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Solar apricot dryers and drying processes in the high-

altitude cold-arid Ladakh region of India
a a a
Anwar Hussain , Sonam Dawa & Peerzada Ishfaq Akbar
a
High Mountain Arid Agriculture Research Institute (SKUAST-K) Leh, Ladakh, Jammu &
Kashmir, 194101, India
Accepted author version posted online: 03 Apr 2013.Published online: 24 Apr 2013.

To cite this article: Anwar Hussain , Sonam Dawa & Peerzada Ishfaq Akbar (2013): Solar apricot dryers and
drying processes in the high-altitude cold-arid Ladakh region of India, International Journal of Ambient Energy,
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 International Journal of Ambient Energy, 2013
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01430750.2013.789987

Solar apricot dryers and drying processes in the high-altitude cold-arid Ladakh region of India
Anwar Hussain∗ , Sonam Dawa and Peerzada Ishfaq Akbar
High Mountain Arid Agriculture Research Institute (SKUAST-K) Leh, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir 194101, India
(Received 24 December 2012; final version received 24 January 2013 )

Sun drying of apricot fruit (Prunus armeniaca L.) is the oldest form of preservation technique known to the people of Ladakh
and is still practiced on a large scale. This is because of the abundance of available sunshine. Export of fresh fruits of apricot
and apple outside the region is restricted through quarantine regulations to check the entry of a noxious pest, codling moth to
other temperate fruit belts (J&K and HP) of the country. Henceforth, drying is the only possible venture in vogue to receive
income from apricot cultivation. Traditional practices followed commonly render the final produce to be unhygienic thereby
fetching low returns. The introduction of different types of solar dryers along with other novel drying processes has improved
this age-old preservation technique. A perusal of various drying practices followed and the advantages cum utilisation pattern
of various driers are discussed in the paper.
Downloaded by [Anwar Hussain] at 10:04 30 April 2013

Keywords: apricot; Ladakh; codling moth; solar dryer

1. Introduction is one of the major sources of livelihood and economy and

Ladakh, the cold-arid region of Jammu and Kashmir state
of India, bordering Pakistan and China, comprises Kargil
and Leh districts. It is spread over a geographical area of
96,701 km2 accounting for 43 % of the area of state and
87.4 % of the cold-arid region of India (Sharma 2000). Leh
district is geographically located between 32◦ N to 36◦ N
latitude and 75◦ E to 80◦ E longitude at an altitude ranging
from 2900 to 5900 m above mean sea level (Ali et al. 2012).
Intensive sunlight, high evaporation rate, strong winds and
fluctuating temperature, characterise the general climatic
condition along with spare vegetation, and scanty rainfall
altogether shaping a tough and inhospitable geographical
belt of India. Because of high mountains all around and
heavy snowfall during winter, the area remains inaccessi-
ble to the outside world for nearly six months in a year
(Angchuk and Singh 2006). The growing season is very
short and limited to a few crops (Table 1).
Apricot (Prunus armeniaca L., Rosaceae) is the most
important fruit crop of Ladakh and is widely grown in
the region. Apricot production is mostly confined to the
lower belt (double-cropped area) of Ladakh, where climate
is milder as compared with the rest. The lower belt includes
area from Saspol to Batalik, Nubra valley and larger parts of
Kargil (Figure 1). The total production of fresh apricot fruits
is 8806 tons in Ladakh (Kashmir Life 2012) with 3606 tons
in Leh district (Chief Horticulture Officer, LAHDC, Leh,
Ladakh, India, personal communication) and 5200 tons in
Kargil district (Kaur 2012) for the year 2010–2011. Apricot
is deeply associated with tradition and culture of this cold-
arid region (Dwivedi, Karim, and Ahmad 2007). Almost
every part of the fruit is used by the local inhabitants. Ripe
apricot is an excellent dessert fruit and is used for table
purposes. Apart from the livestock, apricot is till date con-
sidered as the only economically viable agricultural produce
having direct influence on the upliftment of the farming
community of the region. The presence of codling moth
(Cydia pomonella) has rendered the development of the
fruit industry helpless by reducing the marketing opportu-
nities because of quarantine check on the export of fresh
fruits and the planting material outside the region (Akbar
et al. 2012). The only viable option seems to be the adequate
processing and value addition of the produce to harvest opti-
mum gains from the fruit industry. Incorporation of new
methods and technologies in apricot drying has attained a
wider scope and acceptability and the dried fruit is appreci-
ated by foreign tourists and buyers creating outside market
demands.
2. Drying
Due to the highly perishable nature of apricot, nearly 85%
of the produce is dried in Ladakh to extend its availability
and marketing opportunity throughout the year (Anony-
mous 2011). Drying with the help of solar energy is the
oldest form of preservation known to Ladakhis for apri-
cot, other fruits and vegetables, and is still practiced owing

∗ Corresponding author. Email: yokcan63101@gmail.com

© 2013 Taylor & Francis

 2 A. Hussain et al.

Table 1. Altitude, cropping season and cropping duration in Ladakh.

S. No. Altitude AMSL (m) Cropping season Duration (months) Zone

1. 2400–2700 Late March to October 7.0 Lower zone

2. 2700–3000 April to mid-October 6.5
3. 3000–3300 May to September 5.0 Middle zone
4. 3300–3600 Mid-May to September 4.0
5. 3600–4000 June to August 3.0 Upper zone
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Figure 1. Map of Ladakh showing apricot growing areas.

to their utilisation for off months of severe cold with no 3. Methods of drying

or least outside supply. Dried apricots are the only horti- 3.1. Traditional method
cultural product which has a demand outside the Ladakh
Sun drying is the traditional method of apricot drying. In slip
region (Mir 2000). Availability of abundant sun’s energy
pits, the stone is removed by pressing the fruit between the
(i.e. around 5400 Wh/m2 /day on horizontal plain) makes
thumb and the finger, and the pulp is collected in heaps right
it attractive to adopt solar energy for drying in the region
on the orchard floor or near the drying site. It is spread on any
(Ladakh Ecological Development Group 2001). Apricots
available space such as flat pieces of stones, large boulders,
in the region are sun dried as whole fruits, as well as in
grasses and even parapets along the road sides. As a result,
slip pits. Whole dried apricots are termed as fating. Mostly
it gathers a lot of dust. It turns dark brown/black especially
Halman is used for this purpose since it has high-soluble
when there are rains. The sap oozing from the fruit drips
solids, less moisture content and develops an attractive
and trickles and attracts insects. The final product has dust,
colour after drying. Dried Halman has a very good demand
soil and straw clinging to it and has a blackish colour which
in the market and being sold locally as well as outside the
completely reduces the market value (Mir 2000).
region. Almost all the remaining varieties are dried in slip
Usually, the whole dried apricots are spread on wheat
pits and are known as Shali-chuli. Apricots having high-
straw, laid on the roof tops and are given several turnings
soluble solids, more than 20◦ BB means Brix are considered
during drying. A lot of inert materials, including the straw
suitable for drying. Cultivars (Halman, Rakchey Karpo,
stick, to the fruits. As they enter the final stage, they are
Tokpopa, Rogan, Nari, Shakarpara, etc.) grown in Ladakh
shifted onto cotton clothes. Sometimes these are shifted to
are often high in soluble solids (occasionally some exceed
gunny bags or chali (blanket made from goat hair), as a
30◦ B).
 International Journal of Ambient Energy
Figure 2. Ladakhi dried Apricots.
result the jute fibre or goat hair adheres to the final product
which reduces its value. During the process, colour is lost
and the product turns brownish. This practice in turn renders
fruit unfit for consumption and marketing.
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3.2. Improved methods
Compared with the traditional method, several improved
techniques in terms of harvesting, preparation of fruits for
drying and drying have been recommended for adoption
by the various agencies working in Ladakh. Brown discol-
oration is a major problem in drying of apricots (Mir 2000;
Dwivedi, Karim, and Ahmad 2007; Mir et al. 2009). Intro-
duction of different types of solar dryers for drying as well
as sulphur fumigation (sulphuring), dipping in potassium
metabisulphite (KMS) solution (sulphiting) and osmotic
dehydration before drying have added to its acceptabil-
ity and market value (Figure 2). Solar dryers prevent the
fruits from browning, dust, insects and discoloration due
to rain. Sulphur burning at the rate of 3–4 g kg−1 whole
fresh fruit or 2 g kg−1 halves in air tight chambers for 3–4 h
gives good results. Sulphiting is done by dipping the fruits
in 1% solution of KMS solution. Osmotic dehydration is
done by dipping the fruits in a sugar syrup of 70◦ B, having
citric acid (0.25 %), calcium phosphate (0.06 %) and KMS
(1500 ppm) for 24 h. Such pretreatments help in checking
brown discoloration of the product to some extent as well
as drying period.
4. Solar drying
Solar drying is a possible replacement for open sun drying.
Sun drying is by no means a perfect process with prob-
lems arising due to potential contamination of the produce,
variability in drying times, rain damage and so on.
5. Processes during solar drying
For a better understanding of the solar drying processes, the
process of sun drying is described first. During sun drying,
heat is transferred by convection from the surrounding air
3
and by absorption of direct and diffuse radiation on the sur-
face of the food. The heat is partly conducted to the interior
increasing the temperature of the food and partly used for
effecting migration of water and vapour from the interior
to the surface. The remaining amount of energy is used
for the evaporation of the water at the surface or lost to
the ambient via convection and radiation. The evaporated
water has to be removed from the surrounding of the food
by natural convection supported by wind forces (Bux et al.
2002). Under ambient conditions, these processes continue
until the vapour pressure of the moisture held in the product
equals that held in the atmosphere. Thus, the rate of mois-
ture desorption from the product to the environment and
absorption from the environment are in equilibrium, and the
food moisture content at this condition is known as equi-
librium moisture content. Under ambient conditions, the
drying process is slow, and in environments of high relative
humidity, the equilibrium moisture content is insufficiently
low for safe storage (Ekechukwu 1999).
The objective of the dryer is to supply the food product
with more heat than is available under ambient conditions,
thereby increasing sufficiently the vapour pressure of the
moisture held within the food and decreasing significantly
the relative humidity of the drying air and thereby increasing
its moisture-carrying capacity and ensuring sufficiently low
equilibrium moisture content.
6. Advantages of solar drying
• The higher temperature, movement of the air and low
humidity, increase the rate of drying.
• Food is enclosed in the dryer and therefore protected
from dust, insects, birds and animals.
• The higher temperature deters the insects and the
faster drying rate reduces the risk of spoilage by
microorganisms.
• The higher drying rate also gives a higher throughput
of food hence a smaller drying area (roughly one-
third).
• The dryers are water proof and the food does not
therefore need to be moved when it rains.
 4 A. Hussain et al.
• Dryers can be constructed mostly from locally avail-
able materials and are relatively of low cost.
• More complete drying allows longer storage.
7. Solar dryers
One of the greatest problems faced by the fruit growers is
the time taken in drying which extends from 20 to 30 days
depending upon the variety and the weather conditions. A
great revolution came in the age-old preservation technique
of Ladakh with the introduction of different types of solar
dryers. These not only minimise the drying period but also
improve the quality of the fruits. Solar dehydrator designed
by Bhatia and Singh (1975) reduced the drying time to 3
days, but it could not become popular as it needed close
monitoring of temperature and humidity. The temperature
in the dryer was around 40◦ C above the outside temper-
ature till sunset. But the moisture condensed on the glass
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pane and dripped onto the fruit, causing spoilage. The solar
dryer developed by Kalra and Bhardwaj (1981) for drying
of vegetables was of good use for drying of apricot, but now
it is no more in use.
The different types of solar dryers which are in used in
Ladakh (Figure 3) with their carrying capacity and drying
periods (Table 2) are described below.
7.1. Tent dryer
Mountain Agriculture Research and Extension Station for-
merly Regional Agriculture Research, Sub-station, Kargil,
Ladakh, in collaboration with the Division of Post Harvest
Technology, SKUAST-K (Sher-e-Kashmir University of
Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Kashmir) devel-
oped ‘tent dryer’. Tent dryer is cheap and simple to build and
consists of a frame of wooden poles covered with a trans-
parent polythene sheet. Entrance is kept at the east side
wall by giving a vertical slit on the polythene. Provision
for proper ventilation is also kept to control the humid-
ity inside the tent. It could accommodate one quintal fruit,
reduce the drying time of ‘Halman’ whole fruits to 5–6
days. The trays are kept raised 7.5 cm above the floor.
The fruits are protected from dust and due to high tem-
perature insect entry is restricted. Tent dryer can be taken
down and stored when not in use. It is cheap and econom-
ical but not suitable for places where high speed wind is
common (Mir 2000).
Two types of solar dryers, which have been designed
and developed by the Division of Post Harvest Technol-
ogy, SKUAST-K for scientific and hygienic dehydration of
surplus fruits especially apricot in the cold-arid region of
Ladakh to reduce the post harvest losses and avoid their glut
in the market, are solar tunnel dryer and solar cabinet dryer
(Programme Coordinator, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Moun-
tain Agriculture Research and Extension Station, Kargil,
personal communication).
7.1.1. Solar tunnel dryer
The structure is a semi cylindrical-shaped tunnel made up
of iron rods or pipes which can be covered by transparent
UV-stabilised polythene. The metallic frame is developed
through four hoops of MS pipes bent to 8 ft in diameter.
The hoops are placed at a distance of 5 ft from each other.
One end of the frame (i.e. front side of the dryer) consists of
an iron door for loading and unloading the fruit, while the
other end (back side) has an air vent for intake of air from
outside the dryer. The bottom as well as the inner south
side of the dryer are covered with a black-coloured plastic
film for increasing the optimum absorption of solar energy.
Three circular-shaped chimneys have been provided above
the structure to expel the moist hot air from the drying cham-
ber. The fruits are placed on removable trays made from
shade nets arranged in two tiers on both side of the dryer
with a path in the middle of the chamber for movement. It
is suitable for commercial purpose.
7.1.2. Solar cabinet dryer
The drying chamber in a solar cabinet dryer is a metallic
frame structure which is covered by removable transparent
polythene. The fruits to be dried are placed on removable
trays in layers that allow the air to flow through the fruits
placed. The trays are made up of shade net with an outer
frame of wood. The inner wall of south side of the dryer
is provided with black polythene to absorb maximum sun
rays. An inlet at the base acts as a vent for entrance of fresh
air from outside and outlet at the top of the dryer is for exit
of hot and moist air. It is portable and affordable to a small
farmer.
7.1.3. Solar polyhouse dryer
This type of dryer has been designed by Defence Insti-
tute of High Altitude Research formerly Field Research
Laboratory Leh. The dryer works on the principle of the
greenhouse effect as the other dryers that are used, where
it traps the solar radiation and maintains the temperature
inside between 55◦ C and 69◦ C. The dryer is basically a
green house structure, which can be constructed of any size
or capacity. There are 24 movable trays arranged in four
tiers on both side of the dryer with a space between them for
movement. A door is provided on the front wall and the ven-
tilator is provided opposite to the door having exhaust fan
working with a solar panel for the removal of hot and moist
air from the chamber. The structure is covered with UV-
stabilised polythene sheet to trap the radiation. The solar
polyhouse dryer reduces the drying period by 40–50% as
compared with open sun drying (Dwivedi et al. 2005).
7.1.4. Sunbest solar dryer
Another type of dryer which is newly introduced in the
region is the Sunbest Solar Dryer. Sunbest (a private com-
pany) introduced fully solar-fan-operated dryer for drying
 International Journal of Ambient Energy
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Figure 3. Different types of solar dryers.
of apricot. The dryer is a box-type structure (cabinet), which
is black coloured on its inner side. The cabinet is covered
with glass on its upper side. Doors are provided for loading
and unloading of fruits on its front side, whereas solar-
battery-operated fans help in the removal of hot and moist
air from the dryer.
7.1.5. Metallic solar dryer
The solar dryer was designed and introduced by the National
Horticulture Board (NHB), Bengaluru, India. It consists
5
of a cabinet having perforated metallic trays inside it.
A long slightly inclined solar collector with black coloured
v-corrugated base covered with glass faces the sun.
An inlet allows the outside air to enter the air col-
lector which is heated by the solar radiations and the
hot air passes up to the cabinet. A chimney at the
top works as the outlet for the hot and humid air and
an exhaust fan operated by SPV (Solar Photo Voltaic)
panels helps in this process. The whole structure has
been raised above the ground and is made up of metal
 6 A. Hussain et al.

Table 2. Capacity and drying period of different types of solar industry in Ladakh and making this tough terrain of the
dryers. country a self-resilient economic zone.
Capacity Drying time
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Planters Energy Network (PEN), an NGO (Non Govern-
mental Organization), is active in the promotion of solar
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suitable capacity then draw hot air from the panel into insu-
lated ducts, from which it is distributed to the points of use.
Eight such units are in operation in different parts of Ladakh.
The solar-dried apricot fruits fetches 100% higher price in
the market than the conventional open dried apricots.
8. Conclusion
Drying of apricots is the only preservation method which is
highly suitable for the cold-arid region of Ladakh because
of the plenty of available sunshine accompanied by low
humidity. It is economical and easy as compared with the
other methods of preservation as well as there is good-
quality retention. The different types of solar dryers which
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nique has a tremendous influence on the economy of
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