Chemistry O. Level Cambridge I.G.C.S.

E
Chapter 7: Chemical Reactions
Reversible reactions
Experiment:
(1) On heating blue crystals of hydrated copper (II) sulfate. They turn to a white
powder of anhydrous copper (II) sulfate.
CuSO4.5H2O(s) –heat→ CuSO4(s) + 5 H2O(l)
Blue white

(2) On adding water to anhydrous copper (II) sulfate it gets hot and turns blue.
CuSO4(s) + 5 H2O(l) → CuSO4.5H2O(s)
White Blue

- So the reaction can go in either direction: it is reversible. The reaction we start with
(1 above) is called the forward reaction. Reaction 2 is the backward reaction.

- We use the symbol instead of a single arrow, to show that a reaction is

reversible. So the equation for the reaction above is:

CuSO4.5H2O(s) forward CuSO4(s) + 5 H2O(l)

Blue backward white
- Hint: Reaction 1 requires heat it is endothermic. Reaction 2 gives out heat it is
exothermic.

- A reversible reaction is endothermic in one direction, and exothermic in the other. The
same amount of energy is transferred each time.

Dr. Ahmed Eid

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Chemistry O. Level Cambridge I.G.C.S.E
Another example
1) On heating pink crystals of hydrated cobalt (II) chloride. They turn to blue powder of
anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride.
CoCl2.6H2O(s) –heat→ CoCl2(s) + 6 H2O(l)
Pink blue
2) On adding water to anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride it gets hot and turns pink.
CoCl2(s) + 6 H2O(l) → CoCl2.6H2O(s)
Blue Pink
3) The equation for the reaction above is:
CoCl2.6H2O(s) CoCl2(s) + 6 H2O(l)
Pink blue

Chemical tests of water:

Test: add anhydrous copper (II) sulfate.
Result: white colour goes blue.
Or
Test: add anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride.
Result: blue colour goes pink.

Chemical equilibrium:
- Equilibrium is a steady state which can be achieved during a reversible reaction.

- It is reached when the rates of the forward and reverse (backward) reactions are
equal. This does not mean the reaction has stopped when equilibrium is reached. There
are still changes at the microscopic level.

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- It is for this reason that they are often described as dynamic equilibrium. In a
concentration versus time graph the equilibrium is reached at the point where the
concentrations of the reactants and products remain constant. This is because the rate
of formation of products in the forward reaction exactly matches the rate of formation
of reactants in the reverse reaction.

Le Chatelier’s Principle:
- Le Chatelier’s principle states: if one or more factors that affect an equilibrium as
temperature, concentration and pressure changed, the position of equilibrium shift in
the direction which reduces (opposes) the change.

- Le Chatelier’s principle is very important because it allows chemists to deduce

qualitatively the effects of a system in equilibrium when subjected to changes in
temperature, pressure, and concentration.

- When equilibrium is disturbed, it can do one of three things. It can remain as it was
before the disturbance, or it can shift towards the forward reaction (RHS = right hand
side) or it can shift towards the reverse reaction (LHS = left hand side).

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- Le Chatelier’s principle says that an equilibrium has a tendency to oppose every change
that you make to it.
Factors affect on the equilibrium state:
- The three factors which do affect an equilibrium’s position (temperature, pressure,
and concentration) will be looked at it in turn. Pressure is the only factor which is
exclusive to gaseous equilibria and catalysts do not affect the equilibrium position but
they do allow the equilibrium to be achieved in a quicker time.
1) Effect of changes in concentration:
- To see how this works look at the hydrogen iodide dissociation reaction.

2 HI(g) H2(g) + I2(g)

- Consider the mixture of these three components at equilibrium and assume that we
inject more hydrogen gas into the container. Because the H2 concentration now exceeds
its new equilibrium states, so a net reaction now changed as the system moves to the
new state.
- The Le Chatelier principle states that the net reaction will be in a direction that tends
to reduce the effect of the added H2. This can occur if some of the H2 is consumed by
reacting with I2 to form more HI; in other words, a net reaction occurs in the reverse
direction. Chemists usually simply say that “the equilibrium shifts to the left”

The effect of concentration change on the equilibrium position:

Change in concentration Of reactants Of products
Increase Moves to the right Moves to the left
Decrease Moves to the left Moves to the right

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2) Effect of changes in temperature:
- When considering how changes in temperature affect an equilibrium, you need to
establish whether the reaction is exothermic or endothermic. This is done by looking at
the sign of the enthalpy change given for the reaction.

- If the forward reaction is exothermic (negative ∆H) then the reverse reaction will be
endothermic (positive ∆H). The opposite is also true so if the forward reaction is
endothermic (positive ∆H) then the reverse reaction will be exothermic (negative ∆H)

- According to Le Chatelier’s principle, an increase in temperature results in the

equilibrium shifting in the cooler, endothermic direction.

- According to Le Chatelier’s principle a decrease in temperature results in the

equilibrium shifting in the warmer, exothermic direction.

For example:
Heat + N2(g) + O2(g) → 2 NO(g)
- Suppose this reaction is at equilibrium at some temperature T1 and we raise the
temperature to T2. The Le Chatelier principle tells us that a net reaction will occur in
the direction that will partially counteract this change. Since the reaction is
endothermic, a shift of the equilibrium to the right will take place.

The effect of temperature change on the equilibrium position:

Temperature change Exothermic reaction Endothermic reaction
Increase Moves to the left Moves to the right
Decrease Moves to the right Moves to the left

3) Effect of changes in pressure:

- You will recall that if the pressure of a gas is reduced, its volume will increase;
pressure and volume are inversely proportional. With this in mind,

- In most gaseous reactions, reactants and products are under the same conditions. An
increase in pressure will move the particles closer together, increasing the
concentration of all particles.

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- How this affects the equilibrium depends on the number of moles of reactants and the
number of moles of products.

- An increase in pressure always drives the reaction in the direction of the smaller
number of moles of gas.

Rule: If the pressure goes up (increases), the equilibrium will shift towards the side of
the equation with the lower number of moles of gas.

a) If the number of moles of reactants is more than the number of moles of

products:
N2(g) + 3 H2(g) → 2 NH3(g)
- If the pressure increases (volume decreases), the reaction is shifted in the forward
direction (formation of ammonia).

- If the pressure decreases (volume increases), the reaction is shifted in the backward
direction (decomposition of ammonia).

b) If the number of moles of reactants is less than the number of moles of

products:
2SO3(g) → 2 SO2(g) + O2(g)
- If the pressure increases (Volume decreases) the reaction is shifted in the backward
direction.

- If the pressure decreases (volume increase) the reaction is shifted in the forward
direction (decomposition of sulfur trioxide)

c) If the number of moles of reactants is equal to the number of moles of

products:
N2(g) + O2(g) → 2 NO(g)
- The pressure does not affect on the equilibrium as the number of moles of
reactants equal number of moles of products.

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The effect of pressure change on the equilibrium position:
Change in pressure Reaction where Reaction where
n (reactants) > n (products) n (reactants) < n (products)
Increase Moves to the right Moves to the left
Decrease Moves to the left Moves to the right

Improve the yield of ammonia:

- You want as much ammonia as possible. So how can you increase the yield?
N2(g) → 2 NH3(g) + heat
1) Change in temperature:
- Will raising the temperature help you obtain more ammonia? Let’s see: the forward
reaction is exothermic the backward reaction is endothermic. Heating speeds up both
reactions but if you heat the equilibrium mixture, it acts to oppose the change. More
ammonia breaks down in order to use up the heat you added.

- So the reaction reaches equilibrium faster but the new equilibrium mixture has less
ammonia: so you are worse off than before.

- If the temperature is too low, the reaction takes too long to reach equilibrium. It is
not economic. So it is best to choose a moderate temperature (about 450°C)

2) Change the pressure:

N2(g) + 3 H2(g) → 2 NH3(g) + heat
- Pressure is caused by the gas molecules colliding with the walls of the container. The
more molecules present, the higher the pressure.

- When you increase the pressure, the equilibrium mixture acts to oppose this. More
ammonia forms, which means fewer molecules.

- So the amount of ammonia in the mixture has increased. Equilibrium has shifted to
the right.

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3) Remove the ammonia:
- The equilibrium mixture is a balance between nitrogen, hydrogen, and ammonia.
Suppose you cool the mixture. Ammonia condenses first, so you can run it off as a liquid.
Then warm the remaining nitrogen and hydrogen again. More ammonia will form, to
restore the balance.

4) Add a catalyst:
- Iron is a catalyst for this reaction. A catalyst speeds up the forward reaction and back
reactions equally. So the reaction reaches equilibrium faster, which saves your time, but
the amount of ammonia does not change.

So to get the best yield of ammonia, it is best to:

- Use high pressure, and remove ammonia, to improve the yield.
- Use a moderate temperature, and a catalyst, to get a decent rate.

Hint:
By now, you should realize that:
- A change in temperature always shifts equilibrium.

- A change in pressure will shift equilibrium only if the number of molecules is different
on each side of the equation.

- But how do these changes affect the rate? Raising the temperature or pressure
increases the rate of both the forward and backward reactions, so equilibrium is
reached faster.

- A temperature rise gives the molecules more energy.

- An increase in pressure forces them closer. So in both cases, the number of successful
collisions increases.

Dr. Ahmed Eid

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