Unit 3: Genetic processes

4.1 Cell division and

genetic material
DNA History

▪ Important People:
– 1928 Frederick Griffith
– 1944 Oswald Avery
– 1952 Hershey-Chase
– Erwin Chargaff
– Early 1950’s Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins
– 1954 James Watson and Francis Crick
Griffith

▪ Discovers that a factor in heat-killed, disease-causing

bacteria can “transform” harmless bacteria into ones
that can cause disease
Avery

▪ Determines that genes are composed of DNA

Chargaff’s Base Pairing Rule
▪ Discovers the percentage of
Guanine is about the same as
Cytosine in any DNA sample.
The same with Adenine and
Thymine.
▪ As a result, develops base
pairing rule:
– A with T and C with G
Chargaff’s Rule (complementarity)
Rosalind Franklin

▪ Takes pictures of chromosomes using

x-ray crystallography (assisted by Maurice Wilkins)

Franklin’s x-
Maurice Rosalind ray
crystallograp
Watson and Crick
▪ 1st to discover and model the shape of DNA as a
double helix.
1962 Nobel Prize Winners
Unfortunatel
y, Rosalind
Franklin died
of breast
cancer
before the
Nobel prize
was
awarded.
The Nobel
prize is not
awarded
post-
humously.
Watso Crick
Wilkins
n
 The Structure of DNA

▪ DNA consists of two strands of nucleotides that join

and form a spiral shape called a DOUBLE HELIX 
twisted ladder
▪ Nucleotides are the building blocks of DNA
▪ They have 3 parts:
▪ A phosphate
▪ A sugar
▪ A base
 The Structure of DNA

▪ The phosphate and sugar form the “backbone” of DNA

▪ The bases point inward and bond together, fusing the two
backbones and completing the helix

▪ There are 4 bases: adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C),

guanine (G)
▪ A can only bond to T and C to G:these are called
complementary base pairs
▪ For living things nucleotides are arranged in a specific
sequence, the complete sequence of nucleotides in every cell is
called the GENOME
 Copying DNA

▪ How is DNA always exact?

▪ During S phase the double helix
unwinds and splits

▪ Each DNA strand acts as a template

for the other half due to the
complementarity of bases
▪ Therefore once DNA is replicated one
half of the strand will be an original
and one a newer copy  semi-
conservative replication
 Chromosomes

▪ There is no link between the number of chromosomes an

organism has in its cells and the complexity of the organism.
▪ For humans, there are two sets of 23 chromosomes in the
somatic cells; one set from the father and one set from the
mother
▪ There are two chromosome types:
▪ Autosomes: chromosome that does not determine sex of
organism
▪ Sex chromosomes: an X or Y. determines genetic sex of
organism
 Chromosomes

▪ Chromosomes contain genes – a segment of a chromosome that controls

the expression of a trait
▪ It has a specific sequence and is hereditary

▪ Chromosomes in a species are homologous

▪ This means that they can be the same size and code for the same genes
(like eye colour) in the same locations
▪ However there can be variations on the same gene alleles (blue vs.
green, vs. brown eyes)
▪ What controls what a gene expresses? The sequence of nucleotides 
highly specific, even small changes can be disastrous
 DNA and Genes

▪ Each DNA strand is divided into

sections called GENES
▪ Genes are areas of DNA that provide
the information necessary to create
proteins
▪ Proteins are the workers of the cell,
they essentially handle all tasks and
functions the cell may require
▪ Genes determine how much and how
often proteins are made
▪ In this way they control the cell
(functions, structures, etc)
DNA....Important stuff!

▪ Why?
▪ Each gene is a relatively small segment of your DNA
▪ A given DNA strand can contain thousands of different
genes
▪ It controls virtually everything in your body, from how
you look, your health, intolerances to certain foods, etc.

▪ Keep in mind it IS only part. Lifestyle choices matter too.

How does DNA = Proteins?

▪ It is a complex process for us though we will focus on

two parts
▪ First is Transcription
▪ Second is Translation
Transcription

▪ Briefly, Transcription is the process by which the cellular

DNA is used as a template to create an RNA strand
▪ RNA stands for ribonucleic acid
▪ For now know that RNA is used to create proteins
▪ Transcription occurs inside the nucleus
Translation

▪ The RNA strand leaves the nucleus and moves into the
cytoplasm
▪ There it joins with ribosomes
▪ The ribosomes decode or TRANSLATE the RNA into a
protein using Amino Acids
 Genetics

▪ The study of heredity and variation of living organisms and how genetic
info is passed through generations of living things

▪ The cell theory states:

▪ Living things are made of cells
▪ Cells are the most basic unit of life
▪ New cells must come from pre-existing cells
▪ The third point indicates that something must convey hereditary
information from parent to daughter cells  DNA (often)
 Division

▪ Cells divide for 3 reasons:

▪ Growth  small to big
▪ Repair  replace cells in damaged tissue
▪ Maintenance  replace dead/old cells

▪ The time taken to divide varies based on species and tissue

▪ Two types of cell:
▪ Somatic  cells that make up the body of living organisms (not
gametes)
Cell Cycle
 Cell Cycle - Mitosis
▪ Before it divides, the cell must undergo
mitosis: separation of the cell’s
replicated genetic material. (division of
nucleus)
▪ Mitosis involves the following structures:
 chromosome: a structure made of
condensed chromatin fibres in the
nucleus that contains DNA
 Each chromosome pair contains two
sister chromatids
 Sister chromatids are copies of the
chromosomes that were replicated in S
phase
 Cell Cycle - Interphase

▪ The cell carries out its normal functions, as it grows and

makes copies of its genetic material.

▪ Interphase is divided into: Growth 1 (G1), Synthesis (S), and

Growth 2 (G2).
 G1 is the major period of growth increased cytoplasm,
protein, organelle synthesis
 S phase is when DNA is replicated  note that DNA at this
point is in loose, uncondensed strands called “chromatin”
 G2 involves further growth and molecule synthesis
 Sister chromatids are one of two chromosomes that are
genetically identical and held together at the centromere
 centromere: the region where two sister chromatids are
held together in a chromosome
 centrosome: a structure that helps to form the spindle
fibres
 Spindle fibre: a microtubule structure that facilitates the
movement of chromosomes within a cell
 Cell Cycle - Mitosis

▪ Prophase
▪ Chromatin condenses into
chromosomes
▪ Nuclear membrane degrades and the
nucleolus disappears
▪ Centrosomes split apart and form
spindle fibres
Cell Cycle - Mitosis

▪ Metaphase
▪ Chromosomes attach to spindle fibres at
their centromere forming the spindle
apparatus
▪ Chromosomes are lined up along the equator
of the cell
 Cell Cycle - Mitosis

▪ Anaphase
▪ Each sister chromatid separates at the
centromere
▪ Spindle fibres at opposite ends of the cell
begin to shorten, towing the chromosomes
with it

▪ Each pole of the cell has one full set of DNA

Cell Cycle - Mitosis

▪ Telophase
▪ Chromosomes being to unwind into
chromatin
▪ Spindle fibres break down
▪ Nuclear membrane and nucleolus
begin to reform
 Cytokinesis

▪ Division of cytoplasm into two new cells

▪ Once complete two new daughter cells are in G1 phase

▪ In animal cells, an indentation forms in the cell membrane

along the equator of the cell. It deepens as the cytoplasm
divides equally, and the cell pinches off into two cells. This is
accomplished by means of microfilaments constricting.
 Cytokinesis

▪ In plant cells, the rigid cell wall does not pinch inward.
Instead, a new structure called a cell plate forms between
the daughter nuclei.
▪ A cell wall forms on each side of the cell plate.

▪ Prokaryotic cells complete cell division with binary fission

since they lack a nucleus. DNA is replicated and attaches to
membrane
▪ As the cell grows DNA is pulled apart, and the cell separates
into two prokaryotic cells.
 Checkpoints
▪ Specific checkpoints in the cell cycle monitor growth
to ensure the cycle continues when it should and
stops when it should
▪ Regulation is the key to preventing uncontrolled and
rapid growth, such as cancerous growths.
 Karyotypes

▪ A karyotype is a picture of a person’s particular set of

chromosomes. The chromosomes are collected and
stained when a cell is in metaphase so they appear as
sister chromatid “Xs.”
▪ Autosomes are chromosomes 1-22, sex chromosomes are
XY or XX
homework

▪ read pages 160-167

answer:
#1,3-6 on page 164
#2-6,9-13, 16-18 on pg. 168