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Electronics
 Electronics

EDITOR:
SITI AMIRA OTHMAN

2019
 © Penerbit UTHM
First Published 2019

Copyright reserved. Reproduction of any articles, illustrations and content of

this book in any form be it electronic, mechanical photocopy, recording or any
other form without any prior written permission from The Publisher’s Office of
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Parit Raja, Batu Pahat, Johor is
prohibited. Any negotiations are subjected to calculations of royalty and
honorarium.

Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia Cataloguing in Publication Data

ELECTRONICS / EDITOR: SITI AMIRA OTHMAN.

ISBN 978-967-2306-37-5
1. Electronics.
2. Government publications--Malaysia.
I. Siti Amira Othman, 1986-.
621.381

Published by:
Penerbit UTHM
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
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Tel: 07-453 7051
Fax: 07-453 6145

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 Authors
Siti Amira Othman
Noraisyah Hafizan Sabturo
Nurul Naziela Ashar
Siti Sarah Saniman
Nur Sakinah Mahazir
Muhammad Faisal Fitri Mohd Raffi
Muhammad Nazmi Yusof
Muhammad Fawwaz Zahidi Ab Rahman
Mohammad Fakri Hussaini Hayazi
Wan Azmafaliyana Wan Azmi
Nur Hidayu Baharin
Wan Alin Wajihah Wan Azli
Nur Amalin Ayuni Ahmad
Amira Nabilah Mohd Rapi
Nur ‘Ainnaa’ Mardhiah Muhammad
Hajar Najihah Mohd Yazid
Maryam Fatima Abdullah
Annur Azlin Azmi
Nur Anis Najihah Abdul Ralid
Nur Atiah Farihah Mohd Hasni
Yusrina Mohd Yusof
Nur Izzati Zubir
Nur Sofiahani Alias
Nurul Nazurah Nasorudin
Syarifah A’qilah Syed Ahmad Kabeer
Nurin Iffah Mansor
Nur Faziatul Azida Daud
Nur Widad Hazwani Omar
Dhasheena A/P Subramaniam
Ayu Farisah Hajjar
Nur Khalisah Nabila Mohd Zaidi
Siti Nur Maisarah Mohamad Noor Fuad
Nur Ilya Syafiqa Mohd Khaldon
Ain Zamira Muhamad Zamri
Nurul Mawaddah Ahmazi
Nur Nadhirah Mohd Yusoff
Nur Zahira Mokhtar
Megat Sufi Aniq Mohd Rosli
Hazizi Nirzan Mohd Noh
Muhammad Firdaus Shamsul
Zulfariez Md Harun
Munirah Mohd Nasir
Safa Arisha Zaini
Sharifah Aimi Filzah Syed Adzmi
Zaihasra Husna Mohd Zapilar
Muhammad Aiman Omarruddin
Muhammad Amir Shariffudin Azman
Muhammad Zulfatah Arifin
Lim Ka Hao

v
 CONTENTS
PREFACE vii
CHAPTER 1 Hybrid Integrated Circuit
Noraisyah Hafizan Sabturo, Nurul Naziela 1
Ashar, Siti Sarah Saniman and Nur Sakinah
Mahazir

CHAPTER 2 Bipolar Junction Transistor

Muhammad Faisal Fitri Mohd Raffi, 4
Muhammad Nazmi Yusof, Muhammad
Fawwaz Zahidi Abd Rahman and
Mohammad Fakri Hussaini Hayazi

CHAPTER 3 Complementary Metal Oxide

Semiconductor (CMOS) 11
Wan Azmafaliyana Wan Azmi, Nur Hidayu
Baharin, Wan Alin Wajihah Wan Azli and
Nur Amalin Ayuni Ahmad

CHAPTER 4 Thin and Thick Film of Integrated Circuit

Amira Nabilah Mohd Rapi, Nur ‘Ainnaa’ 18
Mardhiah Muhammad, Hajar Najihah
Mohd Yazid and Maryam Fatima Abdullah

CHAPTER 5 Digital Integrated Circuit

Annur Azlin Azmi, Nur Anis Najihah Abdul 25
Ralid, Nur Atiah Farihah Mohd Hasni and
Yusrina Mohd Yusof

CHAPTER 6 Mixed Signals Circuit

Nur Izzati Zubir, Nur Sofiahani Alias, 31
Nurul Nazurah Nasorudin and Syarifah
A’qilah Syed Ahmad Kabeer

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CHAPTER 7 Analog Integrated Circuit
Nurin Iffah Mansor, Nur Faziatul Azida 36
Daud, Nur Widad Hazwani Omar and
Dhasheena A/P Subramaniam

CHAPTER 8 Transistor- Transistor Logic Circuit

Ayu Farisah Hajjar, Nur Khalisah Nabila 43
Mohd Zaidi, Siti Nur Maisarah Mohamad
Noor Fuad and Nur Ilya Syafiqa Mohd
Khaldon

CHAPTER 9 Monolithic Integrated Circuit

Ain Zamira Muhamad Zamri, Nurul 48
Mawaddah Ahmazi, Nur Nadhirah Mohd
Yusoff and Nur Zahira Mokhtar

CHAPTER 10 Transistor- Transistor Logic

Megat Sufi Aniq Mohd Rosli, Hazizi Nirzan 53
Mohd Noh, Muhammad Firdaus Shamsul
and Zulfariez Md Harun

CHAPTER 11 Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect

Transistor (MOSFET) 61
Munirah Mohd Nasir, Safa Arisha Zaini,
Sharifah Aimi Filzah Syed Adzmi and
Zaihasra Husna Mohd Zapilar

CHAPTER 12 Operational Amplifiers (OP-AMP)

Muhammad Aiman Omarruddin, 65
Muhammad Amir Shariffudin Azman,
Muhammad Zulfatah Arifin and Lim Ka
Hao

INDEXS

vii
 PREFACE

Electronics is the study of the flow of charge (electron) through various

materials and devices such as semiconductors, resistors, inductors,
capacitors and etc. All applications of electronics involve the
transmission of power and possibly information. Electronics is widely
used in information processing, telecommunication and signal
processing. The ability of electronic devices to act as switches makes
digital information and processing possible. Almost all devices we use
on a daily basis make use of digital electronics in some capacity. Digital
electronics simply refers to any kind of circuit that uses digital signals
rather than analog. It is constructed using circuits calls logic gates, each
of which performs a different function. Electronics circuits are widely
being used in industrial applications such as control of thickness, quality,
weight and moisture content of a material. Electronic amplifier circuits
are used to amplify signals and thus control the operations of automatic
door openers, power systems and safety devices. We have great pleasure
in presenting this book which is very comprehensive and dependable for
various electronics study. Every topic has been explained intensively to
suit the needs of readers.

Siti Amira Othman

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CHAPTER 1

HYBRID INTEGRATED CIRCUIT

Noraisyah Hafizan Sabturo, Nurul Naziela Ashar, Siti Sarah Saniman,

Nur Sakinah Mahazir and Nuralisha Qamarul Baharuddin

1.0 INTRODUCTION

An integrated circuit as an amplifier, oscillator, timer, counter, computer

memory or microprocessor. Miniaturized electronic circuit constructed
of individual devices such as semiconductor devices like transistor, and
passive component like resistor, bonded to a substrate or printed circuit
board (PCB). Semiconductor wafer on which thousands or millions of
tiny resistor, capacitors and transistor are fabricated. Serves as
component on PCB in the same way as monolithic integrated circuit
(MIC). The differences between the two types of devices is in how they
are constructed and manufactured.

Characteristics of hybrid integrated circuit

• Populated active (discrete passive) devices

• Flexible manufacturing,
• Usual application in applied-specific devices

Advantages of hybrid integrated circuit

• Circuit designer is complete freedom in the choice of resistor
value in thick film technology
• Composition and dimensions of resistor can be selected to
provide desired values
• Final resistor value is determined by design & can be adjusted
by laser trimming

Disadvantages of hybrid integrated circuit

• Costly
• Heavier than MIC
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2.0 APPLICATION OF HYBRID INTEGRATED CIRCUIT

• Telemetry is an automated communications process by which

measurements and other data are collected at remote or
inaccessible points and transmitted to receiving equipment for
monitoring. The word is derived from
• Biotelemetry or medical telemetry involves the application of
telemetry in biology, medicine, and health care to remotely
monitor various vital signs of ambulatory patients.

Figure 1: Application of Hybrid Integrated Circuit

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3.0 CONCLUSION

A hybrid integrated circuit is a miniaturized electronic circuit

constructed of individual semiconductor devices, as well as passive
components and bonded to a substrate or circuit board. As a result,
applications for integrated circuits are as varied as the imagination of the
designers.

REFERENCES
 http://documents.mx/documents/ic-lab-rec.html
 https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?doid=1228784.1228814
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2437593

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CHAPTER 2

BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

Muhammad Faisal Fitri Mohd Raffi, Muhammad Nazmi Yusof,

Muhammad Fawwaz Zahidi Abd Rahman and Mohammad Fakri
Hussaini Hayazi

1.0 INTRODUCTION

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch

electronic signals and electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor
material usually with at least three terminals for connection to an external
circuit.

Figure 1: Transistor

There are two type of transistors: The Bipolar Junction Transistor and
Field Effect Transistor. These two transistors are widely used in creating
microchips,electrical appliances,gadgets and many more.

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Figure 2: Family of transistors

Bipolar Junction Transistor or in short called ‘BJT’ is a transistor created

from the combination of two N-P diode or P-N diode. BJT has three
terminals or section like a FET. However, BJT has different terminal
which are the emitter junction,the base junction and the collector
junction.

• Emitter Junction
o The emitter junction is the section of one side that
supplies carriers (holes for PNP Transistor while
electrons for NPN Transistor)
o To operate,this junction must always be forward
biased to the base junction. This is to ensure that the
carriers supplied will not return back to the emitter
junction
o This junction is highly doped
• Collector Junction
o The collector junction is the section on the other side
of the emitter junction that functions to collect the
carriers supplied by the emitter.

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o This junction needs to always be reversed biased to

the base junction.This is also to prevent the backflow
of the carriers supplied.
o This junction is moderately doped
• Base Junction
o The base junction is the middle section which form
the two P-N juntion between the emitter and the
collector junction.
o This junction is lightly doped

Figure 3: (a) npn transistor (b) pnp transistor

2.1.1 Transistor operation

• Working on NPN transistor
-Forward bias is been applied in emitter-base bias
-This causes electron moves toward base. This will
constitute emitter current
-Reverse bias is being applied in collector-base bias
-Electron move to p-type base and they try recombined to
hole
-Only few electrons recombined with holes as base is
lightly doped

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Figure 4: Working operation of NPN transistor

• Working on PNP transistor

-Forward bias is applied to emitter base junction
-This cause holes to move toward base. This constitute
emitter current
-Reverse bias is applied to collector base junction
-This holes flow toward n-type base and try to recombined
with electron within the base

Figure 5: Working operation of NPN transistor

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2.0 APPLICATIONS OF BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

2.1 As a Switch

For switching applications transistor is biased to operate in the saturation

or cut off region. Transistor in cut off region will act as an open switching
whereas in saturation will act as a closed switch.

The areas of operation for a transistor switch are known as the saturation
region and the cut off region. This means that we can ignore the operation
Q-point biasing and the voltage divider circuitry required for amplication
and use the transistor as a switch by driving it back and forth between its
“fully-off” and “fully-on” regions as shown below.

Figure 1: Saturation and cut off region

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2.2 As an Amplifier

Figure 2 shows a single stage CE amplifier. C1 and C3 are coupling

capacitors, they are used for blocking the DC component and passing
only ac part. They also ensure that DC basing conditions of the BJT
remains unchanged even after input is applied. C2 is the bypass capacitor
which increases the voltage gain and bypasses the R4 for AC signals.

Figure 2: Single stage CE amplifier

The BJT is biased in the active region using necessary biasing

components. The Q point is made stable in the active region of the
transistor. When input is applied as shown below, the base current starts
to vary up and down, hence collector current also varies. Therefore,
voltage across R3 varies as the collector current is passing through it.
Voltage across R3 is the amplified one. The voltage across R3 is coupled
to the load and amplification has taken place. If the Q point is maintained
to be at the center of the load very less or no waveform distortion is will
take place. The voltage as well as current gain of the CE amplifier is high.

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3.0 CONCLUSION

Table 1: Advantages and Disadvantages of BJT

Advantages Disadvantages

The Bipolar Junction It has low thermal durability since it

Transistor show better component are sensitive to excessive
performance at high heat
frequency

The Bipolar Junction Exposure of the BJT to ionizing

Transistor also better at radiation cause radiation damages that
gaining voltage buildup defect occurs in the base
region that act as recombination
centers

The Bipolar Junction The Bipolar Junction Transistor has

Transistor has a larger very complex base control. So it can
bandwidth be confusing and requires a skillful
handling

The Bipolar Junction The switching frequency of Bipolar

Transistor can operate in low Junction Transistor is low
and high power applications

The Bipolar Junction The Bipolar Junction Transistor

Transistor has high current produce more noise
density

REFERENCES

 https://www.edomtech.com/en/?m=techview&id=1383
 https://www.electrical4u.com/application-of-bipolar-junction-
transistor-or-bjt-history-of-bjt/
 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0038110180
900611?via%3Dihub

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CHAPTER 3

Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS)

Wan Azmafaliyana Wan Azmi, Nur Hidayu Baharin, Wan Alin Wajihah
Wan Azli and Nur Amalin Ayuni Ahmad

1.0 INTRODUCTION

CMOS (complementary metal-oxide semiconductor) is the

semiconductor technology used in the transistors that are manufactured
into most of today's computer microchips.

Figure 1: Complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS)

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1.1 N-Type Metal Oxide Semiconductor (N-MOS)

In CMOS, both N-type and P-type transistors are used to design logic
functions. The same signal which turns ON a transistor of one type is
used to turn OFF a transistor of the other type. This characteristic allows
the design of logic devices using only simple switches, without the need
for a pull-up resistor.

N-MOS is built on a p-type substrate with n-type source and drain

diffused on it. In N-MOS, the majority carriers are electrons. When a
high voltage is applied to the gate, the N-MOS will conduct. Similarly,
when a low voltage is applied to the gate, NMOS will not conduct. N-
MOS are considered to be faster than PMOS, since the carriers in NMOS,
which are electrons, travel twice as fast as the holes.

Figure 2: Schematic Diagram of N-MOS

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1.2 P- Type Metal Oxide Semiconductor

P- channel MOSFET consists P-type Source and Drain diffused on an N-

type substrate. Majority carriers are holes. When a high voltage is applied
to the gate, the P-MOS will not conduct. When a low voltage is applied
to the gate, the P-MOS will conduct. The P-MOS devices are more
immune to noise than N-MOS devices.

Figure 3: Schematic Diagram of P-MOS

2.0 APPLICATIONS

CMOS technology is used in RAM, camera, CMOS battery,

microprocessors, microcontrollers, static RAM, and other digital logic
circuits. CMOS technology is also used for several analog circuits such
as image sensors (CMOS sensor), data converters, and highly integrated
transceivers for many types of communication.
CMOS processes were widely implemented and have fundamentally
replaced NMOS and bipolar processes for nearly all digital logic
applications. The CMOS technology has been used for the following
digital IC designs such as computer memories or CPUs, microprocessor
designs, flash memory chip designing, and used to design application
specific integrated circuit (ASICs).

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The function of CMOS RAM is to store information your computer needs

when it boots up, such as hard disk types, keyboard and display type, chip
set, and even the time and date. If the battery that powers your CMOS
RAM dies, all this information is lost, and your PC will boot with the
default information that shipped with the motherboard. In most cases,
this means you'll have no access to your hard disks until you supply
CMOS with the necessary information. Without access to your hard
disks, you won't be able to boot your operating system.

Figure 4: CMOS in RAM

Digital cameras have become extremely common as the prices have

come down. One of the drivers behind the falling prices has been the
introduction of CMOS image sensors. CMOS sensors are much less
expensive to manufacture than CCD sensors. Both CCD (charge-coupled
device) and CMOS (complementary metal-oxide semiconductor) image
sensors start at the same point they have to convert light into electrons.

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Figure 5: CMOS in camera

CMOS is an on-board, battery powered semiconductor chip inside

computers that stores information. This information ranges from the
system time and date to system hardware settings for your computer. The
standard lifetime of a CMOS battery is around 10 Years. However, this
can vary depending on the use and environment in which the computer
resides.

Figure 6: CMOS in battery

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3.0 CONCLUSION

The advantages of CMOS are the devices are high noise immunity and
low static power consumption. Since one transistor of the pair is always
off, the series combination draws significant power only momentarily
during switching between on and off states. Consequently, CMOS
devices do not produce as much waste heat as other forms of logic, for
example transistor–transistor logic (TTL) or N-type metal-oxide-
semiconductor logic (NMOS) logic, which normally have some standing
current even when not changing state. CMOS also allows a high density
of logic functions on a chip. It was primarily for this reason that CMOS
became the most used technology to be implemented in very-large-scale
integration (VLSI) chips. The noise immunity of CMOS approaches 50%
OR 45% of the full logic swing. The greater density of logic gate in
CMOS within the same material.

High input impedance. The input signal is driving electrodes with a layer
of insulation (the metal oxide) between them and what they are
controlling. This gives them a small amount of capacitance, but virtually
infinite resistance. The current into or out of CMOS input held at one
level is just leakage, usually 1 nA or less. CMOS outputs actively drive
both ways and the outputs are pretty much rail-to-rail.

CMOS logic takes very little power when held in a fixed state. The
current consumption comes from switching as those capacitors are
charged and discharged. Even then, it has good speed to power ratio
compared to other logic types. CMOS gates are very simple. The basic
gate is an inverter, which is only two transistors. This together with the
low power consumption means it lends itself well to dense integration.
Or conversely, you get a lot of logic for the size, cost and power.

The disadvantages of CMOS are CMOS more delicate to handle because

the size is small. it is also sensitive to electrostatic discharge. CMOS also
fragile and its need package.

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REFERENCES
 https://www.elprocus.com/cmos-working-principle-and-
applications/
 https://www.slideshare.net/suratmurthy/transistor-transistor-
logic-72733259
 http://www.iue.tuwien.ac.at/phd/entner/node33.html

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CHAPTER 4

THIN AND THICK FILM OF INTEGRATED

CIRCUIT

Amira Nabilah Mohd Rapi, Nur ‘Ainnaa’ Mardhiah Muhammad, Hajar

Najihah Mohd Yazid and Maryam Fatima Abdullah

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Thin and thick films are defined not only by their thickness but also by
the way they are deposited. Thin film is deposited on an insulating
substrate generally by vacuum deposition and finer structures are made
either by an additive method through masks or by a subtractive method
by means of photolithography. The thickness of a thin film can vary from
perhaps 50 angstroms to several thousands of angstroms. 1 angstrom
equal to 10-10 m.

The term thick film is derived from the fact that the fired film is fairly
thick. It also varying from 0.2 mil (5.08 mm) to 2 mils (50.8 mm). The
film is deposited through a screen (either silk or stainless steel) by
selective deposition of a paste or slurry, which is often called ink. The
substrate material is generally a ceramic or refractory material.

1.1 Characteristics of Thin and Thick Film

Thin and thick film of integrated circuit devices are larger than
monolithic ICs but smaller than discrete circuits. A discrete circuit is
composed of electronic components which are also called discrete
components such as passive components like resistors, capacitiors,
inductors and active components such as transistors, logic gates and
operational amplifiers (op amps).

A discrete circuit with its discrete components will be built on a PCB

(printed circuit board) or PWB (printed wiring board) where electrical
conductors make up a network of traces (flat wires) between multiple
layers of the circuit board whose specific arrangements were designed to
make the “magic” happen. In this sense, building a PCB is as making up

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a “sandwich” consisting of layers, some containing the precut conductive

traces, interstitial and redundant layers of laminate material (like the
peanut butter) a power plane and a ground plane.

An integrated circuit is self-contained and printed using a process called

photolithography. It’s like a black bix with a number if pins or conductive
leads to be connected to a circuit board, usually by solder reflow or hand
soldering. An IC is modular in the sense that specialized ICs contain their
own internal internal (and teeny tiny) resistors, capacitors and transistors
components that are highly specialized, miniaturized are printed on to a
substrate.

ICs can vary in size and complexity from very simple 555 timers to large
scale (LS) and very large scale (VLS) all they up to monstrous CPUs and
GPUs. ICs can be microcontollers/MCUs, programmable logic
controllers/PLC, application specific integrated circuits/ASIC, timers,
oscillators, voltage regulators or boosters and even memory chips like
EEPROM even though individual ICs will usually contain their own
clocks (frequency control) and memory.

A discrete circuit is much more loosely defined and could be very small
or huge and very likely contain ICs within it that are used modularly,
conveniently, almost as peripherals but incorporated on to a larger circuit
board with discrete components (e.g. resistors and caps large enough to
see). ICs are very convenient and have improved the possibilities of
electronics with smaller size and power dissipation (consumption).

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2.0 APPLICATIONS OF THIN AND THICK FILM

2.1 Thin Film Coating

Thin film coating technology is rapidly advancing. The performance

demands on virtually all types of thin film materials are continuously
increasing. To meet these demands, thin film coatings and structures are
becoming more sophisticated with engineered microstructure and
properties. Deposition processes and technologies are also changing
rapidly to keep pace with advanced thin film materials and applications.
Conventional deposition processes are also being adapted in novel
coating geometries to produce thin film structures with improved
performance and properties not achievable by conventional methods. In
addition, new deposition processes are being developed to achieve new
compositions and physical properties. Thin films are now being
engineered with electrical, optical and mechanical properties not possible
a decade ago.

The continuous growth of thin film coating technologies is driven by

industrial needs, that is, new coating functionalities, improvement of
coating quality, production cost-efficiency and environmental aspects.
Technological development of thin film coatings allows these useful
functions to be applied elegantly on the optical surfaces.

2.1.1 Sol-Gel Technology

Thin film coating is one of the well-known applications of sol-gel

technology. Thin ceramic electrolyte films have been deposited by sol-
gel coating on a porous electrode to form an electrode-supported SOFC.
Since internal resistance of the cell decreases with decreasing electrolyte
thickness, the SOFC with thin electrolyte films can be operated at
reduced temperature of about 700°C. Very thin films (0.5-10μm) of
yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) have been deposited onto porous
electrodes using the sol-gel technique. The sol-gel chemistry is also
modified to permit direct film deposition on porous substrates in a single
step. Another proposed sol-gel method uses spin coating while heating
the substrate. Sol-gel coating has been also tried to remove defects
produced after the slurry coating of YSZ on a porous anode. Sol-gel
coating of YSZ layers was also performed to protect a doped ceria

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electrolyte against reduction in the reducing atmospheres.

2.1.2 Biomedical Applications

The characterization of thin-film coatings is a prerequisite for

optimization of the coating process and the performance of thin films.
The techniques discussed here encompass physical (ELM, SPR, and
QCM) and structural (X-ray scattering) characteristics and chemical
(XPS, MS, and spectroscopy) and biological (radiolabeling, MS, and
SDS-PAGE) attributes of thin films. For X-ray, in order to increase the
glass angle of incidence, contribution from constructive interference
within many layers need to be collected this require multilayer coating.

2.1.3 Optics

For use in fine optics like ophthalmic lenses, camera filters, watches,
etc., thin film coatings play an essential role because the coating system
has to satisfy a complex set of requirements such as reduction of the
reflection in external view with high mechanical stability. The purpose
of any optical thin-film coating is to modify the transmittance and
reflectance properties of the substrate material to which they are applied.

2.2 Thick Film Coating

Thick film coating technology has been in use for decades, it is not
widely known that it can be used with the latest generation of alumina
ceramic materials. In fact, there is a compelling case for the use of thick
film coated ceramics in a variety of sectors and applications, where their
attributes offer many performance advantages.

2.2.1 Alumina Ceramics

It has been used in decades in electrical component and mechanical parts.

Providing a range of functions including solderable conductors, dielectric
components and resistors, the thick film process provides a bonded
coating on the surface of alumina ceramics. The process involves the
application of a specialist coating via techniques, which vary depending
on the geometry of the product. The most common of these are screen
printing and brush coating. For intricate designs, on flat surfaces, screen
printing is the most suitable method – the process itself is the only limiter
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on complexity – whereas brush coating is suitable when working with

radial surfaces. Thick film coating materials vary according to each
application but can include silver, silver palladium, silver platinum,
copper and gold, as well as a variety of resistor inks. Normally with a
thickness in the region of 10–12 microns, coatings are fired onto the
ceramic at around 850 ˚C to ensure a strong bond. Where materials
applied using conventional methods can fail as temperatures reach in
excess of 150 ˚C, coatings applied using thick film technology remain
stable at much higher temperatures.

2.2.2 Thick Film Heaters

Thick film technology has been used to dissipate heat from resistors.
Thick film heaters can be placed near uninsulated metal, have a small,
low-profile footprint and offer many different substrate options. It
provides best possible combination of heat transfer, thermal efficiency
and temperature uniformity. It also provides maximum temperature
response in low profile package. Substrates include Alumina (ceramic)
Aluminium, stainless steel, BeO (Beryllium Oxide) and AlN
(Aluminium Nitride). Thick film heaters are screen printed, creating
uniform heat distribution and enabling the use of unusual heater shapes
and various substrate materials. Different heating characteristics can be
created by varying the trace thickness. NTC or PTC thermistors can be
screen printed in the heater circuit to shut down the heating element once
the predetermine surface temperature has been reach. Thick film heaters
are perfect for many applications and currently support voltages up to
240 Vac and power up to 1000 W.

Thick film technology also can be used in a variety of applications such

as instrumentation, control and guidance systems, as well as IR and UV
detectors. Other types of coatings available include clear glazes and
coloured dielectrics, while the facility for electroplating offers further
additional options. The versatility of Morgan’s thick film coated products
coupled with the company’s Application Engineers’ design expertise
enables their use in situations where a suitable product might not
previously have been available. Thick film coating is a relatively
inexpensive process, with low tooling costs. Furthermore, with lead
times ranging between four and six weeks depending on the complexity
of the product, turnaround is quicker than many alternative technologies
currently available.
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In the last century, thick film technology has been adopted in the
fabrication process of various types of advanced devices. In particular,
during the last 60 years, thick film processes have played an important
role in the miniaturization of electronic components and systems. In fact,
compared to other film production processes, thick film technology
allows the deposition of relatively thin coatings and layers (5 to 25
microns) at low cost, with equipment that is easy to maintain and operate,
and with processes that can be easily adapted for mass production. On-
going miniaturization trends favor the fabrication of very thin films
measurable in submicron sizes or even in nanometers and angstroms,
which are mostly produced by vacuum-based methods. However, thick
film technologies remain popular. They are very common processes used
for manufacturing devices such as capacitors, resistors, hybrid circuits
and solar cells.

3.0 CONCLUSION
Table 1: Advantages and Disadvantages of Thin Film
Advantages Disadvantages

• Has a better • High cost

temperature • Need to be very careful
coefficient in handling
• Good high frequency
response
• Low noise
• Simple processing
techniques
• Resistors can be
trimmed to precision

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Table 2: Advantages and Disadvantages of Thick Film

Advantages Disadvantages

• Low fabrication cost • Low tolerance cause of

• Good high frequency trimming
response
• Highly stable and
reliable
• Ability to handle more
power
• Simple fabrication
steps

REFERENCES
 https://www.engineerlive.com/content/through-thick-and-thin
 https://www.bccresearch.com/market-research/advanced-
materials/thick-film-devices-applications-avm046b.html
 http://www.anafaze.com/dan.php?rewrite=products/heaters/he
ater1.cfm&pageid=63

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CHAPTER 5

DIGITAL INTEGRATED CIRCUIT

Annur Azlin Azmi, Nur Anis Najihah Abdul Ralid, Nur Atiah Farihah
Mohd Hasni and Yusrina Mohd Yusof

1.0 INTRODUCTION
An Integrated Circuit (IC) is an electronic device that gathers (or
integrates) a number of electronic components on a small semiconductor
chip. Usually, an IC has a particular functionality. This functionality
could be as specific as amplifying the voltage of a signal or applying a
logic AND on 3 inputs and it could be broad as a microprocessor. ICs
can be digital or analogue. Usually, analogue ICs handle continuous
signals, such as audio signals. Digital ICs handle discrete signals such as
binary values.
Digital circuits are circuits dealing with signals restricted to the
extreme limits of zero and some full amount. This stands in contrast
to analogue circuits, in which signals are free to vary continuously
between the limits imposed by power supply voltage and
circuit resistances. These circuits find use in “true/false” logical
operations and digital computation.

Digital integrated circuit are the one which work only on two defined
levels 1’s and 0’s. They work on binary mathematics. They can
contain million logics gates, flip-flops integrated on single chips. A
simple digital integrated circuit can be in the form of microchips.

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Processing of the digital signals. Digital signals mean two valued

(binary) signal which has only two possible typical values which are
logic low level (0) and logic high level (1). Digital Integrated Circuit is
integrated circuits that operate with digital signals at the input and output.
These are examples of digital integrated circuit:

• Logic gates
• Flip-flop
• Counter
• Calculator chips
• Memory
• Microprocessor

1.1 Logic Gate

A logic gate is an elementary building block of a digital circuit. Most

logic gates have two inputs and one output. At any given moment, every
terminal is in one of the two binary conditions low (0) or high (1),
represented by different voltage levels. The logic state of a terminal can,
and generally does, change often, as the circuit processes data. In most
logic gates, the low state is approximately zero volts (0 V), while the high
state is approximately five volts positive (+5 V).

Using combinations of logic gates, complex operations can be

performed. In theory, there is no limit to the number of gates that can be
arrayed together in a single device. But in practice, there is a limit to the
number of gates that can be packed into a given physical space. Arrays
of logic gates are found in digital integrated circuits (ICs). As IC
technology advances, the required physical volume for each individual
logic gate decreases and digital devices of the same or smaller size
become capable of performing ever-more-complicated operations at
ever-increasing speeds. There are seven basic logic gates: AND, OR,
XOR, NOT, NAND, NOR, and XNOR.

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AND gate

1) The AND gate is so named because, if 0 is called "false" and 1 is

called "true," the gate acts in the same way as the logical "and"
operator. The following illustration and table show the circuit
symbol and logic combinations for an AND gate. (In the symbol, the
input terminals are at left and the output terminal is at right.) The
output is "true" when both inputs are "true." Otherwise, the output is
"false."

OR gate

2) The OR gate gets its name from the fact that it behaves after the
fashion of the logical inclusive "or." The output is "true" if either or
both of the inputs are "true." If both inputs are "false," then the
output is "false."

XOR gate

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3) The XOR (exclusive-OR) gate acts in the same way as the logical
"either/or." The output is "true" if either, but not both, of the inputs
are "true." The output is "false" if both inputs are "false" or if both
inputs are "true." Another way of looking at this circuit is to observe
that the output is 1 if the inputs are different, but 0 if the inputs are
the same.

Inverter or NOT gate

4) A logical inverter, sometimes called a NOT gate to differentiate it

from other types of electronic inverter devices, has only one input. It
reverses the logic state.

NAND gate

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5) The NAND gate operates as an AND gate followed by a NOT gate. It

acts in the manner of the logical operation "and" followed by negation.
The output is "false" if both inputs are "true." Otherwise, the output is
"true."

NOR gate

6) The NOR gate is a combination OR gate followed by an inverter. Its

output is "true" if both inputs are "false." Otherwise, the output is "false."

XNOR gate

7) The XNOR (exclusive-NOR) gate is a combination XOR gate followed

by an inverter. Its output is "true" if the inputs are the same, and "false"
if the inputs are different.

2.0 APPLICATIONS OF DIGITAL INTEGRATED CIRCUIT

Most electronic equipment today uses integrated circuit, for example:

• Computer
• TV/ Radio / Video
• Digital Clock
• Cell Phones
• Robotic systems
• Telecommunication Systems
• Automotive
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• Medical Equipment
• Aerospace
• Children’s Toys
• Military Field
• Missile System
3.0 CONCLUSION

Digital ICs operate at only a few defined levels or states rather than over
a continuous range of signal amplitudes. These devices are used in
computers, computer networks, modems, and frequency counters. The
fundamental building blocks of digital ICs are logic gate, which work
with binary data, that is, signals that have only two different states, called
low (logic 0) and high (logic 1).

REFERENCES
 https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007%2F978-1-349-17084-
5
 http://www.suchitav.com/digital-integrated-circuit
 http://www.sci.brooklyn.cuny.edu/~goetz/projects/logic/

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CHAPTER 6

MIXED SIGNALS CIRCUIT

Nur Izzati Zubir, Nur Sofiahani Alias, Nurul Nazurah Nasorudin and
Syarifah A’qilah Syed Ahmad Kabeer

1.0 INTRODUCTION
A mixed-signal integrated circuit is any integrated circuit that has
both analog circuits and digital circuits on a single semiconductor die.
Mixed-signal ICs are often used to convert analog signals to digital
signals so that digital devices can process them.

Figure 1: Type of signals

As most analog blocks are digitally controlled in these mixed signal ICs,
the analog block represents a significant challenge in the design,
integration and verification of the mixed signal solution. This is further
exacerbated by increasingly smaller feature size reductions and the
overall complexity of the system on chip (SoC) design. Functional
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verification must be carried out across many different modes of

operation, driving a need for behavioral models that accurately represent
the transient behavior of the transistor-level analog blocks. Special
attention needs to be paid to verification across process, voltage, and
temperature drift and in many cases random mismatch as analog circuitry
is more susceptible to these non- idealities compared to digital circuitry.

In addition to the many technical challenges, companies are also facing

serious problems in managing available resources, developing necessary
skills and improving collaboration among design teams, all of which
impact productivity and predictability critical to the profitability of a
mixed –signal project.

Once the design challenges are overcome, the benefits of mixed signal
solutions are significant and lead to innovative SoC solution. Analog
integration results in better system power consumption as functionality
is distributed in a single chip solution. This also leads to an increase in
throughput with faster system switching times and a reduction in system
noise. Mixed signal circuit are difficult to design and manufacture than
analog-only or digital-only integrated circuits. For example, an efficient
mixed –signal IC would have its digital and analog components share a
common power supply. However, analog and digital components have
very different power needs and consumption characteristics that make
this a non- trivial goal in chip design.

2.0 APPLICATIONS OF MIXED SIGNALS CIRCUIT

2.1 FM Tuner

During the past decade, there have been considerable advances in radio
frequency (RF) communication circuit design. These advances stem from
new RF architectures that were once considered impossible because of
low integration, high power consumption and poor process technology.
In addition, the availability of high-performance, dense sub-micron
CMOS technology has dramatically changed the approach to designing
RF communication circuits by enabling digital techniques.

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Designers have applied these techniques to many wireless

communication standards such as GPS, WLAN and cellular phone
standards, enabling robust, highly-integrated chipset solutions that
improve overall system performance and reliability. Integrating external
components and RF circuits with the digital baseband reduces the bill-
of-materials (BOM), decreases required board space, simplifies the board
level design of the application and improves manufacturability. The
Si4700 is the industry’s first radio tuner IC to leverage a digital low-IF
architecture and a 100 percent CMOS process technology, resulting in a
completely integrated solution.

Engineers can achieve large image rejection with the combination of

analog and digital circuits because the digital circuits match perfectly and
can be calibrated to remove analog imperfections. Another advantage is
the IF low-pass filters do not need to provide complete channel filtering
and, in many cases, only provide enough filtering to reduce the alternate
channel interferers and provide anti-aliasing filtering for the ADCs.
Engineers have implemented channel filtering in the digital domain to
achieve sharp filter roll off and attenuation while minimizing silicon area
and utilizing the advantages of high-density sub-micron CMOS.

The only major drawback with the digital low-IF architecture is that it
requires high-performance ADCs. The actual requirements of the ADCs
depend on the intermediate frequency, the amount of interference
filtering before the ADC and the dynamic range requirements of the input
signal.

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Figure 2: Block Diagram of the Si4700 Digital- Low IF FM Tuner

This IC leverages Silicon Laboratories’ proven digital low-IF receiver

architecture and synthesizer technology to deliver superior RF
performance and interference rejection. The digital low-IF architecture
allows for the elimination of external components and factory
adjustments due to analog process variations. This mixed-signal
architecture allows digital signal processing (DSP) to perform channel
selection, FM demodulation and stereo audio processing to achieve
superior performance compared to traditional analog architectures.

Digital architecture has revolutionized FM tuner design by enabling

complete CMOS integration of the FM receiver onto an IC. Single chip
FM tuners can ease the adoption of FM tuners in nearly any portable
consumer electronic device by simplifying the design process. In
addition, designers can test and guarantee the complete system at the IC
manufacturer’s test facility. This helps to improve the quality and
manufacturability of the end product.

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3.0 CONCLUSION

Typically, mixed-signal perform some whole function or sub-function in

a larger assembly such as the radio subsystem of a cell phone, or the read
data path and laser sled control logic of a DVD player. They often contain
an entire system-on-a-chip.

REFERENCES
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2437593
 https://www.ecnmag.com/article/2015/08/exploring-power-
efficient-inductance-digital-proximity-sensor-solutions-ultra-
low-power
 https://www.edomtech.com/en/?m=techview&id=1383

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CHAPTER 7

ANALOG INTEGRATED CIRCUIT

Nurin Iffah Mansor, Nur Faziatul Azida Daud, Nur Widad Hazwani
Omar and Dhasheena A/P Subramaniam

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Circuits can be classified into different types and criteria; based on

connections divided into two which is series circuits and parallel circuits,
based on the size and manufacturing process of circuit is integrated
circuits and discrete circuits and based on signal used in circuit is analog
circuits and digital circuits.

Integrated circuits play a very important part in electronics. Most are

specifically made for a specific task and contain up to thousands of
transistors, diods and resistors. Special purposes IC's such as audio-
amplifiers, FM radios, logic blocks, regulators and even a whole
microcomputer in the form of a micro controller can be fitted inside a
tiny package.

Figure 1: Pin-out and symbols for some common integrated circuit

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Most integrated circuits are in Dual In Line which means there two rows
of pins as shown in (b) and (c). The device is viewed from the top and
the pins are numbered in an anti-clockwise direction. High power
integrated circuits can generate a lot of heat and they have a metal tag
that can be connected to a heatsink to dissipate the heat. Examples of
these IC's are shown in figure (d) and (e) and (f). Symbols used to
represent integrated circuits are shown in figure (g) and (i). Symbol in
figure (g) is commonly used to represent amplifiers. Figure (i) shows an
operational amplifier. Signs + and - represent inverting and non-inverting
inputs.

Integrated circuits can be divided into two further groups: analog (linear)
and digital. The output voltage of a linear circuits is continuous, and
follows changes in the input. It is a different situation with digital IC's.
Their output voltage is not continuous. It is either LOW or HIGH and it
changes from one state to the other very quickly.

1.1 Analog Integrated Circuit

The integrated circuits that operate over a continuous range of signal are
called as Analog Integrated Circuit. These are divided as linear Integrated
Circuits (Linear ICs) and Radio Frequency Integrated Circuits (RF ICs).
Analog integrated circuit were primarily designed using hand
calculations and process kit parts before the invention of microprocessors
and other software dependent design tools.

On 1964, David Talbert and Robert Widlar at Fairchild kick-start a major

industry sector by creating commercially successful ICs for analog
applications. They introduced first widely used analog integrated circuit
on that year.

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Figure 2: Robert Widlar inspect the LM10 mask layout circa

1977(operational amplifier)

1.2 Process of Analog Integrated Circuit

Analog IC design process includes system design, circuit

design, component design, circuit simulations, system simulations,
integrated circuit layout design, interconnect, verification, fabrication,
device debug, circuit debug, system debug. Digital IC design can be
automated but analog integrated circuit design is very difficult,
challenging, and cannot be automated. The analog integrated circuit
involved with the following steps:

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Figure 3: Steps in analog integrated circuit

1.2.1 Block Level System

Primarily the ideas are implemented for designing block level design for
the desired analog integrated circuit. Different blocks are designed and
connected to obtain a complete block level system.

1.2.2 Component Level Circuit

Based on the block level system, different suitable components are used
and connected such that to form a component level circuit. Using this
circuit as the basic circuit for analog IC design, it is used for simulation.

1.2.3 Verifying Component Level Circuit

The component level circuit is used for verification. This circuit design
is simulated and the based on the simulations results, the component level
circuit of the analog integrated circuit is verified.

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1.2.4 Integrated Circuit Layout

After the verification of component level circuit of analog integrated

circuit using simulations. Analog integrated circuit layout is designed
using the physical translation. Thus, an analog integrated circuit layout
is designed.

1.2.5 Fabrication of IC

Fabrication of analog integrated circuits involves several steps such as

creating semiconductor wafer using semiconductor material (or directly
semiconductor wafer can be used). Integrating different electrical and
electronics components such as resistors, transistors, etc. on the wafer
and packing the chip to form package IC.

1.2.6 Testing and Debugging IC

The analog integrated circuit is then tested and debugged for any
checking the results with the estimated results. Then IC prototype is
designed and used for characterizing the integrated circuit and evaluation
board is used for evaluating the analog integrated circuit

2.0 APPLICATIONS OF ANALOG INTEGRATED CIRCUIT

There is different example for analog integrated circuit design such as

power management circuit, operational amplifiers and sensors that are
used with continuous signals for performing the function such as active
filtering, power distributing for component with in chip, mixing and so
on.

2.1 Active Filter

Active filter or analog electronic filter utilized active electronics

components like amplifier used for improving performance and
predictability of a filter by avoiding the bulky and expensive inductor.
There is different configuration of active filter (electronic filter topology)
that includes sallen- key filter, state variables filter, multiple feedback
filters and so on.

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2.2 Power Management Circuit

All the electrical and electronics components that are used and integrated
to design the integrated circuit required power. This required electrical
power is distributed to the on chip components using a network of
conductors designed on chip. Power management circuit include analysis
and design of these types of networks (network of conductor) that are
used for distributing power within the circuit.

2.3 Frequency Mixing

The frequency mixer also called as mixer (non- linear electrical circuit)
is an analog integrated design that is used for frequency mixing.
Frequency mixing can be defined as creating a new frequency from two
different signal applied to the circuit. There are also used for shifting
signals from one range of frequency to other.

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3.0 CONCLUSION

Table 1: Different between analog and digital

Analog Digital
Work with a range of varying Works with voltages that are in
voltage two states, zero and not zero.
Represent the binary 0 and 1

IC circuit inputs and output can Contain circuit whose input and
take on a continuous range of output voltage limited to two low
values and the outputs are or high
generally proportional to the
inputs
Used in aircraft, space, Used in microprocessor,
oscilloscopes computer,
clock
Design requirement are more Design requirement are less
drastic drastic
Analog output signal Digital output signal

REFERENCES
 https://jotrininfo.blogspot.com/search?reverse-paginate=true
 https://www.mikroe.com/ebooks
 https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/the-first-
widely-used-analog-integrated-circuit-is-introduced/
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CHAPTER 8

TRANSISTOR- TRANSISTOR LOGIC CIRCUIT

Ayu Farisah Hajjar, Nur Khalisah Nabila Mohd Zaidi, Siti Nur
Maisarah Mohamad Noor Fuad, Nur Ilya Syafiqa Mohd Khaldon

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Transistor- transistor logic (TTL) is a logic family which is mainly build-

up of NPN transistors, PN junction diodes and diffused resistor. The
basic building block of this logic family is NAND gate and there are
subfamilies of this logic gates those are standard TTL, advanced
Schottky TTL, Schottky TTL, low power TTL, high power TTL, fast
TTL etc. It was built in 1961 by James L Bui and commercially used in
logic design in 1963.

2.0 APPLICATIONS

• Mini-computer Processors

• Machine Tool Numerical Controls

• Video Display Terminals

• Printers

2.1 Mini-Computer Processors

TTL integrated circuits were a standard method of construction for the

processors such as the DECVAX and Data General Eclipse. A
minicomputer, is a class of smaller computers that was developed in the
mid-1960s and sold for much less than mainframe and mid-size
computers from IBM and its direct competitors. They were designed for
control, instrumentation, human interaction and communication
switching as distinct from calculation and record keeping.

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Figure 1: Microprocessors

• A microprocessor is a computer processor that incorporates the

functions of a central processing unit on a single integrated
circuit (IC) or at most a few integrated circuits.
• It is a multipurpose, clock driven, register based,
digital integrated circuit that accepts binary data as input,
processes it according to instructions stored in its memory, and
provides results as output.
• Besides, it contains both combinational logic and sequential
digital logic.
• Microprocessors also operate on numbers and symbols
represented in the binary number system. Integrated circuit
processors are produced in large numbers by highly automated
process, resulting in a low per-unit cost.

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2.2 Machine tool numerical controls

• The word NC which stands for numerical control refer to control

of a machine or a process using symbolic codes consisting of
characters and numerals.
• The word Computer Numeric Control (CNC) came into
existence in seventies when microprocessors and
microcomputers replaced integrated circuit IC based controls
used for NC machines.
• Numerical control is defined as the form of programmable
automation, in which the process is controlled by the number,
letters, and symbols.
• In other words, the numerical control machine is defined as the
machined that is controlled by the set of instructions called as
the program.
• The NC technology can be applied to wide variety of operations
like drafting, assembly, inspection, sheet metal working, etc.

2.3 Video Display Terminals

• VDT (video display terminal, or sometimes visual display

terminal) is a term used especially in ergonomic studies, for the
computer display.
• A display is a computer output surface and projecting
mechanism that shows text and often graphic images to the
computer user, using a cathode ray tube (CRT), liquid crystal
display (LCD), light-emitting diode, gas plasma, or other image
projection technology.
• The display is usually considered to include the screen or
projection surface and the device that produces the information
on the screen.

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2.4 Thermal Printers

• Thermal printers are also known as receipt printers, it is what

you get when you go to the ATM or grocery store.
• A thermal printer is a printer that makes use of heat in order to
produce the image on paper.
• Thermal printing does not make use of ink or toner unlike many
other printing forms but largely depends on thermal papers for
producing the images. They are also quiet popular in creating
labels owing to speed of printing.

3.0 CONCLUSION

Advantages:

 It is most rugged meaning least sysceptible to electrical damage.

 It has strong drive capability.
 It is faster in some versions.
 TTL requires only one supply voltage unlike CMOS which needs
two (i.e. Vdd and Vss). Vdd is between 3V and 16V and Vss is
ground.
 It has noise immunity better than ECL (Emitter Couple Logic) but
lesser than CMOS.
 Low cost and ease of use

Disadvantages:

 Consumes more power compares to CMOS family and hence it is

not suitable for battery powered devices.
 It has fan out of 10 which is less compare to CMOS. Logic circuit
having N fan out can drive N logic inputs.
 limited speed and frequency
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 Poor Noise Margin so TTL gates cannot be used in applications

where large noise voltages exist.
 very high power consumption at higher frequencies.

REFERENCES

 https://www.electrical4u.com/application-of-bipolar-junction-
transistor-or-bjt-history-of-bjt/
 http://pdcece.blogspot.com/2009_04_13_archive.html
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2437593

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CHAPTER 9

MONOLITHIC INTEGRATED CIRCUIT

Ain Zamira Muhamad Zamri, Nurul Mawaddah Ahmazi, Nur Nadhirah
Mohd Yusoff and Nur Zahira Mokhtar

1.0 INTRODUCTION

An IC is a complete electronic circuit in which both the active and

passive components are fabricated on an extremely tiny single chip of
silicon. Active components are those which have the ability to produce
gain. Examples are transistors and FETs. Passive components or devices
are those which do not have this ability. Examples are resistors,
capacitors and inductors. ICs are produced by the same processes as are
used for manufacturing individual transistors and diodes. In such circuits,
different components are isolated from each other by isolation diffusion
within the crystal chip and are interconnected by an aluminium layer that
serves as wires. A discrete circuit, on the other hand, is one that is built
by connecting separate components. In this case, each component is
produced separately and then all are assembled together to make the
electronic circuit.

J.S. Kilby was the first to develop (in 1958) an integrated circuit—a
single monolithic silicon chip in which active and passive circuit
elements were fabricated by successive diffusion and depositions. He
was soon followed by Robert Noyce who successfully fabricated a
complete IC including the interconnections on a single silicon. Integrated
circuits were made practical by mid-20th-century advancements in
semiconductor device fabrication. Since their origins in the 1960s, the
size, speed and capacity of chips have progressed enormously, driven by
technical advances that fit more and more transistors on chips of the same
size, a modern chip may have many billions of transistors in an area the
size of a human fingernail. These advances roughly following Moore’s
law, make computer chips of today possess millions of times the capacity
and thousands of times the speed of the computer chips of the early
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The word ‘monolithic’ means ‘single stone’ or more appropriately ‘a

single-solid structure’. In this IC, all circuit components (both active and
passive) are fabricated inseparably within a single continuous piece of
silicon crystalline material called wafer (or substrate). All components
are atomically part of the same chip. Transistors, diodes and other passive
components are fabricated at appropriate spots in the substrate using
epitaxial diffusion techniques.

Component interconnections are provided on the surface of the structure

and external connecting wires are taken out to the terminals. It is a
complete circuit requiring no ‘add on’. Despite some of its distinct
disadvantages, monolithic ICs are in wide use because for mass
production, monolithic process has been found to be the most
economical.

Each type of IC has its own advantages and disadvantages. Monolithic

circuits have the advantage of lowest cost and highest reliability.
However, they have the following disadvantages:

• Isolation between components is poor,

• Range of values of passive components used in the circuits is
comparatively small,
• Inductors cannot be fabricated,
• They afford no flexibility in circuit design because for making
any changes in the circuit, a new set of masks is required.

The film circuits have the advantage of forming passive components with
broader range of values and reduced tolerances as compare to monolithic
circuits. Isolation between their components is also better since they are
deposited on a substrate that is an insulator. Use of external discrete
active components allows greater flexibility in circuit design. These
circuits also give better high frequency performance than monolithic
circuits.

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However, they suffer from the disadvantages of :

• Not being able to fabricated active components,

• Comparatively higher cost,
• Larger physical size.

The chief advantage multichip ICs is their greater flexibility but they are
too expensive for mass production and have least reliability. Hence, such
circuits are generally used as prototypes for monolithic ICs.

2.0 APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRATED CIRCUIT

Applications for integrated circuits are as varied as the imagination of the

designers. Within limits, anything that can be designed and built with
discrete components can be put into an IC. Audio amplifier, video
processors, logic, memory, switches, radio frequency encoders and
decoders are just a few examples.

The range of IC applications is vast and growing daily. One of the major
applications is computing. Computers that once had thousands of
transistors have been reduced to a handful of ICs. The early computers
that were the size of a building are now outperformed in almost every
way by laptops and even handheld computers because of the use if ICs.
As ICs are developed, the design costs and production costs of equipment
are reducing. Reliability increases as large parts of the final product are
enclosed in single packages, reducing assembly errors, connection
problems and size of circuit boards.

It is now rare to see any electronic equipment that does not have at least
one IC. Indeed, some have only one IC and require no other components
of any kind. The real answer to the question is to look around. Wherever
electronics are used, there is probably an IC inside

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3.0 CONCLUSION
Advantages

• Miniature in size. Since the active and passive components are

integrated on to a silicon chip using fabrication process, the IC
becomes a lot smaller. When compare to a discrete circuit, it may
be at least a thousand times smaller.

• Due to a small size, the weight of the IC also reduces, when

compared to the discrete circuit.

• For the production of hundreds of IC’s the cost of productions is

very low and less time consuming. However, to produce hundreds
of discrete circuits on a PBC for the same logic takes more time
and increase the cost factor.

• The PBC consisting soldered joints will be less reliable. The

problems is omitted in IC’s because of no soldered joints with
fewer interconnections and thus highly reliable

• The small of IC’s causes lesser power consumption and lesser

power loss.

• In a discrete circuitry, if a single transistor become faulty, the

whole circuit may fail to work. This transistor has to be replace. It
is difficult to find out which component has failed. This problem
can be omitted in an IC by replacing and entire IC as it is low in
cost.

• As the IC’s are produced in bulk the temperature coefficients and

other parameters will be closely matching

• Improve functional performance as more complex circuits can be

fabricated for achieving better characteristics.

• All IC’s are tested for operating ranges in very low and very high
temperatures

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• As all the components are fabricated very close to each other in an

IC, they are highly suitable for small signal operation, as there
won’t be any stray electrical pickup.

As all the components are fabricated inside the clip, there will hot be
any external projections.

Disadvantages

• Low power rating. Since monolithic ICs are of about the size of a
discrete small signal transistor, they typically have a maximum
power rating of less than 1 Watt. This limits their use to low-power
applications.

• Poorer isolation between components.

• No possibility of fabrication of inductors.

• Small range of values of passive components used in the ICs.

• Lack of flexibility in circuit design as for making any variation in

the circuit, a new set of masks in required.

REFERENCES

 M. J. Moran. (1990). Integrated Circuit Design and Technology.

Springer US.

 D. Widmann. H. Mader. H. Friedrich. (2000). Technology of

Integrated Circuits. Springer-Verlag

 Berlin Heidelberg. Retrieved from

https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783540661993

 J. Lipman ‘EDA tools put it together’. Electronics Design News

(EDN). Oct. 26, 1995.

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CHAPTER 10

TRANSISTOR- TRANSISTOR LOGIC

Megat Sufi Aniq Mohd Rosli, Hazizi Nirzan Mohd Noh, Muhammad
Firdaus Shamsul and Zulfariez Md Harun

1.0 INTRODUCTION

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch

electronic signals and electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor
material usually with at least three terminals for connection to an external
circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's
terminals controls the current through another pair of terminals. Because
the controlled (output) power can be higher than the controlling (input)
power, a transistor can amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are
packaged individually, but many more are found embedded in integrated
circuits.

Figure 1: Transistors

Most transistors are made from very pure silicon or germanium, but
certain other semiconductor materials can also be used. A transistor may
have only one kind of charge carrier, in a field effect transistor, or may
have two kinds of charge carriers in bipolar junction transistor devices.
Compared with the vacuum tube, transistors are generally smaller, and
require less power to operate. Certain vacuum tubes have advantages
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over transistors at very high operating frequencies or high operating

voltages. Many types of transistors are made to standardized
specifications by multiple manufacturers. There are two type of
transistors which are The Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) and Field
Effect Transistor (FET). These two transistors are widely used in creating
microchips, electrical appliances, gadgets and many more.

1.1 Transistor-Transistor Logic

Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL) is a logic family built from bipolar

junction transistors. Its names signify that transistors perform both the
logic function (the first transistors) and the amplifying function (the
second transistor). It is the same naming convention used in Resistor-
Transistor Logic (RTL) and Diode-Transistor logic (DTL).

Figure 2: Diagram of Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL)

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TTL integrated circuits (ICs) were widely used in applications such as

computers, industrial controls, test equipment and instrumentation,
consumer electronics and synthesizers. After their introduction in
integrated circuit form in 1963 by Sylvania, TTL integrated circuits were
manufactured by several semiconductor companies. The 7400 series by
Texas Instruments became particularly popular. TTL manufacturers
offered a wide range of logic gates, flip-flops, counters, and other
circuits. Variations of the original TTL circuit design offered higher
speed or lower power dissipation to allow design optimization. TTL
devices were originally made in ceramic and plastic dual-in-line (DIP)
packages, and flat-pack form. TTL chips are now also made in surface-
mount packages.

The term "TTL" is applied to many successive generations of bipolar

logic, with gradual improvements in speed and power consumption over
about two decades. The most recently introduced family 74Fxx is still
sold today and was widely used into the late 90s. 74AS/ALS Advanced
Schottky was introduced in 1985. As of 2008, Texas Instruments
continues to supply the more general-purpose chips in numerous obsolete
technology families, thought at increased prices. Typically, TTL chips
integrate no more than a few hundred transistors each. Functions within
a single package generally range from a few logic gates to a
microprocessor bit-slice. TTL also became important because its low
cost made digital techniques economically practical for tasks previously
done by analogue methods.

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1.2 Classification of TTL

1.2.1 Open Collector Output

Transistor Q1 actually behaves as cluster of diodes placed back to back.

With any of the input at logic low, corresponding emitter base junction
is forward biased and the voltage drop across the base of Q1 is around
0.9V, not enough for the transistors Q2 and Q3 to conduct. Thus output
is either floating or Vcc, i.e. High level. Similarly when all inputs are high,
all base emitter junctions of Q1 are reverse biased and transistor Q2 and
Q3 get enough base current and are in saturation mode. Clearly output is
at logic low. (For a transistor to go to saturation, collector current should
be greater than β times the base current).

Applications of open-collector output:

• In driving lamps or relays
• In performing wired logic
• In performing wired logic

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1.2.2 Totem Pole Output

Totem Pole means addition of an active pull up circuit in the output of

the Gate which results in reduction of propagation delay.

Logic operation is same as the open collector output. Use of transistors

Q4 and diode is to provide quick charging and discharging of parasitic
capacitance across Q3. Resistor is used to keep the output current to a
safe value.

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1.2.3 In performing wired logic

It provides 3 state output:

• Low level state when lower transistor is ON

and upper transistor is OFF.
• Low level state when lower transistor is ON
and upper transistor is OFF.
• Low level state when lower transistor is ON
and upper transistor is OFF.

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2.0 APPLICATION

The Transistor-Transistor Logic were commonly used in variety of

electric and electronic appliances such as computer, radio, television, and
etc. The demand of TTL became very and high to replace the Resistor-
Transistor Logic (RTL) and Diode-Transistor Logic (DTL) due its high
fan-out and lower power consumption. Here some of the TTL application
in our daily life :-

1. Use in controller applications in providing 0 v to 5 v.

2. Used as switching devices in driving lamps and relay

3. Used in processor of mini computers such as DEC/VAX

4. Used in printers and video display terminals

CMOS VS TTL

1. TTL circuits utilize BJTs while CMOS circuits utilize FETs

2. CMOS allows a much higher density of logic functions in a

single chip compared to TTL.

3. TTL circuits consumes more power compared more power

compared to CMOS circuits at rest.

4. CMOS chips are a lot more susceptible to static discharge

compared to TTL chips.

5. There are CMOS chips that have TTL logic and are meant as
replacements for TTL chips.

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3.0 CONCLUSION

Table 1: Advantages and Disadvantages of TTL

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

It has open collector output that is suitable Noise immunity is not very high
for wired GATE

Cheap Higher Power consumption

Reliable Because of isolation problems, which

require more chip space, TTL VLSI
circuits are not possible in its
conventional form.
TTL gates producing almost all of the
logic functions are available in the market.

TTL gates exhibit low output impedance

for high/low states.

REFERENCES
 https://www.elprocus.com/transistor-transistor-logic-ttl/
 https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/worksheets/ttl-logic-gates/
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor%E2%80%93transistor
_logic
 https://www.slideshare.net/suratmurthy/transistor-transistor-
logic-72733259
 http://eesemi.com/ttl.htm

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CHAPTER 11

METAL OXIDE SEMICONDUCTOR FIELD EFFECT

TRANSISTOR (MOSFET)

Munirah Mohd Nasir, Safa Arisha Zaini, Sharifah Aimi Filzah Syed
Adzmi and Zaihasra Husna Mohd Zapilar

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor)

transistor is a semiconductor device which is widely used for switching
and amplifying electronics signals in the electronic devices. The
MOSFET is a core of integrated circuit and can be designed and
fabricated in a single chip because of these very small sizes. The
MOSFET is a four terminal device with source (S), gate (G), drain (D)
and body (B) terminals. The body of the MOSFET is frequently
connected to the source terminal so making it a three terminal device like
field effect transistor. A MOSFET is by far the most common transistor
in digital circuits, as hundreds of thousands or millions of them may be
included in a memory chip or microprocessor. Since they can be made
with either p-type or n-type semiconductors, complementary pairs of
MOS transistors can be used to make switching circuits with very low
power consumption, in the form of CMOS logic.

The MOSFET works by electronically varying the width of a channel

along which charge carriers flow (electrons or holes). The charge carriers
enter the channel at source and exit via the drain. The width of the
channel is controlled by the voltage on an electrode is called gate which
is located between source and drain. It is insulated from the channel near
an extremely thin layer of metal oxide.

The term of MOSFET stands for Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field

Effect Transistor and the name gives a clue to its instruction. The devices
had been known about several years but only became important in mid
and late 1960s. Initially semiconductor research had focused in
developing the bipolar transistor, and problems had been experienced in

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fabricating MOSFETs because process problems, particularly with the

insulating oxide layers. Now, the technology is one of the most widely
used semiconductor techniques, having become one of the principle
elements in integrated circuit technology today. Their performance has
enabled power consumptions in ICs to be reduced. This has reduced
amount of heat being dissipated and enabled the large ICs we take for
granted today to become a reality. As a result of this the MOSFET the
most widely used form of transistor in existence today.

There are a several MOSFET circuit symbols that are used.

Some MOSFET symbols are equivalents of each other, while others
indicate more detail about the MOSFET itself. As there are several
varieties of MOSFET, the symbols used to indicate them need to be
different.

Figure 1: MOSFET symbols for N-channel and P-channel types

(enhancement mode)

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MOSFET symbol used above generally indicates that the device has a
bulk substrate- this is indicated by the arrow on the central area of the
substrate.

The MOSFET provides some key features for circuit designer in terms
of their overall performance. For example:

• Gate construction: Gate is physically insulated from the channel

by an oxide layer. Voltages applied to the gate control the
conductivity of the channel as a result of the electric field
induced capacitively across the insulating dielectric layer.
• N / P channel: Both N-channel and P-channel variants are
available.
• Enhancement / depletion: Both enhancement and depletion
types are available. As the name suggests the depletion mode
MOSFET acts by depleting or removing the current carriers
from the channel, whereas the enhancement type increases the
number of carriers according to the gate voltage.

2.0 APPLICATION

The working of MOSFET depends upon the metal oxide capacitor

(MOS) that is the main part of the MOSFET. The oxide layer that located
among the source and drain terminal can be set from p-type to n-type by
applying positive or negative gate voltages respectively. If we apply a
positive voltage, holes will present under the oxide layer and the
repulsive force and holes will be pushed downward through the substrate
while the deflection region will be populated by the bound of negative
charges which are allied with the acceptor atoms.

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3.0 CONCLUSION

The transistors BJT and MOSFET are both useful for any different
applications. Yet, they have significantly different characteristics. BJT
which is Bipolar Junction Transistor, is a semiconductor device that
replaced the vacuum tubes of the old days. It is actually a piece of silicon
with three regions. BJT functions as a current- controled device where
the collector or emitter output is a function of the current in the base.

REFERENCES
 https://www.elprocus.com/mosfet-as-a-switch-circuit-diagram-
free-circuits/
 https://electronicsforu.com/resources/learn-electronics/mosfet-
basics-working-applications
 https://www.edgefxkits.com/blog/types-of-mosfet-applications
 https://www.quora.com/How-can-you-describe-the-difference-
between-bipolar-and-unipolar
 https://www.differencebetween.net/technology/difference-
between-bjt-and-mosfet/
 https://youtu.be/GrvvkYTW_0k
 https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOSFET

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CHAPTER 12

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS (OP-AMP)

Muhammad Aiman Omarruddin, Muhammad Amir Shariffudin Azman,
Muhammad Zulfatah Arifin and Lim Ka Hao

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Operational amplifiers are linear devices that have all the properties
required for nearly ideal DC amplification and are therefore used
extensively in signal conditioning, filtering or to perform mathematical
operations such as add, subtract, integration and differentiation.

An Operational Amplifier, or op-amp for short, is fundamentally a

voltage amplifying device designed to be used with external feedback
components such as resistors and capacitors between its output and input
terminals. These feedback components determine the resulting function
or “operation” of the amplifier and by virtue of the different feedback
configurations whether resistive, capacitive or both, the amplifier can
perform a variety of different operations, giving rise to its name of
“Operational Amplifier”.

An Operational Amplifier is basically a three-terminal device which

consists of two high impedance inputs. One of the inputs is called the
Inverting Input, marked with a negative or “minus” sign, (–). The other
input is called the Non-inverting Input, marked with a positive or “plus”
sign (+).

A third terminal represents the operational amplifiers output port which

can both sink and source either a voltage or a current. In a linear
operational amplifier, the output signal is the amplification factor, known
as the amplifiers gain (A) multiplied by the value of the input signal and
depending on the nature of these input and output signals

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Figure 1: OP-AMP symbol

1.1 Characteristics of an Ideal Operational Amplifier

• Open Loop Gain: The main function of an operational amplifier

is to amplify the input signal and the more open loop gain it has
the better. Open-loop gain is the gain of the op-amp without
positive or negative feedback and for such an amplifier the gain
will be infinite but typical real values range from about 20,000
to 200,000.
• Input impedance: Input impedance is the ratio of input voltage
to input current and is assumed to be infinite to prevent any
current flowing from the source supply into the amplifiers input
circuitry. Real op-amps have input leakage currents from a few
pico-amps to a few milli-amps.
• Output impedance: The output impedance of the ideal
operational amplifier is assumed to be zero acting as a perfect
internal voltage source with no internal resistance so that it can
supply as much current as necessary to the load. This internal
resistance is effectively in series with the load thereby reducing
the output voltage available to the load. Real op-amps have
output impedances in the 100-20kΩ range.

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• Bandwidth: An ideal operational amplifier has an infinite

frequency response and can amplify any frequency signal from
DC to the highest AC frequencies so it is therefore assumed to
have an infinite bandwidth. With real op-amps, the bandwidth
is limited by the Gain-Bandwidth product (GB), which is equal
to the frequency where the amplifiers gain becomes unity.

1.2 Characteristic of Real Operational Amplifier

• Finite gain: Open-loop gain is infinite in the ideal operational

amplifier but finite in real operational amplifiers. Typical
devices exhibit open-loop DC gain ranging from 100,000 to
over 1 million. So long as the loop gain (i.e., the product of
open-loop and feedback gains) is very large, the circuit gain will
be determined entirely by the amount of negative feedback (i.e.,
it will be independent of open-loop gain). In cases where closed-
loop gain must be very high, the feedback gain will be very low,
and the low feedback gain causes low loop gain; in these cases,
the operational amplifier will cease to behave ideally.

• Finite input impedances: The differential input impedance of

the operational amplifier is defined as the impedance between
its two inputs; the common-mode input impedance is the
impedance from each input to ground. MOSFET-input
operational amplifiers often have protection circuits that
effectively short circuit any input differences greater than a
small threshold, so the input impedance can appear to be very
low in some tests. However, as long as these operational
amplifiers are used in a typical high-gain negative feedback
application, these protection circuits will be inactive. The input
bias and leakage currents described below are a more important
design parameter for typical operational amplifier applications.

• Non-zero output impedance: Low output impedance is

important for low-impedance loads; for these loads, the voltage
drop across the output impedance effectively reduces the open
loop gain. In configurations with a voltage-sensing negative
feedback, the output impedance of the amplifier is effectively
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lowered; thus, in linear applications, op-amp circuits usually

exhibit a very low output impedance. Low-impedance outputs
typically require high quiescent (i.e., idle) current in the output
stage and will dissipate more power, so low-power designs may
purposely sacrifice low output impedance.
• Input current: Due to biasing requirements or leakage, a small
amount of current (typically ~10 nanoamperes for bipolar op-
amps, tens of picoamperes (pA) for JFET input stages, and only
a few pA for MOSFET input stages) flows into the inputs. When
large resistors or sources with high output impedances are used
in the circuit, these small currents can produce large unmodeled
voltage drops. If the input currents are matched, and the
impedance looking out of both inputs are matched, then the
voltages produced at each input will be equal. Because the
operational amplifier operates on the difference between its
inputs, these matched voltages will have no effect. It is more
common for the input currents to be slightly mismatched. The
difference is called input offset current, and even with matched
resistances a small offset voltage (different from the input offset
voltage below) can be produced. This offset voltage can create
offsets or drifting in the operational amplifier.

• Input offset voltage: This voltage, which is what is required

across the op-amp's input terminals to drive the output voltage
to zero.In the perfect amplifier, there would be no input offset
voltage. However, it exists in actual op-amps because of
imperfections in the differential amplifier that constitutes the
input stage of the vast majority of these devices. Input offset
voltage creates two problems: First, due to the amplifier's high
voltage gain, it virtually assures that the amplifier output will go
into saturation if it is operated without negative feedback, even
when the input terminals are wired together. Second, in a closed
loop, negative feedback configuration, the input offset voltage
is amplified along with the signal and this may pose a problem
if high precision DC amplification is required or if the input
signal is very small.

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• Common-mode gain: A perfect operational amplifier amplifies

only the voltage difference between its two inputs, completely
rejecting all voltages that are common to both. However, the
differential input stage of an operational amplifier is never
perfect, leading to the amplification of these common voltages
to some degree. The standard measure of this defect is called the
common-mode rejection ratio (denoted CMRR). Minimization
of common mode gain is usually important in non-inverting
amplifiers (described below) that operate at high amplification.

• Power-supply rejection: The output of a perfect operational

amplifier will be completely independent from its power supply.
Every real operational amplifier has a finite power supply
rejection ratio (PSRR) that reflects how well the op-amp can
reject changes in its supply voltage.

• Temperature effects: All parameters change with temperature.

Temperature drift of the input offset voltage is especially
important.

• Finite bandwidth: All amplifiers have finite bandwidth. To a

first approximation, the op-amp has the frequency response of
an integrator with gain. That is, the gain of a typical op-amp is
inversely proportional to frequency and is characterized by its
gain–bandwidth product (GBWP). For example, an op-amp
with a GBWP of 1 MHz would have a gain of 5 at 200 kHz, and
a gain of 1 at 1 MHz. This dynamic response coupled with the
very high DC gain of the op-amp gives it the characteristics of
a first-order low-pass filter with very high DC gain and low
cutoff frequency given by the GBWP divided by the DC gain.

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1.3 Basic Configurations

1.3.1 Inverting Configurations

Figure 2: Inverting Amplifier Circuit

In inverting amplifier circuit, the operational amplifier is connected with

feedback to produce a closed loop operation. When dealing with
operational amplifiers there two very important rules to remember about
the inverting amplifiers. Those are:

1) No current flow into input terminals

2) V1 is equal V2

However, in real world op-amp circuits both of these rules are slightly
broken. This is because the junction of the input and feedback signal
(X)is at the same potential as the positive input which is zero volts or
ground then, the junction is a “Virtual Earth”. Because of this virtual
earth node the input resistance of the amplifier is equal to the value of
input resistance.

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1.3.2 Non-Inverting Configurations

Figure 3: Non- Inverting Amplifier Circuit

In non-inverting amplifier, the input voltage signal is directly to the non-

inverting input terminal which means that the output gain of the amplifier
becomes positive in value in contrast to the inverting amplifier circuit,
the output gain is negative in value. The result of this is that the output
signal in phase with the input signal.

Feedback control of non-inverting operational amplifier is achieved by

applying a small part of the output voltage signal back to the inverting
input terminal via a Rƒ- R2 voltage divider network, again producing
negative feedback . This closed loop configurations produces a non-
inverting amplifier circuit with very good stability, a very high input
impedance, Rin approaching infinity, as no current flows into positive
input terminal (ideal conditions) and low output impedance.

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2.0 APPLICATIONS OF OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

2.1 Analogue Computers

• is a type of computer that uses the continuously changeable

aspects of physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical or
hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved.
• operational is uses in analogue computers to perform
mathematical operations in many linear, non-linear, and
frequency-dependents circuits.

2.2 Monostable Multivibrator

• Monostable multivibrators are electronic circuits which

produces a single timed rectangular output pulse when
externally triggered.

2.3 Bistable Multivibrator

• Both the states at the output are stable states,the circuit remains
in the same state till the external input is applied.if we want to
change the output state a triggering pulse is applied.
• Now the state obtained after the pulse is appliedis a permanent
stable state.If we want to change the state again, we have to
apply a triggering pulse.Thus by only application of trigger
pulse,output change its state. Thus to get original state back,two
triggering pulses need to be applied.
• So the frequency of the output is half of the triggering pulse
frequency.Thus it also called as divided by 2 circuits.

2.4 Summing

• Used to combine the voltages present on two or more inputs into

a single output voltage.

2.5 Differentiator

• Produces an output signal which is the first derivative of the

input signal.
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2.6 Integrator

• Produces an output voltage that is both proportional to the

amplitude and duration of the input signal.

2.7 Voltage follower

• When the output voltage directly follows the input voltage ,

meaning the output voltage is the same as the input voltage. For
example, if 10 V goes into the omp as input, 10 V comes out as
output.

2.8 Current to voltage converter

• As we know we cannot send output voltage of sensor to a long

distance because of addition of noise. So we first convert it into
current and then send to the destination. But at the destination,
we have to convert current into voltage form. The output voltage
of operational amplifier is directly proportional to the current
given to the inverting terminal.

2.9 Active rectifier

• Change the output or sin graph into positive sin graph

2.10 Active filters

• Can be used in construction of active filters which is providing

high pass, low pass, band pass, and band reject active rectifier.

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3.0 CONCLUSIONS

The ideal OP-AMP should have an infinite frequency response so that it

can amplify any frequency from DC signals to the highest AC
frequencies but most OP-AMP have limited bandwidth. OP-AMP are
extremely important electronic devices that facilitate the use of output
signals.

References

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operational_amplifier
 https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/opamp/opamp_1.html
 https://www.electronics-
notes.com/articles/analogue_circuits/operational-amplifier-op-
amp/op-amp-basics.php

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INDEXS

A L
Analog 13, 39, 44 Logic 19,28,43

B M
Bipolar 4, 8, 54, 59 Monolithic 1, 48, 52
MOSFET 13, 50, 65

C O
Circuit 13, 23, 42 OP-AMP 65, 67, 70
CMOS 11, 27, 40

D R
Digital 34, 42, 55 Resistor 13, 31, 55
E S
Electronics 19, 36, 56 Signal 4, 18, 69

H T
Hybrid 2, 3, 23 Transistor 5, 10, 64

I
Integrated 13, 32, 58
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