The Basics of Orthodontic Mechanics

Steven J. Lindauer

The biologic cascade of events that ultimately results in bone remodeling

and orthodontic tooth movement begins with the mechanical activation of
an orthodontic appliance. The force systems produced by orthodontic ap-
pliances, consisting of both forces and moments, displace teeth in a manner
that is both predictable and controllable. By varying the ratio of moment to
force applied to teeth, the type of tooth movement experienced can be
regulated by the orthodontist. Orthodontic appliances obey the laws of
physics and can be activated to generate the desired force systems to
achieve predetermined treatment goals for individual patients. Likewise,
any orthodontic appliance can be analyzed to define the mechanical force
systems it produces. Understanding the biomechanical principles underly-
ing orthodontic appliance activations is essential for executing efficient and
successful orthodontic treatment. (Semin Orthod 2001;7:2-15.) Copyright ©
2001 by W.B. Saunders Company

he physical concepts that form the founda- Predicting How Teeth Will Move
T tion of orthodontic mechanics are the key in Response to Application of
to understanding how orthodontic appliances Orthodontic Force Systems
work and are critical for designing new appli-
Orthodontic appliances are used to produce
ances. The principles are not unique to orth-
force systems that will displace teeth and initiate
odontics but are basic to the science of static
a biologic cascade, allowing teeth to move. Al-
mechanics. Physical laws of statics may be ap-
t h o u g h many treatment modalities and philoso-
plied to explain the force systems developed by
phies advocate different appliances, the force
orthodontic appliance activations. Simple me-
systems they p r o d u c e can be dissected into the
chanical principles can help deduce how teeth
same basic physical components: forces and mo-
will be displaced as a result of application of
ments. Forces alone can be used to move teeth
these force systems. It is the biologic reaction to
and will often p r o d u c e m o m e n t s causing the
these perturbations that ultimately results in
teeth to also rotate, tip, and torque. By using
orthodontic tooth movement. To control tooth
appliances to control rotation, practitioners gain
m o v e m e n t with the objective of achieving pre-
more control over how teeth move. Varying the
dictable results based on p r e d e t e r m i n e d treat-
ratio of m o m e n t to force applied allows the orth-
m e n t goals, the basic mechanics underlying
odontist to vary the type of tooth m o v e m e n t
orthodontic appliance activations must be thor-
effected.
oughly understood.

Forces

Forces are vectors, having both direction and

From the Department of Orthodontics, School of Dentistry, Vir-
ginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA.
Supported in part by the Medical Collegeof Vb~nia Orthodontic
Education and Research Foundation.
Ad&vss correspondence to Steven J. Lindauer, DMD, MDSc,
Department of Orthodontics, School of Dentistu, Virginia Common-
wealth University, Richmond, VA 23298-0566.
Copyright © 2001 by W.B. Saunders Company
1073-8746/01/0701-0002535.00/0
doi:10.1053/sodo. 2001.21053
magnitude. To move a tooth predictably, a force
needs to be applied in the desired direction,
with the desired magnitude, and at the correct
position on the tooth. Changing the direction,
magnitude, or point o f force application will
affect the quality of the tooth displacement that
will occur. In other words, if mesial m o v e m e n t of
a tooth is indicated, a force to push or pull the

2 Seminars in Orthodontics, Vol 7, No 1 (March), 2001: pp 2-15

 Basics of Mechanics 3

t o o t h in a m e s i a l d i r e c t i o n m u s t b e a p p l i e d . T h e
f o r c e c a n act a n y w h e r e a l o n g its line o f a c t i o n so
p u s h i n g is e q u i v a l e n t to p u l l i n g . I n c r e a s i n g t h e
A B(
m a g n i t u d e o f f o r c e will i n c r e a s e t h e a m o u n t o f
t o o t h d i s p l a c e m e n t initially. H o w e v e r , it is un-
c l e a r h o w f o r c e m a g n i t u d e is r e l a t e d to t h e r a t e
o f t o o t h m o v e m e n t , w h i c h is a b i o l o g i c a l l y con-
t r o l l e d p h e n o m e n o n . 1,9
Intuitively, t h e p o i n t o f f o r c e a p p l i c a t i o n also
has a n i n f l u e n c e o n t h e quality o f t o o t h m o v e -
m e n t . T h e r e is o n l y o n e p o i n t o n a t o o t h
t h r o u g h w h i c h a f o r c e can b e a p p l i e d t h a t will
m o v e t h e t o o t h in t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e f o r c e
w i t h o u t t i p p i n g o r r o t a t i n g it. This p o i n t is t h e Figure 2.The center of resistance in a tooth with full
c e n t e r o f r e s i s t a n c e a n d a f o r c e a c t i n g t h r o u g h it periodontal support (A). The center of resistance is
more apical in a periodontally compromised tooth
will cause p u r e t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e t o o t h as s h o w n
(B).
in F i g u r e 1.
I f a t o o t h w e r e truly a free b o d y f l o a t i n g in p r o m i s e d t o o t h with loss o f a t t a c h m e n t as s h o w n
space, t h e c e n t e r o f r e s i s t a n c e w o u l d b e coinci- in F i g u r e 2. +6
d e n t with t h e t o o t h ' s c e n t e r o f mass o r gravity. Forces, as vectors, c a n b e c o m b i n e d o r di-
H o w e v e r , t e e t h a r e r e s t r a i n e d by s u r r o u n d i n g v i d e d m a t h e m a t i c a l l y . Two o r m o r e f o r c e s a c t i n g
tissues, m o s t n o t a b l y t h e p e r i o d o n t a l l i g a m e n t at a single p o i n t c a n b e a d d e d u s i n g s i m p l e
(PDL). T h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e c e n t e r o f resistance, trigonometry or vector addition and repre-
t h e r e f o r e , d e p e n d s o n t h e size a n d s h a p e o f t h e s e n t e d as a single f o r c e at t h a t p o i n t . F o r e x a m -
t o o t h as well as o n t h e quality a n d level o f t h e ple, s e p a r a t e distally a n d extrusively d i r e c t e d
s u p p o r t i n g structures. I n a h e a l t h y t o o t h with an f o r c e s c a n b e c o m b i n e d i n t o o n e distal-extrusive
i n t a c t PDL, the c e n t e r o f r e s i s t a n c e is p r e s u m e d f o r c e as s h o w n in F i g u r e 3. Similarly, a single
to b e s o m e w h e r e b e t w e e n 1/3 a n d 1/2 t h e d i s t a n c e distal-extrusive f o r c e c a n b e r e s o l v e d m a t h e m a t -
f r o m t h e a l v e o l a r crest to t h e r o o t a p e x . 3 F o r a ically i n t o its distal a n d extrusive c o m p o n e n t s .
m a x i l l a r y c e n t r a l incisor, this is a p p r o x i m a t e l y
10 m m a p i c a l to t h e level o f p l a c e m e n t o f a n Moments
o r t h o d o n t i c b r a c k e t . T h e c e n t e r o f r e s i s t a n c e is
l o c a t e d m o r e apically f o r a p e r i o d o n t a l l y c o m - W h e n a f o r c e is a p p l i e d at any p o i n t o t h e r t h a n
t h r o u g h t h e c e n t e r o f resistance, in a d d i t i o n to

Figure 1. Center of resistance, shown throughout as a

solid black dot. A force acting through the center of Figure 3. Forces are vectors and can be combined or
resistance results in pure translation of a tooth. resolved mathematically.
4 StevenJ. Lindauer
m o v i n g t h e c e n t e r o f r e s i s t a n c e in t h e d i r e c t i o n
o f t h e force, a m o m e n t is c r e a t e d . A m o m e n t is
d e f i n e d as a t e n d e n c y to r o t a t e a n d m a y r e f e r to
r o t a t i o n , t i p p i n g , o r t o r q u e in o r t h o d o n t i c ter-
m i n o l o g y . If a distal f o r c e is a p p l i e d b u c c a l to
t h e c e n t e r o f resistance, t h e c e n t e r o f r e s i s t a n c e
o f t h e t o o t h will m o v e distally a n d t h e t o o t h will
r o t a t e m e s i o b u c c a l l y (Fig 4A). If a distal f o r c e is
a p p l i e d c o r o n a l to t h e c e n t e r o f resistance, as
w h e n an elastic c h a i n is s t r e t c h e d over t h e
bracket on a premolar, the center of resistance
will m o v e distally a n d t h e c r o w n o f t h e t o o t h will
tip distally (Fig 4B). If a n intrusive f o r c e is ap-
p l i e d facial to t h e c e n t e r o f resistance, t h e c e n t e r
o f r e s i s t a n c e will i n t r u d e a n d t h e c r o w n o f t h e
t o o t h will t o r q u e facially (Fig 4C).
A force applied directly through the center of
r e s i s t a n c e will cause p u r e t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e
t o o t h in t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e f o r c e with n o rota-
tion. I f t h e s a m e f o r c e is a p p l i e d away f r o m t h e
center of resistance, toward the crown for exam-
ple, t h e t o o t h will m o v e in t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e
f o r c e a n d t h e r e will b e a m o m e n t c r e a t e d to tip
t h e c r o w n in t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e f o r c e (Fig 5A).
I n c r e a s i n g t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e f o r c e (Fig 5B)
o r a p p l y i n g t h e s a m e f o r c e even f u r t h e r f r o m
t h e c e n t e r o f r e s i s t a n c e (Fig 5C) will i n c r e a s e t h e
tendency for rotation. Theretore, the magnitude
o f a m o m e n t (M) is e q u a l to t h e m a g n i t u d e o f
t h e a p p l i e d f o r c e (F) t i m e s t h e d i s t a n c e (d) o f
t h a t f o r c e f r o m t h e c e n t e r o f resistance, M = Fd.
T h e d i s t a n c e is always m e a s u r e d p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y
f r o m t h e line o f a c t i o n o f t h e f o r c e to t h e c e n t e r
o f resistance.
A B " t h e s u m o f t h e m o m e n t s c r e a t e d by e a c h o f t h e
) 2 forces t h a t m a k e u p t h e c o u p l e :
~a/ ~ ....................
Figure 4. A force applied at the bracket (black) will
result in both a force and a m o m e n t at the center of
resistance (gray). Occlusal view (A), buccal view (B),
mesial view (C). Applied forces and couples are
shown in black throughout. Equivalent force systems
(forces and moments) at the center of resistance are
shown in gray.
A ',°°°°.mm B g,~%
°°°~-mm C 2,°~°°g-mm
$
100g"--~ :
10 m m 10 m m
'~ooge~ 2OOg lOOgo
Figure 5. The magnitude of a m o m e n t depends on
both the magnitude of the applied force and its per-
pendicular distance from the center of resistance,
M = Fd (A). The magnitude of the m o m e n t increases
as the force increases (B) or the distance increases
(C).
Couples
P u r e r o t a t i o n o f a t o o t h w i t h o u t t r a n s l a t i o n can
b e a c c o m p l i s h e d by a p p l y i n g 2 e q u a l a n d o p p o -
site f o r c e s t h a t a r e n o t a c t i n g a l o n g t h e s a m e
line. Two e q u a l a n d o p p o s i t e , n o n c o l i n e a r
forces a r e c a l l e d a c o u p l e . T h e 2 forces c a n c e l
o u t any t e n d e n c y for t h e c e n t e r o f r e s i s t a n c e o f
t h e t o o t h to m o v e , b u t t h e m o m e n t s c r e a t e d by
the 2 forces do not cancel each other. The tooth,
t h e r e f o r e , r o t a t e s a b o u t its c e n t e r o f r e s i s t a n c e
regardless of the point of application of the
c o u p l e . If t h e 2 f o r c e s o f t h e c o u p l e act o n
o p p o s i t e sides o f t h e c e n t e r o f resistance, t h e i r
effect to c r e a t e a m o m e n t is additive. I f t h e y a r e
o n t h e s a m e side o f t h e c e n t e r o f resistance, t h e y
a r e subtractive. E i t h e r way, n o n e t f o r c e is felt by
t h e t o o t h , o n l y a t e n d e n c y to r o t a t e . I n this way,
a c o u p l e a p p l i e s a p u r e m o m e n t to a t o o t h .
T h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e m o m e n t c r e a t e d by a
c o u p l e is d e p e n d e n t o n b o t h f b r c e m a g n i t u d e
a n d distance. T h e m o m e n t o f a c o u p l e is really
Mcouplc = MForcc 1 + Mvorce 2 o r Mcouplc
= Fmd~ + Fzd2.
F 1 a n d F 2 are e q u a l b u t o p p o s i t e . T h e r e f o r e , t h e
m a g n i t u d e o f a m o m e n t c r e a t e d by a c o u p l e is
F ( d 1 + d2) o r F t i m e s t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e
2 forces, M = Fd.
A couple exerts no net force on the center of
r e s i s t a n c e b e c a u s e t h e 2 forces t h a t c o m p r i s e it
a r e o p p o s i t e in d i r e c t i o n a n d c a n c e l e a c h o t h e r .
T h e r e f o r e , a c o u p l e a l o n e always acts to r o t a t e ,
tip, o r t o r q u e t h e t o o t h a r o u n d t h e c e n t e r o f
 Basics of Mechanics
resistance. Likewise, the magnitude of the mo-
m e n t created by a couple depends only on the
magnitude of its forces and the distance between
them, not on the distance of the couple from the
center of resistance. Therefore, a couple acts the
same on a tooth regardless of the point at which
it is applied.
A conceptually simple example of a couple is
shown in Figure 6. A premolar is rotated by
stretching an elastic in one direction from the
buccal attachment and another elastic from the
lingual attachment in the opposite direction.
Thus, 9 equal and opposite forces are applied
and the tooth rotates a r o u n d its center of resis-
tance without translation.
More c o m m o n l y in orthodontics, couples are
applied by engaging a wire in an edgewise
bracket slot. To achieve a first-order couple, the
wire is angulated to p r o d u c e equal magnitudes
of force at the mesial and distal aspects of the
bracket in opposite, buccal and lingual direc-
tions as shown in Figure 7A. To create a second-
order couple, the wire produces equal but op-
posite intrusive and extrusive forces at the mesial
and distal aspects as in Figure 7B. A twist or
torque in the wire will produce intrusive and
extrusive forces that are equal and opposite act-
Figure 6. A couple is applied to derotate a premolar.
Before (A) and after (B).
5
A B C
Figure 7. Couples are most often created in orth-
odontics by inserting an active wire into an orthodon-
tic bracket. The wire applies equal and opposite non-
colinear forces (black) resulting in a pure moment
(gray). Occlusal view (A), buccal view (B), mesial view
(c).
ing at the buccal and lingual aspects of the
bracket slot to p r o d u c e a third-order couple as
shown in Figure 7C.
Equivalent Force Systems
Descriptions of orthodontic tooth m o v e m e n t of-
ten refer to movements of the crowns of teeth
that are easy to visualize clinically. However,
tooth m o v e m e n t is more fully described by tak-
ing into account both the translatory m o v e m e n t
of the tooth and the rotation, tip, and torque
experienced.
A comprehensive way of describing tooth
m o v e m e n t is to express the c o m p o n e n t s of
m o v e m e n t experienced by the tooth at the cen-
ter of resistance, which include both translation
and rotation. For example, in Figure 4B, the
distal force applied at the bracket will cause the
tooth to move distally and the crown to tip dis-
tally. The force at the bracket is equivalent to a
force at the center of resistance plus a m o m e n t
that will cause the tooth to tip.
Moment-to-Force Ratios and Centers
of Rotation
The goal of orthodontic treatment is to move
teeth a prescribed distance in a p r e d e t e r m i n e d
direction to e n h a n c e the esthetic and functional
aspects of occlusion and achieve a stable result.
One of the most c o m m o n types of tooth move-
ment is that which occurs when closing an ex-
traction site. Space closure is cited as an example
6 StevenJ. Lindauer
o f typical t o o t h m o v e m e n t , b u t t h e p r i n c i p l e s
d e s c r i b e d a r e r e l e v a n t to o r t h o d o n t i c t o o t h
m o v e m e n t f o r any p u r p o s e .
By v a r y i n g t h e r a t i o o f m o m e n t to f o r c e ap-
p l i e d to teeth, t h e quality o f t o o t h m o v e m e n t
can be changed among tipping, crown move-
m e n t , t r a n s l a t i o n , a n d r o o t m o v e m e n t . 4,7,8
W h e n e v e r a f o r c e is a p p l i e d at t h e c r o w n o f a
t o o t h , a t e n d e n c y f o r t h e t o o t h to r o t a t e , tip, o r
t o r q u e (a m o m e n t ) is also c r e a t e d . I n a d d i t i o n
to t h e f o r c e a p p l i e d , a c o u p l e m a y also b e en-
g a g e d i n t e n t i o n a l l y to p a r t i a l l y c o r r e c t , c o m -
p l e t e l y c o r r e c t , o r o v e r c o r r e c t this t e n d e n c y . By
changing the ratio of the moment from the
a p p l i e d c o u p l e to t h e f o r c e a p p l i e d , t h e c e n t e r
o f r o t a t i o n o f t o o t h m o v e m e n t c a n b e v a r i e d to
p r o d u c e t h e type o f t o o t h m o v e m e n t d e s i r e d .
Tipping
D u r i n g s p a c e closure, t h e r e is n o p r a c t i c a l , di-
r e c t way to a p p l y a f o r c e d i r e c t l y t h r o u g h t h e
c e n t e r o f r e s i s t a n c e o f a t o o t h to a c h i e v e p u r e
translation without tipping. To move a tooth
t h r o u g h a n e x t r a c t i o n space, a f o r c e is a p p l i e d at
t h e b r a c k e t to p u l l t h e t o o t h in t h e d e s i r e d
d i r e c t i o n . T h e f o r c e a l o n e will cause t h e t o o t h to
m o v e in t h e c o r r e c t d i r e c t i o n , b u t t h e c r o w n will
also tip in t h a t d i r e c t i o n while t h e a p e x m o v e s in
t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n . I n this case, n o m o m e n t
has b e e n a p p l i e d to p r e v e n t t h e t i p p i n g t h a t
occurs. O n l y a f o r c e has b e e n a p p l i e d (Fig 8A).
T h e m o m e n t - t o - f o r c e r a t i o ( M / F ) a p p l i e d is 0 / F
o r 0.
W h e n o n l y a f o r c e is a p p l i e d at t h e b r a c k e t to
m o v e a t o o t h , t h e e q u i v a l e n t f o r c e system at t h e
c e n t e r o f r e s i s t a n c e is t h e f o r c e p l u s a m o m e n t
t h a t will tip t h e c r o w n in t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e
)'
A B
Figure 8. Tipping. The applied force system (A). The
equivalent force system at the center of resistance (B).
The predicted tooth movement with a center of rota-
tion, shown throughout as a gray dot, just apical to the
center of resistance (black dots) (C).
A B C
Figure 9. Crown movement. The applied force sys-
tem (A). The equivalent force system at the center of
resistance (B). The predicted tooth movement with a
center of rotation at the apex (C).
f o r c e (Fig 8B). If t h e c e n t e r o f r e s i s t a n c e is 10
m m a p i c a l to t h e b r a c k e t , this m o m e n t is 10 m m
t i m e s t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e force. F o r e x a m p l e ,
a distal f o r c e o f 100 g at t h e b r a c k e t will c r e a t e
a n e q u i v a l e n t o f 100 g o f distal f o r c e at t h e
c e n t e r o f r e s i s t a n c e p l u s a m o m e n t o f 1,000
g - m m in t h e d i r e c t i o n o f distal c r o w n tip.
W i t h o u t a m o m e n t to c o u n t e r a c t t h e ten-
d e n c y o f t h e t o o t h to tip in t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e
force, t h e c e n t e r o f r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e t o o t h m o v e s
in t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e force, t h e c r o w n moves
further than the center of resistance, and the
a p e x actually m o v e s in a d i r e c t i o n o p p o s i t e to
t h e force. T h e t o o t h a p p e a r s to have r o t a t e d
a r o u n d a p o i n t j u s t a p i c a l to its c e n t e r o f resis-
t a n c e as i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g u r e 8C. T h e r e f o r e , t h e
c e n t e r o f r o t a t i o n w h e n t h e m o m e n t to f o r c e
r a t i o is 0 is j u s t a p i c a l to t h e c e n t e r o f resistance.
Crown Movement
K n o w i n g t h a t a f o r c e a p p l i e d at t h e b r a c k e t to
m o v e a t o o t h will also r e s u l t in a t e n d e n c y to tip,
a c o u n t e r m o m e n t in t h e f o r m o f a c o u p l e m a y
also b e a p p l i e d i n t e n t i o n a l l y to c o u n t e r a c t tip-
p i n g . I f t h e c e n t e r o f r e s i s t a n c e is 10 m m apical
to t h e b r a c k e t , a f o r c e a l o n e will p r o d u c e a
m o m e n t t h a t is 10 m m t i m e s t h e m a g n i t u d e o f
t h e force. A p p l y i n g a c o u n t e r m o m e n t o r c o u p l e
less t h a n 10 m m t i m e s t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e
f o r c e will r e d u c e t h e t e n d e n c y o f t h e t o o t h
c r o w n to tip in t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e f o r c e b u t n o t
n e g a t e it c o m p l e t e l y (Fig 9A). A n a p p l i e d M / F
o f a b o u t 7 / 1 will r e s u l t in c r o w n m o v e m e n t
while t h e a p e x o f t h e r o o t r e m a i n s relatively
stationary. 7
W h e n a M / F o f 7 / 1 is a p p l i e d at t h e b r a c k e t ,
t h e e q u i v a l e n t f o r c e system at t h e c e n t e r o f re-
 Basics of Mechanics
sistance is a f o r c e to m o v e t h e t o o t h p l u s a small
n e t t e n d e n c y for t h e c r o w n to tip in t h e direc-
t i o n o f t h e f o r c e (Fig 9B). F o r e x a m p l e , if a f o r c e
o f 100 g is a p p l i e d to m o v e a t o o t h distally, t h e r e
is a t e n d e n c y f r o m t h a t f o r c e f o r t h e t o o t h c r o w n
to tip distally o f 1,000 g-mm. A c o u n t e r m o m e n t
o r c o u p l e o f 1,000 g - m m in t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c -
t i o n also w o u l d n e e d to b e a p p l i e d i n t e n t i o n a l l y
to n e g a t e t h e t e n d e n c y to tip c o m p l e t e l y . If a
c o u p l e o f o n l y 700 g - m m were a p p l i e d at t h e
b r a c k e t , t h e t o o t h w o u l d have a n e t t e n d e n c y for
t h e c r o w n to tip distally o f 300 g-mm. A t t h e
c e n t e r o f r e s i s t a n c e t h e r e w o u l d b e a distal f o r c e
o f 100 g p l u s a m o m e n t to tip t h e c r o w n distally
o f 300 g-mm. T h e m o m e n t ( o f t h e c o u p l e ) to
f o r c e r a t i o ( M / F ) a p p l i e d is 7 0 0 / 1 0 0 o r 7 / 1 .
W i t h a n a p p l i e d M / F o f 7 / 1 , t h e t o o t h will
m o v e in t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e f o r c e a n d t h e c r o w n
will tip s o m e w h a t in t h e s a m e d i r e c t i o n . W h i l e
t h e c e n t e r o f r e s i s t a n c e is m o v i n g distally as a
r e s u l t o f t h e a p p l i e d force, t h e c r o w n is t i p p i n g
distally at a g r e a t e r rate b u t t h e a p e x is m o v i n g
to a lesser e x t e n t o r n o t at all. T h e t o o t h a p p e a r s
to have r o t a t e d a r o u n d its a p e x , as i l l u s t r a t e d in
Figure 9C. Therefore, the center o f rotation when
the m o m e n t to force ratio is 7/1 is at the apex o f the
tooth, a n d only crown m o v e m e n t occurs.
Pure Translation
W h e n a f o r c e to m o v e a t o o t h is a p p l i e d at a
b r a c k e t t h a t is 10 m m away f r o m t h e c e n t e r o f
resistance, a t e n d e n c y f o r t h e t o o t h to tip is
c r e a t e d t h a t is 10 m m t i m e s t h e m a g n i t u d e o f
t h e force. T o c o u n t e r a c t t h e t e n d e n c y f o r tip-
p i n g , a c o u p l e c a n b e a p p l i e d i n t e n t i o n a l l y to
p r o d u c e a m o m e n t o f e q u a l m a g n i t u d e in t h e
o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n (Fig 10A). T h e f o r c e a l o n e
A B C lation, t h e c e n t e r o f r o t a t i o n is c o n s i d e r e d to b e
Figure 10. Pure translation. The applied force system
(A). The equivalent force system at the center of
resistance (B). The predicted tooth movement (C). In
pure translation, the center of rotation is at infinity.
7
A B
Figure 11. Root movement. The applied force system
(A). The equivalent force system at the center of
resistance (B). The predicted tooth movement with a
center of rotation at the crown (C).
w o u l d cause t h e t o o t h to m o v e in t h e d i r e c t i o n
o f t h e f o r c e a n d t h e c r o w n to tip in t h e s a m e
d i r e c t i o n . T h e c o u p l e c o m p l e t e l y n e g a t e s this
t e n d e n c y to tip, b u t t h e t o o t h still m o v e s in t h e
d i r e c t i o n o f t h e force. T h e M / F a p p l i e d is 1 0 / 1 ,
and the tooth translates without tipping.
W h e n a M / F o f 1 0 / 1 is a p p l i e d at t h e b r a c k e t ,
t h e e q u i v a l e n t f o r c e system at t h e c e n t e r o f re-
sistance is a single f o r c e with n o n e t m o m e n t
(Fig 10B). F o r e x a m p l e , if a f o r c e o f 100 g is
a p p l i e d at t h e b r a c k e t to m o v e a t o o t h distally,
t h e e q u i v a l e n t f o r c e system at t h e b r a c k e t is
100 g o f distal f o r c e plus a t e n d e n c y f o r t h e
c r o w n to tip in t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e f o r c e o f 1,000
g-mm. If a c o u p l e with a c o u n t e r m o m e n t o f
1,000 g - m m t e n d i n g to tip t h e c r o w n in t h e
d i r e c t i o n o p p o s i t e to t h e f o r c e w e r e also a p p l i e d
i n t e n t i o n a l l y , t h e n e t e q u i v a l e n t f o r c e system
w o u l d b e a single distal f o r c e o f 100 g t h r o u g h
t h e c e n t e r o f resistance. T h e M / F a p p l i e d is
1,000/100 or 10/1.
W i t h a n a p p l i e d M / F o f 1 0 / 1 , t h e t o o t h will
t r a n s l a t e in t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e f o r c e w i t h o u t
t i p p i n g . T h i s is o f t e n r e f e r r e d to as p u r e trans-
l a t i o n a n d is s h o w n in F i g u r e 10C. I n p u r e trans-
at infinity b e c a u s e n o r o t a t i o n occurs.
Root Movement
When the countermoment applied intentionally
at a b r a c k e t is m o r e t h a n 10 m m times t h e
magnitude of the force applied, the tooth moves
in t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e f o r c e b u t t h e c r o w n tips in
t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n (Fig l l A ) . T h e f o r c e
a l o n e w o u l d cause t h e t o o t h to m o v e in t h e
d i r e c t i o n o f t h e f o r c e a n d t h e c r o w n to tip in t h e
same direction. The couple applied more than
8 StevenJ. Lindauer
negates this t e n d e n c y to tip, b u t the c e n t e r o f
resistance still moves in the direction o f the
force while the crown does not. A n applied m o -
ment-to-force ratio o f a b o u t 13/1 will result in
r o o t m o v e m e n t while the crown o f the t o o t h
r e m a i n s relatively stationary. 7
W h e n a M / F o f 13/1 is applied at the bracket,
the equivalent force system at the c e n t e r o f re-
sistance is a force to move the t o o t h plus a small
n e t t e n d e n c y for the r o o t to tip in the direction
o f the force (Fig 11B). For example, if a force o f
100 g is applied to m o v e a t o o t h distally, there is
a t e n d e n c y f r o m that force f o r the t o o t h c r o w n
to tip distally o f 1,000 g-mm. A c o u n t e r m o m e n t
or c o u p l e o f 1,000 g - m m in the opposite direc-
tion would also n e e d to be applied to n e g a t e the
t e n d e n c y to tip completely. If a c o u p l e o f 1,300
g - m m were applied, the t e n d e n c y to tip would be
m o r e t h a n c o u n t e r a c t e d a n d there w o u l d be a
net t e n d e n c y for the crown to tip mesially o f 300
g-mm. T h e equivalent force system at the c e n t e r
o f resistance is a distal force o f 100 g plus a
m o m e n t to tip the crown mesially o f 300 g-mm.
T h e M / F applied at the b r a c k e t is 1,300/100 or
13/1.
With an applied M / F o f 13/1, the t o o t h will
m o v e in the direction o f the force a n d the r o o t
will tip in the same direction. While the c e n t e r
o f resistance is m o v i n g distally as a result o f the
applied force, the r o o t is tipping distally at a
g r e a t e r rate b u t the crown is m o v i n g to a lesser
e x t e n t or n o t at all. T h e t o o t h a p p e a r s to have
r o t a t e d a r o u n d its c r o w n as illustrated in Figure
11C. T h e r e f o r e , the c e n t e r o f r o t a t i o n w h e n the
m o m e n t - t o - f o r c e ratio is 13/1 is at the crown o f
the t o o t h a n d only r o o t m o v e m e n t occurs.
Pure Rotation
If only a couple, a n d n o n e t force, is applied to
a tooth, the t o o t h will rotate a r o u n d its c e n t e r o f
resistance a n d the t o o t h will n o t translate (Fig
12A). Because the action o f a c o u p l e does n o t
d e p e n d o n its p o i n t o f application, a p u r e m o -
m e n t always acts at the c e n t e r o f resistance (Fig
12B). T h e forces o f the c o u p l e cancel o u t any
t e n d e n c y for the c e n t e r o f resistance o f the
t o o t h to move, b u t the m o m e n t p r o d u c e d by the
c o u p l e causes the t o o t h to tip as shown in Figure
12C. T h e m o m e n t - t o - f o r c e ratio is infinite a n d
the c e n t e r o f rotation is c o i n c i d e n t with the
{{6 [*. '
Figure 12. Pure rotation. The applied force system
(A). The equivalent force system at the center of
resistance (B). The predicted tooth movement with a
center of rotation at the center of resistance (C).
c e n t e r o f resistance. This is r e f e r r e d to as p u r e
rotation.
Predicting the Force Systems Created by
Orthodontic Appliance Activations
T h e objective o f activating an o r t h o d o n t i c appli-
ance is to p r o d u c e forces a n d m o m e n t s to move
teeth in a predictable a n d c o n t r o l l e d m a n n e r .
T h e appliance itself obeys the laws o f physics. It
acts by effecting force systems at all points o f
a t t a c h m e n t . It is n o t possible to fully u n d e r s t a n d
the r e s p o n s e to appliance activation by observ-
ing the d i s p l a c e m e n t at o n e e n d o f an appliance
w i t h o u t c o n s i d e r i n g the effects at the other.
T h e force systems p r o d u c e d by o r t h o d o n t i c
appliance activations m u s t be resolved separately
f r o m the actual forces a n d m o m e n t s that indi-
vidual teeth will e x p e r i e n c e at their respective
centers o f resistance. U n d e r s t a n d i n g the physics
that d e t e r m i n e the force systems g e n e r a t e d by
activating o r t h o d o n t i c appliances discloses the
forces a n d m o m e n t s that are applied to teeth at
their points o f a t t a c h m e n t , usually at the brack-
ets. T o d e d u c e h o w e a c h t o o t h will be displaced
as a result o f the activation, the equivalent force
systems acting at the centers o f resistance m u s t
be assessed subsequently.
Static Equilibrium
W h e n o r t h o d o n t i c appliances are activated a n d
inserted, t o o t h m o v e m e n t does n o t o c c u r imme-
diately b u t p r o c e e d s slowly over an e x t e n d e d
p e r i o d o f time. For this reason, the physical laws
o f statics are c o n s i d e r e d a d e q u a t e to describe
the i n s t a n t a n e o u s force systems p r o d u c e d by
o r t h o d o n t i c appliances. T h e s e are the condi-
 Basics of Mechanics
tions u n d e r which analysis of orthodontic force
systems occurs. The laws of statics c a n n o t be
used to describe how the force systems will
change as a tooth moves and an appliance deac-
tivates and alters its configuration.
The physical laws of statics are governed by
Newton's third law, which may be summarized as
stating that for every action there must be an
equal and opposite reaction. The orthodontic
application is that for every appliance, but not
necessarily for every tooth to which it is attached,
the sum of the forces and the sum of the mo-
ments must be equal to zero. 9 That is, because
the appliance itself does not move instanta-
neously once it is placed, the net force system
p r o d u c e d by the appliance as a whole must
be equal to zero. This condition must be met
by every orthodontic appliance regardless of
the treatment philosophy used. It is impossible
to design an appliance that defies the laws of
physics.
Equal and Opposite Forces
Perhaps the simplest orthodontic appliance to
analyze is the elastic band. An elastic band
stretched between two points of attachment will
produce a force of some magnitude at one end
and, by the laws of equilibrium, p r o d u c e an
opposite force of the same magnitude at the
other end.
As far as the elastic band is concerned, it is in
equilibrium. The sum of the forces p r o d u c e d by
the elastic, equal and opposite, is zero. The elas-
tic itself produces no moments, so the sum of
the moments is also zero and the conditions of
static equilibrium are met.
One Couple Appliances--Statically
Determinate Systems
A 1-couple orthodontic appliance is inserted
into a bracket or tube at 1 end and is tied as a
point contact at the other, s° Because it is not
engaged into an orthodontic bracket, the end
that is tied as a point contact cannot p r o d u c e a
couple but only a simple force at that site. The
other end, which is engaged in the bracket slot,
can produce both a force and a couple at that
attachment. The appliance is a 1-couple system
because a couple is generated only at the site of
full engagement. It is statically determinate be-
cause the magnitudes of the forces and t o o -
9
ments p r o d u c e d can be determined clinically
after the appliance is inserted into the bracket.
This can be d o n e by inserting the appliance into
the bracket and measuring the force required to
activate the wire to the site where it will be tied
as a point contact.
An example of a 1-couple orthodontic appli-
ance is a long arm or cantilever activated to
extrude a high maxillary buccal canine as dem-
onstrated in Figure 13A. The wire is inserted
into the molar auxiliary tube and bent to rest
coronal to the canine. It is activated by displac-
ing the wire apically and tying it to the canine
bracket to create an extrusive force as in Figure
14. In a 1-couple system, the direction of the
forces and couple exerted by the appliance are
intuitive and can be d e d u c e d in a n u m b e r of
ways.
The most consistent way to derive the force
system p r o d u c e d by any orthodontic appliance
is to remove the activated wire from its at-
tachments and lay it passively over the attach-
ment sites. The angle f o r m e d by the wire and
the brackets will show the direction of the
couple p r o d u c e d at tile site of e n g a g e m e n t
where the angle between the wire and bracket
is largest. 11-~3
Because there is only one site of e n g a g e m e n t
t 20 ........... @0
1,000g-ram
Figure 13. A long arm or cantilever to extrude a high
canine (A). The passive wire showing the angle be-
tween the molar bracket and the wire (B). The force
system exerted by the wire is in equilibrium with a
crown-mesial moment at the molar, and equal and
opposite extrusive and intrusive forces a t the canine
and molar, respectively (C).
10 Steven J. Lindauer

attachment sites. In this case, inserting the wire

into 1 attachment and using a gauge to measure
the force required to deflect the wire to the
other bracket will not necessarily give an accu-
rate assessment of the force p r o d u c e d by the
appliance. Because of the inability to measure
force systems p r o d u c e d by 2-couple appliances
clinically, they are referred to as being statically
indeterminate.
The force systems p r o d u c e d by 2-couple orth-
Figure 14. Clinical example of a wire tied as a point odontic appliances d e p e n d on both the wire
contact to extrude a high canine. geometry and bracket angulation relationships.
A rough idea of the directions of the forces and
moments exerted by a 2-couple appliance may
in a 1-couple system, the direction of the couple
be d e d u c e d by the m e t h o d described above: the
at that site depends only on the angle f o r m e d
wire is passively placed over both attachment
between that bracket and the wire. As shown in
sites to determine the angle f o r m e d between the
Figure 13B, the molar bracket must rotate coun-
bracket slot and the wire at each end. If the
terclockwise to engage the wire. The couple pro-
angles f o r m e d at the 2 attachments are equal
duced by the wire at the molar will therefore be
and opposite, equal and opposite couples will be
in a direction to tip the molar crown mesially
generated and no force will be p r o d u c e d at ei-
and root distally. The laws of equilibrium dictate
ther site, as shown in Figure 15A. If the angles
that the sum of the moments exerted by the wire
are equal and in the same direction, then both
be equal to zero. With a counterclockwise mo-
sites will experience couples in the same direc-
ment at the molar, there must be a clockwise
tion of equal magnitude. The forces p r o d u c e d at
m o m e n t to maintain equilibrium. That m o m e n t
the attachment sites will be equal in magnitude
is p r o d u c e d by intrusive and extrusive forces of
equal magnitude exerted by the wire at the mo-
lar and canine, respectively, as shown in Figure
13C.
To further illustrate the state of equilibrium
of the appliance, assume that a 50-g extrusive
force is exerted by the wire at the canine. This
_0 _0 O_
can be measured using a force gauge after in-
serting the wire into the molar tube and before
tying it to the canine. An intrusive force of 50 g
must, therefore, be present at the molar to have
the sum of the forces exerted by the appliance C
equal to zero. If the molar and canine are 20
m m apart, a couple of 50 g times 20 m m or 1,000
g-mm is exerted by the appliance as a whole in a
clockwise direction. To have the sum of the mo-
ments equal to zero, a counterclockwise couple t
of 1,000 g-ram is exerted by the appliance at the Figure 15. Force systems from a 2-couple appliance
molar to tip its crown mesially and root distally, depend on wire-bracket geometry. Equal and oppo-
as shown in Figure 13C. site bracket-wire angle relationships result in equal
and opposite couples with no forces (A). Equal brack-
et-wire angle relationships in the same direction result
Two-Couple AppliancesmStaticaUy in equal couples in the same direction with large
Indeterminate Systems forces to maintain appliance equilibrium (B). If
bracket-wire angle relationships are unequal, the at-
A 2-couple appliance is one that is engaged into tachment with the largest angle will have the largest
attachments at both ends. A couple, therefore, couple and resultant forces will be in a direction
may be generated by the wire at either or both opposite this moment to maintain equilibrium (C).
 Basics of Mechanics
and opposite in direction to each other. To-
gether, the forces will form a couple on the wire
to maintain equilibrium of the appliance as a
whole. That couple f o r m e d by the 2 forces will
be opposite in direction and equal in magnitude
to the sum of those couples p r o d u c e d at the
individual attachment sites, as shown in Figure
15B.
If the angles f o r m e d between the passively
placed wire and the 2 bracket slots are not equal
in magnitude, then the site with the greatest
angle can be determined. This will be the site at
which the greatest couple will be generated. The
direction of the m o m e n t p r o d u c e d at that tooth
will be that which will bring the bracket to the
wire. The forces at the 2 attachment sites will be
equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to
each other as always. Together, those forces will
form a couple on the wire to maintain equilib-
rium of the appliance as a whole. The couple
formed by the 2 forces will be opposite in direc-
tion to the couple exerted at the site of attach-
m e n t with the greatest bracket-wire angulation
as shown in Figure 15C. The magnitude of the
forces and the direction of the couple at the
other attachment site, however, may not be ap-
parent from clinical observation alone.
The relative m o m e n t s and forces p r o d u c e d by
2-couple appliance activations are extremely sen-
sitive to clinical geometry. They have been de-
termined for both 2-dimensional 14-16 and 3-di-
mensionaP 7,1s conditions.
The forces and m o m e n t s p r o d u c e d by a
straight segment of r o u n d wire inserted into 2
orthodontic brackets were first described by Bur-
stone and Koenig in 1974.14 W h e n the 2 brackets
are equally but oppositely angled as shown in
Figure 16A, the resultant couples are mirror
images of each other (their mathematical sum is
zero) and no forces are produced. As the angu-
lation of the bracket on the right is varied while
the left bracket is held constant, a static analysis
can be used to determine the relative m o m e n t s
and equilibrium forces that result. A nonlinear
reduction of the right m o m e n t occurs as the
angulation of the right bracket is decreased
slightly in Figure 16B. As the absolute sum of the
2 moments increases because of the change in
relative bracket angulations, proportional in-
creases in the forces are noted that maintain the
conditions of equilibrium (Fig 16B). W h e n the
angle of the right bracket is half that of the left,
11
A/ , B /',
,% .--,,
C/ ,
"//
"--, D/,
T
E
"// *//
1 T
Figure 16. Force systems from a 2-couple appliance:
straight segment of wire in malaligned brackets. Equal
and oppositely angled brackets resuh in equal and
opposite couples (A). As 1 bracket angulation de-
creases, the magnitude of the couple at that bracket
decreases and forces result (B). When the angnlation
of 1 bracket is half that of the other, no couple is
experienced at the bracket with the smaller angula-
tion and forces are consequently increased (C). As the
bracket angle continues to decrease at 1 end of the
appliance, the couple at the lesser angled bracket is in
the same direction as at the greater angled bracket
and forces are even greater (D). When both brackets
are equally angled in the same direction, couples at
the 2 brackets are equal and in the same direction
with forces at a maximum (E).
but still opposite in direction, no couple is
present at the right bracket, as illustrated in
Figure 16C. Moments at the right bracket in the
same direction as the left bracket couple in-
crease as the right bracket angle decreases to
zero and then increases to mimic the left bracket
angulation (Fig 16D). Finally, when both brack-
ets are equal in direction and angulation, cou-
ples are also equal (their mathematical sum is
maximal), and equilibrium forces are at a max-
imum (Fig 16E).
Analogously, the static force systems gener-
ated by placing wires with V- and step-bends into
aligned, coplanar brackets have been well docu-
mented. 15 In a 2-dimensional model using 2
brackets, a symmetrically placed V-bend pro-
duces equal and oppositely directed couples, as
shown in Figure 17A. Asymmetric bends result in
various combinations of moments and forces.
Moving the b e n d slightly off center results in an
increase in the couple generated at the bracket
closer to the bend and a decrease at the bracket
12 StevenJ. Lindauer
C D
T s h o w n w i t h o u t t e e t h to e m p h a s i z e t h a t t h e f o r c e
l Y
Figure 17. Force systems from a 2-couple appliance:
bent wire in aligned brackets. When the apex of the V
bend is halfway between the brackets, the wire exerts
equal and opposite couples at the 2 attachments and
no forces (A). As the V bend is moved off center, the
couple nearer the bend increases and the couple
further from the bend decreases. Forces result to
maintain appliance equilibrium (B). When the V
bend is at ½ the distance between the brackets, a
couple is only present at the bracket nearer the bend.
No couple is experienced at the bracket further from
the bend, and forces result to maintain equilibrium
(C). When the V bend is very close to 1 bracket,
couples in the same direction are experienced at both
brackets, with the larger couple at the bracket closer
to the bend. Forces increase as the bend is moved
further off center (D). A step bend, regardless of
where it is placed, results in equal couples in the same
direction at both attachments. Forces are at a maxi-
mum (E).
f u r t h e r away, as s h o w n in F i g u r e 17B. T h e s u m
o f t h e m o m e n t s f r o m t h e 2 c o u p l e s is n o l o n g e r
zero, so forces a r e g e n e r a t e d t h a t p r o d u c e a
c o u n t e r a c t i n g c o u p l e o n t h e wire as a w h o l e to
maintain equilibrium conditions. When the
b e n d is l o c a t e d at 1/3 o f t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n 2
brackets, because of the deflection angle of the
a c t i v a t e d wire, a c o u p l e results at o n l y t h e
b r a c k e t n e a r e r t h e b e n d (Fig 17C). F o r c e s in-
c r e a s e to m a i n t a i n e q u i l i b r i u m . B e n d s c l o s e r to
t h e b r a c k e t r e s u l t in c o u p l e s at b o t h b r a c k e t s in
t h e s a m e d i r e c t i o n with t h e g r e a t e r m o m e n t
g e n e r a t e d at t h e b r a c k e t c l o s e r to t h e b e n d (Fig
17D). T h e 2 c o u p l e s a r e n o w additive, a n d e v e n
g r e a t e r f o r c e s r e s u l t at t h e 2 a t t a c h m e n t s to
maintain equilibrium of the appliance. Step
b e n d s a r e less sensitive t h a n V b e n d s to l o c a t i o n
a n d r e s u l t in m o m e n t s o f e q u a l m a g n i t u d e a n d
d i r e c t i o n at b o t h b r a c k e t s i n d e p e n d e n t o f w h e r e
t h e y a r e p l a c e d , as s h o w n in F i g u r e 17E. W i t h
c o u p l e s o f e q u a l m a g n i t u d e p r o d u c e d at b o t h
a t t a c h m e n t sites in t h e s a m e d i r e c t i o n , forces
a r e i n c r e a s e d f u r t h e r to m a i n t a i n e q u i l i b r i u m
conditions.
T h e f o r c e s a n d m o m e n t s s h o w n in F i g u r e s 16
a n d 17 a r e c o r r e c t f o r 2 - c o u p l e a p p l i a n c e s active
in any 1 d i m e n s i o n . T h e b r a c k e t s , t h e r e f o r e , a r e
systems m a y b e a c t i n g in t h e occlusal, lateral, o r
f r o n t a l p l a n e s . Relative sizes o f t h e arrows a n d
curves r e f l e c t d i f f e r e n c e s in f o r c e a n d m o m e n t
m a g n i t u d e s , respectively.
Predicting How Teeth Will Move in
Response to Orthodontic Appliance
Activations
T h e first s e c t i o n o f this article, " P r e d i c t i n g H o w
T e e t h Will Move in R e s p o n s e to A p p l i c a t i o n o f
O r t h o d o n t i c F o r c e Systems," d e s c r i b e d h o w m o -
m e n t s a n d f o r c e s d i s p l a c e i n d i v i d u a l teeth. T h e
s e c o n d section, " P r e d i c t i n g t h e F o r c e Systems
C r e a t e d by O r t h o d o n t i c A p p l i a n c e Activations,"
d i s c u s s e d t h e way in w h i c h m o m e n t s a n d f o r c e s
a r e g e n e r a t e d by o r t h o d o n t i c a p p l i a n c e s . This
final s e c t i o n shows h o w t h e s e two steps c a n b e
u s e d t o g e t h e r to p r e d i c t h o w t e e t h will m o v e
w h e n o r t h o d o n t i c a p p l i a n c e s a r e activated. C o n -
versely, t h e 2 steps c a n b e u s e d to d e s i g n a n
a p p l i a n c e t h a t will m o v e t e e t h in a p r e d i c t a b l e
way. It is i m p o r t a n t to d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n t h e 2
c o n c e p t s : t e e t h m o v e in r e s p o n s e to forces a n d
m o m e n t s a p p l i e d at t h e i r b r a c k e t s , a n d o r t h -
o d o n t i c a p p l i a n c e s a r e a c t i v a t e d to t r a n s f e r
f o r c e s a n d m o m e n t s to t h e b r a c k e t s o f teeth.
Predicting the Result of Appliance Activation
U s i n g t h e laws o f static m e c h a n i c s , t h e f o r c e
systems g e n e r a t e d by a n o r t h o d o n t i c a p p l i a n c e
a r e c a l c u l a t e d to d i s c e r n t h e f o r c e s a n d m o -
m e n t s t r a n s f e r r e d to t e e t h at t h e i r p o i n t s o f
attachment. Subsequently, the forces and mo-
m e n t s a p p l i e d at t h e b r a c k e t s o f t e e t h a r e u s e d
to p r e d i c t h o w t h e t e e t h will b e d i s p l a c e d ini-
tially a n d e v e n t u a l l y m o v e as a r e s u l t o f b o n e
remodeling.
As a n e x a m p l e o f p r e d i c t i n g h o w t e e t h will
m o v e in r e s p o n s e to a p p l i a n c e activation, an
o r t h o d o n t i c wire u s e d to m o v e a m a x i l l a r y ca-
 Basics of Mechanics
n i n e buccally, o u t o f l i n g u a l crossbite, is illus-
t r a t e d in F i g u r e 18. T h e a p p l i a n c e is a c t i v a t e d by
making a mesial in-bend near the molar and
i n s e r t i n g t h e wire i n t o t h e m o l a r t u b e . T h e wire
is t i e d to t h e c a n i n e b u t n o t i n s e r t e d i n t o t h e
canine bracket.
B e c a u s e the wire is e n g a g e d o n l y at t h e m o l a r
a t t a c h m e n t , a c o u p l e is g e n e r a t e d by t h e wire
o n l y at t h e m o l a r . T h e c o u p l e is in a d i r e c t i o n
t h a t will r o t a t e t h e m o l a r c r o w n m e s i o l i n g u a l l y .
E q u a l a n d o p p o s i t e l a t e r a l forces in a d i r e c t i o n
to c o u n t e r a c t t h e c o u p l e will b e g e n e r a t e d by
t h e wire to m o v e t h e c a n i n e b u c c a l l y a n d m o l a r
lingually, as s h o w n in F i g u r e 18A. T h e b u c c a l
f o r c e at t h e c a n i n e c a n b e m e a s u r e d u s i n g a
f o r c e g a u g e o n c e t h e wire is i n s e r t e d i n t o t h e
m o l a r t u b e . If t h e f o r c e m e a s u r e s 50 g a n d t h e
d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e m o l a r to t h e c a n i n e is 20 m m ,
t h e m e s i o l i n g u a l c o u p l e at t h e m o l a r is 50 g ×
20 m m o r 1,000 g - m m in m a g n i t u d e . T h e l i n g u a l
f o r c e at t h e m o l a r b r a c k e t is 50 g, a n d t h e b u c c a l
f o r c e at t h e c a n i n e b r a c k e t is 50 g.
T h e s u m o f t h e f o r c e s e x e r t e d by t h e wire a n d
t h e s u m o f the m o m e n t s e x e r t e d by t h e wire
m u s t b e e q u a l to z e r o to satisfy t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f
e q u i l i b r i u m . T h e forces, 50 g l i n g u a l at t h e m o -
lar a n d 50 g b u c c a l at t h e c a n i n e , s u m to zero.
T h e 2 forces c r e a t e a c o u p l e e x e r t e d by t h e wire
o f 50 g × 20 m m o r 1,000 g - m m in a clockwise
d i r e c t i o n , as s h o w n in F i g u r e 18A. T h e c o u p l e
g e n e r a t e d at t h e m o l a r m u s t b e e q u a l a n d op-
posite, 1,000 g-ram c o u n t e r c l o c k w i s e , f o r t h e
s u m o f t h e m o m e n t s to e q u a l zero. T h e c o u p l e
at t h e m o l a r is in a m e s i o l i n g u a l d i r e c t i o n with a
m a g n i t u d e o f 1,000 g-mm.
A close a p r e m o l a r e x t r a c t i o n site by m o l a r trans-
B° fs° 00
1,0~00g-[ m
~m
~" l 50g
0g ...... 20 mm .........
Figure 18. Predicting the result of an appliance acti-
vation. A 1-couple appliance is used to move a canine
buccally, out of crossbite. T h e force system exerted by
the appliance in the occlusal view (A). Forces exerted
by the appliance at the brackets (black) and the equiv-
alent tbrce systems at the centers of resistance (gray)
from a mesial aspect (B).
13
T h e s e c o n d s t e p in d e t e r m i n i n g h o w t e e t h
will m o v e is to d i s c e r n t h e e q u i v a l e n t f o r c e sys-
tems e x e r t e d at t h e c e n t e r s o f r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e
t e e t h involved. T h e s e a r e s h o w n in F i g u r e 18B.
T h e r e is a l i n g u a l f o r c e o f 50 g at t h e m o l a r
b r a c k e t a n d a m e s i o l i n g u a l c o u p l e o f 1,000
g-mm. If t h e c e n t e r o f r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e m o l a r is
10 m m a p i c a l to t h e b r a c k e t , t h e e q u i v a l e n t
f o r c e system at t h e m o l a r c e n t e r o f r e s i s t a n c e is
50 g o f l i n g u a l f o r c e p l u s a m o m e n t o f 10 m m ×
50 g o r 500 g - m m , t e n d i n g to tip t h e c r o w n
lingually. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e is a m o m e n t o f 1,000
g-mm, t e n d i n g to r o t a t e t h e m o l a r m e s i o l i n -
gually.
A t t h e c a n i n e b r a c k e t t h e r e is a b u c c a l f o r c e
o f 50 g. I f t h e c a n i n e c e n t e r o f r e s i s t a n c e is 10
m m a p i c a l to t h e c a n i n e b r a c k e t , t h e e q u i v a l e n t
f o r c e system at t h e c a n i n e c e n t e r o f r e s i s t a n c e is
50 g o f b u c c a l f o r c e p l u s a m o m e n t o f 10 m m ×
50 g o r 500 g-ram, t e n d i n g to tip t h e c r o w n
buccally. T h e m o l a r will, t h e r e f o r e , t e n d to m o v e
lingually, its c r o w n will tip lingually, a n d t h e
t o o t h will r o t a t e m e s i o l i n g u a l l y . T h e c a n i n e will
m o v e b u c c a l l y a n d its c r o w n will tip buccally.
Designing an Orthodontic Appliance
T h e steps o f f o r c e system analysis a r e r e v e r s e d if
t h e o b j e c t i v e is d e s i g n i n g a n a p p l i a n c e to m o v e
t e e t h p r e d i c t a b l y . First, t h e d e s i r e d f o r c e systems
at t h e c e n t e r s o f r e s i s t a n c e a r e d e t e r m i n e d .
F r o m this, t h e f o r c e systems r e q u i r e d at t h e
b r a c k e t s c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d a n d a n a p p l i a n c e de-
s i g n e d to d e l i v e r t h e d e s i r e d forces a n d m o -
ments.
As a n e x a m p l e , a n a p p l i a n c e d e s i g n e d to
l a t i o n a n d c a n i n e t r a n s l a t i o n is i l l u s t r a t e d in
F i g u r e 19. I f t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e s p a c e c l o s i n g
f o r c e d e s i r e d is 100 g, a m e s i a l f o r c e at t h e m o l a r
c e n t e r o f r e s i s t a n c e o f 100 g a n d a distal f o r c e o f
100 g at t h e c a n i n e c e n t e r o f r e s i s t a n c e will b e
necessary, as s h o w n in F i g u r e 19A. This will p r o -
d u c e m o l a r t r a n s l a t i o n mesially a n d c a n i n e
t r a n s l a t i o n distally.
T h e f o r c e systems r e q u i r e d at t h e b r a c k e t s
(Fig 19B) t h a t will r e s u l t in t h e s e center-of-resis-
t a n c e e q u i v a l e n t s m u s t t h e n b e d e t e r m i n e d . If
t h e m o l a r c e n t e r o f r e s i s t a n c e is 10 m m a p i c a l to
tile b r a c k e t , a m e s i a l f o r c e o f 100 g at t h e m o l a r
b r a c k e t w o u l d p r o d u c e a f o r c e o f 100 g at t h e
14 Steven J. Lindauer
A B
1oo g Ioo o :
{i
C D
C-9
Figure 19. Designing an orthodontic appliance. De-
sired force systems at the centers of resistance to
translate 2 teeth toward each other without tipping
(A). Force systems necessary at the brackets to achieve
the desired force systems (B). Closing loop designed
to deliver the necessary force systems at the attach-
ments of the 2 teeth (C). Reanalysis of the appliance's
effects shows that space closing forces placed at the
brackets (black) as seen from the occlusal view will
cause the teeth to move toward each other and rotate
(gray) (D).
center of resistance plus a tendency for the
crown to tip mesially of 10 m m × 100 g or 1,000
g-mm. A c o u n t e r m o m e n t of 1,000 g-mm in a
direction to tip the molar crown distally would,
therefore, need to be applied at the bracket in
addition to 100 g of mesial force to negate this
tendency for tipping and result in pure transla-
tion of the molar.
At the canine center of resistance, a distal
force o f 100 g is desired. A 100 g distally directed
force at the canine bracket would produce a
1,000 g-mm tendency for the canine crown to tip
distally if the canine center of resistance is 10
m m apical to the bracket. A c o u n t e r m o m e n t of
1000 g-mm should be applied at the bracket to
tip the canine crown mesially in addition to the
distal force of 100 g.
Lastly, the appliance system should be reana-
lyzed to determine any side effects p r o d u c e d by
the design chosen. In the example, a closing
loop with mesial and distal forces of 100 g is
designed as shown in Figure 19C. A couple of
1,000 g-mm to p r o d u c e pure translation of the
molar, and a couple of 1,000 g-mm to p r o d u c e
pure translation of the canine, are applied by
forming preactivation bends. This can be accom-
plished using a b e n d i n g template m or by mea-
suring the moments and forces clinically using a
specially designed force-moment gauge as
shown in Figure 20 (Orthomeasurements,
Young Research and Development, Inc, Avon,
CT). Alternatively, the clinician may choose to
activate the appliance, m o n i t o r tooth m o v e m e n t
over time, and make adjustments accordingly.
The sum of the forces, 100 g mesial for the
molar and 100 g distal for the canine, is zero.
The sum of the applied moments, 1,000 g-mm
crown distal for the molar and 1,000 g-ram
crown mesial for the canine, is also zero, so the
appliance is in equilibrium and no vertical force
side effects are present. The molar is expected to
translate mesially, and the canine is expected to
translate distally.
Analysis of the space-closing appliance from
the occlusal view (Fig 19D) shows effects not
seen in the lateral view. The mesial force at the
molar will result in mesial molar m o v e m e n t plus
a tendency for the molar to rotate mesiolin-
gually. The distal force at the canine will result
in distal canine m o v e m e n t plus a tendency for
the canine to rotate distolingually. Additional
appliance adjustments would be required to ne-
gate these unwanted rotational tendencies.
Conclusion
A r m e d with the basic building blocks of mechan-
ics, the orthodontist devises an intricate plan of
appliance activations to achieve p r e d e t e r m i n e d
treatment goals. Forces and couples are applied
to teeth to move them in the desired directions.
T o o t h m o v e m e n t is m o n i t o r e d regularly to as-
sure that treatment proceeds smoothly and pos-
Figure 20. Measuring both forces and moments ap-
plied by an activated wire clinically is possible only
with a specially designed force-moment gauge.
 Basics of Mechanics
itively. Unwanted effects are corrected by adjust-
ments along the way. The final result is achieved
by a series of well-planned mechanical interven-
tions that initiate and sustain a controlled bio-
logic reaction.
The components of comprehensive orth-
odontic treatment, preliminary alignment, over-
bite control, space closure, root paralleling, and
finishing, rely on a series of biomechanical pro-
cesses. The choice of appliances and techniques
used by practitioners varies radically among in-
dividuals, but the fundamental forces and mo-
ments they produce are universal. Appliances
will always act according to the laws of physics.
Understanding the basic biomechanical princi-
ples involved in effecting controlled tooth move-
ment makes achieving successful orthodontic
treatment outcomes more predictable and con-
sistent.
Acknowledgment
The author thanks Ms. Carol Wilkins for her help in prepar-
ing the illustrations for this article.
References
1. Quinn RS, Yoshikawa DK. A reassessment of force mag-
nitude in orthodontics. Am J Orthod 1985;88:252-260.
2. Lindauer SJ, Britto AD. Biological response to biome-
chanical signals: Orthodontic mechanics to control
tooth movement. Semin Orthod 2000;6:145-154.
3. Burstone CJ, Pryputniewicz RJ. Holographic determina-
tion of centers of rotation produced by orthodontic
forces. Am J Orthod 1980;77:396-409.
4. Smith RJ, Burstone CJ. Mechanics of tooth movement.
Am J Orthod 1984;85:294-307.
5. Melsen B. Adult orthodontics: Factors differentiating the
selection of biomechanics in growing and adult individ-
15
uals. Int J Adult Orthod Orthognath Surg 1988;3:16%
177.
6. Lindauer SJ, Rebellato J. Biomechanical considerations
for orthodontic treatment of adults. Dent Clin North
Am 1996;40:811-836.
7. Burstone CJ. Application of bioengineering to clinical
orthodontics, in Graber TM, Swain BF (eds): Orthodon-
tics. Current Principles and Techniques. St Louis, MO,
Mosby, 1985, pp 193-227.
8. Kusy RP, Tulloch JFC. Analysis of moment/force ratios
in the mechanics of tooth movement. Am J Orthod
Dentofac Orthop 1986;90:127-131.
9. Mulligan TF. Common Sense Mechanics in Everyday
Orthodontics. Phoenix, AZ, CSM Publishing, 1998, pp
36-52.
10. Lindauer SJ, Isaacson RJ. One-couple orthodontic appli-
ance systems. Semin Orthod 1995;1:12-24.
11. Mulligan TF. Common Sense Mechanics in Everyday
Orthodontics. Phoenix, AZ, Publishing, 1998, pp 1-17.
12. Isaacson RJ, Lindauer SJ, Rubenstein LK. Activating a
2 × 4 appliance. Angle Orthod 1993;63:17-24.
13. Demange C. Equilibrium situations in bend force sys-
tems. Am J Orthod Dentofac Orthop 1990;98:333-339.
14. Burstone CJ, Koenig HA. Force systems from an ideal
arch. AmJ Orthod 1974;65:270-289.
15. Burstone CJ, Koenig HA. The torce system from step
and V bends. Am J Orthod Dentofac Orthop 1988;93:
59-67.
16. Ronay F, Kleinert MW, Melsen B, et al. Force system
developed by V bends in an elastic orthodontic wire.
Am J Orthod Dentofac Orthop 1989;96:295-301.
17. Lindauer 8J, Isaacson RJ, Conley PA, et al. Force systems
from three-dimensional orthodontic archwires, in Lan-
grana NA, Friedman MIt, Grood ES (eds): Proceedings
of the 1993 Bioengineering Conference, New York,
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1993;40:262-
265.
18. Isaacson RJ, Lindauer SJ, Conley P. Responses of 3-d
arch wires to vertical V bends. Semin Orthod 1995;1:57-
63.
19. Burstone CJ, Hanley KJ. Modern Edgewise Mechanics
Segmented Arch Technique, USA, Ormco Corporation,
1985.