Reflex Activity

DEFINITION AND SIGNIFICANCE

OF REFLEXES
Reflex activity is the response to a peripheral nervous stimulation that occurs without our
consciousness. It is a type of protective mechanism and it protects the body from irreparable
damages.
REFLEX ARC
Reflex arc is the anatomical nervous pathway for a reflex action. A simple reflex arc includes five
components
REFLEX ARC
1. Receptor
2. Afferent Nerve
3. Center
4. Efferent Nerve
5. Effector Organ
CLASSIFICATION OF REFLEXES
Classification of reflexes
Depending upon whether inborn or acquired. 1
Depending upon situation – anatomical classification. 2
Depending upon purpose – physiological classification. 3
Depending upon number of synapse. 4
Depending upon whether visceral or somatic. 5
6. Depending upon clinical basis
DEPENDING UPON WHETHER-1
INBORN
OR ACQUIRED REFLEXES
Inborn Reflexes or Unconditioned ReflexesUnconditioned reflexes are the natural -1
reflexes, which are present since the time of birth, hence the name inborn reflexes. Such
reflexes do not require previous learning,training or conditioning. Best example is the
secretion of saliva when a drop of honey is kept in the mouth of a newborn baby for the
.first time. The baby does not know the taste of honey, but still saliva is secreted
Acquired Reflexes or Conditioned Reflexes-2
Conditioned or acquired reflexes are the reflexes that are developed after conditioning
or training. These reflexes are not inborn but, acquired after birth. Such
.reflexes need previous learning, training or conditioning
Example is the secretion of saliva by sight, smell, thought
or hearing of a known edible substance
–DEPENDING UPON SITUATION
ANATOMICAL CLASSIFICATION
1. Cerebellar Reflexes
2. Cortical Reflexes
3. Midbrain Reflexes
4. Bulbar or Medullary Reflexes
5. Spinal Reflexes:
a. Segmental spinal reflexes
b. Intrasegmental spinal reflexes
.c. Suprasegmental spinal reflexes
–DEPENDING UPON PURPOSE. 3
PHYSIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
1. Protective Reflexes or Flexor Reflexes(withdrawal reflexes or
flexor reflexes).
2-Antigravity Reflexes or Extensor Reflexes
DEPENDING UPON THE NUMBER. 4
OF SYNAPSE
1. Monosynaptic Reflexes
2. Polysynaptic Reflexes
DEPENDING UPON WHETHER. 5
SOMATIC OR VISCERAL REFLEXES
Somatic Reflexes-1
Somatic reflexes are the reflexes, for which the reflex arc is formed by somatic nerve
.fibers. These reflexes involve the participation of skeletal muscles
Visceral or autonomic reflexes -2
are the reflexes, for which at least a part of reflex arc is formed by autonomic nerve
fibers. These reflexes involve participation of smooth muscle or cardiac muscle. Visceral
reflexes include pupillary reflexes, gastrointestinal reflexes,cardiovascular reflexes,
.respiratory reflexes, etc
6. DEPENDING UPON CLINICAL
BASIS
1. Superficial reflexes: a. MUCOUS MEMBRANE REFLEXES.
B-CUTANEOUS REFLEXES OR SKIN REFLEXES
2-Deep reflexes
3-Viscéral reflexes
4-Pathological reflexes.
DEEP REFLEXES
VISCERAL REFLEXES
.Visceral reflexes are the reflexes arising from pupil and visceral organs
Pupillary reflexes. 1
Oculocardiac reflex . 2
.Carotid sinus reflex . 3
PUPILLARY REFLEXES
1. Light reflex
2. Accommodation reflex
3. Ciliospinal reflex.
Light Reflex :When retina of the eye is stimulated by a sudden flash of light, constriction of pupil
occurs.
Accommodation Reflex :While eyes are fixed on a distant object and if another object
.is brought in front of the eye (near the eye) the vision shifts form far object to near object
Ciliospinal Reflex Ciliospinal reflex is the dilatation of pupil due to stimulation of skin
.over the neck
OCULOCARDIAC REFLEX
Oculocardiac reflex is the reflex, in which heart rate
.decreases due to the pressure applied over eyeball
CAROTID SINUS REFLEX
Carotid sinus reflex is the decrease in heart rate and
blood pressure caused by pressure over carotid sinus
.in neck due to tight collar
PATHOLOGICAL REFLEXES
1. Babinski sign Abnormal plantar reflex In normal plantar reflex, a gentle scratch over the
outer edge of the sole of foot causes plantar flexion and adduction of all toes.But in Babinski
sign, there is dorsiflexion of great toe and fanning of other toes Babinski sign is present in
upper motor neuron lesion.
2. Clonus :Clonus is a series of rapid and repeated involuntary jerky movements, which occur
while eliciting a deep reflex.clonus occurs when the deep reflexes are exaggerated due to
hypertonicity of muscles in pyramidal tract lesion. 1-Ankle Clonus 2-Patellar Clonus
3. Pendular movements. Pendular movements are the slow oscillatory movements (instead of
brisk movements) that are developed while eliciting a tendon jerk. (In cerebellar lesion)
PROPERTIES OF REFLEXES
1. ONE WAY CONDUCTION (BELL-MAGENDIE LAW)
2. REACTION TIME
3. SUMMATION
4. OCCLUSION
5. SUBLIMINAL FRINGE
6. RECRUITMENT
7. AFTER DISCHARGE
8. REBOUND PHENOMENON
9. FATIGUE
RECIPROCAL INHIBITION AND
RECIPROCAL INNERVATION
RECIPROCAL INHIBITION Reciprocal inhibition is one of the important features of
both flexor and extensor reflexes. Usually, excitation of one group of muscles is
associated with inhibition of another
RECIPROCAL INNERVATION –SHERRINGTON LAW
Neural mechanism involved in reciprocal inhibition was postulated by Sherrington.
Hence, it is called Sherrington law of reciprocal innervation. According to this law, the
reciprocal inhibition is due to segmental arrangement of afferent and efferent
connections in the spinal cord. Afferent nerve fibers, which evoke flexor reflex in a limb,
have connections with motor neurons supplying flexors and the motor neurons
supplying the extensors of same side. Afferent nerve excites the motor neurons, which
.supply the flexors
CROSSED EXTENSOR REFLEX
Crossed extensor reflex is the withdrawal reflex in which the flexors of the withdrawing
limb are excited(contracting) and extensors are inhibited (relaxed),while the opposite
occurs in the other limb
SIGNIFICANCE OF RECIPROCAL INHIBITION
Reciprocal inhibition and reciprocal innervation are very important in spinal reflexes,
which are involved in locomotion. It helps in the forward movement of one limb while
.causing the backward movement of the opposite limb
REFLEXES IN MOTOR NEURON LESION
UPPER MOTOR NEURON LESION
During upper motor neuron lesion, all the superficial reflexes are lost. Deep reflexes are
.exaggerated and the Babinski sign is positive
LOWER MOTOR NEURON LESION
During lower motor lesion, all the superficial and deep reflexes are lost
Spinal Cord
Spinal cord lies loosely in the vertebral canal. It extends from foramen magnum where it is continuous with
medulla oblongata, above and up to the lower border of first lumbar vertebra below
Coverings
Spinal cord is covered by sheaths called meninges,which are membranous in nature. Meninges
are dura mater, pia mater and arachnoid mater. These coverings continue as coverings of brain.
Meninges are responsible for protection and nourishment of the nervous tissues.
Shape and Length
Spinal cord is cylindrical in shape. Length of the spinal cord is about 45 cm in males and about 43
cm in females.
Enlargements
Spinal cord has two spindle-shaped swellings, namely cervical and lumbar enlargements. These
.two portions of spinal cord innervate upper and lower extremities respectively
Conus Medullaris and Filum Terminale
Below the lumbar enlargement, spinal cord rapidly narrows to a cone-shaped
termination called conus medullaris. A slender non-nervous filament called filum
terminale extends from conus medullaris downward to the fundus of the dural sac at the
level of second sacral vertebra
Segments
Spinal cord is made up of 31 segments, which are listed in Box 143.1. In fact, spinal
cord is a continuous structure. Appearance of the segment is by nerves arising from
.spinal cord, which are called spinal nerve
Spinal Nerves
Segments of spinal cord correspond to 31 pairs of spinal nerves in a symmetrica
.manner
Nerve Roots
Each spinal nerve is formed by an anterior (ventral) root and a posterior (dorsal) root.
Both the roots on either side leave the spinal cord and pass throughthe corresponding
intervertebral foramina. Cervical and thoracic roots are shorter whereas, the lumbar and
.sacral roots are longer
Fissure and Sulci
On the anterior surface of spinal cord, there is a deep furrow known as anterior median
fissure. Depth of this fissure is about 3 mm. Lateral to the anterior median fissure on
either side, there is a slight depression called the anterolateral sulcus. It denotes the exit
of anterior nerve root. On the posterior aspect, there is a depression called posterior
median sulcus. This sulcus is continuous with a thin glial partition called the posterior
median septum. It extends inside the spinal cord for about 5 mm and reaches the gray
matter. On either side, lateral to posterior median sulcus, there is posterior intermediate
sulcus. It is continuous with posterior intermediate septum, which extends for about 3
mm into the spinal cord. Lateral to the posterior intermediate sulcus, is the posterolateral
.sulcus. This denotes the entry of posterior nerve root
Internal Structure of Spinal Cord
GRAY MATTER OF SPINAL CORD
Gray matter of spinal cord is the collection of nerve cell bodies, dendrites and parts of
axons. It is placed centrally in the form of wings of the butterfly and it resembles the
letter ‘H’. Exactly in the center of gray matter, there is a canal called the spinal canal.
Ventral and the dorsal portions of each lateral half of gray matter are called ventral (anterior)
and dorsal
(posterior) gray horns respectively. In addition, the gray matter forms a small projection in
between the anterior
and posterior horns in all thoracic and first two lumbar segments. It is called the lateral gray
horn. Part of the gray matter anterior to central canal is called the anterior gray commissure and
part of gray matter posterior to the central canal is called posterior gray commissure.
Neurons in Gray Matter of Spinal
Cord
1. Golgi type I neurons : neurons have long axons and are usually found in anterior
horns. Axons of these neurons form the long tracts of spinal cord.
Golgi type II neurons : have short axons, which are found mostly in posterior horns -2
Organization of Neurons in Gray Matter
:Organization of neurons in the gray matter of spinal cord is described in two methods
Nuclei or columns. 1
Laminae or layers. 2
NUCLEI
Nuclei in Posterior Gray Horn :
1. Marginal nucleus
2. Substantia gelatinosa of Rolando
3. Chief sensory nucleus or nucleus proprius
4. Dorsal nucleus of Clarke
Nuclei in Lateral Gray Horn
Lateral gray horn has cluster of neurons called intermediolateral nucleus. The neurons
of this nucleus give rise to sympathetic preganglionic fibers, which leave the spinal cord
through the anterior nerve root. Intermediolateral nucleus extends between T1 and L2
.segments of spinal cord
Nuclei in Anterior Gray Horn :
1. Alpha motor neurons. the anterior root and end in groups of skeletal muscle fibers called
extrafusal fibers.
2. Gamma motor neurons : These neurons send axons to intrafusal fibers of the muscle spindle.
3. Renshaw cells : Renshaw cells are the inhibitory neurons, which play an important role in
synaptic inhibition at the spinal cord
Laminae in Posterior Gray Horn
Nuclei present in the laminae of posterior gray horn
1-Marginal nucleus : Lamina I
2-Substantial gelatinous of Rolando : Laminae II and III
3-Chief sensory nucleus : Laminae III, IV and V
4-Dorsal nucleus of Clarke : Lamina VI
Lamina in Lateral Gray Horn
Lateral gray horn contains only one lamina, the lamina VII. It contains intermediolateral
.nucleus
Laminae in Anterior Gray Horn
Laminae VIII and IX form the anterior gray horn. These laminae contain nuclei of motor
.neurons, which are concerned with motor functions
Neurons present in the laminae of anterior gray horn
Motor internuncial neurons, : Lamina VIII which are also called interneurons
Motor neurons : Lamina IX
Lamina Around Central Canal
There is only one lamina around the center of the spinal canal, the lamina X. It contains
.neuroglia, whichnform the supporting tissue
WHITE MATTER OF SPINAL
CORD
White matter of spinal cord surrounds the gray matter. It is formed by the bundles of
both myelinated and nonmyelinated fibers, but predominantly the myelinated fibers.
Anterior median fissure and posterior median septum divide the entire mass of white
matter into two lateral halves. The band of white matter lying in front of anterior gray
commissure is called anterior white commissure
I. Anterior or Ventral White Column
II. Lateral White Column
III. Posterior or Dorsal White Column
TRACTS IN SPINAL CORD
1. Short tracts : Fibers of the short tracts connect different parts of spinal cord itself.
Short tracts are of two types:
i. Association or intrinsic tracts, which connect adjacent segments of spinal cord on the
same side
ii. Commissural tracts, which connect opposite halves of same segment of spinal cord
Long tracts : i. Ascending tracts, which carry sensory impulses from the spinal cord to. 2
brain
.ii. Descending tracts, which carry motor impulses from brain to the spinal cord
ASCENDING TRACTS OF SPINAL CORD
.Ascending tracts of spinal cord carry the impulses of various sensations to the brain
:Pathway for each sensation is formed by two or three groups of neurons, which are
First order neurons . 1
Second order neurons . 2
.Third order neurons . 3
First Order Neurons
First order neurons receive sensory impulses from the receptors and send them to
sensory neurons present in the posterior gray horn of spinal cord through their fibers.
.Nerve cell bodies of these neurons are located in the posterior nerve root ganglion

Second Order Neurons

Second order neurons are the sensory neurons present in the posterior gray horn.
Fibers from these neurons form the ascending tracts of spinal cord.These fibers carry
sensory impulses from spinalcord to different brain areas below cerebral cortex
(subcortical areas) such as thalamus. All the ascending tracts are formed by fibers of
second order neurons of the sensory pathways except the ascending tracts in the
posterior white funiculus, which are formed by the fibers of first order neurons.
Third Order Neurons
Third order neurons are in the subcortical areas. Fibers of these neurons carry the
.sensory impulses from subcortical areas to cerebral cortex