’ and Owners’ satisfaction and the
standard of quality of the building maintenance activities in the shop-apartment stratified
building.
9.3 Correlation Test
Assumptions:
i) Type of data tested are scale data
iv) Used to access the degree of linear relationship between 2 variables
75
Hypothesis:
H: There is positive correlation between the FMs’ and Owners’ satisfaction and reliability and
well managed of financial aspect provided.
Test Statistic:
Correlations
the reliability
and well
managed
condition of
category financial
Respondent provided
category Respondent Pearson Correlation 1 -.587**
Sig. (1-tailed) .000
N 100 100
the reliability and well Pearson Correlation -.587** 1
managed condition of Sig. (1-tailed) .000
financial provided
N 100 100
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (1-tailed).
Table 3: Positive correlation between the FMs’ and Owners’ satisfaction with financial
aspect provided & reliability and well managed of financial aspect provided
9.4 ANOVA Test
Assumptions:
i) Types of data tested are scale data (dependent variable) and categorical data
(independent variable).
iv) The populations have equal variances.
Hypothesis:
H: There is a difference in the contribution of alertness and awareness in the shop-apartment
stratified building between Facilities Management (FM), Owners (O) and Management
Agent (MA) towards their satisfaction.
Test Statistic:
ANOVA
category Respondent
Sum of
Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups 7.258 2 3.629 10.433 .000
Within Groups 33.742 97 .348
Total 41.000 99
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Multiple Comparisons
Dependent Variable: category Respondent

Tukey HSD
Mean
(I) alertness (J) alertness Difference 95% Confidence Interval
and awareness and awareness (I-J) Std. Error Sig. Lower Bound Upper Bound
2 3 -.116 .159 .745 -.49 .26
4 -.600* .148 .000 -.95 -.25
3 2 .116 .159 .745 -.26 .49
4 -.484* .138 .002 -.81 -.15
4 2 .600* .148 .000 .25 .95
3 .484* .138 .002 .15 .81
*. The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.
category Respondent
a,b
Tukey HSD
Subset for alpha = .05
alertness and awareness N 1 2
2 25 1.40
3 31 1.52
4 44 2.00
Sig. .715 1.000
Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed.
a. Uses Harmonic Mean Sample Size = 31.584.
b. The group sizes are unequal. The harmonic mean of the
group sizes is used. Type I error levels are not
guaranteed.
Table 4: ANOVA Test for relationship of difference in the contribution of alertness and
awareness in the shop-apartment stratified building among FM, O and MA towards their
satisfaction.
10 CONCLUDING REMARKS
Table 1 shows the results of the significance test. The test reveals that the relationship is
significant because the significance level is 0.000, which is less than the critical value (p<0.05). The
Chi-Square Test used is a one-tailed testing, therefore the α value equals to 0.05. With the Chi-
Square value of 34.961 and the significant value at 0.000, Null Hypothesis (Hο) can be rejected and
Alternative Hypothesis (H1) can be accepted.
Table 2 shows the results of the significance test. The test reveals that the relationship is
significant because the significance level is 0.000, which is less than the critical value (p<0.05). The
Chi-Square Test used is a one-tailed testing, therefore the α value equals to 0.05. With the Chi-
Square value of 100.000 and the significant value at 0.000, Null Hypothesis (Hο) can be rejected
and Alternative Hypothesis (H1) can be accepted.
Table 3 shows the negative correlation between the FMs’ and Owners’ satisfaction with
financial aspect provided & reliability and well managed of financial aspect provided. Correlation
measures how two variables reflect the degree to which the variables are related. In this research,
we want to know the FMs’ and Owners’ satisfaction with financial aspect provided correlated with
the reliability and well managed of financial aspect provided. From table 3, it can be analyzed that
Pearson’s correlation coefficient (-.587) is significant at 0.000 level. There is a significant negative
correlation between FMs’ and Owners’ satisfaction with financial aspect provided & reliability and
well managed of financial aspect provided (r = -0.587**, p<0.01). This means, the reliability and
77
well managed of financial aspect provided, irrelevant with the FMs’ and Owners’ satisfaction with
financial aspect provided.
Table 4 shows the ANOVA for relationship of difference in the contribution of alertness
and awareness in the shop-apartment stratified building among FM, O and MA towards their
satisfaction. The significance level is 0.000 indicates the differences in the mean values between
these groups are small. Therefore, it can be concluded that there is difference in the contribution of
alertness and awareness in the shop-apartment stratified building among them towards their
satisfaction. The F-ratio is termed for the critical value which determine the rejection or acceptance
of Null Hypothesis. If the F-ratio value is larger than 1, Null Hypothesis can be rejected. From table
4, the F-ratio, F 2,97 = 10.433 is much larger than the critical value, the Null Hypohesis can be
rejected of equal population means and conclude that there is a statistically significant difference
among the population means.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Thanks are due to facilities management personnel, building owners and tenants of every
shop-apartment stratified building for their assistance in this study.
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80
DESIGN MAINTAINABILITY: PROBLEMS AND CHALLENGES FACING

FACILITIES MANAGEMENT
Sheelah Sivanathan, Bachelor of Science.
MSc candidate, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
Sheelah1903@yahoo.com
L. Jawahar Nesan, Prof.

Lecturer, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
Jivasanggetha Narayanasamy, Bachelor of Science

Phd candidate, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
ABSTRACT
Facilities management input such as maintenance, sustainability, landscape and space are renowned in
lack of integration between building design. These have been seen as one of the major factors
contributing to the various problems facing the building industry. The design of a building has a
major impact and influence on the operational performance of a building. Design and maintenance are
two activities that directly contribute to the performance of life cycle building. Conventionally,
facilities management input (maintenance) and design are frequently treated as two separated
activities that have no interrelationship. Inadequate input of facilities management at the design stage
results in lot of maintenance problems especially during the post occupancy period. A critical review
of the literature review has been carried out for the purpose of understanding the effect of building
defects that are related to poor maintenance consideration during design stage. Based on the survey of
literature, it has been established that vast of maintenance problem are due to fault design. The paper
has consolidated the problem and challenges facing facilities management sectors through literature
review discussion.
Keywords: (Maintenance, Design, Building Defects, Maintainability Factors
1 INTRODUCTION
Facilities management (FM) has been defined as combines skills from design disciplines,
such as architecture, engineering, and interiors, from business fields like, management, marketing,
real estate, and from behavioral sciences as an umbrella of professions (cotts, 1999). Kelly et al.
(2005) quoted MCLennan (2000) as suggesting that FM should be involved in the early stage and
responsible for co-ordinating all efforts relating to financing, designing, constructing, operating and
monitoring the physical resource while considering the objective of the organization and can
enhancing the understanding of end user‘s unique needs and allowing performance feedbacks.
However, facilities management input such as maintenance, sustainability, landscape and space are
renowned in lack of integration between building design. This has been seen as one of the major
factors contributing to the various problems facing the building industry. The design of a building
has a major impact and influence on the operational performance of a building. The link between
building operation and building design is missing (Jensen, 2009).
Facilities Management (FM) addresses the operation and functions associated and
concerned with the management of constructed premises within the built environment and the assets
within them (Francis et al,. 2003). This is because it was often viewed as representing a field of
operational activity that lies beyond design, procurement, construction and installations required for
delivery of buildings (Dunston and Williamson, 1999). Facility management is the domain
responsible for the operation and maintenance of buildings. The operations and maintenance phase
accounts for approximately 80% of the total life-cycle costs and lasts during the longest portion of
81
the facility’s life (Christian and Pandeys 1997). Therefore, facility management is now defined as
“the effort expended to provide complete operations and maintenance service support so that a
physical facility (buildings, equipment, machinery, system, and grounds) may operate at an
optimum lowest overall total cost.”(Nietubicz and Lewis 2007).
Over the course of its lifecycle, a building construction passes through various phases. The
lifecycle building associated with each phase, namely design, construction and post-occupancy.
Maintenance activities are crucial to the overall performance of life cycle of building. Design and
maintenance are two activities that directly contribute to the quality of construction and
performance. Conventionally, facilities management input (maintenance) and design are frequently
treated as two separated activities that have no interrelationship. The result from the building survey
conducted in Hong Kong stated that 40% of maintenance faults were design related, 30% of
maintenance problems were construction/installation related and 30% of maintenance problems
were related to maintenance management (Lam, 2000). According to value engineering, developers
can save up to 10 per cent of their investment cost and 30 per cent of their operation costs if
facilities management services are incorporated right into the design phase of a project,"(Emirates
Business, 2009).
Some of these problems could probably be considerably reduced by a more suitable design.
Therefore, it is important to take a suitable approach to design a better building. Maintainability
refers to measures or steps taken during the product design phase to include features that will
increases ease of maintenance and ensure that the product will have minimum downtime and life
cycle support costs when used in field environment (Dhillon, 2006). To enhance overall facility
performance and lifecycle cost, it is extremely important to integrate O&M input into the design
process. O&M personnel provide working knowledge of the actual performance of equipment and
facilities. Preparations for full O&M capability should therefore be made concurrently with design
and construction activities (Her and Russell 2002).
Studies on maintainability over the years have produced algorithms that have given support
to the electro-mechanical world, leaving out the built environment (Ikpo, 2009). Building
maintainability is a significant issue, which should considered in the design stage of a building
development process. A number of researches on building models such as life cycle costing,
building maintenance management and etc have been developed to predict future maintenance
expenditures and activities. However, these models only predict maintenance cost and consists of
actions to correct or prevent a failure event after a building is built and do not provide the flexibility
of exploring various alternatives in design stage. Maintainability is generally given little attention in
many developing countries. And also a little practically applicable research has been conducted in
this area. Discussion above reveals that there is a need to develop whereby the impact of various
factors of maintainability can be assess so that improvement can be made to the design.
2 DESIGN MAINTAINABILITY PROBLEM FACING IN FACILITIES

MANAGEMENT SECTOR
a) A brief review of facilities management
Kelly et al. (2005) cities Hinks et al. (1999) who states, facilities management is an
integrating profession in that it involves other professions in the construction industry in the same
way as project management. Facility management as being responsible for co-ordinating all efforts
related to planning design and managing buildings systems, equipment and furniture to enhance the
organisation’s ability to complete successfully in a rapidly changing world (Becker 1987 cited by
Clarkand and Hinxman 1999). According to Patterson (2008), the use of FM in the design process,
should result in building that is economic to run and easy for them maintain and manage. The study
further revealed that the building is also cost-effective to design and build. Function of facilities
management input is important in order to attaining objectives of organization. This point
82
demonstrates the importance of using facilities management knowledge in overall building life
cycle can form valuable information in constructing new buildings.
b) Design relating problem in Facilities management
The manual of asset management published by the Government of Malaysia in 2009,

demonstrated that requirements such as maintenance, space, landscape and energy should be
considered in design stage. A study carried out by the space management group (2006), revealed
several aspect of building design to achieve optimum space efficiency. Research carried out by
Lindkvist and Elmudlim ( 2009), demonstrated that space management played a major contribution
to provide satisfied working environment to employees and helped the organization to use the
available space more efficiently. According to Hassan (2002), it is important aspect should to
consider space utilization of a warehouse layout in the design stage. The impact of incorrect
estimation of space need can lead to crowded condition and wasted space.
For a long time, the local authority has been facing many environmental issues, mainly the
environment performance of buildings. In Malaysia, numerous buildings are constructed every year.
A myriad of natural resources are consumed in the life cycle of buildings including energy
resources, water, land, and minerals. Due to large amount of sources used, many kinds of pollutants
are released back to the environment. There has been a growing interest in sustainability to enhance
environmental performance of buildings, however, the mechanisms to transfer the sustainability
issues in to the projects plan and design should be investigated (Nazirah and Nor’ Aini 2007).
Some case studies have implemented sustainability during briefing in the design phase and certain
methods were developed to achieve sustainability goal. Incorporating sustainability practice during
building design stage is essential to increase overall performance of building life cycle and attain
the most sustainable solution (Banaitiene et al. 2008).
Hassanain (2006), revealed that fire safety was considered during design stages of school
facilities in Saudi Arabia and to ensure appropriate levels of safety measures. To ensure the safety
of school occupants, the upkeep fire system alarm in school is important. The designer should
provide the way out to people evacuating the building during the fire circumstances. This is because
if there is one way and fire is emerged in that area, the people in that area will find difficult to
escape. Benthorn and Frantzich (1999) stated that it is important to take into consideration how
people escape during fire emergency when designing building. For example, one prior study
Hassanain (2008), identified several common design errors or omissions contributing to student
housing fires. As such, interior finish materials used to walls, ceilings and floor is usually
combustible.
Poor design decision can lead to affect waste management of the building on large amount
of material are generated. For instance, provision of room for interim storage of garbage and
recyables on each floor in an interim storage area should suffice. A caretaker takes garbage and
recyables from the interim storage area to a communal storage area. A recent article, Jensen (2009)
quoted that the designer has considered waste management during briefing requirement. The study
defines a special room category on each floor plan and electrical trucks via elevators had
transported the waste to the basement, where it was collected in a container room by picker.
In conclusion, the literature reviews significantly show the fact that integrated facilities
management input is essential in the design phase. Facilities management input that are influenced
in design management were identified through literature review. Applying facilities management
development concepts to the design, construction, and operation of buildings can enhance the
performance of overall life cycle of building. The integration of facilities management input during
planning, design, construction phase can ensure to attain better-performing buildings with reduced
cost of operating.
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c) Issues on building maintenance
In the Ninth Malaysian Plan (2006-2010), development plan allocation for repair and
maintenance works has increased to about RM1,079 million compared to only RM296 million
during the Eight Malaysian Plan. Building maintenance is a most important activity in majority
countries (Horner et al,. 1997). It is estimated that in the USA, up to 50 percent of the construction
budget was spent for repair and maintenance works in buildings (Lee, 1996). British Institute of
Facilities Management (2001), shows that about 45% of the annual turnover in construction
industry is spent on maintenance and refurbishment due to unplanned or unexpected activity.
The manual of best practice for maintenance of building assets in year 1998, stated that
maintenance of building should be considered over building life span, from the initial acquisition
and include operating building until disposal of the asset at the end of its life. According to this
manual, there is interrelationship between maintenance and design. They are also treated as two
separate activities over building life span. The design of a building is very important because the
designer is the first person who accepts the ideas from building owner and translates owner’s
requirements into a completed design process. These requirements need to be stated in the project
design brief, and then implemented through construction and operation of building life span.
Therefore, if a building is designed without maintenance issues, it is unlikely to provide cost
effective building in term of proper maintenance. For instance, cheapest material selection at the
design stage is not always economical and often requires frequent maintenance. It is expected that
many errors and defects will occurred if wrong decision is made in the design and construction
phase of the project. This often become one of the most common causes of early deterioration, later
resulting in high cost of maintenance.
Ramly (2006) stated that design plays a major role in determining the conditions of building
after completion, mainly in aspects of defects and maintenance. A researches by Arditi and
Nawakorawit (1999), Rozita (2006), Mills (1980) and Liu (2006) highlights that the issue of
building maintenance is important to consider during design stage to increase the future
performance of buildings as maintenance cost in high for building owners throughout the life of that
building. A number of studies have been conducted to find out faults in design that affect building
maintenance. In a survey of building failure pattern and defects, conducted by Building Research
Establishment in England, 58 per cent of the defects originated from faulty design (Seeley, 1987).
The results of the case study conducted by AL-Hammad et al. (1997) found that 35 defects factors
identified at the design stage had effect on building maintenance. He mentions that improper
material selection is a major contributor to high maintenance cost in the post-occupational stage.
A study by Al-Shiha (1993) on the effect of faulty design and construction on building
maintenance found that the most factors which affect the maintenance works and cause high
maintenance cost are inadequate structural design such as:
i) Foundation,
ii) Hiring unqualified designers,
iii) Not complying with specification,
iv) Improper material selection,
v) Inadequate water proofing and drainage,
vi) Unqualified work force and inability to read the drawings.
The case study conducted by Chong and Low 2006, also found that better design was
prevented nearly 66% of defects. As a consequence if the number of design and construction
defects could be reduced, it would reduce the maintenance expenditures (Gibson 1979, Peacock
1986, Liska 1988 and Lee 1987). British institute of facilities Management (2001) stated that up to
90% of the cost of running, repairing and maintaining a building is determined at the design stage.
From discussion above, it is clear that building defects in the future caused by miss-design.
Integrated planning maintenance at design stage is considered essential for ensuring to enhance
84
performance of the constructed facility (Arditi and Nawakorawit, 1999). The degree of input of
maintenance issue in the design stage is important to produce good decision in building
maintenance.
d) Maintainability problems
The input of facilities management usually not involved at the design stage. As a result a lot
of problem arises during post occupancy stage. In view of the problem it is necessary that input of
facilities management integrated with design to minimize the design related problem during post-
occupancy stage. Maintainability is seen to be able to solve some of these problems. The studies by
silva et al, (2004) mention that less consideration of maintainability during design and construction
phases has caused maintenance difficult and increased cost maintenance. However, neglecting to
consider maintainability during the planning, design, procurement, construction, and start-up of a
facility can result availability and output, increased life-cycle operation and maintenance (O&M)
costs, and costly maintenance retrofits (Meier, 2000).
Given the ongoing discussion regarding the importance of ease of building maintenance, it
is clear that designing for maintenance assumes paramount importance in ensuring to reduce
maintenance activities as well as cost in building life cycle operation. Before getting to next section,
distinction needs to be drawn between building maintenance and building maintainability (design
for maintenance).
i) Building Maintenance
Cripps (1984), defined building maintenance as “ the regular inspection of all parts of the
building and the execution of work necessary to keep the structure, finishes and fitting in a proper
and acceptable state of repair, including decoration both internally and externally”.
The maintenance refers to measures/steps taken by the building facility manager for keeping
it in operational state or repairing it to operational state.
ii) Building Maintainability
Mishra and Pathak (2002) defined maintainability as the probability of restoration of a failed
device or equipment or asset to operational effectiveness within a specified period of time through
prescribed maintenance operations. Maintainability is associated with the design of the assets to be
maintained. It is a measure of the ease of maintenance. According to Feldman (1975), ease of
maintainability refers to the condition of item or a surface that permits its repair, adjustment, or
cleaning with reasonable effort and cost.
3 CHALLENGES AND APPROACHES
A designer usually does not cognizant that faults or wrong decision had been made during
design phase. These faults were only revealed at the post occupational stage through post
occupancy evaluations or user’s feedback and usually emerged in the form of building defects.
According to Arditi and Nawakorawit (1999), design stage is essential part of life cycle of a
building on most critical decisions are made at this stage. These decisions will influence all
decisions made in subsequent stages. Therefore, the design phase is a major source of problem for
the subsequent phases if is not well managed specified at the outset of project. Therefore, the
performance of building will be enhanced, if designer are cognizant of facilities management input
(maintenance) in design phase.
Building facility involve a major load on maintenance ad support resource, both in terms of
manpower as well as cost. It is therefore important that every effort be made to reduce maintenance
85
requirement for newly built structures. Design for building maintenance process is often a necessary
evil since it ensures smooth performance of life cycle of building with minimum life cycle cost and
downtime. Consideration of maintenance during design, construction and post-occupancy stage
ensures those maintenance requirements are minimized in the future. This means that the building
elements can easy to maintain at less expense, in less time and with less effort. Unfortunately,
designers often neglect a very important aspect which is the possibility to perform future
maintenance activities. Conversely, there is a quite a considerable amount of research conducted on
this topic.
In construction industry the most important phase is during the design phase. Design phase
covers a wide range of activities from schematic layouts to the preparation of construction drawing.
Design activities are varied and encompass the definition of requirements in a specification, concept
design and detail design. Therefore, there are many opportunities to influence design with respect to
maintainability. Accordingly, methods are needed that are appropriate to design activity. Good
maintainability can be achieved through design and success is achieved by using appropriate
methods.
There are some maintainability factors identified through literature review that designers
need to consider to apply during design stage to avoid building defects. Most of the fundamental
factors are described as follows (Her and Russell 2002):
i) Accessibility- Providing, adequate accessibility to system/ equipment will enhance safety,
effectiveness, and efficiency of maintenance.
ii) Commercial availability of spare parts- Providing commercially available spare parts
minimizes supply delay time during maintenance
iii) Cost for replacement parts- Providing replacement parts of reasonable price minimizes
life-cycle costs for maintenance.
iv) Standard tools- The use of standard tools for maintenance simplifies maintenance tasks and
decreases the amount of training required;
v) Clear instructions for maintenance tasks- Providing clear instructions for maintenance
tasks increases the likelihood of proper maintenance.
From the above discussion, its show that the amount of money being lost each year in the
maintenance of building through improper design planning. As a design characteristic,
maintainability factors also should incorporated in building design to improve the quality of
construction building. That is, maintainability is part of design planning. Moua and Rusell (2001),
stated that maintainability is a design parameter pertaining to the ease of maintenance. At this stage
of research, it is revealed that there is relationship between design phase, building defects and
maintainability. Literature reviews reveals that there is a need to improve maintainability factors
during design phase, mainly due to the increasing numbers of occurrences of defects and inadequate
awareness of the maintainability problems among the designers during the service life.
4 CONCLUSION
Researcher has concluded that faulty design due to poor design for maintenance practice
during design stage is major cause of most building defects in post-occupancy stage. This research
is part of master project. Maintenance at post-occupancy stage could be reduced by improving
maintainability during design phase. Through this research it is proposed for further future research
to develop an application model that wills assist the construction organization for predicting the
level of maintainability of building in design stage. It will solve the long pending quest of
inadequate awareness of the maintainability problems among the designers during the service life.
Further, comprehensive defect and cause analysis will help to form the basis of an enhanced
maintainability to promote good practice for achieve high maintenance. Therefore, this research
was conducted and hopes to become a useful reference for local architects and design engineers to
86
incorporate crucial maintenance factors during design phase to ensure a successful implementation
of design for maintenance concept, particularly for future projects in Malaysia.
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88
THEME B
HOW CAN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN GUIDE ONE BUILDING TOWARD

GREEN BUILDING?
Peyman Behtash
MSc candidate, Universiti Teknologi MARA
peymanbehtash@gmail.com
Seyedeh Atefeh Asoudeh Khalajani, MSc.
PhD candidate,
S.a.Asoudeh@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Effectively using energy, water, and other resources is one of important part of green buildings.
Also, one perfect architectural design can help to energy saving. Therefore one perfect design can
guide one building toward green building. In this paper by comparison between two case studies,
amount of effect of design on saving energy has been deliberated.
Keywords: Architectural design, Green building, Energy saving
1 INTRODUCTION
From the earliest time of social living, human needed shelter to be safe from naturals and
enemies problems. Nowadays this shelter was developed and completed for live and the other
factors were added to construct a shelter; For instance, isolating from environment, beauty and etc.
The other thing that is important these days is effective use of source of energy.
According to U.S. environmental protection agency, Green building is the practice of
executing structures and using processes that are environmentally responsible and resource-efficient
throughout a building's life-cycle from feasibility study to design, construction, operation,
maintenance, renovation and deconstruction. This practice extends and complements the classical
building design concerns of economy, utility, durability, and comfort. Green building is also known
as a durable or high performance building.
Green architecture, or green design, is an approach to constructions that minimizes harmful effects
on human health and the environment. The "green" architect or designer attempts to protect air,
water, and earth by choosing eco-friendly building materials and construction practices.
There are many governmental and nongovernmental organizations in the world which they
discuss about factors of green buildings and their standards and cods. In this study two type of
architectural design of small residential building will be compare to find out how can improve
saving energy in building toward green building by little change in architectural design.
2 DEFINITIONS AND LITERATURE REVIEW
3.1 Green Building & Sustainable Development
In their 1987 report, Our Common Future, the World Commission on Environment and
Development (WCED) (now more commonly called the Brundtland Commission after its
chairwoman, Gro Harlem Brundtland) established the concept of sustainable development as,
“Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs” (WCED, 1987, p. 54). Broadening the concept, the Natural
Step framework describes four principal actions to achieve sustainability for modern societies:
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a) reduce society’s wasteful dependence upon fossil fuels, underground metals and minerals;
reduce our wasteful dependence upon chemicals and unnatural substances; reduce our encroachment
upon nature; and, meet human needs fairly and efficiently (James & Lahti, 2004)
b) Green buildings are directly connected to the concepts of sustainable development and
sustainability with their emphasis on ecologically sensitive site development, energy, water and
material efficiency, and indoor environmental quality. Yet for any business, the value of green
buildings needs to be expressed within the context of their business.
c) “Green” or “sustainable” buildings use resources like energy, water, materials, and land more
efficiently than buildings that are just construct to code. With better air quality and more natural
light, green buildings typically contribute to improved employee and student health, comfort, and
productivity. The United States Green Building Council (USGBC), a national non-profit
membership organization, developed the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED)
System TM to provide a guideline and rating system for green buildings.
3 BENEFITS OF GREEN BUILDINGS
3.1 Financial benefits of Green Building
Green Buildings provide economical profits that conventional buildings do not. These
benefits include energy and water savings, reduced waste, improved indoor environmental quality,
greater employee comfort/productivity, reduced employee health costs and lower operations and
maintenance costs.
As indicated in Figure 1 below, the Report concluded that financial benefits of green design
are between $50 and $70 per square foot in a LEED building, over 10 times the additional cost
associated with building green. The financial profits are in lower energy, waste and water costs,
lower environmental and emissions costs, and lower operational and maintenance costs and rised
productivity and health. Massachusetts already has established national leadership in green
buildings, including achieving the first gold rated federal building (at EPA’s Chelmsford Lab), and
is well positioned to build on this. Doing so will involve developing policies that allow green
buildings to capture the financial value of benefits associated with green design.
Figure 1: Financial Benefits
The benefits of green building include money savings from reduced energy, water, and
waste; lower operations and maintenance costs; and enhanced occupant productivity and health. As
Figure 1 indicates, the total financial benefits of green buildings are over ten times the average
initial investment required to design and construct a green building. Despite data limitations and the
90
need for additional research in various areas, the data demonstrates that building green is cost-
effective today, particularly for those projects which start “green” design early in the process.
In the book Green Development, Integrating Ecology and Real Estate, Wilson (1998)
identified the following areas where financial benefits can be found by following a green agenda in
the development processes.
i) Reduced Capital Cost
Reduced or neutral first costs through integrated design. By improving one aspect a
payback can be seen in other areas. Cost of infra structure, such as storm sewers, can be
lowered by relying on the land’s natural features. Mechanical systems can be downsized
or even eliminated through energy design.
ii) Reduced Operating Cost
Saving can be found with a reduction in energy requirements, reduced water demand,
lower maintenance requirements, and a reduction in waste generation.
iii) Marketing Benefits: Free Press and Product Differentiation
Enormous marketing benefits can be derived from attention to environmental and
community issues.
iv) Valuation Premiums and Absorption Rates
Green projects typically sell or lease faster, and retain tenants better. In some markets
buyers may pay a premium to be part of a green development. In markets that cannot
afford price premiums, green developments may enjoy faster lease-ups or sale rates
because of differentiation from the competition.
v) Reduced Liability
By taking a responsible attitude toward the environment and occupants, green
developments are sometimes able to reduce the risks of litigation and liability.
vi) Staying Ahead of Regulations
It is almost always more expensive to comply with regulations after the fact, those who
stay ahead of future environmental regulations are likely to benefit down the road.
vii) New Business Opportunities
Many of the pioneering green developers are finding that their emphasis on protecting the
environment and supporting local cultures is opening new doors.
viii) Satisfaction from Doing the Right Thing
Most green developers do not do what they do entirely for monetary reasons. Other
reasons include; providing a better place to live, to prove that development can be done in
a different way, to educate people about environmental issues, to make the world a better
place to live for their grandchildren.
4.2 Green building as a solution to mitigate the climate change
Green building is a solution to mitigate the climate change. Energy efficient construction
for new buildings, and renovation of existing buildings, can reduce the 40-50% of energy used for
space and water heating in buildings. However, if current inefficient building practices continue,
buildings could account for 70% of CO2 emissions by 2050. Life cycle assessment (LCA), carbon-
focused, building rating systems are “material neutral” but a green building assessment plan without
a scientific LCA basis underestimate the carbon intensity issue. Some countries have green building
rating systems, and other countries are in view of establishing them, but existing green building
rating systems lack a LCA basis.
These were some of the results from a UNECE/FAO workshop, which was held during the
Timber Committee Week, and was titled “Responding to climate change: Wood’s place in a global
approach to green building”. The workshop’s conclusions and recommendations were commented
by the Timber Committee. The workshop recommended:
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a) Build strategic associations with all stakeholders to acknowledge the contribution of wood
products in buildings to fight climate change. The strategic associations should be formed at
least of forest industry, environmental NGOs, Government and the scientific community.
b) The UNECE Timber Committee urges the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change’s
Conference of the Parties (COP 15) to consider carbon sequestration in harvested wood
products as a contribution in the decrease of climate change
c) Promote life cycle analysis in rating systems of green building, as separate from local credits
d) Pursue the work between the UNECE’s Timber Committee, Committee on Sustainable Energy
and Committee on Housing and Land Management, towards a way on green building
e) Contribute to training and communication, in a simple and easy way, the architects, civil
engineers and builders about the use of wood in green buildings, including via distance
learning and continuing education
f) Support innovation in technology platforms to develop wood products and building systems
g) Forest products industries should support the R&D in developing life cycle inventory datasets
for their products to support green design and green building.
h) Continuously update the knowledge on the contribution of wood in LCA of buildings in order
to keep up with evolution in other building construction materials and in an energy
consumption context.
4.3 Health Benefits of Green Building
Building with non-poisonous materials decline the risks of disease and illnesses normally
associated with the construction of traditional buildings: and the health risks associated with living
in such structures. Carpeting adhesives, paint, and other modern construction materials can produce
gasses that are harmful to humans and animals. Some central heating and cooling systems can trap
these harmful emissions, and other systems may actually release chemicals into the air. Doing away
with asbestos, lead-based paint, radon gas, and other such culprits goes a long way towards
extending the healthy lifespan of residents and construction workers alike.
4 GREEN BUILDING RATING SYSTEM
Traditionally buildings are expected to meet the building code requirements but the green
buildings are expected to perform more by reducing their impact on the environment. In order to
maintain a systematic assessment of the environmental performance of buildings, an applicable and
meaningful yardstick for measuring environmental performance is needed. Therefore it is essential
to have a third party green building rating system that could evaluate and rate the greenness of
buildings. Many green building rating systems have been developed in the past decade in different
countries to evaluate the environmental performance of the buildings without prejudice.
The first environmental rating system was developed in the United Kingdom in 1990 called
as BREEAM (Building Research Environmental Assessment Method). The Building Research
Environmental Assessment Method was brought to Canada in 1996. In the United States, the United
States Green Building Council introduced the Leadership in Energy and Environment Design
(LEED) Green Building Rating System in 1998. The Green Building Initiative (GBI) created the
Green Globes by modifying the Canadian version of BREEAM and released it in the United States
in 2005 (Smith. 2006).
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Out of the green building rating systems LEED is the market leader. It is evident by the fact
that nowadays a commercial green building is being described as one that is certified by the LEED
green building rating system of the United States Green Building Council. The United States Green
Building Council is a consensus based group that has firms, schools, government agencies,
universities, non profit organizations and trade organizations. The United States Green Building
Council released the LEED green building rating system to the public in 2000 for commercial
buildings. LEED was the first green building rating system in the United States that evaluated
commercial buildings based on their impact on the environment like their energy consumption,
water usage, land use, resource conservation and indoor air quality. The LEED rating system started
off for commercial buildings and now has extended to residential buildings as well. Since 2000, the
United States Green Building Council has released six green building rating systems. They pertain
to new construction, tenant improvements, existing buildings, core and shell buildings, single family
homes and low rise residential buildings, and neighbourhood development. The LEED green
building rating system for the single family homes is a relatively new rating system and it will take
time to penetrate into the residential market (USGBC, 2001).
The Environmental Protection Agency’s Energy Star program was present even prior to
LEED. Energy Star is a joint certification program of the United States Environmental Protection
Agency and United States Department of Energy for buildings that meet strict energy efficiency
guidelines. Energy Star is the most popularly known energy certification program and energy
product brand in the country and is also a good indicator of the demand of green homes. The Energy
Star program centres exclusively on energy efficiency but LEED is a much more holistic
environment rating system. But the Energy Star’s HERS (Home Energy Rating System) rating is the
most popular rating system in the residential market. The HERS Index is a rating system set up by
the Residential Energy Services Network (RESNET) in which a house built to the terms of the
HERS Reference Home (based on the 2006 International Energy Conservation Code) attains a
HERS Index of 100. A house that is a net zero energy home attains a HERS Index of 0. Thus the
lesser score the house receives on its HERS Index, the more energy efficient it is in comparison to
the HERS Reference Home (RESNET, 2006).
5 CASE STUDY
It can be seen that green buildings have many benefits for human and environment; however
building green is not common in construction industry and it needs some instruments, codes and
other facilities. But the important point that should be mentioned is design of today is problem of
tomorrow then it is better to decrease the amount of problem based on our activities that transmitted
to next generations. In this paper the probability of approaching to green building by some changes
in architectural design of buildings whit comparing two different design of one case study will be
considered.
As be seen in the shape-1 of figure 2; this case is small residential building that there is
parking in pilot at ground level and first level is residential and it has pitched roof. Entrance of
residential level is from the parking at east by stairs. The kitchen and living room are at the north
and bedrooms are at the south of building. The materials of windows are iron by normal glass.
5.1 Changed model
Shape-2 of Figure 2 shows the changed model:
i) The materials of windows were changed to UPVC by double wall glass.

ii) One door was put between entrance door and stairs.
iii) Wall was put between kitchen and living room.
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iv) The kitchen and living room are at the south and bedrooms are at the north of
building.
Shape-1 Shape-2
Figure 2: Verification, Validation and Qualification
6.2 Analysis and Results: What will happen after these changes?
In physics, thermal conductivity, k, is the property of a material that reveals its ability to
conduct heat. It emerges primarily in Fourier's Law for heat conduction. Thermal conductivity is
measured in watts per Kelvin per meter (W·K−1·m−1). Multiplied by a temperature difference (in
Kelvin’s, K) and an area (in square meters, m2), and divided by a thickness (in meters, m) the
thermal conductivity predicts the power loss (in watts, W) through a piece of material.
The thermal conductivity of iron in 25 oC is 80 W/mK and for PVC is 0.19 W/mK then by
changing the material of windows from iron to UPVC, resistance to indicating the heat from outside
to inside will increase more than 420 times. Also this parameter for glass window is 0.96 W/mK
and for double wall glass is very less than this, since thermal conductivity of air is 0.024 W/mK.
Second change is useful, since air will be surrounded between two doors and this air by
thermal conductivity of 0.024 W/mK can prevent waste of energy.
Putting wall between kitchen and living room will divide these two areas. There are some
facilities in kitchen that make heat. For instance gas, refrigerator and etc. Temperature of kitchen
can be more than living room. Without this wall the temperatures of these two areas want to be
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equal and consume more energy to reach this. Then this wall is useful to decreasing the waste of
energy.
If kitchen and living room be in the south then the vast area of house can use sunlight
instead of artificial lightening for long time a day. Since the light of sun is more from south of
building.
6.3 Evaluation of these changes
The first change was in material of window, Very simple action in design and a few
increases in price. The consumption of energy will decline and the temperature of house rapidly will
regulate; In addition the variance of price of material by decreasing in bill of energy will be
amended.
The second function also is very simple but it can deduct the amount of energy for
regulating the temperature and also decreases the risk of sickness by putting one filter between
living place and parking which there is polluted air because of the car fuel combustion.
The third one is very easy and simple with many benefits for human and environment. It has
benefits of second change, also by omitting the smell of cooking makes the living area more
pleasant. The last change helps to more use of natural light instead of lamps.
This building is not green building and it does not design based of green codes but by very
few change in architectural design could get many benefits of green buildings.
6 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, it can be seen that, without changing the concept of design and just by changing
some details, waste of energy will be decreased dramatically. Green design is not just for special
green building but by green design in normal residential buildings, some goals of green building are
accessible. Then the engineers should not wait for codes and standards to improve their design
towards environmental friendly design. They should develop the level of their design too reach the
goals of green buildings. This research shows that this way is accessible, reachable and simple.
REFERENCES
http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/thermal-conductivity-d_429.html [Accessed 23 June 2010].

World Commission on Environment and Development. (1987). Our common future. A report to the
forty-second session of United Nations General Assembly [Rep. A/42/427]. Available from
the Federal Office for Spatial Development, Switzerland (ARE) Web site:
http://www.are.admin.ch/are/en/nachhaltig/international_uno/unterseite02330/
The Natural Step is a set of principles and fundamental actions for a sustainable society, which were
originally conceived by Dr. Karl-Henrik Robèrt, Karl-Erik Eriksson and John Holmberg at a
1990 conference in Orsa, Sweden (James & Lahti, 2004)
Gregory h. Kats: Green building costs and financial benefits. Barr Foundation, Environmental
Business Council of New England, Inc. Equity Office Properties, Massachusetts Technology
Collaborative
www.unece.org/timber/ United Nations Economic Commission for Europe [Accessed 28 June
2010].
Green Development, Integrating Ecology and Real Estate, Wilson (1998)
Immergluck, D, Smith, G. (2006). “The Impact of Single-Family Mortgage Foreclosures on
Neighbourhood Crime.” Housing Studies 21(6): 851–866.
Going Green – Impact on Residential Property Values by Ramya Rajajagadeesan Aroul (2009)
Defining the Rule of a Green Building Consultant by Mark Harrigan (2004)
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PERCEPTION TOWARDS GREEN ROOF IN MALAYSIA
Wan Zuriea Bt Wan Ismail, MSc.

wzuriea@yahoo.com
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Sabarinah Sh Ahmad, PhD.
sabrin63@yahoo.com
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Sr Ahmad Ezanee Hashim, PhD.
ezanee54@yahoo.com
Zarina Isnin, MSc.
zarinasf@salam.uitm.edu.my
Irwan Bin Mohammad Ali
irwanmohdali@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
In Malaysia, green roofs are considered as a fairly new concept although the concept offers many
benefits. Green roof promotes sustainable environmental, economic and amenity advantages and
provides design aesthetics. An understanding of how people perceive benefits of green roofs is crucial
to determine the potential of green roofs in Malaysia. Facility managers’ knowledge in managing
green roofs is very important and can contribute towards a guideline for future implementation of
green roofs. The objectives of this study are to identify the full potential of green roofs in Malaysia,
green roof perceived benefits from facility management point of view and problems associated with
green roofs. Three case studies were selected for observations and generally the respondents were
optimistic towards green roofs and would like to see more green roofs in their buildings. Results
from interviews showed that the respondents’ perceived green roofs benefits are that they provide
leisure and operational space, visual amenities value and health and therapeutic value and
environment and economic advantages. Problems identified are the absence of green roofs
components, damaged waterproofing, presence of unwanted animals and others. There is good
potential in future especially for the extensive green roof as the facility manager perceives more
benefits and fewer problems associated with green roof.
Keywords: Facility management, green roof, perception
1 INTRODUCTION
The world population are expected to rise to 9 billion by year 2050 (Population References
Bureau, United Nations) and many cities in the world are fast becoming highly urbanized with the
construction of buildings and structures in close proximity to each other. As we construct buildings,
roads and parking lots, these will disturb the natural environment. The balance between green areas
and concrete built-up areas cannot be ignored in order to maintain a pleasant living environment
(Wong et al., 2002). Widespread concern about sustainable architecture makes green roofs as part
of building design option (Abdul Samad, 2008) and sparked a growing interest in green roofs
project across the world. In Asia, the use of green roofs has arisen in Japan, Singapore, Hong Kong
and China. Although the idea of green roofs in Asia is new, these countries are active in developing,
practicing and conducting research on green roofs, particularly in Singapore. Many cities in
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Malaysia will be urbanised in year 2050 with the percentage urban growth expected at 87.9%
(Population References Bureau, United Nations). The expansion of rural into urban areas involves
bigger ecological foot print and the impact of this growth will be a challenge for future
development (Abdul Samad, 2008). Ecological foot print will be destroyed in order to permit the
development and construction of buildings. According to Wong (2005) as cited in Getter and Rowe,
2006, roofs present 21%-26% of urban areas and this can provide a unique opportunity to improve
the environment if green roofs are used. In urban areas such as Kuala Lumpur, George Town and
Johor Baharu, there are a lot of opportunities to incorporate green roofs in the development because
of rapid expansion in these areas. By having a green roof, the areas taken from nature are made to
come alive again in our immediate environment. Green roofs in Malaysia are considered as a fairly
new though lots of benefits are offered. Green roofs in Singapore, the country that has a similar
climate with Malaysia, have grown remarkably compared to us. The impetus for green roof
development in Singapore is due to limitation of space and it cannot be denied that Malaysia may
face the same problem as Singapore in future. Compared to Singapore, we are far behind in terms of
policies, research done, technology and practice in this area. The potential of green roof has not
been explored in Malaysia. There has been no study carried out on the benefits of green roofs and
there is no monitoring system to record the beneficial returns of incorporating green roofs in
development. Perception towards green roof is very important to determine the potential of green
roofs in future planning (Yuen, 2005). An understanding of how people see and perceive benefits of
green roofs is crucial to determine the potential of green roof. The lack of awareness on benefits
and performance might hinder the development of green roofs.
2 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The aim of this study is to discover the potential of using green roofs in Malaysia. The aim
is supported by the following objectives:
i) To identify the full potential of green roofs in Malaysia from perceived benefits by
facilities management point of view.
ii) To examine problems associated with green roofs, if any.
iii) To recommend further implementation of green roofs.
The significance of the study is the identification of the potential of green buildings in
Malaysia particularly with green roofs. All the benefits and problems which arise (if any) will be
analysed and recommendations will be proposed which may benefit the concerned parties in the
implementation of green roofs.
3 GREEN ROOF
A green roof is defined as one with plants growing on its surface. This can range from
spontaneous growth of moss to a full scale garden with scrubs and trees on roof surface (Scholz-
Barth, 2003). As Velazquez L. (2005) defined green roofs which are sometimes called eco-roofs,
sky garden or skyrise garden as simply vegetated roof covers constructed atop and across a roof
deck. Green roof classifications are generally separated into two categories as identified in the
international landscape industry: extensive and intensive systems which are depending on the soil
depth, plant selection, method of irrigation (Nelms et al., 2005), visual appearance, maintenance
and planned usage of the roof area (Getter and Rowe 2006). Besides these two classifications,
Dunnett and Kingsbury (2008) indicate that semi-extensive green roof is also another classification
of green roofs. Intensive roof systems are designed and constructed like a conventional garden that
can be accessed by the public for recreational enjoyment including walkways, water features and
irrigation systems. Intensive green roofs require intense maintenance and modification to the
structural capacity of the design due to the required soil depth (Nelms et al., 2005) and normally
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incorporated into the original building design because of the high structural loading involved.
Intensive green roofs typically use a wide variety of plant species that may include trees and shrubs
and thus require deeper substrate layers (usually > 15.2cm) than extensive green roofs (Getter and
Rowe, 2006). This can allow more complex ecosystems to develop more energy efficient and last
longer than extensive green roofs (Kwok, 2007). Extensive green roofs are not intended for regular
human use and in some instances cannot be seen on a regular basis, but may provide for natural
view from adjacent rooms or neighbouring buildings. Extensive green roof generally required
minimal maintenance and technical expertise for installation. The systems have a shallow,
lightweight growing medium, which can support only small plants such as herbs, grasses and wild
flowers (Liu and Baskaran, 2005). Substrate depth can range between 2- 15cm and many existing
buildings can be retrofitted to accommodate extensive systems because the structural loading
demands are low. Semi-extensive green roof systems combine many of the environmental benefits
of extensive green roofs with some of the aesthetic potential of intensive green roofs. It consists of
lightweight’s substrates, modern green roof technologies and slightly deeper layers of growing
medium (10-20cm) for a wider range of plants to grow (Dunnett and Kingsbury, 2008).
3.1 Green Roof Benefits
Green roofs have been used extensively in Europe to mitigate such adverse effects of
urbanization and their benefits are well documented through many research projects carried out in
Europe, North America and Asia. In Malaysia, the developers, owners, operators, insurers, and the
public at large are beginning to value and market the benefits of sustainable buildings (Shafii and
Othman, 2008). Green roofs promote a range of benefits that can solve the problem of ecological
steps, limitation of space, greenery balance, global warming, aesthetics and lost of wildlife habitat
that occur in many urban areas. Teicholz (2001) indicates that the most effective way in
overcoming the obstacles to sustainable development is to stress the benefits of the approach to
building owners, operators and users. Understanding the benefits will determine the purpose of
implementing green roofs and achieve a desired objective. The benefits can be classified into main
three areas which are environmental, economic and amenity and aesthetics (Dunnett and Kingsbury,
2008).
4 METHODOLOGY
Two methods of primary data collection were used in this study namely field observations
and interviews with the facility manager of the three selected buildings incorporating green roofs. A
series of interview sessions and site visits were conducted for the three case studies to obtain
information and data. The observations commenced from January 2009 and ended on April 2009.
Subsequently interviews with the facility manager of the buildings were undertaken to compliment
and round-up the study.
4.1 Case Study
Only three case studies were examined due to limitation of buildings that applied green
roofs as a special feature in Malaysia. The case studies consisted of intensive, extensive and semi-
extensive green roof in Klang Valley area. The researcher took the opportunity to examine the
design, physical conditions, facilities provided, environment, problems and level of usage of green
roofs. This is an observation study, therefore seeing and listening are keys to the study (Powel and
Steele, 1996). The direct observation provides the opportunity to document the information on
green roofs without having to depend upon people’s willingness and ability to respond to questions.
The components to be observed consist of green roof design elements, components, facilities
provided, consideration, level of usage and problems encountered with green roofs.
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The first case study A is Hospital Serdang, a healthcare building as it involves different
categories of end-users that consist of visitors, patients, staffs and building professionals. It is the
only hospital in Malaysia that integrate five acres of intensive green roofs in the building design in
order to create a therapeutic garden. Second case study B is Menara Hap Seng, a commercial
building. The building has been retrofitted with semi-extensive green roof to provide shade for
visitors and tenants to view the building and surrounding area. The last case study C is a convention
hall building, which is the Putrajaya International Convention Centre (PICC). The building
integrates an extensive green roof as part of their roof element and special feature. The similarity
for these three case studies is that the green roofs are managed by the facility management
department. Therefore, the perceptions of the facility managers will be identified and studied.
In identifying the perceptions, the benefits perceived, design features, facilities provided,
problems associated and other related subjects relevant would be taken into consideration and
discussed. This will also encompass how the facility managers perceived the natural environment
generally. Good perceptions towards green roof can play a vital role in promoting green roofs in
future development.
Figure 1: Case Study A (Serdang Hospital)
Figure 2: Case Study B (Menara Hap Seng)
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Figure 3: Case Study C (Putrajaya International Convention Centre)
4.2 Interviews
Thematic interviews to the three facility management companies were carried out. The
interviews seek to find each personnel responsibility, general perception towards natural
environment, the green roof perceived benefits, the facilities provided, design features, the barriers,
problems and respondents’ views on the future of green roofs. Interviews were conducted before
and after the field observations. These interviews added substance to the case studies. Semi -
structured interviews are considered as part of the research instrument to obtain the data from the
respondents (facility managers). The interviews used ‘open’ and ‘closed ended’ questioning but the
question were not asked in a specific order. The aim of the interviews was to discover full spectrum
about the green roof and issues related to the green roof.
5 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
The overall perceptions towards natural environment, green roofs, end-user perceived needs
and problems associated with green roofs will be the basis of this study. To achieve the objectives,
three buildings that incorporated green roofs were selected to provide the information required.
Through literature the subject matter was clarified. Interviews were carried out to understand
benefits and problems of green roofs, and observations in the form of case studies offered a first
hand knowledge of green roof. From the field observation study, it was found that there is a good
potential for green roof as it promotes a range of benefits that can solve the problem of ecological
steps, limitation of space, greenery balance, global warming, aesthetics and lost of wildlife habitat
that occur in many urban areas.
Based from observation, these rooftops created pleasing and attractive surroundings to the
top of the building. Adapting from Velazquez (2005), these aesthetic values of green roofs integrate
a building into its surroundings. It was also noted that for all the sites observed, the spaces on
rooftop are fully maximized with landscape features using different forms, colours and textures of
trees, palms and shrubs or even interesting hardscape items such as cobbles for reflexology, creative
form of boulders, benches and others for recreation and relaxation. These plants can filter out
particulate matter and gaseous pollutants in the air (Getter and Rowe, 2006) as well as absorb
carbon dioxide and release oxygen into the atmosphere through the photosynthesis process, thus
improving the air quality. Recreational spaces on these roof level is also believed could reduce
problems that are normally encountered at public green spaces such as vandalism, assault and other
social problems. Random interviews were also carried out to several users on the rooftops for each
case study. Based from the interviews, majority of the users indicated that they feel relaxed and the
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views help them to reduce stress. These views can be supported by views from Ulrich and Simons
(1986), Hartig et al. (1991) and Ulrich (1999) on green roofs perceptions that act as visual relief that
provide relaxation and restoration, which can improve human health by reducing stress, lowering of
blood pressure, relief of muscle tension and increase in positive feelings.
5.1 Benefits and Problems of Green Roofs
In order to identify the perceived benefits of green roof from the facilities management point
of view, semi structured interviews were carried out to facility managers of each case study. All the
facility managers were optimist towards the green roofs and would like to see more green roofs as
part of the building facilities. From the findings, facility manager for case study A perceived
benefits of green roof in improving air quality, reduced noise pollution, encouraged biodiversity,
provided leisure, functional open space, provide visual amenity, therapeutic and health values.
Facility manager case study B identified benefits on encouraged biodiversity, provided leisure and
functional open space, provide visual amenity, therapeutic and health values. Facility manager case
study C indicated benefits on provided energy efficient building, reduced air temperature,
stormwater management, reduced noise pollution, provided leisure and functional open space,
visual amenity in health and therapeutic values.
From the research findings, all the three facility managers recognize benefits of green roof
in providing leisure, operational space, visual and attractive amenities, health and therapeutic
values. However, all the facility managers did not believe that green roofs can increase the life span
of the waterproofing membrane or provide energy efficient building, reduced air temperature,
stormwater management and improved air quality. Research on green roofs benefits should be
carried out especially on existing green roofs to stress the benefits of the approach to building
owners, operators and users. The benefits should be well documented and promoted as a sustainable
development. Teicholz, E. (2001) suggests that cost savings from energy efficiency is one of the
most easily documented benefits of green design. If the benefits are proven, the green roofs will be
considered in any development.
To achieve objective number two in examining problems encountered with green roof, data
on maintenance management from all the FM companies were obtained and interviews were also
carried out for clearer explanation. For case study A, the main problems in green roofs are mainly
on technical issues for example damage on water proofing and leakage on floor structure for green
roof level. It was also noted that, lack of supervision during construction especially absence of
waterproofing at certain areas will involve high cost to rectify the problems. Lack of designer
knowledge is one of the factors that contribute to the problems. Other examples include no
provision of access for maintenance to green roofs, lack of technical requirements on proper
drainage layer, plant root barriers and filter mats for plants. There is also difficulty in finding the
access to the green roofs in certain locations and no proper indication of direction to the green roofs
is provided. Signage and direction play an important role to promote green roofs to the end-users.
Plant selection also does not suit the soil depth, therefore the roots penetrate the flat roof slab.
Several other problems and constraints on green roofs were also examined such as damage to the
existing water proofing membrane, blockage in the drainage system, high capital cost, high
maintenance cost, lack of technical knowledge, lack of awareness on benefits and performance, and
increased occurrence of water ponding and mosquito breeding.
For case study B, the main problems in this green roof are on lack of research technology
and available materials that created unhealthy plants, insects due to unsuitable growing media and
high maintenance cost. Main reason cited by FM manager in case study B is that since green roofs
are not fully develop in this country, there is a lack of variety of suitable plants and soil that suit our
local condition. He also suggested that, more research and products on the green roof components
that suit to our local condition should be produced in order to encourage more green roofs
construction. As per case study A, the other identified problems and constraints on green roofs in
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case study B are high capital cost, high maintenance cost, lack of awareness on benefits and
performance, present of unwanted animals and increase occurrence of water ponding and mosquito
breeding.
For case study C, there is no major problem with this green roof except during early stage of
construction, which was to suit the subsoil with turfing that resulted in maintenance problems after
six months of planting. This problem was solved by removing the existing subsoil and replaced
with new and suitable subsoil. Facility manager C identifies problems and constraints on green
roofs as lack of technical knowledge and lack of awareness on benefits and performance.
Based on the observations, data and interviews to all three sites and facility managers, it was
identified that many problems occurred due to lack of technical and design knowledge, poor
workmanship, lack of research technology and available materials, lack of awareness on benefits
and performance of green roofs and high capital cost as well as maintenance cost. It was also found
that no measurement analysis was carried out to their green roofs to find the benefit, performance,
advantage and disadvantage to user.
6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
In Malaysia, the potential of green roofs is increasing as there is awareness for sustainable
built environment. Based from the study, the facility managers involved would like to see more
green roofs to be part of facilities in the buildings. However, in their opinion, a few aspects must be
considered in implementing green roofs as part of building design and facilities. During design
stage for example, designer and client should state clearly their intention of providing green roofs
outlining the benefits and implications. Suitable location, access, safety, plants selection, structure
materials and facilities to be provided should be designed according to suitable function, space and
form. In construction stage, careful supervision should be carried out to ensure work is carried out
according to specifications and correct methods. For operation stage, maintenance and proper
preventive maintenance should be planned and carried out according to the agreed schedule. All
these process should involve not only the client, consultant and constructor but also end-user
participation because the success of green roofs also depends on end-user participation and
awareness of benefits.
Based on the interviews and observations, generally the respondents are optimistic towards
green roofs. However, there is still room for further improvement. This includes the following:
i) Research on green roof benefits must be carried out and documented.
Research on green roofs benefits should be carried out especially on existing green roofs to
stress the benefits of the approach to building owners, operators and users. The benefits
should be well documented and promoted as a sustainable development.
ii) Green roofs planning and design intent.
The integration of good planning and design are essential for the success of the green
roofs. Before implementing the green roofs, the clients and architects must be clear on the
purpose of the green roofs. The planning and design must reflect the design intent.
iii) Providing user friendly green roofs.
User friendly green roofs are very important in designing green roofs that are intended for
regular human use. Accessibility, way findings and facilities provided must reflect with end-user
expectations. Green roofs must be easy to access, disabled friendly, visible access, no obstacles
such as locking door, and provide signage to encourage end-users to visit the green roofs. Green
roofs will be abandoned if the end-users do not fully utilise the green roofs and the objective to
provide space for people cannot be achieved. We cannot repeat the same mistakes from the
previous green roofs projects and from the study findings; better green roofs is possible for the
future.
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REFERENCES
Abdul Samad, M. H., Abdul Rahman, A. M., and Ibrahim, F. (2008) “Green Performance Ratings
for Malaysian Buildings with Particular Reference to Hotels” International Conference on
Environmental Research and Technology (ICERT 2008), Environment Technology and
Management.
Dunnett, N. and Kingsbury, N. (2008) Planting Green Roofs and Living Walls. Timber Press:
London.
Getter, K. L. and Rowe, D. B. (2006) “The Role of Extensive Green Roof in Sustainable
Development” Hortscience, Vol. 41, No 5, pp.1276-1285.
Kwok, A. G. (2007) The Greenstudio Handbook Environmental Strategies for Schematic Design.
Architectural Press.
Liu, K. Y. and Baskaran, A. (2005) “Using Garden Roof Systems to Achieve Sustainable Building
Envelopes” Construction Technology Update no.65. Institute for Research in Construction,
National Research Council of Canada.
Nelms, C., Russell, A. D and Lence, B. J. (2005) “Assessing the Performance of Sustainable
Technologies for Building Projects” Can. Journal Civil Eng., Vol. 32, pp.114-128.
Powel E.T. and Steele, S. (1996) Collecting Evaluation Data: Direct Observation, August 1996,
Program Development and Evaluation, Cooperative Extension Publications.
Scholz-Bath, K. (2004) “From Grey to Green: Environmetal Benefits of Green Roofs,” in
Earthpledge Foundation, ed., The Green Roof Sourcebook, London: Schiffer.
Shafii, F. and Othman, M. Z. (2007) “Sustainable Building in Malaysia Context” International
Conference on Sustainable Building Asia- SB07 Seoul, Korea, June-2007- International.
Teicholz, E. (2001) Facility Design and Management Handbook. McGraw-Hill.
Ulrich, R. S. (1999) Effects of Gardens on Health Outcomes: Theory and Research, p.27, Healing
Garden, John Wiley & Sons, INC.
Ulrich, R. S., and Simon, R. (1986) “Recovery from Stress During Exposure to Everyday Outdoor
Environments”. In J.Wineman, R. Barnes, and C. Zimring, eds. The Costs of Not Knowing,
Proceedings of the 17th Annual Conference of the Environmental Research Association.
Washington, D.C: Environmental Research Association.
Velazquez, L. S. (2005) Organic Greenroof Architecture: Sustainable Design for New Millennium.
Environmental Quality Management/summer 2005.
Wong, N. H., Chen, Y., Ong, C. and Sia, A. (2003) “Investigation of Thermal Benefits of Rooftop
Garden in the Tropical Environment” Building and Environment 38, pp.261-270.
Wong, N. H., Tay, S. F., Wong, R., Ong, C. L. and Sia, A. (2003) “Life Cycle Cost Analysis of
Roof Top Gardens in Singapore” Building and Environment 38, pp.499-509.
World Population Prospects: The 2006 Revision and World Urbanization Prospects: The 2007
Revision. Population References Bureau, United Nations.
Yuen, B. and Hien, W. N. (2005) “Resident Perceptions and Expectations of Rooftop Garden in
Singapore” Landscape and Urban Planning 73, pp.263-276.
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CULTURAL SHIFT TOWARDS SUCCESSFUL OF ENVIRONMENTAL

MANAGEMENT IN CONSTRUCTION ORGANIZATION IN MALAYSIA
Raja Rafidah Raja Muhammad Rooshdi, MSc.

raja_rafidah@yahoo.com
Shahela Mamter, MSc.
Mohd Esham Mamat, MSc.
Nur Adilla Abd Rahaman, Msc.
ABSTRACT
There are a lot of environmental impacts toward public communities due to the insensitivity culture
in environmental management during the construction activities such flash flood, landslide, air and
water pollution. This research is a preliminary review to inculcate environmental sensitive culture in
construction organization in implementing construction activities and develops a framework toward
inculcating environmental sensitive culture toward successful environmental management in
construction organizations. There are three objectives of undertaking analyses of cultural shift
towards successful of environmental management in construction organization in Malaysia to
identify the attitudes, values and beliefs of the construction organization towards the implementation
of environmental management, investigates the opportunities and problems facing by the
organization during the implementation of environmental management and develops a model towards
successful environmental management in construction organizations. The scope of this research is to
focus on organization who involved in infrastructure works. There are more environmental issues to
look at in their construction activities compare to building construction.
Keywords: Culture, construction organizations, environmental management
1 INTRODUCTION
According to Shah (2005), currently there are a lot of global issues that are related with the
environment. The environment issues had been caused by a lot of factors such construction,
population growth and so on. Hence, the most factors that influenced the environment is human
activities. Humans have destroyed more than 30 percent of the natural world since 1970. It had
caused environmental issues such climate change. Most scientists believe that climate change is
here and is human-induced, and that it will lead to more extreme weather patterns such as
hurricanes and drought, longer spells of dry heat or intense rain and seriously affect the world’s
ecosystems, as well as humanity.
The human population of the planet is approximately 6 billion and rising. As the population
continues to increase, there is the fear of more and more strain on the environment, adequate food
production, nation’s ability to provide, economies to grow and society to flourish. People will be
fighting for basic needs. But is all this case or are there other issues and causes that need to be
considered as well.
The construction industry is an important sector of any national economy, especially
regarding its employment potential. Nowadays, the construction industry tends to have an
awareness of the long-term benefits of environmental management practices.
In Malaysia, ISO 14000 has yet to receive the attention it deserves. There is a low the
registration rate of ISO 14000 environmental management system in construction industry
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organization indicates that there may be little coordination in the implementation of the
environmental management system in construction projects in Malaysia, and the EIA practice may
not really serve as a tool to promote environmental management in construction.
Nowadays, the government recently enacted to implement the environmental supervision
system in construction project supervision, contractors has to pay greater attention to adopt and
implement environmental management system in construction. But, there are only a few
organization in construction industry had implemented the environmental management during the
construction project supervision.
According to Shen & Tam (2002), the barriers to implementing environmental management
in local construction because of lack of enforcement from the government, lack client support and
cooperation between suppliers, contractors and working staff. Besides that, most of the organization
refuses to change their existing practice and policy. These are the culture that they had in their
organizations and it should be change towards a successful environmental management.
2 ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT
After Rio declaration in 1992, as a basic dimension of sustainable development, is the prior
consideration to any problem solving decision and has become the integral part of any development
process. Cities are the highest consumers of resources that directly or indirectly affect the
environment. The environmentalist comment is that if no immediate action is taken to reverse the
present situation, the problem will not only affect human health and safety but also and national and
international security. Thus, environmental degradation, in the recent years, calls for serious
environmental planning or decision making and implementation.
The long prevailing traditional environmental management through command and control
approach based on the existing rules and regulations could not mitigate the problem rather tends to
be aggravated. So the environmental management system (EMS) has evolved as an initiative of a
voluntary management tool for the overall benefit to the global environment. ISO 14001
specifications for EMS is the only internationally accepted voluntary management tool.
As defined by "Environment Management", 2006, environmental management is not, as the
phrase suggests, the management of the environment as such but rather the management of the
humankind's interaction with and impact upon the environment.
Environmental management involves the management of all components of the bio-physical
environment, both living and non-living. This is due to the interconnected and network of
relationships amongst all living species and their habitats. The environment also involves the
relationships of the human environment, such as the social, cultural and economic environment with
the bio-physical environment
Management of environment could be reducing the impacts of the development and other
activities to the environment. As environment management also have a system which called as an
environmental management system (EMS). It is the process used by an organization to manage,
review, correct, and improve the organization’s approach to business.
Kricun & Pedersen (2006) stated that, an EMS is defined by the International Organization
for Standardization (ISO) as "the part of the overall management system that includes
organizational structure, planning activities, responsibilities, practices, procedures, processes and
resources for developing, implementing, achieving, reviewing and maintaining the environmental
policy." The ISO 14001 environmental management system standard is the most widely recognized
EMS framework and to date, more than 12,000 entities have had their EMSs certified as
conforming to ISO 14001. Some private corporations are now encouraging their suppliers to attain
ISO 14001 certification as a means to improve the overall environmental performance of their value
chains.
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3 CULTURE
According to Gillies (2002), culture is a basic attribute of society, a familiar concept, yet difficult to
define. It is the subject of prodigious research and millions of words by insightful and expressive
people. It has many aspects and exhibits itself in many ways. Any short definition does not capture
the complex concepts suggested by the word. Here are some thoughts and suggestions relating to
culture and cultural change. Jones (2005) stated that, Organisational culture is defined as the shared
values, norms and expectations that guide organisation members in terms of how to approach their
work and deal with each other and their customers.
The culture of an organisation is a set of norms, values and beliefs. These have developed
over time, unplanned and emergent. However, the culture of an organisation is something that can
have an enormous impact on the way in which an organisation operates, and its effectiveness. It is
also something that can be assessed and, if necessary, changed over time. Organisational culture
interventions are notorious for their difficulty and duration, but if culture change is needed this
should not deter an organisation from embarking on the process of change. Indeed, it may be the
key to its survival.
Cultures do change over time. The culture held that individuals should not place themselves
ahead of the group. Youker (2004) stated that, there are eight approaches to changing organizational
cultures which are:
i) Top management becomes role models for new culture.
ii) Create new stories, symbols, and rituals.
iii) Select, promote, and support employees who espouse the new values
iv) Redesign socialization processes to align with the new values.
v) Change the reward system to support new values.
vi) Replace unwritten norms with formal rules and regulations strongly enforced.
vii) Shake up current subcultures by transfers and terminations.
viii) Work to get peer group consensus through employee participation.
4 CULTURE AND ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
As defined in the World Conservation Strategy (1991), which was jointly developed in
partnership by The World Conservation Union (IUCN), United Nations Environmental Programme
(UNEP), and World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), the nine principles of a sustainable society are
respect and care for the community of life, improve the quality of human life, conserve the earth’s
vitality and diversity, minimize the depletion of non-renewable resources, keep within the earth’s
carrying capacity, change attitudes and practices, enable communities to care for their own
environments, provide a national framework for integrating development and conservation and
create a global alliance.
One of the Principles is ‘‘Change of attitudes and practices’’. Change of attitudes and
practices meant a transformation of mind-set and actions. These criteria demand for changes in the
established basic assumptions, values, beliefs and behaviour that are present in the established
culture of a society. Thus, the organization in construction industry should change their attitude and
practice towards successful environmental management.
5 DISCUSSION OF ISSUES
The construction industry is challenged to create innovative techniques, technologies and

management systems to be able to satisfy the environmental issues. There are a lot of
environmental impacts toward public communities due to the insensitivity culture in environmental
management during the construction activities such flash flood, landslide, air and water pollution.
107
According to The Star (Oct, 2008), a heavy downpour at dawn caused flash floods in several
parts of the Malacca city on Saturday. The floods occurred during heavy rain because of narrow and
shallow drains and a lack of drainage at a nearby construction site. This happened because there
was no awareness in environmental management from the construction organization that involved
with that project.
Another issue that related with the environmental management due to construction activities
is landslides. According to The Star, (Dec, 2008), there many landslides tragedy occurred from
January to December 2008. Most of the landslides tragedy occurred at the hillside projects. The
articles also stated that the issue was not about landslides occurring at hill slopes but what was
important was achieving sustainable development, which was to use resources in a manner that it
would still be available in the future.
There are a lot of issues on this cultural in environmental management in construction
industry. Since this is a preliminary review, the authors are preparing further research on this matter
in the future.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors like to those that involved directly or direct so much to this preliminary study.
REFERENCES
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ed.)United Nations Environment Programme UNEP.
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Jones. Q, 2005, Organisational Culture: Establishing what makes an Organisation Attractive

Shen.L.Y & Tam. W.Y. Vivian, (2002), Implementation of environmental management in the Hong
Kong construction industry, International Journal of Project Management 20 pages 535-543.
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http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2008/12/6/nation/20081206131931&sec=nation
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MODEL DAN KONSEP UNIVERSITI LESTARI
Elia Syarafina Binti Abdul Shakur, Ijazah Sarjana Muda

Pelajar Master, Pusat Kajian Harta Tanah
Fakulti Kejuruteraan dan Sains Geoinformasi
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
esyarafina@yahoo.com
Dr Choong Weng Wai, PhD
Pensyarah, Pusat Kajian Harta Tanah
Fakulti Kejuruteraan dan Sains Geoinformasi
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
cwengwai@yahoo.com
ABSTRAK
Pembangunan kampus lestari merupakan cabaran yang besar kepada pihak universiti tempatan.
Memandangkan terdapat banyak perbezaan definisi dan tafsiran konsep yang wujud, maka terdapat
juga banyak perbezaan di antara strategi-strategi yang boleh diambil oleh universiti tempatan untuk
menjadi kampus lestari. Berbanding dengan universiti tempatan yang masih berada pada peringkat
inisiatif, kebanyakkan universiti luar negara telah mengambil pelbagai langkah untuk menjadi
universiti lestari. Langkah-langkah lestari dilaksanakan adalah berdasarkan model serta konsep
universiti lestari yang dibangunkan dan diperkenalkan oleh pakar lestari. Antaranya termasuk ‘Model
Pengelasan Universiti Lestari’, ‘Cadangan Model Universiti Lestari’, ‘Dimensi daripada
penyelidikan dan projek pembangunan Universiti Lestari’ dan ‘Rangka untuk Model Universiti
Lestari’. Penulisan tersebut bertujuan untuk mengulas pelbagai model lestari universiti dan mengkaji
ciri-ciri universiti lestari melalui perbincangan literatur yang menyeluruh.
Kata kunci: Universiti Lestari, Model Lestari, Pembangunan Lestari
ABSTRACT
Sustainable campus development is wide challenges to local university. There are a lot of different
definition and interpretation of concepts. Therefore, myriad contrasts between strategies could be
taken by local university towards to be sustainable university. Most of the international university had
been taken various steps towards to be sustainable university compared to local university which is
still in initiative level. The Measurement sustainable which is implemented is based on models and
concepts of sustainable university and is introduced by sustainable experts. There are ‘The
Sustainable University Classification Model’, ‘The Proposed Sustainable University Model’,
‘Dimensions of the research and development project “Sustainable University” and ‘Framework for
Sustainable University Model’. This study aim to review various sustainable university model and
characteristics of sustainable university through literature review discussion.
Keyword: Sustainable University, Sustainable Model, Sustainable Development
1 PENGENALAN
Konsep pembangunan lestari wujud daripada kesedaran di kalangan masyarakat terhadap

kepentingan pemuliharaan dan pemeliharaan sumber alam sekitar. Menurut Omar (2005),
kebanyakkan aktiviti pembangunan hanya bertumpu kepada kemajuan ekonomi sehingga
mengabaikan kepentingan alam sekitar dan menyebabkan berlaku impak negatif terhadap ekosistem
dunia. Isu pembangunan lestari telah lama dibincangkan dalam pelbagai sidang, termasuk Sidang
Kemuncak Bumi yang diadakan di Rio de Janerio pada tahun 1992 dan pada tahun 2002 di
Johannesburg. Daripada persidangan tersebut, Agenda 21 iaitu pelan tindakan yang mengandungi
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prinsip-prinsip positif secara menyeluruh bagi membantu pihak kerajaan dan institusi-institusi lain
dalam melaksanakan dasar-dasar pembangunan lestari di negara-negara masing-masing telah
dibangunkan.
2 PERANAN UNIVERSITI DALAM PEMBANGUNAN KE ARAH LESTARI
Penyelidikan dan institusi pengajian tinggi dalam negara yang sedang membangun perlu
meningkatkan kemampuan mereka untuk bertindakbalas dalam menentukan cabaran mengikut
perubahan semasa. Contohnya keadaan demografi, polisi ekonomi dan perdagangan, iklim,
pembangunan pertanian dan pembandaran. Ini menunjukkan semua universiti perlu membangun ke
arah lestari bagi membanteras masalah yang dihadapi di dunia ini.
Berdasarkan kepada Hansen et. al. (2004), universiti-universiti tempatan mempunyai
potensi yang baik sebagai ‘pusat pembangunan’ iaitu memudahkan pembangunan lestari secara
sosial, ekonomi dan ekologi. Menurut Fincham et. al. (2004), universiti adalah pusat pembekal
graduan-graduan yang cekap, motivasi, inovasi dan penghasilan ilmu. Selain itu, ia merupakan
tempat berhubung dan berkerjasama dengan rakan kongsi serta organisasi daripada sektor swasta,
sektor awam dan masyarakat. Tambahan pula, universiti juga turut menyumbang kepada
pertumbuhan ekonomi, peningkatan aktiviti kebajikan, demokrasi dan perlindungan alam sekitar.
Sekiranya universiti ingin menjadikan ‘pusat pembangunan’ yang berkesan, universiti tersebut
hendaklah peka kepada keadaan semasa agar dapat memperolehi pentadbiran yang baik,
penyelidikan yang berkualiti tinggi, dan memperolehi kaedah pembelajaran dan teknologi
maklumat yang baru.
Universiti adalah satu organisasi yang bertujuan untuk memenuhi perlaksanaan program
dengan pelbagai operasi fakulti-fakulti di kampus. Namun begitu, fokus utama universiti adalah
pendidikan (Weenen, 2000). Ini menunjukkan bahawa pendidikan di semua peringkat merupakan
aspek yang penting dalam mempromosikan lestari.
Berdasarkan kepada Osterwalder (2009), terdapat tiga aspek yang terlibat dalam
memperkenalkan universiti lestari iaitu pembinaan dan peneguhan dalam asas pemahaman kepada
masalah lestari, penyemakan semua aspek dalam hidup kita di bawah kriteria lestari dan akhir sekali
aktif mencari kaedah dan teknik baru untuk meneruskan pembangunan lestari.
Ini bermakna pendidikan lestari adalah topik yang menarik di mana ia boleh membawa
kepada banyak perbezaan aktiviti. Menurut Osterwalder (2009), institusi pengajian tinggi juga
adalah tempat tanggungjawab untuk melahirkan para graduan bagi guru terlatih di peringkat
sekolah menengah dan sekolah rendah. Mereka bertanggungjawab untuk membangunkan kaedah
baru dan pendekatan baru untuk menjelaskan mengenai lestari kepada semua, daripada peringkat
pra-sekolah hingga ke dewasa.
Menurut Pike et. al (2003), peranan kolej dan universiti adalah memberi pendidikan kepada
masyarakat, termasuk melahirkan pemimpin pada masa akan datang, mereka seharusnya juga
berhadapan dengan pergerakan lestari. Contohnya melaksanakan sesuatu program untuk
meningkatkan kesedaran orang awam terhadap isu alam sekitar dan peningkatan pengetahuan dan
teknologi, dan seterusnya membangunkan lestari pada masa depan.
Universiti memainkan peranan utama dalam pengurusan lestari melalui institusi mereka dan
perolehan polisi untuk memastikan kesedaran global, ‘ethically sound’ dan proses keseimbangan
alam sekitar dapat diperkenalkan agar alam sekitar dapat membantu ke arah pembangunan lestari.
Namun begitu, dalam mencapai lestari bukan sahaja melalui kemahiran dan pengetahuan yang
dipelajari dan dipraktikkan oleh graduan, malah ia juga melalui gabungan strategi dan operasi
dengan kerjasama masyarakat. (Zainal Abidin Sanusi, 2008).
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3 KONSEP DAN MODEL UNIVERSITI LESTARI
Universiti lestari telah didefinasikan oleh Velazquez et. al (2005), sebagai: “Institusi
pengajian tinggi, keseluruhan atau sebahagian, penglibatan dan memperkenalkan, kepada tahap
global atau serantau, meminimumkan negatif terhadap alam sekitar, ekonomi, sosial dan kesihatan
yang memberi kesan dalam sumber penggunaan mereka supaya dapat melengkapi fungsi mengajar,
penyelidikan dan cara dalam penyeliaan bagi membantu masyarakat melakukan penukaran cara
hidup lestari.” Definisi ini lebih mudah difahami sekiranya kita merujuk kepada aktiviti lestari.
Persatuan ‘University Leaders for a Sustainable Future’ (ULSF) (1999), menjelaskan aktiviti lestari
di universiti adalah ekologi, sosial, ekonomi persendirian dan berperikemanusiaan, dan mempunyai
kebolehan menyambung untuk generasi akan datang.
Dengan itu, universiti boleh mencapai pembangunan lestari dengan pelbagai cara, termasuk
pengurusan, perancangan, perkhidmatan masyarakat, reka bentuk, pembinaan baru,
penambahbaikan, retrofit dan lain-lain. Lestari juga adalah penting untuk mengalakkan universiti
mengadakan program isu alam sekitar bagi menjadikan pelajar yang berpendidikan supaya
memahami tentang isu alam sekitar. Berdasarkan kepada Probet (1995), kes universiti seharusnya
melahirkan kepimpinan yang intelek dan menunjukkan bagaimana masyarakat lestari boleh dicapai.
Dalam melaksanakan pembangunan lestari di universiti, Weenen (2000), telah
memperkenalkan model pengelasan universiti lestari. Rujuk kepada Rajah 1 di mana ia digunakan
oleh universiti sebagai garis panduan bagi menilai dimensi, status dan tahap mereka berdasarkan
komitmen yang diberi. Pengelasan universiti telah diambil kira melalui tiga isu di mana ia
dikelaskan berdasarkan kunci soalan iaitu ‘mengapa’, ‘apa’ dan ‘bagaimana’. Isu ‘mengapa’ adalah
berkaitan dengan tahap penglibatan. Ia menjelaskan mengenai perkara yang harus dilakukan dengan
penggunaan sumber yang terhad, dan ia amat penting tentang pengakuan melalui tahap tertinggi
kesedaran. Isu alam sekitar adalah penting dan organisasi harus berwaspada terhadapnya. Daripada
model ini, terdapat empat perkara yang berkaitan dengan pembangunan lestari iaitu LIFE, singkatan
nama ‘Limit (Had), Interdependence (Saling Bergantungan), Fundamental (Asas) and Equity
(Ekuiti)”. Set isu tersebut adalah berdasarkan kepada konsep pembangunan lestari yang
menunjukkan bahawa pentingnya universiti mengambil tindakan.
‘Limit’ (Had) adalah berdasarkan kepada kualiti hidup di mana ia bermaksud untuk kerja
dan kualiti kerja baik. Ini bermakna pengakuan dan nilai sumber manusia dan pelbagai budaya
harus dihargainya. Ini kerana ramai manusia tidak mempunyai kesedaran mengenai kualiti hidup.
Kemudian, ‘Interdependence’ (Saling Bergantungan) adalah berdasarkan kepada usaha lestari iaitu
pengeluaran mereka adalah datang daripada sumber asli di mana ia sudah dibangunkan sama ada di
atas tapak atau berhampiran dengan tapak. ‘Fundamental’ (Had) adalah konsep, paradigm dan
sistem yang harus diubah untuk melaksanakan pembangunan lestari melalui pendidikan,
penyelidikan, pengurusan dan komunikasi. Sebagai contoh, pendidikan lestari adalah peringkat
awal ke arah menjadi universiti lestari. Akhir sekali, ‘Equity’ (Ekuiti) di mana industri menyokong
usaha dalam pembangunan negara dan latihan pembangunan lestari untuk memastikan bahawa ia
terlibat melalui produk atau perkhidmatan.
Ini kerana ia dapat dibangunkan dan akan digunakan oleh mereka. Selain itu, pertambahan
bilangan orang akan memberi kesan kepada kualiti hidup. Jadi, daripada penggunaan sumber harus
mempunyai potensi kerana ia sangat penting untuk diselamatkan supaya ia dapat digunakan masa
akan datang.
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Rajah 1: Model Pengelasan Universiti Lestari

Sumber: Weenen (2000), muka surat 30
‘What’ (Apa) adalah sesuatu mereka harus lakukan melalui tahap tertinggi. Terdapat empat
tahap yang berdasarkan kepada urutan-urutan untuk mencapai universiti ‘engagement’ (janji atau
jaminan formal, terutama sekali dalam bentuk tulisan). Pada tahap pertama, operasi universiti di
mana melibatkan organisasi dalam banyak aktiviti seperti penggunaan bahan dan tenaga, fasiliti dan
ruang. Tahap kedua, adalah gabungan dengan tahap pertama kerana ada kaitan dengan penyelidikan
dan pendidikan. Melalui sokongan daripada kerja dalam, untuk memulakan pembangunan universiti
adalah melibatkan bangunan, fasiliti, kampus, infrastruktur dan pengangkutan. Tahap ketiga pula
adalah penglibatan daripada pakar luar, masyarakat dan organisasi bukan kerajaan (NGO) memberi
sokongan untuk masyarakat universiti seperti memperlengkapi latihan untuk pengurus universiti
sama ada tempatan dan antarabangsa dengan misi yang jelas. Akhir sekali, tahap empat adalah
tahap tertinggi universiti ‘engagement’. Sebelum ke tahap tersebut, ia perlu fokus kepada organisasi
terlebih dahulu kerana penglibatan dan tindakan melalui sokongan dalam adalah amat perlu.
‘How’ (Bagaimana) adalah cara mereka mengatur lestari. Dalam pengurusan alam sekitar,
operasi universiti adalah peringkat pertama untuk ‘engagement’ iaitu memimpin sesuatu untuk
dibawa kepada penawaran melalui tindakan. Golongan yang terlibat biasanya mempunyai
pengetahuan mengenai alam sekitar dan bertanggungjawab dalam pengurusan universiti yang
berdasarkan kepada polisi. Ciri-ciri universiti adalah lebih baik dibincangkan, diformulasikan dan
dilaksanakan dalam pengurusan alam sekitar. Rangkaian lestari adalah rangkaian mereka tersendiri
untuk berhubung. Contohnya, semua ‘stakeholders’ universiti perlu terlibat; seperti pelajar,
pensyarah, staf dan lain-lain kerana mereka menggunakan rangkaian tersebut untuk berhubung
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dengan penyelidik, pendidik dan pengurus. Ia mengandungi universiti yang sama profil dan rakan
menyumbang kepada pembangunan lestari antarabangsa. Rangkaian lestari adalah lebih baik diatur
dan dikekalkan dalam masyarakat lestari. Ini kerana ia dapat membantu masyarakat untuk mencari
kelebihan keseimbangan di antara kehendak manusia, kualiti dan sumber asli yang diperoleh.
Namun begitu, model Universiti Lestari yang paling popular telah dibangunkan oleh
Velazquez et. al (2005) melalui ‘benchmarking’ (titik rujukan dalam membuat perbandingan) yang
terbaik dengan 80 universiti yang berbeza di seluruh dunia, lihat Rajah 2. Pada asasnya, Cadangan
Model Universiti Lestari mempunyai empat fasa yang menyepadukan dalam rancang-buat-semak-
tindakan (Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA). Peringkat pertama PDCA adalah mengenalpasti masalah
bukan lestari dan mengembangkan idea untuk menyelesaikan masalah tersebut (Rancang).
Kemudian, ‘stakeholders’ (pemegang saham) harus menilai cadangan kertas kerja dalam
skala yang kecil untuk penjimatan kos (Buat). Selepas itu, mereka bercadang untuk memimpin bagi
mengkaji semula cadangan perancangan untuk menyelesaikan masalah selagi ia mampu untuk
memperbaiki kualiti dan kecekapan (Tindakan). Tetapi, ia tidak berhenti kepada langkah yang
terakhir kerana ia sentiasa mengikut tempoh kitaran lagi untuk menyelesaikan cabaran baru dan
masalah dalam memperbaiki lestari di institusi.
Semua inisiatif universiti lestari adalah disusun kepada empat strategi termasuk pendidikan,
penyelidikan, sumbangan luar dan perkongsian, dan lestari dilaksanakan samaada di dalam atau di
luar kampus.
Selain memperkenalkan model, timbul pula pendekatan “Lu”neburg” yang diperkenalkan
oleh Adomssent et. al., (2007), iaitu penyelidikan dan pembangunan inisiatif “Universiti Lestari-
Pembangunan Lestari dalam Konteks Bidang Kuasa Universiti”. Ia adalah bertujuan untuk
menyepadukan idea lestari kepada ‘a range of areas’ di universiti-universiti. Dimensi yang
diperkenalkan daripada Rajah 3 adalah bertujuan untuk menjawab beberapa persoalan seperti
bagaimana universiti boleh berhadapan dengan cabaran yang bergabung bersama pembangunan
lestari dan kepada apakah ‘extent’ (kawasan/ julat) boleh disasarkan bagi perubahan struktur dalam
memberi sumbangan terhadap perubahan universiti untuk lestari? Persoalan ini terjawab apabila ia
menjadi tugasan kepada sesuatu tempat untuk pembelajaran dan alam sekitar hidup. Manakala
persoalan pengurusan lestari dan penggunaan sumber dalam sasaran kepada perubahan prestasi
lestari merupakan antara kunci tugasan di universiti. Sistematik ‘engagement’ dengan proses
komunikasi universiti- adalah mustahak untuk penyebaran idea mengenai lestari dan di mana ia
ditujukan kepada ‘critical reflection’ (pantulan kritikal) secara konsep keseluruhan. Komunikasi
dan penglibatan adalah kunci prinsip untuk melaksanakan idea lestari dalam konteks universiti.
Antaranya adalah tugas bagi membangkitkan isu mengenai proses pembangunan ke arah universiti
lestari, membincangkan dan membangunkan langkah-langkah praktikal yang biasa ke realisasinya.
Oleh itu, projek Lu¨neburg ‘Universiti Lestari’ telah berkembang dalam pendekatan kes
kajian termasuk aspek transformasi, dengan mendapat pandangan melalui proses transformasi
daripada dua tahap berbeza iaitu tahap pertama, kes pembangunan seharusnya dijangka kepada asas
sistem analisis di mana ia membawa sesuatu kejadian yang mungkin berlaku kepada bangunan.
Tahap kedua, isu yang boleh dipindah seharusnya dipertimbangkan di dalam analisis. Ini
bermaksud dengan analisis yang terperinci, ia seharusnya boleh memindahkan pengetahuan yang
diperolehi daripada kes kajian kepada kes lain dalam perbezaan konteks.
115
Rajah 2: Cadangan Model Universiti Lestari

Sumber: Velazquez et. al (2005), muka surat 814
116
Pengurusan dan Pengurusan sumber

laporan lestari dan tenaga
Organisasi
Universiti dan
Ahli terlibat
Universiti adalah Universiti Bertukar

dunia hidup adalah pusat pengetahuan dan
Pantulan dan
pengajaran, komunikasi
Antara disiplin komunikasi
pembelajaran kepada lestari
dalam pengajaran Budaya dan
dan dunia hidup
dan pembelajaran pembangunan
lestari
Rajah 3: Dimensi daripada penyelidikan dan projek pembangunan ‘Universiti Lestari’

Sumber: Adomssent et. al., (2007), muka surat 392
Model telah disusun atur kepada polisi-perancangan-perlaksanaan-penyemakan-pengulasan

yang dikategorikan daripada Clarke et. al. (2009), merujuk kepada Jadual 2.
Jadual 2: Rangka untuk Model Universiti Lestari

Universiti Lestari
Polisi • Visi
• Misi
• Masyarakat Lestari (cipta polisi, sasaran and objektif)
Perancangan • Strategi pendidikan, penyelidikan, sumbangan luar &
perkongsian dan kampus mengenai lestari
Perlaksanaan • Melaksanakan strategi
• Rangkaian & Organisasi
Penyemakan • Audit Lestari
Pengulasan • Penambahbaikan berterusan
Sumber: Clarke et. al (2009)
117
4 KOMITMEN-KOMITMEN UNVIERSITI LUAR NEGARA DAN TEMPATAN KE

ARAH KAMPUS LESTARI
Jadual di bawah adalah contoh komitmen yang dirumuskan daripada pelbagai universiti di
luar negara dalam usaha untuk mencapai lestari. Terdapat beberapa ciri-ciri lestari yang
dilaksanakan oleh universiti dari segi alam sekitar, ekonomi dan sosial.
Jadual 6: Komitmen Universiti Ke Arah Alam Sekitar Lestari
Nama Universiti Komitmen

University of Bordeaux • Pengurusan sumber asli, termasuk kegunaan tenaga dan air yang berdasarkan kepada
polisi “laissez-faire” (bahasa Perancis iaitu dasar bebas dari kawalan kerajaan)
• Program pemuliharan air di universiti tersebut adalah disokong oleh Agensi Daerah
Utiliti Air
Francis Marion University • Memasang sistem lampu efisien dalam gimnasium dan menjalankan program kitar
semula kertas
The University of • Mewujudkan kod polisi mesra alam mengenai catatan bimbingan dan penentuan.
Edinburgh Estates & Antara polisi yang mereka memperkenalkan adalah Polisi Lestari 2000, Polisi Alam
Buildings Department Sekitar 1993, Polisi Pengurangan Bahan Buangan 2005, Polisi Perjalanan Bersepadu
2000 dan Polisi Utiliti 2003.
Dalhousie University • Memelihara polisi alam sekitar pada tahun 1990, termasuk kandungan kepada
operasi, pendidikan dan penyelidikan. Banyak inisiatif telah dilakukan ke atas sisa
pepejal, sisa bahan berbahaya, toksik, kualiti air, pemuliharaan tenaga dan
pendidikan alam sekitar.
Sumber: Bonnet et. al (2002), Pike et. al (2003), The University of Edinburgh Estates & Buildings Department (2004),
Clarke (2006)
Jadual 7: Komitmen Universiti Ke Arah Sosial Lestari

Technical University of • Perancangan Alam Sekitar The Technical University of Catalonia (UPC) adalah
Catalonia (UPC) mencukupi dengan melaksanakan 41 projek termasuk rangka kerja daripada lima cara
seperti pendidikan siswazah, pendidikan lepasan ijazah, penyelidikan, gaya hidup
universiti dan peningkatan kesedaran.
University of • Membangunkan Polisi Pembangunan Lestari
Hertfordshire • Menggalakkan pelajar sedar mengenai kesan alam sekitar dalam pembelajaran mereka
dan kerjasama serta berdisiplin dalam penyelidikan dalam tema pembangunan lestari.
• Mencadangkan latihan untuk universiti dan masyarakat tempatan agar mereka boleh
mengambil bahagian dalam pembangunan lestari.
Aalborg University • Semua pelajar tahun satu dalam Kejuruteraan dan Sains dijemput untuk menghadiri
kursus dalam Teknologi, Kewujudan Manusia dan Masyarakat.
• Menfokuskan pembangunan lestari dalam pendidikan dan isu yang berkaitan dengan
alam sekitar adalah diambil alih oleh Pembahagian Teknologi, Alam Sekitar dan
Masyarakat dalam Jabatan Perancangan dan Pembangunan.
Clemson, Medical • Staf dan pelajar telah mengadakan serta menyertai program seminar-seminar dan
University of South pembentangan; melakukan aktiviti-aktiviti secara sukarela seperti gotong-royong
Carolina and University membersihkan kampus, penanaman pokok dan sebagainya. Contohnya kempen Hari
of South Carolina Bumi Sedunia
Sumber: Capdevila et.al (2001), University of Hertfordshire (1995), Christensen et. al, (2009), Barnes and Jerman
(2001)
118
Jadual 8: Komitmen Universiti Ke Arah Ekonomi Lestari

Royal Melbourne Institute • Pada tahun 2001, $500,000 telah dilaburkan daripada bajet perkhidmatan harta tanah
of Technology (RMIT) untuk diserahkan kepada pelaburan dalam inisiatif pemuliharaan tenaga. Bajet
University tersebut membolehkan perkhidmatan harta tanah bagi membangun senarai tindakan
untuk mengurangkan penggunaan tenaga dan simpanan jangka panjang melalui
pengurangan bil tenaga RMIT’s
• Kumpulan Pengurusan Tenaga (EMT) telah mewujudkan perkhidmatan harta tanah

bagi menguruskan perbelanjaan bajet baru sebanyak $500,000 dalam projek
penjimatan tenaga.
• Walaupun projek gagal dilaksanakan memandangkan keseluruhan pengeluaran gas
rumah hijau telah meningkat sebanyak 33% dan bil tenaga telah naik sebanyak $2.5
juta semenjak pada tahun 2000 (RMIT University, 2004). Walau dengan kenaikan
ini, satu sijil tetap diterima daripada Pejabat Rumah Hijau Australia hanya
mengucapkan tahniah kepada RMIT bagi penglibatan dalam program cabaran rumah
hijau.
St Petersburg State • Pemuliharaan tenaga dalam institusi daripada akademi sains Rusia adalah salah satu
University contoh projek yang berorientasikan mesra alam. Projek ini bertujuan menyediakan
perancangan bagi aktiviti penjimatan tenaga untuk institusi akademik. Penilaian pada
peringkat permulaan menunjukkan perbelanjaan tenaga dalam institusi akademi
menghampiri 15 per sen daripada bajet untuk saintifik institusi yang telah
menggunakan peralatan dan tumbuhan sebagai percubaan untuk diuji. Penggunaan
teknik dan peralatan dalam penjimatan tenaga adalah keputusan projek yang telah
sedia ada di mana sudah dimulakan di beberapa institusi, termasuk ‘Lebedev Physical
Institute, Baikov Metallurggy Institute, National Botanical Gardens’ dan lain-lain.
Sumber: RMIT University (2004), Verbitskaya et. al (2002)
Universiti tempatan juga tidak terkecuali dalam memberi komitmen ke arah universiti
lestari. Rujuk Jadual 9 adalah beberapa contoh IPTA yang telah melaksanakan lestari di universiti
masing-masing. Ini menunjukkan bahawa telah wujud kesedaran di kalangan pihak universiti iaitu
begitu penting apabila menjayakan universiti lestari bagi memelihara alam sekitar.
Jadual 9: Komitmen Institut Pengajian Tinggi Awam (IPTA) Ke Arah Lestari

Universiti Sains • Mengadakan program “Kampus Sihat” iaitu pengetahuan mengenai cara hidup yang
Malaysia (USM) sihat dan program ini telah mendapat sokongan daripada Jabatan Teknologi Industri,
Sains Biologi, Sains Kimia, Kejuruteraan dan Komunikasi.
• Memperkenalkan Taman Keamanan, penggunaan kertas/pokok (contoh menghasilkan
kertas daripada pokok pisang), menggunakan minyak masak untuk motosikal dan
meningkatkan kesedaran terhadap pembangunan lestari.
• Mengadakan program ‘Kafeteria Sejahtera-Membangunkan Kampus Lestari’ iaitu
kafetaria menggunakan bekas makanan mesra alam yang diperbuat daripada bahan
buangan kelapa sawit bagi membungkus makanan.
• Diiktiraf sebagai Pusat Kecemerlanagan Serantau Pendidikan untuk Pembangunan
Lestari oleh Pertubuhan Bangsa-bangsa Bersatu di Universiti Nagoya, Jepun pada 29
pada Jun 2005. Ini kerana kejayaan kempen-kempen kelestarian seperti The White
Coffin yang berjaya menyahkan penggunaan polisterin dan mengurangkan penggunaan
plastik.
Universiti Kebangsaan • Projek Pengurangan Karbon @ Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (CRed@UKM)
Malaysia (UKM) mempunyai sasaran untuk mengurangkan 60% pengeluaran karbon pada tahun 2015
melalui pelbagai strategi terutama yang berkaitan dengan program kecekapan tenaga dan
perubahan polisi dalam universiti.
• Pada tahun 1994, Institut Pembangunan dan Alam Sekitar dikenali sebagai LESTARI
telah diperkenalkan. Objektifnya adalah memperkenalkan dan mengawal komponen
lestari termasuk alam sekitar dan pendidikan
119
• Meletakkan sasaran untuk mencapai kampus lestari pada tahun 2020

• Menubuhkan Institut Penyelidikan Tenaga Solar (SERI) pada 1 Julai 2005 dengan tujuan
mencapai lestari bagi penggunaan tenaga. Antara kajian penyelidikan adalah sistem haba
solar, kesan sosial-ekonomi pada sistem tenaga solar, senibina ‘zero energy’ dan bahan
lestari dalam bangunan, dan sebagainya. Inovatif bagi penyelidikan tenaga solar di SERI
telah memenangi beberapa medal dan anugerah khas pada tahap tempatan dan
antarabangsa.
Universiti Teknologi • Menubuhkan Persekutuan Penyelidikan Lestari (SUTRA) dengan tujuan menjadi fungsi
Malaysia (UTM) sebagai komuniti lestari, mempunyai tanggungjawab dalam penggunaan sumber dan
pengurusan bahan buangan. Ini adalah untuk melahirkan kepakaran dalam pelbagai
bidang bagi menyelesaikan isu lestari di dalam negara dan luar negara.
• Antara tindakan yang diambil iaitu:-
i. pengurangan bahan pencemar (mengitar semula kertas, mengurangkan
penggunaan air botol plastik dalam mesyuarat universiti dan menghentikan
penggunaan bekas makanan polystyrene kepada kertas kitar semula berlilin
(waxed recycled paper)
ii. penjimatan tenaga/ utiliti (pengurangan kadar penggunaan elektrik sebanyak 10 %
setahun sehingga mencapai tahap optimum dan pengurangan kadar penggunaan
air sebanyak 10 % setahun sehingga mencapai tahap optimum
iii. penjimatan dalam penggunaan sumber (pengurangan penggunaan kertas sebanyak
10 % setahun sehingga mencapai tahap optimum
Sumber: Osterwalder (2009), (Utusan, 2010); (Kadaruddin et. al, 2008); (UKM International Bulletin, 2007); Sutra
(2010)
5 KESIMPULAN
Secara keseluruhan, kebanyakkan universiti di luar negara telah mengambil usaha untuk
menuju ke arah universiti lestari. Pelbagai strategi telah diambil oleh mereka dan ini dapat
membantu dalam memelihara alam sekitar dan mempertingkatkan kualti hidup manusia.
Berdasarkan kajian literatur oleh pakar-pakar lestari maka dapat disimpulkan bahawa universiti
lestari adalah amat penting untuk dimurnikan. Dengan menggunakan konsep-konsep, model-model
dan contoh-contoh yang dibincangkan dalam penulisan ini, pihak universiti tempatan seharusnya
mengambil langkah aktif untuk menjadi universiti lestari. Penulisan tersebut adalah sebahagian
daripada Projek Sarjana untuk membangunkan Metrik Penialaian universiti lestari. Pembangunan
metrik penilaian universiti lestari adalah diperlukan kerana sasaran lestari tidak akan tercapai
sekiranya tiada pengukuran yang dilakukan. Dengan adanya metrik penilaian ini, universiti
tempatan boleh mengetahui sejauh mana tahap lestari telah yang dilaksanakan di IPTA dan
memperbaiki tahap lestari yang belum tercapai.
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122
THE METHODOLOGIES USED TO EVALUATE POST-DISASTER

HOUSING RECONSTRUCTION PROJECTS
Asal Kamani Fard, MSc.

PhD Student, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
asal_kamani@yahoo.com
Mohd Hamdan Ahmad, PhD.
Professor, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
b-hamdan@utm.my
Dilshan Remaz Ossen, PhD.
Senior Lecturer, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
d_remaz@hotmail.com
ABSTRACT
Housing reconstruction studies following natural disasters regarded as an interdisciplinary theme of
concern have been the aim of many recent researches worldwide. However, the existed literature
within architectural approaches may not cover expected interactions with this real challenge; the topic
needs to be developed more effectively through particular holistic studies due to the key role of home
place in the recovery process from disasters. Based on the architectural aspects of the issue, this paper
investigates on presenting the methods modified to evaluate post-disaster housing reconstruction
projects. In fact, it aims to review the methodologies that examine the relation between the attitude of
survived households toward their new built homes and the recovery process following natural
disasters. It would also seek the most appropriate methods regarding research on households’ efforts
and tools applied to cope with sense of home loss besides considering reconstruction strategies.
Addressing the methods used to follow the set goals, hereby research concepts and objectives,
theoretical frameworks, used materials, related measures and variables as well as the field survey
stages in some cases would be presented in this paper.
Keywords: (Housing Reconstruction, Home Place, Recovery Process, Research Method.)
1 INTRODUCTION
In the words of Zeisel (2006), “research provides deeper insight into a topic, better
understanding of a problem, more clearly defined opportunities for and constraints on possible
action, measurement of regularities, and ordered descriptions.” And within defining the components
and also the nature of a research, Groat et al (2002) highlights the foundation and domain that forms
its whole (Figure 1).
Applying this model to post-disaster reconstruction studies, would provide a better
understanding of the interaction between each research foundation and its domain toward achieving
the expected aims. In fact, it clarifies that the tactics and strategies forming the domain of each
research are based on theories and a beyond philosophy. And due to the significant role of home
place in the rehabilitation and recovery process following natural disasters, housing reconstruction
studies are considered as clues impressing the future of survived communities.
Therefore, the holistic approach derived from the comprehensive interdisciplinary
approaches to housing process, would lead to attain appropriate applicable tactics as windows of
opportunity within reconstruction efforts. However, each research on this process could be regarded
as valuable lessons for the future reactions while facing unexpected catastrophes.
This paper aims to focus on the significance components of research methods. It also
attempts to present selected methods modified by scholars in post-disaster housing reconstruction
studies.
123
Foundation of Research Domain of Research
Philosophy Theory Strategy Tactics
Figure 1: Philosophy = Theory = Method Chart, Source: Groat et al (2002)
And due to the interdisciplinary theme of post-disaster housing studies, hereby the most relevant
methods would be discussed within following section. Whilst, different aspects of the issue
regarding the interests of psychology, sociology, management, and construction fields is addressed,
the attitudes toward home place will be the main target of this review from both households’ and
professionals’ points of view.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY’S SIGNIFICANCE
Based on the interdisciplinary theme of housing reconstruction following natural disasters

and also due to the significance of humanitarian aspects of this challenge, most of the used methods
could be defined within a social based approach. Therefore, different sides of social surveys are
concerned as a clue to investigate on the most appropriate based on the methods used by respected
scholars.
Gillham (2008) has categorized the social survey data nature in following terms:
i) Basic facts about people (Subject Description containing demographic indicators)
ii) What people do (Behavior presenting habits of daily life)
iii) People’s Opinion (Including Judgments, Preferences, and Intentions).
Accordingly, social surveys are based on studying representatives of the target group of
people regarded as samples - estimation of the whole from a part - and within two main approaches:
“Quantitative representation: when the sample is proportionately pro-rata to a group or population
as a whole.
Qualitative representation: when the members of the sample are of the same kind as the wider
group.”
However, Silverman (2004) points out to the fieldworker’s role within identifying the
criteria of qualitative research approach. He remarks that it is essential to remain open to
observations while following the planned methodical target in the field. Thus, besides seeking
normative expectations or so called linguistic sources, the fieldworker has to be sensitive to para-
linguistic resources as well.
In some cases this openness may conflict with default setting of a designed method, but
cultural based studies are required to be approached within a coincided flexible format. In addition,
mentioned issue would be more highlighted while the field worker is not considered as one of the
members of affected community by a disaster. Silverman (2004) suggests that in the case that
fieldworker tries to immerse him/her self in the field condition and gain access to the point of view
of the sample group as natives, applied method can lead to demographic generalization. In fact, he
124
reminds that the visions, background and experiences of such researchers are totally different with a
new arrived field worker and would affect the results within realizing the true perspective of people.
And quantitative research method is regarded as a designed structure to examine the
relationship among variables due to research questions and hypothesis through statistical analysis. It
is based on providing a valid procedure of testing theories within meaningful approach to its
structure. Whilst, considering the limitations of the study, target group of samples are supposed to
be addressed in the survey (Creswell, 2003).
On the other hand, and as a method of research used in many of post-disaster housing studies,
Scholz et al (2002) defines case studies regarding the interests of those researching on a specific
perspective of management, planning, environmental, policy and administration, sociology,
psychological, and educational themes. He recommends case as “empirical units, theoretical
constructs and subjects to evaluation” interdisciplinary studies within real-life context as well.
Basically, case study is considered as a research methodology through which data are
provided from various sources to attain more appropriate decision making process within
integrative evaluations (Scholz et al, 2002). He argues that case studies would be categorized in to
main two types of holistic and embedded (Figure 2).
Also the pure qualitative approach based on narratives and phenomenological descriptions
would be determined within the holistic case study method. And investigating on more than one
unit or object as well as applying other kinds of analysis besides qualitative one, is regarded as an
embedded case study (Scholz et al, 2002).
Table 1 : Dimensions and Classification of Case Studies, Source: Scholz Et Al (2002)
Dimensions Classifications
Design Holistic or Embedded

Single Case or Multiple Case
Motivation Intrinsic or Instrumental
Epistemological Status Exploratory, Descriptive, or Explanatory
Purpose Reseach, Teaching, or Action / Application
Data Quantitative or Qualitative
Format Highly Structured, Short Vignettes

Unstructured or Groundbreaking
Synthesis Informal, Empahic, or Intuitive

Format or Method Driven
Considering interviews as a means of qualitative research method, many of the post-disaster
reconstruction studies are based on it. The structure of interviews must be set as a tool to reflect the
real social situation and present it as in a mirror. Although there are different approaches to the use
of pure and open-ended interviews, the efforts must be within representing some “truth” from the
data. And at least it must be able to express the attitude of people toward their experienced events
within social contexts.
125
In fact, interview would lead to an understanding of how respondents “think, feel, do, know,
believe, and expect”. It is actually a means of designed face-to-face communication system through
which feelings, perceives, and attitude of people toward a particular environment would be studied
(Zeisel, 2006). Also the significance of language as a communicating tool between interviewer and
interviewee is highlighted within Silverman (2004) words. Accordingly, there is an urgent need to
find out the meaning that may be hidden in the interviews.
Besides other common means of data within post-disaster housing reconstruction studies,
photographs are also regarded as useful resources. Visual data in the form of photographs are
considered as an advantage in socio-cultural based studies through a better understanding of
respected context. This method is especially regarded within the interests of interdisciplinary as
well as architectural researches developed recently. Moreover, photographs as a means of visual
research method could be used to document the data and would accelerate the process of
contributing to the research aims within regarded concepts (Silverman, 2004).
Additionally, trailing and piloting suggested as two important stages of providing research
tools especially in such researches. The trailing stage helps to come up with practical items by
editing the drafts and through applying essential adjustments which leads to develop an organized
version out of careful review of a desk product set of questions (Gillham, 2008).
And following trailing stage, Gillham (2008) remarks that piloting is considered as a
simulation of the main study under the same context’s condition and must be regarded as obtaining
the last-minute lessons before concentrating the efforts on the aimed testing.
The other effective issue while doing this kind of studies would the appropriate selection of
respondents from the survived community. In the eastern studies on social and cultural oriented
themes, experiences of totalizing the micro culture based results and referring it to the whole
community are found more comparing to western. This issue is due to the almost same
understanding and perception of the world and its shared rules among people (Silverman, 2004).
Table 2 : Comparative Analysis of Quality Standards, Source: Groat et al (2002)
Positivism /
Standard Naturalistic
Post positivism
Truth value Internal validity Credibility
Equivalence of data of inquiry and Check data with interviewees;
phenomena they represent triangulation-multiple data resources of
data collection
Applicability External validity Transferability
Generalizability Thick description of context to access
similarity
Consistency Reliability Dependability
Instruments must produce stable Trackability of expected instability of
results data
Neutrality Objectivity Confirmability
Methods explicated; Triangulation of data;
Replicable; practice of reflexivity by investigator
Investigator one-step removes from
object of study
Creswell (2003) recommends random sample selection either through a systematic or

probabilistic approach in order to provide equal opportunity for all target groups to be involved in
data collection process. Accordingly, he argues that despite applying single or multistage option of
mentioned process, it would lead to a more reliable generalization of selected samples to the whole
population. However, identifying the sample size could be based on availability of referred lists of
potential respondents through existed information.
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Based on Gillham (2008) suggestions, although to rely on percentages within studying

different groups of various sizes might be confounding, researchers are to find an in-between
sample selection due to the time and resources’ limitations. In fact, it must be determined based on
a sensible sufficient number of respondents justifying the validity of the method through accessing
the most relevant group. And generally, there are three main options through accessing the
respondents defined as random or probability sampling, systematic sampling, and stratified
sampling procedure.
And to finalize this section, the quality of post-disaster housing reconstruction studies must
be highly considered. Whilst the quality of each research method is to be evaluated within its own
context, there are some criteria accelerating this process. Groat et al (2002), presents a comparative
analysis of quality standards to evaluate the interdisciplinary research methods such as those
applied in architectural studies originally suggested by Egon Guba in 1981 (Figure 3). Therefore,
differences and similarities of possible methods within existing approaches of inquiry systems
would be realized as well.
THE METHODS MODIFIED IN POST-DISASTER HOUSING STUDIES
Investigating on post-disaster housing reconstruction theme, scholars have pointed out to the
different aspects of this interdisciplinary concern. These considerations could be generally
categorized in to following main terms. The social, psychological, disaster management, building
and construction, surveying the damages and causalities, how people cope with loss and their
adjusting behavior.
Accordingly, a selection of related studies due to their used method would be categorized in
four parts as below. First category concentrates on the housing approaches and strategies applied in
post-disaster housing through analyzing the overall policies leading to new housing. Thus, the
outlines of two selected studies by Lyons (2009) and Barakat (2003) would be discussed.
Studying the reconstruction program following 2004 tsunami in Sri Lanka, Lyons (2009)
argues about potentials of large scale application in small scale policies through a developmental
process. He investigates on pre-tsunami situation, status authentication for beneficiary list,
entitlement, and the program for realisation of regarded entitlement. Actually, the method is based
on comparing the owner driven (ODP) and donor assisted (DAP) programs within analyzing the
key-informant interviews with involved authorities and officers as well as local community leaders.
And the aim was to examine the parameters of two mentioned approaches. It is also due to the
available statistics provided by related researches.
Also Barakat (2003) suggests five characteristics of sustainable housing reconstruction
following disasters: (1) Environmental -through concerning natural resources-, (2) Technical -by
applying appropriate tools and easy learning skills-, (3) Financial -through accessing affordable
type of money or service exchange-, (4) Organizational -by efficient involvement of stakeholders-,
and (5) Social -within meeting the needs of society and overall satisfaction- sustainability. In fact he
defines following terms as effective factors within evaluating post-disaster housing reconstruction
projects: Location or Relocation / Site Selection / Material / Construction Method / Local
Community’s Participation / Shelter & Housing / and, Human Resources.
The second category of housing reconstruction studies focuses on the different aspects of
above taken strategy. To provide examples, Davidson et al (2007) and Steinberg (2007) have
argued about the participation of survived communities in new housing process. They have tried to
highlight different sides of the respected challenge within their modified methods.
Analyzing four case studies from Colombia, El Salvador, and Turkey, Davidson et al (2007)
has used a comparative study of organizational designs in order to examine the post-disaster
housing reconstruction projects. Based on the degree of community participation in this process, he
has evaluated and compared the “program initiation – leading role in procuring the master program
of reconstruction”, “project initiation – leading role in starting the project”, “project financing”,
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design”, “construction”, and “post-project modifications-additions” consequences in respected

cases. Thus, the method concentrates on the project-related dimensions of community and
participation are considered within long-term advantages of survived residents.
Steinberg (2007) points out to the reconstruction and rehabilitation process following 2004
tsunami in Aceh and Nias, Indonesia. According to this research, the experiences and efforts of
local and international agencies would be regarded as a ground testing of community – driven
approach to sustainable development through people’s involvement in the process. And following
the physical progress and obstacles, the method is determined within analysis of new housing stages
from land tenure and ownership to construction process as well as planning and environmental
concern.
The third category of post-disaster housing researches investigates on the significance of
home place in recovery process from sense of loss following natural disasters. It actually studies the
relation between new housing and the attitude of survived community toward their house. These
studies tend to evaluate post-disaster housing projects through their impact on recovery process.
Following lines provides examples by Arie (1997), Sadler (2004), and Carrel (2009). Accordingly,
deeper aspects and meanings of home are focused within interdisciplinary theme of concern.
Arie (1997) has studied motivation in disaster victims during recovery from loss of home.
The domains of his inquiry are “perceived meaning of home”, “significance of loss”, and “focus of
coping responses”. And within a quantitative method of analysis, elderly victims are compared with
young ones through their approach to symbolic or pragmatic nature of homes and the way they cope
with sense of loss. In fact, a comparative analysis using a co relational retrospective non-
experimental design is applied to study among different age groups of 50 respondents to realize
their feelings and behaviors during recovery period from home loss following Texas tornado in
1994. Accordingly, the questionnaire was used as an instrumentation to obtain details about
respondents’ “thoughts, feelings, intentions, psychological reactions, and activities as result of their
loss” to examine his defined hypothesis.
From the architectural point of view, Sadler (2004) highlights the role of home place design
in recovery process from sense of loss following disasters. And focusing on the potential of creation
embodied in destruction caused by disasters, the significance of home as a key place in recovery
from trauma of loss is remarked. Therefore, creative art is defined as a means of expression leading
to the holistic recovery through a cultural sensitive approach to sheltering and housing. Moreover,
regarding a certain concern to memories, emotions and cognition of disaster survivors, the healing
attributes of home place in rehabilitation is argued as well.
And Carroll et al (2009) remarks social and health impacts of disasters on people whose
homes had been flooded in 2005 Carlisle, UK catastrophe. Accordingly, a qualitative method
containing semi-structured interviews was used to analyze the psychological issues regarding home
loss conflicts. Thus, phenomenological and transactional perspectives leading to examine identity,
attachment, alienation, and dialectics are applied to realize the effects of home loss on survived
community.
The fourth category attempts to study the impressive factors on recovery process after
disasters. And the role of housing reconstruction in this process has been discussed as well through
its impact on the rehabilitation and adjusting process. Lindell et al (2000), Lizarralde (2000), Cox
(2006), and Cashman et al (2008) are selected as researchers in this field.
Lindell et al (2000) has pointed out to the residents’ adjustment attitudes regarding their
demographic characteristics, personal hazard experience, risk perception, hazard intrusiveness, and
their self-reported adjustment with hazards. Therefore, two high and moderate seismic hazard areas
in US are selected to be compared. And random residents sample of three cities from each area
were asked to fill the mailed questionnaires. The result of quantitative analysis confirms a causal
chain location and demographic characteristics and residents’ hazard perception and adjustment.
Lizarralde (2000) has used a model of analysis while studying the Colombia earthquake
through which institutions, people, and environment are regarded. It is actually designed to cover
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the normalization process following the disaster. And he discusses about the effects of disaster,
coping and adjustment attributes of survivors, social-political-cultural-economical aspects, and also
rehabilitation and reconstruction periods.
Cox (2006) has researched about disorientation and reorientation themes while recovery
process from loss following disasters. Applying qualitative method, the open-ended questions were
used to study this process in two rural communities in British Colombia, Canada. According to this
research, the socio-psychological conflict of material and symbolic loss needs to be considered as a
complex adopting system. Additionally, role of home place has been highlighted within recreating
identity and sense of belonging besides redefining selves by residents in the community after a
disaster.
Cashman et al (2008) have done a research on psychological aspects of disaster aftermaths.
Due to her, trauma may “lead to fundamental changes in survivors’ beliefs. It makes them rethink
about their supernatural, religious, and scientific views” while transmission period. Research
method is based on examining different styles of expressing the volcanic disasters among local
traditions. It compares two modern and traditional communities in US and New Zealand as case
studies. The study attempts to highlight the role of literal and non-literal forms of creative art in the
recovery process. In fact, the value of local traditions as an educational tool in accelerating
psychological rehabilitation is considered.
Also there are other studies by scholars named Baca (2005), Davis (1978), Silove (2006),
and Zhang (2006) which are reviewed within above discussed theme as well. And all would
demonstrate the effective role of various aspects of housing reconstruction in recovery process
following disasters through their applied methods.
4 CONCLUSION
Due to Lizarralde (2000), case study and the formulation of “analytical generalisation” are
suggested by Robert Yin (1984) as appropriate methodology regarding post disaster housing
programs research. Whilst, to use a wide range of resources such as pictures, articles, maps,
statistics, official reports, news papers, and interviews are considered as tools within housing
reconstruction case study method. Also most of reviewed studies have approached the post-disaster
housing projects’ evaluation through a mixed method considering mentioned tools. However,
Lizarralde (2000) highlights the importance of fieldwork based data besides official reported
information within evaluating housing reconstruction efforts. In fact, it is considered as an extra
effort to study the conflicts.
Based on the reviewed methods regarding post-disaster housing studies, four main themes
have been modified within the interdisciplinary concern of this field of research. Regarded
researches have been designed to discuss and discover different aspects of new housing in the
recovery process from sense of loss following disasters. Besides, they could be considered as
valuable references while preparing all stages of each post-disaster housing strategy plan.
And according to the significant role of housing reconstruction in every future life aspect of
the affected communities, there is a crucial need to follow this process through the comprehensive
and appropriate research methods. In fact, the designed methods within post-disaster housing
reconstruction studies would determine the quality and applicable advantages through attaining
most beneficial outcomes of invested efforts. In conclusion, to evaluate post-disaster housing
reconstruction programs is an essential step toward learning practical lessons while facing such
challenges in the future. Present review highlights the significance of right choice and design of
methods based on a holistic approach to housing. Thus, identifying and measuring the real needs
and challenges of survived residents within recovery process from sense of loss are to be regarded
as bases of such selection and measure’s setting.
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PhD dissertation, Texas A&M University.
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Areas of Turkey. The American Planning Association.
Barakat, Sultan (2003) Housing Reconstruction after Conflict And Disaster. Commissioned and
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Bonds, The Meaning Of Home, Psychological Processes And Their Impact On Psychological
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Cox, Robin. S (2006) Echoes, Transgression, and Transformations: Identity Reorientation and the
Discourse of Disaster Recovery. PhD Thesis, The University of British Columbia.
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Geipel, Robert (1991) Long-Term Consequences of Disasters: The Reconstruction of Friuli, Italy,
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Adjustments: A Comparison Of Residents In Two States” International Journal Of Mass
Emergencies And Disasters Vol 18, No 2, pp. 317-338.
Lizarralde, Gonzalo (2000) Reconstruction Management and Post-Disaster Low-Cost Housing; The
Case For Social Reconstruction. M.Sc Report on Thesis, McGill University, Montreal.
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to Reconstruction” World Development, Vol. 37, No 2, pp. 385–398.
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University of Cincinnati.
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Dade Country, FL. PhD Dissertation. Texas A&M University.
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MODERNIZING CONSTRUCTION USING RAPID CONSTRUCTION

CONCEPT
Muhamad Azani Yahya, MSc.

Lecturer, Civil Engineering Department, Engineering Faculty, Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia
Email: azani@upnm.edu.my
ABSTRACT
The construction industry in Malaysia is extremely competitive, with local companies having
adequate capabilities in most areas and the government’s strong drive to use locally produced
building materials. It was also experienced almost continuous productivity growth for the past several
decades. The conventional practice for construction process flow should be modernized to improve
the project delivery and change the paradigm of construction industry. Construction players agreed
that rapid construction can be one of the approach in modernizing construction but decline to use this
concept as a cost reduction factor. The need for modernizing construction is to solve the critique of
conventional construction due to it efficiency. Results show that the need to change the nature of the
conventional work process because of the management process, site production, resources and lack of
technology implementation. Majority agreed that Industrialised Building System (IBS) be as a main
manifestations to achieve rapid construction and tackled the experience of technology
implementation.
Keywords: rapid construction, modernizing construction, construction efficiency.
1 INTRODUCTION
Construction industries have experienced almost continuous productivity growth for the past
several decades (MBI, 2010). The one anomaly has been the construction industry, for which
overall productivity declined from 1995 to 2001 (Triplett and Bosworth, 2004). For industries other
than construction, improved productivity could be attributed to advances and increased usage of
information technologies, increased competition due to globalization and changes workplace
practices and organizational structures. Can construction industries perform like others and
modernizing it using such elements that other industries being practices? Studies focusing on
construction efficiency in contrast to productivity have documented 25 to 50 percent waste in
coordinating labour and in managing, moving and installing materials (Tulacz and Armistead,
2007). Because the concept of productivity can be difficult to define, measure and communicate in
construction sector, it can be focus on ways to improve the efficiency on the capital facilities sector
of the construction industry. The improvement of the construction process can cut waste in time,
costs, materials, energy, skills and labours. On top of that, improving efficiency will also improve
overall productivity and help individual construction firms produce more environmentally
sustainable projects and become more competitive. National Research Council (NRC) of U.S
(2010) stated, if implemented throughout the capital facilities sector, these activities could
significantly advance construction efficiency and improve quality, timeliness, cost-effectiveness
and sustainability of construction projects. NRC also chose the following five breakthroughs from
among dozens of potential ideas, concepts, processes and practices as potentially having the most
significant impact on the construction industry efficiency and productivity which are:
i) Widespread deployment and use of interoperable technology applications;

ii) Improved job-site efficiency through more effective interfacing of people, processes,
materials, equipment and information;
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iii) Greater use of prefabrication, preassembly, modularization and off-site fabrication

techniques and processes;
iv) Innovative, widespread use of demonstration installations; and
v) Effective performance measurement to drive efficiency and support innovation.
The Malaysia construction industry in public and private sector assume an important role in
generating wealth and improving the quality of life for Malaysian through the translation of the
government’s socio-economic policies into social and economic infrastructures and building. The
construction industry also provides job opportunities for approximately 800,000 people (CIDB,
2007). Further, the construction industry creates a multiplier effect to other industries, including
manufacturing, financial services and professional services. Figure 1 further defines the
construction industry value chain, as it involves multiple stakeholders at different stages of the
value chain and key sectors that could leverage on the construction industry. Opportunities include
building and construction materials, tooling, heavy equipment and machineries and also financial
services. The new approach to construct a building or infrastructure has been to perform faster
construction to save money and increase the quality of work. In order to accomplish this, the rapid
construction method has to be introduced that allow the policy of get in, get out and stay out.
Figure 1: Construction industry value chain

Source: Construction Industry Malaysia Plan (CIDB, 2007)
2 OBJECTIVES
The aim of this paper is to introduce the concept of rapid construction as a modernizing
construction practice in Malaysia. The need to place a greater emphasis on achieving a better
construction environment which meets the needs of the end user at the earlier processes will make
this research flow by the objective of:
i) Identifying the problems faced by conventional construction process;

ii) Evaluate the concept of rapid construction; and
iii) Identifying the need of rapid construction for modernizing construction in Malaysia.
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3 METHODOLOGY
Research methodology as defined in the research method will be carried out in this study.
The cost-effective usage of the revenue will only be achieved using the suitable method. Therefore,
it is crucial to ensure data and information gathered to be exact and in line with the information and
objectives of the study. This research methodology will touch on the aspects of procedure in the
implementation of this study to ensure that the findings can be operated more orderly and
effectively. This matter aims to ensure all data gathered are based upon valid sources and it is in
accordance with objective of the study. The procedure will be starting by understanding the
construction problem and the elements of rapid construction through literature. Then, questionnaire
survey have distributed to see the acceptence of rapid construction were done among construction
players. 35 respondents have completed the survey. After this literature and collecting data phases,
analyzing the data using mean value was done to rank the level of aggreed on factors of
construction problems that have been identified from literature. Scale shows mean value of 1
indicate least aggred until 5 represent highly agreed. Last, the discussion and conclusion were done
to see either the construction players agree or not whether rapid construction is consider as
modernizing construction in Malaysia.
4 NEED FOR MODERNIZING CONSTRUCTION
The traditional construction method was understood as the common practice inherited from
the long established custom of delivering the construction project. There is a need to take a holistic
approach to reviewing the factors impacting the construction industry performance. Improvements
need to be implemented by all parties along the entire construction flow for lasting transformation
to occur. Therefore, advance construction methods have to be considered for this new era in
delivering project. Enhancement the speed of the construction process flow is the vital to build a
sustainable local or foreign construction industry that is poised to compete with the global players.
In 2007, Construction Industry Development Board of Malaysia (CIDB) has identified one of the
key failures of project delivery which is inefficient and ineffective methods and practices. CIDB
also have stated the need of innovative through research and development to be adopted in new
construction methods as their strategic thrust to improve the delivering method. Meaning that, some
element of modernizing should be adopted such as rapid construction.
Traditionally, the word construction usually refers to construction activities and only
involves construction parties such as contractors, architects, engineers, quantity surveyors and
developers (Ahmad, 2009). It is also definitely involving the client. This superficial understanding
of the term insufficient to depict and sometimes may give rise to misconceptions of the construction
industry. Construction activities are wide and are not confined to building and contract but also the
way of implementation and also the process flow. Construction industry has it own characteristics
and qualities that make it distinct from other industries. A construction is unique and involves many
different parties. Hence, it is only right that emphasis is given to the construction characteristics that
differentiate this industry from other industries.
The acquisition of a constructed facility usually represents a major capital investment,
whether its owner happens to be an individual, a pirate corporation or a public agency (Lecitia,
2007). Since the commitment of resources for such an investment is motivated by market demands
or perceived needs, the facility is expected to satisfy certain objectives within the constraints
specified by the owner and relevant regulations. From the perspective of an owner, the project life
cycle for a constructed facility may be illustrated schematically in Figure 2.
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Figure 2: Project life Cycle of a Constructed Facility

Source: Construction Design as a Process Flow: Applying Lean Principles to Construction Design (2007)
5 COMMON PROJECT DELIVERY PRACTICE
In recent years, the construction industry has developed new innovative delivery methods
beyond the more traditional of only assembly part of business (Lecitia, 2007). Typically the
conditions and timing greatly impact the delivery. In general, companies provide services or
products based on the requirements set forth in invitations for competitive bids issued by the client
or the results of direct contract negotiations with the client. One of the most important factors in
preparing a proposal and estimating the cost and profit of a project is the type of contract expected
(Harold, 2009). The industry has been subjected to innumerable reports and analysis over the years
in response to widespread dissatisfaction with the construction procurement process (Simon (1944),
Emmerson (1962), Banwell (1964), Latham (1994), Levene (1995) and Egan (1998, 2002)). Latham
(1994), has take a sponsor from U.K’s government to do an examination in the procurement of the
construction industry in that country. This 1994 Latham report title “Constructing the Team” was
worthy attempt which stressed the leadership that clients must give to create change. Most notably
it introduces the need for better teamwork and cooperation. The report identified many of the key
failings of the traditional approach to procuring and managing contracts such as:
i) The emphasis on lowest price rather than value for money;
ii) An adversarial culture throughout the supply chain; and
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iii) The lack of a client focus.
It made detailed recommendations including the need to bring together client, design
consultants, contractors and subcontractors as an integrated team. Also a partnership with an
emphasis of teamwork, openness and continuous improvement and move away from awarding
tenders solely on the basis of lowest price. It emphasised the role of the client in bringing about the
necessary changes within the industry and recommended that U.K’s government commit to
becoming a best practice client. Subsequent to the Lantham’s report, Sir Peter Levene (1995),
examine the Lantham report in its performance as a construction client. The report concluded that
performance of departments was poor and contributing in a significant way to the poor performance
of the industry. It criticised on:
i) Poor communication with contractors;

ii) Lack of understanding of risks and how to manage it;
iii) Unrealistically optimistic budgets and timetables; and
iv) Over simplistic views of competition with emphasis on long tender lists and initial
price rather than quality and long term costs.
The report made detailed recommendations to improve performance by encouraging team

working and partnering, improved forms of contract, training for staff and improvement of best
practice guidance. Despite the recommendations of Latham and Levene, progress in improving
performance on construction projects was perceived to be slow. A Construction Task Force was set
up by Sir John Egan (1998), to advise the Deputy Prime Minister of U.K from the client’s
perspective on the opportunities to improve the efficiency and quality of construction delivery,
reinforce the impetus for change and to make industry more responsive to customer needs. Egan
(1998) produced the report named “Rethinking Construction” which identified five drivers which
needed to be in place to secure improvement, four key processes which had to be significantly
enhanced and seven quantified targets for the level of improvement to be achieved as Figure 3.
This report looked outside construction for lessons from other sectors like automotive and it was
distinguished by its higher level of thinking.
Figure 3: 5:4:7 mantra of Rethinking Construction

Source: Accelerating Change (2002)
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6 BACKGROUND OF RAPID CONSTRUCTION
The performances in construction industry rely on many factors to improve the construction
flow from its complexity. Rapid construction is a concept to enhance efficiency of construction
process flow by time reduction to ensure the successes of project delivery in a chronicle time of
contract and meets client satisfactions. According to Bertelsen (2003), this complexity aspect must
be seen in at least three perspectives. Firstly, the project itself as an assembly and like process is
often complicated, parallel and dynamic thus more complex than traditional project management
envisages. The mistake is the ordered view of the surrounding world. All supplies are believed to be
made in accordance with the project, unreliable schedule and all resources such as equipment and
crew are supposed to stand by, ready for the project’s beck and call. And changes will not occur.
However, this is not the way the world operates. Secondly, almost all construction projects are
divided into parts that are subcontracted to individual enterprises. The construction industry is thus
highly fragmented and its firms cooperate in ever changing patterns, decided mainly by the lowest
bids for the project in question. They are also interwoven, as every firm at the same time
participates in more than one project, utilizing the same production capacity. Mapping the supply
chain in any project is thus next to impossible. Thirdly, the project and the construction site is a
working place for humans and place for cooperation and social interaction. This aspect is often
hidden by the fact that the staff at the construction site is not hired and reimbursed by the place
where they work. Their loyalty is thus divided between their own firm and the job at hand, often
with the firm as the one with the highest priority. Traditional project management often overlooks
this aspect and does not perceive the gangs on site as their own employees in the virtual firm, which
is form by the project. According to the application of rapid construction in construction process
flow, it has main basis which is restriction of time constraint. The situation in construction differs in
many ways from the typical situation in manufacturing. The production in construction is assembly
type, where different material flows are connected to the end product. Considering a simple
example, the typical construction process can be described as Figure 4.
Figure 4: Formation of construction duration

Source: Koskela (1995)
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The illustrated show that in practice task have different durations and the time buffers
between tasks vary. The first task is usually planning and site preparation (not usually shown in
schedules), the second one often excavation and the next ones ordinary construction tasks.
However, the principles discusses next are valid also in the more complex and practical situation.
The basic principle in rapid construction is time reduction. Thus, there are three major ways of
reducing construction time which are:
i) Increasing the speed of tasks – This can naturally be achieved through increased
labour and more effective machinery. However, after the optimal rhythm has been
reached, the costs will rise. A more interesting alternative is to eliminate non-value
adding sub activities from each task. As it is well known, error correction, multiple
handling and waiting make up a large part of the working time and provide thus a
good potential for improvement;
ii) Reducing the buffer between consecutive tasks (increasing the overlapping of task) –
The buffers are planned between tasks in order to prevent waiting due to variability
in task speed. Thus, reduction of variability is needed (Kaplinski, 1993). Variability
is caused by human factors, environmental impacts and disturbances flowing from
earlier phases of the project. More detailed planning and monitoring is required. The
reduction of disturbances necessitates long term activities in the construction
practice.
iii) Reducing the number of tasks – The first possibility is the transfer of tasks off-site
(off the critical path) to upstream phases of the respective material (or information)
flow. This means increased pre-cutting, pre-assembly and pre-fabrication. A second
possibility is provided by alternative, more constructible design solutions. Utilization
of multi-skilled work gangs also shortened by reducing the planning time. However,
this might lead to a prolongment of the total construction time.
Figure 5: Theoretical alternatives for construction time reduction

Source: Koskela (1995)
7 RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Survey was done to get the overview among civil engineers, project managers, project
planners, quality system managers, quantity surveyor and construction researchers. They are
construction players because of the involvement and contribution to construction industry.
Although conventional construction have its own merit and most popular in current practice,
contemporary or modernization should be implement to solve the problem of efficiency in
conventional construction. The industry agreed that using Industrialised Building System (IBS)
offer the best practice to ensure time reduction and minimizing non-value activities. Rapid
137
construction is a concept to enhance the efficiency of construction process flow and to ensure the
successes of project delivery in a chronicle time of contract by time reduction. The construction
players found the problem faced by the construction industry related to conventional construction
method are because of:
i. Its nature;
ii. Management process;
iii. Site production efficiency; and
iv. Resource related.
From this study conducted, Table 1 to Table 4 describe the problem faced by the
conventional construction process regarding the main cluster of nature, management, site
production and resources.
Table 1: Problems related to nature of conventional construction process

No. Criteria Mean
1 Higher reliance of workers rather than technology 4.06
2 Difficult to control in term of time overrun 4.00
3 Difficulties in changing adversarial culture of conventional construction process 3.97
4 Fragmentation of design and construction creates problem in communication 3.78
5 Difficulties in overlapping activities 3.78
Average 3.92
Table 2: Management problems of conventional construction process

No. Criteria Mean
1 Communication between administrative and site personnel always an issue 4.07
2 Problems always occur in controlling workers 3.97
3 Difficulties in transferring information 3.70
4 Coordination of workers creates management tension 3.63
Average 3.84
Table 3: Site production problems of conventional construction process

No. Criteria Mean
1 Design errors and changes of drawings always occur 3.97
2 Checking and testing for in-situ methods creates complexity in construction process 3.78
3 Hard in securing construction time delivery time 3.75
4 Safety issue hard to be implemented 3.63
5 Issue of buildability always occur in conventional construction 3.53
Average 3.73
Table 4: Resource problems of conventional construction process

No. Criteria Mean
1 Traditional construction process needs experience personnel to manage the 4.29
Activities
2 Materials supply chain really important 4.26
3 Materials inventory on site contribute to site congestion 3.90
4 Materials always procure in large quantities 3.81
5 Quantity of plant and machineries always an issue in traditional construction
Process 3.68
Average 3.99
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Because of these problem faced by conventional construction, rapid construction concept

should be practiced as a modernizing construction in the industry. To achieve a rapid construction,
understanding and managing the construction process as a flow have been a key issue. A
fundamental issue in construction physic is to understand the underlying causes of time and flow
variability mainly caused by non-transformation stages of production (e.g. waiting, moving and
inspection) and to characterize the effects of this variability in the overall production process. The
idea for the work on rapid construction is similar to the production of project, focusing not only at
the main flow of the process of the product, but also verifying the statement that there might be
more than one flow of determining the performance of the process. When discussing about rapid
construction, all variations and customizations are foreseen and included in the project for real
improvisation in the process features at the most limited time constrain. This is because any
constructions work package has conditions to be fulfilled without any delay, which is an important
issue. In Malaysia, this issue being an urgent need for improving construction industry. Figure 6
show the perception of construction players on the need of rapid construction concept in
modernizing construction industry. As a result, 100% respondent agreed that this method is an
innovative way for modernizing construction in Malaysia, 94% of respondent think that rapid
construction can reduce overall project time, 65% agreed that this method can increased quality of
work and majority decline on term of cost. So, it is very significant to implement rapid construction
in Malaysia as view by construction players.
Figure 6: Respond from construction players through questionnaire survey regarding rapid
construction method as a modernizing construction in Malaysia.
139
8 CONCLUSION
Rapid construction provides a significant opportunity to reduce the congestion associated

with the construction phase. This method will lessen project durations while retaining the necessary
quality. Opportunities for innovative methods are numerous, for example the using of pre-cast or
modularization. The construction players in Malaysia agreed that this concept as a modernizing
application in construction. The major studies have highlighted the inefficiencies of traditional
methods of construction and managing projects. The conceptual of rapid construction have a
significance implementation of modernizing construction in Malaysia. Rapid construction
introduces a few interchangeable ways to carry through some parts of the process. Have to notice
that the traditional flow represents only cases where the divisions of labour and organisational
relations between the parties are alike. While in the traditional design process the detailed solution
is a result of straightforward design that, stage by stage, become more accurate, the other process
concentrates initially on defining the clear functional requirements, pet ideas of designer and
unambiguous selection criteria for the comparison of tender solutions. Thus, the activities differ so
much that it is practicable to use separate concepts to refer to them in order to be able to describe
the used of the best practice. However, the solution is not that clear. In the case of similar kinds of
processes, the different order of activities is likely to cause some differences in those similar
activities. On the other hand, also the activities of extremely different processes should have many
common components since the aim to “build a building” is the same. Rapid construction provides
for several interesting research themes. From strictly research point of view, the effects of time
reduction is the main element of successful project improvement.
REFERENCES
Alarcon, L.F. et. al. (1994) Identification of critical factors in the owner-contractor relation in
construction projects. Proceeding of 2nd workshop on lean construction. Santiago. pp:127-
141.
Construction Industry Development Board (2007) Construction Industry Master Plan Malaysia
2006-2015. Malaysia.
Egan, J. (1998) Rethinking construction: The report of the construction task force. United
Kingdom.
Ellis, R. D. (1993) Identifying and monitoring key indicators of project success. Proceeding of 1st
workshop on lean construction. Espoo. pp:43-49.
Government Construction Client Group (1999) Improving the government construction client; The
achieving excellence initiative for Northern Ireland. Northern Ireland.
Goodrum P.M. et. al. (2005) Innovative rapid construction/reconstruction methods. University of
Kentucky U.S.
Hendrickon, C. & Au, T. (1989) Project management for construction: Fundamental concepts for
owners, engineers, architects and builders. Prentice-Hall. Englewood Cliffs.
Huovila, P. (1994) Fast or concurrent: The art of getting construction improved. Proceeding of 2nd
workshop on lean construction. Santiago. pp:143-159.
Kentucky Transportation Center (2005) Innovative Rapid Construction/Reconstruction
Methods. Research report for July 2005. U.S.
Koskela, L. (1992) Towards the theory of (lean) construction. VTT Building Technology. Finland.
Koskela, L. (1993) Lean production in construction. Proceeding of 1st workshop on lean
construction. Espoo. pp:1-9.
Modular Building Institute (2010) Improving Construction Efficiency and Productivity with
Modular Construction. USA.
National Audit Office of U.K (2001) Modernizing construction. London.
Project Management Institute (1987) Project management body of knowledge. Drexell Hill.
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Sanvido, V. E. (1990) An integrated building process model. Technical Report. Pennsylvania State
University. U.S.
Tan, B. (2005) A visual process for planning trade flow on construction projects. Technical Report
No. 48. Pennsylvania State University. U.S.
Triplett, J.E. and Bosworth, B.P. (2008) The State of Data for Services Productivity Measurement
in United States, Brooking Institution. Washington.
Tulacz and Armistead (2007) Advancing the Competitiveness and Efficiency of the U.S.
Construction Industry. The National Academic Press. Washington.
Yahya, M. A. and Mohamad, M.I. (2009) The Significance of Lean Principles to Achieve Rapid
Construction. Proceeding: National Postgraduate Conference on Engineering, Science and
Technology. Malaysia. pp 61.
Yahya, M. A. and Mohamad, M.I. (2009) Rapid Construction Criteria and Its Implementation in
Construction Industry. Proceeding: The Management in Construction Researchers
Association 2009. Malaysia. pp 122-128.
Yahya, M. A. and Mohamad, M.I. (2009) Achieving Rapid Construction Using Lean Principles.
Proceeding: International Symposium on Construction in Developing Economies:
Commonalities Among Diversities. Malaysia. pp 340-348.
141
142
THE SEISMIC ANALYSIS OF MALAYSIAN BRIDGES
Muhammad Umar Zulkefli

Research Officer, Malaysian Rubber Board
umar@lgm.gov.my
ABSTRACT
Malaysia is situated at a close proximity to countries of very high seismic activities. The devastating
earthquake of Mexico (1985) and Gujarat (2000) were was the result of a distant earthquake whose
epicentre was more than 300km away, while Gujurat (2001) was a near field earthquake of magnitude
8 Mw, far from any expected source, normally associated with tectonic boundaries. Therefore it is
arguable that the vulnerability of structures in Malaysia to earthquake should be assessed. In any case,
Malaysian construction companies and consulting engineers may wish to engage in countries with an
established seismic hazard, for which their Malaysian experience will be inadequate without also an
awareness of seismic design principles. This paper presents a performance-based seismic analysis of
two types of regular bridge in Malaysia: a conventional and an integral bridge. The conventional
bridge has rubber bearings between bridge pier and deck. In the case of the integral bridge the pier
and deck were monolithic so the thermal contraction and expansion of the deck is allowed for by the
flexibility in the piers. Both bridges were analyzed with low intensity bidirectional earthquake
excitations (two horizontal components) with assessment of the dynamic structural responses of the
bridges. The synthetic ground motion of Kuala Lumpur was used in Finite Element Analysis (FEA)
software SAP2000 for the bridge analysis and simulation. The analysis showed that even though the
displacements were much reduced for the integral bridge, the acceleration, shear force, bending
moment and base shear were much higher than for the bridge with rubber bearings.
Keywords: Bridges, Earthquake, Rubber bearing, Finite Element Analysis (FEA), Structural response,
SAP2000.
1 INTRODUCTION
The concept of integral bridge has become known and increasingly accepted in Malaysia
with local engineering authority has constructed many integral bridges since 2005. Integral bridges
do not need bearings and expansion joints with the objective to eliminate the associated
maintenance and replacement costs. However the initial construction cost will be higher than for a
conventional bridge due to high precision construction and tedious specification in terms of
superstructure erection and abutment alignment. Conventional bridges include bearings and joints
in the design.
Malaysia is not located directly on a seismically active area but it is bordered by an active
Sumatran Fault 700km to the west. Earlier study on deterministic method has shown that Malaysia
is categorized in the low intensity ground acceleration area of around 0.15g (gravity force) in
Peninsular Malaysia and 0.20g in Sabah and Sarawak (A.Adnan et al. 2005).
The Gujarat earthquake, January 26 2001 was an intraplate earthquake that occurred at a
distance from any plate boundary where tectonic plates creates most earthquake. The area was not
prepared and resulted 20,000 casualties.
The Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA) across the Peninsular Malaysia ranges between 0.10
and 0.25 g (g = gravity acceleration, 9.81 ms-2) for 10% probability of exceedance, and between
0.15 and 0.35 g for 2% probability of exceedance in 50 years hazard (A.Adnan, 2005).
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In this paper, the responses of two types of bridge (integral and conventional) to bidirectional
low level earthquake ground motion are investigated. In this study, artificial Kuala Lumpur ground
motion and response spectrum have been used to simulate the earthquake. The objectives of this
study are;
1. To perform 3D finite element modeling analysis to investigate the seismic response of the
integral and conventional bridges.
2. To compare the structural response and dynamic behavior of two bridges.
3. Evaluate the behavior of the conventional rubber bearings under low level earthquake.
Fixed
Rigid pier-deck
Deck abutment
connection
Pier
Figure 1: The integral bridge longitudinal schematic diagram
Rubber Deck
bearing
Pier
Abutment
Figure 2: The conventional bridge transverse schematic diagram
2 STRUCTURAL MODEL OF THE BRIDGES
2.1 Bridge structure
Structural models are developed in SAP2000, a Finite Element Analysis program, where
shell element representing the deck superstructure, frame element for deck, pier, and bent. Link
element is used to represents the rubber bearings.
2.2 The integral bridge - Bridge at Jalan Duta/Jalan Segambut interchange crossing Jalan
Kuching – integral bridge
This integral type of bridge is located in Segambut region, crossing Jln Kuching from Jln
Duta. It is a part of the interchange structure that connects Jalan Damansara and Jalan Segambut.
The location note is Institut Kefahaman Islam Malaysia (IKIM). The bridge has 2 spans with total
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length of 34.12m and 10.56m wide. The deck structure is rectangular prestressed beam. While the
pier is a normal reinforced concrete column. The abutment of the bridge is an abutment wall type
and monolithically jointed with its top structure (deck and girder). Abutment wall also supports the
backsoil pressure at the same time.
The link between the deck and abutment and bent are all rigidly fixed, representing the
monolithic and integrated joint between two main structure components. The SAP2000 model of
the integral structure is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3: Extrude view of integral bridge in SAP2000 model
2.3 The conventional bridge – Bridge crossing Sungai Gombak.
This integral type of bridge is located in Batu region, connecting Jln 1/48A (Bdr Sentul
Baru) and Jln Setapak. The location note is SRJK (C) Chong Hwa. The bridge has 3 spans with
total length of 85.8m and 13m wide. The deck section consists of prestressed I-beam with
hammerhead column at each bent. The structure model of the bridge in SAP2000 is shown in
Figure 4. A link system has been incorporated to represent the rubber bearings between the pier
head and girders.
Figure 4: Extrude view of integral bridge in SAP2000 model
The conventional bridge has a pier-deck connection in order to allow incorporation of

rubber bearings in the system. Rubber bearing models were assigned by using non-linear properties
with the stiffness in vertical and horizontal direction defined in the element properties. The
nonlinearity of rubber implies that the stiffness is not a constant but depends on the load, a special
characteristic of rubber.
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Theoretically, the rubber bearing allow movement of the deck on its supporting piers when
changes in length due to thermal expansion and contraction (Davies, 1985). Because of the deck can
move freely due to rubber flexibility, considerable bending forces on the piers are avoided. This
study will look into the behaviour of the rubber bearing under the low intensity earthquake.
2.2 Load – deformation behavior of rubber bearing
Figure 1 shows the general arrangement of integral bridge consisting multispan continuous
deck with rigid pier-deck connection whilst Figure 2 shows the conventional bridge consisting
multispan continuous deck with inclusion of rubber bearings. For this study the rubber bearing is
stiff in vertical direction and flexible in horizontal direction. For the earthquake analysis the
following assumptions are made;
i) The bridge models are assumed to remain in elastic state during the analysis, because
the rubber bearing attempts to reduce the seismic force in such way the structure will
remain elastic.
ii) The abutments of the integral bridge are assumed to be rigid. Furthermore the piers
are rigidly fixed to the rigid ground.
iii) Two simultaneous horizontal earthquake components are considered in the
longitudinal and transverse direction of the bridge as proposed by R.S Jangid (2004)
and BS EN1998-2:2005 (Eurocode 8 – Design of structures for earthquake
resistance. Part 2- Bridges)
iv) Minor non-structural elements such as parapet and curb are neglected.
v) Earthquake excitations are directly applied to the structure’s base, where the pier and
abutment founded on solid soil.
3 ANALYSIS APPROACH
3.1 Structural properties of the integral and conventional bridges.
Table 1 The geometric and dynamic properties of the bridges.
Properties Integral bridge Conventional bridge

Deck
Span length (m) 2 @ 14 20 – 40 – 26.6
Pier height (m) 10.5 11
Bent type Wall-type Hammerhead
Deck cross-sectional area (m2) 6.47 6.96
Concrete modulus of elasticity (N/mm2) 24855 24855
Weight per unit volume (N/mm3) 2.35 E-05 2.35E-05
Concrete compressive strength (N/mm) 40 40
Rubber Bearing
Compressive stiffness ( N/mm) - 1500 E+03
Shear stiffness ( N/mm) - 8.0 E+03
The response of the bridge systems is investigated considering the bilinear earthquake
components of Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA). The artificial Kuala Lumpur earthquake time
history and response spectrum are shown in Figure 7 and Figure 8.
146
The bridges underwent longitudinal (x-direction) and transverse (y-direction) direction both
earthquake motions. The direction of the response quantities considered is shown in Figure 6.
2 Notation:
U1 – Longitudinal
U2 – Transverse
U3 – Vertical
Figure 5: The axis notation in the SAP2000 bridge modelling.
The response quantities of interest in the bridge analysis are pier base shear (in both
longitudinal and transverse direction), deck and pier acceleration (ẍ - acceleration in longitudinal
direction and ӱ - acceleration in longitudinal direction), relative deck displacement (x and y), shear
force (V), bending moment (M). The pier base shear is relatively the energy that exert in the bridge
system due to the earthquake ground motion. The response time history plots of both integral and
conventional bridges are shown in Figure 8 to Figure 19.
Figure 6: The Kuala Lumpur artificial ground motion curve (PGA - 0.16g)
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4 ANALYSIS RESULTS
4.1 Mode Shape
Table 2 The mode shapes of the Integral and Conventional Bridges (Modal Analysis).
Mode Integral bridge Conventional bridge
- Period : 0.16 s - Period: 0.82s

- Frequency : 6.25 Hz - Frequency : 1.22 Hz
- Period: 0.14 s - Period: 0.59 s

- Frequency : 7.14 Hz - Frequency : 1.69 Hz
- Period: 0.41 s
- Period: 0.13 s
- Frequency : 2.43 Hz
- Frequency : 7.69 Hz
4.2 Response of acceleration and displacement
Table 3: The peak acceleration and absolute displacement of the decks for 0.16g PGA for integral
and conventional bridge
Integral Conventional
PGA Displacement Acceleration Displacement Acceleration
Direction
0.160 g (mm) (m/s2, g) (mm) (m/s2, g)
x or y or ÿ x or y or ÿ
Longitudinal 0.05 0.161 22.92 0.153

THU1
Transverse 0.12 0.491 62.85 0.059
Longitudinal 0.41 0.495 10.41 0.070

THU2
Transverse 4.78 1.610 14.03 0.167
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Table 4: The maximum base shear at the base of bridge structure
Base Shear
Integral Conventional
Excitation
(x103 kN) (x103 kN)
Longitudinal 0.27 4.30
THU1
Transverse 0.32 2.29
Longitudinal 1.64 2.62
THU2
Transverse 14.20 1.67
4.3 Bridge Girder Responses
Two sets of analysis were considered which are 1) Component of longitudinal +

0.3transverse and 2) Component of 0.3longitudinal + transverse. The annotation summary of the
seismic analysis components are shown below;
• THU1 : Time History Analysis (Longitudinal + 0.3Transverse Combination)

• THU2 : Time History Analysis (0.3Longitudinal + Transverse Combination)
• D/C : Demand/Capacity ratio
The Demand/Capacity ratio (D/C) is used to indicate the structural response. D/C values
greater than 1.0 indicate an overstress condition. The internal forces exerted in the bridge girders
are shown in Table 6 and 7.
Table 5: The maximum applied and capacity force at the girder (Jalan Duta- Segambut – Integral)
Time History Analysis D/C ratio

Member capacity
THU1 THU2 THU1 THU2
Shear : 492 kN 313 718 0.63 1.46
Girder 1
Moment : 482 kNm 1428 1395 2.96 2.89
Shear : 492 kN 379 260 0.77 0.52

Girder 2
Moment : 482 kNm 1473 1317 3.05 2.73
Shear : 492 kN 753 769 1.53 1.56

Girder 3
Moment : 482 kNm 1596 1315 3.31 2.73
Shear : 492 kN 772 763 1.56 1.55

Girder 4
Moment : 482 kNm 1654 1290 3.43 2.67
Shear : 492 kN 443 430 0.90 0.87

Girder 5
Moment : 482 kNm 1621 1175 3.36 2.43
Shear : 492 kN 632 882 1.28 1.79

Girder 6
Moment : 482 kNm 1942 1536 4.02 3.18
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Table 6: The maximum applied and capacity force at the girder (Bridge crossing Sungai Gombak –
Conventional)
Time History Analysis D/C ratio

Member capacity
THU1 THU2 THU1 THU2
Shear : 620 kN 554 752 0.89 1.21

Girder 1
Moment : 1700 kNm 2240 2735 1.31 1.61
Shear : 620 kN 382 405 0.62 0.65

Girder 2
Moment : 1700 kNm 1712 1823 1.01 1.07
Shear : 620 kN 482 554 0.78 0.89

Girder 3
Moment : 1700 kNm 1713 1801 1.01 1.05
Shear : 620 kN 670 759 1.08 1.22

Girder 4
Moment : 1700 kNm 1743 1886 1.02 1.11
Shear : 620 kN 588 695 0.94 1.12

Girder 5
Moment : 1700 kNm 1809 1930 1.06 1.13
Shear : 620 kN 436 483 0.70 0.78

Girder 6
Moment : 1700 kNm 1829 1939 1.07 1.14
Shear : 620 kN 357 402 0.57 0.65

Girder 7
Moment : 1700 kNm 1816 1939 1.06 1.14
Shear : 620 kN 416 692 0.67 1.11

Girder 8
Moment : 1700 kNm 2214 2641 1.30 1.55
The time variation plots of deck acceleration, displacement and base shear are shown from
Figure 8 to 19. The responses are based on the artificial Kuala Lumpur ground motion. The
responses are shown for THU1 case with structure axes of longitudinal (x) and transverse (y).
• Analysis case 1 – THU1
Figure 7: Time variation of deck acceleration in the bidirectional TH case subjected to Kuala
Lumpur earthquake motion (PGA - 0.16g)
150
Figure 8: Time variation of deck displacement in the bidirectional TH case subjected to Kuala
Figure 9: Time variation of base shear in the bidirectional TH case subjected to Kuala
Figure 10: Time variation of deck acceleration in the bidirectional TH case subjected to Kuala
151
Figure 11: Time variation of desk displacement in the bidirectional TH case subjected to
Kuala Lumpur earthquake motion (PGA - 0.16g)
Figure 12: Time variation of base shear in the bidirectional TH case subjected to Kuala
The dynamic responses of both bridges are presented. The first three mode shapes and its
natural periods are shown in Table 2 and Table 3. The integral bridge has natural period of 0.16
second while the conventional has 0.62 second. With the normal period of earthquake being the
range of 0.1 to 1.0 second, both bridges will be likely susceptible to the resonance effect from the
ground motion. The deck acceleration and displacement for both bridges are tabled in Table 4.
Given the Kuala Lumpur artificial ground acceleration is 0.16g, the acceleration of integral bridge
show values of 0.161g and conventional bridge with 0.153g, meaning that the integral bridge has
been amplifying the ground acceleration while conventional bridge dampen the acceleration . The
acceleration however is more important to building analysis, because it disrupts the contents, but it
is forces rather than acceleration that affect bridge the most. The base shear are relatively
independence between the two types of bridges, as they are different in dead load and structural
arrangements as base shear is derived by structure self-weight.
The observations through the girder response in terms of shear and moment capacities are
summarized in Table 6 and Table 7. Collectively the shear and moment taken up by the integral
bridge superstructure is higher than the conventional bridge’s. For the shear checking, the
demand/capacity ratio (D/C) values are about the same for both bridges, where the value lies around
0.5 to 1.6. However lower value resides more on the conventional bridge. While for the moment
checking, the D/C values of the integral bridge are much higher compared to conventional bridge.
The values for integral bridge range from 2.73 to 4.02, while for conventional from 1.01 to 1.55.
The greater value shows integral bridge’s girders are taking higher forces and that will cause serious
structural damage.
The time variation of the deck acceleration and pier base shear of the designated bridges with
consideration of bilinear direction of motion are plotted in Figure 8 to Figure 19. There are two
152
curves in each plot in order to compare the responses of the two types of bridges. it can be
concluded that the bridges respond at their first mode frequencies, as expected, and the response of
deck acceleration for the conventional bridge with rubber bearing are rather less than for the
integral bridge.
5 CONCLUSION
A study of the seismic response of two types of regular bridge, namely integral bridge and
conventional bridge with rubber bearing is presented. The bridges have been analyzed with artificial
low intensity earthquake of Kuala Lumpur in bilinear direction of forces. The dynamic and
structural responses are compared to verify the behaviour of both structures under the low seismic
energy, to better understand which type of bridge, typical of Malaysian design practice, is better at
withstanding earthquakes. It is observed that although the relative deck displacement of the
conventional bridge is high (up to 63mm for 0.16g PGA), the acceleration is generally lower
compared to the integral bridge with the same ground excitation. If there is significantly lower
amplitude of acceleration means the structure will likely to survive in the earthquake event. The
internal forces of shear and moment of the girder shows that the integral bridge is having greater
forces, compared to the conventional bridge. The demand/capacity ratio of shear for both bridges is
comparatively about the same, while the moment is much higher for the integral bridge. The greater
value shows integral bridge’s girders are taking higher forces and that may cause serious structural
damage.
From the analysis, it can be concluded that both conventional and integral bridge are prone to
low intensity earthquake, with the integral bridge may bring some serious concern over its structural
response. The incorporation of rubber bridge bearing may be proven to take the vehicular load, as
well as the temperature gradient effect. However, the rubber bearing may not be the adequate for
the earthquake mitigation. It is crucial to reanalyze the integral bridge system as the analysis shows
it suffers more than the conventional bridge under the low intensity earthquakes. A concept of base
isolation may need to be considered as the solution, in order to protect both integral and
conventional bridges.
REFERENCES
Adnan A., Hendriyawan, Irsyam M. (2003) The Effect of the November 2, 2002 Sumatran
Earthquake to Malaysian Peninsular. Proceeding Asia Pacific Structural Engineering
Conference. Johor Bahru, 26– 28 August, Malaysia
Davies B. (1985) Rubber bearings in civil engineering. Plastic and Rubber International Journal,
17-22.
Naeim F., Kelly J. (1999) Design of Seismic Isolated Structures: From Theory to Practice.
Wiley:New York.
Jangid R. S. (2004) Seismic Response of Isolated Bridges. Journal of Bridge Engineering@ASCE,
156-166
Chopra K. (2000) Dynamics of Structure, Prentice Hall.
Kundem C., Jangid R. S. (2003) Seismic behavior of isolated bridges: A-state-of-the-art review.
Electric Journal of Struct. Eng, 140-163.
Sarrazin M., Moroni O., Roesset J. M. (2005) Evaluation of dynamic response characteristics of
seismically isolated bridges in Chile. Earthquake Engng and Struct. Dyn. 34:425-448
BS EN1998-2:2005 (Eurocode 8 – Design of structures for earthquake resistance. Part 2- Bridges)
153
154
THE WAY FORWARD OF SUSTAINABLE CONSTRUCTION AND GREEN

TECHNOLOGY IN MALAYSIA
Zuhairi Bin Abd. Hamid, PhD. Ir.

Executive Director, Construction Research Institute of Malaysia (CREAM)
zuhairi@cidb.gov.my
Mohd Syarizal Bin Mohd Noor, MEng.
Researcher, Construction Research Institute of Malaysia (CREAM)
syarizal@cream.com.my
Kamarul Anuar Bin Mohamad Kamar, MSc.
Manager, Construction Research Institute of Malaysia (CREAM)
kamarul@cidb.gov.my
Mohd Khairolden Bin Ghani, MSc.
khairolden@cidb.gov.my
Maria Zura Binti Mohd Zain, MSc.
maria@cidb.gov.my
Ahmad Hazim Bin Abdul Rahim, MEng.Sc.
hazim@cidb.gov.my
ABSTRACT
Sustainable development and green technology have become an important issue in Malaysia. The
recent announcements on Malaysia’s commitment to adopt green technology have been widespread,
including in the construction industry. Issues of sustainability and green construction have been duly
highlighted in the Malaysian Construction Industry Master Plan 2006-2015 (CIMP) as being of
significant important to the industry. Creating a sustainable construction and applying green
technology in Malaysian construction requires a strategic approach that will benefit the country’s
current and future consideration on issues related to economic, social, environment and quality of life.
This paper is a literature search on the potential areas with respect to sustainable construction and
green technology in the construction industry. This paper investigates the challenges facing by the
industry in developing sustainable agenda and discusses Construction Industry Development Board
(CIDB)’s initiatives in implementing sustainable agenda. Finally, the paper highlights current
research on sustainable construction and green technology and provides strategic recommendations as
the way forward.
Keywords: Sustainable construction, green technology, strategic approach, challenges, way forward.
1 INTRODUCTION
The construction industry is an important sector to the Malaysian economy. For many years
it has created important roles in improving the quality of life for Malaysia through multiplier effects
to other industries. In this respect, physical development only would not give the guarantee to
pursuit the quality of life for future generations. The industry must also be able to develop and
utilize resources with most effectively, competitive and sustainable in economy. Issues of
sustainability and green construction have been duly highlighted in the Malaysian Construction
Industry Master Plan (CIMP 2006 – 2015) as being of significant importance for the Malaysian
construction industry. The Malaysian government is also committed to addressing sustainability
155
issues and meeting its target and obligations in this regard. The Malaysian government
announcement on the creation of the Energy, Green Technology and Water ministry is to spearhead
the country’s sustainability agenda. The emphasis on creating green or environmentally friendly
buildings gained new attention through the establishment of Green Building Index (GBI). Buildings
in Malaysia will be awarded the GBI Malaysia rating based on 6 key criteria below:
i) Energy Efficiency
ii) Indoor Environmental Quality
iii) Sustainable Site Planning and Management
iv) Materials and Resources
v) Water Efficiency
vi) Innovation
This paper discusses the theory behind sustainable and green building, the role played by
Construction Industry Development Board (CIDB) Malaysia to set out an agenda and a strategy for
action to attain current and future sustainability environment and chart the way forward. The policy
set by the government, research and development (R&D) innovation, the domestic skills
development and construction capability, are all fundamental to address the need for sustainable
development and green technology agenda. It is important to note that, this paper is only a literature
search for this topic. The methodology used was synthesising literatures from relevant sources.
More rigours methodologies will be adopted once this research continues into the next stage which
will involve data collection.
2 SUSTAINABLE AND GREEN BUILDING IN CONSTRUCTION: THEORY
Sustainability has become buzzwords in the last 10 years. In 1987 the Bruntland
Commission articulated the concept of sustainable development, as it known today. The
Commission provided the most simple and widely used definition for sustainable development as
“Development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs” (WCED, 1987). In this concept, social well-being
environmental conservation as well as intra and intergenerational equity are simultaneously possible
while a nation achieves its full economic potential and enhances its resources base. The concept was
given currency at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in
1992, and reinforced at the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in 2002. UNCED
saw the first global agreement on programmes for action in all areas relating to sustainable
development, as documented in Agenda 21. The Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD)
was established to monitor the progress of implementing Agenda 21 which also includes sustainable
construction as one of the key area under it. (Latiff, et. al., 2004)
Sustainable construction is defined as “The creation and responsible maintenance of a health
built environment, based on ecological principles and by means of an efficient use of resources”. It
is a fact that about 30- 40 percent of the total natural resources used in industrialized countries are
exploited by the building industry. Almost 50 percent of this energy flow is used for weather
conditioning (heating and cooling) in buildings. In construction, one of the areas that sustainable
development researchers have concentrated on is energy efficiency of the building by reducing the
energy consumption of buildings (Bourdeau, 1999). The other aspect of sustainability within
construction is the idea of making buildings producers of energy using solar, wind and other non-
conventional sources of energy, that can be produced on the building itself (Unruh, 2008).
Figure 1 below shows the three spheres of sustainability which describes the pertinent
elements in sustainability agenda including the social, economy and environmental. The sub-
elements of sustainability spheres as shown in Figure 1 are social-environmental, environmental-
economic, and economic-social. In a developing country like Malaysia, the sustainable construction
156
trend tends to focus on relationship between construction and human development and
marginalizing environmental aspects. However, in light of the severe environmental degradation
experienced by most of the developing countries, construction industry cannot continue to ignore
the environment (Begum, 2005).
Figure 1: Three Spheres of Sustainable Development

(Source: Sandra et. al, 2002)
Apart from the three spheres of sustainable as mentioned above, the main thrust of the
sustainable in construction is encapsulated in 3 areas of classic construction management target
namely time, cost and quality. Each of these is not standing itself, but dynamically complemented
with the other elements which would pertinent to be part of the holistic structure for sustainable
construction that consider safety, security, environmental and health in construction as seen in
Figure 2. With the technology advancement and competitive environment striving for excellence
positive balance of interaction between all aspects in, sustainable development is no longer beyond
expectation.
157
Figure 2: Holistic Structure in Sustainable Construction
On the other hand, green technology is the important elements under the sustainability
domain. Based on a research by Lockwood (2007), there are 10 principles to be adopted if one
wants to implement green construction. Figure 3 below shows the 10 principles of the green as a
guiding principle for industries in implementing green building as a holistic approach. This
principle will guide the way forward with regard to green construction and implementation of
sustainability.
Figure 3: Principles of the Green Sustainability

(Source: Developed from Lockwood, 2007)
158
3 IMPLEMENTING STRATEGIES ON SUSTAINABILITY AND GREEN

TECHNOLOGIES : CIDB’S INITIATIVES
In order to pursue sustainable development, the construction industry itself has to be

sustainable and give emphasis to environmental matter in addition to economic gains and social
obligations.
TC 9: Good Environmental Practices in the

Construction Industry (CIDB/TC9)
WG 1 Development of Strategic and Programmes for Good Environment Practices
WG 2 Prevention and Control of Soil Erosion and Sedimentation in Construction
WG 3 Good Environmental Practices in Storm water Management
WG 4 Accreditation Scheme for Environment Management System for Contractor (DIY)
WG 5 Guideline on Environmental Management System for Construction Industry
WG 6 Guideline and Management of Construction Waste Material
Figure 4: Strategic Recommendation Working Group under Technical Committee 9 (CIDB/TC9)
In 1999 Construction Industry Development Board (CIDB) had established a Technical

Committee to look into developing good environmental practices in the construction industry.
Technical Committee 9 on Good Environmental Practices in the Construction Industry (CIDB/TC9)
comprises environmental experts from government agencies, professional bodies, academia and
construction related associations.
The role of CIDB/TC9 is to develop standards to improve environmental in the construction
industry and advise CIDB in the formulation of programmes to promote good environmental
practices. The term of reference of TC9 is to identify, prepare and develop the Construction
Industry Standard (CIS) and Good Environmental Practices in Construction Industry. CIDB/TC9
executes its mandate through the establishment of Working Group (WG). Figure 4 above shows the
strategic recommendation working group under CIDB / TC9.
CIDB also published Strategic Recommendations for Improving Environmental Practices in
Construction Industry (CIDB, 2007b) which highlighted recommendation to be the strategic way
forward in environment in Malaysian construction industry adopted by all players. The
recommendations are summarized as follows:
i) Strengthening the development approval process
ii) Enhancing law and enforcement
iii) Promoting self-regulation, reflecting the best regulatory practices which is necessary to
achieve sustainable construction in future
iv) Increasing capacity and public awareness and addressing knowledge gaps
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Construction Industry Master Plan 2006-2015 (CIMP) has been published to chart the way
forward for Malaysian construction. CIMP has identified the future challenges on environmental
aspect as mentioned in Strategic Thrust 3: Towards highest standard of quality, occupational safety
and health and environmental practices. CIMP has identified that the demand on environmental
sustainability is necessary to achieve and sustain economic growth and social development (CIDB,
2007a).
Table 1 Strategic Thrust 3 – Strive for the Highest Standard of Quality, Occupational Safety and
Health and Environmental Practices (CIDB, 2007a)
No. Action Plan Programme
1 Foster a quality and environment-friendly culture The need to increase customer demand in the
global environment in construction.
Necessary to achieve and sustain economic
growth and social development.
2 Encourage external accreditation in quality and CIDB will play actively in participation local
environmental management. construction companies to attain ISO 9001
• Incorporate ISO certification requirements as part and ISO 14001 certifications.
of the contractors registration scheme (G7 and
G8)
• Organise communication plan to promote ISO
certification
3 Promote environment-friendly practices. Initiatives of “Green Building Material” will

• Recommend to the Ministry of Housing and be promoted to ensure impact activities can
Local Government to develop guidelines on stage provide in order to spur economy and social
construction benefits at large. Urgent need of self-
• Propose to DOE to review conditional approval regulation within construction industry as a
provision for EIA reports. minimum necessary to achieve performance
• Enforce Tree Preservation Order (Act 1972). required.
• Encourage “Green Reporting” by public listed
companies
• Introduce tax incentives for the adoption of ISO
14001
Table 1 summarises some action plan and also the continuous programme to be
implemented to promote quality and environmentally culture among construction stakeholders.
CIMP envisaged that sustainable on construction is vital to the construction players to achieve
and sustain economic growth and social development (CIDB, 2007a). Currently, CIDB and
Construction Research Institute of Malaysia (CREAM) are formulating a task force group which
comprising captains from industries to look into the development of eco-labelling scheme for
construction materials. CREAM through its facilities provided at Makmal Kerja Raya Malaysia
(MKRM) with Standards and Industrial Research Institute of Malaysia (SIRIM) will move one step
ahead to ensure construction materials to be certified as eco-label in near future. Figure 5 shows the
proposal flowchart towards certification of eco-labelling in construction materials.
160
Identify relevant Product for Claims
Send Product for Testing at Feasibility study on Product against Product Standard
Accredited Lab
Submit Application to Eco-Labelling Institute
Processing of Application by Appointed CB (3rd Party Assessor)

Product Criteria Document
Setting
Factory and Product Assessment
Preparation of Report
Submission & Approval
Award of Certification
Renewal
Figure 5: Eco-Labelling Standard Development towards Certification Process
4 THE CHALLENGES OF SUSTAINABLE CONSTRUCTION
The construction industry faced massive challenge of sustainable construction. The scholars in
the field were pointed out the challenges for sustainable construction adoptions cited in previous
literatures are as follows:
i) The first one is the “circle of blame” among the project participants. Service providers
namely the contractors and consultants; said clients do not ask for sustainability (Baldock,
2000). The design team persists in the old ways and is reluctant to make the first move to
new territory. Clients, on the other hand, are afraid that the building will cost more and
take a longer time (Bordass, 2000). They also expect the service providers to take the lead
in improving their services (Business Vantage, 2002).
ii) Sustainability is treated as a discrete problem with an isolated solution, which creates
difficulties in blending it into the construction process (Griffith, 1996; Barrett et al., 1998).
Introduction of sustainability issues at later than the design stage causes changes in plan or
design, which would incur more costs than savings (Connaughton & Green, 1996; Norton
& McElligott, 1995)
iii) Ofori (1998) stated that construction faced difficulties in providing guidance for good
environmental practice in construction. Proper guidance needs to be formed to resolve this
matter.
iv) Unruh (2002) has argued that numerous barriers to sustainability arise because today’s
technological systems and governing institutions were designed and built for permanence
and reliability, which inhibits many change efforts.
v) Change resistance is viewed as involving change in individual values, whether at personal,
corporate, or collective level. Although the values are generally at the right place, the
problem is to enact them.
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5 THE WAY FORWARD ON MALAYSIA’S SUSTAINABILITY AND GREEN

STRATEGIES
Malaysian construction industry players need to take a holistic approach along the
construction value chain activities in performing their duties. Wider spectrum coverage within
construction fraternity itself including societies, workers must work together towards sustainable
construction in future. The way forward for Malaysian Construction industry to address the issue of
sustainability and green construction are as follows:
i) To incorporate and applies innovation in construction such in the form of Industrialised
Building System (IBS). The fundamental idea of IBS is to move on-site work to more
controlled environment in a manufacturing floor. IBS promote sustainability from
controlled production environment minimisation of waste generation effective usage of
energy, efficient building materials, effective logistic and long term economic stability
which can contribute to better investment in environment technologies.
ii) Introducing indicators as one of the sustainability improvements. Various indicators
related to sustainability have emerged. Most of the indicators are used for evaluation or
assessment purpose. In Malaysia, indicators can be introduced to evaluate how well the
industry in meeting the needs and expectations of the present and future users and also
suppliers. (Zainul Abidin, 2010)
iii) Assessment tool is another way to identify present performance which will in turn be
used to instigate improvement. In Malaysia, effort has been forwarded by PAM in
collaboration with ACEM to produce an assessment method called GBI Malaysia.
Having this GBI Malaysia is a positive move to propel the industry towards sustainable
and environmental responsibility. And effective implementation is vital to ensure the
success of these two in shaping the industry in the future. (Zainul Abidin, 2010)
iv) Issues on 3R (reduce, reuse and recycle) can be seen as a way forward for construction
industry to move up in achieving sustainable development on the various
environmental, social, economic and even cultural factors.
v) Government support for sustainability effective to promote sustainability agenda. To
achieve the agenda, changes in policy and activities at all levels are needed. In
Malaysia, the government has pledged to commit to sustainability and sustainable
construction through policy and regulatory action. This is necessary circumstances only
when it is unlikely the client and industry willing to pursue voluntarily a sustainable
policy of their own volition. (Zainul Abidin, 2010)
vi) Research and innovation is the best way to improve and expand knowledge and
technology (Zainul Abidin, 2010). Government agencies like CIDB and Ministry of
Science, Technology & Innovation (MOSTI) should increase grant allocation on the
research area related to sustainable and green construction.
vii) The introduction and adoption of whole life cycle costing (WLCC) and green
procurement in construction industry.
viii) Establishment of eco-labelling scheme for construction materials that incorporates the
need of GBI Malaysia.
ix) Benchmarking and technology transfer of best practices from developed countries in
implementing sustainable and green construction agenda.
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6 RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT INITIATIVES
Currently there are six research projects on environment and sustainability managed by
Construction Research Institute of Malaysia (CREAM), a research arm of CIDB. The research
topics are as follows:
i) Construction Practices for Storm Water Management and Soil Erosion Control for the
Construction Industry
ii) Achieving Sustainability of the Construction Industry via International Environmental
Management Systems Standard, ISO 14001
iii) Waste Minimisation and Recycling Potential of Construction Materials
iv) Materials Security And Waste Management for Industrialised Building Systems (IBS):
Towards Sustainable Construction
v) Environmental Management Plan in the Contract Tender Document of Construction
Projects
vi) Utilisation of Waste Materials for the Production of Concrete Pedestrian Block (CPB)
7 CONCLUSION
The construction industry plays a vital role in helping the efforts of the government to attain
sustainable development when there is a requirement of balance between economy growth, social
expansion and environmental protection.
The task to uphold sustainable construction in Malaysia is an enormous undertaking that
require plenty of innovation and commitment from all concerned. It is vital that the strategic
implementation plan continues to develop tools and technologies and other enablers to lessen the
impact on environment and lead the Malaysian construction to be sustainable. Mitigation to
sustainable mentality requires a lot of change in attitude, innovation, creativity, research and
support from many stake holders. The strategic direction, the implementation strategies and R&D
participation have to be driven in congruent to ensure continuity and focused. It is envisioned that
all initiatives mentioned need to be taken forward simultaneously. Every stakeholder involved must
stand together and react as a team not as individual champion.
Construction industry must necessarily change its historic of operating with little concern for
environmental impact to a new mode that makes environmental concern a centre piece of its effort.
A strategic way in implementing sustainable and green technology could show the path to adoption
of WLCC and towards green procurement in Malaysian construction industry. The era of
sustainability is currently taking its stand and the construction industry must demonstrate that it can
put up with this new stand.
8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to Technology and Innovation
Development Sector of CIDB Malaysia, Technical Committee 9 (TC9-CIDB) on Good
Environmental Practices in the Construction Industry, All Working Group Committees and also
Construction Research Institute of Malaysia (CREAM) for the reports and permission to prepare
this paper in the conference. Also to CREAM’s R&D Project Leaders: Prof. Ir. Dr. Omar Abd.
Kadir (USM), Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nik Norulaini Nik Ab. Rahman (USM), Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mashitah
Mat Don (USM), Prof. Ir. Dr. Ruslan Hassan (UiTM) and Prof. Dr. Joy Jacqueline Pereira
(UKM), Dr. Chen Sau Choon (SIRIM), Task Force Group members on Eco-Labelling
CREAM/CIDB.
163
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166
DESIGN BUILDINGS OPTIMALLY: A LIFECYCLE ASSESSMENT

APPROACH
Ossama A. Hosny, PhD.

Professor, The American University in Cairo AUC
ohosny@aucegypt.edu
Ahmed A. Elhakeem, PhD.
Post Doctorate Fellow, The American University in Cairo/King Abdullah University of Science and
Technology AUC/KAUST
aelhakeem@aucegypt.edu
ABSTRACT
This paper structures a generic framework to support optimum design for multi-buildings in the
desert environment. The framework is targeting an environmental friendly design with minimum
lifecycle cost, using GAs. GAs functions through a set of success measures which evaluates the
design, formulates a proper objective, and reflects possible constraints. The framework optimizes
the design and possibly categorizing it under a certain environmental category at minimum LCC
through the three levels of the building components, the integrated building, and the multi-building
level. Proper types of building components and optimum relative locations / orientations of
buildings will be determined through the GA optimization.
Keywords: Lifecycle cost analysis, genetic optimization, building integration, environmental

constraints.
1 INTRODUCTION
With the fact that people spend most of their lives inside buildings either homes, work places,
education facilities or entertainment/shopping centres, the focus in this paper will cover the building
sector. More precisely it will focus on designing environmental friendly / state of the art yet
economic and affordable residential compounds in desert regions. The paper introduces a generic
framework to assist the design team in the process of designing multi-buildings in the desert
environment. The framework ensures the design optimality through a set of success measures which
evaluate the design from various spectrums covering in addition to its lifecycle cost, the use of
architectural, material, structural, and environment compliance systems. The proposed success
measures will formulate a proper objective function to be optimized in addition; they reflect a set of
tangible/intangible constraints. The proposed framework functions through three levels, as follows:
i) The building component level;
ii) The integrated building level; and
iii) The multi-building level.
At the component level the design team should be able to select components in a designed
sequence to ensure compatibility among various building components forming the building, while
at the building level; the design team can relatively locate and orient each individual building.
Finally, at the multi-building level (compound level) the whole design can be evaluated using the
success measures then optimized. The framework through genetic algorithms optimizes the design
by determining the proper types of the building components and the relative buildings locations and
orientations which ensure categorizing the design under a specific category or meet certain
preferences at minimum lifecycle cost.
167
2 BACKGROUND
No doubt, the construction industry is one of the most important industries in the world. It has
a paramount effect on our lives as it usually reflects the nation’s economic status and wealth. In the
year 2008 the Bureau of Labour Statistics, U.S. Department of Labour stated that the construction
industry accounts in average for 10% of the world GDP, 7% of the world employment and about
50% of the world resources (US Labour Statistics 2008). Same figures are also noticed in Egypt
where the construction industry is also one of the nation’s largest industries with an average growth
rate of 20 % starting 2003. It accounts for 8 % of total Egyptian employment and 7 % of the GDP.
Although its importance, current design and construction practices in such a pivot industry harm the
environment we live in and cause lots of pollution, deplete natural resources and current sources for
energy, and contribute largely to the global warming phenomenon.
The building sector is being the largest among all other construction sectors. Its contribution
as a percentage is more than 40% and 60% in Canada and the United States, respectively.
Accordingly, building design should receive much attention in its design with futuristic vision and
innovative solutions to cope with current and future challenges. The world accordingly is heading to
sustainability as a mean to face these challenges. Design for green buildings should be
indispensable alternative in the construction Industry in which efficient use of resources, using
renewable materials/energy sources, and reducing pollution/wastes represent key considerations to
ensure better lives for our next generations. Designing green buildings should be accomplished by
economic calculations to prove its worth; this will cover the consequences of selecting some green
alternatives on the lifecycle cost of the building. A brief will be introduced along with the
interesting research tips related to both Lifecycle cost analysis/optimization and sustainability as
follows:
Lifecycle Cost: Life Cycle Cost Analysis is a powerful tool that facilitates the proper
evaluation and optimization of different building/system designs. Traditionally, evaluation of
systems is carried out based on its investment cost, neglecting other tangible and intangible costs
such as operation, deterioration, recovery and socio-economical related costs. In the recent era
many researches has been devoted to the optimization of construction building costs however they
have differed in analyzing the term costs. Sieglinde (2007) from the National institute of standards
and technology presents description and methodology of applying lifecycle cost analysis. He
assures that as building lives is considered virtually long, He affirms that buildings cost must
include all its life associated costs namely Lifecycle Costs and summed up all the following costs:
(1) initial costs; (2) utilities costs; (3) operation, maintenance and repair costs; (4) replacement
costs; and (5) residual values. Initial costs would include acquisition costs of anything needed to
operate the facilities such as the air conditions purchasing value or the material used for the façade
or walls. More details regarding other costs can be found in Sieglinde 2007.
Sustainability: Another great aspect that has influenced and directed this research is the huge
decline in the quality of life that we and our next generations are/would face. The environment is
facing huge challenges nowadays as rise in carbon emissions and what consequence from global
warming, rise in sea level and ozone layer depletion. According to the 2007 Synthesis Report for
Climate Change, it is indicated that the global trend of the green houses gasses emissions is in great
increase and as a result sustainability has been an indispensable approach (Climate Change 2007).
Sustainable or green buildings are defined by the “Green Building US Environmental Protection
Agency” as “the practice of creating structures and using processes that are environmentally
responsible and resource-efficient throughout a building's lifecycle". The Agency further explains
that green building mainly targets to reduce the impact of buildings on human health and
environment through the reduction of pollution/wastes and efficient use of resources.
Some interesting research tips regarding lifecycle cost analysis/optimization and sustainability
can be found in Nielson and Svendsen (2002) regarding the importance of LCC and need for
optimization, Winkler et al. (2002) regarding energy-efficiency solutions, Kong and Frangopol
168
(2004) regarding considerations for LCC modelling, Huberman and Pearlmutter (2008) regarding
the new energy considerations and embodied energy, and Abu Bakr et al. (2008) regarding
sustainability and building envelop.
3 PROPOSED FRAMEWORK FOR OPTIMUM BUILDING DESIGN: A THREE-

LEVEL MODEL
The proposed framework consists of three main modules: (1) a custom BIM for desert
buildings with a compatibility checker as a central interactive database; (2) a system evaluator
module to evaluate the proposed success measures for the design; and (3) a GAs optimization
module to ensure optimum design. Figure 1 shows the proposed framework and the main
processes. More details are provided in the next sections in order to implement the conceptual
design of the proposed LCCA/O framework.
a. A Custom BIM for Desert Buildings
A custom Building Information Model (BIM) for desert buildings is proposed to serve as an
interactive database that holds the possible alternatives for building components. All possible
information to facilitate the evaluations of various design success measures, such as the lifecycle
costs, energy status, embodied energy based on a material breakdown, and others are all stored in
the database. In order to compose an integrated building the proposed database allows selecting a
specific alternative for each individual building component. To ensure compatibility among selected
components’ alternatives a compatibility checker called BACS (Building Assembly Compatibility
System) is proposed. The BACS is a group of questions to be answered from a designated list of
questions in order to compose an integrated building. The questions follow a standard sequence or
arrangement; once the answer for the first question is selected the BACS system will filter out
incompatible answers keeping the compatible components for the next question and so on till
finishing all questions. Figure 2 illustrates the BACS with an example for the procedure and
implementation. BACS is proposed to utilize a compatibility matrix among various alternatives
(options) of various building components, as shown in the top part of the figure. The matrix is in a
binary format where 1 and 0 represent compatible and incompatible options, respectively. The
compatibility matrix can be used as filtering criteria to provide the proper selections for building
components as illustrated in the bottom part of Figure 2. The bottom part of Figure 2 shows the
compatibility between wall and roof components. It shows that option 2 for wall component is not
compatible with roof options 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, or 8 however it is compatible with options 4, 5, 9, and 10.
The proposed interactive database with the compatibility checker will help selecting building
components and composing integrated buildings. The compound level however can be obtained by
copying one integrated building many times. Although a compound level might have hundreds of
buildings, the effective compound level may count only for four to five neighbouring buildings in
which they might affect each other. Once these four or five buildings where relatively located and
oriented optimally, such module can be repeated to have the actual compound. The evaluation
process for possible success measures is effective at the building level, and/or the compound level
(after relative arrangement), as will be discussed in the next section.
169
Fiure 1: LCC Framework Main Modules and Processes
Figure 1: Proposed framework for optimum building design: A Three-Level Model
b. A System Evaluator
As mentioned earlier, evaluation might be implemented at both building and/or compound

levels. The framework will be responsible for providing the necessary performance/success
measures associated with the design at these two levels. Some or all of these measures will be used
to either formulate a multi-objective function for the LCC optimization problem and/or to be
constraints to be respected during the optimization process. At the building level there are many
evaluations that can be done such as the initial cost based on selected building components and the
embodied energy based on the breakdown of material used in the selected building components. At
the compound level, measures such as natural light, site capacity, shading impact on natural
lighting, thermal change, visual access, energy saving, and others can be assessed based on
buildings relative locations and orientations. Buildings also shouldn’t overlap and for each building
a minimum space in front of its openings need to be left to allow for natural light. Figure 3 shows
the lifecycle costs calculations as an economical success measure including the cash flow modeling
and calculation.
Regarding the compound level an interesting evaluation is to measure the overlap condition
among buildings. This measure is proposed as shown in Figure 4 (c) in which the condition to have
a free overlap state is shown. A corner of one building should form four triangles with another
building in which the sum of the triangles areas must be more than the building area (Figure 4-c
bottom). If the corner however is inside the building the sum of the triangles areas will equal
exactly to the building area. To check for overlap all corners in addition to the center point of all
buildings should satisfy the abovementioned condition with respect to other buildings. Other
170
evaluations such as natural light is proposed to be handled either by sending a certain scenario of
relative buildings locations and orientations to a sun motion simulator or by storing simulation
results in the database and use it in the evaluation. The evaluation of the average yearly natural light
gained for each building can facilitate estimating the additional artificial light needed and
accordingly a major energy cost can be calculated.
Q i+1
Building Assembly Compatibility System

BACS – Illustration Example for two
sequential questions (Qi and Qi+1)
If the former question, for example, asks to

Qi select a wall type (all options are available for
selection) and the answer is option 2, then the
later question is to select the roof system with
only four options to select from (options 4,5,9,
and 10) all other options are filtered out.
Figure 2: BACS for Compatibility
c. GAs Optimization Module
To implement optimization in the proposed framework, four buildings only will be

considered. The four building are assumed to be similar in their components options however these
options represent one of the major variables in the framework. Another set of variables is the
location and orientation of the four buildings. For each individual building its location is defined
using the coordinates of one corner (corner 1, see Figure 4 (b)). Based on corner 1 coordinates the
rest of building corners can be determined. The orientation however is defined by the angle ( )
from the X axis to edge 1-2 in the building (Figure 4- a & b). The variables as such are (x, y, & )
for each building in addition to possible components alternatives. With the complex nature of the
LCC model and the optimization problem being a combinatorial problem in which the increase in
the number of variables increases exponentially the search space for optimal solutions. Non
traditional optimization tool (GAs) is used to converge to optimum solutions. EVOLVER Add In
for Excel is used after modelling the problem using Ms Excel (Figure 5).
171
LCC Analysis horizon Accumulation at the cost type Cash flow
Accumulation at the building level
Component Level
Figure 3: LCC Modeling and Calculation
Figure 4: Illustration for some Evaluation Processes
4 CONCLUSION
This research outlines the development of a framework for lifecycle cost

analysis/optimization for buildings. The framework considers several success measures that have to
be fulfilled to achieve design optimality, covering maximum energy savings, maximum natural
lighting, minimum environmental impacts and others. The paper outlines the BACS which
examines ensures compatibility among building components. Research is going on to develop other
modules for achieving optimum environmental-friendly buildings.
172
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This publication is based in part on work supported by Award No. UK - C0015, made by
King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST)
REFERENCES
AbuBakr B. S., Patrick J.A.B. and Mark J.F. (2008) “Potential of emerging glazing technologies for
highly glazed buildings in hot arid climates” Energy and Buildings, Elsevier, Vol. 40, No 5,
pp. 720-731. doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2007.05.006
Climate Change 2007 (2007) “Synthesis Report-Summary for policy makers” IPCC Plenary XXVII
November 12-17, Valencia, Spain
Huberman, N. and Pearlmutter, D. (2008) “A life-cycle energy analysis of building materials in
Negev desert” Energy and Buildings, Elsevier, Vol. 40, No 5, pp. 837-848.
doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2007.06.002
Kong, J. S. and Frangopol, D. M. (2004) “Cost-Reliability Interaction in Life-Cycle Cost
Optimization of Deteriorating Structures” Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 130
No 11, pp. 1704-1712. doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(2004)130:11(1704)
Nielson, T. and Svendsen, S. (2002) “Life cycle cost optimization of buildings with regard to
energy use, thermal indoor environment and daylight” International Journal of Low Energy
and Sustainable Buildings, Vol. 2, pp.1-16.
Sieglinde, F. (2007) “Life cycle cost analysis (LCCA)” National Institute of Standards and
Technology, NIST, Retrieved from http://ironwarrior.org/ARE/Materials_Methods/Life-
Cycle%20Cost%20Analysis.pdf, [Accessed 15 June 2010].
US Labour Statistics. 2008. Career Guide to Industries, 2008-09 Edition, Retrieved from
http://www.bls.gov/oco/cg/cgs003.htm [Accessed 15 June 2010].
Winkler, H., Spalding-fecher, R., Tyani, L., and Matibe, K. (2002) “Cost-Benefit Analysis of
energy efficiency in urban low cost housing” Development Southern Africa, Vol. 19, No 5,
pp. 593-614. doi: 10.1080/03768835022000019383
173
174
ARCHITECTURAL BUILDING PRESERVATION FOR STRUCTURAL AND

FABRICS INTEGRITY: A LITERATURE REVIEW
Zainal Abidin Bin Akasah, PhD Architecture.
Head Department of Civil Engineering Technology, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
Siti Nor Fatimah Binti Zuraidi, Bachelor Civil Engineering.
Master Candidate, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
timi-gee@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
This paper will review about the life-cycle preservation, operation, and maintenance aspects of
buildings which are rarely considered at the initial design and construction stages. The reason lies
mainly in the disconnections within built facilities life-cycle, from their initial creation processes,
through use to obsolescence. This included a dearth of knowledge of the specific impact of upstream
design and construction decisions and choices on the downstream preservation, operation, and
maintenance of building structures and fabrics. However, in order to bridge this knowledge gap and
forge a connection between design and life-cycle use and preservation of buildings, this study aims to
identify building features associated with certain faults and defects to preserve buildings fabrics and
to modal data from objective (i), that to be used by contractors, designers and building owners for
future maintenance. The investigation for this study will be undertaken in two phases. The first phase
involved a literature search on the identification of some of the relative defect factors in design stage
that affect maintenance. The second phase involved gathering data through site visits, interviews and
discussions with owners, A/Es and contractors. The scope of this research will be limited to civil and
architectural defects in building design that affect maintenance only in the Maktab Rendah Sains
Mara (MRSM). Two distinct buildings located on the same block at Maktab Rendah Sains Mara
(MRSM), Kota Bharu, Kelantan will be investigated to illustrate the problem related in this study. It
will be observed that the different of structural and fabrics integrity of these buildings to their
different defect styles and features. In this paper, the finding will underscores the importance of
designing architectural features of buildings with their operation, maintainability, and life-cycle
preservation in mind, if structural and fabrics integrity must be maintained, and a greater
sustainability achieved, while restoration ringgit are saved.
Key Words: Design, Buildings, Preservation, Maintenance, Construction works, Defect.
1 INTRODUCTION
In the Ninth Malaysia Plan (2006-2010), the government forecasted that the construction
sector would have an average growth of 3.5 percent per annum. Besides civil engineering
infrastructure projects, the building sector is forecast to become the main contributor to the growth.
The government will inject almost 19 billion Malaysia Ringgit during the next five years. This
allocation includes the provision for repair and maintenance projects. The development plan
allocation for repair and maintenance works increased from RM296 million during the Eighth
Malaysian Plan to RM1,079 million in the Ninth Malaysian Plan (Malaysia, 2006). Hence, it is
expected that repair and maintenance work will become more important in the future.
The CIDB (2007) reported that in year 2006 repair and maintenance works constituted 16
percent of the total Malaysian construction output. However, repair and maintenance works carried
out are unreported, especially those undertaken by house owners who have carried out illegal
renovation works. Therefore, if this figure is taken into account, the actual value of repair and
maintenance works in Malaysia would be higher.
The quality of maintenance activities is however, influenced by the amount of budget
allocated. To have good maintenance actions and to sustain the required level of the quality of a
175
building, sufficient resources such as staffing and finance are needed for maintenance works (Lee
and Scott, 2009). Therefore, it is the responsibility of maintenance stakeholders such as building
manager, building owners and clients to gives additional importance to the allocation of
maintenance cost in order to produce good maintenance outcome (Mjema, 2002).
Some of the present disconnections were captured in a special journal issue on, “Facilities
management: the interface with built environment design and construction,” edited and published in
the ASCE Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities (Ilozor et al, 2003a). A holistic view of
the building life-cycle was taken, and the missing links found in poor infusion of comprehensive
facilities management principles through the various stages of the building procurement process.
This special publication sought to better understand where facilities management impacts
the design and construction process;
i. How facilities management contributes to the derivation of value by users and/or occupants
of constructed facilities;
ii. How consideration of facilities management during the programming, design and
construction phases contributes to the reduction of failures in completed facilities;
iii. The role facilities management plays in the long-term successful performance of the built
environment;
iv. How facilities management promotes or retards emerging building design and construction
technologies;
v. How facilities management promotes sustainability in the design and construction process;
and the part facilities management plays in the change process of design and construction.
1.1 Problem Statement
Malaysia is a rich developing country with huge capital resources. It is developing very fast
in every area including building construction. Public and private sectors have initiated the need for
large and complex construction projects. Meeting the high demand of both parties in a short time, it
is expected that many errors and defects had occurred during the design and construction stages
which will result later in high maintenance costs.
According Ilozor et al. (2003b, 2004) model in Figure 1 shows that addressing framing and
roof faults would limit occurrence or ensure non-occurrence of several faults such as rising damp,
stump fault, cracking, and timber rot – all significant contributors to building deterioration. Timber
rot, for instance, is associated with many building-related illnesses that impact health in the
workplaces. The arrows represent the interconnections of the defects, and point from causal defects
to effect faults. Hence, when the causes are removed, the effects will not arise.
However, this study will be base on the prevalent residential constructions of Malaysia,
which extensively use timber and related materials in framing. In contrast, the majority of Maktab
Sains Rendah Mara buildings were built by bricks, and a different set of defects may apply.
Nonetheless, by simulation, this model fits this study, and is appropriate to adopt in drawing
conclusions.
176
Rising
damp
Illegal
building
Stump
Framing fault
fault
Roofing
fault Cracking
Facility/Project
management-
workmanship
Electrical
fault
Timber
rot
Figure 1: A Path Model of Key Domestic Building Defect in Australia
1.2 Objective of Study
The relative objectives to achieve the aim of study are as follows:
i. To identify building features associated with certain faults and defects to preserve buildings
fabrics.
ii. To modal data from objective (i), that to be used by contractors, designers and building
owners for future maintenance.
1.3 Scope of Study
The scope of this study will be limited to civil engineering and architectural building
features associated with certain faults and defects, and by implication, impact preservation of
buildings’ structural and fabrics integrity design that affect maintenance on the same block: Block
A and block B at Maktab Rendah Sains Mara ( MRSM) Pengkalan Chepa, Kelantan. Figure 2 show
the student hostel at MRSM.
177
Figure 2: Student Hostel Block A and Block B at MRSM
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Building Maintenance
Building maintenance is defined as “work undertaken in order to keep, restore or improve

every part of a building, its services and surrounds, to a currently accepted standard, and to sustain
the utility and value of the building” (Seeley, 1976).
The objectives of building maintenance are therefore (Alner and Fellows, 1990):
i) To ensure that the buildings and their associated services are in a safe condition;
ii) To ensure that the buildings are fit for use;
iii) To ensure that the condition of the building meets all statutory requirements;
iv) To carry out the maintenance work necessary to maintain the value of the physical
assets of the building stock; and
v) To carry out the work necessary to maintain the quality of the building.
In maintaining a building, there are usually several strategic options available to

management, and many alternative decisions to be considered. For example, the possibility of
reducing the demand for maintenance by addressing the actual cause of failure and identifying its
consequences. For instance, it may be necessary to decide whether to repair or replace an item, and
whether to carry out periodic maintenance at fixed intervals or simply to respond to the requests of
the users. Thus, building maintenance can be divided into three strategies:
i) Corrective;
ii) Preventive;
iii) Condition-based.
Building maintenance is becoming an increasingly important field of study and it is even

more important in developing countries. Since developing countries often have an ineffective
organisational setup and a high demand for housing, the cost of building maintenance can have a
significant detrimental effect on future development.
178
These factors are also responsible for worsening the condition of existing buildings to the
point where existing finance and management facilities are stretched beyond their capabilities. The
lack of maintenance often results in deterioration that leads the building to the point of collapse or
to it having to be demolished.
An increase in the cost of maintenance can be attributed to faulty designs. Many problems
arise where design is satisfactory in principle but has a low probability of achievement in practice.
These are not to be regarded as defects in workmanship but rather as too high an expectation in
design (Lee, 1987).
2.2 Building Life-Cycle
Life cycle is closely related to environmental impact. According to the aforementioned

standard, the life cycle assessment (LCA) is the ‘‘collection and assessment of the inputs and
outputs of any potential environmental impacts caused by the product system throughout its life
cycle’’. This allows us to learn about the environmental effects of a certain work or product.
The environmental effects derived from the construction of a given structure, its life time,
reuse and demolition should all be taken into account within the LCA, the possibility of reusing by
either recycling or recovering materials or energy should also be taken into account. An important
aspect that ought to be considered in the LCA of works is preventive maintenance. In the
construction industry continuous necessary maintenance is frequently substituted by sporadic
remedial actions involving repair, restoration or reconstruction which target deteriorations
threatening the structure or its services.
2.3 Building Defect
Few studies have been conducted to find out the faulty design decisions are the most
common faults which may be grouped as follows: failure to follow well-established design criteria
in the choice of structural system and selection of materials; ignorance of the basic physical
properties of the materials; use of new materials or innovative forms of construction which have not
been properly tested for use; misjudgement of climatic conditions under which the material has to
perform; and poor communication between different members of the design and construction teams
(Gibson, 1979).
Reporting of defects is essentially about giving an eye-witness account and at the same time
making judgement on what is observed depending on whom the reporter is, thus making the whole
exercise of reporting a seriously subjective exercise. According to (Croome 1980) a building defect
is intractably subjective unless it was brought to the notice of those who are trained to both
diagnose and offer prognosis for such defects. This, as (Porteous 1985) observed, is still fraught
with complexities. Components are judged to have failed if sufficient complaints are received about
their conditions. These complaints are not reliable indicators of the severity of failure (Croome,
1980).
The investigation for this study will be undertaken in two phases. The first phase will
involved a literature search on the identification of some of the relative certain faults and defects,
and by implication, impact preservation of buildings’ structural and fabrics integrity in design stage
that affects maintenance. The second phase will involved gathering data through site visits,
interviews and discussions with owners, architectural/engineering firms (A/Es) and contractors.
This scope of this study will be limited to civil engineering and architectural defects in
building design that affect maintenance only in Kota Bharu of Malaysia.
179
3.1 Research population / sample
In this study, a questionnaire will be distributed to owners of the building, A/Es and
contractors to facilitate input in a more standardized manner and will be design later.
3.2 Proposed data collection method / instruments
The interviews will be conducted with the questionnaire form highly supported by visual
photographs and illustrations. Site survey will be conducted after each interview for further detailed
investigations. The questionnaire will be divided into three main sections under the categories of
certain faults and defects, and by implication, impact preservation of building’s structural and
fabrics integrity. In the all sections of the questionnaires, the respondents will be asked to select the
relevant answer from the choices provided. Figure 3 show the methodology flow chart.
Identify the Problem Statement
Identified objective and Scope of Study
Literature Review
Methodology
First Phase: Literature search on the

identification that affect maintenance
Second Phase: Site Visit, Interview,

Discussion and Questionnaire
Collect the Data
Analysis the Data
Result
Discussion and Conclusion
Figure 3: Methodology Flow Chart
3.3 Data analysis
The collected data will be analyzed quantitatively using the severity index. The aim of
formula is to determine the ranking of parameters or factors given for each answer of the questions.
For every question there are five parameters that should be used by the respondents as an option to
answer the questionnaire. The five options given are extremely affect, strongly affect, moderately
affect, slightly affect and does not affect responses.
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The severity index is computed by the following equation (Al-Hazmi, 1987):
I = [ ∑ (ai * Xi) / 3] x 100%

(1) i =1
Where:
I = Severity index
ai = Constant, expressing the weight given to ήh response, i = 1,2,3,4
Xi = Frequency of the ήh response given as a percentage of the total
responses for each defect
i = Response category index where i = 1,2,3,4
The severity indexes for all design defects and the groups of defects will be calculated using
the above formula. These indexes will rank for owners, contractors and A/Es.
4 DISCUSSION AND EXPECTED OUTCOMES
It is expected that the result will show an importance of selection and design features of
buildings with their operation, maintainability, and life-cycle preservation. A suggestion of
guideline model will be developed and used by conservation contractors related to structural and
fabrics integrity in order to maintain and sustain while restoration costs are saved.
5 CONCLUSION
For the conclusion, hopefully at the end of this study a data related to building feature and
building fabric will be used by contractor, designer and building owner. Then these data will be
model as a preservation manual/system/process related to maintenance of building.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank to Mr Dr Zainal Abidin Bin Akasah as supervisor and the
UTHM for supporting this study.
REFERENCES
Al-Hammad, A., Assaf, S. and Al-Shihah, M. (1997), 'The Effect of Faulty Design on Building
Maintenance', Journal of Quality in Maintenance Engineering, 3(1), 29–39.
Al-Hazmi, M. (1987), “Causes of Delay in Large Building Construction Projects”, MSc thesis,
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Alner, G.R. and Fellows, R.F. (1990), “Maintenance of Local Authority School Building in UK: A
Case Study”, Proceedings of the International
B.D. Ilozor. (2008), ‘Architectural and Building Features Disparity and Preservation of Structural
And Fabrics Integrity’, Journal of Engineering, Design and Technology, 6 (1), 33-47.
CIDB (2007), Construction Quarterly Statistical Bulletin – Fourth Quarter 2006, CIDB Press,
Kuala Lumpur.
Croome, D.J. (1980), ``The Role of Feedback In Building Design'', Building Services Engineering
Research and Technology, Vol. 1.
Gibson, E.J. (1979), Developments in Building Maintenance-1, Applied Science Publishers,
London.
Government Malaysia, PWD (2009), Manual for Total Asset Management, Kuala Lumpur.
181
Lee, M. (1987), ‘Building Maintenance Management’, 3rd ed.,Collins, London.

Lee, H.H.Y. and Scott, D. (2009), “Overview of Maintenance Strategy, Acceptable Maintenance
Standard and Resources From A Building Maintenance Operation Perspective”, Journal of
Building Appraisal, Vol. 4 No. 4, pp. 269-78.
Porteous, W.A. (1985), ``Perceived Characteristics Of Building Failure ± A Survey Of The Recent
Literature'', Architectural Science Review, Vol. 28, June.
Seeley, I.H., (1987), Building Maintenance, 2nd ed., Macmillan Education, London.
182
INTEGRATING LIFE CYCLE COSTING MODEL: A LITERATURE

REVIEW
Zainal Abidin Akasah, PhD Architecture
Head of Civil Engineering Technology Department, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
Nor Azizah Binti Mohammed Rum, BSc (Hons) Civil Engineering
Master candidate, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
jijah22@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Research shows that construction industry is one of the sectors that have high demand in energy either
directly or indirectly. Especially in stages of construction, operation and maintenance in the
establishment of a building towards life cycle costing (LCC). LCC is a process to determine the total
cost of a project. It includes stages in planning stage, construction, operation, recovery and finally
disposal costs not only in private buildings but also in government buildings. The aim of this
technical paper is to identify LCC in building construction, to understand the energy saving in
operation and maintenance phase in building construction and to integrate energy saving to LCC
model in building construction. Those objectives will integrate life cycle costing model in
construction industry. The research methodology will be conducted through literature review from
reading materials and questionnaires, interviews and brief discussion with construction organisations.
At the end of the study hopefully LCC Model in integrated energy saving for construction industry
can be achieved. This model will be accessed and used as research reference, not only by construction
researcher but also as guide line for Construction Industry Development Board (CIDB).
Keywords: Life Cycle Costing, Integrated Energy Saving, Operation and Maintenance,
1 INTRODUCTION
Construction industry is one industry that contributes to economic growth in Malaysia. This
industry is regarded as a stimulus to the development of other industries in introduced Malaysia as a
developing country in the developed world. As the economy improved the construction industry
will follow the same increase and at the same time demand will increase in economic construction.
High demand in the construction sector will indirectly result in the use of energy in the life cycle of
increased either directly or indirectly. Directly for their construction, operation (operating energy),
rehabilitation and eventually demolition; indirectly through the production of the materials they are
made of and the materials technical installations are made of (embodied energy).
Improvements of lifetime quality and cost effectiveness of buildings is consequently of
common interest for the owner, the user and society. Especially in stages of construction, operation
and maintenance in the establishment of a building towards life cycle costing (LCC). LCC for
buildings is an important tool for involving the construction client better in early stage design phase
and the relationship between design choices and the resulting lifetime costs. However, regardless of
its importance, LCC has found limited application so far (Bakis et al, 2003).
Most commonly, production cost is the main cost factor in construction and is often set to the
minimum, which is not necessarily improving the lifetime performance of buildings. However, a
higher production cost might increase the energy using not only in construction phase but also in
operating and maintenance including demolition in LCC. Recently, the increased awareness of
environmental problems related to energy processes together with a trend of ever increasing energy
demand from the building sector have lead building designers to develop more energy efficient
design criteria, and states to implement building codes that are more and more stringent on energy
183
requirements in integrated energy saving to LCC. In addition, increased interest and better
methodologies provide better understanding and better estimation of energy aspects in the life cycle
not only for private buildings but also in government buildings.
2 LIFE CYCLE COSTING
2.1 Definition of LCC
There are different terms used in the literature today like, cost in use, life cycle costs (LCC),
whole life costing (WLC) and whole life appraisal (WLA). Where defined that the terminology has
changed over the years from cost in use to life cycle costing and further to whole life costing
(Flanagan and Jewell, 2005). They defined the new term whole life appraisal which is the
systematic consideration of all relevant costs, revenues and performance associated with the
acquisition and ownership of an asset over its physical/economic/functional/service/design life. It
minimises total expenditure through proper appraisal of coats that will be incurred through the life
facility.
LCC is a valuable technique that is used for predicting and assessing the cost performance of
constructed assets. LCC is one form of analysis for determining whether a project meets the client's
performance requirements (BS ISO 15686-5:2008). The Norwegian Standard 3454 (NS 3454),
defined LCC as including both original costs and cost incurred throughout the whole functional
lifetime including demolition.
LCC also a process to determine the sum of all the costs associated with an asset or part there
of, including acquisition, installation, operation, maintenance, refurbishment and disposal costs. It is
pivotal to the asset management process as an input to the evaluation of alternatives via Economic
Appraisal, Financial Appraisal, Value Management, Risk Management and Demand Management.
LCC adds all the costs of alternatives over their life period and enables an evaluation on a common
basis for the period of interest. This enables decisions on acquisition, maintenance, refurbishment or
disposal to be made in the light of full cost implications (LCC Guideline, 2004).
Figure 1 below refers to building life cycle in construction industry for building construction
from the design stage up to the stage of building or asset disposal. Each stage of the life cycle will
involve its own cost before the design was done by the life cycle costing for buildings. The cost has
been calculated to determine the cost needed over the life of the building.
Birth Life Death
Inception Design Build Occupy Demolish
6 month – 10 years 6 month – 5 years 6 month – 10 years 6 month
Figure 1: Building Life Cycle (Flanagan and Jewell, 2005)
184
2.2 LCC Models
LCC model is an accounting structure containing terms and factors which enable estimation
of an asset's component costs. A number of commercially available models can be used for LCC
analysis. However, in some cases it may be appropriate to develop a model for a specific
application. In either case, the LCC model should:
i) Represent the characteristics of the asset being analysed including its intended use
environment, maintenance concept, operating and maintenance support scenarios and
any constraints or limitations;
ii) Be comprehensive enough to include and highlight the factors relevant to the asset
LCC;
iii) Be easily understood to allow timely decision-making, future updates and modification;
and
iv) Provide for the evaluation of specific LCC elements independently of other elements.
Before selecting a model, the purpose of the analysis and the information it requires should
be identified. The model should also be reviewed with respect to the applicability of all cost factors,
empirical relationships, constants, elements and variables (LCC Guideline, 2004).
One may describe LCC models as predictive in nature and characterize a stochastic process
involving many parameters such as interest rates and reliability. Nevertheless, irrespective of the
types of models used for LCC analysis they all must be visible, transparent and effective in
representing systems, equipment, subsystems or devices (B.S Dhillon, 2009).
2.3 Data Required for LCC Calculation
For the early stage, from the literature reviewed the data requirements are categorised in
Figure 2 to carry out LCC analysis. These different data influence the LCC in different stages of
the life cycle.
Physical Data
Occupancy Data - Superficial floor area
- Occupancy profile - Window area
- Functionality Performance Data
- Functional areas - Electricity
- Hours of use - Wall and ceilings - Occupancy time
- Particular feature - Number of occupants - Thermal conductivity
- Maintenance cycles
- Cleaning cycles
Cost Data
- Capital cost
- Acquisition cost Quality Data
- Discount rate Types of Condition of:
- Management cost Life Cycle Data - Pipe works
- Taxes - Furnishing
- Inflation - Sanitary fittings
- Replacement cost - Fabric
- Maintenance cost - Road surfacing
- Cleaning cost - Decorations
- Demolition cost
- Operating cost
- Insurance
Figure 2: The Required Data Categories for LCC Analysis (Jutta Schade, 2007)
185
2.4 Evaluate of LCC Method
Cost estimating is a popular activity as various kinds of costs have to be estimated each day.
The estimated cost has to be as close as possible to its actual value; otherwise it may lead to a
consequence of a severe degree. Most specially, the success or failure of an organization may
depend on the quality of cost estimates however over the years, people working in cost estimating
area have to come up with several different cost estimation methods, models and procedures (B.S
Dhillon 2009).
From the literature review there is several methods to calculate economic evaluation for LCC
models. They all have their advantages and disadvantages. The methods have been formed for
different purposes and the user should be aware of their limitations it be form into Table 1.
The table illustrates the five main economic evaluation methods for LCC, their advantages
and disadvantages and for what purposes they can be used. The literature shows that the most
suitable approach for LCC in the construction industry is the net present value (NPV) method.
Existing mathematical LCC models, which are based on NPV, have various advantages and
disadvantages, as they differ in the breakdown costs elements. The model from the American
Society for Testing Materials as shown in Eq.(1) for example, distinguishes between energy and
other running cost, which is useful in adopting different discount rates for different cost items.
NPV = C + R – S + A + M + E (1)
C = investment costs
R = replacement costs
S = the resale value at the end of study period
A = annually recurring operating, maintenance and repair costs (except energy costs)
M = non-annually recurring operating, maintenance and repair cost (except energy costs)
E = energy costs
3 OPERATIONS AND MAINTENANCE
3.1 Maintenance
Maintenance means any activity or combination of actions that cover the technical aspects
and management function undertaken to maintain, preserve or recover a thing to the original
condition. It is also a combination of any action taken to repair or relocate the things or tools
appropriate to the situation acceptable (Wordsworth, 2001). It also the work, other than daily and
routine cleaning, necessary to maintain the performance of the building fabric and its services (BS
8210 : 1986).
Maintenance also is the one of the most difficult decisions facing facility/asset owners is the
timing of different types of maintenance work in order to keep facilities up to a proper and
acceptable state of repair. Several policies are available, ranging from a short-term temporary repair
to the undertaking of a full-scale renewal. The choice of action depends on a number of factors and
as a result significant reductions in maintenance costs are likely to result from a life cycle approach:
i) The cost of different types of repair.
ii) The rate of deterioration.
iii) The relationship between the physical life of the repair and required physical,
functional and economic life of the facility.
iv) The disruption and disturbance to the building occupants and time required for the
repair.
Maintenance repair consists of three stages: inspection, diagnosis and constructional or remedial
action (Flanagan and Jewell, 2005).
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Table 3: The Advantages and Disadvantages of Economic Evaluation Methods for LCC (Jutta Schade, 2007)
Method What does it Calculate Advantage Disadvantage Usable for

Equivalent The factor present worth of annuity will be taking into Different alternatives with Just gives an average number. It Comparing different
Annual Cost account because this method express the one time NPV different life length can be does not indicate the actual coast alternatives with different
(ECA) of an alternative as a uniform equivalent annual cost. compared. during each year of the LCC. life length.
Net Saving The alternative with the highest net saving is the best it Easily understood investment NS can be only use if the Can be used to compare
because NS is calculated as the difference between the appraisal technique. investment generates an income. investment options. But just
(NS)
present worth of the income generated by an if the investment generates
investment and the amounted invested an income.
Simple payback The most profitable one in investment with the shortest Quick and easy calculation. Does not take inflation, interest or Rough estimation if the
pay-back time just calculating the time required to Result easy to interpret. cash flow into account. investment is profitable.
return the initial investment.
Internal Rate of The IRR is a discounted cash flow criterion which Results get presented in percent Calculations need a trail and error Can be only use if the
Return determines an average rate of return by reference to the which gives an obvious procedure. IRR can be just investments will generate
condition that the values be reduced to zero at the interpretation. calculated if the investments will an income which is not
(IRR)
initial point of time. It is possible to calculate the test generate an income. always the case in the
discount rate that will generate an NPV of zero. The construction industry.
alternative with the highest IRR is the best alternative.
Net Present NPV is the result of the application of discount factors, Takes the time value of money Not usable when the comparing Most LCC models utilize
Value based on a required rate of return to each years into account. Generates the alternatives have different life the NPV method. Not
projected cash flow, both in and out, so that the cash return equal to the market rate length. Not easy to interpret. usable if the alternatives
(NPV)
flows are discounted to present value. In general if the of interest. It uses all available have different life length.
NPV is positive it is worth while investing. But as in data.
LCC the focuses is one cost rather than on income the
usual practice is to treat cost as positive and income as
negative. Consequently the best choice between tow
competing alternatives is the one with minimum NPV.
187
3.2 Energy in buildings
Energy conservation can and must play an important role in future energy strategy because
it can ameliorate adverse impacts on the environment rapidly and economically. One important
factor that determines the energy consumption is the way the facility is used. It is the occupants
who place the demands on systems that use energy. The reality of such statement is often ignored in
many forecasts of energy use. It will be apparent that the hours of operation have a significant
impact upon the energy use (Flanagan and Jewell, 2005).
Energy saving in each building has a unique situation an energy-efficient like an operating
procedure and it should be tailored accordingly. The significant of energy savings may often be
achieved by modifying the operational procedures for mechanical and electrical services in the
building and it deals with strategy, establishing a programme, carrying out surveys and audits,
operation and maintenance, records and investment appraisal procedures in relation to buildings,
systems, equipment, controls, heat recovery and alternative energy. However, good maintenance is
one of the most important items in ensuring the success of any programme of energy-efficient
management. The effective maintenance will ensure efficient operation of systems and equipment
and prolong usable life and with proper maintenance, equipment will operate at a higher efficiency
and consume less fuel or energy (BS 8207-1985).
4 RESEARCH AIMS
The aim of this technical paper is to identify LCC in building construction, to understand the
energy saving in operation and maintenance phase in building construction and to integrate energy
saving to LCC model in building construction. Those objectives will integrate life cycle costing
model in construction industry.
5 SCOPE OF STUDY
The scope of this study is limited to the government building in Malaysia such as Institution
building like several building in Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM), Johor. The scope
is chosen based on the higher cost for energy consumption in institutions of the industrial sector.
Institutions are also a place for convenience in order to produce excellent and quality students.
Among the approaches used is through searching the source of printed materials and
electronic media to facilitate the study of literature carried out while the questionnaires, interviews
and brief discussion with the supervisor, certain person and respondents also facilitate the empirical
study. To obtain accurate information and detailed the methods of this study will be implemented
gradually. The process was conducted the research are based on Figure 3 below.
188
Identifying Problem
Literature Review Study Objective
Data Collection
Primary Data Secondary Data

Interview, Questionnaire & Books, journals, articles,
Site Survey magazine & internet
Organizing & Analyzing Data
Conclusion & Suggestions
Figure 3: Research Methodology Flow Chart
6.1 Research population/sample
In this study, a questionnaire will be asked to certain people such as the occupant of the
building, contractors, developer and building consultant to obtain statistically useful information
about a given topic. It is the only feasible way to reach a number of reviewers large enough to allow
statistically analysis of the results.
6.2 Proposed data collection method
The interviews will be conducted with the questionnaire and also site survey to obtain
detailed investigation information and data in integrating the energy savings for life cycle cost
model.
6.3 Data analysis
This study data for questionnaire will be analyzed by using Statistical Package for Social
Sciences (SPSS) and information from interview and site survey will be discuss for more detailed
result.
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7 EXPECTED OUTCOMES / RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Hopefully at the end of this research will answer the objectives of this study which are to
identify LCC in building construction, to understand the energy saving in operation and
maintenance phase in building construction and to integrate energy saving to LCC model in
building construction. Those objectives will integrate life cycle costing model in construction
industry. A set of data base will be modeled and will be used not only by local government
construction industry but also private construction industry.
8 CONCLUSIONS
As a conclusion, this research will provide benefits and advantages not only to the building
management but also favourable to the government bodies involved in the construction sector and
to overcome certain problems in energy savings through the life cycle cost model in government
building. It also can create an effective and safe environment that is comfortable to the occupier.
The building work will increase productivity indirectly, increase the value of investments and
reduce maintenance costs. From the study that has been conducted, perhaps it will be parallel with
the objectives that achieved through the methods which have been stated earlier.
REFERENCES
Bakis, N., Kagiouglou, M., Aouad, G., Amaratunga, D., Kishk, M. & Al-Hajj, A., (2003). An
Integrated Environment for Life Cycle Costing in Construction.
British Standard Institution. (1985). Codes of Practice for Energy Efficiency in Buildings (BS:
8207) London.
British Standard Institution (1986). Guide to Building Maintenance Management (BS: 8210)
London.
British Standard Institution (2008). Service life planning –Part 5: Life cycle costing (BS ISO:
15686-5) London.
Dhillon, B. S. (2009). Life Cycle Costing for Engineers. Amsterdam: Gordon and Breach Science
Publishers S.A.
Flanagan, R. & Jewell, C. (2005). Whole Life Appraisal for construction. Oxford: Blackwall
Publishing Ltd.
Jutta, S. (2007). Life Cycle Cost Calculation Models for Buildings. University of Technology, Lulea
Sweden.
Kishk, M., Al-Hajj, A., Pollock, R., Aouad, G., Bakis, N. & Sun, M. (2003). Whole Life Costing In
Construction: A State of The Art Review. RICS Foundation.
Norwegian Standard (2000), Life Cycle Costs For Building And Civil Engineering Work -
Principles And Classification (NS3454). Standard Norge.
Total Asset Management (2004) Life Cycle Costing Guideline. New South Wales: Treasury 1.
Wordsworth, P. (2001). Lee’s Building Maintenance Management (4th ed.). UK: Blackwell Science.
190
MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FOR INDUSTRIALIZED

BUILDING SYSTEM: A REVIEW
Zainal Abidin bin Akasah, PhD. Architecture

Lecturer, University Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
Ng Ban Kiong, BSc(Hons). Civil Engineering
Msc Civil Engineering candidate, University Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia.
wanqiang0505@hotmail.com
ABSTRACT
With the aim to reduce the number of the unskilled foreign labor, government had encouraged our
local contractor to use the Industrialized Building System (IBS). They are few type of IBS system
in Malaysia and this included precast concrete frame, panel and box systems, steel formwork
systems, steel frame systems, prefabricated timber systems and block work systems. But at the
same time, when a building was built by the IBS system, the building also needed a system of
technique maintenance of the building to prolong the building life. Hence, this paper will focus
on the maintenance management system use for the building built by IBS. The objective of this
paper is to identify building maintenance problems in IBS and to explain the development of
maintenance management system for IBS. As such, the building need to be identified before the
research start. The defect and the problem face by the owner of the IBS building will be collect
and note down in a check list. This will be done by questionnaire and distributed to all Malaysia’s
government IBS’s building management office. Interview session and site visit also will be done
with the contractor and the building owner to understand the problem that facing by the IBS
building that has been chosen. To prolong the building life cycle and prevent the wasting of the
money, a systematic of maintenance management system (technique) used for Industrialized
Building System need to be developed
Keywords: Industrialized building system (IBS), maintenance management system, life cycle
1 INTRODUCTION
In Malaysia, construction is one of the most important sectors which contribute to our
country economic. At the same time, construction industry had provided about 800,000 job
opportunities. Consequently, many contractors had used the foreign labor to cover up the
problem of the shortage of the workers. Hence, the number of foreign labor increases year by
year. The total number of the foreign labor was stands at 552,000 out of 800,000 which were
registered under CIDB in 2007. (CIDB, 2010) This number had revealed that the huge number
of foreign labor may create a social problem.
With the aim to reduce the number of the unskilled foreign labor, government had
encouraged our local contractor to use the Industrialized Building System (IBS). They are few
type of IBS system in Malaysia and this included precast concrete frame, panel and box
systems, steel formwork systems, steel frame systems, prefabricated timber systems and block
work systems. Serdang Hospital at Selangor and Teachers Quarters at Negeri Sembilan was the
example of the building built with IBS system (MIIE, 2009). But at the same time, when a
building was built by the IBS system, the building also needed a system of technique
maintenance of the building to prolong the building life. So far, there was no a research about
the IBS building maintenance. Hence, this study will focus on the maintenance management
system use for the building built by IBS.
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Initially, this paper will highlighted the preliminary master research about the
Industrialized Building System which focuses on maintenance management system. The
research basically will commence with the literature review. This is extremely important to
understand the background of the study whereby the scope and the objective of the study will
be identified. The information of the literature review will be obtained either from journal, pass
research, books, internet, article or even conference paper. The research also will proceed with
the site investigation and interview session with the contractor and the owner of the building.
After the problem has been validated, the questionnaire will be developing systematically
from the literature review that has been study and the site investigation with the interview
session that having with the contractor and building’s administrator. The content validity test
need to be done first before the questionnaire distribute to the owner of the building’s
administrator and contractor. Eventually a quality and relevant questionnaire will be
developing to achieve the goal of the research. Pilot study need to be conduct first before the
questionnaire distribute to the respondents with the aim to determine the adequacy and
efficiency of the research tools. After the feedback from the respondents, the sampling analysis
will be conduct to identify the problem. From the sampling analysis, the IBS maintenance
management system will be develop to achieve the objective of the research.
2.1 IBS DEFINATION
Actually there are various definition of the Industrialized Building System (IBS) in
Malaysia. This indicated that no agreed definition of the IBS since there have few type of
definition from different author (Mohamad Rofzdi, 2009). IBS can be considered as the
building built by using pre-fabricated components. The component was systematically
manufactured either by using machine or other forms of mechanical equipment. The
component was manufacturing off site and delivered to construction sites for assembly and
erection (Rahman and Omar, 2006).
Chung and Kadir (2007) has defined that the IBS is a mass production of building
components either in factory or at site. It depends on the specification of the standard shape and
dimension to transport to the site to be re-arranged according to certain standard to form a
building. Construction Industry Development (2003) defined IBS as a construction technique
included components which are manufactured in a controlled environment either on or off site,
transported, positioned and set up into a structure with minimal additional site works.
2.2 HISTORY IBS IN MALAYSIA
Since 1960’s, IBS was starting used in Malaysia after the ministry of housing and local
government of Malaysia inspired the idea from the visiting at several European countries. The
pioneer project of building using IBS was Pekeliling Flat at Kuala Lumpur and the Rifle Range
Flat at Penang. This two project significantly had cause the Malaysia construction field
achieved another new milestone in the era of 1960’s when IBS which also known as modern
method construction had been recognized in Malaysia. Since then, many construction after the
year using precast wall panel system. This method became popular when most of the low cost
high rise residential building using IBS following the years after 1960’s. But unfortunately
some of the technique that had been utilized in Malaysia from over sea did not suitably use in
Malaysia’s weather climate and social practices. In the early of 80’s, structural steel component
getting using in high rise building in Kuala Lumpur (CREAM AND CIDB, 2010).
The 36-storey Dayabumi complex was successfully completed in 1984 by a Japan
company name Takenaka Corporation. In the period of 1981 to 1993, Perbadanan Kemajuan
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Negeri Selangor (PKNS) adopted precast concrete technology from Praton Haus International
based on Germany to build low cost house and high cost bungalow for the new townships in
Selangor (Zuhairi Abd Hamid, 2007). The evolution of the construction in Malaysia had
encourage many local company involved in IBS construction. To improve the IBS technique,
some local company had collaborate with the foreign company from Japan, Australia and US to
develop a quality technology in IBS. There are various of project utilized IBS in this modern
era and this including Bukit Jalil Sport Complex, Kuala Lumpur Convention Centre,
Lightweight Railway Train, KL tower, KLIA, and Petronas Twin Tower (Zuhairi Abd Hamid,
2007).
2.3 CLASSIFICATON OF IBS
Generally, there are four categories in construction method and this including
conventional method, cast in situ, composite method and fully prefabricated. Basically cast in
situ, composite method and fully prefabricated was classified as non conventional method.
While for the structural aspects, IBS can be divided into five major types:
a) Precast Concrete Framing,Panel and Box System

-this including PC columns, beams, slabs, 3D-components (balconies, staircase, toilet,
lift chambers, box girders, etc), (MIIE, 2009)
b) Steel Formwork System

-Tunnels forms, beams and colums moulding forms, permanent steel formworks (metal
decks), etc (MIIE, 2009).
c) Steel Frame Systems

-Steel beams and columns, portal frames, roof trusses, etc (MIIE, 2009)
d) Prefabricated Timber Frame Systems

-Timber frames, pre-fab timber, roof trusses, etc (MIIE, 2009).
e) Blockwork Systems
-Interlocking concrete masonry unit(CMU), lightweight concrete blocks, etc (MIIE,
2009)
2.4 ISSUES of IBS
In the 1960’s, IBS was often misinterpreted with negative meaning. Normally, IBS
building associated with pre-fabricated mass construction method, low quality buildings,
leakages, abandoned projects, unpleasant architectural appearances and other drawbacks.
Public have bad impression about the precast concrete due to the poor architectural design for
the old pre-fabraicated buildings. The example of two early pre-fabricated flats were
constructed was Pekeliling Flats in Kuala Lumpur and Taman Tun Sardon,Gelugor,Penang.
The very basic design for the Tamana Tun Sardon by British Research Estalishment, UK was
create lots of problem. The lack of design such as the need for wet toilets and bathrooms was
leads to problems of leakage (Rahman and Omar, 2006).
However, lack of knowledge in structural analysis and design of pre-fabricated
components also contribute to the problem of the implementation IBS system. The most
common problem are the connection between the beam to column and column to base. The
lack of knowledge of design could cause the poor connection at site work. The poor connection
may leads the issued of comfort and safety. When the steelwork structures are design as the
193
conventional reinforced concrete structural system, this concept result exposed steel beams and
columns. Unfortunately, this can comes out of many problems such as leakage. The rain water
was easily seeped into the building joint between the wall and steel beam. On the other hand,
the dampness leads to corrosion to the lighting system and the beam (Rahman and Omar,
2006).
2.5 EXAMPLE OF IBS PROJECTS IN MALAYSIA
Project 1: Office and Apartments
Figure 1: Northam City, Penang, Malaysia (Reference from Malaysia International IBS
Exhibition, MIIE 2009).
Description of the building:

• IBS structure: Steel formwork system for slab, beam and columns
• 2 towers 30 storeys
• Construction of IBS structure: 6 months
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Project 2: Quarters
Figure 2: Teachers Quarters, Lukut, Negari Sembilan (Reference from MIIE 2009).

• IBS structures: lightweight block concrete and precast concrete walls and slabs
• 100 unit, 7 block, 3-4 storeys
Projects 3: Hospital
Figure 3: Serdang Hospital, Selangor, Malaysia (Reference from MIIE 2009).
Description of the building

• 620 beds
• IBS structure Hybrid steel framing: Precast concrete slab, lightweight block for wall
195
Projects 4: Apartments
Figure 4: Apartments, Precint 9, Putrajaya, Malaysia (Reference from MIIE 2009).

• 658 units
• IBS structures: Precast wall, slabs with total numbers of PC panels=19,000
• IBS structures: 10 months
2.6 PERCENTAGE OF FOREIGN LABOR BASED ON STATES
Table 4 : Percentage of Foreign Labour Based On States

States in Malaysia Average %
Selangor 97
Wilayah Persekutuan Kuala Lumpur 95
Melaka 86
Pahang 76
Johor 73
Negeri Sembilan 62
Pulau Pinang 52
Sabah 48
Perak 48
Kedah 36
Terengganu 24
Kelantan 17
Perlis 13
Sarawak 6
Average per state 52
Source: Malaysia International IBS Exhibition 2009
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2.7 REGISTRATION OF IBS MANUFACTURER AND PRODUCTS IN “ORANGE

BOOK”
Table 5 : Registration of IBS Manufacturer and Products in “Orange Book”
NO TYPES OF IBS MANUFACTURER PRODUCT

1 Precast Concrete System 39 249
2 Formwork System 23 29
3 Steel Frame System 27 45
4 Timber Frame System 21 21
5 Blockwork System 9 11
Total 119 355
Source: Malaysia International IBS Exhibition 2009
2.8 REGISTERED IBS CONTRACTOR (ACTIVE) IN MALAYSIA BY CIDB

GRADE (2007)
Table 6 : Registered IBS Contractor (Active) In Malaysia by CIDB Grade (2007)
GRED NUMBERS
G7 334
G6 52
G5 83
G4 42
G3 191
G2 76
G1 71
TOTAL 849
Source: Construction Industry Development Board (CIDB) Malaysia
3 EXPECTED OUTCOMES
IBS maintenance management system will be develop and to be used by the contractors
and the administrators of the building. This maintenance management system is important to
prolong the building’s life cycle and avoid the wasting of the money.
4 RECOMMENDATION
All the problem that has been successfully identified need to be validated relevant to the
objective of the research to ensure the maintenance management system for the IBS building is
successfully develop. Consequently, the procedures to occur the defect or the problem of the
IBS building need to be done carefully to obtain a reliable data. Thus, a quality questionnaire
will be developing to obtain a best result from the survey.
197
5 CONCLUSION
This paper significantly revealed the important of develop the maintenance

management for IBS building in Malaysia. All the review that has been highlighted for
example history, issues and problem of IBS in Malaysia hope will be an important information
and reference to develop the maintenance management system for IBS building.
6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to take this opportunity to thanks to my supervisor which is Dr Hj. Zainal
Bin Akasah who keep supporting and sharing his knowledge in my master research. Besides, I
would also like to thanks to my parents and friend which always encouraging me in my master
research.
REFERENCES
Abdullah, M.R, Kamar, K.A.M, Nawi, M.N.M, Haron, T and Arif, M (2009), “Industrialized
Building System: A Defination and Concept”, Proceeding in ARCOM Conference, 7 – 9
September 2009, Nottingham, United Kingdom.
Chung, L. P. & Kadir, A. M. (2007), “Implementation Strategy for Industrialised Building
Systems”, PhD Thesis, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), Johor Bahru.
Construction Industry Development Board (CIDB) Malaysia (2003a) IBS Roadmap 2003-
2010, Construction Industry Development Board Malaysia (CIDB), Kuala Lumpur.
CREAM and CIDB (2010), Industrialized Building System (IBS) Construction
Research And Information, Retrieved From
http://Ibsresearch.Blogspot.Com/2010/04/History-Of-Ibs-adoption-in-malaysia.html
Diah, A.B.M, Majid, T.A, Nawawi, N.M, Ismail, S., Zain, M.Z.M and Hassan, R. (2009),
“Development through IBS Integration”, Proceeding International Seminar On IBS in
Malaysia IBS International Exhibition (MIIE 2009), at CIDB Convention Centre.
Hamid,Z.A, Kamar, K.A.M, Zain,M.Z.M, Ghani,M.K and Rahim,A.H, “Industrialized
Building System(IBS) In Malaysia:The Current State And R&D
Initiatives”,CREAM,Kuala Lumpur.
Kamar, K.A.M, Alshawi, M and Hamid, Z. (2009), “Barriers to Industrialized Building System
(IBS): The Case Of Malaysia”, Proceeding In BuHu 9th International Postgraduate
Research Conference (IPGRC), 29-30January2009, at Salford United Kingdom.
Kamar, K.A.M, Egbu,C, Arif,M, Hamid, Z.A, Zin, M.Z.M, Ghani. M.K and Rahim, A.H.A
(2009), “Submission to Construction Industry Development Board(CIDB), IBS Centre
Malaysia and IBS Technical Committee”, Proceeding Of 1st CIDB/CREAM IBS
Roundtable Workshop (IRW01), 29 July 2009, Grand Season Hotel Kuala Lumpur.
Kamar, K.A.M, Hamid, Z.A.H, Sani, S.F.A, Ghani,M.K, Zin, Rahim,A,H and Karim,A.Z.A
(2010), “The Critical Success Factors (CSFs) for the Implementation of Industrialized
Building System (IBS) in Malaysia”, Proceeding 3rd IBS Roundtable Workshop
(IRW03)-CIDB/CREAM IBS Survey 2010.
Rahman, A.B.A, Omar, W. (2006), “Issues and Challenges in the Implementation of IBS in
Malaysia”. Proceeding of the 6th Asia-Pasific Structural Engineering and
ConstructionConference (ASPEC 2006). 5-6 September 2006, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
198
THEME C
AUTHORING PUBLISHABLE RESEARCH IN CONSTRUCTION

MANAGEMENT: EXPERIENCE OF A DOCTORAL POSTGRADUATE
Sia Mal Kong, MSc.
Senior Lecturer, Kolej Tunku Abdul Rahman, Kuala Lumpur
siamk@mail.tarc.edu.my
ABSTRACT
For a novice researcher, identifying and selecting a research topic is a challenging task. Doing and
authoring a publishable research are even more daunting. Publishability is a major criterion for a
doctoral level work, as it is an indication of originality and a way of measuring contribution to
knowledge. It is also a requirement for most of the universities that PhD candidates by research must
have submitted at least one manuscript to international journals and/or top conference proceedings
arising from their research works before submission of their theses for examination. In order to
identify the possible reasons for publishability, this paper summarises the research in construction
management carried out by the author, and his brief experience in writing for international journals.
The experiences gained are invaluable and augur well for him to writing his thesis and gaining his
doctoral degree.
Keywords: Publication, research, writing
1 INTRODUCTION
Universities in Malaysia can be classified in two types, namely public and private. Public
universities in Malaysia are heavily funded by the Malaysian Government, and the fees are very
affordable. Whereas the private universities are run by private companies, and the fees are
considerably higher and more expensive. The minimum duration to complete a full-time PhD
programme for most of the Malaysian universities, whether public or private is 2 years. Normally, it
can be extended for another two years. The minimum duration to complete a part-time PhD
programme is four years.
Open University Malaysia (or OUM), a open university owned by a consortium of the first
11 Malaysian public universities, is the seventh private university set up under the Private Higher
Education Institution Act, 1996. The author is doing his part-time PhD (Engineering) degree by
research in OUM, since January 2006. Due to heavy work load assignments, he deferred the course
for two semesters. However, he managed to complete his questionnaire survey in the sixth semester
of his studies, and submitted the PhD thesis in the tenth semester. In OUM, even though there is no
requirement on submitting manuscripts to international journals before submission of thesis for
examination, doctoral candidates are encouraged to do so. In Multimedia University, every
candidate doing PhD by research must have submitted at least one manuscript to international
journals and/or top conference proceedings arising from the research work carried out before
submission of his/her thesis for examination (source: http://research.mmu.edu.my/ips/node/122).
It is a common practice for PhD students to present papers at conferences and publish papers
during their candidature, as these will help them in the long term preparation for viva in terms of
skills, content and conduct (Tinkler & Jackson, 2004), as well as their academic careers. However,
according to Waks (2005), research studies have shown that doctoral graduates lack the body of
skills for research and publication. Phillips and Pugh (2005) lamented that there is a little or no
discussion between students and their supervisors of what constitutes originality in the PhD, which
is a necessary condition for publishability of PhD research. In addition, supervisors do not usually
199
tell their research students that it is sufficient enough for the students to contribute only an
incremental step in understanding, rather than a whole new way of looking at the discipline or the
topic. Therefore, it is important for a PhD student to carry out a publishable research, to know the
reasons for publishability, as well as designing his/her research for publication as this will definitely
help him/her to gain the PhD degree.
LITERATURE REVIEW
According to Holosko (2006), research is the systematic investigation of a phenomenon. It

is the process of searching, investigating and/or discovering facts by using the scientific method.
For a novice researcher, identifying and selecting a research topic is a challenging task. Fellows and
Liu (2008) constructed six lists, in the process of progressive narrowing and refinement, to identify
and select a suitable topic for study. These are identifying topics of interest to the researcher,
recognising personal strengths and weaknesses, adopting topics of current interest in practice,
determining the data required and the sources of data for each topic, and noting research limitations.
Among the characteristics of high quality thesis identified by Holbrook (2004) include the
significance of the student’s research topic, potential of the thesis for publication, and the extent to
which the findings can be applied in the field (Paltridge & Startfiled, 2007). Therefore, it is better
for the student to identify and select a topic which is original in earlier part of his/her PhD studies
and know its potential of being an original contribution to knowledge, as this remains to be a
criteria for a PhD degree to be awarded (Phillips & Pugh, 2005).
Doing publishable research is even more daunting. To be publishable, a research must be
capable of being published or is suitable for publication. Publishability is a major criterion for a
doctoral level work (Badley, 2009). An essential feature of research for a doctoral degree is that the
work makes an original contribution to knowledge (Fellows & Liu, 2008). Paltridge and Startfield
(2007) mentioned that research for doctoral dissertation must demonstrate: (a) an original
investigation or the testing of ideas; and (b) a distinct contribution to knowledge, as shown by the
topic under investigation, the methodology employed, the discovery of new facts, or interpretation
of the findings. There are different definitions of originality that are acceptable for a doctoral level
work. Table 1 summarises the possible ways of originality proposed by Tinkler and Jackson (2004)
and Phillips and Pugh (2005).
According to Tinkler and Jackson (2004), publishability is a way of measuring contribution
to knowledge. Badley (2009) listed the following publishability criteria used by various refereed
journals, namely critically, extent of contextualisation, impact, leading-edge, originality, rigour,
scale, significance and topicality. Huff (2009) listed six criteria which capture widely accepted
editorial standards for publishable research namely, interesting and possibly engaging, significant
and hopefully enduring, and trustworthy and ideally authoritative. Based on the work of Davis
(1971), Huff (2009, pp. 25–26) drawn up a list of items which make a doctoral level work
interesting, including organisation, composition, abstraction, generalisation, stabilisation, function,
evaluation, correlation, coexistence, covariation, opposition and causation. She suggested that the
claims of significance and enduring importance be accompanied by empirical examples as this will
increase the probability that the readers will put effort into understanding the work and its
implications. The descriptors used for significant and enduring important piece of work include:
absolute level of impact, impact over a long period of time, increasing impact over time, significant
effect, potential benefit, resources absorbed and problems caused. She presented the criteria for
trustworthiness proposed by Lincoln and Guba (1985), as shown in Table 2.
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Table 1: Possible Ways of Originality for Doctoral Level Work
Tinkler and Jackson (2004, pp. 117–118) Phillips and Pugh (2005, p. 62)
i) In terms of research topics, research on i) Setting down a major piece of new

(a) new areas of study, data sets, information in writing for the first time.
questions, hypotheses, problems, links ii) Continuing a previously original piece of
between topics/data sets, and so on; work.
and iii) Carrying out original work designed by
(b) Significantly changed contexts as in the supervisor.
the replication of a study.
ii) In terms of research processes, there are: iv) Providing a single original technique,
(a) new applications of established observation, or result in an otherwise
research tools – for instance, methods, unoriginal but competent piece of
instruments, conceptual tools, modes research.
of analysis, procedures, theories, v) Having many original ideas, methods
‘practices’ – to different or new and interpretations all performed by
research topics; others under the direction of the
(b) significant refinement of established postgraduate.
research tools, or development of new vi) Showing originality in testing somebody
research tools, applied to established else’s idea.
or new research topics; and vii) Carrying out empirical work that hasn’t
(c) Application of new perspectives to been done before.
research topics. viii) Making a synthesis that hasn’t
been made before.
ix) Bringing new evidence to bear on an old
issue.
iii) In terms of research outcomes, either x) Using already known material but with a
intentional or unintentional, there are: new interpretation.
(a) new or substantially revised solutions, xi) Trying out something that has previously
products, theories, knowledge, only been done somewhere else.
interpretations, approaches, ways of xii) Taking a particular technique and
doing research (methods, instruments, applying it in a new area.
conceptual tools, modes of analysis, xiii) Being cross-disciplinary and
procedures, application of theory, using different methodologies.
‘practice’); xiv) Looking at areas that people in
(b) new syntheses of theory or knowledge the discipline haven’t looked at before.
or ways of doing research; and xv) Adding to knowledge in a way that
(c) The opening up of new and/or hasn’t been done before.
neglected areas for fundamental and
significant further research.
201
Table 2: Lincoln and Guba’s Criteria for Trustworthiness (cited in Huff, 2009, p. 32)
Criterion Qualitative Approach Quantitative Approach

Truth value Credibility Internal validity
Applicability Transferability External validity
Consistency Dependability Reliability
Neutrality Confirmability Objectivity
Based on the interest value of the work (its creativity or originality) and the methodological
rigour, Stewart (2008) illustrated the probability of success of publication in Figure 1.
To develop opportunities for publication, Waks (2005) advised prospective authors to use
meetings and conferences as the acceptance rates are higher. Moreover, prestigious international
journals have regional editors who are looking out for authors with fresh ideas and promising
manuscripts for submissions. According to Jönsson (2006), the best way to prepare a manuscript for
the journal review process is to have a conference version. Adhere to the recommended paper
format and submission details. In addition, pay close attention to reviewers’ comments as such
comments are indicators of opportunities for improvement.
METHODOLOGICAL RIGOUR
High Low
Highest Probability of Publication Higher Probability of Publication

HIGH
INTEREST
VALUE
Lower Lowest Probability of Publication
LOW Probability of Publication
Figure 1: The Probability of Publishing

Source: Stewart, 2008, p. 422
CASE STUDY
Quality is a current, recurring and perennial issue in most industries, to the extent that it has
become a practical issue of national and global importance. To improve productivity and quality in
the Malaysian construction industry, Construction Industry Development Board (CIDB) Malaysia is
actively promoting the adoption of ISO 9001:2000. All players within the construction industry,
especially the G7 contractors, are encouraged to adopt the ISO 9001 standard as a QMS (This is a
policy issue). It is claimed that effective implementation of ISO 9001 standard would result in
improved client’s satisfaction, increased profitability and shareholder’s value, increased
competitiveness and improved motivation to the workforce. To identify the possible reasons for
publishability, the research carried out by the author are summarised below.
202
1.1 Research Title
The research was entitled “Causal effects of registration efforts on business performance of
ISO 9001-certified companies in Malaysian construction industry using SEM”.
1.2 Research Gaps
Earlier researches in quality management system (QMS) in Malaysia concentrated mainly

on the solution of quality and organisational problems in the manufacturing, electronic and public
sector (Ahmad & Mohd Zain, 2000). There is thus a need to study the implementation of ISO
9000:2000 QMS and business performance in the construction industry, whether locally or
internationally, because the understanding between the two seems to be very limited (Said, Zainal
Abidin & Mohd Shafiei, 2006). According to Ahmad and Mohd Zain (2000), earlier researches
conducted in the Malaysian construction industry concentrated on the development of standards of
building materials, project delay, labour management and risk. Therefore, there is a lack of
literature on the measurement of Malaysian contractors’ performance in general, and lack of
relevant theories and empirical evidences governing the issues of QM based on ISO 9000:2000 and
business performance of Malaysian contractors in particular (Said, 2005). There is thus a need to
investigate the extent to which quality-related knowledge is understood and appropriately applied.
Although much effort has been put in by the industries in Malaysia to obtain ISO 9001 certification,
there has been no attempt to verify whether implementation of ISO 9001 leads to any increase in
company profitability (Jabnoun & Kanapathy, 1998). It has also been reported that very few studies
are undertaken to identify the factors that influence corporate performance and to establish the
relationship between performance and the ISO 9001 registration (Naser, Karbhari & Mokhtar,
2004). Therefore, there is a need for the academia to study the implementation of the ISO 9000
QMS and business performance in the Malaysian construction industry (Said, 2005).
According to Thiagaragan, Zairi and Dale (2001), the lack of theory and research in QM
warrants the study of QM as a valid topic for research in order to increase its existing body of
knowledge. Though ISO 9000:2000 borrows heavily from TQM, there is no specific
acknowledgement of this (Goetsch & Davis, 2002). No empirical research has been carried out so
far to validate the eight QM principles of ISO 9000:2000 even though TQM has been extensively
investigated. Therefore, future research to examine ISO 9000:2000 might involve the development
and testing of model concerning the systematic and effective implementation of ISO 9001:2000
(Sila & Ebrahimpour, 2005). Moreover, Molenaar, Washington and Diekmann (2000) mentioned
that structural equation modelling (SEM) is under utilised in construction engineering and
management research. Yang and Trewn (2003) added that SEM is an ‘untapped gold mine for
application in quality engineering’.
1.3 Research Questions
To address the gaps mentioned above, the following questions were raised:
a) What are the organisational improvements experienced by ISO 9001-certified
companies from implementing ISO 9001?
b) Do QMS practices have a positive impact on business performance of ISO 9001-
certified companies?
1.4 Research Objective
Based on the research statements and research questions mentioned above, the objective for
this research was to investigate the causal effects of ISO 9001 registration efforts on business performance
of ISO 9001-certified companies in the Malaysian construction industry.
203
1.5 Research Aims
Based on the research statements and research questions mentioned above, the aims for this
research were:
i) To reclassify the benefits gained by ISO 9001-certified companies into three

categories, namely, company competitiveness, customer satisfaction and business
performance.
ii) To determine the components of registration efforts in ISO 9001 standards.
iii) To validate the eight QM principles for QMS practices in ISO 9000 family of
standards.
iv) To validate the three facets of competitiveness in the competitiveness model for
construction industry proposed by Momaya and Selby (1998).
v) To determine the causal relationships among ISO 9001 registration efforts, QMS
practices, company competitiveness, customer satisfaction and business performance
of ISO 9001-certified companies in the Malaysian construction industry.
1.6 Research Basis
ISO 9000:2000 family of standards was the theoretical foundation of this research, based on the
following statements:
i) The process-based QMS of ISO 9000 is structured in theory around the Deming loop
(the ‘Plan-Do-Check-Act’ or PDCA model) (United Nations, 2001).
ii) Deming’s PDCA cycle is the operating principle of ISO 9000 family of standards
(Goetsch & Davis, 2010).
iii) If a theory can be expressed in terms of relationships among measured variables and
latent constructs, SEM will provide a conceptually convincing way to test how well
the theory fits reality as represented by empirical data collected from questionnaire
(Hair et al., 2006).
iv) According to Hetherington (2000), theory provides an essential guide for the
formulation of the research design, the operation definition of the constructs, the
measurement of the observed variables, the analysis of the data, and the
interpretation of results. In the selection of variables, theory specifies what should be
observed and how it should be measured. In the specification of relations among
variables, theory is essential in specifying exactly what relations exist among
variables and their underlying constructs. In the interpretation of results, theory is the
primary schema by which the content and implications of the research findings are
understood.
1.7 Research Hypotheses
Due to the requirements to attain and maintain certifications, ISO 9001-certified companies
are recommended to practise the eight QM principles. As a result of time sequence effect, there are
indications that the registration efforts taken for ISO 9001 certification are causes of and reasons for
the eight QM principles being practised in ISO 9001-certified companies, in addition to the
consequential benefits or improvements, namely, company competitiveness, customer satisfaction
and business performance.
204
1.8 Research Premises
The Deming’s QM theory underpinning the ISO 9000:2000 family of standards is the
theoretical foundation of this research. Eight QM principles have been identified in ISO 9000:2000
which can be used by top management to lead an organisation towards improved performance. The
eight QM principles which form the basis of the QMS standard within the ISO 9000 family are
customer focus, leadership, involvement of people, process approach, system approach to
management, continual improvement, factual approach to decision making and mutually beneficial
supplier relationships. These eight QM principles have been taken into consideration during the
development of ISO 9001. They are integrated into the clauses in ISO 9004:2000 to be used by top
management to manage an organisation successfully in a systematic and visible manner towards
improved performance. As such, the ISO 9000 family of standards has measurement items that
cover all aspects of the QMS practices construct to be measured (Feng, Terziovski & Samson,
2008). Similarly, based on the five clauses for ISO 9001 accreditation, the ISO 9001 standard also
contains measurement items that cover all aspects of the registration efforts construct to be
measured. Based on these revelations, the five clauses for ISO 9001 certifications, the eight QM
principles and the benefits gained from registrations were used to develop a questionnaire to
measure QMS practices and to investigate the causal effects of ISO 9001 registrations on QMS
practices, company competitiveness, customer satisfaction and business performance of ISO 9001-
certified companies.
1.9 Research Model
The research model, an extension of Han’s (2000) model, is shown in Figure 2.
1.10 Research Flow
The research flow is shown in Figure 3.
1.11 Research Design
A survey questionnaire is developed for this research to collect quantitative data to assess the
conceptualized research variables used for testing the research hypotheses. Based on the premise
that ISO 9001:2000 is a model for QMS, the eight QM principles embedded in it are used to
develop a questionnaire to measure the practice of ISO 9001 in ISO 9001-certified companies.
Based on the five clauses for accreditation of the QMS, the questionnaire being developed contains
also items to measure the amount of registration efforts put in by companies to obtain and maintain
ISO 9001 certifications. The questionnaire also requests respondents to indicate the improvements
experienced by companies as a result of ISO 9000 certifications, in terms of customer satisfaction,
company competitiveness and business performance.
205
Customer Focus Competitive Competitive Competitive

Performance Resources Processes
Leadership
Involvement of People
Process Approach
Company Reduced
H5 competitivenes quality
System Approach to s problems
Management
QMS Practices
H6 Customer
Continual
Improvement H8 complimen
ts
Factual Approach to
Decision Making H7 Product
Customer competitiv
H1 H9 Satisfaction e price
Mutually Beneficial
Supplier Relationships H2
Customer
H10
complaints
QMS Requirements H3
ISO 9001
Registration
Efforts Level of
Management Customer
Business Satisfaction
Responsibility Performance
H4
Resource Management
Product Realisation
Measurement, Profitability Increased Market Share Financial

Analysis and Revenue Performance
Improvement
Figure 2: Structural model of causal relationships with five measurement models for registration
efforts, QMS practices, company competitiveness, customer satisfaction and business
performance constructs (Extension from Han, 2000, p. 26; Han, Chen & Ebrahimpour, 2007, p. 7)
1.12 Sample Size
100 useable replies were obtained from a sampling population of 456 ISO 9001-certified
companies judgmentally selected from the Malaysian construction industry (as of 14th April 2008).
1.13 Software Used
The statistical software used is SPSS 16.0 for exploratory factor analysis and AMOS 16.0 for
confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modelling.
1.14 Research Findings
This research has successfully evaluated the research objectives set out earlier, namely:
i) To classify the benefits gained into three categories, namely, company
competitiveness, customer satisfaction and business performance; and
ii) To investigate the causal relationships among registrations efforts taken for ISO
9001 certification, quality management system practices, company competitiveness,
customer satisfaction and business performance of ISO 9001-certified companies.
206
The findings from structural equation modelling reveal the following:

i) The existence of three components of organisational improvement experienced by
ISO 9001-certified companies in the Malaysian construction industry.
ii) The factor structures of QMS practices and registration efforts constructs in ISO
9001: From CFA, there appear to be six orthogonal components encapsulating the
eight quality management principles in the ISO 9000 family of standards, and five
orthogonal components representing the five clauses for accreditation of ISO 9001
certifications.
iii) The factor structure of company competitiveness construct: From CFA, there appear
to be three orthogonal components for company competitiveness construct.
The empirical results from structural equation modelling confirm:
i) That registration efforts for ISO 9001 certifications enhance the practices of QMS
embedded in ISO 9001; and QMS practices enhance company competitiveness,
which in turn enhances customer satisfaction and business performance,
ii) The claim made in ISO 9000 family of standards that the application of the eight
QM principles may impact the competitive advantage of ISO 9001-certified
companies through improved organisational capabilities, in terms of competitive
resources or assets, competitive processes and competitive performance; and
financial results such as increased revenue, market share and profitability, and
iii) The contentions made by CIDB Malaysia that effective implementation of ISO 9001
as a QMS will result in improved client’s satisfaction, increased profitability and
increased competitiveness.
1.15 Implications
This research investigates the causal effects of ISO 9001 registration efforts by using SEM.
As ISO 9001 is a generic international standard for QMS, this research has apparent and definite
practical implication. The proposed model aims at the tactical and strategic implications of effective
implementation of ISO 9001 certifications on increased company competitiveness and improved
business performance of ISO 9001-certified companies. From the theoretical standpoint, the
proposed model attempts to elucidate the link between existing theory and the requirements for
systematic and effective implementation of ISO 9001 as a QMS.
207
Theory
Deming’s quality management theory underpinning the ISO 9000:2000
family of standards is the theoretical foundation for this research
Concepts
• Registration Efforts to attain and maintain ISO 9001 certifications. Five clauses for registration.
• Quality Management System Practices and the eight Quality Management Principles.
• Benefits gained: Company Competitiveness, Customer Satisfaction and Business Performance.
• Five latent constructs are identified in the causal relationships.
Hypotheses
• The requirements to attain and maintain ISO 9001 certifications are causes of quality management system practices being
implemented in ISO 9001-certified companies; in addition to the consequential benefits or improvements obtained,
namely, company competitiveness, customer satisfaction and business performance.
• There are ten hypotheses among the five latent constructs in the causal research:
H1: ISO 9001 registration efforts enhance quality management system practices,
H2: ISO 9001 registration efforts enhance company competitiveness,
H3: ISO 9001 registration efforts enhance customer satisfaction,
H4: ISO 9001 registration efforts enhance company business performance,
H5: Quality management system practices enhance company competitiveness,
H6: Quality management system practices enhance customer satisfaction,
H7: Quality management system practices enhance business performance,
H8: Company competitiveness enhances customer satisfaction,
H9: Company competitiveness enhances company business performance, and
H10: Customer satisfaction enhances company business performance.
• Literature review on the theoretical bases or supports of ten hypotheses.
Operationalisation of Concepts
• There are five latent constructs in the structural model adapted from Han (2000) and Han et al. (2007).
• Registration efforts construct is a second-order measurement model, consisting of one second-order factor and five first-
order factors which are measured by 29 observed variables.
• Quality management system practices construct is a second-order measurement model, consisting of one second-order
factor and eight first-order factors which are measured by 56 observed variables.
• Company competitiveness construct is a second-order measurement model, consisting of one second-order factor and three
first-order factors which are measured by 18 observed variables.
• Customer satisfaction construct is a first-order measurement model, consisting of one first-order factor which is measured
by five observed variables.
• Business performance construct is a first-order measurement model, consisting of one first-order factor which is measure
by four observed variables.
Research Design
• Survey method and development of survey questionnaire.
• Selection of respondents or participants.
• Questionnaire distribution, administration and data collection.
Statistical Analysis Method

• Two-stage approach: EFA for factor structures of constructs, CFA for assessments of measurement models.
• SEM for assessments of structural model, constrained models and parsimonius models.
• Testing of hypotheses by two methods for cross checking.
Findings
• Descriptive analysis for: (i) the motivations to seek ISO 9001 certifications; (ii) the reasons to obtain and maintain ISO
9001 certifications; (iii) the perceived positive outcomes / benefits from ISO 9001 implementation; and (iv) the perceived
negative outcomes / drawbacks from ISO 9001 implementation.
• Output from statistical analysis: EFA, CFA and structural equation modelling.
Figure 3: Research Process

(Adapted from Bryman and Cramer, 2001, p. 3; Silverman, 2005, p. 100)
208
3 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Based on this research, the author has presented six papers in conferences locally, with four
at international level. So far, three papers based on this research have been accepted for publication,
with the last two being international journals.
i) A paper has been accepted for publication in the Malaysian Construction Research
Journal.
ii) Upon the invitation from Associate Professor Dr. Ooi Keng Boon of UTAR as the
Chief Editor, a paper on the research findings have been accepted for publication in
the forthcoming issue of the International Journal of Modelling in Operations
Management (IJMOM), Inderscience.
iii) Another paper, upon the invitation from the editors of David Publishing Company of
USA, has been submitted to the Journal of Civil Engineering and Architecture
(ISSN1934-7359). It has been accepted and published.
Based on the criteria proposed by Tinkler and Jackson (2004) and Phillips and Pugh (2005)
as given in Table 1, the research conducted is original in more than one ways. It is a publishable
research for the following possible reasons:
i) Interesting and engaging:
• The research is interesting because the Deming’s QM theory encapsulated in ISO
9001 family of standards is the theoretical foundation of this research, where
SEM is used to integrate, explain and predict the outcomes of ISO 9001
registration efforts.
• It is engaging as ISO 9001 standard is a generic international standard for QMS
which involves all companies in the world, irrespective whether they are from the
construction, manufacturing or electronic industries.
ii) Significant and enduring
• The tactical and strategic implications of effective implementation of ISO 9001
certifications on increased company competitiveness and improved business
performance of ISO 9001-certified companies are significant contribution of this
research.
• The research is not only academically interesting, it is even more significant
because the tactical and strategic implications enlighten practitioners and policy
makers the logic for ISO 9001 implementations.
• The practical implication is enduring for as long as ISO 9001 remains an
international standard for QMS with the eight QM principles remain intact.
• The research is not only practically important; it is even more significant because
it contributes to the theoretical explanation underpinning the ISO 9001 standard.
iii) Trustworthy and authoritative
• The empirical data are trustworthy as the questionnaire has content and construct
validities. The questionnaire items have also been tested for reliability. The
research findings are generalisable, as the authors around the world would
consider how far the results could be generalised and useful to them (Kekäle et
al., 2009).
• The research is authoritative as it is possibly the first empirical research on
quality management in construction industry using structural equation modelling.
Phillips and Pugh (2005) advised researchers to take every opportunity to write reports, draft
papers, etc., during the course of their research in order to develop their skills to write effectively
for their theses. Structuring the material for presentation in a paper and getting peer reviews is an
effective way to learn how to do better research next time. Huff (2009) advised potential writer to
209
contribute his/her research findings in academic journals before others working in the same topic do
so, whereas Phillips and Pugh (2005) encouraged research students to publish their research
findings ahead of others, whether on the same topic, same approach, or same or similar results.
Kekäle et al. (2009) advised the prospective author to consider writing a journal article only if (s)he
has something new to tell where the truth value of something is to be put to the test. According to
Kekäle et al. (2009), journals are where the results of new research are published for rigorous
examination by the academic community. The formula of getting a paper published is creativity,
persistence and hard work (Stewart, 2008). Jönsson (2006) advised researchers to give their best
effort in academic writing as the texts will remain long after we are gone.
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212
APPLICABILITY OF PRE-PRICED BOQ FOR CONSTRUCTION WORK

AT SAUDI ARABIA
Abdulrahman Al-Sinaidi, PhD.

Assistant Professor, Al-Kharj University, Civil Engineering Department
alsinaidi@hotmail.com
ABSTRACT
The disadvantage of the low bid price (unit price contract) policy in open competitive contracts in Saudi
Arabia is to be unbalanced, and shifting the risk to be held by owner. The purpose of this paper is to
propose an alternate procedure for bidding using unit price contract. Such procedure needs to prove that
contractors' engineers and government engineers are agree about cost estimate procedure. Fifty-one
variables affecting pre-tender construction cost estimates are identified through literature. These factors
are grouped into twelve categories and a comparison analysis of their impact is conducted. Priority
ranking of cost-influencing factors is carried out using a questionnaire survey commissioned amongst
quantity surveyors based in Saudi Arabia. Findings of this survey indicate that there is a strong
agreement between quantity surveyors of the both sides in ranking cost-estimate factors of construction
projects.
Keywords: BOQ, Unit price, pr-priced, unbalanced, estimate
1 INTRODUCTION
With few exceptions, public contracts in Saudi Arabia are awarded to the contractor
submitting the lowest total bid price. The final total payment is unlikely to be equal to that bid
price. This is because payment is made at the bid unit prices for the actual quantities used during the
performance of the work not for the bid quantities. Also the unit price contract can be unbalanced
by making the prices for some of the items are higher than they should be and prices for other items
are lower. By using pre-priced bill of quantity we can overcome this problem, but before that there
is a need to know the significant factors affecting project costs estimate and how the owner and
contractor ranked them according to their importance and how far are they agree about such
ranking. A great deal of research approaches factors affecting cost estimate cost of construction
projects from different angles. Hegazy (2002) conclude that Construction managers have to rely on
their knowledge, experience, and cost-estimation techniques to estimate the cost of a construction
project in the early stages because they have limited information about the design drawings and
specifications in the preliminary design stage of construction projects.
The percentage added to the cost estimate is usually based on the subjective judgment of
senior management (Tah JHM, Thorpe A, McCaffer R. 1994). Shash (1993) conducted a study,
which able to identify, through a questionnaire survey, a 55 factors characterizing the bid decision-
making process. The results indicate that several factors are considered equally important for bid/no
bid and markup size decisions. Other factors are seen to have considerable importance for one
decision but not for another. Shash and Husni (1992), made a study which presented 37 factors,
with their relative importance to contractors operating in Saudi Arabia, underlying the mark-up size
decision. The results indicate that when deciding on the mark-up size for a project, a contractor
looks into the project characteristics, project documents, economic situation, company
characteristics, and bidding situation in descending order of importance. Smith (1996) argued that
whatever the circumstances of any particular project it is likely that a substantial proportion of the
work (almost certainly in excess of 50%) will be carried out by subcontractors of one kind or
another. It is therefore essential for estimators to have a detailed knowledge of factors that govern
incorporation of subcontractor prices into the main contractor estimates.
213
CIOB (1997) requires that in preparation of a pre-tender construction program, estimate and
tender, the construction firm gather enough project information for these functions to be performed
effectively and efficiently. Cleveland (1995), remoteness of a site must be analyzed completely for
cost elements that are unique to the location and have the greatest effect on the cost estimate.
Naoum (1994) investigated whether the means of procurement influenced project
performance. The study conducted a comparison analysis of project performances for management
and traditional contracting in the UK. Project performance was measured by way of 10 factors
including, unit cost of building, and cost overrun and client satisfaction with cost. The study
concluded that in order to deliver better project performance and success, relationships between
procurement methods on one hand and type of client and project type, size, complexity and cost on
the other hand need to be realized. Okpala and Aniekwu (1988), investigated causes of high costs of
construction in Nigeria and the study revealed 27 factors contributing to high costs and delays in
completion time. A questionnaire survey was conducted which included engineers, architects and
quantity surveyors. The rankings of the influencing variables by the three professions were found to
be fairly similar, despite some differences in their views. Elinwa and Buba (1993), investigated
construction cost factors in Nigeria. A questionnaire survey was conducted, which involved
architects, engineers and quantity surveyors. Thirty-one variables were assessed, and analyses of
results showed good agreement between the responses. The top ranked factors, which contributed to
construction cost, included: cost of materials, fraudulent practices and fluctuation in prices of
materials.
A number of other studies investigated factors affecting cost overruns. Factors influencing
construction cost overruns on high-rise projects in Indonesia were investigated by Kaming et al.
(1997). Project managers were consulted, via a questionnaire survey, to assess the different
variables. The identified variables were then ranked according to their perceived importance and
frequencies of occurrence. Using factor analysis techniques, causes of delay and cost overrun were
successfully grouped into factors (main categories). Inflationary increases in material cost,
inaccurate material estimating and project complexity were found to be the main causes of cost
overruns. This study relied on the judgments of project managers for the identification of factors
associated with cost overruns.
However, no attempt had been made to consult cost estimators or quantity surveyors who
primarily deal with costs. T.M.S. Elhag et al. (2005) found that construction project costs were
more affected by architects and consultants than by contractors. This outcome is consistent with
many literature views that the project costs are more determined by decisions at the briefing,
feasibility and initial design stages rather than by later Construction stages.
This paper assesses and ranks cost estimate-influencing factors of construction projects at
the pre-tender stage for building projects in the Saudi Arabia. A questionnaire methodology was
adopted to extract the views of a randomly selected sample of quantity surveyors in the Saudi
Arabia. The questionnaire was sent to 120 Saudi Arabia quantity surveyors and 31% response rate
was achieved. In addition, the paper describes statistical analyses of the survey, which include
severity index and Spearman rank correlation coefficient, rs. The results indicate that there is a
strong agreement between quantity surveyors in ranking cost-estimate factors.
2 METHODOLOGY OF STUDY
First literature survey used to identify factors affecting cost estimate at Saudi Arabia.
Interviews with expert quantity surveyors were conducted to modify and adjust the questionnaire
manuscript and structure before posting it to Government Engineers (GE) and Contractors
Engineers (CE). Fifty one factors were selected and grouped into twelve different categories:
i) General principal of estimate

ii) Main steps of estimate
214
iii) The purpose of pre priced BoQ

iv) The advantages of estimating BoQ
v) Cost of estimate
vi) Method of measuring the quantities
vii) Methods of calculating cost of materials and Labor
viii) Extra cost
ix) Labor productivity
x) Updating data of the cost
xi) Cost analysis methods
xii) Difficulties at cost estimate
Second, a questionnaire methodology was adopted to evaluate and rank these factors
according to their influence and significance regarding the tender cost estimates of construction
projects. The questionnaire survey designed on one form for both GE and contractor engineers and
conducted on two stages:
Stage one: sent to 120 GE
Stage two: sent to 120 CE
The response rate for the questionnaire survey was 23.3%.
A five-point scale is used as follows:
1 = (No effect),
2 = (Moderate),
3 = (Strong).
4 = (very strong)
5 = (Extreme)
3 ANALYSIS AND RANKING OF COST FACTORS
Severity index computation is used to rank the factors according to their significance in
affecting cost for both (GE and CE). It is illustrated by Eq. (1) below:
5
∑ ai × Xi
Severity Index = (Is) =
i =1
× 100 (1)
5
Where:
ai = is the weight of rating
i = 1, 2,3,4,5
a1 = 1, (No effect),
a2 = 2, (Moderate),
a3 = 3, (Strong).
a4 = 4, (very strong)
a5 = 5, (Extreme)
Xi = ni/N
ni= the frequency of responses for weight i
N= the total number of responses
The statistical analysis findings are summaries in Table 1 to Table 2. It shows that 41 factors
maintained a severity index between 64% and 95% when ranked by GE. The remaining 10 factors
have a severity index in the range of 36–61%. This indicates that out of the 51 factors identified, 41
are regarded by GE as highly relevant for cost estimating of construction projects. On the other side
47 factors maintained a severity index between 64% and 94% when ranked by CE. The remaining 4
factors have a severity index in the range of 41–63%. This indicates that out of the 51 factors
215
identified, 47 are regarded by CE as highly relevant for cost estimating of construction projects
which indicate that they are more careful at estimating stage.
4 SPEARMAN RANK CORRELATION COEFFICIENT, RS
The degree of agreement between GE and CE was measured by using the Spearman rank
correlation coefficient, rs. This indexes the linear relation between any two sets of ranks. In this
study, it was used to find how well GE and CE agreed on the importance rank of cost estimate
factors.
1−
∑ i =1
d 2i
Spearman rank correlation coefficient (rs) =
n • (n − 1)
2
(2)
Where:
d = difference between ranks for the same factor for both groups
n = number of factors (Lehmann et al., 1998)
The value of the Spearman rank correlation coefficient (rs) ranges from –1 to +1. The negative
sign of the coefficient indicates that high ranks in one distribution tend to be associated with low
ranks in the other distribution (and vice versa).
Table 3 shows the value of Spearman rank correlation coefficient (rs) = 0.958. This indicates
that there is substantial correlation between the ranking of GE and CE ranking with respect to cost
estimate factors.
5 TEST OF HYPOTHESIS
In order to know whether high values of rs are solely due to chance or there are actually an
association between the rank pairs, a test of the null hypothesis is needed.
Ho: There is no association between GE and CE ranking and rs assumes large value solely due
to chance.
Ha: GE and CE generally agree on the ranking of the factors.
Using a table of critical values for the Spearman rank correlation coefficient, the critical value
of rs, with α = 0.05 and n = 51 is 0.233 (Lehmann et al., 1998). Since the calculated value of rs
is 0.958, the null hypothesis is rejected.
6 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
A comparison of average severity indices is portrayed in Figure 1. The top ranked category
found to be "The purpose of pre-priced BoQ" with an average severity index of 83.4% for both
groups as presented by Table 3. On the other hand, the Extra costs attributes group scored the least
average severity index of 61.75% by GE only while the CE scored the least average severity index
of 64% General Principals of estimate. This indicates that the engineers of the both groups perceive
that the purpose of pre-priced BOQ is applicable to be used for construction project costs estimate
and add more advantages to it. This outcome is consistent with many literature views that the
project costs are more determined by decisions at the briefing, feasibility and initial design stages
rather than by later construction stages (Ashworth A., 1995, Brandon PS, Ferry DJ, Ferry JD, 1999,
Seeley IH., 1996). The following detailed discussions of statistical analysis and main findings are
regarding each individual category.
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6.1 General Principals of estimate
This category contains three factors. These factors satisfy severity indices at (53%, 64% and
73%) by GE in order, and (61%, 48% and 83%) by CE in order, Table 1. The engineers ranked the
factors to be not highly important except the 3rd factor. By category ranking all respondent are agree
about "Main contractor priced what he/she can perform and ask subcontractors to price the other
items" to be on the top, satisfying high priority by contractors' engineer at overall ranking (18)
where the GE ranking was (29). Also by the overall ranking they agree about "Electro-mechanics
items planed to be done by subcontractor" to be ranked at 49th, where they did not agree about the
ranking of the other two factors (correlation factor was (-10.04)). The overall ranking of the factors
came to be at low priority for both groups.
6.2 Steps of estimate
The factors included in this category were ten. The severity indices as evaluated by GE range
between 69% and 94%. CE evaluation makes the severity indices range between 83% and 96%. For
this category the two groups are almost agree about the category ranking but they are not when
using the overall ranking. More interesting the overall ranking by the CE are among the top ranking
ranging from 1 to 19, but for GE the overall ranking were ranging from 1 to 33, Table 1.
6.3 The purpose of pre-priced BoQ
Five factors are included in this category, Table 1. Both groups there severity index average
was equal 83.4%, Tabel 3, also they were almost close to each other about the overall ranking of
the factors. The severity indices of the factors as evaluated by the CE ranging from 80% to 88% and
for GE it was ranging from 76% to 91%.
6.4 The advantages of pre- estimated BoQ
This category contains six factors. The severity indices of these factors by GE satisfied range
between 71% and 87%, also the severity indices by the CE satisfied range between 79% and 87%,
which indicates their higher importance, Table 1. The correlation coefficient (rs) between engineers
at category ranking and overall ranking were 0.99 and 0.786 respectively, Table 3. This indicates a
strong agreement between engineers in the ranking of these factors. The top ranked factors in this
category are Helps to control the cost of the project at execution stage, Helps to provide real and
fair prices, and Helps to know the difference between the bidders.
6.5 Cost of the estimation Process
Two factors are included in this category. The severity indices by GE range between 53% and
82%, and the severity indices by CE evaluation range between 65% and 74%, Table 1. The only
important factor was Helps to reduce the cost of the subcontractor at negotiation when evaluated by
GE which was not according to CE. Both groups do not agree that the pre-price BOQ is Costly and
consume a lot of effort and time.
6.6 Methods of measuring the quantities
As on Table 1, this category includes two factors. The severity indices by GE evaluation were
86% and 58%, and by the CE the severity indices were 92% and 70%, the factor of Drawings are
used to estimate the quantities ranked 9th by GE and 2nd overall, which indicate that is important
factor.
217
6.7 Methods of calculating cost of materials and labour
Six factors are included in this category, Table 2. One factor was important to GE which is
Total cost of the item multiplied by the total quantity of the item; the overall rank was 5th, where the
other factors came to have low influence there SI range between 61% and 69%. According to CE all
the factors satisfy low importance the overall ranking range between 24th and 43rd.
6.8 Extra costs
Four factors are forming this category. These factors were not important according to GE
evaluation, the SI were 59%, 58%, 56% and they agree about the factor saying Profit percentage of
main contractor is 15-35% with SI 74%. On the other hand these factors satisfy high influence on
CE the SI range between 77% and 81%, Table 2.
6.9 Labor productivity
Two factors included in this category. There SI according GE is 74% and 71% respectively
and 84% and 81% according to CE evaluation. It is clear that these factors are important for the two
groups.
6.10 Updating data of cost
This category consists of four factors. According to GE the SI range between 64% and 74%,
and the top ranked factors ware previous estimates are used for new projects and Cost of previous
executed projects. According to CE the SI range between 70% to 79% and the top ranked factor
ware by using the estimates of the vendors and Cost of previous executed projects.
Figure 1: Severity Index Values of Groups
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Table 1: Ranking of cost estimate factors
GE CE
Factors Severity Category Overall Severity Category Overall
Index Rank Rank Index Rank Rank
General Principals of estimate
Electro-mechanics items planed to be done by subcontractor 53 3 49 61 2 49
The rest of items can be done by main contractor 64 2 38 48 3 50
Main contractor priced what he/she can perform and ask subcontractors to price the other items 73 1 29 83 1 18
Steps of estimate
BOQ and drawings are used to price the items 86 4 8 96 1 1
A team of different technical estimators are used to estimate the items 90 2 3 87 8 11
Pre-visit to the site must be done 89 3 4 90 4 5
Extra calculation must be perform before estimate the cost of the items 79 9 20 87 7 9
The cost of labour, materials and equipment from the local market 81 6 16 91 2 3
Extra cost for wasted materials 69 10 33 89 5 6
At estimate stage the situation of the construction market must be considered 80 7 17 90 3 4
the previous items are revised 82 5 15 89 6 7
The final cost is approved by the high level at the organization 79 8 18 83 10 19
It is important to ask for bidding at the assigned date and receive the bids at the determined date and 94 1 1 86 9 13
time
The purpose of pre-priced BoQ
To get the exact cost and competitive prices 91 1 2 88 1 8
Helps to control the cost of the project at planning stage 87 2 6 83 3 20
To estimate the approximate monthly payment and yearly cost 78 4 22 80 5 27
To prepare the time schedule of the project 76 5 24 81 4 23
To know the estimated cost of the project at planning stage 85 3 10 85 2 14
The advantages of pre-estimated BoQ
To provide real and fair prices 84 3 12 87 2 12
Helps to control the cost of the project at execution stage 87 1 7 87 1 10
Helps to update the schedule and the plan of the activities at execution stage 79 5 21 84 4 17
Helps to decided if the monthly payments is enough 71 6 30 79 6 29
Helps to know the difference between the bidders 85 2 11 85 3 15
Helps perform the project with profit 82 4 13 81 5 26
Cost of the estimate Process
Costly and consume a lot of effort and time 53 2 50 65 2 46
Helps to reduce the cost of the subcontractor at negotiation 82 1 14 74 1 36
Methods of measuring the quantities
Drawings are used to estimate the quantities 86 1 9 92 1 2
Just roughly calculations are used to estimate the quantities 58 2 45 70 2 39
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Table 2: Continue ranking of cost estimate factors

Factors GE CE
Severity Category Overall Severity Category Overall
Index Rank Rank Index Rank Rank
Methods of calculating cost of materials and labour
Total cost of the item multiplied by the total quantity of the item 87 1 5 81 1 24
It is difficult to get best prices from vendors 66 3 36 72 6 38
The prices from the vendors are not confirmed 64 5 41 68 5 43
The cost of the labour is dollar per hour 69 2 34 69 5 42
The cost of foreman is part of the project cost 64 4 39 81 2 25
1.16 The cost of engineers and supervisors are indirect costs 61 6 42 73 3 37
Extra costs
Insurance cost is part of total cost 59 2 44 77 4 34
Indirect cost is part of total cost 58 3 46 78 3 13
Percentage of subcontractor profit is 5-20% 56 4 47 81 1 21
Profit percentage of main contractor is 15-35% 74 1 27 79 2 28
Labor productivity
Estimated based on experience and references 74 1 25 84 1 16
The new items need extra analysis to know the productivity 71 2 31 81 2 22
Updating data of cost
Previous estimates are used for new projects 74 1 26 70 3 40
Cost of previous executed projects 74 2 28 78 2 32
By using the estimates of other contractors 69 3 32 70 4 41
By using the estimates of the vendors 64 4 37 79 1 30
Cost analysis methods
Manual analysis 36 3 51 41 3 51
By using excel sheet to make the analysis 77 2 23 76 2 35
By using special software program in cost analysis 79 1 19 78 1 33
Difficulties at cost estimate
Not clear the number of bidders 56 4 48 65 2 45
Not clear if the bidders are the main contractors or subcontractors 64 2 40 64 3 47
Not clear the main kind of construction field of the bidders 60 3 43 63 4 48
Not easy to get a good prices from the vendors 68 1 35 67 1 44
1.17
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6.11 Cost analysis methods
Three factors ware forming this category. Two of them satisfied high value of SI. These two
factors are By using excel sheet to make the analysis and By using special software program in cost
analysis, according to GE evaluation there SI were 77% and 79%, and according to CE evaluation
there SI were 76% and 78%.
Table 3: Category Average Severity Index and Correlation Factor (rs)
Factors Category Average SI rs

GE CE Category Overall
General Principals of estimate 63.33 64 0.917 -10.042
Steps of estimate 82.9 88.8 0.822 -0.477
The purpose of pre-priced BoQ 83.4 83.4 0.996 0.723
The advantages of pre- estimated BoQ 81.33 83.83 0.996 0.787
Cost of the estimation Process 67.5 69.5 1.0 0.495
Methods of measuring the quantities 72 81 1.0 0.914
Methods of calculating cost of materials and labour 68.5 74 0.969 0.339
Extra costs 61.75 78.75 0.986 -0.885
Labor productivity 72.5 82.5 1.0 0.836
Updating data of cost 70.25 74.25 0.986 0.655
Cost analysis methods 64 65 1.0 -13.167
Difficulties at cost estimate 62 64.75 0.994 0.834
0.958
6.12 Difficulties at cost estimate

This category consists of four factors. All the factors satisfied very low overall rank. The SI
according to GE range from 56% to 68% where according to CE range from 63% to 67%. The most
important factor among them was not easy to get good prices from the vendors.
7 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Factors used to estimate the costs of construction projects were reviewed based upon
research work performed in different countries. The analysis and results of this research varied
according to the different purpose and objectives they used for or according to the economic
environment and culture of the country under which the studies were conducted. The study
presented and discussed in this paper, conducted in Saudi Arabia asking the engineers of
government and engineers of contractors through questionnaire survey.
The main aim was to know the applicability of pre priced BOQ to be used for bidding, by
asking the GE and CE to evaluate and rank cost estimate-influencing factors of construction
projects considered at the pre-tender stage. Fifty-one variables affecting construction cost estimate
were identified through literature and pilot interviews. These factors were grouped into twelve
broad categories: General Principals of estimate; Steps of estimate; The purpose of pre-priced BoQ;
The advantages of pre- estimated BoQ; Cost of the estimation Process; Methods of measuring the
quantities; Methods of calculating cost of materials and labor; Extra costs; Labor productivity;
Updating data of cost; Cost analysis methods; Difficulties at cost estimate. Statistical analysis
revealed that a strong agreement between GE and CE existed in the ranking of the cost estimate
factors. This was proven by Spearman rank correlation coefficient (rs). The average severity index
computed for each category ranged between 88.8% and 62%. This result suggested that there is no
significant variation in the ranking between GE and CE. However, the category containing "Steps
221
of estimate" was ranked top followed by "The purpose of pre-priced BOQ". The third occupied by
"The advantages of pre- estimated BOQ". On the other hand, Forth, Fifth, Sixth, Seventh and
Eighth ranks were occupied by Methods of measuring the quantities, Updating data of cost,
Methods of calculating cost of materials and labor and Extra Cost of the estimation Process group,
Cost analysis methods, General Principals of estimate and Difficulties at cost estimate scoring the
least index occupied the bottom of the list. These findings indicated that GE and CE estimating the
construction project costs using the same concepts of estimate. This outcome leads us to conclude
that the pre priced BOQ is applicable and can be used at tendering stage without affecting the
owner or the contractor.
REFERENCES
Ashworth A. (1995) Cost studies of buildings, 2nd ed. Longman Group Ltd.; London.
Brandon P. S., Ferry D. J., and Ferry J. D. (1999) Cost planning of buildings, 7th ed. Blackwell
Science; Oxford.
Cleveland, B. W. (1995) “Definitive estimating for construction projects at remote site” Cost
Engrg., Vol. 37, No 10, pp.77-83.
CIOB (1997) 6th Ed. Code of estimating practice, The chartered Institute of Building, London.
Elinwa A., and Buba S. (1993) “Construction cost factors in Nigeria” J Constr. Eng Manage, Vol.
119, No 4, pp.698–713.
Hegazy T. (2002) Computer-based construction project management, Upper Saddle River,
Prentice-Hall Inc; NJ.
Kouskoulas V., and Koehn E. Predesign (1974) “Cost estimation function for building” Journal of
the Construction Division, December, pp.589–604.
Naoum S. G. (1994) “Critical analysis of time and cost of management and traditional contracts”
ASCE J Constr Eng Manage, Vol. 120, No 4, pp.687–705.
Kaming P., Olomolaiye P., Holt G., and Harris F. (1997) “Factors influencing construction time and
cost overruns on high-rise projects in Indonesia” Constr Manage Econ , No 15, pp.83–94.
Lehmann, E. L., and D’Abrera, H. J. M. (1998) Nonparametric Statistical Methods Based on
Ranks. Englewood Cliffs, Prentice-Hall; NJ.
Okpala D. C., and Aniekwu A. N. (1988) “Causes of high costs of construction in Nigeria” ASCE J
Constr Eng Manage, Vol. 114, No.2, pp.233–44.
Seeley I. H. (1996) Building economics, 4th ed. Macmillan Press Ltd; New York.
Shash, A. A. (1993) “Factors considered in tendering decisions by top UK contractors.”
Construction Management and Economics, London, Vol. 11, No 2, pp.111-117.
Shash, A. A., and Abdul-Hadi, N. H. (1992) “Factors affecting a contractor’s mark-up size decision
in Saudi Arabia.” Constr. Mgmt. and Economics, London, Vol. 10, No 5, pp.415-430.
Smith, M. (1996) “Estimating, tendering and bidding for construction.” Construction Management,
London, Vol. 21, No 6, pp.43-50.
Tah J. H. M., Thorpe A., and McCaffer R. (1994) “A survey of indirect cost estimating in practice”
Construction Management and Economics, Vol. 12, No 6, pp.12-31.
T. M. S. Elhag, A. H. Boussabaine, and T. M. A. Ballal (2005) “Critical determinants of
construction tendering costs: Quantity surveyors standpoint” International Journal of Project
Management, Vol. 23, pp.538–545.
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DEVELOPMENT OF PRODUCTION RATE DATABASE FOR

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY BY DIRECT OBSERVATION:
SUBSTRUCTURE WORKS
Arazi Idrus, PhD.

Associate Professor, Civil Engineering Department, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS
arazi_idrus@petronas.com.my
Mohd Saiful Zakaria, BSc.
MSc student, Civil Engineering Department, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS
saifulsshi_sa@yahoo.com.my
Sana Muqeemi, MSc.
PhD. student, Civil Engineering Department, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS
sanamuqeem@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Construction productivity is an important indicator for construction growth of a country.

Productivity usually measured by production rate obtained by dividing the output with input. The
unit for production rate in construction usually indicated as (m/m2/m3)/hour. Production rate is
affected by various direct and indirect factors. Normally, the duration of a project estimated by
the project manager using his judgment based on experience or standard database produced by the
contractor. The objectives of this research are to collect the primary production rates data for
substructure works at ongoing construction sites. In this study, direct observational technique will
be used to extract the primary data on production rate and the data will be analyzed using
statistical computer tool. To make the data reliable, the data are averaged – out from the
observation at construction site. Currently, there is the absence of formal database of Malaysian
construction production rates that has been published for assisting construction personnel in
predicting the period of construction project. This problem is lead to give motivation for this
study.
Keywords: Construction productivity, Production rates, direct observation technique, Analysed

method
1 INTRODUCTION
The construction sector contributed 4.0% of GDP and productivity of the construction sector
growth 1.5% in 2008, (MPC 2008). It means the construction productivity is an important aspect to
be indicated in Malaysian economic growth. Production rate in construction is very important
information in order to estimate the cost and duration of the project. Production rate usually
measure by dividing the output with input. The unit for production rate in construction usually
indicated as (m/m2/m3)/hour. But, production rate is affected by various factors such as direct
(factor that can be controlled) and indirect (uncontrolled factor). So that, up to now, there is an
absence of specific indicator or formula used to estimate the rate. Normally, the duration of the
project estimated by the project manager using his judgment based on experience or standard
database produce by the contractor. In fact, there is very limited no of rate which has been produced
by the construction companies in Malaysia. To complete a construction project, there are hundreds
of activities involved depending on size of the project. The activities usually divided into
infrastructure, structured and architectural works. For reinforced concrete construction works, the
activities started with substructure construction consisting of foundation to ground beam and
followed by superstructure construction consisting of ground floor column to roof beam. The
223
duration for completing the reinforced concrete work is very important in construction process
because this process consist 25 % to 35 % of the total construction activity. In this study, direct
observational technique will be used to extract the primary data on the production rate.
In order to estimate the duration of construction activities, information on production rate is

most important. Currently, no specific calculation can be derived to calculate their values precisely.
Project planners normally rely on individual experience and their subjective judgment in estimating
duration for construction activities. For the young and less experience engineer, this can also be a
huge problem when he/she comes to performing this task without any source of baseline or standard
rate to refer. To date, little work has been conducted nationwide to develop an official construction
works production rates database. There is a requirement to develop a nationwide freely accessible
database for production rates.
1.3 Project Objective

The aim of the research is to initialize the development of Malaysian construction works
production rates database. Given this aim, the objective of the research is to:
i) Collect the primary production rates data for substructure and superstructure works
from direct observation at ongoing construction sites.
ii) Analyzed the data using a statistical computer tool.
iii) Develop a moderated production rates database for substructure works.
iv) Validate the database at any ongoing construction sites.
2 BACKGROUND AND RELATED WORKS
Production rate could be defines as amount of works done in term of unit in a certain period
of time. This section discusses the literature review conducted for the productivity modeling
technique and data analysis tool, factors influencing rates and method used for data collection.
2.1 Productivity Modeling Technique and Data Analysis Tool
Idrus et al. (2008) used descriptive statistics to analyze the data which also include Variance
Analysis, Mean and Variance Analysis and Mode Analysis when analyzed raw data for civil and
structural production rate database. Tarek and Danial (2004) used the analytical hierarchy process
(AHP) and fuzzy logic concept to study piles productivity factor while Sander and Thomas (1993)
used the model to study masonry productivity.
2.2 Factors Influencing Productivity
In Malaysia, the factors influencing productivity rate is lead by lack of material which refer to
problems encountered due to inaccessibility of items or excessive time expended to acquire them
(M.R. Abdul Kadir 2005). The shortage of critical material such as reinforcement, ready-mixed
concrete and timber or plywood for formwork will result in slower progress of construction. Lack
of material is also found to be most factors for causing delay or reducing the productivity in
Thailand (Arun Makulsawatudom et al., 2004), M.R. Abdul Kadir (2005) also wrote lack of
material again the highest factor in Indonesia (Kaming et al., 1998), Iran (Zakeri et al., 1996) and
Nigeria (Olomolaiye et al., 1987). It was also ranked eight in Singapore construction productivity
problems (Lim and Alum, 1995). As noted by Simon D. Smith (1999), the highest factors
influencing the earthmoving productivity are haul road gradient, plant specification, and loader
224
bucket volume. Tarek and Danial (2003) list out 10 main piling process subjective factors such as
operator efficiency, weather conditions, site conditions, job management, soil removal system,
paving system, mechanical problems, owner or consultant problem, site investigation and
productivity estimate accuracy. S.Abourizk et al. (2001) have identified 33 factors under nine
groupings, including general project characteristics, site labor, equipment, overall project difficulty,
general activity condition, quantity, design and activity difficulty while studying the production
rates for industrial construction activity. Michael and Shou (1998) list out the factor affecting the
placing rates are pour size, type of pour and supply of concrete when studying the performance of
the concrete placing in Hong Kong building.
2.3 Method Used for Data Collection
From the publish literature, there are many ways used to collect the data. As below is the
elaboration about the method that commonly used:
i) Survey methods – include questionnaires and interviews.
ii) Observation – work sampling, stopwatch technique, video recording.
iii) Secondary data – document and recording data from the past project keep by the
construction company.
2.4 Direct Observational Studies
Observation studies defines as ‘involved the systematic recording of observable phenomena

or behavior in natural setting’ (Gorman and Clayton, 2005). This method of data collection needs
more concentration and attentiveness and researcher has to remain focus to gather the relevant
information It is considered as more reliable approach of gathering the information as compare to
interviews and the other research methods because it observes the people to verify they perform
their activities and behave in a same manner as they have describe (Judith 1999).
3 METHODOLOGY
Direct observation is a method in which a researcher observes and records activities while the
job is running. In this study, direct measurement will carried out through the identified on going
construction project by focusing on substructure construction stage. The process to be carried out in
these studies is as in Figure 1 below;
225
Figure 1: Process in conducting this study
4 RESULTS
The purpose of doing direct observation at different states of site location is to distinguish
whether there is any significance difference in the three states with regard to substructure activities
of civil works. Table 1 and Figure 2 below shown about the location of construction site from
different states.
Table 1: Site Location at different states
State Number of Sites

Kelantan 1
Perak 1
Selangor 2
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Construction Sites Distribution
2.5
2
No. Of Project
1.5
Number of Sites
1
0.5
0
Kelantan Perak Selangor
Location
Figure 2: Site distribution in different states
4.1 Data Analysis
The production rates data collected from the direct observation are presented as raw data, in
tabulated form in Table 2 and Table 3. The analysis for the production rates will be based on the
raw data presented. Generally, there are 24 sets of data obtained from direct observation of 25
substructure activities. For piling activity, it needs to divide based on its respective piling type. It is
because the activities involved in each type of piling are not same. They need to be put in their own
group of activities. After all, there are 18 sets of production rates for Piling Spun Pile and 6 sets of
production rates for Piling Micro Pile. “Average Depth” in the tabulated table of raw data actually
is not part of piling activities but it is still presented there because the importance of knowing the
average depth in doing analysis later.
4.2 Analysis Using Statistical Tool
For production rates analysis, descriptive statistics are used to describe the basic features of
the data in this study. Descriptive analysis has been used in this study because it is simply
describing what is or what the data shows. The mean or average is used as a method of describing
central tendency. Instead of using parametric inferential statistics, descriptive analysis is used to
analyze the data which also include Mean & Variance Analysis and Mode Analysis. The variance is
a measure of the amount of variation within the values of that variable, taking account of all
possible values and their probabilities or weighting. Mean & Variance Analysis discusses the mean
and variance values on each activity which is calculated from the raw data.
At the early stage of doing analysis by activity, it was observed a large value of variance for
“Piling Spun Pile” activity. Even though the sets of data collected from the same type of piling
activity, but the variance is still high. Meaning that, the piling activity of the same type needs to be
categorized based on type of soil. Instead of having large value of variance, the variance is now in
small value and it shows that the final production rates can be taken from mean value.
The analysis for mode, median, mean and variance is shown below in the Table 3. From the
analysis table, it is obvious that “Excavation” activity shows a large value of variance. Thus, the
mean cannot be accepted as the measure of central tendency for that activity. However, for the
activity there are some values that occur more often in the raw data, thus the mode of the data was
227
used instead taken to represent the average data. The rest activity, the mean value for those
activities can be accepted as the final production rates. Besides, one of the major factors affecting
production rates is the gang size of the worker during the activities are done. Due to that, the
number of workers has been classified into 4 types of gang size. Type A for 1-2 workers of gang
size, type B for 3-4 workers, type C for 5-6 workers, and type D for 7-8 workers. Hence, the final
production rates presented are the outcome of collected data with regard to the type of gang size of
workers during direct observation was done. The types of gang size with regard to each activity of
substructure activities are shown in the Table 4. After completing analysis, the database for final
moderation production rates for each substructure activities is presented in Table 5.
228
Table 2: Raw Data of Production Rates from Kota Bharu, Ipoh’s Site, Shah Alam & Petaling Jaya’s Site
229
Table 3: Overall analysis by activities for mean, mode, median and variance
Analysis by Activities
Activty/Task Unit
Mean Mode Median Variance
Piling Spun Pile : Fine Grained Soil
a)Pile Driven m/hr 54.18 55.5 55 5.07
b)Average Depth m 44.6 45 44.9 0.46
c)Pile Cutting pt/hr 6.67 7 7 0.27
Piling Spun Pile : Coarse Grained Soil
a)Pile Driven m/hr 19.17 17.5 19 3.15
b)Average Depth m 17.77 12 17.05 33.34
c)Pile Cutting pt/hr 5.5 3 5.5 4.64
Piling Micro Pile
a)Boring hour 5.95 6 6 0.03
b)Clean up base hour 0.57 0.5 0.55 0.01
c)Measure, cutting & fabricate cage m/hr 3.13 3 3.05 0.03
d)Install reinforcement cage m/hr 12.2 12 12.05 0.16
Excavation m³/hr 38.54 42 42 128.78
Formwork
a)Measurement, cutting & fabrication m2/hr 14.93 14.9 14.9 0.24
Reinforcement
a)Measurement, cutting & fabrication ton/hr 0.59 0.54 0.6 0.003
Stump
a)Installing formwork m2/hr 8.81 8.1 8.75 0.44
b)Concrete placement m³/hr 5.23 5.5 5.3 0.19
c)Dismantle Formwork m2/hr 16.37 17.4 16.35 1.92
Pile Cap
b)Installing reinforcement ton/hr 0.45 0.44 0.45 0.0004
c)Concrete Works m3/hr 8.76 8.67 8.78 0.11
d)Dismantle Formwork m2/hr 10.88 11.2 10.8 0.14
Ground Beam
b)Installing reinforcement m2/hr 0.52 0.48 0.5 0.01
c)Concrete Placement ton/hr 8.38 7.61 8.395 0.4
d)Dismantle Formwork m3/hr 20.75 20 21 1.41
Ground Slab
a)Installing formwork m2/hr 15 15.7 14.95 0.34
b)Installing BRC m2/hr 17 17.2 17.2 0.25
c)Concrete Placement m3/hr 13.74 13.2 13.75 0.24
d)Dismantle Formwork m2/hr 22.08 23 22 1.82
230
Table 4: Type of gang size subject to each activity

Activity/Task
Type of Gang Size Gang Size
Piling Spun Pile
a)Pile Driven B 3&4
b)Average Depth N/A N/A
c)Pile Cutting A 1&2
Piling Micro Pile
a)Boring B 3&4
b)Clean up base B 3&4
c)Measuring, cutting & fabricate reinforcement cage C 5&6
d)Install reinforcement cage C 5&6
Excavation A 1&2
Formwork
a)Size measurement, cutting & fabrication D 7&8
Reinforcement
a)Size measurement, cutting & fabrication D 7&8
Stump
a)Installing formwork B 3&4
b)Concrete placement B 3&4
c)Dismantle Formwork B 3&4
Pile Cap
a)Installing formwork D 7&8
b)Installing reinforcement C 5&6
c)Concrete Works B 3&4
d)Dismantle Formwork C 5&6
Ground Beam
a)Installing formwork D 7&8
b)Installing reinforcement D 7&8
c)Concrete Placement C 5&6
d)Dismantle Formwork B 3&4
Ground Slab
a)Installing formwork B 3&4
b)Installing BRC Mesh B 3&4
c)Concrete Placement D
d)Dismantle Formwork B 3&4
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Table 5: Database of final moderated production rates for substructure activities

Moderated
Activity/Task Unit
Production Rate
Piling Spun Pile : Fine Grained Soil
a)Pile Driven m/hr 54.18
b)Average Depth m 44.60
c)Pile Cutting pt/hr 6.67
Piling Spun Pile : Coarse Grained Soil
a)Pile Driven m/hr 19.17
b)Average Depth m 17.77
c)Pile Cutting pt/hr 5.50
Piling Micro Pile
a)Boring hour 5.95
b)Clean up base Hour 0.57
c)Measure, cutting & fabricate cage m/hr 3.13
d)Install reinforcement cage m/hr 12.20
Excavation m³/hr 42
Formwork
a)Measurement, cutting & fabrication m2/hr 14.93
Reinforcement
a)Measurement, cutting & fabrication ton/hr 0.59
Stump
a)Installing formwork m2/hr 8.91
b)Concrete placement m³/hr 5.25
c)Dismantle Formwork m2/hr 16.37
Pile Cap
b)Installing reinforcement ton/hr 0.45
c)Concrete Works m3/hr 8.76
d)Dismantle Formwork m2/hr 10.88
Ground Beam
b)Installing reinforcement m2/hr 0.52
c)Concrete Placement ton/hr 8.38
232

Ground Slab
a)Installing formwork m2/hr 15
b)Installing BRC m2/hr 17
c)Concrete Placement m3/hr 13.74
233
5 DISCUSSION
5.1 Challenges in Direct Observation
The objectives of this study are to collect data by direct observation and compile sets of
“moderated” production rates database after finishing statistical analysis. Hence, the challenges may
come during direct observation also during compiling sets of data for production rates database.
During conducting direct observation at several sites, it was realized that a lot of challenges may
affect the progress of this research. External hindrances came from getting approval matters to enter
sites, location of each site which is far away because they all located at different states and the last
one is coordination matters with the contractor. Meanwhile, internal challenge came from the nature
of conducting direct observation itself, especially for observing substructure activities. It took a lot
of time to finish each cycle of substructure activities. Comparing to observing superstructure
activity, the challenge is different because substructure activities is once-time-cycle. If the
observation for certain activity has been finished, no repetition for that activity anymore.
5.2 Factor Affecting Production Rates
During construction activity is done, there are a lot of factors that may affect their
production rates. The major factor affecting production rates is number of gang size at site. To
ensure the reliability of suggested database of production rates, the type of gang size with regard to
its number of workers range also shown in the tabulated table. The number of worker is given in
gang size type because during observation, even though they did the same activity, but still there are
slightly different numbers of worker at different site. Besides, there are also a few other factors that
may affect production rates which are machinery capacity, size of the project, technology and site
supervision. During direct observation was done for this research, all activities was performed
under supervision.
5.3 Low Variance Analysis
Most of the activity observed show low variance value. Meaning that the dispersion of the
data is small and central tendency of the data is on mean value. At the end of this research, the
database of production rates had been compiled based on this analysis. In the early stage of doing
statistics for the raw data, the variance value for spun pile type of “Pile Driven” activity also high
which is 291.76. Even though it has been categorized into its respective type of pile, but the value is
still high. The reason contribute to the high variance value is because the type of the soil at 3
respective sites is different. If we refer to piling activity of spun pile type under “Pile Drive”
production rates, it shows a big difference of production rates between Kota Bharu (Kelantan) site
and Ipoh (Perak) site. Actually, the site at Kelantan has been built on fine grained-soil whereas the
site in Ipoh is piled on coarse-grained soil. When piling is done on fine grained-soil, the production
rate will be much higher compare to coarse-grained soil because fine grained-soil has longer
consolidation time. By classifying into type of soil, the production rate presented is more reliable to
be referred.
However there is an activity that shows a large value of variance which is 128.78. The
reason of such variance is because different contractor use different bucket size of machinery
(backhoe). Other than that, all activities show low variance value. There are two factors contribute
to the low variance values which are because collected raw data is obtained by direct observation
and the second one is, the implementation of SPK (Sistem Pengurusan Kualiti) – Public Work
Department quality standard under MS ISO 9001 by the contractor. It is proven that, direct
observation is the most appropriate method to develop a production rates database because
compared to other method used to collect data such as questionnaire survey; it showed a large
234
variance value. Besides, the quality standard of SPK, which had been set by JKR, also contributes
to the low variance value. Every contractor must comply with the procedure and sequence of each
activity in the SPK system.
6 CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATION
Direct observation method used in collecting data for production rates is the most
appropriate method to be used to collect data in construction field. The data collected from direct
observation is most reliable because it is based on real-time result, sufficiently added with photos
and videos to interpret contextual information for analysis. Strengthen with statistical analysis done,
this research has met all of its objectives: 1) Collect the primary production rates data for
substructure and superstructure works from direct observation at ongoing construction sites. 2)
Analyzed the data using a statistical computer tool. 3) Develop a moderated production rates
database for substructure works. Validation of the production rate values is the next step of this
research in order to validate the data present. The moderated production rates compiled can be used
as initial a baseline for further research on database development of substructure activity.
For optimal implementation of this research, there is some room for improvement to be
made. First, the frequency of direct observation can be increased so that the data obtained will be
more collectables than this. By doing so, the outcome of statistical analysis will lead to a better
database of production rate.
REFERENCES
A. Idrus, K. Hashim, and A. M. Farah (2008) “Towards Development of a Database for Civil and
Structural Construction Works’ Production Rates”, ICCBT 2008 - B - Vol. 13, pp.149-164.
A. Laufer (1985) “On Site Performance Improvement Programs”. Journal Construction
Engineering and Management, ASCE, Vol. 111, No 1.
Amir Tavakoli (1985) “Productivity Analysis of Construction Operation”. Journal Construction
Engineering and Management, ASCE, Vol. 111, No 1.
Gorman and Clayton (2005) Observation: a complex research method. Library Trends.
Jabatan Kerja Raya Malaysia (2010) Sistem Pengurusan Kualiti. Retrieved from
http://spk.jkr.gov.my/2010 [Accessed 2010].
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Retrieved from http://www.mpc.gov.my/home/index.php
James T. O’ Connor and Youngki Huh (2006) “Crew Production Rates for Contract Time
Estimation: Beam Erection, Deck, and Rail of Highway Bridges”. Journal Construction
Engineering and Management, ASCE, Vol. 132, No 4, pp.408-415.
Judith Bell (1999) Doing Your Research Project: A Guide for the First Time Researchers in
Education and Social Sciences. 3rd ed.
S. AbouRizk, P. Knowles, and U. R. Hermann (2001) “Estimating Labor Production Rates for
Industrial Construction Activities”. Journal Construction Engineering and Management,
ASCE, Vol. 127, No 6, pp.502-511.
Tarek M. Zayed and Danial W. Halpin (2004) “Quantitative Assessment for Pile Productivity
Factors”. Journal Construction Engineering and Management, ASCE, Vol. 130, No 3,
pp.405-414.
Michael Anson and Shou Qing Wang (1998) “Performance of Concrete Placing in Hong Kong
Buildings”. Journal Construction Engineering and Management, ASCE, Vol. 124, No 2.
M.R. Abdul Kadir (2005) Factors affecting construction labor productivity for Malaysian
residential projects, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, Structural Survey, Vol. 23 No. 1.
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236
COMPETITIVE STRATEGIES AND ITS SUITABILITY IN QUANTITY

SURVEYING FIRMS: A REVIEW
Nur Azila Adros, MSc

School of Housing, Building and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia
azilaadros@gmail.com
Nazirah Zainul Abidin, PhD
School of Housing, Building and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia
1
and nazirah_za@usm.my
ABSTRACT
Global competition and technological change, combined with multi-disciplinary supply chain,
dynamic nature of market, limited resources and demanding customers have put more pressure to the
construction industry and its players to be more competitive-able to withstand the stiff market
challenge. As one of the industry player, Quantity Surveyors (QS) are not excluded in this market
game and must continuously outperform others, if they not at par, to stay relevant in the industry.
There are four competitive strategies that can be applied in QS firms but to decide on the best option,
one must understand their working environment, aware of their strengths and weaknesses and utilise
the available resources to the best of their ability. This paper reviews the four competitive strategies
and discusses its suitability in the QS firms. Prior to that, the working environment of the QS firms
will be explored to highlight its nature of work. The strengths and weaknesses and the resources in
QS firms will be discussed in the way of how it will affect the suitability of each competitive strategy.
Finally, this paper delves into the necessity to choose the “right” competitive strategy and the factors
that may influence the selection.
Keywords: Competitive Strategies, Quantity Surveying Firms, Competitiveness
1 INTRODUCTION
The global business nowadays is more complex, turbulent and dynamic than it has been in
decades. Becoming more resilient, adaptive and nimble are imperative to grow, compete and
success in this modern business (Davies et al., 2005). The degree of success, either in public or
private organization, is measured based on the fulfilment or satisfaction of its customers’ needs,
requirements and expectations (Bates, 1996). To achieve this, one must rethink on how they
compete and what capabilities they need to do so.
Construction industry in Malaysia is facing tough and challenging times ahead due to tough
competition (Adnan and Jusoff, 2009). The construction industry is changing constantly with the
developments of new business methods and technologies (Koota, 2003), globalization (Davies,
2005) and requirement for research and development (Hung, 1992). This is exacerbated with the
increment in the number of new company entering the market on yearly basis (Isik et al., 2009).
Thus, construction players and their companies must recognize the markets it wishes to address,
services it will provide, risks it will carry, structure it will use, the environment it will operate
within, controls it will put in place and returns it wishes to achieve (Mulcahy, 1990).
In past years, when competition is not an issue, QS practitioners were on perception that
they can survive in the industry without the need for the ‘right-strategy’. As the number of firms
continue to grow, this way of thinking is no longer feasible. In this dynamic industry, QS firms
need to look for project opportunity instead of waiting for project to come to them. There are some
well-established QS firms that lead the construction industry by having good reputation, stability
and is favorable among the clients, while others prefer to stay in the ‘comfort zone’ with the same
type of projects. There are also some new entries who are struggling to find their comfort zone and
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some already in their comfort zone but dare to improve their position in the industry. With the
increasing demanding client, QS firms must outperform the other to be the ‘chosen one’. To survive
in an intense competition; adoption by means of differentiation strategies will enable them to up do
their rivals (Isik et al, 2009). They must realize that their services, regardless of how good these are,
simply do not sell automatically as they can no longer wait for clients to come by (Pheng and Ming,
1997) and demand for their services as only the prowess firm may achieve competitive position.
Thus, firms must compete in a complex and challenging context that is being transformed by many
factors from globalization to the growing use of information technologies (DeNisi, Hitt and
Jackson, 2003), empowering innovation, and being able to overcome the challenges
QS firms can shape their strategies in response to the demands of competitive environments
and, in the process, develop capabilities that suit the competitive environment (Chew et al., 2008).
Since there are many ways of competing, adoption of a clear strategy is vital for a firm to
accomplish huge success and remain for a long-term in industry. Proper understanding on adopting
the right strategy in every QS firm is the essential key to success as it helps the firm to reshape the
style of competing, identify their competitor’s strength and drive them to strengthen the competitive
stance. Porter has introduced generic strategies which can be adopted by firms including QS firms.
It is argued that much of Porter’s work is geared towards large cooperation which manufactures a
product however it is claimed that the strategies are equally applicable to a service-based industry
such as QS profession (Jennings and Betts, 1996).
In order to outstand from their rivals, the adoption of competitive strategy will enable the QS
firm to gain more profit and will secure their position against the forces that determine industry
competition (Porter, 1985). Competitive strategy is all about ‘strategic intent’, having a winning
business model, and having ‘the plan’-the ‘answer’ that is uniquely ‘right’ for organisation and its
specific circumstances and suited well with QS firms as they are always in the stake of high level of
competition and build stronger position to stay in the industry (Chaudhuri, 2006). By understanding
their characteristics and the strengths and weaknesses of their firm, the choice of competitive
strategy should be scrutinized to face any challenges from time to time. This paper focuses on
strengths and weaknesses of QS firm and competitive strategies available to QS firm and how to
determine which strategy that should be adopted.
COMPETITIVENESS IN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY
Construction industry has seen fast growth due to rapid urbanisation. How construction
industry contributes to the competitiveness among QS firms? In current industry, we have moved
away from our obsolescence days as we move towards globalisation and due to that circumstance,
every firm must able to cope with the challenges that come their way. Thus, the client’s needs in
the industry have moved toward a greater emphasis on speed of delivery and value-based services
(Yisa et al. 1996; Jaafari 2000). Healthy competition between firms cause something organizations
must manage changes around them effectively, continuously adapting strategies and cultures to
survive the shocks and prosper from forces which decimate the competition in order to be
successful in the construction industry (Yisa et al., 1996). Managerial sources on competitiveness
both reflected and reinforced this new emphasis on the ‘survival of the fittest’ (Elmualim et al.,
2006).
Investigating the competitiveness per se is to examine how an industry fosters the firms to
compete against the world’s best competitors in a particular field (Flanagan et al., 2007). Based on
sustained research (for example, Ambastha and Momaya 2004; Banwet et al. 2003;Momaya 2001),
competitiveness in the context of construction firm can be defined in simple terms as capabilities of
the construction firm to design, engineer, construct, finance, operate, maintain and/or manage any
or the above activities better than its competitors. In the current market, it is not hard to set up a
new construction firm to operate in industry as it is being proved (Isik et al., 2009) that the numbers
of firm are increasing like ‘mushrooms after the rain’.
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Understanding and improving firms’ competitiveness would serve as an input to improve

policies concerning competition and related issues; and improved policies will, in turn, provide
valuable support to efforts to continuously develop markets and businesses. The selection of an
appropriate strategy is influenced by the strengths and weaknesses of each firm as compared with
its competitors. How firms compete and what strategies they choose are important and will help to
explain individual firms’ competitive moves and positions and further the understanding of the
causes of better and worse performance (Ormanidhi and Stringa, 2008). As for the practitioners, it
is vital being able to ‘think outside the box’ in order to distinguish themselves from their
competitors by equipping themselves with the right strategy.
Strategies are long-range plans, methods, and approaches that a company adopts in order to
reach its goals in a competitive environment and may direct a company’s behavior in the market
with regard to its potential clients and competitors (Warszawski, 1996). It is argued by
Wethyavivorn et al. (2009), in order to secure long-term competitiveness in this new scenario, QS
firms must shift their focus to an organizational strategic direction, simultaneously aligning all
project goals along with the firm’s overall strategy.
QUANTITY SURVEYING WORKING ENVIRONMENT
According to Willis and Ashworth (1987, p.2), QS is the one who “ensures that the resources
of the construction industry are utilized to the best advantages of society by providing, inter alia, the
financial management for projects and cost consultancy services to the client and designer during
the whole construction process.” A similar definition is offered by Nisa et al. (2006, p.43); “ QSs
also referred to as the construction cost consultants, building economists, construction economists
or cost engineers are the professional experts in construction cost management”. As one of the
professional profession in the industry, graduates has attracted to kick start their career by
becoming one of the QS. With the increasing numbers of firms in industry, there has also been
increasing concern on the quality of surveying graduates joining the profession (Chua, 2000) and
there is definitely strong demand for them to be in the industry. Some will be working with
consultants’ organizations where others will be working with contractors’ organizations.
Can the QS profession claim to be the repository of any ‘unique’ knowledge, or the holders of
any specific skills which are not able to be easily gained by those who are not members of the
‘inner circle’, i.e. registered professionals? This depends partially on what ‘knowledge’ or ‘skills’
the QS profess to be their areas of expertise (Pearl, 2004). As far as ‘knowledge’ is concerned, the
core knowledge domains revolve around the fields of technology; information management
systems; organisational and legal frameworks within the construction industry; and general
knowledge relating to economics, and the business and financial environment within which the
professional service is provided (RICS, 1992; ASAQS, 1990) to cope with the instantaneous
development in the industry.
QS is widely known for their role as the cost expertise in construction industry. However,
they can no longer stick to their ‘norm culture’ by offering traditional services instead, they have to
diversify their services concurrent with the escalating demands by clients and the construction
industry. They faces threats to its traditional roles and functions as a result of changing client needs
in the construction industry (Matzdorf et al., 1997; National Economic Development Office, 1988),
advances in technology and the particular needs of a developing economy. Brandon (1990) suggests
that the profession’s continuing relevance and growth could require enhancing its knowledge
domain so that it can move quickly into new areas of service as opportunities arise. QS must adapt
to changes in work patterns, develop new markets and cultivate superior advantages over their
competitors in order to maintain and enhance competitive advantage and profitability (Harun and
Abdullah, 2006).
The QSs in this era continue to diversify their expertise base which enables them to involve
in the new scope of services such as project management, value management, and others throughout
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the construction and other industries (Hanid et al., 2007). Projects that QSes received and getting
involved are becoming bigger, more complex and potentially riskier. It was accepted that the Q.S.
had begun to broaden their scope and making a strong presence in adapting themselves with the
advance knowledge on information technology (IT), invent innovation to their firm and
internationalize their services (Harun and Abdullah, 2006). Adapting to all these changes will
enhance QS profession, as they are being able to cope with the current demands from client. As the
construction projects grow in complexity and size, it is immediately apparent that many QSs have
diversified into providing project and building management services (Wong, 2002) and also
involved in non-construction sectors. They ventured their services in non-construction industry such
as oil and gas, banking and insurance business and several others within their knowledge area.
To date there are 289 registered QS firms under Board of Quantity Surveyors Malaysia
(BQSM) and the number is expected to increase from year to year. The existence of small, medium
and large QS firms has resulted in a stronger competition among them. According Bishop and
Megicks (2002), different sizes of firm place a greater emphasis upon different strategic positions.
QS firm should be cognizant of their strengths and weaknesses in order to overcome the challenges
of increased competition. Strengths of QS firm relies on their company resources, capabilities to
finances, the strength of its relationships with other parties such as clients, receptiveness to
innovation and their strategic decisions to differentiate themselves from others (Isik et al., 2009).
One of the challenges faced by QS nowadays is their knowledge transfer and sharing
processes. It is essential for QS to encompass specific knowledge concerning the existing arrays of
services provided and the potential probable career diversifications (Nisa et al., 2006). This
knowledge is disseminated to inexperienced junior QSs from experienced, through various tools of
knowledge transfer such as discussions, training, correspondence, tutoring and observation. Other
than that, it is also important for the QS firms to adopt innovative marketing as a weapon for them
to compete as it is believed to be a market-driven is a client-driven (Harun and Abdullah, 2006;
Crane, 1993). In order to ensure their survival in the industry, it is a great challenge for QS’s role to
quickly adapt to the changes surrounds them (Hanid et al., 2007) and able to identify their strengths
and weaknesses before choosing the right strategy to step out from their competitors.
COMPETITIVE STRATEGY IN QUANTITY SURVEYING FIRMS
Competitive Advantage
Lower cost Differentiation
Broad Target
Competitive scope
Cost Leadership Differentiation

Narrow Target
Cost focus Differentiation focus
Figure 1: Three generic strategies (Porter, 1985)
There are many ways of competing and most can be rationalized into one of three generic
strategies as suggested by Porter (1980). Porter’s competitive strategy theories have been applied to
the construction industry by Hillebrandt and Cannon (1989, 1990) and Betts and Ofori (1992).
Later, Jennings and Betts found out that Porter’s generic strategies might generally be suitable for
use by private QS practices. Based on the research, it is proved that Porter’s generic strategies may
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generally suitable for use by QS firms. The competitive strategies consist of cost leadership,
differentiation and focus and each of the generic strategies has their own definition of skills and
resources that must be fulfilled before achieving any of the strategy which can be refer in table 1
(Porter 1980). However, Warszawski (1996) typical growth strategies were introduced. From
existing studies (Porter, 1980; Hillebrandt and Cannon, 1989, 1990; Betts and Ofori, 1992; Jennings
and Betts, 1996, Warszawski, 1996) competitive strategies for QS firms that can be identifies are
shown in Table 1. There are actually four generic strategies that can be applied to a QS firm and the
options are: cost leadership, differentiation, focus and growth strategies. Under each strategy, the
relevant strategic behaviors of QS firms are indentified and discussions of the following sections
are presented in following Table 1.
Table 1: Interpretation of generic competitive strategies in QS firm

Types of strategies Generic definition Interpretation in QS firms
Cost leadership • Sustained capital investment and • Lower fees than other QS firms
access to capital • Sustain capital investment and
• Process engineering skills access to capital
• Intense supervision of labour • Training of personnel
• Products designed for ease in • Geographical area
manufacture • Specialize in work
• Low-cost distribution system • Optimize staff/salary levels
• Technological Advance
Differentiation • Strong marketing abilities • Improve quality of service

• Product engineering offered
• Creative flair • Identify client’s requirement
• Strong capability in basic research and maintain good relationship
• Corporate reputation for quality or • Branding
technological leadership • Innovations
• Strong cooperation channels • Marketing
Focus • Combination of the above policies • Develop specialist information

directed at the particular strategic system
target • Employ specialist staff
• Develop expertise in area
• Market to specific client type
• Standardise specialist
procedures
• Focusing on certain types of
projects
Growth strategies • Entry into new locations or • Entry into new locations or
regions regions (internalization)
• Entry into new types of • Entry into new types of
construction projects construction projects
• Engaging in new businesses • Engaging in new businesses
241
1.16 Cost Leadership
Cost leadership to a QS firm is on how a QS firm can offer their services at lower fees than
others and the ability to extenuate and control cost of the firm administration and at the same time
increase productivity. A cost leadership strategy is most effective in predictable and stable
environments, since environments that are unpredictable or subject to much change will create
severe diseconomies for organizations trying to pursue a cost leadership strategy (Miller, 1988).
The company that seeks leadership in cost has to focus the entire organization to achieve
this objective, creating a culture of low costs, working constantly to reduce waste and remaining
constantly attentive to the cost positions of its competitors (Shimizu et.al., 2006). QS firm that
implement this strategy for their own basis survival will either focused on certain types of project
they mainly involved since they have loyal clients or their businesses geographic area (Warszawski,
1996) is limited to a certain places that they are used with.
There are few elements in QS firms that influence this strategy (table 1). One of the skill and
resources that is required to obtain cost leadership is by reducing their fees lower than their
competitors. This is one of the main strategies to attract the clients to seek for their services as they
offer lower fees than other QS firms which they are competing in the same geographic area. QS
firm can manage to offer their fees lower than their rivals if they are able to minimize the costs of
their firm’s administration. This is based on Porter’s (1985) where sustainable positions a firm can
establish and sustain through lowest price position under this strategy the firm relies primarily on
competing on price. Porter argues that this is a legitimate and potentially successful way of doing
business providing the firm can find a means of actually producing the goods or service at a lower
cost than their competitors. If they cannot, they are simply getting work by accepting lower profits
than their competitors or incurring losses. Porter (1980) identified the commonly required elements
for cost leadership is sustained capital investment and access to capital. The financial resources of
an enterprise constitute one of the most important determinants of competitiveness. The continued
growth of firms depends on their ability to finance their operations adequately as well as on the
stability of the financial sector from which capital is sourced (Kumar and Chadee, 2002). Other
than that, cost leadership can be obtained by QS firms through superior training of personnel in
working procedures oriented towards maximum saving of time and elimination of waste will
conceivably result in reduced costs as firm’s mission and objectives are able to be delivered clearly
(Warszawski, 1996).
It also appears that dominating work in certain geographical area or specializing in certain
type of work such as developing specialist services is one of the elements in the cost leadership.
This generic strategy reveals that QS firms need to optimize staff or salary elements (Jennings and
Betts, 1996). The cost of leadership in firms can usually be obtained by technological advance
(Warszawski, 1996). There has been widely used of in-house softwares and spreadsheets in the QS
firms. Most of the firms are aware on how important the use of IT is as it will increase the firm’s
efficiency thus time can be saved.
1.17 Differentiation
Differentiation to a QS firm on the other hand is how they portray and differentiate
themselves to client by diversifying service offered to client such as with the existence of
marketing, innovation and others. Abell and Hammond (1979: 405) also support this position by
observing that: 'when a company differentiates itself from its competitors functional activities will
reflect the "theme" that distinguishes the company from its rivals'. It would seem strong functional
coordination, most easily achieved through the responsibility hierarchy, would be needed to
develop and maintain these cross-functional themes. Differentiation on the basis of these key
buying criteria (quality, innovation, schedule, and cost) enables a construction firm to offer
242
products or services that are valuable to clients and allows the firm to create an island of
noncompetition around itself (Kale and Arditi, 2003).
Jennings and Betts (1996) proposed that ‘improve quality of service offered’ is one of the
skill and resources to achieve this generic strategy. QS roles are to advise client on costing and
contracting matters. Improvement in quality of services offered to clients will increase firm’s
productivity and developing client trust.
There are few important elements that affect differentiation strategy in QS firms (refer
Table 1). One of the differentiation strategy elements is identifying the client’s requirement (Betts
and Jennings, 1996). The firms therefore concentrate on offering services that assists the client to
optimize the economic value of the project rather than offering to the client a low cost but restricted
service. The firms were all continuing to develop this value added approach further and now offer
services such as value management facilitation, partnering facilitation and computer based
feasibility study systems (Boon, 1996).
Other differentiation strategy element is through branding. The branding and alignment with
overseas practices gives them greater credibility with clients. However the real strength of the
branding comes from the expanded knowledge base they can tap into either when being asked to
provide cost advice on specialist types of buildings or when providing services on new types of
procurement (Boon, 1996). QS firms also should consider innovations as one of the elements of the
generic strategies. Innovation is one of the key activities identified as being important to improve
the performance of the construction industry. Innovation which is particularly oriented towards
production processes can help reduce costs and differentiate at the same time (Bowman 1990). The
desire for the firms to change has come more from a fear of being left behind by its competitors
than from a belief in the benefits of innovation (Burns and Stalker, 1961). Other following elements
required in implementing differentiation strategy (Porter, 1980) are strong marketing abilities,
creative flair, strong capability in basic research, reputation for quality or technological leadership,
long tradition in the industry or unique combination of skills drawn from other business (refer
Table 1).
The bases for competition in this strategy are shaken when the competitors are able to
quickly manage changes in the environment. For this reason, these companies have to be always in
motion, improving performance and innovating more rapidly than their competitors (Shimizu et. al,
2006).
1.18 Focus
Focus strategy is more towards the ‘brand loyalty’ concept between the clients and QS firm
and this strategy is mostly gained by long-term relations with the client (Dikmen and Birgonul,
2003). This strategy basically only focus on specific market niche (Betts and Jennings, 1996) and
can obtain an intimate relationships with clients, and authorities in a particular region, and offer a
better service (Warszawski, 1996).
This focus on a segment allows the company to develop performance superior to its
competitors, who have multiple targets. This segmentation can be a function of a geographic cut, or
of scale, or an activity that reaches a specific type of consumer. Once the target segment has been
selected, the company has to devote all its efforts consistently in this direction, clearly
communicating its option to the market. To have greater success in selecting the segment to
implement the strategy of focus, segments that are needier than others must be prioritized (Shimizu
et al., 2006).
Develop expertise in area is the most important focus strategy element for QS firms which
can be referred to Table 1. The focus strategy-more appropriate for smaller companies is based on
applying cost leadership or differentiation to a very narrow segment of the market. Since the focus
strategy mainly focused on small firms, this reflects the nature of their client base, which is usually
small, loyal group of clients who are often from the same background (Jennings and Betts, 1996).
243
The focus strategy is to select a few target markets for competition. This strategy enables a
firm to better meet the needs of the target market than its competitors who compete more broadly. It
is important to select appropriate target market for implementing this strategy. "Segment structural
attractiveness is a necessary condition since some segments in an industry are much less profitable
than others... most industries have a variety of segments, and each one that involves a different
buyer need or a different optimal production or delivery system is a candidate for a focus strategy"
(Porter, 1985).
1.19 Growth strategies
Definition for growth strategies on QS firm is the firm’s capabilities not only able to expand
their firm not only locally but also internationally. In this growth strategies, there are few skills and
resources are required before pursuing this competitive strategy such as internationalizing, venture
into new types of projects and entering into new business (Warzawski, 1996). One of the skills or
resources that contribute to the usage of this strategy is when QS firms can expand their firms by
internationalizing. By internalization, QS can expand their services in other countries. In a way, this
helps to enlarge the growth of their firm thus explore a new market to mark and establish their
position in the industry. There are several reasons for firms to expand their business into new
markets, such as stagnant existing markets, booming of new markets, and competitive use of
resources (Langford and Male, 2001). The involvement of QS firms in new overseas market will be
a good exposure as the firm are more proactive when they expand their business with opening a
new branch, widening their knowledge, sharpens their business skills and communications, thus
branding their names to gain trust from future new clients.
Other element of growth strategies is by QS venturing in a new type of projects other than
what they traditionally involved with. QS is known and familiar with the building type of projects
but now they are involved with the highway, infrastructure, oil and gas, banking sectors and other
projects. This proved that QS services not only revolved as a cost consultant but they managed to
diversify their role in other project suit with their knowledge empowerment.
Quantity surveyors can achieve business growth by entering into other new businesses. The
main reasons for quantity surveyors to engage in new businesses include that risks can be shared in
diversified business, and that business can grow by taking new opportunities (Yongtao, 2008).
Responding to current environment, QS firm has to be a creative business savvy. By taking
opportunities such as participating as a partner in strategic alliance by collaborating with more than
a firm and to lead an integrated supply chain since there is no doubt that QS is a good project
manager (Cartlidge, 2006).
HOW TO CHOOSE COMPETITIVE STRATEGY FOR QS FIRMS
The major concern for every QS firm to strive for success is on how to compete by choosing
the right strategy. The choice of strategy chosen, in a way will underpin and have an impact to the
firm. So it is best for the firm to figure out the best strategy to adopt as it is worthwhile to get the
right one. Cost Leadership concentrates more on cost aspect as they believed to compete by offering
fees which is lower than their competitors to attract the client. Where else differentiation for
example, on the other hand is to be differ by offering services which is unique and different from
rivals to ‘stand out from the crowd’. Focus only concentrate on specific market niche and have
faithful clients while growth strategies will enable the firm to expand their firm locally or
internationally. So, the selection of an appropriate strategy through an orderly process is assisted by
an analysis of firm’s strengths and weaknesses compared with its competitors (Warszawski, 1996).
An in depth understanding of the strengths and weaknesses and characteristics of the firms’
organization such as size of the firm attributes in the decision of applying and identifying the type
of generic strategy that is suitably for them to adopt. How does a QS firm decide which competitive
244
strategy they should adopt and whether it is suitable for them? There are few factors that
differentiate each firm by applying different competitive strategies. For example, the characteristics
of the firm such as the firm size do play a greater role to determine which strategy should be
pursued by the firm.
QS firm that apply this strategy needs to be creative thinking in creating or offering
services, which is unique, than their what is offered by their competitors. According to Jenning and
Betts (1996), differentiation strategy would be suitable for larger QS firms. Warszawski (1996)
stated the need for strong financial resources. Larger firms for example, who have longer history
and widely recognized name, appear to compete by using their image, reputation and experience
will differentiate themselves from other QS firms to strengthen their position in industry, making
more profits and to brand their ‘image’ to be trusted among the clients. Other than that, having
strong financial resources indicate a firm’s credibility and reputation among clients, enabling them
to get involved into risky situations which in turn may have higher benefits for the firm (Isik wt. al,
2009) and being able to become creative in business to offer new types of services and have the
opportunity to market themselves to stand out from their competitors. QS firms, which concern on
accuracy and punctuality of service, maintaining good relationship with clients and identifying their
requirements is an important aspect that determines the firm to practise this differentiation strategy.
QS firms which apply differentiation strategy must have staff who are both technically and socially
competent and are able to use detailed information systems if they are to maximize the success of
their chosen strategy (Jennings and Betts, 1996). However, if the use of IT is not fully equipped it
may be a weakness cost leadership cannot be achieved. Innovation capability in QS firms is another
important factor in achieving differentiation to enhance competitiveness as stated by Porter (1980).
A QS firm who practice differentiation strategy must offer additional services to clients such as
marketing.
Warswarski (1996) explained that a firm could choose cost leadership strategy when the
environment is particularly competitive and the projects are fairly uniform. QS firms may also
choose this strategy due to the need to develop a competitive edge in some resources such as
training of personnel, technological advance etc. if they want to offer more efficient and less
expensive performance. QS firm that applied this strategy usually will offer fees, which lower than
their competitors to attract the clients. The training of personnel about the mission of the company
is to deliver a clear understanding on the nature of the firm works to improve effectiveness and
competitiveness of the firm thus cost can be reduced a time. A firm that apply this strategy is
believed to use high technological advance. In current market, there are many softwares for
measurement that can be found in the market. The use of this latest software is beneficial for QS as
they can finish up their bulk of works in a short time. Firms in all sectors of the construction
industry will need to work smarter to gain competitive advantage and current industry procurement
and technological trends clearly indicate that firms who are unable to re-engineer their work
practices to evolve with these trends will find it increasingly difficult to survive in a meaningful and
profitable form (Smith, 2004).
A small size or a boutique QS firm should opt for focus strategy (Warszawski, 1996).
Having staffs that are equipped with breadth of knowledge, being able to multitask, have a wide
knowledge on the latest use of IT and are independable can contribute to the performance of the
firm. Boutique firm or small size of QS firm only depend on their faithful group of clients, retain by
providing a good service and encouraging personal relations may use focus strategy as only a
selected number of clients are targeted. They usually have few numbers of staff that is potentially
well trained and have skilled staffs (Jennings and Betts, 1996). Boutique firm for example identified
a niche area which most closely matches their skills and comparative advantage - they have chosen
to "stick to their knitting" (Scobie, 2009). This type of strategy is suitable for firm who focused on a
specific market niche and has worked with the same client for a long term. QS firm who adopt this
strategy will only focus their services in the same geographic as they have already established in
that particular place and have good communications and relationship with the clients and other
245
professionals. However, focus strategy will hinder the firms’ movement if they have a vision to
internationalize their firms.
QS firm that consider expanding their market should apply growth strategy. This strategy is
suitable if they are expanding their firm internationally or locally. By having more than a firm in the
different area or country, the position of the firm is more established and able to mark their names
in industry thus making more profits. Firms who wanted to apply this strategy have already aware
of the challenges in a new environment and competition from other international firms in order to
get projects. QS firm who pursue this strategy, may also engage into a new business such as
strategic alliance and offer new services to clients. By expanding the roles to the sectors other than
construction sector, the future of the QS profession can be safeguarded since the profession is now
threatened by a number of challenges (Hanid et al., 2007).
The choice of which these generic strategies should be adopted will have an impact to the
success and failure of a firm whether it is implicitly or explicitly realised by the practitioners.
Applying the right strategy will conceivably make a huge impact to QS firm to meet the needs of
the market.
FUTURE RESEARCH AND CONCLUSION
The choice of competitive strategy to be adopted in firms depends on its activity areas, its
characteristics and strengths and weaknesses. The size for example, is believed to affect the type of
strategy to be used. Differentiation strategy is said to be suitable for large firm while cost leadership
and focus strategy are better suited for small size firms. Growth strategy is more appropriate for
firms with intention to expand their business, regardless of their size. According to Porter (1980), a
firm basically needs to develop only one of the generic strategies and it is impractical for the firm to
adopt more than one strategy at a time on firm may end up ‘stuck in the middle’. Porter mostly
based his in product-manufacture firm and claimed it is applicable for service-based firm such as
well. Does firm size affect the choice of competitive strategy as lauded by many scholars even for
service-provider type of business such as QS firm? Is it true that one strategy is enough for one firm
at one time?
A research is proposed to explore whether the choice of competitive strategy in service-
based firm such as QS is influenced by its size. Then, further research is planned to investigate the
type of competitive strategy used in QS firm in Malaysia and whether it is effective.
The finding from this study will be beneficial to QS firms that want to compete in this
volatile environment. Choosing strategy that can provide maximum advantage which best-suited the
firms interest and agenda is crucial as it allows the firm to maintain its existence and prosper at its
own pace and comfortability by exploring the effectiveness of adopted strategy, QS firm can then
plan out for better strategy if necessary or maintain the one they have until enforceable future.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study was supported by Institute of Graduate Studies (IPS) and Universiti Sains Malaysia
(USM), Penang, Malaysia.
246
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THEME D
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF VALUE ENGINEERING AMONG THE

MALAYSIAN CONSTRUCTION CONSULTANTS
Associate Professor Dr Arazi Idrus, PhD.

Olanrewaju Abdul Lateef, A
Dr. Mohd Faris Khamidi, PhD.
Email: abdullateef.olanrewaju20002000@gmail.com
Mohd Syahrin bin Ab Rahim
ABSTRACT
This paper reports a study on the practice of value engineering in the Malaysian construction industry.
The paper aims to investigate the level of awareness with value engineering practices and the level of
implementation of the value engineering techniques in the Malaysian construction industry. The paper
combined literature reviews and questionnaire survey. Twenty three (23) consultants were involved in
the survey. Data obtained were analyzed to produce descriptive statistics. The findings of the study
indicate that the level of awareness of value engineering is high. The level of value engineering
implementation was found to be relatively average. However, the paper recommends a more
collaborative effort towards the promotion of value engineering techniques in the Malaysian
construction industry in an effort to achieve value for money invested.
Keywords: value engineering, construction industry; consultants; awareness, implementation,

Malaysia
1 INTRODUCTION
The published literature revealed a wide range of opinion which tends to polarize either
towards the value engineering or value management. For the purpose of this paper the terms “value
engineering” (VE) and “value management” (VM) have the same meaning and are sometime used
interchangeably. VE / VM techniques optimize functional performance of project at least cost.
Value engineering was first developed in North America after the World War 2 at the General
Electrical Company. This was when the company faced shortage of basic materials used in the
manufacturing of ammunitions for the allied forces. The use of substituted materials, components
and methods was not only less expensive but also was able to improve the required functional
standard. Value engineering was first applied to construction industry around 1963 by Dell’Isola.
However, in Malaysia value management is perhaps the most familiar term. In fact, there is an
Institute of Value Management in Malaysia. Currently there are more than 2, 000 memberships
across different categories in the institute (Olanrewaju 2008). The technique was first introduced in
Malaysia in late 1980s.
It is important to study the trend on the level of awareness and implementation of VE among
consulting practice in Malaysia, as this will bring into focus the position of value engineering
251
practice in the Malaysian construction industry. Value engineering if applied properly reduce the
construction cost without affecting the value of the project to the clients. Value engineering (VE)
has been widely accepted internationally especially in the USA, Japan, Hong Kong, Australia,
China, Europe and many developing countries. However, in Malaysia, the level of implementation
of VE is still low and is not so popular especially during design phase of a construction project.
Therefore it is necessary to investigate the underlying reason of this current situation that hinders
the implementation of VE among the consulting practice in construction industry in Malaysia. This
study used questionnaire survey to collect primary data among the constructions consultants
2 BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE REVIEW
Various terms –value engineering, value control, value analysis and value engineering- have
been used to describe the principle of value engineering. However, in this paper all the terms are
synonymous. The commonest though been value management and value engineering (VE/VM).
Nonetheless, the terms are used interchangeably in this paper. VE/VM is a problem solving
technique developed during the Second World War. It was developed due to shortage of material
and components that faced the manufacturing industry in the North America. The General Electric
Company championed the introduction of the techniques.
VE/ VM is defined as an organized, systematic, and multidisciplinary team process, which
analyzed the functions a project is required to perform for the purpose of achieving best value for
money invested (Olanrewaju and Khairuddin, 2007). It can be applied at any stage of the
construction projects and to any parts of a project. However, the earlier it is applied in a project life
cycle, the greater the saving that will be made. The technique has been applied to different sectors
of the economy where achieving best value is desired. VE / VM have been applied in different
countries, regardless of whether the countries are developed or developing with different degree of
success. VE / VM focuses on value rather than cost and seeks to achieve an optimal balance
between time, cost and quality (Kelly, Male et al. 2004) as it provided a method of integration in
the building process that no other management structure in construction can provide (Kelly and
Male 1991). It also explores the functional requirements and seeks overall optimization accordingly
(Shen 1995).
In the developed countries like the United Kingdom, United State and Australia, the success
of applying value management to construction project is very high. In fact, its applications have
been backed by laws in some of the developed countries; its prospect is also gaining wide
momentum in the developing countries (Olanrewaju and Khairuddin, 2007). However, in Malaysia,
the application of the value management has been recognised by law. Very recently, it applications
has been set out under the 10th Malaysian Plan (10MP). It was mentioned that all construction
contracts equal or in excess of RM 50 million will have value engineering workshop administered
on them. However, industrial players have criticised the enactment. The players want the
workshops to be administered on all construction regardless of the contract sum. However, prior to
that, the techniques are applied on all Tenega Nasional Berhad (TNB) projects exceeding RM 10
millions. TN is the Malaysia electricity generating company. The technique was also applied to
Malaysia Air Port holding Berhad projects in excess of RM 500,000:00. However, this recognition
by the government is move in the right directions. Therefore, its application could be administered
to all projects if successes are well documented. It is thereby up to the players to assure the
governments and other investors / clients that the VE / VM is part and parcel of a solution to
providing or achieving value for money.
VE / VM within construction were pioneered by Mr. Alphonse Dell’ Isola in the 1960s. The
application of VE / VM to a project usually starts with a specific solution to the project that can be
called the initial solution. The examination of the initial solution through the application of the
procedures of value engineering leads to a final solution, in which the costs of the initial solution
are optimized. The first phase is the information phase, in which all information relevant to the
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project is obtained, a profile of costs for the project is determined, functions are analyzed,
functional relationships are represented in a FAST diagram, and costs of various functions on the
FAST diagram are identified. In applying value engineering to a building project, the
multidisciplinary team obtains a solution that emphasizes the functions of the project and the best
judgment of the team in making final choices, and which results in a cost-effective design for the
project.
The implementation of VE in construction project in Malaysia was still minimal compare to
other country that already have standards of VE such as Australia, Austria, New Zealand, France,
Germany, Hungary, India, Poland, UK and USA. The numbers of projects that have applied VE
methodology is only a handful even though mega projects such as Kuala Lumpur International
Airport and Telekom Tower has successfully applied its concept (Jaapar and Torrance, 2005).
In the developed countries like the UK, research has been conducted to determine the level
of practices of Value management by the consultant quantity survey (Ellis, Wood and Keel, 2003).
VE practices have also been investigated in the developed countries like Nigeria (Olanrewaju and
Khairuddin, 2007). In that line this current study seeks to identity the practices or application of
consultant in Malaysia. Earlier studies in Malaysia by authors including Arazi, et. al. (2009) was in
relation to the practices by the contractors and the study areas are not the same. However, this
current study is about the practice of value engineering by construction consultants in Malaysia.
In Malaysia, the consultants involve in the construction industry includes the Engineers, (i.e.
electrical, mechanical, structure and civil) Architects, and Quantity Surveyors. These professional
are guided by their own professional associations. These professionals are required to provide their
services in an ethical and professional manner. The involvement of the consultants and also the
clients were very important since they are the key players who play an active involvement in order
to produce the specified buildings and other facilities during the construction process. Therefore,
their inputs are very important in order to know the level of implementation of VE among them and
investigate the underlying reasons that discourage the practice of VE method during the initial
design phase of a construction project.
3 METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
This study combined literature and questionnaire survey. Specifically, the study adopted the
postal survey method. The questionnaire was attached to a cover letter. The cover letter was written
on the Department of Civil Engineering Letterhead’s. A set of questionnaires was mailed to the
respondent’s company. The postal survey approach was adopted because, wider area can be
covered. The questionnaire was designed to collect the information background on level, job title,
and organization background of the respondents as well as their years of experience in local
construction industry. The survey also asked about related questions on the detail application of VE
/ VM as well as factors that hinder implementation of VE / VM in construction industry. In order
measure, the factors that hinder the implementation or application of the technique on projects, the
respondents’ opinions were measured on a Likert Scale of 5 continuum points. The respondents for
the study were the construction consultants in Malaysia. The respondents were conveniently
selected. The questionnaires with covering letter were posted to all the respondents on the same. In
order to facilitate return, a self addressed envelope was enclosed and while respondents we given
the opportunity to return their completed questionnaire by fax if they so wish. The questionnaires
were posted to 250 respondents across Malaysia. The data were analysed by Microsoft Excel office
software to produced descriptive statistics. With respect to the factors that hinder the application /
implementation of the VE/ VM in Malaysia, the average severity index or ASI was employed. This
is used, because it provides more reliable results as compared to the traditional, plain or pure mean
score.
253
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The data for this research were collected through questionnaire. The questionnaire is
focused on respondent’s background and company background and their experience in construction
industry. Related questions about VE were also included in the questionnaire especially application
of VE and factors that hinders implementation of VE in Malaysia. All this data were stored and
analyzed by using Microsoft Excel. The results of the analysis were presented by using Tables and
Figures (i.e. average index). There were two hundred and fifty (250) set of questionnaires that were
posted to different respondents with different background in construction industry in order to
achieve the objectives of the research. However, only twenty three (23) respondents replied the
questionnaire. This represents 9.2% response rate (Table1). The also suggest that respondents that
contribute to this questionnaire are mainly engineering consultancy firms which are 53% from
overall respondent followed by Contractor Company which contributes about 31%.
Although it was below expectation from the required target, a general picture of the present
status of VE / VM in construction industry can still be formed based on the scope. All the responses
were suitable for analysis.
Table 1: Response rate

Types of firms Amount of questionnaires sent Percentage received
Engineering consultants 50 26
Developer 50 4
Contractor 50 12
Architect Consultant 50 2
Others 50 2
Total 250 9.2
From Figure 1, it is found that most of the respondents that answered the survey
questionnaire were mostly Director/CEO of the company which is a good indication of their interest
in this survey research. They also have a strong background experience in construction industry as
most of them have about 15 years and more in this area. With their strong background in knowledge
and experience, their opinions in this research survey are essential to reach the objective of the
research.
Designation of Respondents
Other
Structural / Civil Engineer

Designation
Quantity Surveyor
Architect
Project Manager
Developer
Director / CEO
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Amount of questionnaire
Figure 1: Designation of respondents
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From the results, 74% of the respondents were aware of value engineering technique (Table
2). The remainder were not familiar with the value engineering techniques. From Table 3 most of
the respondents that were aware of the value management techniques learnt about it through it
applications in the companies were they worked (n=7). Six of the respondents also claimed they
learnt about the techniques through reading in publications including journals and proceedings of
conference and seminars. 4 each learnt about it through attending seminar (i.e. workshops) where
players are trained on it applications or through their friends and colleagues. These findings were
however not surprising, albeit was expected that many of the consultants will learnt about it
application through seamier and workshops. In Malaysia, Dr Che Mazlan has facilitated a lot of
workshops on the applications and benefits of value management.
Mere reading it through publications is neither sufficient to claim knowledgeable in the
techniques, however. Perhaps, the players will need to do more to acquire a more informed
knowledge on it applications. However, these results show that information about VE has reached
into the community from the construction industry. It is suggested that the concept or the
methodology of VE should also be explained to these players in order for them to fully understand
about the concept of VE.
Table 2: If respondent is aware of VE or not

Aware of VE Frequency Percentage
Yes 17 74
No 6 26
Table 3: Source of which VE knowledge is acquire about respondents

Source Frequency
Professional Seminar 4
Publications: Journals, proceedings 6
Colleague and Friends 4
Already applied 7
Other 0
Total 21
The results of the survey also indicate that most of the respondents are from Perak, followed
by Selangor (Table 4). One each for Kedah, Negeri Sembilan, Pulau Pinang, Johor, Terengganu
and Sarawak however, in terms of construction projects, these states are prominent.
Table 4: Location of respondents companies

Location Frequency
Perak 9
Selangor 8
Kedah 1
Negeri Sembilan 1
Pulau Pinang 1
Johor 1
Terengganu 1
Sarawak 1
Total 23
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5 IMPLEMENTATION OF VE
The results show that 71% of the respondents claimed that they have applied value
management techniques on the projects (Table 5). These results suggest that all those familiar with
the value management have applied it to their projects. However, it worrying that many of the
respondents only learnt about the techniques through readings, friends and colleagues. It is argued
that these players could not have adequate expertise to apply the techniques. It was interesting to
find that most organisations have not applied the techniques for more than 10 projects (Table 6)
Table 5: Implementation of VE
Whether or not implement Frequency Percentage
Yes 12 71%
No 5 29%
Table 6: Size of Projects VM was applied

Size of project No
1 to 5 5
5 to 10 3
10 to 15 2
Above 15 2
Total 12
6 FACTORS THAT HINDERS THE IMPLEMENTATION OF VE
The factors that hinder the implementation of VE are shown in Table 7. In general, most (43%) of
the respondents agreed that the factors could collectively hinder administration of VE / VM on
construction projects. Many (18%) strongly agreed the factors are hindrance to VE / VM. While
14% disagreed, only about 6% strongly disagreed that the factors can hinder the implementation of
VE / VM on the projects. The average indexes of all factors are in range of 3 to 4 which conclude
that the respondents were agreed or neutral to all the factors listed down in the questionnaire. For a
scale having 5 as it maximum number, the results of this survey could be considered good and
encouraging. Most respondents agreed that lack of local guideline and info about VE / VM, lack of
knowledge and practice in VE / VM, interruption to normal work schedule, and conflicting of
objective by different parties are the factors that hinders the implementation of VE/ VM while the
other two reasons, they were neutral about this matter. While only 2 of the 23 respondents disagreed
that the lack of local guideline and information about the VE/ VM are hindrance, none strongly
disagreed. Two respondents disagreed or strongly disagreed lack of knowledge and practice are
hindrance.
It is however, surprisingly that many (n=4 each) of the respondents believed, that VE / VM is
expensive to implement and that it objectives are against the projects objectives. These findings are
quite surprising and in fact unbelievable. In fact, the essence of VE/ VM is to make the objective of
the project more clear to all stakeholders before the project even leave the designers’ office. Also,
except, if the technique is not properly implemented, VE / VM is capable of cutting the cost of
project even to the turn of more than 50%. In fact, the technique is self- financing (Olanrewaju and
Khairuddin, 2007). The findings of the research suggest that 8 of the respondents disagree or
disagreed strongly that VE / VM is not suitable for low-cost project. These findings are also
256
strange. Low cost project is different from small project. However, even in the developed countries
the applications of VE / VM are actually restricted to certain project but not low-cost projects per
se. VE / VM can be successfully applied to low-cost provided the projects are many.
Table 7: Factors hindering the implementation of value management

Factors that hinder the Strongly Strongly Average
Agree Neutral Disagree Results
implementation of VE agree disagree index
Lack of local guideline and
5 13 3 2 0 3.9 Agree
info about VE/ VM
Lack of knowledge and
4 15 2 2 0 3.9 Agree
practice in VE/VM
Interruption to normal work
5 7 8 1 2 3.5 Agree
schedule
Too expensive to carry out VE 3 6 8 4 1 3.3 Neutral
Conflicting of objective by
5 9 5 4 0 3.7 Agree
different parties
Not suitable for low-cost
2 9 4 6 2 3.1 Neutral
project
Average total 17.52% 43.08% 21.88% 13.87% 6.35% 3.57 AGREE
From the results, the main factors that hinder the implementation of VE are lack of local
guideline and info about VE in Malaysia. This might be due to the procedures and application of
Value Engineering in Malaysia is still follows other country’s manual, and there is no Malaysia’s
Value Engineering standard created so far until now.
7 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The respondent’s degree of understanding about VE was above expectation. This represent by
the level of awareness, number of project that have implemented VE, and also the understanding of
VE methodology which generally exceed 50% of positive results. The results were also
encouraging towards future in Value Engineering in Malaysia construction industry when more
than 70% of the respondents stated that they were interested to integrate VE implementation in their
future projects. The main contributor for the data was also mainly from Consulting firm and also
contractor companies where they were inter-related in a construction project. Although the result
does not represent overall population of consulting firm in Malaysia due to small number of
respondent, from the data collected, it can be concluded that the first objective of this research has
been achieved. There are 4 main factors that were agreed by the respondent that hinders the
implementation of VE that needs to be taken care of. These factors should be taken into
consideration and solutions or alternatives should be implemented to tackle the problem. Related
organizations and professional bodies like IEM (Institute of Engineers Malaysia) and CIDB
(Construction Industry Development Board Malaysia) can organize more seminars or training
program to introduce about Value Engineering concepts and methodology in construction industry.
The government needs to encourage and promote the use of Value Engineering in construction
industry, since the majority of the private sector may not be willing to take the first step to
implement it.
257
REFERENCES
Al Hammad, A.M (2000) Common Interface Problems Among Various Construction Parties.
Journal Performance Construction Facilities vol. 14 Issue. 2 pp71-74
Arazi, I, Faris, M. K., Mazby, Z K Z and Olanrewaju, A A (2009) A Study On The Level Of
Implementation Of Value Engineering In The Malaysian Construction Industry (2009) In
Proceedings of: Meniti Pembangunan Lestari dalam Kejuruteraan Awam Nor Azam Ramli
et al., (eds) 2009 Pusat Pengajian Kejuruteraan Awam, Universiti Sains Malaysia pp688-
695
Ashworth, A and K. Hogg (2000). Added Value in Design and Construction. Essex, Pearson
Education Limited
Cooper, Donald R and Pamela S Schindler (2003). Business Research Methods. 8th edition.
McGraw Hill, New York
Dell’Isola, A. J. (1988). Value Engineering in the Construction Industry. Smith
Hinchman & Grylls, Washington DC. Page 8, 52-68, 71.
Ellis, R.C.T., Wood, G. D. and Keel, D. A. ( 2003) An Investigation into the Value management
services offered by UK cost consultants. In Proceedings of the RICS Foundation
construction and building Research conference. Held at School of Engineering and Built
Environment, University of Wolverhampton.
Jaapar, A. and J.V. Torrance (2005). “ Value Management and its Current Status in Malaysia.”
The Malaysian Surveyor 39.2 (February): pp. 14-25
John W. Bryant (1998). “Value Mythology Standard” Society of American Value
Engineers. Page 1- 8.
Kelly, J.R. and S. Male (1993). Value Management in Design and Construction: The Economic
Management of Projects. London, E & FN Spon.
Kelly, J.R. and S. Male (2001). A value management approach to aligning the team to the client’s
value system. COBRA 2001, London, RICS Foundation
Kelly, J.R. and S. Male et. al. (2004) Value Management of Construction Projects. London.
O’Brien, J J. (1976). “Value Analysis In design And Construction”. McGraw-
Hill Book Company. Page 1-5.
Olanrewaju, A. A., and Khairuddin, A. (2007). Determining whether Value Management is
practiced in the Nigerian Construction Industry. In: Proceedings of Quantity Surveying
International Convention (QSIC). Held on 4-5th September 2007, Kuala Lumpur
Shen, Q. (2004). “Application of Value Management in the construction industry in China.”
Engineering Construction and Architectural Management 11(1): pp. 9-19
258
DEMOLITION WORK IN MALAYSIA: THE SAFETY PROVISIONS

Ily Hanisah Mohd Fauzey
MSc Candidate, Universiti Teknologi MARA
ilynisa@gmail.com
Faridah Ismail, PhD.

farid346@salam.edu.my
ABSTRACT
In view of shortage of land to cater market demands, redevelopment seems to be the best option to
make way for new development which leads to demolition or deconstruction. Demolition industry can
be considered as one of the most hazardous operations with highly intricate tasks that can contributes
in number of incidents and fatalities around the world including Malaysia. The absence of safety
provisions add up to serious problem faced by Malaysian demolition contractor on ensuring safe and
proper practices. Hence, to improve safety and health in this demolition industry, the identification on
the availability of safety provisions is a must. In addition, the safety aspects of demolition projects are
found to be rarely researched especially in Malaysia. The literature review and content analysis on the
current documents possess by the safety related authorities form the basis of the study. This research
aimed to identify the availability of the current safety provisions that will allow demolition work to be
conducted on a basis of good practices. This paper is an initial study with the hope that the finding
will leads its way to the establishment of safety indicators to be addressed for demolition work in
Malaysia
Keywords: Demolition work, Malaysian construction and safety provisions
1 INTRODUCTION
Malaysia, a fast developing country with rapid development, has shown tremendous
progress in implementing with new technologies to cater high market demands in achieving Vision
2020. In no time, Malaysia eventually will face a serious land shortage situation particularly in
urban areas to keep up with the future demands and needs for buildings for inhabitation or for
commercial purposes. This is where demolition industry takes place to make way for new buildings
or for redevelopment projects. However the demolition scope of work didn’t stop only for catering
the above matter but also for dangerous or defective buildings or structures where the authorities
think the needs to execute demolition is necessary for the safety of public.
Demolition in Malaysia is not something new but its also not widely performed by
Malaysian contractors as most buildings and structures are relatively new and haven’t reach the
required situation to be demolished. But a few present cases with major demolition project can be
seen like the demolition of 7 blocks of 17 storey buildings and 4 blocks of 4 storey shop houses of
Pekeliling flat in Kuala Lumpur to make way for a new development project (Abdullah et al., 2008)
and the tragic demolition project of JAYA Supermarket in Petaling Jaya, Selangor. Both projects
were situated in a highly condensed population and congested area which brings the main concern
of this paper in finding the existing legislations or provisions regarding safety and health for this
industry.
Most of the demolition practices in Malaysia for the past 20 years had little significance in
the sense that they did not require a strict and specific guidelines or standards regarding safety and
health issues. They relied on the designated person, having a competency to carry out any
259
supervision or inspection based on knowledge and experiences namely, Professional Structure

Engineers registered under the Board of Engineers Malaysia.
DEMOLITION WORK IN MALAYSIA
1.1 The Historical Background
Currently, there is no record regarding the history of demolition work done in Malaysia. The
demolition of building under government jurisdiction, awarded and monitored by Jabatan Kerjaraya
Malaysia (JKR) for example, has been only 10 years or so. Until recently, the area that is having the
most demolition activity is in urban areas particularly in Kuala Lumpur and Selangor where rapid
development can be seen leading to land shortage. The developed areas faced with redevelopment
to keep up with market demand on commercial, industrial and residential buildings. The most
recent demolition project is the Pudu Prison in the heart of Kuala Lumpur (Lim, 2010), despite of
public objections which lead to the controversial erasing of Malaysian heritage building in chasing
of new redevelopment. The same fate faced by Bukit Bintang Girl School, Kuala Lumpur in 2001
and Bok House in Jalan Ampang in 2006 (asianheritagerow, 2006).
In the past, most demolition works involved minor and simple structures with few cases of
fire damaged buildings and dilapidated structures (Abdullah et al., 2008). Today, major buildings
are being demolished including infrastructure such as bridges and highways. The method of
demolition has also improved from hand tools to the advanced use of machineries and tower crane.
But, no sign of explosives been used due to the complicated procedures and no skilled personnel yet
available in Malaysia. Although explosives are considered highly dangerous in Malaysia, but in
future a fair consideration should be made. In most developed countries where advanced technology
and high skilled labours are abundance such as in United State of America, in term of
environmental quality using explosives is considered as the best method for demolishing major
huge buildings.
According to Abdullah et al. (2008) the most preferable choice in practice for demolition
project in Malaysia is by using conventional method. In his report, it was found that a high number
of practitioners having the capability in using machines with mechanical hydraulic attachment,
tower and high reach cranes and a majority of them showed an average capability in conducting
demolition by hand. Until now, there is no record in using special demolition method such as
explosive or special chemical to implode the structures to bringing it down.
In the context of Malaysia, demolition can be defined as “any works incidental to or
connected with the total or partial dismantling or razing of a building or a structure other than
building and includes the removing or dismantling of machinery or other equipments according to
Factories and Machinery Act 1967 (Building Operations and Works of Engineering Construction)
(Safety) Regulation 1986 (FMA). However under the Demolition of Buildings - Code of Practice
(1st Revision) MS 2318: 2010 (P) is demolition defined as “dismantling, razing, destroying or
wrecking any building or structure or any part thereof by pre-planned and controlled method”. The
first definition by FMA 1986, mentioned both total and partial demolition work and concern about
the use of machinery and equipment. But, later definition by MS 2318 shows concern more about
pre-planning and controlling method used. This shows that the introduction of additional provisions
is gearing towards promoting safe good practices among its practitioners.
1.2 Demolition Process and Methods
Demolition process can be divided into three main phases as illustrated in Figure 1 of the
sequential flow of activities involved. Principally, the sequence of demolition is carried out in
reverse order to the construction process. According to Building and Construction Authority
Singapore (2010), there are three principal phases involved in separating and sorting wastes that can
260
be reuse and recycled with non-recyclable items. The first phase is part of building structures with
higher concrete content being demolished (such as concrete parapet walls, etc). Then, to avoid
contamination of clean concrete debris of building bearing structure, the second phase is stripping
of delirious materials (such as bricks, tiles, etc). The last one is gradually demolishing the bearing
and main structure by dismantling part of structures of similar materials to evade contamination of
clean concrete debris and to allow separation of concrete debris from other demolition waste.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Site preparation &
Site Survey Mobilization Decommissioning
Recycling & Reuse Soft stripping
Pre-Demolition Phase
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Waste Mgmt. & Demolition Environmental
Recycling Monitoring
Demolition Phase
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Site Clearance
Post –Demolition Phase
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Figure 1: Activities involved in the Execution of Demolition operations (Abdullah et al.,

2008)
Sources: BS 6187-2000; AS 2601-2001; Code of Practice for Demolition Hong Kong-1998; Code of Practice for
Demolition New Zealand-1994; Lumba Kuda Flats Case Study -2005
According to MS 2318 (2010), there are various methods of demolition available to choose
depends on the project conditions, site constraints, sensitivity of the neighbourhood and availability
of equipment. Table 1 describes the list of methods and its principle to bringing down buildings.
Usually, more than one method is used to demolish a building but current practice in Malaysia
mostly use top down method by both manual and machines. For years, top down methods are being
widely used for most sites, especially in hectic urban areas.
Table 1 Methods of Demolition (MS 2318, 2010)

Methods Activities Operation Applicability
Top down manual with Breaking away the -On a floor by floor -Broad scope of
jack hammer or pneumatic concrete by hand held jack downward sequence application
hammer hammer or pneumatic -Need precautionary -Effective in narrow and
hammer measures for restricted site localized place
Top down by machine Breaking away the -On a floor by floor -Wide range of
percussive breaker structure by machine downward sequence application
mounted percussive break -Adequate floor support -Good mobility
for machine
-Need precautionary
measures for restricted site
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Top down by machine Breaking away the -On a floor by floor -Wide range of
hydraulic crusher structure by machine downward sequence application
mounted hydraulic crusher -Adequate floor support -Good mobility
for machine -Ability to separate steel
-Need precautionary bars and frames
measures for restricted site
Methods Activities Operation Applicability
Hydraulic crusher with Breaking away the -Restrictive entry to work -Wide range of
long boom structure by machine area application
mounted hydraulic crusher -Flat and firm working -Good mobility
With long arm extension ground -Ability to separate steel
-Adequate clear space bars and frames
Wrecking ball Destruction by impact of -Restrictive entry to work -Good efficiency
steel ball suspended from area -Poor application for
a crane -Flat and firm working underground columns and
ground foundations
-Adequate clear space
Implosion Use of explosive -Protection from noise, -Excellent demolition
debris and vibration strength
-Qualified blaster -Could shorten the work
-Notification and period and reduce labor
evacuation of -Risk assessment required
neighbourhood to be continued
-Check and cautiously
handle of misfiring
Mechanical method with Toppling or breaking -Prevent toppling in the -Good efficiency
machinery away structure by large wrong direction and -Poor application for
machinery from outside uncontrolled collapse underground structure
the building -Film working ground
Saw cutting with circular Cutting with circular saw -Solid working platform -Allows precise separation
saw or chain saw or chain saw -Arrangement for hoisting
out
Wire saw cutting Cutting with wire saw -Solid working platform -Allows precise separation
-Arrangement for hoisting -Good for cutting massive
out section structures
-Counter measure to
prevent danger of wire
breaks
Drilling Coring, drilling and -Solid working platform -Allows precise separation
cutting by stitch drilling -Good for cutting massive
structures
Non explosive demolition Expansion pressure from -Good for foundation
agent absorption of CaO or other
chemical reaction
Thermal lance Use of intense heat by -Protection of person and
fusion of metal properties from intensive
heat
Water jet Jetting of water at high -Protection of person and
pressure properties from high
pressure water
262
1.3 Competency in Demolition Work
It can be seen that there are various reasons why safety and health are being neglected in
demolition work. A desk study with CIDB personnel on May 15, 2010 revealed that the registration
of demolition contractor under CIDB was only launched early this year. The requirement to register
as a demolition contractor under CIDB is by presenting the proof of previous demolition project
conducted. To date as for year 2010, only eight demolition contractors are listed under CIDB.
Previously, any general contractor could execute demolition work and until now there is no
requirement in having a special certificate or licence to gauge their competency for embarking as a
demolition works contractor approved by the local authority. Other country practices shows that
demolition is a serious job, and only certified competent persons are being awarded with the
project. Based on Australian ACT WorkCover (2000) for safe demolition work, persons who want
to demolish buildings must have a builder’s licence that authorises demolition work issued by the
ACT Building, Electrical and Plumbing Control (BEPCON).
Incompetence and lack of knowledge to conduct demolition work may leads to accident and
incident occurrences or worst case, fatality. Abdullah et al. (2008) in his report found that the most
likely reason of causes of demolition injuries are unsafe attitude followed by poor site management,
unsafe procedures at the workplace, not wearing proper protective gear, lack of knowledge and
experience and unsafe condition such as hazardous materials and dangerous elevations. He also
found that in terms of agreement of difficulties encountered in health and safety implementation is
care free attitude of workers placed in the first ranking of all. It was followed by poor health and
safety monitoring and enforcement, lack of cooperation between management and workers and
lastly avoidable hazardous conditions at the project site.
1.4 Current Practices by Local Agencies
Local agencies play an important part in ensuring the successfulness of safety provisions
implementation. Each agency should be made mandating the requirement to implement and present
the safety plan before a project can be awarded. A preliminary desk study with JKR personnel
revealed that there is no requirement for complying safety and health provisions. However, Dewan
Bandaraya Kuala Lumpur (DBKL) has drawn a certain safety requirement regarding the erection of
hoarding, appointment of competent engineer to monitor the safety of site during demolition
process, no explosive and huge machinery allowed to avoid noise and public disturbance, dust and
debris management, safety net, wastage management, traffic management and operation time.
Failure to comply with mentioned requirements lead to nullification of the work permit under
Street, Drainage and Building Act 1974. The other local authority like Majlis Bandaraya Petaling
Jaya (MBPJ) also has just recently adopted the MS 2318 in their guideline for building demolition
operation. The guidelines specified the steps in demolition process from application to demolish,
supervising the demolition work and post demolition work process. Every contractor have to
comply with the said guidelines in order to avoid any occurrences of accident and incident while
demolition is in progress.
THE SAFETY PROVISIONS
For the past years, Malaysia has been actively promoting safety and health in construction
industry with the development and improvement of legislations, acts, guidelines and Code of
practice. Safety and health in demolition work also shows positive improvement by the
development of MS 2318:2010 (p) Demolition of Buildings - Code of practice (first revision).
Other provisions which can be traced back as early as 1975 and its current status is illustrated in
Table 1. The question is whether the mentioned safety provisions relevant to the actual demolition
industry practices as it should be? What are the fundamental or essential ingredients that must be
263
taken into serious consideration in order to achieve a satisfactory level of safety and health
practices?
Table 1: Provisions and Status

Provision Date of commencement Status
Code of Practice for Building Operations Code, June 1975 Available
MS 282: Part 1 to 9 : 1975
The Factories and Machinery Act 1967 1st October 1986 Available
(Building Operations and Works of Engineering
Construction) (Safety) Regulation 1986
Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994 24th February 1994 Available
Guidelines for Public Safety and Health in 1994 Available

Construction Site
Demolition of Buildings- Code of Practice (1st 2010 Pending

Revision) MS 2318: 2010 (P)
According to the Council of Australian Government, there are 8 principles for effective
regulation (Lingard & Rowlinson, 2005):
a) It should be kept to the minimum required to achieve desired objectives.
b) It should minimise regulatory impact upon competition.
c) It should, where possible, be focused on outcomes.
d) It should be compatible with the international standards.
e) It should not restrict international trade.
f) It should be regularly reviewed.
g) It should be flexible and capable of amendment.
h) It should seek to standardise bureaucratic discretion (Industry Commission 1995)
The above principals show that the importance of safety and health safety provisions is
about the content having the least burden to its practitioners rather than complicated and confusing.
It must be easy to be understood by practitioners from different level of education and experience.
The following will discuss each of the safety provisions available in Malaysia for demolition work
safe practice. Detailed content of each provision will be explained under the findings and
discussions section.
1.5 Factories and Machineries Act (FMA) 1967 (Building Operations and Works of
Engineering Construction) (Safety) Regulations 1986
The history of Factories and Machinery Act (1986) 1967 can be trace back since 120 years
ago, in the late 19th century, with the first establishment of steam boiler safety (1878) and later
machinery safety (1914). The FMA 1986 gazetted on 1st October 1986 was an act under the FMA
1967 which covers building operations and works of engineering construction. The provisions of
FMA 1986 are supposed to be an addition to and not substitution or lessening any requirements
enforced by or under the FMA 1967.
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1.6 Malaysian Standard 282: Part 1 to 9: 1975 – Code of Practice for Building Operation
Code
This is the first Code of Practice (COP) in Malaysia that has the safe practice provisions for
demolition work (section 1) published under the authority of the Standard Council in June 1975.
This COP covers all aspects of works related to every phase of building operations to achieved
desired standard of safety for every person linked or might be affected by the building industry and
also including the safety of the public. The basic requirements for the operations or procedures are
only applicable to ordinary building construction and not for heavy or specialised types of work
e.g., dam construction, river and revetment works, electric transmission line construction etc. Other
existing legislations are not deliberately to be superseded by this Code.
1.7 Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) 1994 (Act 514) (Reprint 2006)
Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994 (Act 514) became the new legislation on
occupational safety and health after being approved by the Parliament in 1993 and gazetted in
February 1994. OSHA 1994 is an act that provides the legislative framework for almost every
industry in Malaysia after considering the fact that FMA 1967 only covered certain industries in
Malaysia. Although it did not specify detailed safety and health measures need to be followed for
each works/activities involved in the particular industry or organization, this Act is a practical tool
superimpose on existing safety and health legislation. A person or organization is never prosecuted
under Code of Practice or guidelines but they will be prosecuted under OSHA 1994. For example, if
the employee negligently not practices a safe working environment under Code of Practice of
Demolition Building MS 2318, he will be prosecuted under OSHA 1994 under general duties of
employer. OSHA 1994 also overrules or supersedes any previous occupational safety and health
laws. For example, if there is any event of conflict and inconsistency between FMA 1986 and
OSHA 1994, OSHA will supersede the FMA 1986.
1.8 Guidelines for Public Safety and Health at Construction Site (GPSHCS) 1994 (1st
Revision 2007)
This guideline provides a general safety and health provisions for demolition works to serve
as a handy reference to protect general public in that area or pedestrian from hazards associated
with it. The provisions stated shall be reviewed together with other existing legislations and code of
practices, as its aim to help practitioners and workers on site. The guideline has undergone revision
in 2007 to improve the good work practice among all parties at the workplace to prevent accident to
the workers and public. The previous guideline consists of general standard of references on general
provisions, preparatory work and catch platforms for demolition operations. Where else, the current
guideline shows an improvement by having more details about the good practice for demolition
work safety and health. The current provision adds risk assessment study and competency of
designated personnel requirement in general provision. An additional provision has been added
regarding the work during demolition process. It sets out the responsibility of contractor in
providing necessary information related to safety and health to worker and public, following the
demolition sequence and method provided by demolition/structural engineer, ensuring the
compliances of safety and health plan requirement, providing personal protective equipment (PPE)
and lastly adequate steps in managing debris and dust in the workplace.
1.9 Demolition of Buildings – Code of Practice (First Revision) MS 2318: 2010 (P)
This Code of Practice (COP) is the latest Standard for demolition of buildings in Malaysia
based on Hong Kong Code of Practice resulting from a major tragedy that blow up and became
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huge controversy in the Malaysian demolition industry in 2009. Earlier provision or legislation
appeared to be too general and not specific to demolition work. It has been developed by the
technical committee for construction practices under the supervision of Construction Industry
Development Board (CIDB) Malaysia. This COP is adapted to provide guidance on the safe and
good practices for demolition work and for compliance with the requirements of the relevant
provisions by local authorities. However, aspects related to occupational safety and health are not
included and should be referenced to other relevant requirements and regulations. The COP
outlined guidelines applicable to:
a) Buildings demolition work
b) Individual structures
c) Partial demolition of buildings
d) Basements
e) Underground tanks
f) Common civil engineering structures, e.g., silos, industrial plants, piers, etc.
Major civil engineering works are not applicable or covered in this COP, such as
underpinning, excavation, highway or railway bridges, dams and steel or timber structures in
buildings. Regardless of this lacking, it is hope that the new Malaysian Standard can provide or
assist demolition practitioners with more details and appropriate approach to improve safety and
health management.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The literature review on the demolition works and safety provisions form the underlying
foundation of the research. A desk study among key personnel from the local agencies namely
Construction Industry Development Board (CIDB), Department of Occupational Safety & Health
(DOSH), Jabatan Kerjaraya (JKR), DBKL and MBPJ was conducted to explore the current
practices and the availability of existing documents related to safety and health of demolition work
in Malaysia. Content analysis was performed onto the safety related documents of the demolition
works to analyse on the similarities and differences in terms of its provisions.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
Currently, there are five provisions that provide a good practice to ensure the safety and
health in demolition work in Malaysia. The findings revealed that the earliest provisions under
Code of Practice for Building Operations Code MS 282 1975, Part 1 consist of section 1 to 10,
outlined a brief practices of demolition work which later act as a base for other provisions. Later,
the Factories and Machinery Act 1967 (Building Operations and Works of Engineering
Construction) (Safety) Regulation 1986 has been enacted with more provisions to healthy work
environment but still in its simplified manner. The Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA)
1994 were enacted on a self regulatory basis to promote safety culture (Faridah et al, 2010). The
new Act has shifted the legislative framework to self regulation approach based on the philosophy
that “the responsibility to ensure safety and health lies with those who create the risk and those who
work with the risk” (Abu Bakar 1996, cited in Rampal & Nizam 2006).
This is followed by easy and simple Guidelines for Public Safety and Health in Construction
Site 1994 which provide guidance for demolition practitioner to ensure good practices in preventing
accident to the workers and public. The latest and current Code of Practices MS 2318 2010 has
recently been developed based on Code of Practice for Demolition of Building published by
Building Departments of Hong Kong in year 2004. This provisional Malaysian Standard has not
undergone the normal procedures of technical committee’s consideration and public comment due
to urgency circumstances. The standard is currently in its pending status and necessary trial had
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been considered by the Minister before it can be finalised within three years’ of its publication. The
provisions focus on building structures even though according to Abdullah (2008) civil and
infrastructure is one of the most categories of structure being demolished.
The review of the provision shows that a good practice towards improving safety and health
can be divided into five parts. The five main provisions are general duties; planning stage;
precautionary measures; removal of structure; and method of demolition. The first one is the duties
of personnel involve in the demolition work. Under OSHA 1994, specified the general duties of key
personnel involved including employees. However, under FMA 1986 and GPSHCS 2007 are only
briefly explained. All the three provisions highlighted the importance of safety and health
officer/supervisor and committee. However the duties of the client of the project are not mentioned.
Client also holds the responsibility in ensuring the safety of all site personnel and the public
(Anumba et all, 2003).
In the planning stage where only GPSHCS 2007 and MS 2318 indicate the requirement for
Hazard Identification, Risk Assessment, Risk Control (HIRARC), building survey, structural
survey, dilapidation survey and emergency response plan. Incorporating safety and health in
planning stage are crucial before selecting the demolition method suitable for the project and to
remove or minimise risk from work. There are five principles of risk assessment that should be
adhered to when determining methods and sequences of work (GPSHCS, 2007):
a) Identification of the hazards involved with the proposed work;
b) Assessment of risk (likelihood and severity) of any potential harm arising;
c) Removal of risks, possibility by changing the proposed methods or processes;
d) Control of remaining risks;
e) Review and if appropriate, update.
A well established and maintained emergency response plan can easily identify the potential
for accidents and emergency situations, and address the prevention of occupational safety and
health risk associated with them. However this is made according to the size and nature of activity
based on relevant international standard as below (GPSHCS, 2007):
a) Ensure that the necessary information, internal communication and coordination are
provided to protect all people in the event of an emergency at the work site;
b) Provide information and communication with the relevant authorities and the
neighbourhood and the emergency response services;
c) Address first aid, fire fighting and evacuation at construction site;
d) Provide relevant information and training to all members of the organisation, at all levels,
including regular exercise in emergency response.
For the precautionary measures, only OSHA 1994 did not specify the items identified in
other provisions. There are 23 items identified after reviewing the provisions mentioned earlier
namely competent person, weather condition, operation hour, warning sign and light, hoarding,
termination or disconnection of all utility services, scaffolding, screen cover, covered
walkway/sidewalk shed, catch platform, catch fan, temporary support, foundation support, access to
floors, protective personnel equipment (PPE), protection of traffic, protection of property, party
walls and external walls (adjacent structure), removal of hazardous materials or substances, storage
of materials, inspection and site supervision. But, there are three items which are clearly specified
under MS 2318, they are special safety considerations, environmental precautions and debris and
waste handling. However, other provision also briefly specify the items mentioned training and
communication under special safety consideration for GPSHCS 2007 and work involving chute and
opening on floor under debris and waste handling for MS 282 and FMA 1986.
Under special safety consideration, the item has been divided into seven subparts. The
subparts are training and communication, equipment maintenance, electrical safety, fire safety,
occupational health for workers, emergency exit requirements and vibration. Environmental
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precautions which are only specified under MS 2318 concern about air pollution, noise, water and
hazardous material that may be affected by the demolition work. The major concern after post
demolition are debris and waste handling. This item emphasize the means of using chute and
opening on floor, dust minimisation, debris recycling, debris accumulation, debris loading, debris
disposal and management system and waste management.
The removal of structure works outlined the good practice and safety requirement when
demolishing or removing structures. MS 282 and FMA 1986, specified generally the normal
structure demolish by demolition contractor which are walls, floors, composite structures and steel
structures. The MS 2318 specifies special structure that is not been mentioned in other provisions
such as precast concrete structures, pre-stressed concrete structures, statically determinate
structures, composite structures and steel structures, cladding walls, hanging structures, oil storage
facilities, marine structures, underground structures and structures supporting ground or sitting on
slope. In this provision, it underlines the guidelines and precautionary site measures to be use when
the special structures need to be demolished. It also suggests the suitable method and procedures to
be followed in order to prevent any unwanted incidents and injuries.
Only MS 2318 specifies on consideration factors while choosing methods of demolition;
depending on the project conditions, site constraints, sensitivity of the neighbourhood and
availability of equipment. It explains in general the methods, principle and applicability, its
application criteria, concerns and operation and pollution characteristics. Further, MS 282 and FMA
1986 highlight the use of implosion or blasting methods used in demolition work in different
section or part in the provisions.
The previous provisions before MS 2318 were too brief and lack of detailed procedures
when conducting demolition works. The items mentioned were not arranged in a systematic manner
making the provisions more confusing. After reviewing all the provisions available in Malaysia,
surprisingly it did not divide the items according to stages in demolition work starting from pre
demolition work up to post demolition work.
CONCLUSION
This paper highlighted the provisions on the good practice of demolition work in Malaysia
relating to safety and health measures for the personnel involved and public. A thorough content
analysis review of related Acts, Regulations and Code of Practice has been conducted to identify
the availability of current safety provision. The findings show that all provisions did not cover
major civil engineering works, such as underpinning, excavation, highway or railway bridges, dams
and steel or timber structures in building. They only cover building and common civil engineering
structures. OSHA 1994 generally specified the general duties of personnel involved and it did not
cover specifically for any particular industries. Studies have shown that improvement needs to be
done to ensure the provisions effectiveness and compatibility with the demolition industry.
The findings indicated that the earliest provision can be traced back to 1975 under MS 282 for
Building Operation Code that can be considered as an outdated provision and the most recent is MS
2318 which still in pending status. The desk study conducted revealed that there is no requirement
made mandatory to incorporate and comply with the said safety and health provisions. The
responsibility to comply with the safety provisions lies under the employers’ efforts. The efforts of
government in promoting safety and health are creditable but the enforcement of safety and health
requirement is a must in every Local Agencies and stakeholders.
The effectiveness of MS 2318 in our demolition industry should be investigated before it can
be finalised. Hence, this initial finding leads to the establishment of the on-going research areas
currently undertaken by the researcher that needs to be addressed for demolition work in Malaysia.
Effective and efficient law enforcement is particularly vital in ensuring compliance to safety and
health law in the country (Rampal & Nizam, 2006).
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REFERENCES
Act Code of Practice. Safe Demolition Work, Australian Capital Territory, Canberra, Third Revised
Edition 2000.
Abdullah, A., Sohaili, J., Azman, A. and Kassim, M. A. (2008) “A Methodological Analysis of
Demolition Works in Malaysia” Project Report. Faculty of Civil Engineering, University
Technology Malaysia (Unpublished). Retrieved from http://eprints.utm.my/5819/1/78014.pdf
[Accessed 2 Jun 2010]
Anumba, C., Abdullah, A. and Fasseha, T. (2003) “Selection of Demolition Techniques: A Case
Study of the Warren Farm Bridge” Structural Survey, Vol. 21, Issue 1, pp.36-48. doi:
10.1108/02630800310470853
asianheritagerow. (2006, December 24) Saved from Demolition. Retrieved from [Web log article]
http://www.asianheritagerow.com/articles-n9.asp
Building and Construction Authority Singapore. (2010) . Green and Gracious Builder Guide.
Retrieved from http://www.bca.gov.sg/Awards/GGBA/others/GGB_book.pdf
Code of Practice for Building Operations Code, MS 282: Part 1 to 9 : 1975
Demolition of Buildings – Code of Practice (1st Revision) MS 2318 : 2010 (P)
Factories and Machinery Act 1967 (Building Operations and Works of Engineering Construction)
(Safety) Regulation 1986
Faridah, I., Harun, H., Ismail, K., and Abdul Majid, M. Z. (2010) “A Framework of Safety Culture
for the Malaysian Construction Companies: A Methodological Development. Pertanika J.
Soc. Sci. & Hum. 18 (1): pp. 45-54. Universiti Putra Malaysia Press.
Guidelines for Public Safety and Health in Construction Site 1994
Green and Gracious – Builder Guide (2010)
Lim, C.Y. (2010, June 18) Pudu Jail Wall to be Demolished. The Star Online. Retrieved from
http://thestar.com.my/metro/story.asp?file=/2010/6/18/central/6493144&sec=central
Lingard, Helen. and Rowlinson, Steve (2005) Occupational Health and Safety in Construction
Project Management. Spon Press.
Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994
Rampal, K. G. and J. Mohd Amin (2006) “Developing Regulations for Occupational Exposures to
Health Hazards in Malaysia” Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, Vol. 46, pp.131-135.
doi: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2006.01.013
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270
RISK ANALYZE OF FACTORS AFFECTING COST IN CONSTRUCTION

PROJECTS
Peyman Behtash
MSc Candidate, Civil Engineering Construction, Universiti Teknologi MARA
peymanbehtash@gmail.com
Seyedeh Atefeh Asoudeh Khalajani, MSc.
S.a.Asoudeh@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Uncertainty in the cost of construction, due to many factors and conditions that take place in the
execution of project, has converted the construction investment as a riskiness activity. Therefore
knowing this risk and giving some solution to decrease it, can prepare more investor to invest on it
and increase the speed of industry construction. This paper provides the literature review on the
studies carried out to find the essential factors that affect cost of construction projects in different
countries in the world.
Keywords: Construction, Cost performance, Risk, Risk analysis.
1 INTRODUCTION
Uncertainty in the cost of construction, due to many factors and conditions that take place in
the execution of project, has converted the construction investment as a riskiness activity. Therefore
knowing this risk and giving some solution to decrease it, can prepare more investor to invest on it
and increase the speed of industry construction. While risks cannot be eliminated, successful
projects are those where risks are effectively managed, of which early and effective identification
and assessment of risks is essential.
This paper consists of five parts. The first part of this review article focuses on the necessity
of risk analysis in construction industry. The processes of risk management are: 1) Risk
identification 2) Risk classification 3) Risk analysis 4) Risk response. Hence, the second part of this
paper presents the definition of risk for different applications and special meaning of it for
construction projects. The third part reviews the risk classification systems which have been done in
previous researches. The fourth part is a discussion on analysis of risk factors affecting on
construction costs based on previous researches carried out in different countries all over the world
to find the most critical factors which have a major influence on construction costs. Finally in the
last part, the conclusion will present based on findings in previous parts.
NECESSITY OF RISK ANALYSIS IN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY
The construction process is one of the most risky and challenging industries. It has an
inherited risk in all of the processes starting from the conceptual phase of a project, engineering
design, placing the bid and going through scheduling, material procurement, construction, changing
orders and ending with the commissioning, final payment and closing-up of the project. Risk in
construction cannot be eliminated but can be managed once taken. It can be controlled, minimized,
transferred or shared.
The complex characteristics of major construction projects, competitions and the tight
economic situations have created the necessity for predicting the project risks and the need to
improve management support, techniques, and tools for risk management.
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Poor cost performance of construction projects has been a major concern for both
contractors and clients. Despite the large number of reported cases, it seems that construction
ranging from the simplest to more complex projects such as nuclear plants, environmental
restoration, transport systems and oil and gas platforms have increasingly faced cost overruns.
In 1992, a worldwide survey carried out by Cooper reported that the majority of
construction projects fail to achieve the objectives of project in a time period predicted in the
project schedule. As Cooper mentions, on many of these projects a schedule overrun did not seem
probable at the beginning of the project. In another effort in 1992, Laufer and Stukhart, conducted a
study with the help of 40 U.S. construction managers and owners and at the end, it was shown that,
for the scope and design objectives, only 35% of the projects were located in the list of projects
with low uncertainty and the remaining 65% had medium to very high uncertainty at the beginning
of construction. A year later, 1993, a report presented by Laufer and Howell confirmed the previous
result and it proved that approximately 80% of construction projects possessed a high level of
uncertainty at the beginning of construction. The amount of uncertainty in the internal and external
environments of a project is an important factor in determining whether there will be a schedule
overrun.
There is a lack of an accepted method in practices for the purpose of risk assessment and
management among professionals in the construction industry compared with the financial and
health professions. The construction industry also does not seem to recognize, nor accept, that risk
should be addressed formally and given more serious attention. If a method of risk assessment and
management were installed in the construction industry it should be extended into areas such as
engineering design and analysis and life-cycle costs.
To sum up, in the construction industry, paying attention to risk analysis and its
management is essential to ensure completing the project on time, on budget and with a good
quality end product. Although few people deny the importance of assessing the risks in
construction, few managers analyze the risks related to their projects systematically other than by
using intuition and experience.
DEFINITION OF RISK AND RISK ANALYSIS
Risk has different meanings to different people; that is, the concept of risk varies according
to viewpoint, attitudes and experience. Engineers, designers and contractors view risk from the
technological perspective; lenders and developers tend to view it from the economic and financial
side; health professionals, environmentalists, chemical engineers take a safety and environmental
perspective. Risk is therefore generally seen as an abstract concept whose measurement is very
difficult.
Risk analysis is an intermediate step between risk identification and risk response that
incorporates uncertainty using both qualitative and quantitative methods in order to estimate the
potential impact of risks. Once the risks of a project have been identified and analysed, appropriate
risk response strategies must be adopted to cope with the risks in the project implementation.
The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, 1995, defines risk as the: ‘‘chance of failure or
the possibility of meeting danger or of suffering harm or loss’’. In construction projects, risk may
be defined as the likelihood of a detrimental event occurring to the project. Since the objectives of
construction projects are usually stated as targets established for function, cost, time and quality, the
most important risks in construction are the failure to meet these targets. However, risks are not
always associated with negative outcomes. Risks may represent opportunities as well, but the fact
that most risks usually have negative outcomes has led individuals to consider only their negative
side.
Risk is perceived as ‘the potential for unwanted or negative consequences of an event or
activity’, a combination of hazard and exposure. Recent research tends to emphasize the two-edged
nature of risks, such as ‘a threat and a challenge’, ‘the chance of something happening that will
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have an impact on objectives; may have a positive or negative impact’, ‘combination of the
probability or frequency of occurrence of a defined threat or opportunity and the magnitude of the
consequences of the occurrence’. This paper examines mainly the negative impacts of risks inherent
in construction projects through a combined consideration of the likelihood of occurrence and the
magnitude of consequence.
The following are some of other definitions referring to risk in construction projects:
i) Eriksson, 1979, defines risk in construction as: “Exposure to possible economic loss
or gain arising from involvement in the construction process.”
ii) Jaafari and Schub, 1987, define risk as: “The presence of potential or actual
construction that could stand in the way of project performance causing partial or
complete failure either during construction and commissioning or at the time of
utilization”.
iii) Albahar and Crandall, 1990, define risk as: “the exposure to the chance of
occurrence of events adversely or favourably affecting project objectives as a
consequence of uncertainty”.
iv) Kähkonen and Huovlla, 1999, define systematic project risk management as
“advanced preparation and decision making for minimizing the consequences of
possible adverse future events and, on the contrary, to maximize the benefits of
positive future events”.
v) International Risk Management Institute, Inc. IRMI (1995) defines risk management
as “the process of identifying and analyzing risk, determining the most appropriate
techniques for handling those risks, implementing the techniques, and monitoring the
results. It differs from the old approach to managing these risks, frequently called
insurance management, in that it recognizes that there are alternative techniques for
handling these risks, that insurance is frequently the most expensive of all the
available techniques, and that insurance should be used only as a last resort”.
However, the actual term "risk analysis" first originated with Hertz. He proposed simulation
by utilizing the computer to derive the probability distribution of the rate of return of an investment
project.
Risk analysis is an integral part of the risk management system or program. It gives an
insight into what happens if the project does not proceed according to plan. There are many theories
that can be utilized to analyze risks including a decision tree, decision tables, utility theory, game
theory, simulations and an AHP model. But, no matter how good the analytical techniques, it is the
application and interpretations of results by the professional that determines the success of the
system.
TAXONOMY OF RISKS
Several studies have been conducted to identify the risk categories and to allocate the parties
responsible for each category, whether it is the owner, contractor or shared between the two parties.
Strassman and Wells, 1988, have identified several risk factors associated with construction. From a
client’s perspective, these risks are:
i) Costs will escalate unpredictably
ii) Structure will be faulty and need frequent repairs
iii) The project will simply be abandoned and partially paid for but incomplete and
useless.
Similarly, from a contractor’s point of view the risk factors are:

i) Fears of inclement weather
ii) Delays in site availability
iii) Unforeseen subsoil conditions
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iv) Inadequate detail drawings

v) Late material deliveries
vi) Unanticipated price changes
vii) Faulty subcontracting
viii) Unproductive labour and strikes.
Al Bahar and Crrandal, 1990, propose classification of risks that classifies the potential risks
according to their nature and potential consequences. Their classification scheme is composed of
six categories. They are:
i) Acts of God
ii) Physical
iii) Financial and economics
iv) Political and environmental
v) Design
vi) Construction related risks.
Based on research done by Daniel Baloi and Andrew D.F. Price in 2003, Risk factors
affecting cost performance are classified as Organisation-specific, Global and Acts of God. These
risk categories can be broken down to achieve a more detailed and comprehensive picture.
Organisation-specific risks are internal risks related to an organisation’s resources and
management. Organisation specific risks include factors that are considered to be under contractor’s
control, for example risks related to labour skills and availability, materials delivery and quality,
equipment reliability and availability, and management efficiency. In principle, contractors are
solely responsible for managing these risks.
Global risk, on the other hand, refers to risks factors that are not directly present in cost
estimates yet they may lead to significant financial disasters. Global risks are called so because they
transcend the boundaries of the organisation yet they have large impact on it. Contractors have less
control over these risk factors and contracts should provide fair and sensible allocation of these
risks between the parties. However, in practice, contractors in developing countries have to bear
most of construction risks.
The unique and main groups of global risks factors, identified from the extensive literature
search and preliminary discussions with construction contractors, include economic, political,
design, level of competition, fraudulent practices and construction-specific risk. Several authors,
such as Jahren and Ashe, Ashley and Bonner, and Akinci and Fisher have highlighted the
importance of these risk factors.
Acts of God represent risks with extremely low probability of occurrence, but can have huge
negative impacts on projects if they occur. This category of risk come under force majeure under
the terms of contract and includes events such as heavy floods, landslide, earthquake and
hurricanes. These risks are excusable and generally insurable but non-compostable risks.
Another study by the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) was made in 1979 to
identify risk and the allocation of each risk category. In a risk identification and allocation survey of
the top 100 large USA construction contractors by Kangary, R., respondents were asked to identify
the importance of risks associated with construction from the owner’s and the contractor’s
perspective. Also, they were asked to place these risks into three allocations. Allocated to the
owner, construction contractor, or shared between the two parties. A similar survey conducted by
ASCE in 1979 showed that contractors were less willing to assume risks that are related to
contractual and legal problems in the form of risk sharing with the owner.
In a word, many ways can be used to classify the risks associated with construction projects
and the rationale for choosing a method must serve the purpose of the research.
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ANALYSIS OF RISK FACTORS AFFECTING CONSTRUCTION COSTS
Construction organisations operate within an environment and not a vacuum. They are
inevitably influenced by and constantly interacting with their environment. As such, construction
organisations and, consequently construction projects, are open systems rather than closed systems.
Construction organisations’ efficiency and effectiveness largely depend upon how managers
scan the external project environment, identify the critical factors and accordingly adapt their
organisations. The project environment can be subdivided as follows:
-Inner layer or internal environment;
-Operational environment; and
-Outer layer or general environment.
Measuring the performance of any construction project in terms of success or failure though
looks simple, is in fact a very complex process. Modern construction projects even moderate in size
are generally multidisciplinary in nature and they involve participation of designers, contractors,
subcontractors, specialists, construction managers, and consultants. With the increasing size of the
project, number of participants in the project also increases.
However, in the present paper only the factors affecting cost compliance criteria have been
discussed. The cost performance of a single project is often in terms of cost growth, i.e. the
percentage difference between the final contract amount and the contract award amount.
The factors affecting cost performance of construction projects seem to be well appreciated
in the literature; however, there are some gaps. Mulholland and Christian asserted that there was a
lack of an accepted method of risk assessment and management in the construction industry. More
often than not construction contractors and other practitioners rely on assumptions, rules of thumb,
experience and intuitive judgement which cannot be fully described by prescriptive or normative
models. Individual knowledge and experience, however, need to be accumulated and structured to
facilitate the analysis and retrieval by others.
There is thus a need to combine both prescriptive and behavioural models in the modelling,
assessment and management of risks since construction contractors do not only rely on prescriptive
models to make decisions but they also make an extensive use of experience, rules of thumb and
intuitive judgement.
K.C. Iyer performed a survey in 2005 in which he determined 55 factors as project
success/project failure attributes in India. In the further step, he investigated the impact of the above
mentioned factors on project outcome.
According to the result of his research, the important success attributes are: effective
monitoring and feedback by the project manager and project team members; coordinating ability
and rapport of PM with top management; positive attitude of PM, and project participants; and
Project manager’s technical capability. The important failure attributes are poor human resource
management and labour strike; negative attitude of PM and project participants; inadequate project
formulation in the beginning; vested interest of client representative in not getting the project
completed in time; and conflicts between PM and top management. There is high agreement in the
ranking of critical failure attributes by the two groups of respondents viz. contractors and owners.
Factor analysis of responses on the project attributes has extracted critical success and
failure factors. Project managers competence; top management support; project managers
coordinating and leadership skill; top management and owner involvement in the project;
Interaction between project participants, monitoring and feedback by project participants; owners
competence and favourable climatic condition are the seven critical success factors. Similarly
critical failure factors extracted are: conflict among project participants; ignorance and lack of
knowledge; indecisiveness; hostile socio economic and climatic condition; reluctance in timely
decision; aggressive competition at tender stage; short bid preparation time.
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Identification of critical success as well as failure attributes and factors by this study also
leads one to realise that it is not sufficient to only maximise the results of the critical success factors
but it is also necessary to minimise the negative impact of failure factors.
The most important factor among all success and failure factors turns out to be coordination
among project participants which is obtained from the results of regression analysis. Skills like
proper interaction and coordination need to be taken up through suitable training programmes of
project participants. Having regular meetings among the project participants and developing a
rapport among themselves can also improve these skills. With the increasing project size and
increase in number of project participants this particular factor becomes all the more important.
As can be seen from the result obtained from research carried out by K.C. Iyer in 2005 in
India, the success factors determined in his research are consistent with the findings in the context
of developed countries. Thus the study concludes that the critical success factor remains the same
irrespective of geographical boundaries.
Okpala and Aniekwu, in 1988, argued that delay and cost overruns could be reduced
through the increase of human efficiency. In addition, they identified price fluctuations, fraudulent
practices and ‘kickbacks’ as the major factors of poor cost performance in construction projects in
Nigeria. Further, researches by Jahren and Ashe in 1990 and Elinwa and Bubain in 1993, found
similar variables as the most influencing factors of project cost overruns.
Kaming studied factors influencing construction time and cost overruns on high-rise
projects in Indonesia and concluded that inflation, inaccurate estimates, project complexity, weather
conditions, project location and local regulation were the main contributors.
As stated by Ofori, the ‘‘structural problems of construction industry in developing
countries are more fundamental, more serious, more complex, and, overall, much more pressing
than those confronting their counterparts elsewhere’’. Common problems affecting construction
industry in developing countries include lack of management skills, shortage of skilled labour, low
productivity, shortage of supplies, bad quality of supplies and lack of equipment. Apart from
technical issues, management-related problems are one of the most important aspects facing
construction contractors since they have to deal with substantial constraints such as incomplete
information, unpredictable client behaviour, and uncertain project circumstances.
In another research work, major risk factors affecting cost performance were identified
through an extensive literature review complemented by a workshop with construction contractors
in Mozambique.
A questionnaire survey was conducted at a later date to confirm the factors identified earlier
and to determine the most critical. The findings of the questionnaire formed the basis for structured
interviews using the Repertory Grid technique to elicit relevant knowledge so as to develop a
knowledge based decision support system.
Findings of the above mentioned research shows that various factors significantly influence
construction costs from the estimating stage to project completion. Some factors are intrinsically
related to construction organisations which are solely responsible for managing them, whereas
others are closely related to the socio-cultural, economic, technological and political environments
within which such organisations operate. The latter are usually called global risk factors. As a
principle, contractors are not normally responsible for risk factors outside their control and
traditional forms of contracts should provide a fair and sensible allocation of risks between the
various parties.
However, contractors in developing countries often have to bear most of the construction
risks including those for which they have little control. Unfortunately, many contractors are
unfamiliar with these risk factors and do not have the experience and knowledge to manage them
effectively.
As a consequence, conflicts, poor quality, late completion, poor cost performance and
business failures are commonplace in the construction industry.
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Ali A. Al-Salman selected twenty five important risk categories to compose the survey
questionnaire for his research on assessment of risk management insight and practice of
construction contractors in Saudi Arabia toward construction risks. They have either direct or
indirect effect on the project budget, schedule, safety and quality of the project and need to be
carefully looked at in the assessments of risks management of construction projects. These
categories are:
1. Permits and Regulations
2. Site Access
3. Scope Limitation and Work Definition
4. Labour, Material and Equipment Availability
5. Labour and Equipment Productivity
6. Defective Design
7. Changes in Work
8. Differing Site Condition
9. Adverse weather conditions
10. Acts of God
11. Defective material
12. Changes in government regulations
13. Labour dispute
14. Safety / Accidents
15. Inflation
16. Contractor competence
17. Change-order negotiations
18. Third party delays
19. Coordination with subcontractors
20. Delayed dispute resolution
21. Delayed payment on contract
22. Quality of work
23. Financial failure
24. Actual quantities of work
25. Accuracy of project program
Finally, it shows that six risk categories are fully allocated to contractors. These risk categories are:
1. Labour, material and equipment availability
2. Labour, material and equipment productivity
3. Labour disputes
4. Safety / accidents
6. Accuracy of project program
Ali A. Al-Salman concluded that from we can see that there are two risk categories: Labour
and equipment productivity and labour disputes are consistently and fully allocated to the contractor
(both in practice and in the contractor’s opinion). Also, we can see that no respondent allocated the
following risk categories to the owner (both in practice and perception):
1. Safety / accidents
3. Delayed dispute resolution
4. Quality of work.
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CONCLUSION
Results of studies reviewed and discussed in this paper approve that the following
conclusions can be reached:
Whilst risk management technique is a relatively new issue in the construction industry
worldwide, it is a new concept to the construction contractors in many developing countries.
Based on research carried out for Indian construction projects, the most important factor
among all success and failure factors turns out to be coordination among project participants which
is obtained from the results of regression analysis.
Moreover, according to research carried out for construction projects in Saudi Arabia, quality
of work is the most important risk while an adverse weather condition is the least important risk
which means that despite of general agreement about negative effects of whether on projects, it has
a little impact on success or failure of a project .
There are also other researches in different countries which introduce us other effective
factors in this field such as;
-Inflation, inaccurate estimates, project complexity, weather conditions, project location and
local regulation in Indonesia.
-Price fluctuations, fraudulent practices and ‘kickbacks’ as the major factors of poor cost
performance in construction projects in Nigeria.
-Socio-cultural, economic, technological and political environments within which such
organisations operate (known as global risk factors) in Mozambique.
To sum up, in this paper, several factors affecting cost performance in construction projects
were presented and it was shown that effective factors may vary based on geographical location on
which project is running and also the amount of development happened in that area. Therefore,
authors of this paper suggest that to have a better understanding about important attributes in
construction project budgeting, which leads to a better and more successful risk management, the
appropriate data should be gained from local construction companies and managers should use their
own information and experience and then analysis these data using appropriate computer software
and programmes.
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280
APPLICATION OF INDUSTRIALISED BUILDING SYSTEM (IBS) IN

MALAYSIA: BARRIERS AND IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGIES
Suzana C. Ali, BQS.

Undergraduate Student, Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Malaysia
ca_suzana@yahoo.com
Prof. Dr. Christopher Preece, PhD.
c_preece@yahoo.co.uk
ABSTRACT
This paper outlines on-going research into the development of the Industrialised Building System
(IBS) in Malaysia. The aim is to propose a number of key implementation strategies that could help
the Government in its effort in promoting the usage of IBS in the construction industry. Despite the
system’s numerous benefits and the Government’s promotional campaigns, there has been limited
take-up of IBS. This research has used exploratory in-depth interviews with a range of stakeholders
including the Malaysian government, through CIDB, and several contractors, to identify the current
state of IBS application in the construction sector, to analyse the barriers to its usage and to develop
practical strategies for implementation that could be useful in addressing the problem of slow IBS
adoption. The development of IBS is hindered by many factors which include the readiness issue, low
investment in research and development (R&D), IT and technology, the monopoly issue, lack of
knowledge among industry players, negative perceptions of the system and a lack of motivation in the
cost aspects. Some of the practical strategies recommended in this research paper include the need to
improve R&D and IT in construction, to encourage more IBS manufacturers into the market, to
demonstrate the benefits of the system through case studies and to have strict enforcement on the
policies set for IBS implementation. It is hoped that the findings from this research will act as a
reference for the Government in promoting IBS and for further studies to be conducted in areas
related to the application of the system in Malaysia.
Keywords: Industrialised Building System (IBS), Barriers, Implementation strategies, Malaysia
1 INTRODUCTION
IBS can be defined as a construction technique in which components are manufactured in a

controlled environment (on or off site), transported, positioned and assembled into a structure with
minimal additional site works (CIDB, 2003). It is an opposite of the conventional method where
components are constructed on-site and subject to many drawbacks such as questionable quality,
productivity, safety and excessive reliance on unskilled workers (IBS Roadmap, 2003).
Nowadays, IBS is fast becoming the most preferred modern method of construction, mainly
due to the extensive benefits that this system could offer (Hassim et.al, 2009). IBS allows building
components to be prefabricated in factories under controlled environment which ensures high
quality of product and speeds up delivery process (Harvey & Ashworth, 1997). Moreover, the use
of IBS reduces site workers, on-site materials and wastages (Sarja, 1998) which will ultimately lead
to the reduction of overall construction costs (Shahrul, 2006).
In order to improve the image of the construction sector which has always been associated
with the 3D's problem; dirty, dangerous, difficult; the Malaysian Government had introduced the
usage IBS with the hope to elevate the industry to become par excellence with that of other
developed and developing countries (IBS Roadmap, 2003). However, having been introduced for
over 40 years, the application of IBS in this country is still very low (Kamarul et al., 2009). Hence,
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this research seeks to identify the barriers to IBS usage in Malaysia to discover the root cause to the
problem of low IBS adoption in this country.
2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
In the IBS Roadmap 2003-2010, the Government had set an aim of reaching a 70% usage of
the IBS in the total building projects in the country by the year 2008. Since then, the Government
has made endless efforts in promoting IBS as an alternative to the conventional system practiced in
Malaysia. However, despite the promotional efforts done by the government, the application of IBS
in building projects in the country is still very low (Kamarul et al, 2009).
According to a study in the IBS Roadmap Review (2006), the percentage of completed
projects using more than 70% of IBS components are only in the range of 10%. Moreover, it was
reported that in 2007, the number of projects that are using at least one IBS components are less
than one-third of the total construction projects in the country (IBS Roadmap Review, 2007). In
October 2008, the Government had issued a Treasury Circular which emphasised on the application
of IBS where a minimum of 70% usage of the system is required in all Government building
projects (Ministry of Finance Malaysia, 2008).
Nevertheless, the problem of limited IBS take up in Malaysia remains unsolved with the
percentage of IBS usage in Government building projects is still far too low than the target set in
the IBS Roadmap (Kamarul et al, 2009). Hence, this has triggered the need of a thorough study to
be conducted in order to identify the barriers to the implementation of IBS in Malaysia so that
useful strategies on how to increase the implementation of the system can be developed.
3 OVERVIEW ON THE BARRIERS TO IBS IMPLEMENTATION
According to Hamid et al. (2008), the main reason IBS fails to gain encouraging response
from most industry stakeholders is mainly due to the readiness issue; that the construction sector of
Malaysia is yet unprepared to accept new change in the industry. Due to the industry’s lacking in
various aspects such as low R&D, low IT adoption and limited technology availability, the usage of
IBS is not that encouraging (Rahman & Omar, 2006).
Besides, lack of knowledge and awareness on the concept of IBS among the various
industry players is also being identified as one of the major barriers to IBS implementation
(Kamarul et al., 2007). Limited knowledge on IBS hindered the progress of the system in the
construction sector since it result in a lengthy design process and prolonged design approval. Also,
clients’ needs cannot be properly achieved since the concept of IBS is not fully understood thus
causing clients to have limited interests on IBS construction (Rahman & Omar, 2006).
Another barrier to IBS implementation is the cost issues, where most contractors find it
more preferable to use the conventional construction method since shifting to the modern
industrialised building system is not motivated by cost factors (Kamarul et al., 2007). Moreover,
small contracting firms find it difficult to adopt IBS since these firms normally have lack financial
backup and setting up manufacturing plants for IBS components will require intensive capital
investment. Therefore, financial issue becomes the main obstacle for small contractors to find their
way forward with IBS (Rahman & Omar, 2006).
In addition, in countries where labour force can be obtained in such low cost, the use of IBS
as an alternative to the labour-intensive conventional method is not that encouraging (Sarja, 1998).
Apparently, the low labour cost in Malaysia is the root cause of the problem of limited IBS usage in
the industry. Most contractors prefer the conventional method since foreign labours can be easily
employed and their wages are normally low (Kamarul et al. 2009).
Apart from that, the concept of IBS is often viewed in a negative way by industry
stakeholders, mainly due to past failures and unattractive architecture (Rahman & Omar, 2006).
Problems associated with IBS construction among others include leakages, weak joints, issues of
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abandoned projects, unpleasant architectural appearances and monotonous end products (Shahrul,
2006). Besides, due to negative perception, IBS is not a popular choice among design consultants
since most of them find IBS limiting their creativity in design process and therefore made them
reluctant to implement the system into their design (Hamid et al. 2008).
For the purpose of this study, qualitative research is used, since the researchers need to get
an in-depth study on the topic of this research, focusing on getting information and experience from
construction practitioners. This research will be conducted by means of literature review as
secondary data source and one-to-one/personal interview as primary data source. In the earlier part
of this paper, the researchers provide literature review which defines the concept of IBS, its benefits
and significance as well as its current state of application in Malaysia. Also, based on previous
studies, barriers to IBS implementation were analyzed which will then be verified through primary
data collection
In order to find out the barriers to IBS application in Malaysia, how they affect the current
usage of the system and ways to overcome such barriers, personal interviews were conducted
among contractors; both who have and have not been involved with IBS construction in order to
obtain fair results. For the purpose of this research, six (6) contractors located around KL and
Selangor area were selected as the target sample. 3 out of 6 were IBS contractors who are actively
involved with IBS construction. The other 2 are contractors who undertake both IBS and
conventional construction while the remaining contractor has never involved in any IBS project.
The interviewees for this research were considered a convenience sample rather than
representative, considering that the target sample is too small to represent the whole industry
players. Nevertheless, based on their experience and since all interviewed contractors are under the
G7 category, the researchers believed that any information or feedback obtained from the interview
would be reliable for the purpose of this research. The backgrounds of interviewees are shown in
Table 1.
The purpose of conducting the interviews was to get feedbacks from the contractors on the
barriers to IBS implementation in Malaysia through which the researchers were able to verify which
of the barriers stated in the literature are still relevant nowadays and which ones are no longer
applicable. Apart from that, the researchers intended to find out the contractors’ opinion on the
readiness of the industry to adopt IBS and their preferred incentives form the Government to help
increase IBS usage in construction.
There were several limitations to the research process which might have influenced or
affected the overall outcome of this research. Due to the nature of the construction industry which is
not research-oriented, the researchers were having difficulties in getting appointment with
contractors who some were very reluctant to be interviewed. Moreover, considering that the
researchers had only managed to interview six (6) contractors, they can only be regarded as a
convenience sample and the findings from this research is not representative to all industry players.
Finally, due to time constraint, the process of data collection cannot be conducted properly. Should
there be more time allocated for this research, the researchers believe that the data will be more
comprehensive and that larger samples can be obtained through the interviews which can then be
representatives for all the stakeholders within the industry.
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Table 1: Background of Interviewees

Companies Categories Persons Interviewed Experience in IBS
A G7 Deputy Senior Manager; IBS Contractor
Head, Procurement Division
B G7 Project Manager, Development & IBS Contractor
Construction Division
C G7 Project Manager IBS Contractor
D G7 General Manager Combination of IBS and
conventional
E G7 Director Combination of IBS and
conventional
F G7 Executive Chairman Never involved in IBS
5 RESULTS
In this section, the overall results of the interviews among contractors are presented and
analysed. To facilitate the presentation of data, all findings are tabulated.
The results obtained from the primary data are presented in three different tables. Table 2
shows the results obtained on the barriers to IBS usage while the subsequent Table 3 presents the
findings on contractors' preferred incentives to increase their interests in implementing the system.
Table 4 presents the contractors' views on the readiness of the industry to adopt IBS.
Table 2: Barriers to IBS implementation in Malaysia

Barriers A B C D E F
High initial costs / / / / / /
Market control by suppliers / / / / /
Limited knowledge on IBS / /
Lack of R&D / / /
Higher construction costs / / / /
Monopoly by large contracting firms / / /
Foreign labours are easy to get / /
Lack of integration between designers, manufacturers and /
contractors
Lack of understanding among designers and consultants / /
Negative perception on IBS /
Contractors' reluctance to try new method /
As shown in Table 2, all contractors believe that high initial cost is one of the barriers to IBS
implementation. 5 out of 6 contractors are positive that market control by suppliers hindered the
take-up of IBS in Malaysia. 4 out of 6 contractors stated that higher construction costs also leads to
slow IBS development whereas 3 out of 6 contractors believe that barriers to IBS include, lack of
R&D and monopoly by large contracting firms.
2 out of 6 contractors stated that IBS implementation is hurdled by the limited knowledge on
the system, lack of understanding among designers and consultants and the availability of labour
force in this country which is cheap and easy to obtain. Other barriers to IBS as stated by one
contractor each include lack of integrity between designers, manufacturers and contractors; negative
perception on IBS and the reluctance of contractors to try new method.
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Table 3: Contractors’ Preferred Incentives from Government
Preferred Incentives A B C D E F
Tax incentives / /
Levy exemption
Subsidies/loans to set up factories / / /
Awards / / / /
Subsidies for machineries and moulds / /
As shown in Table 3 above, 4 out of 6 contractors are interested in awards or grading for IBS
projects and 3 out of 6 preferred subsidies or loans for setting up of IBS factories. 2 out of 6
contractors stated that Government should offer more tax incentives and provide subsidies for
machineries and moulds used to manufacture IBS components. However, none of them are
interested in levy exemption.
Table 4: Readiness of the industry to adopt IBS
Readiness Issue A B C D E F
Is the industry ready to No No No Not entirely Yes Not entirely

adopt IBS as an
alternative to
conventional method?
As shown in Table 4, 3 out of 6 contractors believe that the Malaysian construction industry
is not ready to shift from conventional construction to IBS. On the other hand, 1 contractor believes
that the industry is ready to adopt IBS while the remaining 2 stated that the industry is not entirely
ready to adopt the system in construction.
6 ANALYSIS
6.1 Analysis on Barriers to IBS in Malaysia
The progress of IBS in Malaysia is hurdled by many factors. From the findings obtained from
the study, it was found that the most significant barrier to IBS is that it requires high initial
investment thus making it a less preferred choice among contractors. Besides, the system increases
overall construction costs and this limits contractors’ interests as they will normally prefer using a
method that is more economical considering that their main objective is to maximise profit. This
results in them choosing to use the conventional method instead of IBS.
Moreover, the application of the system is hindered by the monopoly of manufacturers and
large contracting firms. In Malaysia, there are limited numbers of IBS manufacturers and this
leads to market control, resulting in higher price of IBS components. Besides, since IBS requires
high investment, the involvement of small contracting firms is limited since they lack the capacity
to undertake IBS projects. Thus, due to this monopoly issues, the usage of IBS becomes less
preferable and the demand for IBS construction subsided gradually.
Apart from that, limited knowledge on IBS among industry stakeholders is also a barrier
for the system’s implementation. Clients who lack understanding on the system might not be
interested in applying it and designers with limited knowledge on IBS might find it difficult to
produce drawings according to the concept of IBS. In addition, contractors’ lack of awareness on
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the system often results in errors during construction such as problems in jointing and leakages
which reduce their interests in implementing the system.
Other barriers to IBS that were identified from the research findings are the lack of integrity
between designers, contractors and manufacturers which cause poor implementation of the
system and often lead to mismatch between design and manufactured products. Moreover, due to
the availability of labour force in the Malaysian market, contractors find it less attractive to shift
from conventional method to IBS since there is no immediate need for them to adopt IBS
considering that the supply of labours is cheap and easily obtainable.
6.2 Analysis on Contractors' Preferred Incentives
Most contractors are interested in getting awards or grading for IBS projects since they
believe that such things will help build their companies’ image and reputation and will increase
their opportunities in obtaining contracts for future IBS projects. On the other hand, 3 of the
contractors prefer subsidies or loans to set up IBS factories since they believe that the main reason
why most contractors are not involved in IBS is due to the high costs required to set up their own
IBS factories.
Some of them believe that the Government should offer more tax incentives to increase
contractors’ interests on IBS and provide subsidies for machineries and moulds used to manufacture
IBS components to lessen the contractors’ financial burden in undertaking IBS projects. However,
none of the interviewed contractors are interested in levy exemption since according to them, the
current levy imposed by CIDB which is 0.125% is already very low thus making the offer less
attractive.
6.3 Analysis on Readiness to Adopt IBS
Most of the interviewed contractors believe that the construction industry is not yet ready to
adopt IBS as an alternative to the conventional method. This is because, in order to fully adopt IBS,
there are many areas which the industry needs to develop prior to introducing IBS such as R&D, the
use of IT in construction as well as building and construction technology.
On the other hand, some of the contractors stated that despite the fact that the industry is not
entirely ready to shift from conventional method to IBS, there is a need to introduce IBS to
encourage innovation in construction so that the industry is able to compete with other developed
and developing nations. According to them, development and changes in the construction industry
could take place along with the development of IBS in this country.
7 RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the research findings, the researchers present several recommendations for the
government which might help to promote the usage of IBS in the construction industry of Malaysia.
The recommendations are as follows:
7.1 Ensure readiness of the industry to adopt new, innovative system
Based on the research findings, the most important step that the government should take to
increase IBS implementation is to ensure readiness of the industry to shift from conventional
construction towards industrialisation. In doing so, the government will need to have some re-
structuring and improvement on certain areas such as improving the research and development
efforts on IBS as well as to re-structure promotional programmes for the system to be more
comprehensive and attractive to all stakeholders.
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Through awareness programmes and R&D, the Government will be able to supply industry
players with the latest information on IBS thus eliminating the barrier on lack of understanding on
the system. However, awareness programmes on IBS should not only focus on promoting the
system's usage but should also focus on providing thorough understanding on the concept of IBS to
all stakeholders. Besides, the role of R&D in the development of IBS is vital and collaboration with
universities should be encouraged to increase research activities on IBS.
7.2 Provide subsidies for manufacturers who intend to set up IBS factories
In order to overcome the problem of limited manufacturers which has become a major
barrier to IBS implementation, the government should provide financial support by offering
subsidies to manufacturers who intend to set up their own IBS factories. Due to the small numbers
of manufacturers available in this country, cost control and monopoly issue limits the interests of
contractors to be involved in IBS construction. Hence, by encouraging more manufacturers to enter
the market, there is huge possibility for the system to be more accepted.
Moreover, government should encourage banks and financial institutions to provide loans for
IBS contractors who intend to set up factories for the manufacturing of IBS components. Besides,
interests rates on loans provided to IBS manufacturers should be reduced in order to attract more
manufacturers to enter the market. Apart from financial support, training programmes should be
conducted for contractors who intend to be IBS manufacturers in order to solve the issue of limited
IBS suppliers in this country.
7.3 Conduct case study on IBS
Another important strategy to consider in promoting the usage of IBS is to have a case study
conducted to demonstrate the advantages of IBS to the stakeholders, especially to highlight the
economic aspects of IBS. Through the case study, government could demonstrate how IBS is a
better construction technique compared to the conventional system in terms of quality assurance,
faster completion, environmental-friendly construction and less labour-oriented.
Based on the research findings, one of the reasons why IBS fail to attract industry players is
due to the lack of exposure on the benefits of the system, that most stakeholders are not able to
appreciate the advantages that IBS could offer, especially in terms of cost. Hence, through
conducting a case study, the government could highlight aspects on the building process in which
cost savings can be achieved and this might increase the confidence of the construction practitioners
in adopting IBS.
7.4 Introduce IBS as a solution for the 3D’s problem; dirty, dangerous, difficult
With the current image of construction industry which is often associated to being dirty,
dangerous and difficult, there will be a need for a system approach that could offer solutions to all
the problems facing the conventional construction nowadays. Hence, this provides opportunities for
the government to re-introduce IBS as a solution for the 3D problems in construction mainly
because the system allows off-site production of building components which will ultimately reduce
the problems related to on-site works.
7.5 Strict enforcement on Government policies
If the government is really looking forward to shift the industry towards IBS, then there is a
need for strict enforcement on the policies related to IBS implementation. To make certain that all
industry players are adhering to the policy set by the government which requires at least 70% of
IBS usage in all government building projects, the government through its agencies like CIDB need
287
to conduct strict monitoring on the implementation of the system to reflect the seriousness of the
government in increasing the usage of IBS in construction.
Through strict enforcement, contractors will not be able to counter-propose IBS with
conventional and this will ultimately lead to the increase in the level of IBS implementation in this
country. Moreover, if the government is setting up policies that require certain percentage of usage
of IBS, construction practitioners will have no choice but to adhere to such policies and as a result,
the usage of IBS will increase.
8 CONCLUSIONS
As an alternative to the conventional method, IBS features potential construction system for
the future with emphasis on quality, higher productivity and less labour intensive. The use of IBS
significantly reduces overall construction time, ensures higher quality of end-product, reduces on-
site labours, materials and wastages and reduces overall construction costs. Thus, due to the many
advantages that this system is capable of offering, many countries have attempted to shift from the
labour-intensive conventional method to IBS.
The Malaysian Government took the first step towards introducing IBS through the
launching of the first two IBS pilot projects in 1964. Since then, countless efforts are done to
promote the usage of the system in this country. Regulations are set to ensure that the system is
being well-applied into construction which include the issuance of a Treasury Circular in October
2008, requiring the system to be applied in all Government building projects.
However, having been introduced for over 40 years, the use of IBS in Malaysia is still very
low than what the Government had anticipated, mainly due to the many barriers facing the system's
implementation. Lack of motivation in cost factor, price control by manufacturers, monopoly
issues, lack of knowledge and awareness, lack of integration and the issues on foreign labours are
among the barriers identified by the researchers through the primary data obtained from this
research.
Hence, in order to increase the level of implementation for IBS, the Government and its
various agencies need to take immediate action to overcome the barriers for the system's usage.
Among the strategies recommended in this research are to increase awareness and R&D on IBS,
provide subsidies for manufacturers and contractors, conduct case studies on IBS, re-introduce the
system as solution for the 3D problem in construction and to have strict enforcement on
Government policies set for IBS implementation. The researchers hope that the proposed strategies
may help the Government in its efforts to promote IBS industry-wide.
REFERENCES
CIDB. (2003). Industrialised Building Systems (IBS) Roadmap 2003-2010. CIDB Publication.
CIDB. (2003). National IBS Survey, 2003. Kuala Lumpur: CIDB.
CIDB. (2007). IBS Roadmap Review (Final Report) 2007. Kuala Lumpur: Construction Industry
Development Board, Malaysia.
Hamid, Z., Kamarul, K.A.M., Zain, M., Ghani, K., & Rahim, A.H.A. (2008). Industrialized
Building System (IBS) in Malaysia: The current state of R&D initiatives. Malaysia
Construction Research Journal, Vol. 2(1), pp. 1-13.
Harvey, R.C., & Ashworth, A. (1997). The construction industry of Great Britain. Oxford:
Butterworth-Heinemann.
Hassim, S., Jaafar, M.S., & Sazali, S.A. (2009). The contractor perception towers Industrialised
Building System risk in construction projects in Malaysia. Journal of Applied Sciences, 6
(5), 937-942. Retrieved October 14th, 2009, from
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Kamarul et al. (2007). Industrialised Building System: Current shortcomings and the vital role of
R&D. Master Builders Association Malaysia, 2nd quarter, 62-65.
Kamarul, K.A.M., Alshawi, M., & Hamid, Z. (2009). Barriers to Industrialized Building System
(IBS): The case of Malaysia. BuHu 9th International Postgraduate Research Conference
(IPGRC), United Kingdom: CREAM.
Lessing, J., Ekholm, A., & Stehn, L. (2005). Industrialized Housing - Definintion and
categorization of the concept. Sydney: 13th International Group for Lean Concrete.
Ministry of Finance Malaysia. (2005). Budget 2005. Retrieved October 14th, 2009, from
http://www.treasury.gov.my/pdf/budget/bs05.pdf
Ministry of Finance Malaysia. (2006). Budget 2006. Retrieved October 14th, 2009, from
http://www.treasury.gov.my/pdf/budget/bs06.pdf
Ministry of Finance Malaysia. (2008). Treasury Circular Letter No. 7, 2008. Pelaksanaan
Industrialised Building System (IBS) dalam Projek Kerajaan. Retrieved October 14th, 2009,
from http://www.treasury.gov.my/pekeliling/spp/spp072008.pdf
Rahman, A., & Omar, W. (2006). Issues and challenges in the implementation of Industrialised
Building System in Malaysia. 6th Asia-Pacific Structural Engineering and Construction
Conference (pp. C45-C53). Kuala Lumpur: UTM.
Sarja, A. (1998). Open and industrialized building. London: E&FN Spon.
Shahrul Nizar Shaari. (2006). IBS Roadmap 2003-2010: The progress and challenges. Master
Builders Association Malaysia, 4th quarter, 64-66.
Thanoon, W., Peng, L. W., Kadir, M. R., Jaafar, M. S., & Salit, M. S. (2003). An assessment on the
Industrialised Building System in Malaysia. International Conference on Industrialised
Building Systems (pp. 283-292). Kuala Lumpur: UPM Serdang.
Warszawski, A. (1999). Industrialized and automated building system. A managerial approach.
Oxon: Taylor & Francis.
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MARKETING VM SERVICES TO ACHIEVE COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE

IN THE MALAYSIAN CONSTRUCTION SECTOR
Mohamad Saifulnizam
PhD Candidate, School of Urban Development, Faculty of Built Environment and Engineering,
Queensland University of Technology, Australia,
saifulnizam.mohamad@student.qut.edu.au
Dr.Vaughan Coffey
Senior Lecturer, School of Urban Development, Faculty of Built Environment and Engineering,
Queensland University of Technology, Australia,
v.coffey@qut.edu.au
dr.chris.preece@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Value Management (VM) has been proven to provide a structured framework, together with
supporting tools and techniques that facilitate effective decision-making in many types of projects,
thus achieving ‘best value’ for clients. It is identified at International level as a natural career
progression for the construction service provider and as an opportunity in developing leading-edge
skills. The services offered by contractors and consultants in the construction sector have been
expanding. In an increasingly competitive and global marketplace, firms are seeking ways to
differentiate their services to ever more knowledgeable and demanding clients. The traditional
demarcations have given way, and the old definition of what contractors, designers, engineers and
quantity surveyors can, and cannot do in terms of their market offering has changed. Project
management, design and cost and safety consultancy services, are being delivered by a diverse range
of suppliers. Value management services have been developing in various sectors in industry; from
manufacturing to the military and now construction. Given the growing evidence that VM has been
successful in delivering value-for-money to the client, VM would appear to be gaining some
momentum as an essential management tool in the Malaysian construction sector. The recently issued
VM Circular 3/2009 by the Economic Planning Unit Malaysia (EPU) possibly marks a new beginning
in public sector client acceptance on the strength of VM in construction. This paper therefore attempts
to study the prospects of marketing the benefits of VM by construction service providers, and how it
may provide an edge in an increasingly competitive Malaysian construction industry.
Key Words: Value management services, marketing, construction, Malaysia
1. INTRODUCTION
The concept of value management is becoming prevalent in the current construction
industry. Value Management (VM) is a structured, organized team approach to identifying the
functions of a project, product, or service with recognized techniques and providing the necessary
functions to meet the required performance at the lowest overall cost (SAVE International, 2001) .
In other words, according to Green (1994), VM is a structured process of a dialogue and debate
among a team of designers and decision makers during an intense short-term conference. The
primary objective of VM is to develop a common understanding on the design problem, identify
explicitly the design objectives, and synthesize a group consensus about the comparative merits of
alternative courses of action.
VM as it is known in the UK and Europe as well as in Australia (referred to as value
engineering (VE) in the United States and Japan), was first introduced by Lawrence Miles in the
1940s in the US and is now attracting interest from many sectors of the construction industry across
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the world (Fong and Shen, 2000). It started during the World War 2 era in the manufacturing sector
at the General Electric Company. The attempt of maximizing the used of raw materials and labour
with aim of minimizing the cost sparked the idea of Value Analysis in Miles’s mind and is mainly
concerned with the functional analysis of manufactured products. As these methods were adapted to
other production processes, the name was later changed to Value Engineering (Dell'Isola,
1982).The development of Value Engineering (VE) grew in the US in the 1950’s where it was
adapted by the Department of Defense for the procurement of raw materials. Over the decade, the
method has been integrated into various federal state and local government procurement
programmes in the US and later into the construction sector in the 1960s through publically-funded
projects and soon spread to the private sector in the 1970s.The emergence of VE outside the US
began in early 1970’s when VE practices and application were introduced in Japan, Italy, Australia
and Canada (Cheah and Ting, 2005) and followed by the UK (Dell'Isola, 1982; Shen, 1995)
However, the introduction of VE in the UK has already seen a substantial growth in its
development and practice mainly in the construction industry and here the term being used has
changed to Value Management. As reported by Shen (1995), in 1988 RICS published "A Study of
Value Management and Quantity Surveying Practice", by Kelly and Male, which illustrated the
practice as used in North America, and proposed the benefits and potential of using VM in the UK,
particularly by the quantity surveying profession. The publication marked the beginning of a serious
development of VM as a tool to be used in the construction industry to achieve better value for
money. This initiative was then benchmarked by several countries such as Australia, France,
Germany and Hong Kong and furthered the development and implementation of country-specific
VM initiatives.
Successful application had been reported in many cases of construction project. According
to Cheah and Ting (2005), the subject of VM embraces other tools such as the job plan, the
Functional Analysis Systems Technique (FAST), and even methods to nurture creative thinking
(i.e. Delphi Method). The application of various tools is VM provides a basic form to cater for
different industrial contexts such as in transportation system design (Wilson, 2006), health care
procurement (Ghosh, 2003), waste management (Parikh, 2005), space management (Che'Mat and
Shah, 2006), risk management in construction projects (Dallas, 2006; Chang and Liou, 2005),
design and build bid proposal (Kolano and Vohra, 2006), alternative dispute resolution
(Tanenbaum, 2004) and sustainability of construction project (Zainul Abidin and Pasquire, 2007).
The generic nature of VM makes it applicable to many types of projects ranging from buildings to
water treatment works (Cheah and Ting, 2005). Moreover, it also suggested that prospect of
implementing VM at the corporate level such as strategic decision making (Che'Mat, 2002) , quality
management (Teck, 2003; Wixson, 2005) and systematic contexts are providing bright prospects.
2. INCREASING DEMAND FOR VM SERVICES FROM CONSTRUCTION CLIENTS

VM is recognized as one of the most effective methodologies to increase benefits as regards
a given investment (Yu and Shen, 2010). It is used to achieve best value for money and to increase
the achievement of stakeholder expectations in projects. Currently, the demand for VM is steadily
increasing as clients seek better outcomes from their investments in terms of capital or other
resource inputs and the return may be measured in social, economic or commercial terms (Kelly &
Male, 2004). Large, regular procurement clients of the construction industry are increasingly
pursuing innovative approaches to the way in which their projects are planned, designed and
delivered to facilitate their business strategies (Kelly et al., 2002). Expectation of a first class
service in terms of project performance with enhanced value for money is becoming the essence of
every construction project. Realizing the fact of raised demand and expectations in project delivery,
VM has been adapted into the construction industry in many countries as a vital role in optimizing
project cost and quality (Kelly and Male, 1993).
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Kelly and Male (1992) as cited in (Kelly et al., 2002) put forward the concept of the ‘project
as a value chain’ within a VM framework for understanding a client organisation’s requirements at
the strategic and tactical stages of a project. Standing (2001) as cited in (Kelly and Male, 2006)
interprets the value chain in the context of construction focusing on the : (i) corporate value (ii)
business value (iii) feasibility value (Kolano and Vohra) design value (v) construction value (vi)
commission value and (vii) operation value. In supporting the concept, Connaughton and Green
(1996) suggested VM is most useful in the early stages of project development as it provides greater
opportunity to improve value for money and has a greater impact on the overall project outcomes
(Barton and Knott, 1996). This is due to the fact that opportunities for making changes reduce as
the project progresses, and the cost of making such changes increases (Potts, 2008).
In a study conducted by Daddow and Skitmore (2005) on the Queensland’s construction
industry, found that the reason which attract clients/owners to choose VM in their project are
centred based on the following reasons:
i) To maximise the use available funding in achieving operational requirements
ii) To deliver the project possible
iii) To obtain design that supports their corporate culture
iv) Better cohesion within the VM team
v) Outsourcing responsibilities to privately owned companies
vi) Advances technology
vii) Changes in the end users requirement
viii) Alterations initiated through audits of VM implemented ideas
ix) Mandatory for specific capital works projects
The abovementioned reasons captured a holistic views and perceptions of VM in line with
the rapid growth of the industry. The view which takes into account the advancement of new
technology, shift of responsibilities, mandatory requirements and better value optimization are seen
to be an opportunity in marketing VM as potential avenue for the Malaysian construction industry.
Despite the introduction of VM in early 80’s in Malaysia, the authors are of is in the opinion that
there is further room for VM to be further embraced, especially from the construction service
provider side.
3. VALUE MANAGEMENT IN MALAYSIA

In Malaysia, VM was first introduced in 1986 and despite some benefits being observed as a
result of its application, VM has not yet become widely practiced in the Malaysia (Jaapar and
Torrance 2005; Jaapar 2006). According to Jaapar et al. (2006), a knowledge gap exists between the
current development and application of VM in the Malaysian construction industry as compared to
other developed countries using VM. It is posited that this is largely due to the lack of knowledge
and regular practice of VM, and also to a resistance to change by the parties involved during VM
workshops (Jaapar and Torrence, 2006). A preliminary literature review has indicated ((Jaapar and
Ismail, 2001; Jaapar et al., 2006; Teck, 2003; Tan, 2005; Che'Mat and Shah, 2006; Tek, 2004;
Ghani, 2004) that some client organisations in Malaysia have been applying certain aspects of the
VM methodology and concepts in their project operations, however due to some unsuccessful
outcomes, the take up of VM practices in Malaysia has not been large (Jaapar et al., 2009). Despite
some resistance to applying VM due to lack of knowledge and stories of past experience by clients,
nevertheless, the construction industry professionals acknowledged that VM contributes to the
achievement of value for money. Based on a study conducted by Jaapar et al. (2009), there is a
positive future for VM within the Malaysian construction industry as professionals from various
segments of the industry now appear ready to implement VM applications in their future projects.
The level of awareness and appreciation of VM as an essential toolset for providing better
value has developed over time since the inception of this study to the extent that the Institute of
293
Value Management Malaysia (IVMM) was established in 2000 with help and encouragement from
Government agencies such as the Professional Services and Development Corporation (PSDC). The
latter agency has initiated great efforts to promote and provide training courses in VM within the
construction industry. This continuous initiative has opened new opportunities for VM to be
accepted into companies at a senior management level. The recently issued Government circular
“Value Management Guideline Circular 3/2009” authored by the Economic Planning Unit of the
Prime Minister’s Department mandates that for every construction project valued at more than RM
50 million, a VM study is required to be undertaken (Economic Planning Unit Malaysia, 2009).
This marks the beginning of a new paradigm for VM in the Malaysian construction industry, which
is expected to allow for more potential areas of VM to be developed and introduced into the sector.
According to Kelly and Poynter (1990) in Ellis et al. (2005) VM was identified as a natural
progression for the QS and as an opportunity for them to develop their leading-edge skills.
However, the scope of services in VM does not lies solely on the QS profession per se. Every
construction service provider (i.e. consultants, contractors, suppliers etc.) in the industry are having
shared opportunity in marketing VM as part of their services offered. The Government through
EPU, Ministry of Works, CIDB, PSDC combined with IVMM has much provide a strong
foundation in support of VM in our local construction industry. In addition, both public and private
universities have started offering VM as part of their curriculum either at undergraduate or
postgraduate level as contribution from the education sector. Additionally, in a study on future
direction in VM conducted by Fong (2004) found that a degree in any discipline plus on-the job
training is the best way to train up VM professionals in the future. The challenges now liaise upon
shoulder of construction service provider in our industry in taking up initiatives to promote VM as
part of their services offered. The scope of VM should not be seen from single perspective i.e. from
the QS point of view, even though a common understanding of VM among construction players is
cost reduction. According to Brad Buchanan of Buchanan Yonushewski Group, the added value in
project doesn’t have to be seen as a cost savings that lowers the project budget, rather it can be
viewed by the client a an opportunity to keep the original budget, add value, and create a better
product.
In rephrasing Green (1997) definitions and primary objectives of VM, “developing common
understanding on the design problem, identify explicitly the design objectives, and synthesize a
group consensus about the comparative merits of alternative courses of action”; the scope of VM
goes beyond ringgit and cents matters in construction projects. It is tailored on building a
relationship among construction service provider in having shared-goal in a construction project
initiated. The shared-goal denotes a win-win situation between all parties in construction project
which is an essential element for future business venture. VM offers an improved management fad
in the construction industry which offers flexibility for every profession in the industry to learn and
adapt to the system which finally integrate with their core business strategy. The management
aspect is the key driver which makes VM an opportunity for all profession to embrace VM in their
services offered. What’s left now is the marketing strategy for the construction service provider to
integrate with their core business in making their organization ahead of others.
Ellie et al (2003) consider the marketing of VM by consultants in the UK. There work seems
to show that the marketing of VM appears to be largely dependent upon company culture, the client
base and location. For consultants who do not regard VM as a significant fee earner, VM is not
marketed as a separate service. There are others who take a different approach and which may
highlight a shift in their strategy towards marketing VM. Providing clients with a long menu of
specialists services has been replaced by some consultants with a more focused and “mature”
approach to marketing strategy.
According to Ellie et al (2003) Clients known to be receptive to a particular discrete service,
such as VM, are targeted and individuals approached, contacting “the right people at the right level
within the organisation” – for example, government agencies and health authorities who are
required to demonstrate “Best Value”. VM workshops are vehicle which commonly expose around
294
twenty representatives from several different organisations to VM. Successful workshops, are in
themselves, marketing opportunities and can lead to further commissions through“word of mouth”
communication.
4. CONCLUSIONS
Value management is not simply about money, it is, as the name suggests, it’s about value
which includes important issues such as operational effectiveness, flexibility, comfort, site &
architectural image, cultural values, engineering performance, safety & security, environmental
sustainability, construction schedule and initial and long term cost effectiveness. Ashworth and
Hogg (2000) pointed out that VM has been recognized as a factor that is critical to the success of
projects. It focuses on value rather than cost and seeks to achieve an optimal balance between time,
cost and quality (Kelly et al.2004) as it provides a method of integration in the building process that
no other management structure in construction can provide (Kelly et al., 2002).
Value management services that are appropriately marketed to clients in the public and
private sectors can offer construction service providers with a competitive edge. Whilst the
Malaysian government is pursuing VM on many of its projects, there would seem to be a need to
educate the private clients and developers about the benefits of value management services.
Developing an appropriate and effective marketing strategy for VM services would seem to
require much more research. What is the potential demand from public and private clients? How
aware are clients and developers of the benefits of Value Management? What are the most
appropriate tools and techniques for promoting VM to different market sectors? Do contractors and
consultants in Malaysia have the necessary know-how to be able to offer these services?
REFERENCES
Ashworth, A. and K. Hogg. 2000. Added value in design and construction. Harlow: Longman.
Barton, R. and J. Knott. 1996. The role of VM in the strategic development and management of
infrasturcture in Australasia & South East Asia.
Chang, Y.-H. and C.-S. Liou. 2005. Implementing risk analysis in evaluation phase to increase the
project value. http://www.value-eng.org/knowledge_bank/attachments/T30503.pdf
(accessed October 7, 2009).
Che'Mat, M. M. 2002. Value management : Principles and applications. Selangor, Malaysia:
Prentice Hall.
Che'Mat, M. M. and Z. M. Shah. 2006. Value management as an effective and efficient tools for
space management. In Value Management National Seminar University of Malaya, Kuala
Lumpur.
Cheah, C. Y. J. and S. K. Ting. 2005. Appraisal of value engineering in construction in Southeast
Asia. International Journal of Project Management 23 (2):151-158.
Connaughton, J. N. and S. D. Green. 1996. Value management in construction : A client's guide
Construction Industry Research and Information Association.
Daddow, T. and R. M. Skitmore. 2005. Value management in practice : An interview survey. The
Australian Journal of Construction Economics and Building 4 (2):11-18.
http://eprints.qut.edu.au
Dallas, M. F. 2006. Maximising project value through integrated risk and value management.
http://www.value-eng.org/knowledge_bank/attachments/200606.pdf (accessed October 15,
2009).
Dell'Isola, A. J. 1982. Value engineering in the construction industry. 3 ed: Van Norstrand
Reinhold Company.
Economic Planning Unit Malaysia. 2009. Garis Panduan Perlaksanaan Pengurusan Nilai (Value
Management), edited by P. M. Department.
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Ellis, R., G. Wood and D. Keel. 2005. Value management practices of leading UK cost consultants.
Construction Management & Economics 23 (5):483-493.
Fong, P. S. W. 2004. A critical appraisal of recent advances and future directions in value
management. European Journal of Engineering Education 29 (3):377-388.
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Fong, S. W. and Q. P. Shen. 2000. Is the Hong Kong construction industry ready for value
management. International Journal of Project Management 18:317-326.
Ghani, A. M. A. 2004. Value management practice in Malaysia : The Principles and method. MSc.
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Ghosh, P. 2003. Value management in health care in an industrial hospital. http://www.value-
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Green, S. D. 1994. Beyond value engineering : SMART value management for building projects.
International Journal of Project Management 12 (1):49-56.
Jaapar, A., I. R. Endut, N. A. A. Bahri and RoshanaTakim. 2009. The impact of value management
implementation in Malaysia. Journal of Sustainable Development 2 (2).
Jaapar, A. and S. Ismail. 2001. Value management: Overview and process. In Seminar on Future
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construction industry : A new insight. In International Conference on Construction Industry
2006 (ICCI 2006). Universitas Bung Hatta, Indonesia.
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Malaysian construction industry. In Quantity Surveying International Convention. Malaysia.
Kelly, J. and S. Male. 1993. Value management in design and construction : The economic
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CONSTRUCTION WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN ON SITE FOR

CONTRACTORS IN MALAYSIA
Anis Adila bt Abdullah
Undergraduate student, Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Malaysia
aadilaabdullah@gmail.com
dr.chris.preece@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
This paper focuses on the on-going research into the development of sustainable management of
construction wastes in Malaysia. The aim is to recommend an environmentally sound construction
waste management system suitable for contractors to reduce waste production on site in Malaysia.
Despite many efforts towards encouraging sustainable development practices, there is little effort
made by the construction industry to support these efforts. This research involves the use of
exploratory interviews with contractors in Malaysia with no experience in construction waste
management, to identify the status of construction waste management and to develop a waste plan
that may encourage contractors to take up construction waste management. The development of a
comprehensive construction waste management guideline for contractors in Malaysia is seen as a
responsible way of managing wastes on site, as it encourages the adoption of sustainable development
practices and proper management of wastes for the Malaysian construction industry. It involves
various activities which improves the reduction, recycling, re-use, prevention and handling of wastes,
for contractors as well as the environment and society. It is hoped that the proposed guideline can be
tested and further developed to increase its effectiveness in managing wastes for the construction
industry and Government’s benefit.
Keywords: sustainable development, construction waste management, contractors, Malaysia,

environment
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 The construction industry and the environment
The construction industry is one of the main contributors towards the development of
nations by providing both the public and private with necessary infrastructures and physical
structures for activities such as commerce, services, utilities and others. The industry generates
employment opportunities for unskilled, semi-skilled and skilled labour, and injects money into a
nation’s economy by creating foreign and local investment opportunities (M. Agung, 2009).
However, in spite of these contributions, the construction industry has also long been one of the
major causes to many environmental problems like global warming, pollution, and the depletion of
natural non-renewable resources like petroleum, coal and copper (Jones & Greenwood, 2009).
One of the problems faced in Malaysia lately has been on the topic of providing sustainable
development that ensures a better quality of life for the current generation and generations to come
(Siti Hawa Adila, 2005). Therefore sustainable development has been introduced to ensure that the
balance between social, environmental and economical aspects are suitable addressed to mitigate
problems such as poverty, environmental pollution and climate change. The Malaysian Government
has been steadily trying to inject more sustainable development practices into numerous social and
development activities, one of the most prominent being in the area of waste management.
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Solid waste management has been a concern in Malaysia for some time, due to poor
management and handling practices which in turn affect the environment as well as the public.
Malaysians produce around 25,600 tonnes of waste daily, in response to rapid development and
urbanisation (Fazleena Aziz, 2010). Proper waste management is crucial towards minimising
environmental and social problems, and has only recently been addressed by the Malaysian
Government. In support of the Government’s efforts, the construction industry should therefore
implement its very own waste management plan in order to properly handle and manage wastes and
preserve the well-being of the environment.
Having a proper construction waste management plan for contractors is essential towards
not only minimising environmental and social problems, but also to ensure the overall success of
construction projects in Malaysia. A construction waste management plan can be seen as a positive
step towards encouraging sustainable development practices in Malaysia as well as introducing a
comprehensive management system of handling wastes on construction sites for contractors.
Moreover, it also promotes the full utilisation of wastes through the waste hierarchy or 3R concept,
which is to recycle, re-use and reduce wastes, to maximise the value of wastes and reduce waste
output for construction projects.
Currently, at the time of research, the concept of construction waste management in
Malaysia is still very new to the industry, though some research activities have been carried out by
the Construction Industry Development Board (CIDB) and other non-government bodies, namely
the Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia’s Institute of Environment and Development (LESTARI). The
researchers have found no evidence so far of a proposed construction waste management plan that
has been developed for Malaysian contractors.
2. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
The World Commission on Environment and Development (1987) defines sustainable

development as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet their own needs”. It is concerned with creating a balance between
satisfying essential human needs throughout the world within the limitations set out by nature in
fulfilling future and present needs. Some of the objectives of sustainable development include
merging economics and environment in decision-making, ensuring a sustainable level of population
and reviving growth (WCED, 1987).
The pillars of sustainable development are concerned with the social, environmental and
economical approach towards sustainable development. Ideally, the desirable outcome of
sustainable development is to improve personal and social health and welfare (Kemp & Martens,
2007) and achieve consumption that can be practised without depriving oneself (Munasinghe,
2007), all the while preserving the environment and not overstepping safe ecological limits.
Sustainable development practices are hoped to alleviate environmental and social problems that
are occurring in Malaysia by reducing reliance on natural resources and minimising the negative
consequences of development towards nature.
In Malaysia, the poor and incomprehensive management of solid wastes remains an
unsolved issue which is caused by urbanisation and excessive human consumption. Solid wastes are
generated from residential, industrial, commercial, institutional, construction and demolition,
municipal services and other human processes (UNESCAP, 2009). Only 76% of solid wastes are
successfully collected in Malaysia, and from that amount only around 5% is recycled while others
are disposed at landfills (Alam Flora Sdn. Bhd., 2007). This is a far reach from the Government’s
target for waste minimisation and recycling, which is 22% (Nadzri, 2007).
The current method of handling and disposal of solid wastes in Malaysia have posed
numerous social and environmental problems, thus prompting the Government to carry out several
initiatives to counter these problems. These efforts include the establishment of a Solid Waste and
Public Cleansing Management Act 2007 and the Department of National Solid Waste Management,
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which aims at improving and standardising the management of solid wastes throughout Malaysia
(Leete, 2008). From these efforts, it is clear that the construction industry should also lend a
supporting hand in minimising waste production and improving its efficiency in handling
construction wastes.
3. CONSTRUCTION WASTE MANAGEMENT ON SITE
A site waste management plan or system provides a framework which can help contractors
or project managers to forecast and record the amount and type of construction waste that is likely
to be produced in a project, as well as assists in setting up appropriate management actions that
reduces the amount of waste that will be sent to landfills (WRAP, 2008). A construction waste
management plan aims to improve materials resource efficiency by implementing recycling, reusing
or recovering of materials as well as to minimise illegal dumping problems by restricting the
opportunities that might arise to practice illegal dumping by properly documenting waste removal
processes (Defra, 2008).
In numerous developed countries such as United States, United Kingdom and Australia,
construction waste management plans have been gaining popularity as an important tool to
minimise the adverse impacts that the construction industry has towards not only the environment
but also the nations’ economies. The plan involves the cooperation between all parties in a
construction project, including the client, contractor, sub-contractors, workers and even the
suppliers. It is initiated during the project’s pre-planning stage and involves many activities which
spans throughout the duration of the project up to its completion to ensure the waste management
plan’s effectiveness and efficiency.
In United States, a program called the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
(LEED) Green Building Rating System is popularly used, which is a set of standards for
environmentally sustainable construction incorporating practices waste management into
construction activities (LEED, 2004). Contractors gain points when they adhere to LEED
requirements which will subsequently earn them a certification. Meanwhile, the Australian
Government takes a different approach by encouraging and setting an example for the private sector
such as buying environmentally sound products and creating policies to implement environmentally
viable waste reduction and purchasing practices (Australia EPA, 1997).
In United Kingdom, construction waste plans gained popularity in 2008, when the U.K.
Government made site waste management plans compulsory for projects in England exceeding
£300,000 (BRE, 2009). Some of the most commonly used plans are the Waste and Resources
Action Programme (WRAP), Building Research Establishment’s SMARTwaste, and the
Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra). These plans help contractors who
wish to implement waste management through providing a set of guidelines to use for their projects,
with activities such as documentation of the types of waste, recycling, re-using reduction and
prevention initiatives, and Key Performance Indicators and target measures (WRAP, 2008).
4. PROPOSED CONSTRUCTION WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM GUIDELINE
The proposed guideline for construction waste management system for Malaysian
contractors is divided into 4 stages, which are Pre-Design and Design Stage, Pre-Construction
Stage, Construction Stage and Post-Construction Stage. The waste guideline was created based on
the different types of waste plans in developed countries and was modified to accommodate the
Malaysian construction industry. Each of the stages has specific activities that need to be carried out
by the main contractor as well as other parties in order to achieve effective waste management on
construction sites.
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4.1 Pre-design and Design Stage
In the first stage of the construction waste management plan, activities include the analysis
and evaluation of waste management opportunities, tendering for contractors, and the planning and
preparation of construction waste management plan. Before the tendering for contractors can begin,
the client along with the design team and the supplier has to choose materials or construction
methods that produce the least amount of waste to be used, along with an assessment of the areas of
waste streams and their quantities (Defra, 2008). During the tendering stage the client then has to be
careful with choosing contractors with prior knowledge on waste management practices so that the
winning contractor is capable of carrying the waste management responsibilities set. (WRAP,
2007).
After the contractor has been awarded with the project, the process of planning and
preparing the construction waste plan can begin, with collaboration from the contractor and design
team. Information such as likely waste streams to be produced, total estimated quantity of waste
and appropriate waste reduction practices and waste management options that will be adopted on
site have to be identified and planned. The waste plan draft will be subject to changes and
amendments, and are constantly changing. An important element to include into the project’s waste
plan is the waste hierarchy: eliminate waste production, reduce amount of wastes produced, re-use
as many items as possible, recycle any possible waste items and dispose wastes in a responsible
way.
4.2 Pre-Construction Stage
Before the waste plan can be carried into action, several steps must be taken to ensure its
effectiveness and efficiency, which include establishing Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) or
targets for the project. These targets and KPIs ensure that specific waste performance criteria’s are
being met and adhered to while contractors can demonstrate their abilities in managing and
handling their construction wastes. Furthermore, they should reflect the importance of waste
reduction, recycling, re-using and other activities, with goals such as reduction of project cost of
project duration, re-use of materials on site and more.
It is also crucial for the contractor to properly handle the roles and responsibilities in regards
to the waste management plan, by either hiring a waste handler to be in charge or by managing the
waste plan himself. The contractor should also ensure that sub-contractors involved with the project
comply with the instructions carried out regarding the waste management plan. Another important
activity during this stage is the identification of waste arising, recycling and re-using routes for
possible waste materials (WRAP, 2007). This includes estimating the quantity of waste materials
and their disposal costs, planning various waste prevention and minimization practices and
determining where and how the wastes will be stored and handled.
4.3 Construction Stage
During the construction stage of the project, several activities must be done to ensure the
successfulness of the construction waste management plan on site, which are; site training for
persons on site, organization of materials and waste for storage or disposal, implementation and
monitoring, as well as regular meetings. Site training of labor and staff on site speeds up the process
of handling and separating wastes, along with the use of proper signage for different types of
containers used. Wastes on site also need to be properly tracked and organized for the purpose of
storage or disposal, as well as separated according to their classifications and whether they are
recyclable or re-usable.
Proper organization of materials and wastes helps contractors to ensure the proper storage of
wastes and how they are managed. Wastes can be separated according to their classifications into
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labeled containers along with signs to help workers and sub-contractors separate wastes more
resourcefully (BRE, 2003). Recyclable or re-usable wastes that are properly separated can either be
used on site or processed and re-sold as new materials to reduce waste output. Then, during the
implementation of the waste plan, proper documentation of waste should be practiced throughout
the project with information such as amounts of waste generated, re-use on and off site, and
recycling rates (WRAP, 2010).
According to Johnson (2008), the waste plan also needs to be constantly updated and
reviewed by the contractor to increase its effectiveness and help keep track of the waste streams in
construction projects. In turn, the modified waste plan is beneficial for contractors in implementing
construction waste management for other projects in the future. In addition, the results of the waste
management plan should be presented at site meetings from time to time to determine wasteful
activities for the best practice of waste management on site (WRAP, 2010). These meetings can
determine the effectiveness of the current waste plan and pinpoint areas where modifications are
needed to improve the waste plan (Netregs, 2009).
4.4 Post-Construction Stage
In the final stage of any construction project, three activities should be carried out in
accordance with the construction waste management plan, which are performance review and
lessons learnt from project, cost/benefit analysis, and modification and refinement of plan for future
use. The performance review is an activity where the contractor and other relevant parties review
the completed project and determine the successfulness of the implemented site waste management
plan (DTI, 2004). This review can determine any deviations to the construction waste plan and the
estimates of cost savings achieved.
Meanwhile, a cost/benefit analysis helps contractors to justify their waste management
practices on site by estimating the recycling and re-using costs against costs of disposal at landfills.
Finally, the achieved percentages obtained from the project should be compared with the set targets
in the construction waste management plan to provide some pointers for the contractor for use in
future projects, as it can give cost savings for the contractor and may prove to future clients the
commitment given by the contractors on the project (WRAP, 2007).
5. Methodology & Survey Questions
This research uses literature review in earlier parts of the study to define sustainable
development and its importance, the effects of human activities towards the environment and public
as well as the solid waste management systems used in Malaysia and its affects towards the nation’s
development and the environment. Construction waste management plans from developed countries
were reviewed to find out their main elements and how they affect a project for contractors. Then, a
construction waste management plan was produced by simplifying the elements in the site waste
management plans from other countries, extracting the perceived best practices that can be used for
the management of wastes and combining them into one proposed system to be tested.
Exploratory face to face interviews were used in this research to find out the current waste
management plans used by contractors in Malaysia and determine its suitability with the local
environment, and how it affects the outcome of the project as well as the environment. Based on the
literature review carried out, construction waste management systems are relatively new in
Malaysia and are yet to be wholly acknowledged by contractors. Therefore, the target sample
chosen were eight (8) contractors located around the Selangor area who have never implemented
construction waste management plans on site. The selected contractors were seen as a
representation of the Malaysian construction industry which does not have a proper system or
guideline for managing its wastes on site.
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The contractors who were interviewed were considered a convenience sample as they were
chosen on random by the researchers. All of the companies chosen are class G-7 contractors as the
concept of construction waste management is still new in Malaysia so only large-scaled companies
are believed to have implemented them. The companies have different backgrounds and
experiences, and are assumed to be reliable samples by the researchers as they will represent
different groups in the construction industry. In this research, seven (7) out of the targeted eight (8)
contractors located all over the Kuala Lumpur and Selangor area were successfully interviewed
using exploratory, face to face interviews. All chosen contractors have vast experience in civil,
infrastructure works and structures for the commercial, industrial and residential industry, among
others. Meanwhile, the respondents interviewed were mainly project managers as well as engineers
who have vast knowledge and involvement in all of the projects in their companies.
The interviews were conducted to obtain reviews for the waste management plan produced
by the researchers from the findings of literature reviews. The proposed waste management plan
created was shown to contractors so that they may comment on its potential successfulness in the
local construction industry if it were implemented, and whether the plan could be carried out
effectively. Contractors were also asked about their awareness of the campaigns made by the
Government and Construction Industry Development Board (CIDB) in encouraging contractors to
take up a waste plan, and the incentives that can be awarded by the Government to attract
contractors in adopting a waste management plan on site.
There were some limitations during the course of research which could have inadvertently
affected the results. Some of the firms that were contacted were unresponsive and unsupportive,
therefore making the data for the research incomplete and possibly biased. Moreover, the number of
samples successfully obtained for the research is small; therefore it cannot be seen as an accurate
representation of any groups of contractors in Malaysia. There was also a limited amount of time
given to conduct research, thus fewer interviews were able to be conducted by researchers. One of
the main problems was that Malaysian contractors are unfamiliar with the concept of construction
waste management plans and are reluctant to implement them due to lack of knowledge. Finally,
there were also problems caused when preparing interview questions whereby the researchers could
have asked insufficient questions to respondents, therefore resulting in a lack of information during
the analysis of findings.
6. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
6.1 Results from Primary Data Collection
From the target sample of eight (8) contractors, only seven (7) contractors were successfully
interviewed for the purpose of this research. From the interview findings, half of the contractors
feel that the main factors that prevent contractors from using construction waste management plans
on site in Malaysia are the lack of promotion and encouragement done by the Government and
CIDB, and the fear that waste management reduces contractors’ profits. According to the
contractors that were interviewed, only valuable waste materials such as scrap metal were separated
and stored, while other wastes were mixed together into one container.
To some extent, the contractors interviewed do appoint specific persons to be responsible
for the management of wastes produced on site during construction works, for instance the project
manager or the site supervisor. However, 6 of the interviewed contractors were unaware of the
effects of waste towards the environment and send all of their wastes to landfills or burn them,
while one contractor disposes his wastes on site. There are some sustainable practices carried out on
site by the contractors, such as recycling and re-using certain materials or using Industrialized
Building System (IBS) which reduces the amount of wastes produced on site.
Most of the contractors do not practice any policies or have targets in regards to waste
management on site, which shows that contractors still lack knowledge and awareness on
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encouraging sustainable practices. 6 out of the 7 contractors felt that the Government and CIDB can
encourage contractors to adopt waste plans on site by increasing efforts in promoting construction
waste management plans, while some also proposed tax reduction as an incentive. Finally, the
interviewed contractors felt that they would support the creation of legislation making construction
waste management plans compulsory as it would ensure the success of their projects and allow
them to deal with their wastes responsibly.
6.2 Analysis
From the results obtained by interviewing contractors on their experience on construction

waste management plans and their reviews on the proposed construction waste management
guideline, it can be said that contractors in Malaysia are able to carry out construction waste
management plans for their construction projects given the proper amount of encouragement,
incentives, promotion and training. The implementation of waste management plans, for example
the waste guideline developed in this research, is simple and effective, and is advantageous to
contractors, society, the Government and the environment.
The factors preventing contractors from using construction waste plans would be eliminated
once contractors are properly informed and trained on the subject matter. In fact, the main issue
preventing the use of construction waste management plans on site would seem to be the lack of
information on both the contractors and CIDB’s part. Before any of these parties can develop
construction waste plans for the Malaysian construction industry, they must first equip themselves
with the knowledge and understanding of the topic. However, given the limitations in the research
as well as the small number of samples taken, more data is needed to confirm this assumption.
The researchers feel that contractors should also make an initiative to be alert on the
changing trends in managing their construction wastes and not wholly rely on CIDB for
information. Based on the waste plans developed in other countries, it is evident that the
implementation of construction waste management plans is beneficial to contractors in terms of the
promotion of good management practices, reduction of unnecessary wastes on site, cost and time
savings and more. CIDB should also take a step towards increasing promotions for construction
waste management as part of the industry’s need to deliver sustainable practices for the benefit of
the society, economy and the environment.
Meanwhile, from the result of the interviews conducted with contractors in this research, it
can be said that the Government should create a regulation on construction waste management
which will address the increasing problems caused by excessive development and environmental
degradation and create awareness among contractors to implement construction waste management
plans for their projects. By creating legislation on construction waste management, the efforts in
promoting recycling, reducing and re-using activities which the Government has been campaigning
in the past years would be fully addressed.
Based on the contractors’ reviews and feedback on the proposed construction waste
management guideline created, it can be said that all the contractors felt that the waste guideline
developed was comprehensive and encompassed all stages in any construction project. Most of the
activities carried out in the guideline were also seen as achievable and beneficial for contractors if
properly carried out. However, the contractors feel that there is also need to emphasis on waste
reduction during the design stage by avoiding unnecessary designs that are complex and difficult to
construct and using durable and strong materials.
Based on the feedback given by contractors, one prominent problem faced in the research
that needs to be addressed in Malaysia is the lack of recycling plants and other necessary
infrastructures that are crucial to ensuring the success of construction waste management plans.
According to contractors, the Government through the Public Works Department’s authority has yet
to certify and accept the use of recycled materials for construction projects. Therefore, the
researchers feel that the lack of relevant infrastructure makes it difficult to promote sustainable
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activities like recycling in the Malaysian construction industry and limits the number of options for
contractors if they do decide to implement construction waste management plans on site.
7. CONCLUSION
Construction waste management plans are important to the environment and society as well
as to the construction industry, especially for contractors. The aim of its implementation on site is to
increase the resource efficiency of materials through recycling, reusing or recovering products
before they are disposed, and reducing environmental problems, such as illegal dumping and open
burning (DTI, 2004). There are many proven benefits of construction waste management plans for
contractors, such as cost and time savings, increased productivity on site, good corporate social
responsibility and the ability to control the quality and ensure the safety of project sites as a result
of a clean site environment.
However, despite these benefits construction waste management remains to be poorly
implemented in construction projects in Malaysia, despite some promotion from the Government
and CIDB. It is clear that more efforts should be made by CIDB and the Government to promote
and develop waste plans into the local construction industry, for the sake of developing the nation
into a more sustainable country and ensuring the preservation of the environment and social health.
Construction waste management guidelines such as the one derived from this research is hoped to
be able to promote sustainable construction practices to be used by contractors in Malaysia to
ensure a comprehensive and integrated management of wastes on site.
For the purpose of furthering research, it is recommended that more studies should be
carried out on practices that can be adopted by the construction industry to promote sustainable
development. More studies should also be focused on construction waste management plans on site
for contractors and its application throughout Malaysia, and efforts should be made to develop a
construction waste management plan like the one made by the researchers and test its
implementation on contractors in Malaysia. It is also important to study more on ways to promote
waste recycling, reduction and re-use on site for contractors in Malaysia.
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[Accessed 19th December 2009]
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) (2004). Construction Waste Management
for LEED 2.1 in Seattle. Retrieved from www.resourceventure.org [Accessed 4th January
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Leete, Richard. (2008). Malaysia Developing a Solid Waste Management Model for Penang. United
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308
SEPTIC TANK: EFFLUENT DISCHARGE IN COMPLIANCE TO THE

STANDARD REGULATION
Hemyza Budin, MSc.

Faculty of Architecture, Planning and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi MARA
hemyzabr@sarawak.uitm.edu.my
Natasha Khalil, MSc.
Husrul Nizam Husin, MSc.
ABSTRACT
Sanitation generally refers to the provision of facilities and services for the safe disposal of human
urine and feces. Inadequate sanitation is established as one of the major cause of disease in the world.
Therefore, improving sanitation is known to have a significant beneficial impact on health both in
household and across communities. In developed countries, treatment of municipal wastewater is
improved to escalate but some are still execute untreated discharge into the environment. It is
estimated that 1.2 million premises in Malaysia preset individual septic tank and it only provides
partial treatment of sewage. Hence, it needs to be sustained on a regular basis to ensure that it
functions efficiently. In order to make sure that the effluent discharge by the septic tank is comply
with the Environment Quality (Sewerage and Industrial Effluents) Regulations 1979, effluent from
the septic tank needs to be sampled at regular intervals and tested as to ensure it meets the required
standard. The parameters that are used to check the standards are the total Biochemical Oxygen
Demand (BOD5), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Suspended Solid (SS), Dissolve Oxygen (DO),
pH and temperature. The findings of this research showed that the effluent discharge from the septic
tank is act in accordance with Standard A of Environment Quality (Sewerage and Industrial Effluents)
Regulations 1979.
Keywords: Sanitation, wastewater, effluent
1 INTRODUCTION
Malaysia's most common form of sewerage system is the individual septic tank (IST). A
septic tank is small scale sewage treatment systems that treat sewage at its location, rather than
transporting the sewage to a sewer system or larger treatment system nearby. Indah Water
Konsortium estimated that 1.2 million premises preset individual septic tank and only provides
partial treatment of the sewage and needs to be dislodged on a regular basis to ensure that it
functions efficiently.
According to Wikepedia, the term "septic" refers to the anaerobic bacterial environment that
develops in the tank and which decomposes or mineralizes the waste discharged into the tank. “A
septic tank is a large, underground, watertight container, typically about 9 feet long, 4-5 feet wide
and 5 feet tall that is connected to the home’s sewer line” (Michael P. Vogel et al., 2002) at one end
and a septic drain field at the other. R. Craig Runyan (2002) stated that the size of the tank is legally
determined by the number of bedrooms in the home with 750 to 1500 gallon liquid capacity. The
design of the tank usually incorporates two chambers which are separated by a dividing wall which
has openings located about midway between the floor and roof of the tank.
Untreated wastewater from a property flows into the first chamber of the tank, where the
solids separate from the liquids. Light solids, such as soap scum or fat, will float to the top of the
tank to form a scum layer. Heavier solids, such as human and kitchen wastes, settle to the bottom of
309
the tank as sludge. Self forming bacteria in the tank help the system "digest" these solids or sludge.
The liquid component flows through the dividing wall into the second chamber where further
settlement takes place with the excess liquid then draining in a relatively clear condition from the
outlet into a drain field as an effluent. According to the regulation standard, the effluent discharge
from the septic tank must comply with Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents)
Regulations, 1979.
Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulations, 1979 requires

wastewater discharge into any inland waters to demonstrate compliance with the permissible limits
stipulated in the Third Schedule of the Regulations. The Third Schedule consists of two Standards,
namely Standard A which is for discharge upstream of drinking water take off and Standard B for
inland waters, which must comply with.
The first step was the sampling process of the influent and effluent from the septic tank. The
samples were collected every first day of the week for about 1 month. Approximately 1 liter of
influent and effluent was collected per sampling time. Experiments were carried out in the
environmental laboratory to check whether the effluent discharge by the tank act in accordance with
Standard A of Environment Quality (Sewerage and Industrial Effluents) Regulations 1979.
There are twenty three (23) parameters according to the regulations. However, the samples
are checked with only the total Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5), Chemical Oxygen Demand
(COD), Suspended Solid (SS), Dissolve Oxygen (DO), pH and temperature which are the first
parameters in the regulation standard. The parameters are carried out in two methods; on site and
laboratory experiments.
The parameters that are carried out on site were pH, Dissolve Oxygen (DO) and temperature
by using an electronics device known as “pH/DO/°C/F meter” which can give an accurate data.
The experimental parameters are Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5), Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD) and Suspended Solid (SS).
i) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is one of the most common measures of pollutant
organic material in water. BOD is calculated by keeping a sample of water containing a
known amount of oxygen for five days at 20°C which also known as BOD5. BOD5 is
the amount of oxygen required by aerobic microorganisms to decompose organic
matter in a water sample, based on the maximum rate of O2 consumption. A high BOD5
indicates the presence of a large number of microorganisms, which suggests a high
level of pollution and a low BOD5 is an indicator of good quality water. BOD specifies
the strength of sewage. For results of the BOD test to be accurate, much care must be
taken in the actual process. Temperature must be 20°C, which is the usual temperature
of bodies of water in nature. A five-day BOD test is used in environmental monitoring.
This test measures the oxygen requirements of the bacteria and other organisms as they
feed upon and bring about the decomposition of organic matter.
ii) The chemical oxygen demand (COD) test is used to indirectly measure the amount of
organic compounds in water. COD is a useful measure of water quality. It is expressed
in milligrams per liter (mg/L), which indicates the mass of oxygen consumed per liter
of solution. The basis for the COD test is that nearly all organic compounds can be
fully oxidized to carbon dioxide with a strong oxidizing agent under acidic conditions.
iii) Suspended solids refer to small solid particles which remain in suspension in water as
a colloid or due to the motion of the water. It is used as one indicator of water quality.
310
Suspended solids are important as pollutants and pathogens are carried on the surface
of particles. The smaller the particle size, the greater the surface area per unit mass of
particle, and so the greater the pollutant load that is likely to be carried. The
experiments carried out by using the “filter and weight” process.
3 DATA ANALYSIS
The data are taken based on 1 month (4 weeks) observation. The samples are taken around
10.00 to 11.00 in the morning for every sampling process.
I. Temperature
Table 1: Temperature recorded from inlet box and discharge pipe
Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4

( °C ) ( °C ) ( °C ) ( °C )
Inlet 28.3 28.7 28.8 29.5

Outlet 28.5 30.6 29.8 28.8
Figure 1: Temperature of the influent and effluent recorded in 4 weeks
Due to biological treatment, the temperature of wastewater should be kept between 10°C
and 30°C. Table 1 and Figure 1 show that the temperatures for the effluent are higher than the
inlet or fresh sewage. This range of temperature (between 28.5°C and 30.6°C) is still in the
optimum temperature that microorganisms function at. The standard regulation stated that the
temperature for effluent discharge from sewage is 40°C for both Standard A and Standard B. The
data taken shows that the effluent discharges by the septic tank comply with the standard.
311
II. pH
Table 2: pH recorded from inlet box and discharge pipe

Inlet 7.11 6.71 6.92 6.72
Outlet 7.12 6.98 7.02 7.08
Figure 2: pH of the influent and effluent recorded in 4 weeks
Chemical reactions and additions to the process tend to either increases or decrease the pH
and alkalinity of a solution. The pH must be regulated to between 6 and 9 (Standard A) for little
impact upon discharge. From the data gathered (Table 2 and Figure 2), the pHs for septic tank
effluents is around 6.98 to 7.12 which are still in the range of the standard.
III. Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
Table 3: Dissolved Oxygen (DO) recorded from inlet box and discharge pipe

(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)
Inlet 2.88 1.74 2.17 1.22
Outlet 1.97 2.32 3.15 1.48
312
Figure 3: Dissolved Oxygen content in influent and effluent samples
Aquatic life requires a certain amount of DO to survive. Therefore there are maximum
levels, which can also be lethal, and minimum levels of DO that must be met before discharge can
occur. The data (Table 3 and Figure 3) shows that the highest DO recorded in the effluent:
3.15mg/l at 29.8°C (Table 1) is still lower than DO recorded in normal water which is 7mg/l at
35°C.
IV. Suspended Solid (SS)
Table 4: Suspended Solid (SS) collected from inlet box and discharge pipe
Inlet 36.00 30.00 24.65 44.00
Outlet 0 16.70 8.00 32.00
Figure 4: Solids collected through filter and weight process
313
Suspended solids include volatile and non-volatile solids. These may be either organics or
inorganic. The influents of the septic tank have a higher concentration of solids compare to the
effluent (Table 4 and Figure 4). The concentration of solids in effluent discharge decreases because
the sewage has gone through a biological process which will decompose the solids into small
particles. The data showed that the suspended solids for the septic tank was around 0 to 32mg/l
which is still lower than the Standard A (40 mg/l) of the regulation. This show that the suspended
solids concentration in the effluent is complies with the standard.
V. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Table 5: Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) concentration in influent and effluent

Inlet 84.68 110.56 83.98 99.23
Outlet 19.01 19.48 7.62 57.96
Figure 5: The concentration of COD recorded in samples
COD test used to indirectly measure the amount of organic compounds in water. The basis
for the COD test is that nearly all organic compounds can be fully oxidized to carbon dioxide with a
strong oxidizing agent under acidic conditions. From Table 5 and Figure 5, the values of COD in
septic tank effluents are between 7.62mg/l and 57.96mg/l. Three of the data are classified to
Standard A while the highest reading of the COD is classified to Standard B. However the overall
concentration of COD in the septic tank effluent is still complying with the standard.
VI. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
Table 6: Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) concentration from inlet and outlet
Inlet 28.45 70.85 12.75 56.35
Outlet 70.2 15.3 18.2 7.4
314
Figure 6: The Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) in influent and effluent
BOD is the amount of oxygen required by aerobic microorganisms to decompose the

organic matter in a sample of water. It is used as a measure of the degree of water pollution. A low
BOD is an indicator of good quality water, while a high BOD indicates polluted water. From the
test carried out, three of the readings (Table 6 and Figure 6) are classified in Standard A (20 mg/l)
which is between 7.4mg/l and 18.2mg/l while the data recorded in the first week classified in
Standard B (50 mg/l). The results shows that the effluent is indicate in good quality water.
5 CONCLUSION
The pollutants in wastewater are measured in order to better understand and thus facilitate
the treatment of wastewater as well as to examine the effects of effluent or treated wastewater on
the environment. The two most important parameters measured are Biochemical Oxygen Demand
(BOD) and Suspended Solids (SS). BOD is a measure of the amount of oxygen that wastewater
consumes over a given time. High BOD is significant because it means that wastewater will rapidly
consumes all naturally dissolved oxygen in streams, rivers and lakes, thus killing off all aquatic life,
and rendering the water septic and foul-smelling. SS is a measure of the undissolved materials in
sewage. High SS leads to sludge deposits in the waterways, thus causing significant environmental
deterioration. The experiments carried out shows that the effluent of the septic tank had a BOD
reading around 7.4mg/l to 18.2mg/l which are still in accordance to the Standard A and Standard B
while the Suspended Solid shows that the readings are not higher than the requirement standard of
50mg/l (Standard A) and 100mg/l (Standard B). Based on the data gathered above, it shows that the
discharge from septic tank is well treated and is safe to the environment.
315
REFERENCES
Bartlett, R.E. (1971). Wastewater Treatment. London: Applied Science Publishers Ltd.
Malaysian Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulations, 1979.
Michael P. Vogel, and Gretchen L. Rupp (2002). Septic Tank and Drainfield Operation and
Maintenance: Montana State University.
Nicosia L.A., Rose J.B., Stark L., and Stewart M. T. (2001). Ground Water Quality; A Field Study
of Virus Removal in Septic Tank Drainfields: J. Environ. Qual., Vol. 30, Nov–Dec 2001
R. Craig Runyan (2002). Septic Tank Maintainence: Cooperative Extension Service, College
of Agriculture and Home Economics, New Mexico State University.
316
THEME E
DISPUTES AMONG STAKEHOLDERS OF CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

IN MALAYSIA: THE CASE OF CONTRACTORS
Noraziah Binti Wahi, MSc.

belle_rusd @yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Dispute in construction industry in whatever form is an important subject that requires

attention of the industry stakeholders. Within the scope of the industry itself, disputes most often than
not lead to losses in various terms. Owing to the complex, fragmented nature of this industry, disputes
between different parts (stakeholders) within these interacting fragments is highly foreseeable. This
study was conducted to identify the causes and effects of disputes in construction industry, as well as
ways to mitigate or avoid disputes - particularly on the part of contractors. Results from the survey
conducted indicated that the causes of disputes in general between major parties involved in
construction projects are various, and at a differing extent. Among the major causes highlighted after
statistical analysis included; lack of communication; workmanship issues; lack of planning; late
payment; changes and variations requirements; and, the late issue of design information/drawing.
Major effects of disputes are those which concerns time, money and also consequences from the legal
terms. Dispute can effectively be mitigated by adopting certain or series of dispute avoidance
activities. Although effective, these dispute avoidance approaches does not guarantee full exclusion
from experiencing disputes. Contractors were found to be highly active in applying the approach of
better and thourough planning of construction projects as a mean to avoid disputes. The partnering
approach was considered as the most effective yet the hardest to be adopted.
Keywords: Dispute, Dispute Avoidance, Dispute Cause and Effect
1 INTRODUCTION
Construction industry plays an important role in developing Malaysia and it is a major

contributor towards realising Vision 2020. The industry contribute 3.3 percent of the countries
gross domestic product (GDP) in year 2003 and employs more than 500,000 workers in some
54,500 local companies.
Construction is totally different from manufacturing industry where the same products with
the same quality are possible to be produced even at a thousand times of its production. In
construction, the same construction team will not be able to produce the same products even though
the projects have similar nature of construction because there would be differences in regulation,
site conditions and market conditions for each project.
Global-wise, the construction industry has been identified as a ‘… loosely coupled system …
characterized by … particular complexity factors owing to industry specific uncertainties and
interdependencies, and inefficiency of operations’ stated by Dubois & Gadde (2002). Owing to this
complex, fragmented nature of this industry, disputes between different parts within these
interacting fragments is highly foreseeable.
Dispute in construction industry may it be in whichever form is an important subject that
requires attention of the industry ‘players’. Within the scope of the industry itself, disputes most
often than not leads to losses in various terms, and not limited to a single party only. Furthermore,
in relation to these negative impacts or consequences that disputes can bear towards the industry,
therefore it is vital that participants or ‘the players’ within this industry adopt a serious attitude
towards mastering this subject matter, which in turn would assists them in planning, decision-
317
making and implementation of construction projects. This research analyse the issues, facts and
ideas regarding the matter of disputes in local construction industry and its mitigation or avoidance
strategies, with particular focus on contractors side of the issue at hand.
1.1 Definition of Dispute
The study conducted by Angus et al (2007) concluded that there is no definitive meaning of
“dispute” and the existence of a dispute in construction adjudication is a subjective issue requiring a
practical common-sense approach relying on the facts, the law and policy considerations. The
oxford dictionary defines dispute as a misunderstanding between two parties, either contractual or
non contractual but the fact is there is a misunderstanding between the two it becomes a dispute,
while, the Dictionary of Law define disputes as a conflict of claims or rights. Whenever one party
to a contract requests something from the other party under the terms of their contract and that
request is not complied with; there is a dispute. Tillet G (1991) defines that construction dispute as
the incompatibility of two (or more) people (or groups’) interests, needs, or goals. As they seek to
maximize fulfillment of their own interests, or needs, or achievement of their own bargaining or
negotiating through compromise, one party may yield to the other on that which is less important.
When this happens, the dispute is usually settled. In general perception, dispute, is an event or
scenario of which either one or both or all of the party involved in an agreement (formal or non)
failed to deliver or conformed to the agreed variables (products, outcomes, specifications, costs,
claims and others as such) of the agreement.
1.2 Sources of Disputes
It is important to identify the sources of dispute in order to prevent or minimise them.

According to Cheung et al (2006) the basic factors that drive the development of disputes are
identified; these included; project uncertainty; contractual problems; and, opportunistic behaviour.
Previous studies and literatures (P.M. Feniosky et al (2003); Fenn et al (1997); M.H. Jeffery (2002);
Ameer Ali (2005); J. Murdoch et al (1992); K.S. Harban Singh (2003); Howard et al (1997); and C.
Keith (1994)) had discussed and analyzed extensively and had given a summarized lists on sources
of disputes.
1.3 Effect of disputes
According to Cheung et al (2002), the effects of construction disputes are detrimental; if

disputes are not properly managed, they may cause project delays, undermine team spirit, increase
project costs, and, above all, damage continuing business relationships. This statement merely
represents a generalized statement of effects that a dispute can cause. There are however, a long list
of previous studies as well as literatures (P.M. Feniosky et al (2003); Fenn et al (1997); M.H.
Jeffery (2002); Ameer Ali (2005); J. Murdoch et al (1992); K.S. Harban Singh (2003); Howard et al
(1997); and C. Keith (1994)) which had discussed and explained in more detail regarding various
effects of the various types of disputes.
1.4 Avoiding Disputes
Pro-active steps need to be taken by the three most dominant stakeholders in any
construction projects (i.e., the client, consultants, and contractors) to foster a cooperative attitude
among these parties toward the avoidance of disputes. According to Groton (1998), the parties to
construction project implement loss prevention and dispute avoidance measures in their own
business practices, adopt partnering to promote teamwork, and agree upon dispute resolution
procedures for the project.
318
Various dispute avoidance measures or approaches had been suggested, detailed, as well as
discussed in various past studies and literatures (T.J. Stipanowich (1998); J.C. Richards (2003);
Don McLagan (1991); and, J.A. Rutgers et al (1996)). Although these approaches may come in
various different forms, the objective is only one, that is to minimize if not prevent completely
circumstances that may lead to disputes, whether conducted actively or pre-emptively.
2 OBJECTIVES
This study was conducted to achieve the following objectives; to identify the causes of
disputes in the construction industry; to study the effect of disputes in the construction industry;
and, to identify the possible approaches in avoiding or mitigating disputes in construction industry.
3 METHODOLOGY
A typical survey was conducted using questionnaires to extract as much as possible relevant
data and information through judgmental sampling. In general the content of this questionnaire
were based on matters that are relevant for this research. Questionnaires were distributed to various
contractors, clients and consultants in the state of Kuala Lumpur, Selangor and Klang Valley area.
This is due to the fact that most projects are awarded to industry participants that are located or
operates within these locations as stated by M. Alias et al. (2007).
The first part of the questionnaire was focused more on the causes of disputes with regards
to contractor’s point of view. For this part, responses from contractors were obtained to study their
perspective on the causes of disputes by both clients and consultants. In the other hand, collective
responses from various contractors, clients and consultants were used instead to study the causes of
disputes by contractors themselves. The need to include both clients and consultants responses are
to ensure the data obtained are not bias. The second part of the questionnaire instead was focused
on the effects of disputes towards contractors. The final part of the questionnaire in the other hand
were focused on the matters concerning dispute avoidance or mitigation
A postal questionnaire was considered to be an appropriate method for the distribution of
the survey questionnaires. This was in view of its clear advantages over other method such as
conducting interviews that will take a longer time to gain the responses or data from the same size
of sample. Apart from that, a wider geographical coverage is possible. Moreover, due to time and
financial constraints, postal questionnaire is the most suitable method to collect the data.
Data and information from references such as journals, articles, books and others as such
was used to construct the content of the questionnaire. The reasons for this were various, which
included; standardizing the options for responses from respondents; to relate and evaluate the points
as discussed in these references towards the real-time experience of the respondents of this study;
and, for ease of conducting statistical analysis and interpretation of the data for the points of
discussion.
3.1 Statistical Analysis of Data
Frequency analysis used in a tabular form to represent the result of data analysis using the
frequency of response that respondents gave to the different variables in the questionnaire. The
result was tabulated in the form of frequency counts.
The data were further summarized by using average index analysis. The average index
analysis for each variable was calculated by using the similar classification of the rating scale
proposed by Abd. Majid (1997) and Likert Scaling as follows:
Average Index = Σ ai.xi

Σ xi (1)
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Table 1: Rating assignment of various average index values
Average Index Rating Scale

1.00 < Average Index (I) < 1.50 Insignificant
1.50 ≤ Average Index (I) < 2.50 Less Significant
2.50 ≤ Average Index (I) < 3.50 Moderately Significant
3.50 ≤ Average Index (I) < 4.50 Significant
4.50 ≤ Average Index (I) < 5.00 Very Significant
The Frequency Analysis and Index Analysis method were used mainly to processed data on
the first and second part of the questionnaire respectively.
The third part, regarding dispute avoidance approaches, however, the percentage count
method was rather used to process the gathered data within this particular part. The three parameter
within this part whereby percentage count were conducted included;
i) Respondents’ awareness or knowledge regarding several disputes avoidance methods
or approaches that have been implemented elsewhere. The purpose of this parameter
is to coarsely visualized contractors knowledge or awareness on several suggested
approach in avoiding dispute.
ii) Respondents practise of several disputes avoidance methods or approaches that have
been implemented elsewhere, and of which they are aware or have knowledge of.
This parameter is essentially to coarsely visualized construction industry
participants, level of adoption of the disputes avoidance approaches that they are
aware of.
iii) Respondents success in avoiding disputes based on their real time experience
applying these disputes. This is essentially to evaluate the real time effectiveness of
these suggested dispute avoidance approaches that have been experienced by
respondents.
The elaborate responses as gathered from the questionnaires from the respondents were
transformed into percentage count, and represented through bar chart. The following formula was
used to obtain the percentage value:
Assume; X = Respondents indicating YES as their answer

NX = Number of respondents indicating YES as their answer
Y = Respondents indicating NO as their answer
NY = Number of respondents indicating NO as their answer
Therefore; % X = [NX / (NX + NY)] × 100% (2)
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Results shown in Table 2 below illustrate the responses from the contractor’s point of view
on the causes of construction disputes in general. It is worth to note that contractors did not rate any
factors as very significant as a cause of construction disputes. However, seven factors with the
average index value between 3.500 and 4.500 level are observed to be significant to the cause of
construction disputes in general from the contractor’s standpoint.
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Table 2 : General Causes of Dispute From Contractors Perspective
No Statement Frequency Average Rank

Index
1 2 3 4 5
1. Lack of proper communication between
0 0 1 6 8 4.467 1
the parties
2. Complexity of the Works under the 4.467
0 0 1 6 8 1
contract
3. Lack of proper planning both in terms of
0 0 2 6 7 4.333 3
physical work and financial aspects
4. Differing goals and objectives of the 3.933
0 0 6 4 5 4
various parties
5. Allocation of inadequate time for the
preparation of contracts and their 0 2 3 7 3 3.733 5
discharge
6. A prevailing confrontational/ adversarial
0 0 9 3 3 3.600 6
atmosphere
7. Allocation of insufficient resources 1 2 3 6 3 3.533 7
8. Workmanship or quality control problems. 0 3 5 5 2 3.400 8
9. Failure to resolve minor differences on an
1 2 6 2 4 3.400 8
amicable basis
10. Personality clashes between the various
parties to the contract and/or member of 2 3 5 3 2 3.000 10
project team
11. Lack of good faith on part of the parties 2 4 7 2 0 2.600 11
Table 3: Contractors Perspective on Causes of Dispute by Clients
No. Statement Frequency Average Rank

Index
1 2 3 4 5
1. Late payment to contractor 0 0 0 5 10 4.667 1
2. Changes and variation requirements 0 0 0 7 8 4.533 2
3. Poor briefing during design stage 0 0 4 6 5 4.067 3
4. Lowest price mentality in engagement of
0 0 5 5 5 4.000 4
contractors and designers.
5. Unrealistic expectations particularly
employers who have insufficient financing 0 2 5 5 3 3.600 5
to accomplish their objectives
6. Fail to pay variation claim 1 3 3 5 3 3.400 6
7. Deficient management, supervision and
coordination efforts on the part of the 1 2 9 2 1 3.000 7
project
8. Inadequate tracing mechanisms for
2 3 5 3 2 3.000 7
request of information
9. Reluctant to check for constructability,
2 2 5 6 0 3.000 7
clarity and completeness
10. Failure to respond in timely manner. 2 4 3 5 1 2.933 10
11. Discrepancies / ambiguities in contract
3 2 5 4 1 2.867 11
documents
12. Interference in the contractual duties of
6 3 4 1 2.867 11
the contract administrator
13. Changes to standard conditions of
8 5 2 0 2.600 13
contract
14. The absence of team spirit among the
4 5 2 1 2.600 13
participants
15. Failure to appoint a project manager 5 4 1 1 2.333 15
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4.1 Clients as the source of disputes
Table 3 above shows the distribution of results from contractor’s perspective on the causes
of disputes by clients. The average index resulted within the range of 4.667 down to 2.333. It is
observed that there were two factors regarded as very significant. Both late payment to contractor
with average index of 4.667 and changes and variation requirement with average index of 4.553 are
very significant as the cause of construction disputes by client from contractor’s view point. A total
of five factors scored average index value exceeding 3.500 level and considered as significant.
4.2 Consultants as the source of disputes
Based on the result represented in table below, contractors rated the ten factors contributing
to construction disputes caused by consultant in between 4.667 and 2.733 level. Consultants and
contractors are always regarded as the parties that are closely dealing with each other during the
construction period. Concerning disputes caused by consultant, contractors indicated top four
ranked factors as also shown in the preceding table. However, from contractor’s point of view on
the construction disputes caused by consultant, there are actually eight factors that scored above
3.500 level which is considered as significant towards causing disputes.
Table 4: Contractors Perspective on Causes of Dispute by Consultants
No. Statement Frequency Average

Rank
Index
1 2 3 4 5
1. Over-design and underestimating the
0 0 0 5 10 4.667 1
costs involved
2. Lack of appropriate competence and
0 0 0 8 7 4.467 2
experience
3. Design and specification oversights, and
errors or omissions resulting from
uncoordinated civil, structural, 0 0 2 7 6 4.267 3
architectural, mechanical and electrical
designs
4. Late issue of design information/drawings 0 0 3 6 6 4.200 4
5. Errors/substantial changes in bills of
0 0 3 6 6 4.200 4
quantities
6. Variations due to design errors 0 0 4 6 5 4.067 6
7. Incompleteness of drawing and
0 0 5 8 2 3.800 7
specifications
8. Late information delivery and cumbersome
0 1 8 3 3 3.533 8
approach to request for information’s
9. Failure to understand its responsibilities
1 4 6 2 2 3.000 9
under the design team contract
10. Unclear delegation of responsibilities 3 4 3 4 1 2.733 10
4.3 Contractors as the source of disputes
Table 5 below shows the overall view from various stakeholders regarding disputes caused by
contractors. From the average index value analysis, we can deduce that all stakeholders agrees on
the top eight factors as significant to the problem at hand with average index value surpass 3.500
level. On top of that, only one single factor agreed by respondents as very significant to the cause of
disputes by contractor which is delay or suspension of works. This factor scores an average value of
4.686 which is above 4.500 thus considered as very significant.
322
Inevitably factors that score below 3.500 on average index analysis which is regarded as
moderately significant still need to be put in view as these factors in one way or another may also
lead to construction disputes. It is observed that these factors are of pre-construction in nature.
Table 5: Causes of Dispute by Contractors
No. Statement Frequency Average

Rank
Index
1 2 3 4 5
1. Delay/ suspension of works 0 0 0 11 24 4.686 1
2. Poor planning and program 0 0 1 17 17 4.457 2
3. Poor standard of work 0 0 5 11 19 4.400 3
4. Inadequate site management 0 1 5 14 15 4.229 4
5. Fails to proceed works in a competent
0 0 7 16 12 4.143 5
manner
6. Failure to coordinate its subcontractors’
work through effective and timely 0 1 8 14 12 4.057 6
exchange of shop drawings
7. Inadequate CPM scheduling and update
0 3 10 14 8 3.771 7
requirements
8. Delayed payment to subcontractors 0 5 12 9 9 3.629 8
9. Failure to understand and correctly bid or
1 7 13 8 6 3.314 9
price the works
10. Lack of understanding and agreement in
1 7 14 8 5 3.257 10
contract procurement
11. Failure to plan and execute the changes of
1 6 17 5 6 3.257 10
works
12. Reluctance to seek clarification 1 7 17 8 2 3.086 12
4.4 The Effects of Disputes
Results of this study showed that construction disputes exerts various impacts on all
stakeholders. The effects of construction disputes on contractors were analyzed based on the
questionnaires responses. There are 13 effects that were evaluated in this study. It is interesting to
note that from the result as tabulated in Table 6, contractors rated delay to project completion as the
most significant effect of disputes towards their business.
4.5 Dispute Avoidance
From the study conducted, it was found that most contractors are either aware or have been
practising certain or a set of dispute avoidance activities. Figure1 shows the percentage of
knowledge or awareness of contractors regarding various dispute avoidance approaches, while
Figure 2 shows the percentage of contractors whom actually practises either one or a combination
of various disputes avoidance approaches as suggested. It is important to note that these percentage
values were deduced from the responses gained from a total of 15 contractors.
Early Negotiation
This approach seems to be the approach that contractors are most aware of with 87%
indicating their prior knowledge of this approach in avoiding disputes. However, in terms of it's
practice, only 69% of those that are aware of it indicated that they had been practising this approach
with the sucess rate of avoiding dispute at 78% as shown in Figure 3.
323
Table 6: Contractors Perspective on the Effects of Disputes
Frequency
Average
No. Statement
Index Rank
1 2 3 4 5
1. Delay to the project completion 0 0 1 2 12 4.733 1
2. Effects on the costs or economics of the
projects, as well as the financial returns of 0 0 0 6 9 4.600 2
construction parties effort and investments
3. Lost of productivity and efficiency (idled labor
0 0 2 2 11 4.600 2
and equipment)
4. Diversion of manpower away from the project
0 0 1 5 9 4.533 4
costs
5. Increase in time-related costs (such as idled
equipment rental costs, changes in building
0 0 3 5 7 4.267 5
materials price, bank interest, utilities charges and
insurance)
6. Affects the quality of product to be delivered 0 0 3 6 6 4.200 6
7. Abandonment of project and termination of
0 0 4 4 7 4.200 6
contract
8. Additional financial costs especially high cost of
0 0 5 5 5 4.000 8
litigation
9. Cost for a deposition, trial or arbitration
0 1 7 5 2 3.533 9
preparation
10. Third party claims, due to damages for delay to
1 2 6 2 4 3.400 10
construction projects which affect them.
11. Cause job stress (emotional costs) to parties
1 2 7 2 3 3.267 11
involved
12. A reduction in bonding capacity in business 1 4 6 3 1 2.933 12
13. Damage to reputation of the parties involved 2 4 4 5 0 2.800 13
Contractors Practise of Various Dispute Avoidance Approach

44
Proper Contract Selection
Dispute Avoidance Approach
60
Compliance Audits
75
Training
76
Risk Audits
58
Pre-contract Reviews
69
Early Negotiation
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
%
Figure 1: Contractors knowledge of various dispute avoidance approach
324
Contractors Know ledge of Various Dispute Avoidance Approach or Methods

82
67
Compliance Audits
80
Training
73
Risk Audits
80
87
Early Negotiation
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Figure 2: Contractors practise of various dispute avoidance approach
Pre-contract reviews seems to be one of the approaches that contractors are well aware of,
with 80% indicating their prior knowledge of this approach. In terms of practice though, this
approach seems to be the least applied by contractors in their effort to avoid disputes. Contractors
which applied this approach indicated a 71% success rate when employing it to avoid disputes.
Contractors Success in Avoiding Disputes By Various Approach

75
50
Compliance Audits
67
Training
100
Risk Audits
71
78
Early Negotiation
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
%
Figure 3: Contractors success with various dispute avoidance approaches
325
Risk Audits
This approach was the second least approach that contractors were aware of in terms of it's
applicability in avoiding disputes. For those that were aware of it most of them actually practice this
approach, and surprisingly a 100% success rate in avoiding disputes were actually achieved by all
of this practicioners.
Training
80% of the contractors in this study indicated their awareness regarding this approach, as
one of the available approaches towards avoiding disputes. Only 75% of this however, actually
adopted this approach whereby the success rate as indicated by this group is relatively low or
scoring the second least effective (67%) approach towards avoiding disputes.
Compliance Audits
This seems to be the approach that contractors were least aware of, with only 67%
indicating their prior knowledge of this approach in avoiding disputes. Only 60% of this actually
practiced this approach in their effort towards avoiding disputes, while, the success rate of this
approach were not impressive with only 50% indicating it's effectiveness in achieving desired
results.
Proper Selection of Contracts
It was suggested in certain literatures that the simplest method of dispute avoidance can be
adopted as early as when anything had not happen yet, that is during the contract selection stage.
The idea of this method is that, only contracts which are feasible and possible with the least if not
zero risks of problems at all are selected to be undertaken. In relations to this study, proper contract
selection seems to be the second most known approach as indicated by contractors. Surprisingly
though, for those contractors that were aware of this approach, only 44% of them practiced this
approach in their effort to avoid disputes. In terms of it's success rate however, this approach seems
to show a relatively impressive result, with 75% of those employing this approach indicated it's
effectiveness in avoiding disputes. The possible reason that most contactors acknowledged its
effectiveness in avoiding disputes might be due to the fact that contractors are usually the one that
had to bear most of the risks in construction projects, which makes them vulnerable towards
encountering potentially disputable circumstances. Therefore, by adopting proper selection of
contracts, contractors can properly study their options and feasibility before undertaking any
projects. This may present them with the chance to avoid undertaking construction projects that are
too risky or beyond their realistic ability to deliver.
4.6 Management Role in Avoiding Disputes
Such had been discussed in various literatures as well previous studies by others, the role of
individuals or teams that are involved in the management of construction projects is significantly
essential in avoiding disputes. Managers or management teams alike, needs to think, decide and
implement policies, business plan and strategies that may enable disputes to be avoided. Among the
approach as suggested in various literatures, that required active participation on the management
part included; better and thorough planning; partnering approach; and risks allocation among
construction projects participants. In relations to this study, Figure 4 and Figure 5 respectively
shows the contractor's management practise of various dispute avoidance approaches, and it's
success rate as experienced by those managers or management teams.
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Contractor's Managem ent Practise

of Various Dispute Avoidance Approach
75
Risk Allocation
50
Partnering Approach
83
Better and Thorough Planning
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
%
Figure 4: Management practise of various dispute avoidance approaches
Contractor's Managem ent Success in Avoiding Disputes

By Various Dispute Avoidance Approach
67
Risk Allocation
100
Partnering Approach
80
Better and Thorough Planning
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
%
Figure 5: Management success with various dispute avoidance approaches
Better and Thorough Planning of Construction Projects
Based on the result obtained from the survey conducted, this approach was indicated by
contractors as the method that was employed the most (83%) by their managers or management
teams. This method seems to be quite effective in avoiding disputes, whereby 80% indicated their
success in avoiding disputes by employing this approach.
Partnering Approach
Regarding the partnering approach, response from the survey indicated that this was the
least practised or adopted approach in avoiding disputes. Only 50% of the contractor's managers or
management teams actually adopted this approach. The reason for this sporadic lack of partnering
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among participants of construction projects might be too many and maybe too complex to be
pinpointed within this work, but several possible reasons that are suggested included; incoherent
interest and business objectives fuelled by business competition; lack of trusts; ineffective
communications and negotiation skills; non-symbiotic interactions among participants and industry
players; and, human ego. Although this approach was the least practised, it instead seems to be the
most effective approach in avoiding disputes, whereby all that had practised it, considered it to be
most effective in avoiding disputes. It is suggested that partnering provides a platform to which
participants or partners can stand side by side in planning, implementing and coordinating works,
processes and procedures in relation with the projects undertaken, as well as providing a healthy,
transparent and coherent platform for resolving issues regarding projects that are undertaken by the
partnership, thus potentially avoiding disputes from emerging.
Risks Allocation
Risks allocation is the approach that is second most adopted by contractor's managers or
management teams, with 75% indicated their experience in adopting this approach. In terms of it's
effectiveness however, this approach was considered as the least effective approach, whereby only
67% achieved the desired result of avoiding disputes. It is suggested that, the reason for this, might
be due to the obvious fact that clients are in a more superior position to allocate as much as possible
risks to those (contractors) whom are delivering their intended products. Therefore, contractors are
burdened with the tasks to allocate these risks further onwards to other participants and this might
be where things might be sticky, since it is presumed that psychologically, others are happier to be
burden with only the smallest risks or not at all and potentially would try to evade from being
burdened by any risks. Thus the inability to fully allocate risks further and appropriately might
force contractors to heap those unintended risks and making themselves vulnerable towards
circumstances where disputes might emerge.
5 CONCLUSION
Contractors considered that late payment as well as changes and variation requirement, as
two of the main causes of disputes arising from clients, while, the most common cause of disputes
by consultants is over-design and underestimating the costs involved. Contractors instead seem to
disagree that most of the causes of disputes arises from their part of the deal. Of all the causes under
study, only some were regarded by contractors to be possibly assigned to them. These included;
delay or suspension of works; failure to coordinate its subcontractors’ work through effective and
timely exchange of shop drawings; poor planning and program; poor standard of work; failure to
proceed works in a competent manner; and, inadequate site management.
The major effects of disputes as acknowledged by contractors included; delay to the project
completion; effects on the costs and economics of the projects; lost of productivity and efficiency;
and, diversion of resources.
Finally, dispute can effectively be avoided or mitigated by adopting certain or series of
dispute avoidance activities. These included; implementing early negotiation; conducting pre-
contract reviews; conducting risks audits; conducting continuous training to enhance the quality and
readiness of the relevant workforce to deal with disputable circumstances; conducting compliance
audits to ensure every details matches what was planned; adopting better and thorough planning;
subscribing to partnering approach; proper and realistic allocation of risks among participants; and,
proper selection of contracts to be undertaken. Although effective, these dispute avoidance
approaches does not guarantee anybody full exclusion from experiencing disputes. Of all the
dispute avoidance approach suggested the partnering approach was seen as the most effective but
probably the hardest to be adopted since its’ adoption would first require a successful establishment
of partnership among parties involved and a right partner is never easy to find. However, for those
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who can’t afford a right partner, there is still a list of other adoptable approaches that are just as
effective as the partnering approach in avoiding disputes.
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330
LEGAL ISSUES OF PARTNERING IN CONSTRUCTION
Faraziera Mohd. Raslim, MSc.

Ph.D. Candidate, Quantity Surveying Department, Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor, Malaysia
Email: farazi3ra@yahoo.com.my
Nur Emma Mustaffa, PhD.
Senior Lecturer, Quantity Surveying Department, Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti
Email: b-nuremma@utm.my
Jamaluddin Yaakob, L.L.M.
Lecturer, Quantity Surveying Department, Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti
Email: b-jamal@utm.my
ABSTRACT
Partnering has been acknowledged by the team players in construction industry as one of the
approaches to tackle the adversarial culture in the industry. It effectively lowers the risk of cost
escalation and delays, as a result from better time control and cost control over the construction
project. Through trust, transparency, open communication, co-operation and mutual objectives, it
introduces a win-win approach to team players in the construction industry. Though it has been
debated that partnering is not about contracts, there are legal issues to be measured from the adoption
of partnering concept. Using law cases analysis and in-depth literature review, this paper examines all
the relevant case law which issues are on partnering in the construction industry. Legal issues
pertaining to partnering will be determined from these cases and adopted as the ground for the
formation of partnering contract. There are five legal issues identified as presented in this paper;
interpretation of contractual terms, principle of good faith, estoppel and waiver, fiduciary relations
and misrepresentations The ultimate aim of this study is to produce a framework of the partnering
contract which is suitable for the Malaysian construction industry to be as a reference in the
implementation of partnering.
Keywords: Construction projects, legal issues, Malaysia, partnering.
1 INTRODUCTION
Dispute resolution has become an ordinary characteristic of the usual construction project
process. Time and money have been lost in defensive posturing, developing claims and litigating.
Normally, the building team members make decisions based on their own goal and objectives
without considering the impact on the other party. This can lead to an adversarial relationship.
Various studies agree that this situation significantly affect the productivity and efficiency of the
construction industry. Consequently, this relationship has contributed to the need for a better
approach, and one of it is partnering; which is an innovative concept to construction organizations,
which traditionally rely heavily on contracting to bind the parties together.
The formal introduction of partnering into the Malaysian Construction Industry was done in
2007 through the Construction Industry Master Plan (CIMP), but before this, in 2000, a joint
seminar on project based partnering in Public Works Department (PWD) was organized by the
department and the Master Builders Association Malaysia titled “Introducing the Concept of
Partnering in the Construction Industry”
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2 DEFINITION OF PARTNERING
Partnering, a form of relationship contracting, was pioneered in the United States by the
United States Army Corps of Engineers in the late 1980’s and is now gaining popularity in the
United Kingdom, Australia, Canada and Hong Kong. The Dispute Avoidance and Resolution Task
Force (DART) of the American Arbitration Association defined partnering as follows: “Partnering
is a voluntary, organized process by which two or more organizations having shared interests
perform as a team to achieve mutually beneficial goal. Typically, the partners are organizations
that in the past worked at arm’s length or may have had competitive or adversarial relationship
with one another. Generally, the more partners involved, the better the overall results. Partnering
is also a collaborative process that focuses on co-operative solving reconciliation (win-win) as
opposed to either compromise (lose-lose) or concession (win-lose). It is not a social process that
simply promotes courtesy and politeness among participants, but rather good faith joint resolution
of problems. Partnering is a non binding process. It neither alters the contract documents nor the
relationships between the parties to use the agreed-upon partnering process and to deal with one
another as true partners.”
Another definition is developed by the Construction Industry Institute (CII) in the USA,
amongst all the partnering’s definition, this definition is commonly cited. The CII (1991) defined
partnering as:“…a long-term commitment between two or more organizations for the purposes of
achieving specific business objectives by maximizing the effectiveness of each participant
resources. This requires changing traditional relationship to develop a shared culture without
regard to organizational boundaries. This relationship is based on trust, dedication to common
goals and an understanding of each other’s individual expectations and values.”
While the contractual provisions deal with rights, obligations and the allocation of risk
between the contracting parties, the partnering charter seeks to address the way parties deal with
each other and interact to reduce conflict. While the legal relationships are established by the
contract, the partnering process establishes the working relationships between the parties based on
trust, co-operation and honesty.
3 THE PARTNERING PROCESS
According to Bennet and Jayes (1995) in their guide, the formal partnering process begins
after award of contract with an initial ‘team-building’ training workshop led by a neutral facilitator.
This workshop should be attended by the key representatives of all partnering organizations to help
establish commitment. The workshop generally begins with activities designed to help participants
feel comfortable with each other followed by training on the principles of effective partnering and
communication skills. Participants then develop common goals and agree on a process to resolve
disputes quickly, in a co-operative manner and effectively. Approaches on how to remove barriers
to communication, how to delegate decision making to members of the team and how to bring out
about continuous quality improvement are also discussed. A Partnering Charter is generated setting
forth the intent of the parties to work together towards a successful project. All parties should sign
and display the Charter on a wall to remind team members of the commitments made. Subsequent
workshops are held to improve teamwork, maintain the partnering spirit and involve all team
players at the working level. As the program evolves, periodic follow-up workshops are held to
reinforce the desired behaviour and introduce new team members.
4 CASE LAW
Regardless of the acknowledged benefits of partnering in construction, there are certain

legal concerns as to the effect of the partnering arrangement on the rights and obligations of the
parties as well as on the question of risk allocation between the parties to the contract.
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As always, these issues will be much of concern in the event that the relationship between
the parties breaks down and dispute rise.
Therefore, this paper will examines all the relevant case law which issues are on partnering
in the construction industry. Legal issues pertaining to partnering will be determined from these
cases and adopted as the ground for the formation of partnering contract since the ultimate aim of
this study is to produce a framework of the partnering contract which is suitable for the Malaysian
construction industry to be as a reference in the implementation of partnering.
Birse Construction Ltd v. St David Ltd [1999] BLR 194
This is the first judicial opinion on the enforceability of partnering agreements was seen in
the first instance decision by the Judge. Although the decision was overturned on appeal, neither the
court dealt substantively with the partnering charter. Therefore, the first instance decision stands as
the best guideline to the court’s approach to partnering for the time being. In this case, the initial
project was intended to lead to a long term relationship. The case involved building construction by
contractor Birse for developer St David and was concerned with establishing whether a formal JCT
form of building contract existed between them for the initial work done over a fifteen month
period. They agreed a partnering charter and under the heading “relationships” they agreed to
“promote an environment of trust, integrity, honesty and openness”. However, in just over a year,
Birse had issued proceedings against St David claimed that there was no contract and issued a writ
for payment on a quantum meruit basis for work done on the project. St David argued that there
was a contract incorporating the JCT Contract. This contained an arbitration agreement and
therefore the proceedings should be stayed for arbitration.
Subsequent to the partnering agreement, Judge Humphrey Lloyd was satisfied that a JCT
contract had been formed as a result of the course of dealing, together with the fact that the parties
had never excluded the formation of contract unless and until formal documents were prepared and
executed. The Judge also commented; “I have a little doubt that the parties considered that the
‘partnering’ arrangement that they had made, as exemplified by the Charter, made it unnecessary.
People who have agreed to proceed on the basis of mutual co-operation and trust, are hardly likely
at the same time to adopt a rigid attitude as to the formation of a contract.”
Whilst the Judge rejected any legal status for the partnering charter itself he described it as
follows; “Even though the terms of the Charter would not alter or affect the terms of the contract
(where they are not incorporated or referred to in the contractor or are not binding in law in their
own right) an arbitrator (or court) would undoubtedly take such adherence to the charter into
account exercising the wide discretion to open up, review and revise, etc which is given under the
JCT conditions.”
Judge Lloyd appeared to take the view that if a party had agreed to co-operate by way of
partnering charter, it could not then go back on its word by failing to co-operate. So, while the
partnering agreements are non-binding, it appears open for the courts to take these into account and
imply high standards of moral conduct into the contract.
Principles of interpretation of contractual terms
Following Birse’s case, the courts may now use provisions of a non-binding partnering
agreement to interpret the contractual terms of the parties under the substantive construction
contract. It is established that although it is not open to look at parties’ subjective intentions, regard
can be had to the ‘matrix of fact’ or the factual background in interpreting the terms of contract.
The principles of interpretation were summarized by Lord Hoffman in the recent House of Lords
decision of Investors Compensation Scheme Ltd v West Bromwich Building Society as follows;
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1. Interpretation is the ascertainment of the meaning which the document would convey to a
reasonable person having all the background knowledge which would reasonably have been
available to the parties in the situation in which they were at the time of the contract;
2. Subject to the requirement that it should have been reasonably available to the parties and to the
exception to be mentioned next, it includes absolutely anything which would have affected the
way in which the language of the document would have been understood by a reasonable man;
3. The law excludes from the admissible background the previous negotiations of the parties and
their declaration of subjective intent;
4. The background may not merely enable the reasonable man to choose between the possible
meanings of words which are ambiguous but even (as occasionally happens in ordinary life) to
conclude that the parties must, for whatever reason, have used the wrong words or syntax.
It is likely that a partnering agreement may be considered as a component of this

‘background’ as it is a document which should have been reasonably available to the parties and
does not fall within the two exceptions enunciated by Lord Hoffman, i.e. previous negotiations and
declarations of subjective intent, as it embodies the mutual commitments made by the parties. Thus,
the terms of partnering charter may have a bearing on the meaning of the word ‘reasonable’
satisfaction of the architect or engineer.
Thiess Contractors Pty Ltd v. Placer (Granny Smith) Pty Ltd [1999] WASC 1046
This is an Australian case relating to principle of good faith. Placer employed Thiess as
earthmoving contractors in an opencast mining operation under a partnering contract. This
arrangement included an open book system for costing the mining operations with payments to
Thiess being based on these costs plus an agreed profit margin. This system involved the disclosure
by Thiess of confidential information concerning the way in which it derived its rates for carrying
out various mining operations. The contract stated that “the successful operation of this Contract
requires that (Thiess) and (Placer) agree to act in good faith in all matters relating both to the
carrying out the works, derivation of rates and interpretation of this document”. This clause,
therefore, placed a specific good faith requirement on the derivation of plant rates and general good
faith requirements on the works and the interpretation of the contract as a whole.
A dispute arose over the plant rates whereby Placer alleged that they had not been calculated
on the agreed costing basis and had been inflated both during the negotiations leading up to the
execution of the partnering contract and during the period of contract. Placer subsequently invoked
a general termination clause in the contract.
Judge Lloyd found that during the pre-contract negotiations the parties were not persuaded
that the relationship between Thiess and Placer up to the point, at which they entered into the
contract, was a fiduciary one. However after execution of the partnering contract the Judge gave
extensive consideration to good faith and fiduciary duties. He pointed to contract requirements
stated in general terms “that are typical of many....which do not define rights and obligations with
any precision. Their implementation clearly requires goodwill and co-operation on the part of both
parties, good faith must include those matters.” Using this basis he went on to interpret the wording
and application of the good faith clause in detail.
The judge interpreted the good faith obligation as “requiring the parties to act honestly with
each other and to take reasonable steps to co-operate in relation to matters where the contract does
not define rights and obligations or provide any mechanism for the resolution of disputes”
It is submitted that ‘reasonable steps’ in this context would at least imply a duty to negotiate
in relation to these undefined rights and obligations. It is also submitted that such a duty must also
involve the implication of a duty of good faith in relation to the negotiation process because, as
observed by Einstein J in relation to negotiation and mediation processes in another Australian case
of Aiton Pty Ltd v Transfield Ltd, “without it there is no chance of reaching a mutually satisfactory
334
conclusion”. In that case a duty to negotiate and mediate in good faith was expressly stated in the
contract and was generally considered to be certain and enforceable by the Judge. His definition of
the content of the express duty of good faith in this situation amounted to the display of an
appropriate level of pro-active participation in the specified negotiation and meditation process.
Principle of good faith
The conclusions from this case seem to be that in Australian law general statements of good
faith may require the parties to take reasonable steps to co-operate in relation to matters where the
contract does not define rights and obligations or provide any mechanism for the resolution of
disputes; this suggests the implication of a duty to negotiate in good faith; such a duty would be
rejected in English law as a result of Walford v Miles and it is submitted that this would also be the
case in Malaysia.
It may be argued that a duty to act in good faith is implied into the contract by the parties’
decision to employ the partnering arrangements which in itself is based on principles of good faith-
mutual trust and objectives, open communication, honesty, confidence and dispute minimization.
Further, partnering is a concept developed and imported from the United States of America which
recognizes the doctrine of goof faith in contract law. There is thus far no recognized general duty to
perform contractual obligations in good faith in Malaysian or English law. There are however
instances of judicial observations that a discretion should not be exercised in bad faith, on the basis
that there is a negative duty not to act in bad faith as opposed to a positive duty to act in a good
faith. With reference to the recognition of civil law systems of a general principle of good faith,
Bingham LJ in the Court of Appeal decision of Interfoto Picture Library Ltd v Stiletto Visual
programmes Ltd stated;“English law has, characteristically, committed itself to no such overriding
principle but has developed solutions in response to demonstrated problem of unfairness”
Certainly, in respect of negative obligations, the courts would appear to be willing already to
uphold these principles implicitly. In doing so, they make reference to general standards of honesty,
fair dealing and reasonableness to determine abuse or otherwise of discretionary powers. The
existence of a partnering charter provides further evidence of the background to the contract and
together would suggest enhanced expectations between the parties. Furthermore, the nature of the
parties themselves may have an impact upon the imposition of obligations, with the weaker parties
being protected by the courts from opportunism by the stronger party.
For the avoidance of doubt as to whether a positive duty to act in good faith is
unintentionally implied into a contract as a result of the partnering arrangement to avoid any
unforeseen shifting risk allocation provisions of the contract.
Amalgamated Investment & Property Co. Ltd. (In Liquidation) v Texas Commerce
International Bank Ltd [1982] Q.B. 84
The plaintiffs, a property company registered in England, had a subsidiary company,

A.N.P.P., registered in the Bahamas. The defendant bank, who were registered in England had early
in 1970 lent the plaintiffs U.S. $3,000,000 secured by mortgages on properties in England By letter
of September 23, 1970, the bank agreed to make a further loan of U.S. $3,250,000 to A.N.P.P. to be
secured by a mortgage on a building on property which A.N.P.P. owned at Nassau in the Bahamas
together with a guarantee from the plaintiffs for the sum loaned. On September 28, 1970, the
plaintiffs executed a guarantee to pay to the bank on demand all moneys which might at any time be
due or owing to the bank by A.N P.P. For exchange control purposes the bank arranged for the loan
to A.N.P.P. to be channelled through Portsoken, a subsidiary company which the bank acquired in
the Bahamas.
By 1976 the plaintiffs were in severe financial difficulties. The loan of U.S. $3,250,000 was
not repaid and the Nassau building was sold for U.S. $2,500,000, leaving a deficit of $750,000 for
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which the guarantee was the only security. After the plaintiffs had defaulted on the English loan, the
English properties were also sold leaving a surplus of about U.S. $750,000 which the bank
purported to apply in discharge of the deficit on the Nassau loan.
The plaintiffs appealed on the grounds that the judge was wrong in law and/or in fact in
holding that by reason of the conduct of the plaintiffs they were estopped from denying that they
gave a binding and effective guarantee to the defendants of money owed by a subsidiary of the
plaintiffs to a subsidiary of the defendants.
The court explained the nature of an estoppel by convention. Lord Denning MR said:
"When the parties to a transaction proceed on the basis of an underlying assumption – either of fact
or of law – whether due to misrepresentation or mistake makes no difference – on which they have
conducted the dealings between them – neither of them will be allowed to go back on that
assumption when it would be unfair or unjust to allow him to do so. If one of them does seek to go
back on it, the courts will give the other such remedy as the equity of the case demands." and "If
parties to a contract, by their course of dealing, put a particular interpretation on the terms of it -- on
the faith of which each of them -- to the knowledge of the other -- acts and conducts their mutual
affairs -- they are bound by that interpretation just as much as if they had written it down as being a
variation of the contract. There is no need to inquire whether their particular interpretation is correct
or not -- or whether they were mistaken or not -- or whether they had in mind the original terms or
not. Suffice it that they have, by their course of dealing, put their own interpretation on their
contract, and cannot be allowed to go back on it."
The Court of Appeal held that since at the relevant time the parties had acted upon the
common assumption that the plaintiff were liable under the guarantee in respect of the advance
which was now in dispute, the claimants were estopped by convention from denying their liability
under the guarantee.
Estoppel and waiver
It is possible that during the course of the partnering arrangements, statements will be made
by the parties to each other that may not be in tandem with the strict provisions of the contract
between them. In the event of dispute, it would thus be open to the party to whom such statements
are made to rely upon the doctrine of estoppel to argue that the party making the statements cannot
now seek to enforce its strict contractual rights in the light of the statements made during the course
of the performance of the contract
In another law case related to estoppel, the Malaysian courts, in the landmark Federal Court
decision of Boustead Trading Sdn Bhd v Arab-Malaysian Merchant Bank Bhd, have recognized
that the doctrine of estoppel is a flexible principle by which justice is done according to the
circumstances of the case and that it is a doctrine of wide utility which has been resorted to in
varying fact patterns to achieve justice. The doctrine may operate to bind parties as to the meaning
or legal effect of a document or a clause in a contract which they have settled upon or which one
party to the contract has represented or encouraged the other to believe as the true legal effect or
meaning. Further, the doctrine may be applied to enlarge or reduce the rights or obligations of
parties under a contract. Both plaintiffs and defendants may have recourse to the doctrine which is
not confined to cases where a representation of fact has been made.
To determine the applicability of the doctrine of estoppel to a particular set of facts, the
question that a court would ask is whether it would be just that a particular litigant should, in the
light of his conduct, succeed in that action given the peculiar facts of the case. The doctrine would
only apply if the answer to this question is negative. It is very likely that partnering arrangement
would be an important element of the circumstances of a case that the court would have regard to in
deciding on the applicability of the doctrine of estoppel to that set of facts. This is because parties
often have to act in a manner which is inconsistent with the strict provisions of the contract so as to
achieve their mutual objectives in accordance with the spirit of the partnering charter.
336
In the circumstances, parties to a partnering arrangement must be properly advised on the

very real possibilities that their contractual rights may have been compromised owing their acts
and/or omissions in carrying out the shared objectives of partnering. A suggested solution is to
include in the partnering agreements provisions to the effect that representations, in whatever form
by the parties made during the course of the partnering arrangements, will not be contractually
binding in the absence of an appropriate amendment to the contract in writing. Thus, the necessary
amendments to the relevant contractual provisions must be made in writing by the parties in the
event that it is the intention of the parties that the said representations should affect or alter their
contractual obligations pursuant to the contract.
Eastover Ridge, LLC v. Metric Constructors, Inc., 2000 N.C. App.
This case applied the fiduciary relationship’s principles. Here is the fact of the case, on 22
July 1994, owner entered into an agreement with the contractor for the construction of 216
apartment units in nine buildings, a clubhouse/leasing building, pool, tennis courts, maintenance
building, certain landscape features, and associated site work. The contractor accepts the
relationship of trust and confidence established by Agreement and covenants with the owner to
cooperate with the Architect and utilize the contractor’s best skill, efforts and judgment in
furthering the interests of the owner. The owner filed suit against the contractor, alleging unfair and
deceptive business practices because the contractor breached its fiduciary duty to the owner
resulting in constructive fraud. According to the owner, the contractor did not properly perform all
of its contractual duties. Owner initiated this action on 22 October 1996 and filed an amended
complaint four days later, asserting claims for breach of contract, breach of fiduciary duty and
constructive fraud, unfair trade practices, and equitable relief of recoupment and setoff.
The Judges stated: “Plaintiff alleges in its complaint that defendant failed and refused to
perform its obligations under the agreement and lists examples of defendant's breaches. Although
plaintiff has made numerous allegations that defendant breached its agreement regarding the
construction project, we note that a certificate of substantial completion was signed by the architect
on 27 March 1996 and that the construction project was subject to local government inspection.
Therefore, we conclude that plaintiff has failed to show sufficient aggravating circumstances to
establish a claim for unfair and deceptive trade practices.”The court held that because the architect
was hired to perform construction administration and was to keep an eye on the contractor, there
was no fiduciary relationship between the owner and this contractor.
Although the court’s decision rejected the fiduciary duty of the contractor towards the owner,
still the issue of fiduciary relationship is questioned in this case.
Fiduciary relationship
The question of this issue is whether the existing partnering arrangement imposes the
fiduciary obligations to be owed by the parties to each other? Is a partnering agreement akin to a
joint venture agreement where such fiduciary obligations may arise? A relationship is termed a
fiduciary relationship if one party owes a duty to act with care and good faith in the interests of the
other party. For example, the relationship between trustee and beneficiary is fiduciary as is the
relationship between an employer and employee, principal and agent, director and company and
amongst partners. Consequently, a party under a fiduciary obligation must avoid any conflicts
between its duty to others and its own self-interest and it must not misuse its fiduciary position for
personal gains. Generally, parties to an ordinary commercial contract owe no fiduciary obligations
to each other. However, owing to the very nature of partnering agreement, which is based on
principle of trust, fairness and mutual co-operation for the benefit of the project, it is arguable that
parties have put themselves in a position where they are placing reliance upon each other to act in
each other’s interest.
337
The parties to a partnering arrangement must consider whether they owe fiduciary
obligations to each other which impinge upon their freedom to act in their own self-interest. Parties
who wish to avoid the consequences of fiduciary obligations should do so by express provisions in
the partnering charter. A provision could be inserted to totally exclude the possibility of those
obligations from arising. Alternatively, if the participants decide that fiduciary obligations are
consistent with the spirit of the agreement, the charter could define the scope of the obligations for
the purposes of the partnering process.
P Ward v Civil and Civic [1999] NSWSC 727
These proceedings relate to a dispute concerning the earthworks component for the
construction of the Prospect Water Filtration Plant from 1993 to 1996. Civil and Civic Pty Limited
[now known as Lend Lease Property Services Pty Limited] was the design and construct contractor
for that plant and were negotiating a sub-contract for earthworks with Ward which included a
design development aspect. During these negotiations the parties had attended a partnering meeting
which had resulted in the signing of a partnering charter. In this charter the parties expressly agreed
that their relationship would be “to work together to achieve our mutually developed goals via the
collective utilization of our joint skills in an environment of open and honest communication”. This
charter was signed before the conclusion of the formal sub-contract but its legal status does not
appear to have been specifically defined by the parties.
When the formal sub-contract was eventually prepared, it did not contain any references to
the partnering charter, but it did include a definition development which Ward subsequently
claimed was different from that discussed during negotiations. Ward had apparently failed to notice
this change before the sub-contract was signed and they claimed that this placed an additional
financial liability on them.
A dispute arose over payment for the costs of design carried out by Ward during the course
of the sub-contract. Ward claimed that Civil and Civic had represented to them that the partnering
relationship between them “would be in the nature of a partnership and that they would co-operate
to ensure that the project was a financial success for both the plaintiff and the Defendant” and that
in this context Civil and Civic’s failure to draw Ward’s attention to the changed liabilities amounted
to misrepresentation.
However the Judge advised that “the most obvious of the difficulties is the fact that Wards
seeks to disavow a formal written contract signed by both parties following close dealings between
them over a period of almost a year, which dealings were, on my findings, clearly understood by
both parties as intended to culminate in the execution of the Subcontract”.
Misrepresentation
From the case before it seems that the issue of misrepresentation arose between the parties,
where one parties failed to inform to the other parties the addition of financial liability.
Given the wide ambit of the Misrepresentation Ordinance, it is foreseeable that disenchanted
participants in partnering will seek to assert that, the representations made in the course of the process
amounted to misrepresentation conduct.
When a statement during negotiations leading to a contract is deemed not a term of the
contract or a warranty collateral to the contract, it is a ‘representation’. Such pre-contractual
statements, though not intended to have contractual effect, may have seriously affected the
inclination of one party to enter into the contract. If the representation is false, the party that was
misled cannot claim damages for breach of contract because no term of the contract has been
broken. However the misled party may claim relief accorded by the law for misrepresentation or
fraud.
338
In other case, Thiess Contractors Pty Ltd v Placer (Granny Smith) Pty Ltd [1999], the Judge
found that during the pre-contract negotiations the parties were at ‘arms length’ and was not
persuaded that the relationship between Thiess and Placer up to the point at which they entered into
the contract, was a fiduciary one. He considered that “there has been a misrepresentation: not a
breach of fiduciary duty”.
In partnering, the team members rely on information supplied by the other parties, each and
every party in the team will provide information where they think useful and important to conduct
the construction project. As the team agreed, any critical problem will be discussed and the team
will try to find a suitable solution, basically, to ensure the benefits of the partnering process are
maximized, team member will enter into partnering’s relationship on the basis of full and frank
disclosure. Problems occurred when the team members did not reveal everything regarding to the
project, they might think that the information is not important to be shared, while the other
members need to know about it in order to avoid losses. When this situation occurred, it is
foreseeable that the disenchanted team members in partnering will seek to involve the course of
misrepresentation conduct. It is therefore critically important that the representatives are fully aware of
the import of their conduct and any statements made during the development and conclusion of any
partnering arrangement.
5 CONCLUSION
The need for change within the construction industry is paramount to its survival. Those
who fail to recognize and act within this scenario will struggle to succeed. So, partnering activities
by public and private organizations today are starting to explore that territory and are demonstrating
that change is possible. According to various research conducted before, partnering has proved
successful in the United Kingdom, the United States, Hong Kong and Australia. The lessons learnt
from those who have adopted it will aid local construction practitioners to minimize the risks
brought by possible difficulties from implementing the concept of partnering; in which legal issues
is one of them. This paper has discussed the legal issues that occur from this concept; the issues
derived from the research will later be used to fulfil the ultimate objective of the study, to produce
the guidelines of partnering contract which will serve as a suitable reference in the implementation
of partnering in the Malaysian construction industry since there is no contract for partnering created
yet.
REFERENCES
AGC (1991), Partnering: Concept for Success”. Washington DC: Associated General Contractors
of America.
Bennett, J. and Jayes, S. (1995). “Trusting the team: the best practice guide to partnering in
construction.” University of Reading: Centre for Strategic Studies in Construction/Reading
Construction Forum.
Chan APC, Chan DWM, Ho KSK (2003) “An Empirical Study That of the Benefits of Construction
Partnering in Hong Kong.” Construction Management and Economics, 21(5), 523-533.
Chan A.P.C, Daniel W.M Chan, Y.H Chiang, B.S Tang, Edwin H.W Chan and Kathy S.K Ho
(2004) “Exploring Critical Success Factors for Partnering in Construction Projects.” Journal of
Construction Engineering and Management, 130(2), 188-198.
Chan, A.P.C, Chan, D.W.M, Fan, L.C.N, Lam P.T.I and Yeung J.F.Y (2007) “Achieving Partnering
Success Through an Incentive Agreement: Lessons Learned from an Underground Railway
Extension Project in Hong Kong.” ASCE Journal Management in Engineering, 24(3), 128-
137.
Cheng E.W.L and Heng Li (2004) “Development of a Practical Model of Partnering for
Construction Projects”. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 130(6), 790-
798.
339
CII Construction Industry Institute (1991). “In search of partnering excellence”. Publication no.17-
1, Report CII, Austin, Texas.
Colledge, B. (2000) “Obligations of Good Faith in Partnering of UK Construction Contracts.”,
International Construction Law Review, 17:1, 175-201.
Construction Industry Development Board (2007), Construction Industry Master Plan Malaysia
2006-2015. Kuala Lumpur: Construction Industry Development Board, (ISBN 978-983-2724-
44-5).
Cornick, T and Marther, J (1999), Construction Project Teams: Making Them Work Profitably.
London: Thomas Telford.
Eriksson, E and Nilsson, T (2008) “Partnering the Construction of a Swedish Pharmaceutical Plant:
Case Study”. Journal of Management in Engineering.
Jamieson B.K (2001) Partnering-Some legal issues. Contrax Asia Ltd. Retrieved from
http://www.sterlings2000.com/Partnering%20-%20legal%20issues.pdf (Accessed 28 August
2009)
Kadefors A. (2004) Trust in Project Relationships-Inside the Black Box. International Journal
Project Management, 22 (3), 175–182.
Latham Sir M (1994) Constructing the team: Final report of the government industry review of
procurement and contractual arrangements in UK industry. London: HMSO.
Murphy, Michael (1995) A contractor’s Partnership Baptism. In Godfrey, Kneeland A. (1995).
Partnering in Design and Construction. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Pradhan, V., (2002) Partnering in Construction Contract. Seminar on Partnering & Best Practice in
Construction & The Work of Sir Michael Latham. (James R Knowles.)
Scott B. (2001), Partnering in Europe: incentive based alliancing for projects. London: Thomas
Telford.
Walker, I and Wilkie, R (2002) Commercial management in Construction. UK: Blackwell
Publishing.
Wallace, I.N.D., (1999) The forgotten client: A history of construction contract, in tweltfh annual
construction centre, centre of construction law and management, King’s College London, UK.
Pt. VIII. : 1-53.
340
READINESS OF THE MALAYSIAN CONTRACTORS IN ADOPTING

MEDIATION
Haryati Mohd Isa, MSc.

Phd candidate, Universiti Teknologi MARA
haryati.mohdisa@yahoo.com
Fadzil Hassan, Phd.
Assoc. Prof. Dr., Universiti Teknologi MARA
padzil037@salam.uitm.edu.my
Roshana Takim, Phd.
dr_roshana@salam.uitm.edu.my
Mohd Fisal Ishak, MSc.
fisalin@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Traditionally, parties in construction contracts go to court or arbitration to settle their disputes but in
Malaysia, such recourse has not satisfied most disputing parties. Recognising the critical need to
circumvent the problems of court delays coupled with the belief that mediation is an effective
alternative dispute resolution (ADR) approach; various initiatives were mooted to promote mediation
within the industry. However, results have been very poor. Conceiving the need to better understand
the phenomenon, a research was carried out to examine the factors that contribute to the poor
adoption of mediation. The aim of this research was to identify how mediation was viewed by the
Malaysian contractors since the contractors’ apprehensions and appreciation of mediation shapes their
readiness to adopt mediation. The paper posits that mediation is favoured over litigation or
arbitration, and evaluative method of mitigation was most preferred. The barriers towards their
readiness to adapt mediation are influenced significantly by many factors. Political will and support
are crucial to pre-requisites if the effective implementation of mediation within the construction
industry is to be realised.
Keywords: Construction disputes, litigation, arbitration, mediation
1 INTRODUCTION
The construction industry is a vast, technical, complicated industry and one of the
contributors to the country’s economic growth. It has been highlighted by many researchers that
construction is confrontational, exacerbated by lack of trust and inappropriate contracts. Thus,
disputes and adversarial relationship is unavoidable (Barrett, 2004).
Delays in settling construction disputes through courts are one of the critical problems of the
Malaysian construction industry. To confront this problem, many initiatives were introduced by the
Malaysian government and dispute resolution experts to encourage more application of mediation
to resolve construction disputes. This includes the introduction of mediation within the construction
legal system, construction contracts and expanding training in mediation.
While much has been done to promote mediation as an alternative to settle construction
disputes, critics argue that the current approach to encourage mediation has been inadequate.
Research undertaken by (Ismail et al, 2006) and (Zaman, 2000) confirmed that there is little
evident to suggest the initiatives taken have been successful. The take up of arbitration and
mediation cases recorded from (Ismail et al, 2009) as shown in Table 1 further exemplifies this.
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Table 7: Arbitration and Mediation Cases Registered with Various Agencies between 2000 and
2008
Source Cases
1. Malaysian Mediation Centre under the Total 155 Mediation cases but only four construction
auspices of the Malaysian Bar Council. mediation cases
2. Malaysian Institute of Architect (PAM). Total 518 construction arbitration cases including one case
in 2008 and no mediation case so far
3. Kuala Lumpur Regional Centre for Total 126 cases including 27 construction cases
Arbitration (KLRCA)
4. Construction Industry Development Board No reported case but CIDB is involved with at least five
(CIDB). cases acting as a mediator for both government and private
disputed projects
5. Institution of Engineer Malaysia (IEM) Total 15 construction arbitration cases until 2007, no
registered case in 2008 and no mediation cases
The issues confronting the promotion and application of mediation within the Malaysian
construction industry is complex, populated by many variables which includes stakeholders, types
of construction projects and contract forms and the industry culture which impact in the
construction legal framework. It is conceived that a holistic and knowledge-based approach to
understand mediation and to identify gaps that exist within the mediation promotion initiatives.
This must be supported with sound knowledge on how the stakeholders perceive and accepts
mediation.
2 Theoretical Framework
2.1 Conflict, Disputes and Claims in Construction
Conflict and disputes are interchangeable terms and can indicate different stages in the
relationship between parties within a construction project. (Chan & Suen, 2005) defined conflict as
opposing interest scarce resources, goal divergence, frustration and mixed motive relationships.
(Cheung & Yiu, 2006) conceive dispute as the manifestation of the underlying conflicts and it
linked with difference in perspectives, interests and agenda of human beings. Conflict exists
wherever there is incompatibility of interests among the disputants which can be pandemic and that
conflict is a prime driver of disputes. (Fenn et al, 1997) suggested that conflict can be managed to
the point before it leads to disputes. While conflict cannot be avoided, it can be managed to caution
the management process to prevent further disputes.
Construction disputes are detrimental if it is not being addressed and resolved properly and
effectively (Chan & Suen, 2005). Delay in settling disputes can lead to many negative
consequences and these includes hampering the project progress if dispute arises during execution
stage; detrimental to the relationship between disputing parties; contributes to the cost and time
overruns; and at the macro level, send bad signals to foreign investors thereby slowing down the
national progress. Disputes will not only affect projects in short term, but in the long run it may
tarnish the reputation of the industry as a whole. Time and cost are wasted to manage and resolve
disputes.
Litigation and arbitration has been the traditional choice but neither solution has been really
adequate. (Jannadia et al, 2000) maintain that with delays in the court system and inadequacies in
some provisions of arbitration, there is a significant need for the construction industry to look for a
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new and more efficient ways to resolve disputes. (Diekmann & Girard, 1995) add that any conflict
evolved during construction must be settled beyond the jobsite management staff to prevent
disputes from happening.
Singh (2009) defines claim as a situation where any party to a contract or any third party
rightly or wrongly request an adjustment in the original time and cost and relate to legal. He
outlined eight types of common claims for major international cases over the last five years in the
Malaysian construction industry.
Table 2: Percentage on Types of Common Construction Claims in Malaysia
Type of claims Percentage
Payments – Interim and final 18%

Variations 17%
Extension of time 12%
Liquidated and ascertained damages 8%
Suspension/Determination 7%
Defects – Latent/Patent 5%
Performance bond/Guarantees 15%
Direct loss and expense 13%
Miscellaneous 5%
Source: (Singh, 2009)
In conceiving the wastage to the project resources, (Singh, 2009) further reaffirmed that
efficient settlement and resolution of disputes are very important; otherwise it will decrease overall
value of construction projects. Thus, it should be formed part of construction industry. (Jr., 1995)
and (Fenn, et al., 1997) agreed that construction claims and disputes are not something that
magically appears during construction, and the seeds of a dispute are planted during the design
stage and fruition during construction.
2.2 ADR, Arbitration and Mediation
It is a common observation (Fenn, et al, 1997; Diekmann & Girard, 1995; Jannadia et al,
2000) that arbitration case can only be executed after determination or practical completion of the
project. As a consequence disputes fester and relationships deteriorate. As a result, the construction
participants tend to forget the facts of disputes and will further prolong the period of dispute
resolution.
In contrast to arbitration, mediation is the processes in which the disputing parties can agree
to appoint the mediator who will assist to achieve a mutually acceptable solution to the disputes. In
contrast to arbitration which tends to be adversarial, mediation provides a ‘friendlier’ and non-
adversarial avenue to settle dispute without interference from court. Mediation aims to produce a
final result and encourage a resolution be identified to prevent the need for litigation. (M, 2009)
urged that mediation can work for most disputes and very much appropriate for the construction
industry. She add that mediation fares well in cases of urgency and in the maintaining of
relationship, harmony and confidentiality between the parties. It brings the parties together
physically and encourages them to negotiate with each other. If they are then able to reach an
agreement for settlement, they will be in a more harmonious position in which litigation and
arbitration are lacking.
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2.3 ADR and Challenges of Mediation in Malaysia
Delays in the legal process in resolving construction disputes are a continuing problem.
Damis (2007) reports that by July 2006 alone, there were 319,862 civil cases pending in the
Malaysian courts, and this dates back to January 2000. (Ismail, et al, 2006) note that while the
application of ADR has grown extensively in many common law countries, in Malaysia there are
excessive delays in the litigation process and the proceedings are usually exposed to public. The
litigation tends to destroy the relationship between the disputants and make people more litigious.
Faruqi (2000) adds that litigation is too costly, weighed down with delays and divisive. Thus, it
may not able to ensure speedy and effective resolution for construction disputes.
The growing problems of court settlements led the construction industry to consider and
promote mediation. ADR provisions with focus on mediation were introduced to the major
Standard forms of Contract used in the industry starting with the PAM Form of Contract 1998 and
2006, followed by the CIDB Form of Contract 2000. The Mediation Act 2000 was proposed to
encourage court-annexed mediation since 2000, but to date there has been little progress towards
realisation of the said act. The CIDB Conditions of Contract 2000 even went further with making
mediation pre condition prior to arbitration to resolve disputes. In the effort to produce more
qualified mediators, the Construction Mediation Training Centre was introduced to train the
qualified mediator was established by CIDB. Mediation was also specially mentioned in the CIMP
2006 -2015.
Whilst many believe that the successful mediation and ADR practices in the U.S, U.K and
Australia can be replicated in Malaysia (Hartwell, 2000; Isa & Ishak, 2007; Zaman, 2000) success
have been very limited. Zaman (2000) notes that one year after the Malaysian Mediation Centre
(MMC) started operation, there was only one case that was been brought for mediation. (Rozlinda
& Haris, 2002) found that mediation was not readily accepted while (Ismail, et al, 2006) contends
that that ADR in Malaysia is “at the early stage”. They suggest that the industry practitioners need
to re-learn all the alternative dispute resolution methods. Contending with the low take up of
mediation, (Isa & Ishak, 2007) suggest that a clear code of conduct for the mediators and mediation
must be in place. They assert that Malaysia needs to produce more trained and qualified mediators
and this must be supported with increased awareness amongst contractors. Thus, more appear to be
in needed to be done before mediation can be actively employed in the Malaysian construction
industry.
This research was to establish how Malaysian contractors perceive mediation. To enable
this, a quantitative research method was adopted for inquiry one which involves the administration
of questionnaire surveys to selected contractors. The key elements of the inquiry were (i) what are
the common methods that they use to settle disputes and (ii) what are their views on litigation,
arbitration and mediation.
Table 3: Registration category of the respondents

Years of Establishment Respondents
Number Percent
< 20 30 54.5
21-40 20 40
>40 5 5.5
Total 55 100
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Table 4: Years of establishment of the respondents

Years of Establishment Respondents
Number Percent
< 20 20 54.5
21-40 30 40
>40 5 5.5
Total 55 100
The respondents for survey were mainly building contractors with over 20 years’ experience
with adequate knowledge on issues pertaining to disputes claims and ADR. Their breakdown
which was sorted according to the variables for the analysis is shown in Tables 3 and Table 4.
ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS
The elements of the inquiry in the questionnaire survey were analysed by SPSS. The
findings emerged as the following:
4.1 Experiences in Various Dispute Resolution Methods
Table 5: Main contractor’s involvement in various means of dispute resolution

Methods of Dispute Experience (No’s) Total (%)
dispute resolution Rank
0 % 1-2 % 3-5 % >5 %
Litigation 18 49 12 32 2 5 3 8 45 2
Arbitration 24 65 3 8 3 8 1 3 19 3
ADR
Mediation 25 68 - - 1 3 - - 3 5
Conciliation 22 59 1 3 3 8 - - 8 4
Adjudication 23 62 - - - - - - 0 6
Negotiation 6 16 10 27 6 16 12 32 75 1
Table 5 presents the respondents’ experience in resolving disputes. It was found that most
of the contractors resolved their disputes through the traditional means mainly through litigation
and arbitration. Negotiation (75%) is the most ADR popular method for resolving disputes. None
of the respondents have been involved in adjudication whilst 3% were involved with mediation.
4.2 Views On Litigation
Table 6: Overall respondent’s views on litigation

Excessive More No privacy and Destroy relationship
delays litigious exposed to public (%)
(%) (%) (%)
Strongly Agree 42 20 16 29
Agree 49 53 73 53
Neutral 9 22 6 13
Disagree 6 6 6
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It was found that most of the respondents agree that litigation will destroy the relationship
among the disputants and cause excessive delays and litigation proceedings are usually exposed to
public which will offer no privacy. The results also suggest that the respondents perceive that this
approach tend to make people more litigious. From the inquiry on how they perceive litigation,
common negative views were recorded. This is summarised as follows:
• unfamiliarity with the court process

• issues with the judges handling the disputes
• financial loss; reputation is at stake to the client
• decision made by the courts which does not always reveal the truth
• costly
4.3 Views On Arbitration

Table 7: Overall respondent’s views on arbitration
Excessive Reduce Excessive Offers Maintain
delays Flexibility Proceeding Privacy Relationship
(%) (%) Cost (%) (%)
(%)
Strongly Agree 18 11 27 24 -
Agree 40 58 46 60 29
Neutral 16 16 24 6 29
Disagree 26 14 4 11 31
Strongly Disagree 11
The majority of respondents agree that arbitration will involve excessive costs and delays.
However, most felt that arbitration offers privacy and the hearing is less formal than a court trial.
There was also a common agreement that that arbitration will not maintain the relationship among
the disputants. Professionalism tends to be demanded more in arbitration compared to mediation.
Overall, the respondents agreed that there should be another alternative means of resolving disputes
besides litigation and arbitration.
4.4 Need For Other Forms of Construction Dispute Resolution
Results from the analysis as shown in Figure 1 found that that 51% of the respondents
agreed that there should be other forms of dispute resolution other than litigation and arbitration.
Only 3% were disagreed.
Figure 1: Respondent’s views on other alternative forms of dispute resolution

346
Hartwell (2000) acclaimed that ADR should be used in resolving disputes in the South-East
Asia. Litigation or even arbitration should be reserved as the last options if all other methods failed.
However, Chelvarajah in Zaman (2000) stated that lawyers should not think that mediation will
threaten their livelihood. In fact, they should seriously consider mediation as an essential skill for
them to prosper alternative mechanism for dispute resolution.
4.5 Mediation As Alternative To Litigation and Arbitration in Malaysia
Figure 2: Respondent’s recommendation on mediation to be used as an alternative form of future

construction dispute resolution
As shown in Figure 2, a significant percentage of the respondents (48%) recommend mediation as

the alternative to the litigation or the other ADR methods. 5% of the respondents disagree that
mediation is the better approach to resolve disputes.
This finding tends to support the views of (Ismail, et al, 2006) that in order to further
improvise the enforceability of ADR particularly mediation, government support and political
influence were very crucial. In this manner, the Malaysian construction regulation bodies such as
CIDB and KLRCA to provide avenues to train professional construction practitioners to become
mediators and assist the disputants to resolve their disputes rapidly, efficiently and cost effectively.
Thus, offers them to be more creative and open-minded in solving their own conflicts.
Table 8: Respondents mediation experience
Mediation Experience Respondents

No %
Yes 1 3
No 36 97
Total 37 100
Whilst majority of the respondents recommended mediation to be used in Malaysia, only 3%

have had some experience in mediation. Table 8 and Figure 3 illustrated the types of disputes
settled through mediation and explained on why mediation is not being widely used in the
Malaysian construction industry.
347
Figure 3: Reasons on dispute settled by mediation
4.6 Types of Disputes Resolved Through Mediation
It was recorded from the respondents that most of the main contract disputes resolved through
mediation is on the variation works (40%), payment (20%) and extension of time (6%). Generally,
there was an overall satisfaction with the decisions made in the mediation process and the
respondents would strongly recommended mediation for future construction disputes.
4.7 Why Mediation Is Not Popular?
The factors that contribute to why mediation is not popular recorded from the respondents
are shown below.
Table 9: Factors claimed by the respondents as responsible for mediation is not being widely used
in the Malaysian construction industry
A list of factors on why mediation is not widely used in Malaysia
1. Most problems can be resolved through negotiation among the disputants without the involvement from other
third parties. This had been agreed by Meng (2001). He is in the opinion that construction disputes are most
suitable to be resolved through direct-negotiation with the disputants without any involvement from others.
He believed that the third party can make the disputes become more complicated or even worse.
2. No legal requirements – contractually not required
3. Not widely known in Malaysia since it is a new approach
4. Not exposed to any mediation procedure since no major disputes have yet arisen which need settlement
through mediation
5. Differential in value of work if substantial will be added or omitted progressively and this must be agreed by
both parties
6. The main contractor will offer alternative works or projects as replacement if the sub-contractor suffers losses
7. Not agreed or initiated by both parties

8. Unaware
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4.8 Recommendation To Further Promote and Improve Mediation in The Malaysian

Table 10: Recommendation to promote and improve mediation in Malay
Recommendation to promote and improve mediation in Malaysia
1. An establishment of a framework for efficient dispute resolution - to include mediation as one of

the main dispute resolution
2. Upgrade the current practice and procedure of mediation to ensure successful outcome with
minimum cost, simple or user friendly and effective process
3. Active promotion and education by both professional and academic institutions
4. Impartial and non-profit organization to administer and oversee mediation
5. Establishment of the Malaysia Construction Industry Courts to dispose issues relating to
construction disputes and court-annexed mediation should be encouraged and regulated
6. Induction course on construction disputes and settlement using mediation to be conducted for
Project Managers
7. Binding and enforceable mechanism need to be part of mediation settlement
CONCLUSION
The study has provided reasons on why mediation has not been utilized in the Malaysian
construction industry. The critical elements that tend to hamper the promotion of mediation were
identified. Thus, there are gap in the current approach to promote mediation. The critical areas in
mediation are no legal requirements and most of the Malaysian contractors were unaware of the
approach since it is still new being practiced in the Malaysian construction industry. The research
posits the key parties related to the provision off mediation needs to address these gaps and remove
the barriers if effective application of mediation is to be achieved.
REFERENCES
Barrett, P. (2004). Revaluing construction: a international study workshop results. Paper presented
at the The Netherlands: CIB.
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THEME F
COMPARISON BETWEEN HAUSA AND MALAY VERNACULAR

Hanga Nabila Jamila, Msc.
Phd candidate, Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Malaysia
nab_nour@yahoo.com
Dr. Abdul Razak Sapian
Asst. Prof., Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Malaysia
arazaks@iium.edu.my
ABSTRACT
Extant literature indicates that low-cost housing residents are not satisfied with their dwellings in both
Kano and Kuala Lumpur. Residential satisfaction is the feeling of pleasure derived when an
individual has attained their residential needs and aspirations. However, in the past vernacular
buildings met the needs and aspirations of their users in terms of cultural, climatic,socio economical,
physiological, and psychological requirements. These vernacular buildings have been relegated to the
past and generally ignored by architects. Most developing countries have adopted the international
style, which does not necessarily meet their cultural and personal identity. This study compared
between Hausa and Malay vernacular to find out the differences and the similarities. Even though
both the Hausa and Malay have the same religion their solution to the problem of shelter varies. The
methodology utilised for this study is literature review. Cross-cultural studies provide a solution to
the problem of settlement patterns in developing countries. The vernacular has an invaluable part to
play in the creation of user satisfactory low-cost housing.
Key word: Residential Satisfaction, Low-cost housing, Vernacular, Hausa and Malay
1 INTRODUCTION
Shelter, which is translated into housing, is a basic human need, next only to food and
clothing. In Islam, the home is a place for the family to grow in peace, and tranquillity (Omer,
2006). It offers protection, privacy and refuge for the individual members of the family. The home
is also an important factor in personal and social development especially in childhood (Tommy
&Friman, 2002). According to Rapoport (1969) for a house to meet its objectives it must be
socially and culturally acceptable by the occupants. Vernacular buildings met the cultural and
psychological requirements of the users. The vernacular can be defined as the indigenous
architecture of a place made of available materials and technology, whichmeets the physiological
and socio-cultural needs of its users and can be easily adjustedaccording to changing needs (Hanga,
2009).
Presently, the vernacular has been largely ignored by architects and they continue to draw
inspiration from western designs (Chokor, 2005). Low-cost housing designs are modelled on these
western designs in both Kano (Ogu, 2002; Jiboye, 2004; Chokor, 2005; Muhammad-Oumar,
2008) and Kuala Lumpur (Zaiton & Ahmad, 2007; Mohit, Mansur, Razidah, 2009). The low-cost
housing designs are characterised by inadequate number of rooms, inadequate space in the kitchen,
visibility of the kitchen from the living room etc. The key problem with the low-cost housing
design is incompatibility with the needs of the users and their preferences are marginalised. This
results in residential dissatisfaction and contradiction between the residence and the way of life of
the occupants (Zaiton et al., 2007). They further postulate that the lack of cultural consideration in
housing design will have negative effects on the way of life over a period of time. Residential
351
dissatisfaction affects the quality of life (Lu, 1999) and causes unsuccessful ageing (Phillip, Siu,
Yeh and Cheng, 2004).
In spite, of the contributions that the vernacular can make to the problems of shelter
especially in developing countries, it continues to be ignored.
Although, there are many studies on the vernacular since Paul Oliver pioneered the subject
with his edition of ‘Encyclopaedia of vernacular architecture of the world’ (Ozkan, 2006), there are
few cross-cultural studies.
According to Denyer (1978) cross cultural studies provide solution to the problem of
settlement patterns in developing countries. In addition, they also show that the same shelter
solution cannot be adopted for all cultures. For instance even though the Hausa and Malay have the
same religion (Islam), their architectural solutions are bound to vary. Thus, this study has the
following objectives:
1. To establish the characteristics of Hausa and Malay vernacular architecture.
2. To compare Hausa and Malay vernacular architecture.
2 BACKGROUND ON STUDY AREA
2.1 Background on Kano
Figure 1: Map of Nigeria showing Kano
Kano (Figure 1) is referred to as centre of commerce and it is the most populous state in
Nigeria according to the 2006 census with a population of 9,383682 and an area of 20, 760 sq km. It
was established in July, 1967 (Sani and Sulaiman, n.d). Ado-Kurawa (2006) asserts that Kano city
has always being the capital of Kano and it has expanded over the years to become the third largest
conurbation in Nigeria. The earliest inhabitants of Kano; the abagayawa were Hausa speaking
people, hence the language was adopted by all.
Kano has a mixture of races from different parts of Nigeria; Yoruba, Igbo, Ibira, but the
majority are Hausa. Hausa is the most widely spoken language in West Africa. A Hausa person is
defined as:“One who speaks Hausa fluently and has it as his first language by descent or
352
assimilation. Such a person is a Muslim or at least bears a Muslim name and wears attire unique to
the Hausa” (Adamu as cited in Ado-Kurawa, 2006).
There are four seasons in Kano namely; hot and dry, warm and wet, warm and dry, and cool
and dry (Sani and Suleiman, n.d). The temperature in Kano ranges between a maximum of 33ºC
and a minimum of 15.8ºC but sometimes during harmattan the temperature drops to as low as 10ºC
(Ado-Kurawa, 2006).
2.2 Background on Kuala Lumpur
Kuala Lumpur (Figure 2) is the economic and business centre of Malaysia with a
population of 1.58mil in 2006 and an area of 243 sqkm. It has its origin in the 1850s when tin
mines were opened at Ampang based on the directive of the Malay chief Raja Abdullah.
Figure 2: Map Malaysia showing Kuala Lumpur
The climate in KL is tropical rain forest; with consistent warm daytime temperatures
punctuated by thunderstorms and average humidity exceeding 82%.
The main ethnic groups in KL are the Malays, Chinese, and Indians. Languages spoken
include Bahasa Melayu, Mandarin, and Tamil. However, Bahasa Melayu is the official language.
While Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Christianity, Confucianism are the main religion practised in
KL. However, our main concern in this study is the Malay, who speaks Bahasa Melayu and
practices Islam as their religion. Malays are Muslims in practice and by definition. The Malaysian
constitution defines Malay as: “A person, who professes the religion of Islam, habitually speaks the
Malay Language, conforms to Malay customs” (Malaysian Federal constitution, 160 [2]).
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3 METHODOLOGY
The methodology used for this paper is the literature review. As asserted by Blaikie (2001:
71), ‘The aim of the literature is to indicate what the state of knowledge is with respect to each
research question or group of questions’. Therefore, for the purpose of this research the objectives
of the literature review are; for a better understanding of the Hausa and Malay vernacular
architecture and to review past researches on residential satisfaction.
4 RESIDENTIAL SATISFACTION
Residential satisfaction is defined as the fulfilment of an earlier existing need, an aspiration,

or a desire (Garling & Friman, 2002). Mohit et al. (2009) define it as the feeling of contentment
when an individual achieves what they need in a house. However, Abdul Ghani (2007) defines
residential satisfaction as a reflection of the degree to which users’ needs are met. Thus, in this
study residential satisfaction is defined as the good feeling an individual has when they achieve
their desired residence and desired residential features.
It has an influence on general well being (Phillip et al., 2004).People that are satisfied with
their residence perceive themselves as having better health. Residential dissatisfaction on the other
hand, may result in adjustments and subsequent mobility (Lu, 1999). However, when moving is
impossible, dissatisfaction may lead to chronic dissatisfaction, poor health, and stress (Husna &
Nurizan, 1987; Ukoha& Beamish, 1997).
Researchers consider residential satisfaction either as a criterion of housing quality or as
predictor of behaviour (Amerigo & Aragones, 1997).
They add that individual compare their housing to a prefixed standard of residential quality,
as the gap decreases their satisfaction increases. In addition, residential satisfaction arises when the
actual and desired residences are in congruence, this is also characterised by absence of complaints
(Abdul Ghani, 2007).
Some researchers argue that residential satisfaction is not a good assessment tool because
people from the same social group may have different levels of satisfaction, which may vary with
time and situation (Dwira & Abdul Majid, 2006). However, Savasdisara, Tips, & Suwannodom
(1989) argue that whatever the limitation of residential satisfaction, it does not over through its
worth as an assessment tool. This is because the incorporation of people’s residence results in better
housing.
Residential satisfaction is generally assessed on three main components: the residential unit,
the neighbourhood, and management/services provided by developer (Husna et al., 1987; Ukoha et
al., 1997; Abdul Ghani, 1997; Jiboye, 2009; Mohit et al., 2009). Studies on residential satisfaction
in Nigeria have documented residential dissatisfaction on the residential unit component by about
50% of the respondents of public housing in Abuja (Ukoha et al., 1997). One of the complaints is
lack of privacy. However, satisfaction was recorded on the residential unit component in other
locations (Ogu, 2002; Jiboye, 2009). In Ogu (2002), dissatisfaction with neighbourhood component
was apparent in different zones of Ibadan. Another interesting finding is reported dissatisfaction on
the housing management component by a great percentage of respondents in two different studies
due to management’s response to necessary repairs and discourteous attitude of management staff
towards residents (Ukoha et al., 1997; Jiboye, 2009).
Similarly in Malaysia, the findings of Husna et al. (1987) show that dissatisfaction is evident
on the residential unit component. One of the problems was the respondents were dissatisfied with
the space in the kitchen. Contrary to this finding, satisfaction with residence was apparent in two
studies (Abdul Ghani, 2007; Mohit et al., 2009). However, respondents had complaints on the size
of the low-cost housing unit, which was not congruent with the household size of about 30% of the
354
respondents (Mohit et al., 2009). Other findings show that the respondents are generally satisfied
with the neighbourhood (Husna et al., 1987; Abdul Ghani, 2007; Mohit et al., 2009) and the
management/services provided by developer components (Husna et al., 1987).
In conclusion, it is evident that residential dissatisfaction with low-cost housing is evident
on one component or the other in both Nigeria and Malaysia. One of the key problems is that the
residents’ socio-cultural needs and preferences are not incorporated in the design, which results in
satisfaction. On the contrary, the vernacular met the socio-cultural needs of the people far better
than western designs (Denyer, 1978; Oliver, 2003; Ozkan, 2006). However, architects do not look
at this vernacular building for inspirations because they are considered as back ward (Fathy,
1986).Dmochowski (1990) postulates that architecture must be embodied in the culture of the
people and the region in order to flourish and it must not be copied from foreign designs.
5 VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE
There are many definitions of vernacular; however, few are mentioned here. Vernacular are
distinct cultural expressions of people who live in a particular place, therefore, have become part of
the local architectural dialect (Vellinga, 2006).Paul Oliver (2003: 14) defined Vernacular as:
“….comprising the dwellings and all other buildings of the people. Related to their
environmental context and available resources, they are customarily owner-or-community built
utilizing traditional technologies. All forms of vernacular architecture are built to meet specific
needs, accommodating the values, economies and ways of life of the cultures that produce
them…..”
Based on these definitions of the vernacular, it can be defined simply as the indigenous
architecture of a place made of available materials and technology, which meets the physiological
and socio-cultural needs of its users and can be easily adjusted according to changing needs (Hanga,
2009).
Interest in ordinary buildings began in the 18th century, while the 19th century saw
researches in the vernacular(Asquith &Vellinga, 2006).
Oliver pioneered the subject and edited the “Encyclopaedia of vernacular architecture of the
world” (Ozkan, 2006). Consequently, several researches have been undertaken on vernacular
architecture and many are ongoing because of the growing interest in the field.
The vernacular has the following characteristics according to Rapoport (1969); Buildings of
the vernacular work with the site and also the micro climate of the region in their design and
construction, it allows buildings to accept changes and addition (such alterations would destroy the
façade of modern design), it places great emphasis on the importance of relationships between
building elements and the way this relationship can be achieved, and vernacular buildings have a
respect for the total environment and also other people i.e. being in harmony with the environment.
5.1 Hausa Vernacular House
The Hausa vernacular was determined by the climate, available materials, ancient belief and
symbolism. However, with the advent of Islam, it has had a profound and lasting effect on Hausa
vernacular (Moughtin, 1985). It achieved comfort, convenience and socio-cultural requirements of
the users (Denyer, 1978; Jiboye, 2004). Hausa vernacular housing forms (Figure 3) symbolised the
cultural identity, practice of the people (Chokor, 2005), morphological conditions, religion,
aesthetics etc (Muhammad-Oumar, 2008).
355
Legend:
T R T; toilet,
R; room,
LR; Living room,
R R
C; Courtyard,
S; Soro/Private foyer,
C Z; Zaure/entrance foyer,
LR LR
K; Kofargida/semi-private foyer,
HR; House head’s room.
LR
T
R S
HR
S
K Z
T Z
Figure 3: An example of a Hausa compound

Source: Adapted from Muhammad-Oumar, 2004:12
Schwedtfeger (1976: 58) describes Hausa vernacular “as the result of man’s struggle to
solve his essential needs for shelter in a given society with a specific type of family organisation, a
distinctive economy, technology and corpus of social and religious rules.
5.2 Characteristics of Hausa Vernacular House
1. Planning Characteristics: Hausa old cities are surrounded by defensive walls encircling the
palace, central mosque, market and domestic houses. The palace is centrally placed with the central
mosque in close proximity. The market was within the residential area, while the residential area
was divided into wards (unguwanni). Each ward consists of families sharing the same trade
example blacksmiths, butchers etc(Moughtin, 1985).Theplanning characteristics of the wards
include:
a. Proximity of neighbours: family compounds were in close proximity linked by a
complicated system of pedestrian walkways (Moughtin, 1985).
b. Streets: streets were narrow and twisting linking settlements (Denyer, 1978). These widen in
front of shaded sitting areas outside houses used as chatting grounds by the men folk and as
Koranic schools (Moughtin, 1985).
c. Orientation: according to Moughtin (1985) the house is oriented in the east direction; a need
required with the coming of Islam but coincides to some extent with Hausa cosmology. This
is because the east was an important cardinal point. According to this cosmology, a man is
born facing the east; he enters his house facing east and makes sacrifices facing east.
356
2. Building Design Characteristics: No matter the function a building is meant to serve it had a
varying combination of 3 main elements; the wall, the courtyard and the room (Moughtin, 1985).
For Hausa vernacular house these 3 elements have been combined and the resultant house has the
following characteristics:
a. Outside fence: It was the first thing a man erects when he wants to build a house of his
own, which is 3-4m high. The wall served as a protection against intruders and above all
ensured the privacy of the household (Moughtin, 1985). Privacy is one of the important
tenets of Islam (Omer, 2006) and it is strongly upheld by the Hausa people.
b. Courtyard: The house has a courtyard plan which gives privacy to the womenfolk (Denyer,
1978). There are two courtyards; one is semi-public that gives access to the guest room and
the zaure (entrance hut). While the other courtyard is private, encircled by the wives and
children rooms and referred to as the cikingida (Schwedtfeger, 1976; Oliver, 2003).
c. Zaure (Entrance hut): The house was accessed through the zaure(Moughtin, 1985) and it
served as a reception where male guests are entertained (Denyer, 1978). It was either
circular or rectangular (Hassan, 1989), if it was circular it may be thatched (Moughtin,
1985). According to Elleh (1997) thezaure prevents visitors from gaining access into the
heart of the house. Sometimes thezaure is rectangular in plan with a domed roof and also
served as prayer room.
d. Rooms: Rooms are arranged within the courtyard (Moughtin, 1985) or encircling the
courtyard (Hassan, 1989). Each wife had two rooms which are sometimes joined together to
form one large room. Often some rooms are only accessed through adjacent rooms (Denyer,
1978).
e. Kitchen: There are 2 kinds of kitchen; the dry season and the wet season (hut) kitchen.
These are located within the centre of the house. The dry season kitchen is an open space
partly surrounded by a low wall and shaded by trees (Denyer, 1978).
f. Hierarchy of functions: The entire building is zoned into public spaces, semi-public and
private spaces with the sole aim of ensuring the privacy of the womenfolk (Hassan, 1989).
This is of utmost importance because unless this spatial hierarchy is achieved the house is
incomplete (Muhammad-Oumar, 2008).
g. Organic in nature: the house decreases or increases in size through the decay of rooms or the
building of an additional room when the need arises. For instance a man starting a family
builds the surrounding wall and two huts for himself and his wife. However, as the
household grows more huts are added.
5.3 Malay Vernacular House

Malay vernacular architecture is a clear expression of the people’s culture and their lifestyle
(Lim, 1987). It was developed over many generations of Malays (Lim, n.d). The Malay house
(Figure 4) met the privacy requirements of its inhabitants (Zaiton et al., 2007).
Figure 4: An example of a Malay House

Source: Adapted from Yuan (1987)
357
It also met the needs the aspirations of the users in terms of their culture, climatic and socio-
economic requirements. The construction of the house was done with timber. The Malays have
developed a very sophisticated system that allows changes to be made according to the user’s
requirements (Lim, 1987).
5.4 Characteristics of Malay Vernacular House
1. Planning Characteristics: the kampong (village) environment is cool and shady because of a lot
of greenery. There are no landmarks that would direct a visitor except for the mosque, clinic and
post office (Lim, 1987). The planning characteristics of the of the village environment include:
a. Proximity of neighbours: The neighbours are usually at a distance (Zaiton et al., 2007) and
shaded by trees (Lim, 1987). This provided the privacy requirements of the Malays.
b. Streets: there are no major roads, except the one leading to the village. Roads were minor,
unpaved pathways are most common (Lim, 1987).
c. Orientation: for religious purposes most Malay vernacular houses face Mecca (east-west
direction).
2. Building Design Characteristics: the ibu rumah (core unit) is the basic unit for the poor. They
tend to make additions to the core unit as their financial situation improves. The interior space of
the Malay houseis devoid of partitions, spaces flow freely and are only defined by changes in
level (Lim Jee, n.d).The Malay vernacular house has the following characteristics:
a. Entrance porch (Anjung): This is a transient area between the public and private zones of the
dwelling. It is lined with benches. Guests are entertained here and sometimes the residents
sit here to watch the village activities. However, the anjung is missing in the basic houses.
b. Ibu rumah: It is the largest space in the dwelling and it is raised above all spaces to show its
significance. It is a multi-functional space used for activities such as feasting, sleeping,
studying, ironing and eating. Young children slept with their parents as was the norm, while
separation of sleeping places for male and female children was achieved through moveable
partitions and flexible use of space (Zaiton et al., 2007).
c. Kitchen: the rumah dapur/kitchen is usually located at the back and at the lowest level.
d. Hierarchy of functions: the house was divided into public and private domains, which
provided the privacy needs of the Malay house residents (Zaiton et al., 2007). The public
domain comprising of the anjung and serambi gantung, are the places where guests are
entertained. While the private spaces; rumah ibu, selang and rumah dapur are restricted to
the household members and close relatives.
e. Flexibility of the House: the construction of the house is similar to the modern
prefabrication system. The timber components are made on ground and are later assembled.
This allows the house to grow with the needs of the users (Lim, n.d). The interior of the
house is free from partitions. Spaces are defined by changes in level. This allows for flexible
use of space especially in times of feast.
358
5.5 Comparison between Hausa and Malay Vernacular
Table 1: depicts the comparison between Hausa and Malay Vernacular.
Table 1: Comparison between Hausa and Malay vernacular
Hausa House Malay House

a. The house is divided into three main a. The house is zoned into public and private
zones; Public, Semi-public and domains (Zaiton et al., 2007). The private
Private (Muhammad-Oumar, 2008). domains are the ibu rumah, ibu dapur and
The private zone includes the Selang.
tsakargida (central courtyard),
rooms of the women and children
and the kitchen.
b. This zoning is done in order to b. Zoning ensures visual privacy for female
shelter the women from the preying family member from non-relative male
gaze of male guests. guests.
c. House is oriented in the direction of c. The house faces the direction of the
the Kiblah. kiblah.
d. The house is not complete without d. The basic unit is the ibu rumah (serves as
the zaure (entrance foyer), the main sleeping area).
tsakargida, d’aki (room) and
band’aki (toilet) (Muhammad-
Oumar, 1999 & 2008).
e. Hausa house is enclosed by a high e. One unique characteristic of the Malay
wall, windows are small in size. house is its openness; interiors are devoid
However, the inner section of the of partitions and furniture. Tall windows
house is characterized by a large are kept open throughout the day to allow
courtyard. light and ventilation into the interior.
f. The layout of the house is flexible f. The layout of the house is flexible to
such that it can easily accept allow modifications.
changes.
6 CONCLUSION
The aim of any housing policy is to meet the expectations of the target group. However,
residents of low-cost housing in Kano and Kuala Lumpur experience residential dissatisfaction on
one component of residential satisfaction or another. This dissatisfaction can affect their quality of
life. This residential dissatisfaction arises because the low-cost design does not take into cognisance
the culture of the users. Vernacular buildings on the other hand; developed by generations after
another satisfied the requirements of their users’ especially socio-cultural needs. Nevertheless, they
have been ignored by architects and are generally considered as backward. Evidence in Literature
suggests that there are invaluable lessons to be learnt from the vernacular (Oliver, 2003; Asquith et
al., 2006). Comparison between Hausa and Malay vernacular shows that even though both cultures
have a common variable; religion, which gives rise to certain residential feature requirements their
solutions to housing problem vary. This further shows that western models are not appropriate
housing solutions for all cultures.
359
In conclusion, if architects study the vernacular closely, they are bound to find numerous
lessons. The translation of the lessons learnt from the vernacular would ensure the creation of low-
cost housing that is user satisfactory.
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362
PREFERRED PUBLIC ART FORMS FOR DESIGNERS AND NON-

DESIGNERS
Fahimeh Malekinezhad
MSc. Student, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
Fahimeh.malekinezhad@yahoo.com
Hasanudin Bin Lamit, Assoc. Prof. Dr.
Abdullah Sani Ahmad, Assoc. Prof. Dr.
ABSTRACT
Public art as an element of aesthetic enhances the visual quality of the city and improves the spirit and
promotes the pride of people. However, the lack of consensus between designers and non-designers as
the public may cause failure in some public art projects. Designers may vary from non-designers in
two different categories: preferred public art forms and its implementation. There are some studies
who highlight these contrasts in implementation of one specific type of public art. Nevertheless, there
are few researches to explore the favoritism forms of public art. In this paper, the favorite public art
forms between designers and non-designers in Iran are recognized. The research methodology is
based on a quantitative questionnaire to find the three most preferred public art forms. The
respondents considered as designers are those students who have experiences in architecture, urban
and landscape design, and the rest is as non-designers. The results indicate both the significant
similarities and differences between designers and non-designers in various types of public art. The
high level of correlation does exist for both groups on the frequency of urban sculpture choices.
However, the low correlation is observed in the facade as the most public art preferred forms for two
groups.
Keywords: Public Art; Preference; Landscape Design; Designers and Non-designers
1 INTRODUCTION
Art increasingly employs in outdoor space design under the rubric of “Public Art”. It
contains all visual artistic expressions from traditional models to architectural and landscape
elements in urban design. A large category of artistic element design such as statues, sculptures,
murals, doors, windows, cover of buildings, columns, railings, reliefs, fountains, billboards,
banners, topiaries, benches, signage, paving designs, lightings, are included in public art definition
(Holman, 1997; Manuel, 2004). Public art in any forms takes a number of roles in the
environmental, social, economic, and psychological aspects (Robertson & Hall, 2001). The public
art’s advocators have claimed to “develop senses of identity, develop senses of place, contribute to
civic identity, address community needs, tackle social exclusion, possess educational value and
promote social change” (Hall & Smith, 2005; Robertson & Hall, 2001). Besides, people will enjoy
their daily life through growing art in the cities (Lynch, 1960). People who live and use the place
are the audiences of public art and in any artistic design project the role of its audiences is an
important key to success.
Disregard the public preferences and their displeasure may be causing behavioural problems
and vandalism of artistic designs (Semenza, 2003). In public art studies, the critics have usually
been focused on its contributions in urban projects, and the public preference has been ignored. In
fact, the failure of public art project can be due to the shortage of studies on the preference of its
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audiences. Thus, it is necessary for designers to be informed about the public artistic preferences
and design in such a way that it would be delightful in public and their own eyes as well.
What the paper has set out to explore is an exploration of the designers and non-designers’
responses for these important elements of urban design. In this comparison study, the preferences
of respondents for three most favoured public art forms are identified. To do this, a variety of public
art forms were taken from literature review including the artworks that are placed in public spaces,
the artistic elements' design in landscape, and those architectural elements that contribute to
landscape design. After that, the similarities and dissimilarities of two groups’ attitudes for these
outdoor art elements are investigated and discussed.
2 BACKGROUND OF STUDY
In spite of the significant role of public art in public domain, a few studies have investigated
the public preferences for its various types. There are several researches that indicated the lack of
studies about the public art audiences (Hall, 2007; Hall & Smith, 2005; Senie, 2003). The most
public art researches were based on the claims which it makes. For example, its claims in urban
redevelopment (Phil Hubbard, Faire, & Lilley, 2003; Robertson & Hall, 2001), the social impacts
on community (Semenza, 2003; Sharp, Pollock, & Paddison, 2005), and its financial benefits
(Roberts, 1995). This research is going to explore public preferences for various public art forms in
urban environment. Furthermore, it compares the favorite public art forms between the non-
designer group and designers groups.
This research is based on the theoretical aspects of architectural studies as (Winters, 2003)
explained “architecture just is public art”. In architectural studies, the similarities and
dissimilarities of the views of professionals and non-professionals are broadly compared. The trace
of this type of studies return to the late of 1960s (Wilson, 1996) and Hershberge was the first
researcher to seek intergroup differences (Brown & Gifford, 2001). Reliable evidences indicated the
existence of differences between these two groups (Akalin, Yildirim, Wilson, & Kilicoglu, 2009;
Brown & Gifford, 2001; Devlin & Nasar, 1989; Gifford, Hine, Muller-Clemm, Reynolds, & Shaw,
2000; Groat, 1982; Hershberger, 1969; Philip Hubbard, 1994; P Hubbard, 1996; Karmanov &
Hamel, 2009; Nasar & Kang, 1989). The base reason of differences between the professionals and
non-professionals have been highlighted as the architects training in school (Akalin, et al., 2009;
Devlin & Nasar, 1989; Michelson, 1968; Nasar & Kang, 1989; Purcell, 1986; Wilson, 1996). The
standard training of architects prevents to diffuse their evaluation as a group while the individual
differences within the public group make more heterogeneous appraisals. (Gifford, et al., 2000). In
spite of the public participants seem to be not proper, it is not logically right to use just the
professional preferences about what is in public domain. The evaluation that just based on the
architects’ preferences was rejected (Nasar & Kang, 1989). Since, professionals in their assessment
rely on their knowledge, and public evaluation is based on their emotions, combining their
preferences in a research could validate its results (Taylor, Zube, & Sell, 1987). Nonetheless,
architects disregard and denied public opinions because they are not aware of the best (Michelson,
1968). The jury and public evaluation have been compared in the competition of the Ohio State
University in Columbus for selecting the winner of the best fitting architectural form for the centre
of Visual Arts (Nasar & Kang, 1989). Its results indicated the criterion of architects of best, in fact,
is differing with public. Accordingly, the architectural theories of experts have failed to recognize
what the public like or prefer. It is determined that using of public in landscape evaluation would be
caused valid assessments that help designers to know more about public opinion.
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To establish this research, a review on architectural studies who concentrated on the

opinions of architects and layperson were conducted.
Quantitative questionnaire methodology was also conducted to explore the similarities and
differences of designers and non-designers’ preferences for public art forms.
3.1 Participants
The participants who took part in this study were Iranian students in Malaysian universities.
To determine the suitable sample size in each group and validation of the researches’ results (Vaus,
2002) data was collected from students in four international Malaysian universities (UTM, UPM,
UKM and Lim Kok Wing). Respondents in both groups were chosen based on their willingness.
Designers were post graduate students of landscape architecture, architecture, and urban. The
practical experience in design for selecting this group was compulsory. Non-designers’ group is
selected with different education levels without any knowledge on design. With these limitations in
the selection of respondents, the total of 109 respondents, 40 designers and 69 non-designers
between ages 18 to 56 were selected (Table 1).
Table 1 Participants Distribution
Participants Number Percent
Designer 40 37%
Male 23 21%
Female 17 16%
Non-designer 69 63%
Male 43 39%
Female 26 24%
3.2 Procedure
The study was conducted in April 2010 between designers and non-designers’ students.
Interviews took place one by one in the residential domains of the participants. At the beginning of
each interview, the aim of research was explained and respondents were guided to fill out the
questionnaire. Filling the forms were supervised where the interviewer made sure that participants
understand the procedure of answering correctly.
3.3 Questionnaire
Through division and categorization of the public art forms, nine principal forms are
selected including both traditional and modern types. The questionnaire contains two parts. The
first one relates to individual information of respondents like age, gender, education, and their
faculty, they belong to. The next part had just one question to identify those forms that are closely
associated with "Public Art". It was necessary for all respondents to indicate three most preferred
public art forms from a list of nine elements presented in a questionnaire. As, the numbers of “3”
was the most preferred type, “2” and “1” were second and third their preferences.
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4 RESULT AND DISCUSSION
The main aim of this research is to explore the most favourite public art forms for designers
and non-designers. This is followed by an investigation of the similarities and dissimilarities of
designers and non-designers on their favourite public art form. To answer the research questions,
three methods have been used through SPSS (16.0) including clustering groups, descriptive statistic
and two tailed significant operator.
The clustering method is used on the data obtained from the questionnaire to find whether the
participants’ preferences are recognized differently from each other or not. The clustering function
is a Two Step Cluster Analysis where all the variables are standardized by SPSS and clustering
criterion function is Schwarz’s Bayesian Criterion (BIC) and distance measurement is based on the
log-likelihood. The result shows (Table 2) that designers and non-designers are separated
completely in such a way that 100% of non-designers are in cluster one and 100% of designers are
in cluster 2. This clustering method is based on the nine public art forms as variables and
demonstrates the validity of data obtained in two different groups.
Table 2: Clustering Between Designers and Non-designers

Frequency Percent
Cluster 1
Designer 0 .0%
Non-designer 69 100.0%
Cluster 2
Designer 40 100.0%
Non-designer 0 .0%
Table 3 displays the preferences of designers and non-designers separately for each variable
based on the participant’s first, second, and third choices. The overall column in Table 3 shows the
percentage of appearance of public art forms. Table 3 is sorted by the overall column of the
designer’s preferences.
Designers’ preferences are similar to non-designers in three ways. Façade is the most popular
public art form in both groups as their first choice or overall percentage of preference. Urban
sculpture also is one of the three most common preferred public art forms between these two
groups. Moreover, Signage and relief have the least preference percentage for both groups.
However, in other forms of public art the preferences of designers and non-designers are notably
different.
Many differences between designers and non-designers preferences are accessible (Table 3).
Although façade is the most preferred form, the percentage of its acceptance is not close between
groups. Topiary was totally disregard by the designers (0%) as their first choice but was
considerable favoured (16%) by non-designers. Once again, this variance is extensive in billboards
as the first selection (13%) of non-designers and (3%) for designers. These results point out that
each group was different in their preference for the rest of the variables and was differed in the row
of their preference. It is also remarkable that the mass of designers’ preferences as a one group are
concentrated in three items of façades, urban sculptures, and urban furniture. In contrast, the
preferences of non-designers are divided into all variables. The diversity of the non-designers
opinions is simply apparent. These differences of the non-designers’ preferences are related to
individual differences and also to background and level of their education.
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To explore the differences between two groups and identify a similar preferred form, the
Independent sample T test as a compare means tool is used (Table 4). The result is sorted based on
Sig. (2-tailed) value (descending) as well as t value, mean difference and standard error difference.
Through this, the similarities and differences of designers and non-designers’ preferences for the
public art forms are noted. The Sig. value (p < 0.05) demonstrates the significant difference
between the two groups. These noticeable disagreements emerged for the variables of, topiary,
façades and also in urban furniture (slightly 0.01 more than 0.05). In comparison with other
variables, the urban sculpture has the greatest significant value which means the highest correlation
between two groups. To sum up, although façade is the first preferred public art form in both
designer and non-designer groups, urban sculpture has the biggest value of being similar in the first,
second and third choices for both groups.
Table 3: Designers Versus Non-designers’ Preferences
Overall First Choice Second Choice Third Choice

Façade
Designer 32% 58% 30% 6%
Non-designer 23% 32% 16% 22%
Urban Furniture
Designer 21% 10% 23% 31%
Non-designer 12% 9% 12% 14%
Urban Sculpture
Designer 17% 23% 15% 14%
Non-designer 16% 14% 17% 17%
Billboard
Designer 13% 3% 5% 33%
Non-designer 13% 13% 14% 10%
Paving Design
Designer 5% 3% 8% 6%
Topiary
Mural
Signage
Relief
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Table 4: T Test Results to Explore the Significance of Differences

Mean Std. Error
t Sig. (2-tailed)
Difference Difference
Urban Sculpture -0.61 0.54 -0.14 0.23
Mural 0.94 0.35 0.16 0.17
Paving Design 1.12 0.27 0.19 0.17
Relief 1.13 0.26 0.11 0.10
Signage 1.51 0.13 0.21 0.14
Billboard 1.56 0.12 0.31 0.20
Urban Furniture -1.93 0.06 -0.39 0.20
Topiary 2.81 0.01 0.54 0.19
Facade -3.96 0.00 -0.88 0.22
5 CONCLUSION
In this research, the preferences, similarities and differences of designers and non-designers
for public art forms were investigated. Supporting the results from previous studies, it is shown that
designers and non-designers are different in their preferences. Similarly, the clustering results
confirmed that there are significant differences between these two groups. It is also demonstrated
that the preferences of designers are closed together in three forms of facade, urban furniture, and
urban sculpture while the non-designers’ preferences are dispersed in the majority of variable
exceptions of two.
The analysis of designers’ preferences shows that facade and urban sculpture were the two
most preferred of the three selections. The mean information indicated that facade, urban furniture,
urban sculpture, and billboard were the most chosen between the groups. Furthermore, the overall
results show that urban sculpture and billboard were equally chosen in each group. However, there
are extreme differences in selection of other variables. The findings of the measurement of the
similarities and differences indicate that the urban sculpture has the most similarity among the
variables. The facade and topiary have the most differences in choices of the two groups. According
to this analysis, the consensus of designers and non-designers’ choices is on the urban sculpture.
The suggestion for future similar research is address the similarities and dissimilarities of designers
and non-designers for different types of this special preferred form.
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THE EFFECT OF DIFFERENT HOUSING STREET WIDTH ON FIRE

EMERGENCY ACCESS
Muhammad Zaly Shah Bin Muhammad Hussein, PhD.

b-zaly@utm.my
Chai Yun Ooi, BSc.
MSc candidate, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
june.yunooi@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
This research is conducted to determine the relationship between street width and fire apparatus
access at different types of terraced houses. Constructing a narrowed street can save development
cost, reduce vehicle speed and even provide a greener environment with lesser runoff and water
quality problem. However, when street width is less than the minimum for emergency access, the
street creates a physical obstacle for fire service activities. Narrow streets do not have enough space
for fire apparatus to access the emergency site and set-up rescue equipments. As a result, total
response time are reduced which may eventually lead to injuries and loss of life and properties. The
research objective, therefore, aims to identify the fire service risk due to street width and the resulted
accessibility issues to fire apparatus to access different types of terraced houses. Residential streets in
30 neighbourhoods in the town of Skudai were selected as the case studies for this research. Selected
streets were measured for their Actual Unobstructed Access Width (AAW) allowed for fire engine
access. Student t test was used to compare the average AAW of the streets in different types of
terraced houses. The t test method is also used to compare the average AAW of street approved
before and after October 14, 1997. Analysis result shows the accessibility is varied at different types
of terraced houses.
Keywords: (emergency access, street width, residential, development cost)
1 INTRODUCTION
Safety is always the most concerned issue to most of the people. Residents at each planned
residential area should have equal right for emergency access regardless of their wealth. Street that
provides sufficient space is crucial to allow the emergency vehicle to arrive on time and set up the
equipments. For this reason, a Standard Minimum Unobstructed Access Width (SAW) of six metres
is requested to allowed the two ways traffic. However it is often to see the streets are much
narrowed in low cost terraced housing area than medium and high cost terraced housing area. This
paper compares the fire apparatus accessibility at different types of terraced residential. Analysis
result shows the accessibility vary according to different type of terraced residential.
1.1 Research Objective
The research objective is to identify the different of the average of AAW in different types of
terraced housing area. The average of AAW will be compared among the residential streets at
different house types and to identify the efficiency of SAW in increasing the accessibility.
There are numerous of street devices resulted some constraints or minor problems to
emergency access (Joseph, 2005). Indeed there were streets designed purposely to narrow down the
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width size as a strategy to reduce the development cost (Neighbourhood Streets Project
Stakeholders, 2000). Moreover when the requests for low cost houses is comprised of 40% from the
total units of housing development with prices range fixed from RM25,000 to RM80,000
(JPBDJOHOR, 2001a). Like in most areas, the town of Skudai is also adopts the SAW of six metres
for all the terraced housing development (Malaysia, 1984, JPBDJOHOR, 2001b and Abu Bakar,
2005). However there is no or deficient research on the issue of neglecting the requirement for
SAW.
Many areas practicing the minimum access width, but there are still plenty cases of late
arrival for fire service. For example the fires took at Blaine Avenue Fire in United States (Kroll,
1999), Great Baltimore Fire (Enoch Pratt Free Library, 2004) and Detroit (Detroit Overlooks Fire
Hazards, 2009), narrowed streets were identified as the main obstacle to fire rescue. Eventually lead
to fire spread rapidly, deaths and heavily loss of properties. For a more recently case in Malaysia, a
fire resulted by lightning strike was took place at Amandari Condominium at Segambut in Kuala
Lumpur on May 2009 (Low, 2009). Fire apparatus failed to reach on-time because precious time
was wasted when drove through the limited entrance width.
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
Published report and studies were reviewed to understand the relationship between SAW and
fire service response. Street that offers the SAW has a significant role in reducing the fire service
response time. Furthermore the function of the SAW is emphasized in the application for planning
permission.
2.1 Fire
Fire is defined as a chemical reaction known as combustion resulted from four elements. The
fire tetrahedron is oxygen, fuel, heat and chemical chain reaction. Oxygen, fuel and heat are the
essential element for combustion while chemical reaction allows flame propagation (Abu Bakar,
2006). See Figure 2 for fire tetrahedron.
FUEL OXYGEN
CHEMICAL
REACTION
HEAT
Figure 2: Fire tetrahedron

Source: Abu Bakar, 2006
Fire has contributes to society development since thousands years ago (The Nature
Conservancy et al., 2004). Human use fire in their daily activities such as cooking food, generate
heat and energy, lighting when dark, to hunt and do farming. Fire becomes enemy when it grows
beyond of control. Fire can spread in minutes and kill in seconds (Abu Bakar, 2006).
According to Emery (2004), a house fire spread very fast and it is double every thirty
seconds. Once started, fire can spread from one square foot to more than five hundred square feet in
just five minutes. In United States, most of the fires that involved deaths are occurred between 10
p.m. to 6 a.m. (Emery, 2004).
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Fires are usually started as an accidental fire or incendiary fire. Accidental fire is either
resulted from natural disaster such as lightning-caused fire or carelessness of people or action
without intention to start a fire. Incendiary fire is caused by fire setter with intention to set
something or somebody on fire (USFA’s National Fire Academy, 2002).
2.2 Fire Service
Publics are urged to contact the fire and rescue department when a fire occurred. Fire and
Rescue Department is an organization that provides professional fire services. As stated in Fire
Services Act 1988 (Act 341) Section 5 (1) and (2) (Malaysia, 2001), Malaysia Fire Services have
responsibilities to extinguish, fight, prevent and control fires. Meanwhile Fire Services also protect
life and properties in the event of fire.
Although response time is very crucial in putting out a fire, however, there are still several
progresses have to be gone through from the moment fire started until fire extinguished. According
to United States Department of Homeland Security (2006), the total response time can be divided
into nine components. See Figure 3 for explanation at each response time component.
Fire extinguished
Fire department applies extinguishing agent to fire, looks for victims and searches
Combat
for fire extension.
Setup time Fire department arrives, pulls hose lines and established water supply.
Begins when the fire department’s appropriate apparatus leaves the station and ends
Drive Time
when it arrives at the scene.
Begins when emergency responders are notified and ends when appropriate
Turnout time
apparatus actually leaves the station.
Begins when the emergency call is answered and emergency responders are
Call processing and
Time
dispatched. Additional activities and information gathering may occur after

dispatch time
responders are notified, but this is not included in call processing/ dispatch time.
Fire detected within seconds, minutes or hours depending on location and time of
Discovery
day.
Combustion Fire grows undetected.
Ignition
Figure 3: Components of total response time
Source: United States Department of Homeland Security, 2006
Response time of a fire service is distributed into nine components. Firstly, ignition is a
status where fire set accidentally or incendiary. Combustion of fire continues grow with or without
notice. Fire is discovered after seconds, minutes or hours after growing freely. And then emergency
call is received by fire station and emergency responders are dispatched.
Turnout time begins from the moment emergency responders are notified and stops when
assigned fire apparatus have leaved the station. Time spent after fire engine left the station until
reach the respective scene is considered as drive time. Following with the time spent to set up the
rescue equipments such as pulling the hose lines and establishing the water supply.
Fire combat is a process where fire fighters extinguishing the fire, searching for victims and
fire extension. Response time end when the fire is actually extinguished. In order to provide an
efficient, effective and excellent fire and rescue service, Malaysia Fire Service Department has
promised to minimize the time for two components out of the total response time. The first
component is to minimize the turnout time for fire engine to leave the station within 90 seconds
373
after receiving the emergency call. The second component is the setup time. Once arrive the fire
scene, fire-fighters have to setup fire equipments within three minutes and release the first jet of
water (Fire and Rescue Department Malaysia, 2009).
2.3 Barriers Reduce the Response Time
In a fire response education brochure published by Mesa Fire Department (2008) has stated
the total response times are affected by several factors. For instance, fire location, driving distance,
road conditions, access, traffic and the availability of on call fire apparatus. In order to allow the
fire apparatus to reach the scene quickly, SAW is applied and enforced in development sector.
According to International Building Code (International Code Council, 2003), a road that
provides fire apparatus access from a fire station to a facility, building or portion thereof shall have
a minimum width of 20 feet (six meters) without any obstruction. An updated version is available in
2009 International Building Code (International Code Council, 2009).
While in Malaysia, fire apparatus access for buildings in excess of 7,000 cubic metres shall
be apart by street, road or open space with minimum width of 12 metres (Malaysia, 1984). However
there is no specific statement of SAW for fire apparatus access. Thereafter a circular and notice was
sent out by Abu Bakar (2005) to clarify the SAW is 20 feet (six metres) for fire apparatus. In fact,
the State of Johor has started to apply the SAW of six metres in its development projects since
October 14, 1997 (JPBD Johor, 2001).
2.4 Planning Permission
As stated in Sub-section 2 (1) Town and Country Planning Act 1976 (Act 172) (Malaysia,
2006a), planning approval is a written statement given by the local planning authority to authorize a
person to conduct a development before the application for building plan approval (Malaysia,
2006a). Development proposal report (Section 21A, Part IV Planning Control) and layout plans
(Section 21B, Part IV Planning Control) are the two documents required in the application for
planning permission under the act.
Both of these sections (Sub-section 2 (1) and Section 21A) are enforced from May 1, 1986
by Johor State (Malaysia, 2006) and 1st April 1987 by the District of Johor Bahru (Malaysia, 2006).
The act starts effective on 1st April 1987 for the town of Skudai as well since it is located within the
administration boundary of Johor Bahru District. See
Figure 4 for planning permission application process.
In the application process for planning permission, the proposed developments have to be in
lined with the requirements as written in Local Plan, Structure Plan, Planning Guidelines, Street,
Drainage and Building Act, Act 172 and Uniform Building By-Laws 1984. Both of the
development proposal report and the layout plans have to be submitted to the local planning
authority. The documents are then distributed to all the related departments for comments and
requirements checking. Same as the requirement for minimum fire apparatus access width is
checked and approved by Fire and Rescue Department and Planning Department in local and state
level.
As stated in Uniform Building By-Laws 1984 (UBBL) (Malaysia, 1984), Fire and Rescue
Department requests minimum street or open space separation width of 40 feet (12 metres) for
building in exceed of 7,000 cubic metres. The requirement is furthered clarified by the Director of
Fire and Rescue Department Abu Bakar (2005) that buildings below 7,000 cubic metres shall adopt
the SAW of 20 feet (six metres). For local and state planning departments (JPBD Johor), a planning
guideline related to road reserve was adopted in 14th October 1997 (JPBD Johor, 2001). The
minimum road width to be approved is 30 feet (nine metres) for low cost houses and 40 feet (12
metres) for terraced houses (JPBD, 2001). However, there is no mentioned on the requirement for
SAW.
374
Applicant
Information to be submitted during the TECHNICAL DEPARTMENTS

application • State Office of Land Administrator (Pajabat Tanah Daerah)/
[Section 21, 21A, subsection 21A(1), → State Office of Land and Mineral (Pejabat Tanah dan Galian)
subsection 21A(1A), Section 21B, 21C(Act • State Department of Town and Country Planning (Jabatan
172)] Perancangan Bandar dan Desa)
←−−−−−−−−−−− • Department of Irrigation and Drainage (Jabatan Pengairan
Local Authority/ Local Planning Authority dan Saliran)
• Public Works Department (Jabatan Kerja Raya)
• Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB)
CONSIDERATION
• Health Department (Jabatan Kesihatan)
Planning and Technical Committee Meeting • Department of Environment (Jabatan Alam Sekitar)
• Malaysia Fire and Rescue Department (Jabatan Bomba dan
DECISION Penyelamat Malaysia)
• Telekom Malaysia Berhad
Full meeting by Local or District Authority
• Sewerage Services Department (Jabatan Perkhidmatan
Pembentungan)
Local Authority/ Local Planning Authority • State Water Supply Authoruty (Pihak Berkuasa Air Negeri)
• Other departments
Applicant
Figure 4: Planning permission process

Source: JPBD, 2006
Based on the requirement for SAW, all the AAW for terraced houses in Skudai approved
after 14th October 1997 should not less than six metres. Within the six metres of SAW, the street
should be paved and excluded from any on street parking. As shown in the planning permission
process, the application for local streets planning is examined and approved together by Fire and
Rescue Department, local planning department MPJBT and state planning department JPBD Johor.
3 METHODS
Research methodology introduces the sampling method, data collection and data analysis.
The town of Skudai is selected as the study case for this research.
3.1 Data Sampling
The samples for actual survey were selected based on the house types and the adoption date
for SAW. The use of probabilistic sampling technique (Richardson et al, 1995) enables each street
to have equal opportunity to be selected. Therefore the survey result generally reflects all the streets
in Skudai. Under this technique, survey samples were selected by combining the use of simple
random sampling without replacement and stratified sampling (Richardson et al, 1995).
For house type’s sampling, Skudai is divided into 30 neighbourhoods. Each neighbourhood
is segregated into low cost and medium or high cost strata. Each local street in the neighbourhood is
classified either as low cost street or medium or high cost street. The street is then marked with a
different number for sample selection. The streets are chosen using the random number table
without replacement. The quantity of streets selected is based on the proportion for each stratum.
Same sampling procedure goes for the SAW adoption. All these 30 neighbourhoods are
divided into two categories: before and after the 14th October 1997. In each category, streets are
differentiated by low and medium or high cost. Number all the streets. Again, use the simple
random sampling without replacement to select the survey samples.
375
Table 8 displays the number of samples for each low cost neighbourhood. See Table 9 for the
selection of low cost streets approved before the adoption for SAW.
Table 8: Number of Streets for AAW survey in Each Neighborhood

Street types: Low cost houses
Planning permission: Before 14th October 1997
Existing street: 251 rows
Selected sample: 102 rows
Total of streets to be measured in each neighbourhood:

Bandar Selesa
Skudai Baru
Damai Jaya
Sri Skudai
Seri Orkid
:TOTAL
T.U.T.A.
Perling
Skudai
Timor
Nesa
Jaya
4 6 28 4 4 13 2 4 32 5 102
Table 9: Example of Streets Selection Using Random Number Table

Neighbourhood: Taman Perling
Streets to be surveyed: 4 rows
Street name Numbering Number from Selection Remarks

(low cost) “Random Number
Table”
Camar 15 00 For sample without
Camar 16 01 95701 √ replacement, ignore the
Pekaka 1 02 34102, 30802 √ repeated set of random
, Pekaka 2 03 number 30802, 09906, and
Pekaka 3 04 04808.
Pekaka 4 05
Pekaka 5 06 12106, 09906 √
Per. Perling 1 07
Simbang 18 08 83708, 04808 √
3.2 Data Collection
The Actual Unobstructed Access Width (AAW) is essential for the study to compare the
emergency accessibility at different housing area. A site survey was conducted to obtain the AAW
of the selected streets. A pilot survey was carried out to identify the sample size and shows total
samples of 270 streets. At the same time, some officers from the responsible fire department were
interviewed for their comments on the arrival time at different housing areas.
The data provided by the local authority only allows survey samples to be categorized into
two groups instead of many types. The first group is low cost terraced residential and the second
group is consisted of both medium and high cost terraced residential. The average AAW for each
group is compared based on the SAW of six metres. Same comparison for the average of AAW is
also applied for streets approved before and after 1997.
376
3.3 Data Analysis
Collected data is described with percentage to show the composition of streets that meet or
fail to meet the requirement for SAW. In order to compare the average of AAW at different
categories, hypothesis was developed and determined using the Student T-test (Pagano, 2010). An
alpha (α) level of 0.05 is adopted in the inferential statistic. The hypothesis testing formula that
meets these data criteria is shown in Eq. (1):
(1)
where = obtained t value

= mean of the first sample
= mean of the second sample
= the two samples’ mean value assumed for null hypothesis. If there
is no different between the two groups, then both samples are
random samples from populations where and
.
= sum of squares of the first sample
= sum of squares of the second sample
= first sample size
= second sample size
377
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Overall Total Before 1997 After 1997
References:
L = Street width at low cost terraced
residential
M&H = Street width at medium and high cost
Figure 5: The composition of the street’s actual cleared passage that are above and below the
minimum access width.
The composition of the survey streets are categorized in Figure 5. Overall, nil of the samples
have met the requirement for SAW in low cost area. The streets are too narrowed for fire apparatus
access when there is two ways traffic. Samples shows the streets remain less accessible for fire
apparatus after the adoption for SAW in 1997.
Medium and high cost areas show a higher chance for fire engine to enter the local street
without obstacle. Nevertheless not all the sample streets have met the requirement for SAW. Only
29% of the total samples show the AAW of six metres. Samples show the adoption for SAW has
improved the accessibility for fire engine. The availability of streets with minimum six metres of
AWW has been increased from 22% to 50%. The comparisons for different categories of samples
are available in Table 10and Table 11.
This study will compare the average of AAW that allow the fire apparatus to access at each
low, medium and high cost terraced residential area. The following sections explain the methods
used to obtain the study result. The last row of each table discusses the study result.
378
Table 10: Summary for the Hypothesis Testing (Different Types of Terraced Residential
Area)
Hypothesis Test Average of AAW
Overall Total Before 1997 After 1997
H0: LO = MHO LB = MHB LA = MHA

H1: LO < MHO LB < MHB LA < MHA
Significant Value
0.000 0.000 0.018
(1-tailed):
Alpha Level: 0.050 0.050 0.050
0.000<0.050 0.000<0.050 0.018<0.050
Result:
Reject H0 and accept Reject H0 and accept H1. Reject H0 and accept
H1. H1.
In overall, the average Before the adoption for The adoption for SAW
of AAW in low cost SAW in 1997, samples did not reduce the
areas is narrowed than at low cost areas are AAW gap between the
medium and high cost narrower than medium different types of
area. and high cost area. terraced residential
Interpretation: area.
Medium and high cost
areas have wider AAW
for fire apparatus
access than low cost
area.
Table 11: Summary for the Hypothesis Testing (Before and after 14th October 1997)
Minimum width 6 metres
Hypothesis
Before 1997 & After 1997
Test
Low Cost Medium & High Cost
H0: LB = LA MHB = MHA
H1: LB < LA MHB < MHA
Significant
Value (1- 0.437 0.000
tailed):
Alpha Level: 0.050 0.050
0.437 > 0.050 0.000<0.050
Result:
Fail to reject H0. Reject H0 and accept H1.
When comparing the average AAW in For medium and high cost residential,
low cost areas, analysis result shows the average of AAW is getting higher.
no improvement after the adoption for
Interpretation:
SAW in 1997. Streets approved after 1997 are wider
and shows higher probability for fire
apparatus access in two-ways traffic.
379
5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Analysis result has proved the fire apparatus accessibility is not consistent when it arrives at
different type of terraced residential in Skudai.
Fire apparatus has fewer probabilities to enter a street that provides unobstructed two ways
traffic (six metres) at low cost area than medium and high cost area. The imposing of SAW (six
metres) in 1997 has not improved the accessibility for fire apparatus in low cost area.
Not all the samples in medium and high cost areas have met the requirement for SAW.
However, there are 29% of the streets have passed the minimum requirement for SAW. The
accessibility is getting better after the request for SAW in 1997.
The study concludes that the equal right for emergency access was affected by the
purchasing power in study area. In this case, most of the streets below the requirement for SAW are
located in low cost terraced residential which is the home to most of the lowest income groups. A
review was announced to change the road reserved from nine metres to 12 metres in low cost
terraced housing development in April 18, 2007 (Setiausaha Kerajaan Johor, 2007). Unfortunately,
none of the samples in this study are approved after the review. Therefore, a going on research is
recommended to examine the efficiency of the road reserve review based on this study.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to thank Dr. Zaly and Ms. Lai for their helpful input in producing this
research. My gratitude express to Mr. Shahrizal, Mr. Kesavan and Mr. Rosmainor from Larkin Fire
Station for their useful experiences sharing. Also thanks to Planning Department and Valuation and
Assets Management Department from MPJBT for providing the data which this research was based.
Appreciations go to the reviewers on this paper for their valuable comments.
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MiCRA 2010 – Management in Construction Researchers Association 9th Annual Conference and Meeting

9th ANNUAL CONFERENCE AND MEETING

Faculty of Architecture, Planning & Surveying

Assoc. Prof. Ahmad Ezanee Hashim, Department of Building Surveying, Faculty of

Assoc. Prof. Fadzil Hassan, Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Architecture

Assoc. Prof. Aini Jaapar, Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Architecture

Dr. Hjh. Faridah Ismail, Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Architecture

Dr. Zarita Ahmad Baharom, Department of Estate Management, Faculty of Architecture

MiCRA 2010- 9th ANNUAL CONFERENCE AND MEETING

A1 Development of a Framework for Managing the Maintenance of University 1-8

A2 Contribution of Education in UiTM to Facilities Management in Malaysia 9-18

A3 User Satisfaction on Cleaning Services in Higher Learning Institutions 19-30

A4 Faulty Design and Construction in Building Maintenance 31-46

A5 The Development of Government Property Management Procedure: Key Factors 47-56

A7 Satisfaction Level of Facility Management in Shop-Apartment Stratified 67-80

Theme B: Sustainable Development (Economics, Heritage& Conservation,

B2 Perception Towards Green Roof In Malaysia 97-105

B3 Cultural Shift Towards Successful of Environmental Management in 105-110

B4 Model dan Konsep Universiti Lestari 111-122

B5 The Methodologies Used to Evaluate 123-130

B6 Modernizing Construction Using Rapid Construction Concept 131-142

B7 The Seismic Analysis of Malaysian Bridges 143-154

B8 The Way Forward of Sustainable Construction and Green Technology in 155-166

B9 Design Buildings Optimally: A Lifecycle Assessment Approach 167-174

B11 Integrating Life Cycle Costing Model: A Literature Review 183-190

Theme C: Professional Integration (Services, Education, Knowledge

C1 Authoring Publishable Research in Construction Management: 199-212

C2 Applicability of Pre-Priced BOQ for Construction Work at Saudi Arabia 213-222

C3 Development of Production Rate Database for Construction Industry by Direct 223-236

Theme D : Construction Project Management (VM, WM, RM, Safety, ICT)

D1 The Implementation of Value Engineering Among the Malaysian 251-258

D2 Demolition Work in Malaysia: The Safety Provisions 259-270

D3 Risk Analyze of Factors Affecting Cost in Construction Projects 269-278

D4 Application of Industrialised Building System (IBS) in Malaysia: Barriers and 271-290

D5 Marketing VM services to achieve competitive advantage in the Malaysian 291-298

D6 Construction Waste Management Plan on Site for contractors in Malaysia 299-308

D7 Septic Tank: Effluent Discharge in Compliance to the Standard Regulation 309-316

Theme E: Contracts Management, Procurement and Dispute Resolutions

E1 Disputes Among Stakeholders of Construction Industry in Malaysia: The Case of 317-330

E2 Legal Issues of Partnering In Construction 331-340

E3 Readiness of the Malaysian Contractors in Adopting Mediation 341-350

Theme F: Strategic Planning, Urban Management and Architecture

F1 Comparison between Hausa and Malay Vernacular 351-362

F2 Preferred Public Art Forms for Designers and Non-Designers 363-370

DEVELOPMENT OF A FRAMEWORK FOR MANAGING THE

Olanrewaju Abdul Lateef, A

Keywords: maintenance management; universities buildings; users; Malaysia

i) The identification of the need for maintenance

2 BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE REVIEW

The quest to transform Malaysia into a knowledge-based economy (K-economy) where

i) What are the criteria to measure in building performance?

4 AIM OF THE RESEARCH

5 OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH

To achieve the above aim, the following objectives were developed:

6 THE HYPOTHESIS FOR THIS RESEARCH

Based on the problems stated above, this paper hypothesized that:

Poor service delivery

7 SCOPE OF THE RESEARCH

8 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND METHODS OF DATA ANALYSIS

CONTRIBUTION OF EDUCATION IN UITM TO FACILITIES

Zarina Isnin, MSc.

Keywords: Facilities Management, Higher Learning Education, Challenges, Opportunities