REPRODUCTION

- A characteristic of a living organism in general

- Even at the cellular level
- A way to show that each cell in our body has its own life cycle to follow

NUCLEIC ACID
- Made up of monomers subunits known as nucleotides

NUCLEOTIDES
- Composed of nitrogenous base, pentose sugar, phosphate group

GENETIC MATERIAL
- is very important for each cell and the organism in general
- Has the characteristics of a living organism and cell
- Known as the DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)

DNA (DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID)

- A kind of compound known as nucleic acid
- Made up of chain of nucleotides
- Molecule that carries the genetic information
- Also the ones where information is got in the making of proteins in the body
- A double stranded nucleic acid that are in a helical form (twining with each other)
- Mainly composed of chromosomes

RNA (RIBONUCLEIC ACID)

- A kind of compound known as nucleic acid
- Also made up of chain of nucleotides

LIFE CYCLE OF CELL

- Has 4 distinct periods (G1, S, G2, M)
- Before this life cycle of a cell is attained by a cell, there must first be a flow of genetic information
CENTRAL DOGMA OF BIOLOGY

- Steps in the flow of genetic information - The DNA must first be replicated
- Without this, there could be no existence of life - No cellular reproduction if no replication of DNA

Processes of Central Dogma

● REPLICATION
- Duplication
- Has to be a “complete” and “exact” copy of the individual
- Done in the nucleus
- Type of replication of our genetic material have is SEMI-CONSERVATIVE Type
- Is important because there can be no formation of another cell if there is no doubling, duplication,
or getting of exact copy of the DNA
➔ SEMI-CONSERVATIVE Type
➢ Replicated DNA is composed of one old strand and one new strand thus the
Semi-conservative type
➢ If the DNA is in a helical form, there must be unwinding of two strands (caused by an
enzyme) before intertwining
➢ In between the two strands are like a ladder that are made up of nitrogenous base pairs.
➢ Another enzyme will slice or split the DNA molecule or the two strands
➢ Once the DNA molecule is split, replication of DNA is done and on each old strand, a new
strand will pair with it
➢ Each old strand has its own nitrogenous base pairs that will pair with others
 ● TRANSCRIPTION
- Copying
- Done in the nucleus since dna can’t get out of nucleus
- Nucleolus produces RNA (another form of nucleic acid)
- After transcription, all three RNAs move out of the nucleus to the cytoplasm where ribosomes are
(factory for protein synthesis)
THREE FORMS OF RNA

mRNA (messenger) ● makes the transcription

● copies from the DNA where one of the
two strands serve as the template

tRNA (transfer)

rRNA (ribosomal)

● TRANSLATION
- Information transcribed by rna from dna will be translated into genetic codes (known as TRIPLET
CODE)
➔ Every three consecutive n-bases that would represent one kind of amino acid
➔ Encoded for certain amino acids
➔ Each amino acid can form into certain protein product
➔ PROTEIN is the ultimate gene product in the cell
- Done in the cytoplasm (specifically ribosomes)
- Protein is synthesized in ribosomes (found in cytoplasm and Rough ER)
SUMMARY:
● Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the genetic material of cells, carrying information in a coded form from
cell to cell and from parent to offspring.
● When a gene is active, or expressed, its information is copied first into another nucleic acid, RNA, which
in turn directs the synthesis of the ultimate gene products, the specific proteins.
● RNA is also the genetic material of some viruses.
● These concepts, which constitute the central dogma of molecular biology, were summarized by Francis
Crick in the diagram
● Three main steps in the flow of genetic information from the genome (DNA):
1. replication of the DNA molecule, and thus of its genetic information, by a template mechanism;
2. transcription of this information into RNA molecules;
3. translation of this information into various protein components of a cell – for example, the
enzymes.

PHENOTYPE
- Manifested characteristics of the individual
- Characteristics you got from one of your parents can be seen in your physical appearance
- “PHENOTYPICALLY THE SAME WITH YOUR MOM”
- You can’t be 100% all from one parent

Homologous Chromosomes
- Almost the same characteristics and physical appearance
- They pair with each other during meiosis
- As human beings, we have 23 pairs of chromosomes
- All in all, we have 46 chromosomes
- Each parent has a part, thus being in pairs
- One chromosome is Maternal (50%) , one chromosome is Paternal (50%)
 GENES IN CHROMOSOMES

● Dominant ● Recessive
- A strong gene - Not expressed gene
- Active genes
- Expressed gene and can be seen in physical appearance

CELLS
- Ability to reproduce is a fundamental property of cells and organisms

THE CELL CYCLE

- The magnitude of cell multiplication can be appreciated by realizing that an adult person is formed by
10¹⁴ or 10¹⁵ cells, all derived from a single cell, the fertilized egg.
- Even in fully grown adults, the amount of cell multiplication is impressive.
➔ A man contains 2.5 x 10¹³ RBCs (5 liters of blood with 5M/mm³), and the average lifespan of a
RBC is 120 days (107 seconds). Therefore, to maintain a constant blood supply, 2.5 x 10¹³ RBCs
must be produced every 107 seconds; i.e 2.5M new cells are required per second.
- Cell reproduction is precisely regulated so that the production of new cells compensates exactly the loss
of cells in adult tissues.
- A growing cell undergoes a cell cycle that is comprised of essentially two periods:
1. interphase
➔ the period of non-apparent division
➔ Cell is not dividing
➔ Cell is preparing itself for division
➢ Preparation takes many biosynthetic activities
➔ Where cells spend most of their life
➔ Also known as “METABOLIC PHASE”
➔ Can be also known as “RESTING PERIOD/PHASE” because cell is resting from division
➔ Has three stages (G1, S, G2)

2. period of division (cell division)

➔ Mitosis (nuclear division)
➔ Cytokinesis
➢ Why many cells in our body have single centrally located nucleus
➢ Cytoplasm divides

➔ If no cytokinesis after mitosis

➢ Cells become bi-nucleated
➢ If another mitotic period proceeds, cells become multinucleated

THE RATES AND CONTROLS OF DIVISION

- Rates of division vary considerably among cell types.
- Even the same type of cells have different rates if they have different environmental factors
- The rates are dependent on conditions of growth.
➔ For example, Amoeba proteus (protozoan, are free living, have pseudopods, and live in moist
soil) at 23°C divides every 36-40 hr but if temperature is lowered to 17°C, this rate slows to one
division every 48-55 hr.
➔ Amoeba Histolytica
➢ Human parasitic amoebae
➢ Causes Amoebiasis
- Few eukaryote cells divide as rapidly as bacterial cells;
➔ a bacterial population may double in cell number and mass every 15-20 min.
Relationship between division rates and cell specialization
- “The more specialized a cell becomes in its morphology and metabolism, the less likely it is to
divide”
- This is applicable to cell types of multicellular organisms, but it cannot be regarded as a hard and fast
rule.
- Some highly specialized cells rarely divide.
- Some organs and tissues maintain populations of relatively unspecialized cells which divide relatively
rapidly
- Knowledge of the factors that control division rates might, for example, help to explain why most cancer
cells are able to divide much more rapidly than the normal cells from which they derived. When cancer
cells start dividing, they do not stop.
● CANCER CELLS
- When cancer cells start dividing, they do not stop.
- Starts in replication of chromosomes where there are mismatching of n-bases producing
wrong chromosomes
- Parent cells that get into mitosis become two, whatever its contents, it is divided fairly to both daughter
cells.
- The size of daughter cells are half of parent cells
- These daughter cells will enter first stage of cell cycle which is G1 ( Growth Phase 1) since they are only
half of parent cells and they need additional contents
● SPECIALIZED CELLS
- Cells in our body that are specialized such as the heart cells, liver cells, stomach cells
- After completing their life cycle and contents are complete at G1 and eventually get out of
G1
- G1 becomes Gap Phase 1
➔ time consumed by the cell while in G1 to decide or replenish itself and eventually move
out from cycle
- G0 is where they arrest the cycle where only the processes in their life cycle are arrested
- They remain specialized cells and do not grow in number.
- They remain in normal size and functioning.
- When cells reach their specialized stage, they are already working for a specific function
● Skin cells
- Continue to divide and have the life cycle
- Cells in our body that need to regenerate
INTERPHASE
- Most important since cells spend most of their life span
- Metabolic phase
- a period of intense biosynthetic activity in which the cell doubles in size and duplicates precisely its
chromosome complement.
- Preparation stage for cell division then division of cytoplasm
➔ CELL DIVISION
➢ division of nucleus
➢ Can be MEIOSIS or MITOSIS
➔ CYTOKINESIS
➢ Cytoplasmic Division
➢ Division of cytoplasm
- The introduction of cytochemical methods, such as the Feulgen stain, followed by a cytophotometric
quantitative assay, first suggested that the doubling of DNA takes place during the interphase.
- The studies done by autoradiography with labeled thymidine were the most important in determining the
exact period in which DNA replication takes place in a eukaryotic cell.
- These studies demonstrated that the synthesis occurs only in a restricted portion of the interphase- the
so-called S stage.
- Three parts of Interphase: G1, Synthesis, G2
Howard and Pelc divided the cell cycle into four successive intervals:G1, S, G2, and mitosis.
Length of growth in interphase

G1 5 hours growth

Synthesis 7 hours in a mammalian cell out of 16 hours generation

G2 3 hours

Mitosis 1 hour

- The duration of cell cycle varies greatly from one cell to another.
- For a mammalian cell growing in culture with a generation time of 16 hours, the different periods would
be as follows: G1 = 5 hours, S = 7 hours, G2 = 3 hours, and mitosis = 1 hour.
- Generally speaking, the S, G2, and mitotic periods are relatively constant in the cells of the same
organism.
- The G1 period is the most variable in length.
➔ It cannot be assured that 5 hours is needed time always.
➔ We cannot tell how much of the cytoplasm in two daughter cells is needed for growth.
➔ How long or how complex is the synthesis process of a part of the cytoplasm of the cell.
➔ Depending on the physiological condition of the cells, it may last days, months, or years.

THE CELL CYCLE

G1 – THE MOST VARIABLE PERIOD OF THE CELL CYCLE
- The period between the end of mitosis and the start of synthesis
- First growth stage
- Those tissues that do not divide, or that divide rarely, contain the amount of DNA present in the G1
period.
- Cultured cells that stop multiplying because of density-dependent inhibition of growth also stop at G1.
- The regulation of the duration of the cell cycle occurs primarily by arresting it at a specific point of G1,
and the cell in the arrested condition is said to be in the G0 state.
➔ In the G0 state, the cell may be considered to be withdrawn from the cell cycle; when
conditions change and growth is resumed, the cell re-enters the G1 period.
- Cells that just came from the division of mother cell are half of the size of their parent
➔ Cells need more time here to grow its needed parts, but it depends on the cell
➔ If cell needs only few of cellular contents to be added in order to become a mature and
functioning one, then it needs a shorter period of time
➔ If cell needs a lot of cellular contents to be added in order to become a mature and functioning
one, then it needs a longer period of time
- Considered as Growth Phase 1 if for the growth and enlargement of size of cell
- Considered as Gap Phase 1 if for deciding to go on with cycle and divide again or get out of the cycle
and arrest the cell cycle

S PERIOD – SYNTHESIS OF DNA

- Period of synthesis
- In preparation for cell division
- Chromosomes are synthesized
➔ A human has 46 chromosomes where each chromosome is duplicated, thus 92 chromosomes
are produced
➔ There are 1 to 22 pairs of chromosomes that are considered to be autosomes
➔ The 23rd pair is known to be sex chromosome
➔ When one chromosome (composed of maternal and paternal) is duplicated, after its
duplication, two maternal chromosomes and two paternal chromosome are created
- The cell’s dna are synthesized in this stage
 ➔ DNA is a genetic material that composed of chromosomes, histones and non-histones proteins
➔ DNA is made up of two vertical posts although the model is in helix form
➔ During replication, there is an enzyme that will unwind the helical DNA and straighten it
➔ When DNA is no longer in an helical form, it looks like a ladder where the two vertical posts
are composed of alternating pentose sugar (deoxyribose) and phosphate group
➔ In between the posts are complementary base pairing of adenine and thymine (AT), and
guanine and cytosine (GC)
➔ n-BASE rule must be strictly followed which states that one purine must be paired with one
pyrimidine.
➔ adenine can only pair with thymine and vice versa, and guanine can only pair with cytosine
and vice versa.
➔ As a consequence of this, each daughter molecule is an exact replica of the parent molecule.
purines pyrimidines

Adenine and guanine Thymine and cytosine

➔ 4 different bases are common to the dna
➔ 4 different nucleotides can be formed and seen as components of dna
adenosine triphosphate guanosine triphosphate

thymidine triphosphate cytidine triphosphate

- The mechanism of DNA replication may be considered a direct consequence of the DNA structure
presented in the molecular model proposed by Watson and Crick in 1953.
- The two strands of the double helix can be separated because they are joined by relatively weak
hydrogen bonds. Each polynucleotide chain serves as a template for the synthesis of a new DNA
molecule.

G2- Growth phase 2/ Gap phase

- Another growth period or also gap period
- Growth period
➔ if there are still cytoplasmic organelles to be added
➔ Whatever is not added during g1, it can still be added in g2
➔ What is in excess in g1 can be removed in g2
➔ A time for the cell to double check everything that is needed in mitosis
➔ Cell has enough time to recheck the replication done in the synthesis phase
- Gap period
➔ if everything is okay and cell has to only double check if everything is ready for M
- After G2, parent cell will have division of nucleus
- the interval between the end of synthesis and the start of mitosis.
- Preservatives from food may cause cloudiness in our chromosomes and proofreading in genetic
information may be not clear and one cell may be normal but the other is abnormal, which further
duplicates
- During G2 a cell contains two times (4C) the amount of DNA present in the original diploid cell (2C).

Mitosis
- Nuclear division
- Most cells are followed by cytokinesis, thus having one and centrally located nucleus
➔ If mitosis is not followed by cytokinesis, there is no cell division, instead produces a bi
nucleated cell, a cell that has two nuclei since cytoplasm didn’t divide
➔ Mitosis+Cytokinesis=cell division
➔ Mitosis with no cytokinesis=binucleated or multi nucleated cells
Nuclear division
mitosis meiosis

- cell involved are somatic or body
cells
- During mitosis, nucleus divides
and form genetically same
daughter cells
- significance is that both daughter
cells must have the same
number and same kind of
chromosomes that the parent
cell has
- if cell involved is sex cell or gamete
- is reduction division
- If the parent cell like sperm and egg cells (being primordial cells
in the gonads)
➔ diploid chromosomes are reduced into haploid
➔ meaning the number of chromosomes of parents are
reduced to half and handed to the daughter cells
➔ If it is a human gametes, from 46 chromosomes of the
mother cell, the daughter cell may only have 23
chromosomes from the mother.

MITOSIS
- Nuclear division
- Initiated after completion of interphase
- The difference of centrioles indicates the onset of mitosis
- Has 4 stages (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase)
- Materials involved in mitosis:
Genetic material/chromosomes/chromatin nuclear membrane

centrioles nucleolus
- But every after, it undergoes cytokinesis
➔ cytoplasmic division and cytoplasm is divided equally into 2 daughter cells
➔ All of the cytoplasmic contents of parents cell are divided equally into the 2 daughter cells
- There are cells that neglect cell division such as skeletal muscle cells

FIRST PICTURE (G2 OF INTERPHASE)

- Cell is not yet dividing
- Nucleus is intact
- Centrioles at the centrosome or near the nucleus, where they are both close to each other

SECOND PICTURE (PROPHASE) & THIRD PICTURE (PROMETAPHASE)

- Onset of mitosis
- Events:
1. At the centrosome, two centrioles are separating and moving far from each other toward the
opposite poles
➔ Centrioles are indicators of cell division
 2. There is development of early mitotic spindles / spindle fibers between two separated centrioles
➔ Formed by centrioles made up of microtubules (arranged in 9 triplets)
➔ 9+2 arrangement of microtubules can be found in cilia and flagella
➔ Microtubules are protein fibers that are capable of movement
3. Thin chromatin threads become shortened and thickened chromosomes.
➔ Thin chromatin threads the genetic material of the cell inside the nucleus become prominent.
➔ During the S phase, replication is done, thus duplicated chromosomes become more
prominent and visible, as sister chromosomes join together.
➔ Chromatin are now called chromosomes because the duplication becomes more visible.
4. There is a gradual disappearance of the nucleolus
5. There is disintegration and gradual disappearance of the nucleus membrane.
➔ Nuclear membranes at G2 are intact and surround the genetic material of the membrane,
➔ In the early stage of prophase, nuclear membranes are still there but some are
disintegrating.
➔ In late prophase, some of the broken pieces of the nuclear membrane disappear.
6. The attachment of spindle fibers at the center of the chromosome called centromere having the
material kinetochore.
➔ Spindle fibers become mature
➔ Some of the spindle fibers attach to chromosomes.
7. The attachment of chromosomes to spindle fibers make chromosomes move.

FOURTH PICTURE (METAPHASE)

- Because chromosomes are capable of movement, chromosomes align themselves at the equatorial
plate.
- The well-loved phase of geneticists and genetic engineers because they can clearly see each
chromosome since they are aligned.
- Event:
1. Alignment of chromosomes at the center plate or equatorial plate of the cell.

FIFTH PICTURE (ANAPHASE)

- Doubled-sister chromosomes aligning at center plate are pulled apart from each other by the spindle
fibers that are attached to the centromere where the kinetochore is.
- Movement of chromosomes towards the poles are lead by its centromere.
- One sister chromosome to the one pole while the other sister chromosome is to the other pole.
- Events:
1. Separation/splitting of the sister chromosomes by the spindle fibers.
2. Migration of sister chromosomes towards the opposite poles.

SIXTH PICTURE (TELOPHASE AND CYTOKINESIS)

- Last stage of mitosis
- Because of the splitting of chromosomes, they become chromatin threads again
- Events in prophase are opposite of events in telophase
- Events:
1. Chromosomes become chromatin threads
2. Disappearance of spindle fibers.
3. Nucleolus is forming
4. Reconstruction of nuclear membrane
5. Gradual deepening of membrane at the sides of the cell (cleavage furrow) and cytokinesis is
about to happen
➔ If animal cell, cytokinesis it starts at the side
➔ This invagination further deepens until two daughter cells are formed.
➔ If plant cell, cytokinesis starts by vesicles forming at the center and scattering towards the
sides
MEIOSIS
- Meiosis (German term., meioum, to diminish) is the mechanism that prevents the enormous doubling of
chromosome number.
- Occur in gametes or sex cells (that develop in organism’s gonads
- Must have reduction of number of chromosomes so that the union of sperm and cell, they will
reconstitute the normal number of chromosomes of human (46 chromosomes)
➔ If parent cell is diploid, daughter cells are haploid 9 only half of chromosomes of parent cell)
➔ 46 chromosomes from one parent, where 23 chromosomes from parent given to daughter
➔ By a series of two divisions, the number of chromosomes is reduced by half – a process that
gives rise to four haploid cells.
- meiocytes
➔ Cells undergoing meiosis
➔ These are:
primary spermatocyte primary oocyte

secondary spermatocyte secondary oocyte

- The essential processes of meiosis are:

segregation of the homologous formation of chiasmata and
chromosomes recombination

pairing or synapsis

- Has 4 stages
prophase anaphase

metaphase telophase

- Has 2 division processes

meiosis I meiosis II
➔ There is always an accompanying roman numeral I and II
➔ Reason why there is a roman numeral with the name is because meiosis is different from mitosis.
➔ mitosis is only made up of a single division process so the resulting daughter cells are two.
➔ meiosis there are two division processes (meiosis I and meiosis II)

MALE
- Male have a pair of gonads - testes
➔ found outside
➔ both testes are active in production and development of gametes known as spermatozoa or
sperm cells.
➔ Both testes are working actively on all of them.
➔ Within the two testes, there are 250 compartments.
➢ Every compartment has seminiferous tubules that are long, slender, tightly coiled tubes.
➢ In that tube, spermatogenesis (production and development of sperm cells) happen.
➢ Can produce sperm cell everyday (several millions)
➢ In 1 ejaculation, 300M sperm cells
➔ seminiferous tubules
- There are ring like structure inside
- Mother cells (spermatogonia) are found at the periphery
- From the periphery, we can find developing cells until the mature sperm cells at the
central region of seminiferous tubules
 - Central region is the canal that they can pass by towards the body of male individual to
gain nutrition and fluid and return back to penis to be ejaculated to the outside.
- Spermatogonium is considered diploid cell (a cell that can be considered somatic)
- This somatic cell further increase in number through mitosis
- Primary spermatocyte
➢ in testes are diploid because they arise from diploid spermatogonium and is where
Meiosis 1 starts
➢ undergoes meiotic division becomes secondary spermatocyte
➢ Secondary spermatocyte become haploid (number of chromosomes are halved)
- Since meiosis is a double division reaction or process, second meiotic division shall be
undergone by secondary spermatocytes to become spermatids (still haploid).
- Second meiotic division is similar to mitosis
- Spermatids (haploid) need structural reconstruction (known as spermeiogenesis ) to
become spermatozoa. Rounded cells are reconstructed to become tadpole like. Some of
the cytoplasm in spermatids are removed and put into the neck and tail part. Nucleus
becomes the head.
- At the neck part, this is where mitochondria focuses. It supports energy to the head where
the nucleus is found. It also supports the tail for the swimming activity of spermatozoa.
- All these are functional sense. If both testes are functional, then sperm cells are also
functional

FEMALES
- Females have a pair of gonads - ovaries
➔ found within the body at the sides of the pelvic region, do not work at the same time, instead they
work alternately.
➔ Has only one follicular cell that will ripen and develop into a primary oocyte.
➔ At the end of the process, only one gamete is expelled out of one ovary.
- Ovulation
➔ release of developed ovum
➔ Release of secondary oocyte that then develop into the fallopian tube
➔ Only within 28 day period, 1 egg cell is produced
➔ Only one ovary is active, only one follicular cell is created, only one primary oocyte is to develop
into secondary oocyte.
➔ Secondary oocyte is expelled in ovulation process and becomes a mature ovum while waiting for
sperm cell to fertilize it at fallopian tube or uterine tube)
➔ oogonium (diploid) will develop into primary oocyte (also diploid)
➔ During first meiotic division, the primary oocyte becomes a secondary oocyte. The other cell that
developed from primary oocyte is a polar body (degenerate because it is not needed in
reproduction since only one secondary oocyte is available
➔ On the second meiotic division, this secondary oocyte further develops and together with that,
another polar body also forms that may deteriorate.
➔ If a female has genetic predisposition for twinning, this ovary may develop two follicular cells that
will ripen to become primary oocyte and proceed to develop into secondary oocyte and develop
in the fallopian tube. (fraternal twinning / dizygotic twinning) (can be both girls, boys or one girl
and one boy)
➔ If one egg and one sperm, a single zygote is developed. But during zygote development, a
cleavage totally separates the cells of these blastula, they separate and each one develops into
an embryo (monozygotic twinning / identical twinning) (always have the same sex)
➔ Sperm cell carries the sex chromosome to determine the sex
MEIOSIS I
- The maternal chromosome finds its homologue from among the paternal chromosomes or vice versa.
- This is followed by an actual physical exchange of genetic material via crossing-over.
➔ Crossing-over leads to recombination.
➔ This exchange is accomplished without gaining nor losing genetic information, but variability is
introduced.
➔ The chromosomes at this stage are shorter and thicker. T
➔ The points of exchange of genetic materials are marked by the information of structures called
chiasmata (sing. Chiasma).
- The paired homologous chromosomes are composed of four sister chromatids called tetrad.
➔ Eventually, the homologous pairs of chromosomes separate starting from the centromere in a
process called desynapsis.
➔ The homologous chromosomes do not completely dissociate from each other.
➔ The chiasmata connect the nonsister chromatids of the homologous chromosomes.
- Towards the end of prophase I, the chromosomes are highly coiled and condensed and easily visible.
The chiasmata slide to the ends of the chromatids.

PROPHASE I
- Prolonged process
- Very important stage in life of sperm and egg cells
- Recombination of genes
➔ When maternal and paternal genes combine at a certain point that can give a particular
character to an individual
➔ Recombination brings about variation
➔ Once egg and sperm cell unites, it brins about a unique offspring
- In late stage, the sister chromosomes had already with them their homologs
- Chromosomes thicken as effect of synthesis stage during interphase
- Dyad chromosomes
➔ X (like this)
➔ One chromosome held together with another sister chromosome
➔ Has Two arms
➔ Two chromosomes are held together in the center by a centromere
➔ Sister chromosomes have two arms known as sister chromatids
- Synapsis
➔ Time at which the chromosomes look for their homolog
➔ When chromosome meets its counterpart homolog chromosomes
➔ Gene to gene pairing of homologous chromosomes
➔ Next stage is the crossing over, one of their sister chromatids cross
➔ Pairing of homologous chromosomes that happen during pachynema
- Tetrad
➔ After crossing over occurs in homologous chromosomes, 4 arms/chromatids are made
➔ XX (like this)
- Homologous chromosomes
➔ Chromosomes that are structurally, anatomically, physically the same
➔ Same in orientation
➔ One is maternal chromosome, one is a paternal chromosome
- In Prophase I, it is where maternal and paternal chromosomes look for each other and meet in a
synapsis
- In prophase I, one of the chromatid arm of a paternal chromosome is crossing over a chromatid arm
of a maternal chromosome
- Chiasma
➔ Chromatids of homolog chromosomes cross over
➔ Site of crossing over
➔ Only one site of crossing over
- Chiasmata
➔ More than one site of crossing over
- Crossing over
➔ Happens for recombination ( getting a paternal genes by a maternal chromosome, and getting
a maternal genes by a paternal chromosome)
➔ Mixing of genes of maternal and paternal chromosomes
➔ Actual physical exchange of genetic material between paternal and maternal chromosomes
- Four chromatids make them a tetrad
- Tetrad
➔ The paired homologous chromosomes is composed of four sister chromatids
- Further divided into 5 substages due to events that occur in the chromosomes
1. Leptotene, when the chromosomes have coiled to the point where they are visible as discrete
slender threads; thickening and shortening of the chromosomes
2. Zygotene, when homologues begin visible pairing; start finding homolog chromosomes
3. Pachytene, when gene to gene pairing is completed;
4. Diplotene, when crossing over happens
5. Diakinesis, when the chromosomes coil to reach maximum thickness and then, although they
remain associated, relax pairing so that homologues are associated only at some point, the
chiasmata.
- Only in the chromosomes that we can find the difference between the stages (changes in appearance
and orientation)
- Name of stages are based on condition of chromosomes:
➔ Preleptonema
➢ is the early prophase of meiosis. Chromosomes are extremely thin and difficult to
observe
 Leptonema Stage - Chromosomes in leptotene condition
- Chromosomes are thickened and shortened condition
- Each chromosome has its sister chromosome
- is a period in which the nucleus has increased in size and the chromosomes
have become apparent. Leptotene chromosomes look single rather than
double, and they show bead-like thickenings, the so-called chromomeres.

Zygonema Stage - Chromosomes in Zygotene condition

- Every chromosome in nucleus tries to find its homologous chromosome
- Long chromosome tend to find another long chromosome
- Start pairing at this stage
- the homologous chromosomes become aligned and undergo pairing in a
process often called synapsis of the chromosomes.

Pachynema - Chromosomes in Pachytene condition

Stage - Synapsis occurs at this stage
- Gene to gene pairing of each other
- during which, the pairing of chromosomes reaches completion. Each unit is a
bivalent or tetrad composed of two homologous chromosomes in close
longitudinal union and four chromatids.

Diplonema Stage - Chromosomes in Diplotene condition

- One of chromatids of paternal chromosome cross over the chromatids of
maternal chromosome
- at this stage, the intimately paired chromosomes repel each other and begin to
separate. However, this separation is not complete, because the homologous
chromosomes remain united by their points of interchange, or chiasmata.
Chiasmata are generally regarded as the sites where the phenomenon of
crossing-over, or recombination, takes place.

Diakinesis Stage - Chromosomes in Diakinesis condition

- Structures outside the nucleus such as the centrioles and spindle fibers are so
developed that connect with the tetrad / chromosomes
- Crossing over is still obvious and cannot be removed even until the metaphase
stage (tetrad condition)
- the chromosomes again contract. The tetrads are more evenly distributed in
the nucleus, and the nucleolus disappears.

METAPHASE I
- After diakinesis being the late stage of prophase I, metaphase I follows
- the chromosomes line up in pairs at the spindles equator/ equatorial plate/ metaphase plate of the cell
- Chromosomes in tetrad form are found (maternal and paternal chromosomes found at the chiasma /
chiasmata)

ANAPHASE I
- homologous chromosomes are pulled apart from each other and separate to opposite poles
 - Each chromosome (tetrad form) becomes dyads again
- These dyads have the recombinant DNA

TELOPHASE I
- As they reach to the poles, they form into new nuclei for resultant cells
- Two daughter cells are formed
- Chromosomes of one cell are different from the chromosomes of the other cell
- Uniqueness are only formed in gametes
- The two chromatids of each chromosome stay together.
- Daughter nuclei from the first division contain one chromosome from each homologous pair.

Interkinesis
- Interphase between meiosis I and meiosis II
- Only allow G1 and G2, no more synthesis and duplication of chromosomes that will happen to the two
daughter cells of Meiosis I
- They will only grown in size / cytoplasmic growth
- Growth of cytoplasm only

MEIOSIS II
- In second division, the chromosomes behave as in mitosis.
Prophase II
- Product of meiosis II are processed
- Each chromosome in each cell has different characteristics with others
- Due to recombination, there are differences in their chromosomes

Metaphase II
- After prophase II, these chromosomes will align at the equatorial plate

Anaphase II
- Sister chromosomes are separated

Telophase II
- Four daughter cells are formed
- Each chromosomes that the cells have are different from each other
THE SUCCESSIVE MEIOTIC STAGES
Pre-leptonema (before prophase I
prophase I)

Leptonema metaphase I
Zygonema anaphase I Division I (Meiosis !)
Pachynema telophase I
Diplonema
Diakinesis
Interphase (cell looks like MEIOSIS
g2 here)

prophase II
metaphase II
anaphase II Division II (Meiosis II)
telophase II

MEIOSIS I MEIOSIS II

● Prolonged prophase ● Doesn’t have prolonged prophase

(Leptonema. Zygonema, ● In second division, the chromosomes behave as in
 Pachynema, Diplonema,
Diakinesis )
● At Metaphase I, the
chromosomes (tetrads) line
up in pairs at the spindles
equator.
● At Anaphase I, homologous
chromosomes separate to
opposite poles while the two
chromatids of each
chromosome stay together.
● Two daughter cells are
produced
● Daughter nuclei from the first
division contain one
chromosome from each
homologous pair.
mitosis.
● At Metaphase II, sister chromosomes align at the
equatorial plate
● At Anaphase II, sister chromosomes separate and
migrate
● One chromatid of each goes to opposite poles. Thus,
each cell entering meiosis produces four haploid
daughters.
● The net result of the two divisions is four haploid cells,
each having half the DNA and half the number of
chromosomes of the parent diploid cell.
● Each homologous pair segregates independently of the
others.
● The second division however, is not preceded by DNA
replication or chromosome duplication; the chromatids
that separate are the ones already present during the first
division.

MITOSIS MEIOSIS

● Mitosis occurs in all somatic cells of an ● Meiosis is limited to germinal cells.

individual
● Somatic cell is diploid cell
● In mitosis, each replication cycle of DNA is
followed by one cell division. The resulting
daughter cells have a diploid number of
chromosomes and the same amount of DNA
as the parent cell.
● Two daughter cells are formed
● Number and kind of chromosomes are same
with the parent cells
● In mitosis, DNA synthesis occurs in the S
phase, which is followed by a G2 phase
before the onset of division.
● In mitosis every chromosome behaves
independently;
● Mitosis is rather brief (1 to 2 hrs),
● Sex cell is haploid cell
● In meiosis one replication cycle of DNA is
followed by two divisions, and the four
daughter cells are haploid and contain half the
amount of DNA as each parent cell.
● Four daughter cells are formed
● None of the daughter cells are similar with
their parent cell
● In meiosis, there is premeiotic DNA synthesis,
which is much longer than that in mitosis and
which is followed immediately by meiosis. In
other words, the G2 phase is short or
nonexistent.
● In meiosis the homologous chromosomes
become mechanically related during the first
meiotic division.
● Meiosis is a long process. For example, in
human male it may last 24 days, and in the
female it may go on for several years. A
fundamental difference is that in mitosis the
genetic material remains constant with only
rare mutations or chromosomal aberrations,
while genetic variability is one of the main
consequence of meiosis.