Baseband All Lecture

ELC3020
Introduction to
Communication Systems
Baseband Communication
Yasmine Fahmy
1
Course Information
o  Instructor: Dr. Yasmine Fahmy
o  Reference:
Leon. W. Couch
Digital and Analog Communication Systems,
8th Edition, Pearson, 2013
Yasmine Fahmy ELC3020 2
Introduction
Analog Modulation Pulse Modulation Pulse Code Modulation

Advantages of Digitization
o  Inexpensive circuits
o  Mixing different types of data
o  Less effect from noise
n  Finite values of transmitted signal
n  Use of repeaters
n  Use of correcting codes
o  Security : Data encryption

Disadvantages of Digitization
o  More Bandwidth
o  Synchronization
n  BIT Synchronization
n  Frame Synchronization

Course Content
o  Revision of Signals and Systems

o  Digitization Techniques
n  Sampling
n  Quantization
n  Line Coding
o  Time Division Multiplexing

Course Content
o  Baseband Modulation
n  Pulse Modulation (PAM, PDM, PWM)
n  Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
n  Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM)
n  Delta Modulation (DM)
n  Sigma Delta Modulation (ΣDM)

Revision of Signals

Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier
o  1768-1830
o  In 1807:
Any periodic function can
be rewritten as a weighted
sum of Sines and Cosines of
different frequencies.
o  Don’t believe it?
n  Lagrange, Laplace,
Poisson..
n  Not translated into
English until 1878!
Illustration +
f1 f2
= +
f3 f4
+
f5
Illustration
f1+f2+f3+f4+f5

Illustration
Time Frequency
Frequency Spectra
Fourier Series
o  Represent PERIODIC signals as summation of
harmonically related complex exponentials
o  ∞
x(t ) = jk 2πf o t fo = 1
∑a
k = −∞
k e To

Fourier Transform
o  Represent ANY signals as summation of all
complex exponentials
∞
j 2πft
o  x(t ) = ∫ X ( f )e dt
−∞
∞
− j 2πft
o  X(f ) = ∫ x(t )e dt
−∞
Fourier Series and Transform
Fourier Series Fourier Transform
n  x(t) Periodic & Continuous n  x(t) Aperiodic & Continuous

n  ak Aperiodic & Discrete n  X(f) Aperiodic & Continuous
n  x[n] Periodic & Discrete n  x[n] Aperiodic & Discrete

n  ak Periodic & Discrete n  X(f) Periodic & Continuous
ELC3020
Yasmine Fahmy 15
Sampling

Definition of Sampling
o  Sampling: conversion of an analogue

signal into a discrete-time sampled signal
n  Ts: sampling period

n  fs= 1/Ts : sampling rate.

Definition of Sampling
Lots of signals may have the same samples. By sampling we

throw out lots of information as all values of x(t) between
sampling points are lost.
Types of Sampling

Types of Sampling
Ideal Sampling also called:

Instantaneous Sampling or Impulse Sampling

Ideal Sampling (Block Diagram)
Original Signal Sampling pulse Sampled Signal
Performed by mul-plying x(t) by the sampling func-on p(t) (i.e. train of impulses)

Ideal Sampling (TIME)
o  Original Signal
o  Sampling pulses
o  Sampled Signal

Ideal Sampling (TIME)
o  Original Signal x(t)

∞
o  Sampling pulses p(t) = ∑ δ (t − nT )

s
n=−∞
∞
o  Sampled Signal x p (t) = ∑ x(t)δ (t − nT )

s
n=−∞
∞
= ∑ x(nT )δ (t − nT )
s s
n=−∞
Sampling (Frequency)
o  Original Signal X( f )
∞
1
o  Sampling pulses P( f ) = ∑ δ ( f − kfS )
Ts k=−∞
o  Sampled Signal Xp( f ) = ∫ X(θ ).P( f − θ )dθ
∞
1
= ∑ X( f − kfS )
Ts k=−∞
Ideal Sampling (Frequency)
o  Original Signal
-B B
o  Sampling pulses
-3fs -2fs 0 fs 2fs 3fs
o  Sampled Signal
-3fs -2fs 0 fs 2fs 3fs

Ideal Sampling (Reconstruction)

Summary

Conditions for Sampling

Sampling (TIME)
Aliasing
Aliasing is due to UNDERSAMPLING

Sampling (TIME)
Aliasing
Aliasing results in inseparable spectrum
(Higher frequencies are folded back and take on the “aliases” of
lower frequencies)
Sampling Conditions
0 B fs-B
fs
fs>= 2B
The Sampling Theorem For Low Pass Signals
A band-limited signal is uniquely

determined by its samples (can be
sampled and successfully recovered)
if Sampling rate >= NYQUIST rate
(double the maximum frequency).

Types of Sampling
Instantaneous Sampling
+ Zero-Order Hold

Flat Top Sampling
Pulse Modulation

Pulse Modulation
o  Analog Modulation (AM, PM, FM)
n  Sinusoidal carrier
n  A parameter (amplitude, phase or frequency) changes
with the message
o  Pulse modulation
n  Pulse signal carrier
n  A parameter (amplitude, width or position) changes with
the message
Pulse Modulation
o  Pulse Amplitude Modulation ( PAM )
o  Pulse Width Modulation ( PWM )

(Pulse Duration Modulation-PDM)
o  Pulse Position Modulation ( PPM )

Pulse Amplitude
Modulation ( PAM )
The amplitudes of regularly

spaced pulses are varied in
proportion to the corresponding
sampling values of a continuous
message

Pulse Width Modulation
( PWM )
The widths of regularly spaced

pulses are varied in proportion
to the corresponding sampling
values of a continuous message

Pulse Position
Modulation ( PPM )
The positions of regularly

spaced pulses are varied in
proportion to the corresponding
sampling values of a continuous
message

PAM Types
o  Naturally sampled PAM : tops follow the shape of
the waveform of the message signal.
o  Instantaneous sampled PAM : flat tops amplitudes.

PAM Naturally Sampled Block Diagram

PAM Naturally Sampled Time

PAM Naturally Sampled Time
⎛ t − kTs ⎞ jnω t
s(t) = ∑ Π⎜ a
⎟=∑ n e o
k ⎝ τ ⎠ n
τ ⎛ sin(nπτ / Ts ) ⎞
where a = ⎜ ⎟
n Ts ⎝ (nπτ / Ts ) ⎠
jnω t
τ ⎛ sin(nπτ / Ts ) ⎞ o
w (t) = w(t)∑ ⎜ ⎟ e
s
n Ts ⎝ (nπτ / Ts ) ⎠
PAM Naturally Sampled Frequency
S( f ) = ∑ a δ ( f − nfs )
n
n
⎛ ⎞
Ws ( f ) = W ( f ) ⊗ ⎜⎜ ∑ an δ ( f − nfs )⎟⎟
⎝n ⎠
τ ⎛ sin(nπτ / Ts ) ⎞
= ∑ an W ( f − nfs ) = ∑ ⎜ ⎟W ( f − nfs )
n n Ts ⎝ (nπτ / Ts ) ⎠

PAM Naturally Sampled Frequency

PAM Naturally Sampled Reconstruction
The reconstruction filter is an ideal

LPF having a cut off frequency > the
signal bandwidth.

PAM Instantaneous Sampled Block Diagram
Sample and Hold

PAM Instantaneous Sampled Time

PAM Instantaneous Sampled Time
p(t) = ∑ δ (t − kTs )
k
and
⎛t⎞
h(t) = Π⎜ ⎟
⎝τ ⎠
⎛ ⎞
ws (t) = h(t) ⊗ ⎜⎜ ∑ w(kTs )δ (t − kTs ) ⎟
⎟
⎝k ⎠
= ∑ w(kTs )h(t − kTs )

Yasmine Fahmy
k ELC3020 52
PAM Instantaneous Sampled Frequency
⎛ sin(πτ f ) ⎞
H( f ) = τ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ (πτ f ) ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞
Ws ( f ) = H ( f ) ⎜⎜W ( f ) ⊗ ∑δ ( f − nfs )⎟⎟
⎝ Ts n ⎠
1 τ ⎛ sin(πτ f ) ⎞
= H ( f )∑ W ( f − nfs ) = ⎜ ⎟ ∑ W ( f − nfs )
Ts n Ts ⎝ (πτ f ) ⎠ n

PAM Instantaneous Sampled Frequency

PAM Instantaneous Sampled Reconstruction
Reconstruction
Equalizer
Filter
o  To reconstruct the signal, we need an equalizer (since the

sample and hold filter used at the transmitter alter the shape
of the signal) plus the reconstruction filter
o  The equalizer frequency response:
⎛ πf ⎞
H ( f ) =1/ H( f ) = ⎜ ⎟
eq ⎝ sin(πτ f ) ⎠ 55
PAM Types Differences
o  Naturally sampled PAM: tops follow the shape of
the message signal in time and are flat in frequency.
τ ⎛ sin(πτ n / Ts ) ⎞
Ws ( f ) = ∑ ⎜ ⎟W ( f − nfs )
n Ts ⎝ (πτ n / Ts ) ⎠
o  Instantaneous sampled PAM: tops are flat in time
and follow the shape of the filter in frequency.
τ ⎛ sin(πτ f ) ⎞
Ws ( f ) = ∑ ⎜ ⎟W ( f − nfs )
n Ts ⎝ (πτ f ) ⎠
PAM
o  Advantages
n  Possible TDM
o  Disadvantages
n  more BW than Analog
n  Same performance as Analog

Pulse Width-Position Modulation

PWM-PPM Naturally Sampled

ELC3020
PWM-PPM Instantaneous Sampled

PWM-PPM
o  Advantages
n  Noise immunity
o  Disadvantages
n  Large BW
o  Note:
n  PPM is better Than the PWM as it has less power.
Quantization

Sampling versus Quantization
o  Sampling
n  Samples
n  from continuous to discrete in time
o  Quantization
n  Levels
n  from continuous to discrete in amplitude

Quantization Process
o  Amplitude Quantization: is to approximate each
sample to the nearest level.
o  Quantization Process: transform the sample amplitude
m(nTs) of a message signal m(t) at time t = nTs into a
discrete amplitude v(nTs) taken from a finite set of
possible amplitudes
Continuous Discrete
sample m Quantizer sample v
66
Quantization Process
o  L total number of amplitude
levels Vk+2
o  mk discrete amplitudes/ mk+2
Decision levels/ thresholds Vk+1
(k = 1,2 …L) mk+1
o  Vk representation/ Vk
reconstruction levels Δk mk
o  Δk quantizer interval/ Step Vk-1
mk-1
O/P v = vk if the input signal m belongs to the interval Sk
67
Uniform Quantization

Uniform (linear) Quantization
The representation levels are uniformly spaced (Δ)
Ø  Mid-tread: Origin in the middle of staircase
Ø  Mid-rise: Origin in the middle of rising part of staircase
Mid-tread Mid-rise 69
Quantization : Design
o  ASSUME:
n  Symmetric quantizer → Eliminate DC value
n  Uniform quantizer → Equal step size
o  DEFINE:
n  Amplitude range = (-Amax, Amax)
n  Number of levels = M = 2n
n  Step Size = Δ = (2 Amax/M)

Quantization : Design

Quantization : Example

Quantization : Performance
o  Quantization Error: between the I/P m(t) and the O/P mq(t)
Signals.
q = m(t) – mq(t)
o  Error is uniformly distributed
1 −Δ Δ
o  PDF f Q (q) = <q≤
Δ 2 2
2
2 2 Δ
o  Noise power E[Q ] = ∫ q f Q (q)dq =
12
Signal peak power A2
SNRpeak = = 2
Quantization noise Δ /12
Given that Δ = 2A / M
SNRpeak = 3M 2 = 3* 2 2n
2n
SNRpeak−db = 10 log(3* 2 )

Signal average power P
SNRaverage = = 2
2
For Uniform Distributed Signals P = A /3
2
A /3
SNRaverage = 2 = M 2 = 2 2n
Δ /12
SNRaverage−db = 10 log(2 2n ) = n * 20 log(2) = 6n

Signal average power P
SNRaverage = = 2
2
For sinusoidal Signals P= A /2
2
A / 2 3 2 3 2n
SNRaverage = 2 = 2 M = 2 *2
Δ /12
SNRaverage−db = 10 log( 23 * 2 2n ) = 1.8 + 6n

Non-Uniform Quantization

Problem
o  A system that uses
equally spaced
quantization levels is
wasteful for speech
signals; many of the
quantizing steps
would rarely be used.
o  Weak and important
signals are badly
represented
79
Solution
o  Since the mean square
error is proportional to
the step size, we need
to decrease the step size
for lower values than
larger values.
80
Non-Uniform Quantization/ Companding
Compressor Uniform Expander

quantization
Non-Uniform quantization
This is accomplished by using a compressor at the

transmitter and an expander at the receiver
The combination of a compressor and an expander is

called compander
81
Non-Uniform Quantization/ Companding
o  Two types of compressors may be used:
A-law and µ-law refer to the parameter which appear in the
equation of compression and expansion.
o  A-Law µ-Law
Ax 1
y=± for x≤
1+ log A A log(1+ µ x )
y=±
1+ log A x 1 log(1+ µ )
y=± for ≤ x ≤1
1+ log A A
82
Non-Uniform Quantization (µ-Law)

Non-Uniform Quantization (A-Law)

Pulse Code Modulation

PCM : Transmitter

PCM : Transmitter

PCM : Performance
o  Channel effect (Noise, ISI….)
o  Quantization error
Signal power
SNQR =
Quantization noise + Channel noise

PCM : Performance
o  If the regenerators are well placed then they cancel
the effect of channel distortion and noise. In this
case the only source of distortion and noise is the
quantization error.
Signal power
SNQR =
Quantization noise + Channel noise

PCM : Bandwidth
Bit Rate = nfs ≥ n.2B

BWPCM > 12 Bit Rate

Line Coding

Line Codes
o  How to represent the ‘1’ and ‘0’
o  Each line code has its advantage

and disadvantage

Line Codes: Performance Metrics
o  Small Bandwidth (Spectral Efficiency=R/BW)

o  Avoid DC (Power efficiency, Coupling)
o  Easy Timing Synchronization
o  Error detection and correction

Unipolar NRZ Time

Unipolar NRZ Frequency

Unipolar NRZ (Also Called OOK)
o  Advantages
n  Simple
n  Spectral Efficiency
o  Disadvantages
n  No synchronization
n  Presence of DC

Unipolar RZ Time

Unipolar RZ Frequency

Unipolar RZ
o  Advantages
n  Simple
n  Synchronization
o  Disadvantages
n  Presence of DC

Polar NRZ Time

Polar NRZ Frequency

Polar NRZ
o  Advantages
n  Simple
n  No DC
o  Disadvantages
n  No synchronization

Bipolar RZ Time
Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI)
Yasmine Fahmy 104

ELC3020
Bipolar RZ Frequency

Bipolar NRZ
o  Advantages
n  No Low Frequency
n  Error Correcting Capabilities
o  Disadvantages
n  No Synchronization

Manchester Time

Manchester NRZ Frequency

Manchester
o  Advantages
n  No Low Frequency
n  Synchronization
o  Disadvantages

Spectral Efficiency
Type Spectral Efficiency

Unipolar NRZ 1
Polar NRZ 1
Unipolar RZ 1/2
Bipolar RZ 1
Manchester RZ 1/2

Line Codes: Advantages Disadvantages
Unipolar NRZ • Easy implementation • DC coupled circuit
Polar NRZ • Best performance (BER) • DC coupled circuit

Unipolar RZ • Easy synchronization • DC coupled circuit
• Bad spectral efficiency
Bipolar RZ • Immunity to data inversion • Need of high power

• No DC coupled circuit • Difficult HW
• Error detection
Manchester RZ • Easysynchronization • Bad spectral efficiency

• No DC coupled circuit

Nyquist’s Criterion
o  A criterion for distortionless baseband binary
transmission in absence of noise
Pulse Received
Channel
Shaping filter

o  The overall system eliminates inter-symbols
interference for samples taken at intervals Tb
provided that it satisfies the equation



Bandwidth
o  The bandwidth is then related to the bit rate:
BW=k * fb
(Where 0.5<k<1)

Time Division Multiplexing

TDM
o  Multiple data streams are sent in different time on a
single channel/ link/ medium
o  Data rate of the channel is >= the sum of all the streams
o  Data streams take turn to transmit in a short interval
o  Widely used in digital communication networks
A D A
M E
B U … A1 B1 C1 A2 B2 C2 … M B
X U
X C
C
TDM-PAM
T s
T x
TDM-PAM
TDM-PAM
o  The time interval containing at least one sample from each
message is called a FRAME
o  Generally, a marker (extra pulse/ special sequence of pulses) is
transmitted at the beginning to help the clock recovery
(synchronization).
Define
o  Ts = sampling interval (period)
o  fs = sampling frequency (rate) = 1/Ts
o  Tx= time spacing between adjacent samples
o  N = number of samples
o  Nu = number of users
Note: If equally sampled, N = Nu

Minimum Bandwidth
o  Consider Equally sampled (Tx ≤ Ts / N)
o  Resultant signal is considered as a new one

sampled signal with rate = clock frequency
fx =1/Tx ≥ N/Ts
o  Min BW = 0.5 * Min fx = 0.5 N/Ts

TDM-PCM

TDM: Synchronous
o  Synchronous Lines
o  All connected devices are synchronized
o  Master Clock
n  With separate clocking line
n  Embedded in data

TDM: Frame Synchronization

TDM: Asynchronous
o  Asynchronous Lines
o  Each character has a start bit and a stop
bit >>>> Start-stop signaling
o  e.g Keyboard terminals

TDM: North American

T1 TDM format for one frame
o  24 analog signals each band-limited to 3.3 K
sampled at a rate of 8 K. Frame time=125 µs
o  At 6000 ft, repeaters are used
o  Each sample is encoded by 8-bits. No. of levels
= 256 level
o  No. of bits /frame = (24×8)+1F bit = 193 bits
Where: 1F is one frame synchronization bit
o  Bit rate for T1 channel =(193 × 8K)=1.544 Mb/s
T1 TDM format for one frame
Multiplexing T1-Lines
o  4-T1 lines are multiplexed to generate one T2 line.
o  M12 multiplexer adds 17 bits for synch.
o  Number of bits/frame = (193 × 4) + 17= 789 bits/
frame
o  Bit rate for T2 =789 × 8K = 6.312 Mb/s
o  7 T2 lines are multiplexed to generate one T3 line.
o  Number of bits/frame = (789 × 7) + 69 = 5592
bits/frame
o  Bit rate for T3 = 5592 × 8K = 44.736 Mb/s
o  6 T3 lines are multiplexed to generate one T4 line.
o  Number of bits/frame = (5592 × 6) + 720 = 34272
bits/frame
o  Bit rate for T4 = 34272 × 8K = 274.176 Mb/s
TDM: CCITT

Delta Modulation

Delta PCM
o  The aim is to use simple quantizing strategy for
constructing the encoded signal
o  The difference will be encoded instead of the

sample itself using fewer bits
DPCM : System 1
Delay

Delay
DPCM : System 2
Delay

Delay
Delta Modulation
o  In DM, the incoming signal is over sampled
ωs>>> 2ωM. i.e., the sampling rate is much
higher than the Nyquist rate
o  The difference between the I/P m(t) and the

approximation mq(t) is quantized into only two
levels
o  The sample will be encoded using only one bit

DM is a staircase approximation to the oversampled
version of the message signal
DM : System

DM : Simplified Block Diagram

DM : Performance
ELC3020 143
Problem 1: Start up response
m(t)
mq(t)
Problem 2: Granular Noise
If the step size S is too large then the staircase approximation

oscillates around the input waveform.
Problem 3: Slope Overload Distortion
If the step size is too small then the staircase approximation

cannot follow the fast variations in the input waveform
DM : Performance
o  To avoid slope overload
dm(t) Δ
≤
dt Ts
o  The granular noise should be limited
2
Δ
Granular noise =
3
DM : Performance

Δ
Adaptive Delta Modulation
o  Δ is not kept fixed and always multiple
of basic step Δo
o  When slope overload occurs, the step
size becomes larger
o  mqa(t) will catch m(t) more rapidly
o  Step size: Δ(k) = Δ(k −1) e(k) + Δ o e(k −1)

mqa(t)
m(t)
mq(t)
Sigma Delta Modulation (ΣDM)
From DM
to ΣDM

Thank You
Yasmine Fahmy
153

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ELC3020

o Instructor: Dr. Yasmine Fahmy

Yasmine Fahmy ELC3020 3

Yasmine Fahmy ELC3020 4

Yasmine Fahmy ELC3020 5

o Revision of Signals and Systems

o Time Division Multiplexing

Yasmine Fahmy ELC3020 7

Yasmine Fahmy ELC3020 8

Yasmine Fahmy ELC3020 11

Yasmine Fahmy ELC3020 13

Fourier Series Fourier Transform

n x(t) Periodic & Continuous n x(t) Aperiodic & Continuous

n x[n] Periodic & Discrete n x[n] Aperiodic & Discrete

Yasmine Fahmy ELC3020 16

o Sampling: conversion of an analogue

n Ts: sampling period

Yasmine Fahmy ELC3020 17

Lots of signals may have the same samples. By sampling we

Yasmine Fahmy ELC3020 19

Ideal Sampling also called:

Yasmine Fahmy ELC3020 20

Yasmine Fahmy ELC3020 21

Yasmine Fahmy ELC3020 22

o Original Signal x(t)

o Sampling pulses p(t) = ∑ δ (t − nT )

o Sampled Signal x p (t) = ∑ x(t)δ (t − nT )

Yasmine Fahmy ELC3020 25

Yasmine Fahmy ELC3020 26

Yasmine Fahmy ELC3020 29

Yasmine Fahmy ELC3020 30

Aliasing is due to UNDERSAMPLING

Yasmine Fahmy ELC3020 31

A band-limited signal is uniquely

Yasmine Fahmy ELC3020 34

Yasmine Fahmy ELC3020 35

Yasmine Fahmy ELC3020 37

o Pulse Width Modulation ( PWM )

o Pulse Position Modulation ( PPM )

Yasmine Fahmy ELC3020 39

The amplitudes of regularly

Yasmine Fahmy ELC3020 40

The widths of regularly spaced

Yasmine Fahmy ELC3020 41

The positions of regularly

Yasmine Fahmy ELC3020 42

o Instantaneous sampled PAM : flat tops amplitudes.

Yasmine Fahmy ELC3020 43

Yasmine Fahmy ELC3020 44

Yasmine Fahmy ELC3020 45

Yasmine Fahmy ELC3020 47

Yasmine Fahmy ELC3020 48

The reconstruction filter is an ideal

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Sample and Hold

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= ∑ w(kTs )h(t − kTs )

Yasmine Fahmy ELC3020 53

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o To reconstruct the signal, we need an equalizer (since the

Yasmine Fahmy ELC3020 57

Yasmine Fahmy ELC3020 58

o  Instructor: Dr. Yasmine Fahmy

o  Revision of Signals and Systems

o  Time Division Multiplexing

n  x(t) Periodic & Continuous n  x(t) Aperiodic & Continuous

n  x[n] Periodic & Discrete n  x[n] Aperiodic & Discrete

o  Sampling: conversion of an analogue

n  Ts: sampling period

o  Original Signal x(t)

o  Sampling pulses p(t) = ∑ δ (t − nT )

o  Sampled Signal x p (t) = ∑ x(t)δ (t − nT )

o  Pulse Width Modulation ( PWM )

o  Pulse Position Modulation ( PPM )

o  Instantaneous sampled PAM : flat tops amplitudes.

o  To reconstruct the signal, we need an equalizer (since the

o  How to represent the ‘1’ and ‘0’

o  Each line code has its advantage

o  Small Bandwidth (Spectral Efficiency=R/BW)

Polar NRZ • Best performance (BER) • DC coupled circuit

Bipolar RZ • Immunity to data inversion • Need of high power

Manchester RZ • Easysynchronization • Bad spectral efficiency

o  Tx= time spacing between adjacent samples

o  Resultant signal is considered as a new one

o  Min BW = 0.5 * Min fx = 0.5 N/Ts

o  The difference will be encoded instead of the