JTTEE5 23:170–181

DOI: 10.1007/s11666-013-0022-9
1059-9630/$19.00 Ó ASM International
Peer Reviewed

Influence of Topcoat-Bondcoat Interface

Roughness on Stresses and Lifetime
in Thermal Barrier Coatings
M. Gupta, K. Skogsberg, and P. Nylén

(Submitted April 30, 2013; in revised form October 9, 2013)

Failure in Atmospheric Plasma-Sprayed (APS) thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) is associated with the
thermo-mechanical stresses developing due to the thermally grown oxide (TGO) layer growth and
thermal expansion mismatch during thermal cycling. The interface roughness has been shown to play a
major role in the development of these induced stresses and lifetime of TBCs. Modeling has been shown
as an effective tool to understand the effect of interface roughness on induced stresses. In the previous
work done by our research group, it was observed that APS bondcoats performed better than the
bondcoats sprayed with High Velocity Oxy-Fuel process which is contrary to the present literature data.
The objective of this work was to understand this observed difference in lifetime with the help of finite
element modeling by using real surface topographies. Different TGO layer thicknesses were evaluated.
The modeling results were also compared with existing theories established on simplified sinusoidal
profiles published in earlier works. It was shown that modeling can be used as an effective tool to
understand the stress behavior in TBCs with different roughness profiles.

Keywords finite element modeling, interface roughness,

lifetime, stress state, thermal barrier coatings
1. Introduction
Thermal barrier coating (TBC) is a duplex material
system consisting of an insulating ceramic topcoat layer
and an intermetallic bondcoat layer. Failure in Atmo-
spheric Plasma-Sprayed (APS) TBCs during thermal cyclic
loading is often within the topcoat near the interface,
which is a result of thermo-mechanical stresses developing
due to thermally grown oxide (TGO) layer growth and
thermal expansion mismatch during thermal cycling. These
stresses induce the propagation of pre-existing cracks in
as-sprayed state near the interface finally leading to cracks
long enough to cause spallation of the topcoat (Ref 1-8).
The interface roughness, although essential in plasma-
sprayed TBCs for effective bonding between topcoat and
bondcoat, creates locations of high stress concentration.
Therefore, understanding of fundamental relationships
between interface roughness and induced stresses, as well
as their influence on lifetime of TBCs is of high relevance.
This article is an invited paper selected from presentations at the
2013 International Thermal Spray Conference, held May 13-15,
2013, in Busan, South Korea, and has been expanded from the
original presentation.
M. Gupta, K. Skogsberg, and P. Nylén, University West,
46186 Trollhättan, Sweden. Contact e-mail: mohit-kumar.gupta@
hv.se.
In most of the earlier works, a two-dimensional (2D) or
three-dimensional (3D) sinusoidal wave profile has been
chosen as a simplification to represent the topcoat-bondcoat
interface (Ref 9-24) to analyze the stress distribution in
TBCs. A crack propagation model was proposed by Bäker
(Ref 11), Ranjbar-Far et al. (Ref 12), and Bialas (Ref 16) to
analyze the stress distribution in TBCs by using a 2D wave
profile to represent the topcoat-bondcoat interface. Ranj-
bar-Far et al. used uniform as well as non-uniform ampli-
tudes to represent the wave profile and an inhomogeneous
topcoat layer with an artificial lamellar structure. It was
concluded that the cracking depends mainly on the interface
morphology and the thickness of TGO layer. Failure
mechanisms were analyzed by Evans (Ref 1) with the help
of a 2D finite element model representing the interface as
2D sine wave profile. Lifetime prediction models were
made by Vaßen et al. (Ref 4), Wei et al. (Ref 10), Brodin
et al. (Ref 19), and He et al. (Ref 21) based on the growth of
delamination cracks using a 2D sine wave profile for mod-
eling the interface. The lifetime model by Vaßen et al. was
based on the stress distribution analysis model developed by
Ahrens et al. (Ref 22). Kyaw et al. (Ref 9) used a 2D sine
wave profile to represent the interface and incorporated
temperature-dependency of material properties and sin-
tering of topcoat in the finite element model. Qi et al. (Ref
13) used a 2D sine wave profile to represent the interface
and attributed the stress distribution to the interface
roughness and thermal mismatch. Asghari et al. (Ref 14)
used a 2D semicircular profile to represent the interface
with a nonlinear material model for topcoat implementing
the effect of sintering. Hermosilla et al. (Ref 15) and Busso
et al. (Ref 23) developed a couple microstructural-
mechanical model using a 2D wave profile to represent the

170—Volume 23(1-2) January 2014 Journal of Thermal Spray Technology

interface. The TGO growth was determined by a diffusion
model in these studies. Bednarz (Ref 17) did an extensive
work in this field by using a 2D profile with different shapes
such as sinusoidal, semicircular, and elliptical. The major of
this conclusion of this work was the most significant
parameters affecting the stress development during thermal
cycling are time dependent material properties of topcoat
and TGO, TGO growth behavior and interface roughness.
Jinnestrand et al. (Ref 24) developed a model using a 3D
sine wave profile to represent the interface to analyze the
stress distribution.
Ghafouri-Azar et al. (Ref 25) and Klusemann et al.
(Ref 26) made a 2D model to analyze the residual stresses
in tungsten carbide-cobalt (WC-Co) coatings sprayed by
High Velocity Oxy-Fuel (HVOF) method. Micrograph
images were used to define the coating as well as substrate
geometry for the finite element model including the
coating-substrate interface. However, the influence of
TGO growth on stresses and relationship between inter-
face roughness and lifetime was not applicable, and thus
not investigated in these studies.
The proposed crack propagation mechanism for APS
TBCs states that in the initial state without a TGO layer,
tensile stresses exist in the hills while compressive stresses
exist in the valleys within the topcoat; this stress state is
inverted as the TGO grows during thermal cyclic loading,
as shown in Fig. 1. Thus, a crack starts from the hill and
propagates to the adjacent valley joining the correspond-
ing crack from other side eventually leading to spallation
of the topcoat. The thickness of TGO when the stress
inversion takes place depends on several factors such as
the thermal cyclic loading times, geometry, and material
parameters (Ref 4, 11). However, a simplified roughness
profile might not lead to precise predictions as it does not
incorporate the complex surface topography created by
thermal spraying.
This limitation of representing the surface in a simpli-
fied way was observed in recent work done by our
research group (Ref 27), where it was remarked that the
bondcoats sprayed with APS performed better in lifetime
Fig. 1 Schematic illustration of the stress behavior in the topcoat (TC) near the bondcoat (BC) surface (a) in as-sprayed condition, and
(b) after TGO growth. Figure adapted from Ref 4
Journal of Thermal Spray Technology
testing than bondcoats sprayed with the HVOF process
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which is contrary to popular belief (Ref 28, 29). One of the
reasons for this behavior was assumed to be the difference
in surface topography between the two bondcoats, even
though these surfaces had a similar roughness (Ra) value
(Ref 27). These results indicate that more detailed infor-
mation on surface roughness is required in addition to the
traditionally used Ra value to assess the coating behavior.
In this work, an attempt was made to overcome this
limitation by using real surface topographies so as to
represent the topcoat-bondcoat interface in a more accu-
rate way. The influence of topcoat-bondcoat interface on
the induced stresses in topcoat which eventually affect
lifetime was studied with the help of finite element mod-
eling (FEM). The main objective of this work was to
evaluate if FEM can be utilized to realize a possible
explanation for the observed difference in lifetimes of
APS- and HVOF-sprayed bondcoats (Ref 27). 2D as well
as 3D models were used for this purpose. The limitations
of both 2D and 3D simulations are discussed. Compari-
sons are made with the existing ‘‘stress inversion’’ theory
established for simplified topographies. A possible expla-
nation for the difference in behavior of APS and HVOF
bondcoats mentioned above is presented.
The traditional modeling approach in this field has
been to develop the material models for individual layers
and simulation conditions so as to represent the real
simulation conditions in a more precise way (Ref 9).
According to authorÕs knowledge, the modeling approach
used in this work incorporating real surface topographies
has not been considered in earlier works in this area.
2. Experiments
2.1 Sample Production
The samples investigated in this study were produced
with two different bondcoats to analyze the effect of
change in bondcoat roughness on the performance of
Volume 23(1-2) January 2014—171
 Table 1 Investigated samples
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Coating Bondcoat, 200 lm
APS bondcoat AMDRY 386-3 (Triplex Pro)
HVOF bondcoat AMDRY 386-2 + AMDRY 386-3 (DJ2600)
TBCs, summarized in Table 1. The bondcoat material
used was NiCoCrAlY (AMDRY 386, Sulzer Metco) while
the topcoat ceramic material used was a blend of 95 wt.%
of dysprosia-stabilized zirconia with 5 wt.% polymer
porosity former provided by Sulzer Metco. The purpose
for using the polymer powder was to obtain high porosity
in the coating microstructure which is produced by burn-
ing off the polymer after spraying.
One set of samples was produced by spraying the
bondcoat using the Sulzer Metco Triplex Pro-210 gun
(APS), while the other set was sprayed with Sulzer Metco
DJ2600 gun (HVOF). The approximate bondcoat thick-
ness was 200 lm. The powder used for APS bondcoat was
AMDRY 386-3 (Sulzer Metco). The HVOF bondcoat was
sprayed in two layers, where the first was a fine powder cut
used as a standard for HVOF process of approximately
150 lm thickness. The powder used for this layer was
AMDRY 386-2 (Sulzer Metco). The second layer was a
coarse powder cut normally used for APS process
(AMDRY 386-3) for 50 lm thickness. The coarse powder
was sprayed on top with an intention to achieve a similar
roughness level compared to the APS bondcoat, while
retaining the benefits of a dense HVOF coating with the
same bondcoat chemistry.
For both sets, the topcoats were sprayed by APS with
Sulzer Metco F4-MB gun. The approximate topcoat
thickness was 700 lm. Substrate material used in this
study was a Ni superalloy namely, Hastelloy-X, in
dimensions 30 9 30 9 1.54 mm for microstructure and
modeling analysis and 50 9 30 9 5 mm for thermo-cyclic
fatigue (TCF) lifetime tests.
Samples for microstructure evaluation were sectioned
using a diamond saw, mounted and polished using a
standard procedure for TBCs. Sample cross-sections were
investigated using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM).
2.2 Heat Treatment
Isothermal heat treatment was carried out on two
samples of each set at 1150 °C in a furnace under standard
atmospheric conditions without any forced air flow. The
samples were allowed to heat up and cool down along with
the furnace to avoid exposure to thermal shock due to
rapid changes in surrounding temperatures. Heat treat-
ment times of 100 and 200 h at 1150 °C were carried out
on one sample each to study the growth of TGO with time.
It must be noted here that the TGO evolution rate in
service conditions would be different due to exposure to a
considerably more dynamic atmosphere at a higher pres-
sure containing combustion products.
172—Volume 23(1-2) January 2014
Topcoat, 700 lm
DySZ/Polymer (F4-MB)
3. Modeling Procedure
The key softwares used in this work were ANSYS
workbench 14.0 (ANSYS, Inc., Canonsburg, PA, USA)
for simulation of all models, NX Unigraphics 7.5 (Siemens
PLM Software, Plano, TX, USA) for building the 3D
models, OOF2 (Ref 31) for mesh generation of micro-
structural images and MATLAB R2010b (MathWorks,
Natick, MA, USA) for file pre-processing.
3.1 Simulation Conditions and Material Properties
The boundary conditions used for the models were
intended to simulate the operating conditions during
failure in TCF testing. During TCF testing, the samples
are first heated in a furnace (Entech AB) at 1100 °C for
1 h and then cooled down for 10 min using compressed air
to approximately 100 °C. The criterion for failure is
deemed to be more than 20% visible spallation of the
topcoat. It has been observed that, at least for the coatings
analyzed by our research group, failure always occurs
during the cooling cycle. Considering other mechanisms
which could lead to failure was beyond the scope of this
work.
During simulation, it was assumed that complete stress
relaxation occurs during the heating stage of TCF testing
due to high creep rates within the topcoat and bondcoat
materials (Ref 4). Therefore, a stress-free initial state at
1100 °C was assumed and the model was subsequently
cooled down from 1100 to 100 °C. A linear static struc-
tural analysis was done using generalized plane strain
equation. This feature assumes a finite deformation
domain length in the third direction, as opposed to the
infinite value assumed for standard plane strain, thus
providing a more efficient way to simulate the problem.
The material properties used in the simulation were
assumed to be linear and constant across the temperature
range for simplification, since the purpose of this modeling
work was to compare the behavior of different coatings/
roughness profiles rather than predicting the precise val-
ues of stresses or establish a direct failure condition due to
the development of high stresses. Creep or plasticity was
not considered in the model for simplification. Further
simplifications were done by considering the topcoat and
bondcoat layers to be homogeneous, that is without any
pores/cracks or oxide inclusions. The porous structure was
not modeled directly to reduce the computation power
since the objective was to study the effect of bondcoat
roughness. The implementation of porous structure would
also lead to several stress concentrations in the model, and
thus make interpretation of the stress inversion difficult.
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Table 2 Material properties used for individual layers of the TBC system in the finite element model
Coefficient of thermal expansion,
1 3 1026 °C21 (Ref 30)
Topcoat 10.7
TGO 8.0
Bondcoat 17.5
Substrate 16.0
Fig. 2 SEM microstructure image of a TBC cross-section (leftmost) is used to create the model shown in the center. The substrate has
been cropped. A part of the model illustrating the generated finite element mesh is shown to the right with varying element sizes in the
TGO and adjacent boundaries
However, the material properties of actual layers with
defects/porosity were used taking account of the simplifi-
cation of homogenous layers, as listed in Table 2.
A preliminary nonlinear finite element investigation
was done using a simplified sinusoidal profile for repre-
senting the topcoat-bondcoat interface and stresses were
analyzed at different times during the cooling cycle. It was
confirmed in this investigation that maximum stresses
occurred at the end of cooling cycle. Therefore, for all
models, the stresses only at the end of cooling cycle were
investigated. The behavior of the residual vertical stresses
in the topcoats near the topcoat-bondcoat interface was of
major interest. No significant difference was observed
between the stresses in the topcoat for different interface
profiles further away from the interface, as also observed
in previous studies (Ref 4, 22).
3.2 The 2D Approach
The 2D simulations were prepared using cross sectional
microstructure SEM images of isothermal heat treated
samples with different time span in the furnace. The
varying exposure time resulted in altered TGO growth of
Journal of Thermal Spray Technology
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YoungÕs modulus, PoissonÕs ratio
GPa (Ref 4) (Ref 4)
20 0.33
360 0.22
70 0.43
191 0.3
the samples. Three TGO thickness stages were considered
in this work, as-sprayed, 100 and 200 h heat treatment so
that a significant difference can be observed. Five images
per specimen were analyzed for this study.
The SEM images used in 2D modeling were captured
carefully so as to include sections of the TGO, topcoat and
bondcoat layers. These images were processed with image
editing software Adobe Photoshop CS6 as follows. Addi-
tional topcoat and bondcoat layers were added to the
image to achieve desired thicknesses of individual layers,
as shown in Fig. 2. All porosities and cracks present in the
SEM image were eliminated, while the TGO interface
profile was kept intact. Each layer was given an individual
color.
OOF2 was used to generate a mesh over the processed
microstructure image and thereby enable a 2D simulation
in the finite element software ANSYS. OOF2 has been
implemented successfully in the past to create a finite
mesh based on the microstructural features present in an
image (Ref 32-34). Before mesh generation, different pixel
groups are created in OOF2 on the basis of colors present
in the image. A fine mesh is generated near the boundaries
between the layers and coarser elements are created,
where the homogeneity of elements was easily attained, as
Volume 23(1-2) January 2014—173
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Fig. 3 A representation of the 3D model with cropped substrate and topcoat to the left and an enlargement of the TGO interface
illustrating the varying mesh density present in the models to the right
shown in Fig. 2. The minimum and maximum size of the
generated elements was around 1 and 3.5 lm, respec-
tively. The mesh generated in OOF2 was then exported to
ANSYS
The substrate layer was added subsequently in ANSYS
Workbench, as schematically shown in Fig. 2, to achieve
the desired thicknesses of individual layers. A coarse mesh
was generated in ANSYS over the substrate layer with
element size 35-lm and merged with the imported mesh to
generate the final mesh.
The model constraints were set to allow contraction
along the Y-direction. The left-hand side boundary was
fixed in X-direction and the bottom boundary was fixed in
Y-direction. These boundaries are indicated with a dotted
line in Fig. 2. The right-hand side boundary was set to
deform uniformly along X-direction.
3.3 The 3D Approach
For 3D simulations, bondcoat surfaces were scanned
with white light interferometry technique (MicroXAM,
ADE Phase Shift Technology, USA) before spraying the
topcoat layer. The lateral resolution obtained with this
technique was 1.1 lm, while the vertical resolution was
1 nm. The scanned data was stored in the form of a text
file with a list of coordinates. The coordinate files were
used to generate surfaces representing the curvature of
the TGO and the adjacent faces of the bondcoat and
the topcoat. Similar to the 2D simulations, three TGO
thicknesses were considered in the 3D simulations,
as-sprayed condition, thickness of 10 and 40 lm. These
TGO thickness values were chosen to analyze the
intermediate and extreme cases as per the microstruc-
tural observations from TCF testing samples at failure,
174—Volume 23(1-2) January 2014
where TGO thicknesses in this range were reported
(Ref 27).
The coordinate files representing the bondcoat
topography obtained from white light interferometry
were processed in MATLAB so as to be compatible with
NX, where the models representing the four layers of the
TBC system were made. The cross-section area used in
the models was chosen to be 50 lm 9 50 lm to avoid
tedious calculations. Three such areas were chosen from
the interferometry measurement. By using the generated
coordinate data, model surfaces of the scanned bond-
coats were generated in NX. The generated surfaces
were used to represent both the bondcoat-TGO and the
TGO-topcoat interfaces. The same surface profile was
used for both interfaces by translating the surface in
Z-direction in NX as shown in Fig. 3. Thicknesses cor-
responding to each layer were extruded with same
dimensions as in the 2D models as shown in Fig. 2. The
models were created for TGO thickness corresponding to
as-sprayed, 100 and 200 h of isothermal heat treatment,
i.e., non-existing TGO and TGO thickness of 10 and
40 lm, respectively.
The NX models were imported to ANSYS where the
mesh was generated. The mesh concentration was dense at
the neighboring area of the TGO and coarse at the areas
with lower stresses, as shown in Fig. 3. The topcoat and
the bondcoat were split in two bodies each to control the
mesh density. The element size was chosen as 1 lm for the
TGO layer. The TGO-topcoat interface was meshed with
element size 1 lm increasing to 5 lm with increasing
distance away from TGO. The TGO-bondcoat interface
was considered less important since the vertical residual
stresses in the topcoat were of interest, therefore the
element size was set to 2 lm increasing to 5 lm with
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Fig. 4 Vertical residual stresses in the topcoat for HVOF samples (a) in as-sprayed condition and (b) after 200 h of isothermal heat
treatment

Fig. 5 Vertical residual stresses in the topcoat along a random cross-section in the 3D model for HVOF samples (a) in as-sprayed
condition, (b) with 10 lm TGO, and (c) with 40 lm TGO

Fig. 6 Illustration of the residual vertical (Z-direction) stresses in the topcoat near the topcoat-bondcoat interface at a view perpen-
dicular to the interface, i.e., in Z-direction in Fig. 3. The top row represents the HVOF samples and the bottom row represents the APS
samples. The TGO thickness increases from left to right representing as-sprayed condition, 10 and 40 lm TGO thicknesses

increasing distance away from TGO. The substrate was with a ‘‘X’’ in Fig. 3, were fixed in the direction perpen-
meshed with a coarser element size of 25 lm. The model dicular to the surface, while the other two corresponding
constraints, similar to the 2D model, were set to allow surfaces were restricted to move only along the direction
contraction along the Z-direction. Two surfaces, marked perpendicular to the surface.

Journal of Thermal Spray Technology Volume 23(1-2) January 2014—175

 4. Results
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As reported in previous work, APS bondcoat samples
had more than twice the lifetime of HVOF bondcoat
samples (Ref 27).
Both 2D and 3D simulations were used to verify if the
previously formulated stress inversion theories established
using simplified sinusoidal curves were also valid on real
surface topographies, and more specifically to study the
observed differences in functional performance between
APS- and HVOF-sprayed samples. The stress inversion
was used as an indicator to evaluate and compare the
functional performance of different surface topographies
and to verify if the stress inversion theory is valid on these
models. In both these cases, the stress behavior rather
than the absolute stress values were taken in regard. Due
to the irregular shapes of the TGO, stress concentrations
were inevitable and thereby the results were not directly
comparable. The areas of interest were chosen where the
most significant changes in stresses could be observed.
4.1 2D Modeling Results
Figure 4(a) illustrates the residual vertical stresses in
the topcoat in as-sprayed conditions for HVOF samples
Fig. 7 SEM microstructure image of (a) APS and (b) HVOF bondcoat after 200 h of isothermal heat treatment
Fig. 8 Bondcoat surface profiles captured using white light interferometry technique for (a) HVOF and (b) APS samples
176—Volume 23(1-2) January 2014
confirming the phenomena of compressive stresses at the
valleys and tensile stresses at the hills in the topcoat.
When considering the system after TGO growth,
Fig. 4(b), the stress inversion has taken place, meaning
that the tensile stresses are now present at the valleys and
the compressive stresses are present at the hills. This
behavior conforms to the stress inversion theory that the
crack propagation initiates at the hills and as the stress
inversion takes place due to growing TGO layer, the crack
propagates towards the valleys until spallation takes place.
Similar behavior was observed for both APS and HVOF
samples.
However, no clear differences were detected between
the stress patterns in APS and HVOF samples in 2D
simulations to be able to distinguish their lifetime behav-
ior, mainly due to highly significant topographical varia-
tions within the samples.
4.2 3D Modeling Results
Regarding the 3D simulations, the phenomena of stress
inversion could be also observed as for the 2D simulations.
Figure 5 illustrates the residual vertical stresses in the
topcoat along a random cross-section in the model domain
for HVOF samples. In the as-sprayed condition shown in
Journal of Thermal Spray Technology
Fig. 5(a), it can be seen that the compressive stresses are
present at the valleys and the tensile stresses at the hills. In
Fig. 5(b) it is possible to see the stress inversion, resulting
in tensile stress at the valleys and compressive stresses at
the hills. In Fig. 5(c), it can be seen that complete stress
inversion has taken place and the tensile stresses have
propagated entirely to the valley region after further TGO
growth of 40 lm. Similar behavior was observed for both
APS and HVOF samples. Thus, as the case for the 2D
models, the 3D models also conform to the stress inver-
sion theory.
In Fig. 6, a comparison between the HVOF (a-c) and
APS-sprayed samples (d-f) is shown. The figure illustrates
the residual vertical stresses in the topcoat near the top-
coat-bondcoat interface shown at a view perpendicular to
the interface. In both Fig. 6(a) and (d), showing the
as-sprayed condition, it can be clearly observed that
compressive stresses exist at the valleys and tensile stres-
ses exist at the hills. Note that the valleys are shown to be
protruding out of the plane of the paper and vice versa for
hills due to the inverted viewing angle.
When comparing Fig. 6(b) and (e), which shows the
topcoat in models with TGO thickness of 10 lm, it can be
noticed that stress inversion has initiated in both cases and
the tensile stresses have started to spread out from the
hills towards the valleys. However, it can be observed that
this phenomenon is more significant in the HVOF case. In
Fig. 6(e), tensile stresses can still be observed in the hills;
while in Fig. 6(b), stress inversion has already taken place
and the tensile stresses have started propagating from
peaks towards the valleys. In the extreme case of 40 lm
TGO growth, in Fig. 6(c) and (f), complete stress inver-
sion has taken place in both cases.
Thus, it can be concluded from the 3D modeling results
that the stress inversion takes place much earlier for the
HVOF samples compared to the APS samples for the
same TGO thickness. This earlier stress inversion would
imply that the crack propagation would also be faster in
the HVOF samples for the same TGO thickness, which
would lead to earlier failure in lifetime testing. This effect
Fig. 9 Segmentation motifs captured using stripe projection technique for (a) HVOF and (b) APS samples
Journal of Thermal Spray Technology
was also noticed in the microstructure images after failure
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in these samples, where it was observed that the TGO was
much thicker in APS samples compared to the HVOF
samples (Ref 27). These results provide an explanation
why the APS samples failed with much thicker TGO layer
and survived much longer compared to the HVOF
samples.
5. Discussions
5.1 Influence of Oxide Inclusions
The lifetime of TBCs can significantly depend on the
oxide inclusions present in the bondcoat due to internal
oxidation and/or in as-sprayed conditions (Ref 35). The
presence of several oxide structures would change the
mechanical properties of the bondcoat which could result
in lower thermal mismatch due to changes in the overall
coefficient of thermal expansion (Ref 27). This effect was
investigated in the current work by assessing the changes
in macroscopic properties of the bondcoat using the pro-
cedure described below. YoungÕs modulus and coefficient
of thermal expansion for the bondcoats were predicted
separately and then modified in the model to include the
effect of internal oxidation.
The same samples examined for 2D analysis described
in section 3.2 after 200 h of heat treatment were analyzed
again with SEM. Images were taken so as to include the
largest possible area in the image for analysis since only
the macroscopic properties were of interest. One of the
images taken from the APS and HVOF bondcoat samples
are shown in Fig. 7. The presence of TGO (dark gray
color) within the coating (light gray color) can be clearly
observed in both coatings. In Fig. 7(a) for APS bondcoat
sample, the oxides formed due to internal oxidation were
mostly parallel to the topcoat-bondcoat interface similar
to previous observations (Ref 35). The difference in extent
of oxidation between APS and HVOF bondcoats can be
clearly noticed when comparing Fig. 7(a) and (b).
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 These images were converted into binary by image computed from the analysis and a of the coating was
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processing using Aphelion software to clearly differentiate
between the materials present in the coating. Although
there might be different oxide scales present within the
bondcoat, the predominant alumina was considered as the
only oxide scale present for simplification. This binary
image was meshed using OOF2 and two material groups,
namely NiCoCrAlY and alumina, were assigned using the
same procedure as described in section 3.2. The generated
mesh was exported to ANSYS Workbench which was used
to calculate the YoungÕs modulus and coefficient of ther-
mal expansion of the composite structure with a linear
static structural analysis. The bulk material properties
used for the two materials were the same as given in
Table 2. Five images were selected for each coating and
the mean of the results from those images was taken as the
final value.
For predicting YoungÕs modulus, a prescribed defor-
mation d along x-direction was applied on the right hand
side boundary of the model domain while the left-hand
side boundary was constrained from moving along
x-direction. The corresponding reaction force F was
computed from the analysis and the YoungÕs modulus E of
the coating was calculated using the equation:
E ¼ ðF=AxÞ=ðd=DxÞ;
where Ax is the area of cross-section parallel to the left
and right hand side boundaries, and Dx is the length of the
model domain along x-direction.
For predicting coefficient of thermal expansion a, the
model was heated from room temperature to a higher
temperature resulting in a temperature rise of DT.
The resultant deformation along the x-direction Dl was
calculated using the equation:
a ¼ ðDl=DxÞ=DT
The calculations above resulted in E values of 79 and
95.7 GPa and a values of 1.71 9 105 and 1.41 9 105 °C1
for HVOF and APS samples, respectively. These values, at
least for the APS bondcoat, show a significant difference
from that of NiCoCrAlY without considering oxide inclu-
sions as suggested by previous studies (Ref 8, 35). These
values were updated in the models used for 2D and 3D
analysis described in sections 3.2 and 3.3 to study the effect
of increased YoungÕs modulus and reduced coefficient of
thermal expansion of bondcoat material on the induced
stresses in the topcoat.
Marginal differences were seen between the induced
stresses for both HVOF as well as APS bondcoat surface
models which indicate that the induced stress level is not
so sensitive to small changes in bondcoat material prop-
erties. This might be due to the fact that even though the
bondcoat becomes stiffer due to oxide inclusions, this
change in stiffness is not so significant when compared to
the stiffness of the adjacent TGO and substrate layers.
The results above indicate that the inclusion of oxide
scales does not affect the induced stress levels in the
topcoat significantly and the surface roughness seems to
be the most significant factor. However, it must be noted
here the effects of temperature dependence of material
properties and sintering of topcoat were not considered in
this analysis, apart from other simplifications specified
earlier. Also, the oxide growth behavior might be different
in cyclic testing as compared to the isothermal heat
treatment.

Table 3 Some of the ISO 25178 feature parameters calculated for HVOF and APS bondcoat samples
Parameter, units Parameter description HVOF APS
2
Spd, 1/mm Density of peaks (number of peaks per unit area) 49.5 135
Spc, 1/mm Arithmetic mean peak curvature (arithmetic mean of the principle curvatures 1140 2844
of peaks within a definition area)
Sha, mm2 Mean hill area (average area of the hills connected to the edge 0.0194 0.00699
at a particular height)

Fig. 10 Vertical residual stresses with simplified topography representing unmelted particle (a) in as-sprayed condition, (b) with 10 lm
TGO, and (c) with 40 lm TGO thickness. Image (d) illustrates the bondcoat surface geometry used in the model representing an
unmelted particle in a form of hemisphere

178—Volume 23(1-2) January 2014 Journal of Thermal Spray Technology

 Peer Reviewed
Fig. 11 A part of the SEM microstructure image showing topcoat-bondcoat interface with the intermediate TGO layer. The dashed line
illustrates how this surface could be interpreted using white light interferometry technique

5.2 Characterization of Surface Roughness sharp and steep peaks while HVOF bondcoat has rela-
tively flat and large surface area hills, which is also con-
As mentioned earlier, the HVOF and APS bondcoat
firmed by the high Sha value for HVOF bondcoat. This
surfaces had a similar roughness (Ra) value but the surface
conclusion from the quantitative measurements can be
topography differed significantly. Figure 8 shows the
also easily visualized in Fig. 8.
bondcoat surface scans captured using white light inter-
The reason for this difference in surface topographies is
ferometry for HVOF and APS samples. It can be clearly
believed to be as follows. The HVOF-sprayed samples had
noticed that both surface have significantly different fea-
more unmelted or semi-molten particles on the bondcoat
tures which implies that the traditional approach to
surface with a smoother surface in general due to better
characterize the surface roughness by measuring the Ra
compaction of particles impacting with high velocity, while
value is inadequate. To overcome this limitation, the
the APS surface exhibited more uneven features due to
surfaces were characterized with the newly formulated
possible splashing of completely molten particles as it may
ISO 25178 parameters using stripe projection technique
be observed in Fig. 9. The lateral size of the hills,
(MikroCAD premium, GFMesstechnik GmbH, Ger-
approximately 50 lm as it can be seen in Fig. 9(a), present
many). The measurement area with this technique was
on the HVOF bondcoat surface was similar to the diam-
2.46 mm 9 1.88 mm. The lateral resolution was 1.6 lm,
eter of the largest particles present in the powder used to
while the vertical resolution was 0.16 lm. The software
spray the HVOF coatings.
MountainsMAP version 6 (DigitalSurf, France) was used
To attain an understanding of the difference in lifetime
to calculate the ISO parameters. The feature parameters
of APS and HVOF samples and the stress inversion, the
are a new family of parameters which has been integrated
effect of unmelted particles was analyzed separately.
in the ISO 25178 standard. Feature parameters are
Artificial bondcoat surface was created in NX represent-
derived by creating segmentation motifs over a surface
ing an unmelted particle on bondcoat surface with a
which makes it possible to identify specific areas such as
hemisphere as shown in Fig. 10(d). This artificial bondcoat
hills and valleys.
surface was used to investigate vertical residual stress
The segmentation motifs measured using the HVOF
behavior in the topcoat using the same procedure as used
and APS bondcoat samples are shown in Fig. 9, while
for the 3D models described in section 3.3. The diameter
some of the ISO feature parameters are given in Table 3.
of the hemisphere was chosen to be 50 lm so as to rep-
The detailed description of these parameters can be found
resent the unmelted particles. As shown in Fig. 10, the
in the ISO standard. A short description has been added in
vertical residual stress state in the topcoat was inverted as
Table 3. The height parameters Sa which calculates the
the TGO thickness increased from Fig. 10(a) to (c), i.e.,
arithmetic mean height in 3D (corresponding to Ra in 2D)
the tensile stresses spread out from the hills towards the
were 11.2 and 11.1 lm for HVOF and APS, respectively,
valleys.
which would suggest similar roughness level. However,
When taking this in regard, it seems that the presence
from the feature parameters given in Table 3 based on
of these unmelted particles tends to increase the overall
segmentation motifs shown in Fig. 9, it can been be easily
stresses in the topcoat, since their presence on the bond-
noticed that the surface topography is significantly dif-
coat surface made the stress inversion more significant in
ferent. The higher Spd value suggests that APS bondcoat
the simulations. This would imply that the lifetime of
has higher density of peaks compared to the HVOF
HVOF samples would be lower compared to the APS
bondcoat, and the higher Spc value suggests that the
samples since more unmelted particles are present on the
arithmetic mean curvature of these peaks is also higher.
HVOF bondcoat surface.
This implies that the APS bondcoat has high density of

Journal of Thermal Spray Technology Volume 23(1-2) January 2014—179

Peer Reviewed

Fig. 12 An illustration of the varying TGO thickness when using the extrude feature in NX Unigraphics to create the TGO layer with
the vertical input value set to 0.01 mm

5.3 Limitations of the Model presented. It was observed that the stress inversion from
compressive to tensile stresses occurred earlier in the
The benefit of using the 2D simulation approach is
topcoat-bondcoat interface for the HVOF-sprayed coat-
that it captures minute details of the actual TGO profile
ings, which could be a reason for an earlier failure of
with its varying thickness across the surface compared to
HVOF samples in lifetime testing. Another phenomenon
the 3D approach, where the TGO profile was extrapo-
was observed that unmelted particles present on the
lated using the bondcoat surface profile. This effect is
HVOF bondcoat surface could increase the overall stres-
shown in Fig. 11 where the dashed line indicates how the
ses in the topcoat which could also contribute to earlier
scanned bondcoat surface with white light interferometry
failure in lifetime testing. This could be also differentiated
would be measured due to its limitation of being a line-
with the newly formulated ISO 25178 parameters which
of-sight technique, thus disregarding minute details of the
supports the argument that better characterization of the
bondcoat/TGO surface. This effect can be clearly noticed
surface rather than the traditional Ra value is required for
in Fig. 4 and 5, where the 2D cross-section models of
fundamental understanding.
actual 3D models appear to be smoother than the 2D
The modeling approach using real topographies seems
models.
thus as highly beneficial since it can provide a tool in
Another limitation with the 3D model is related to how
attaining valuable insight into the stress distribution in
the TGO layer is created in the model. The translation of
topcoat-bondcoat interfaces. The results although tenta-
the bondcoat surface profile to create the TGO layer in
tive in nature indicate that optimization of bondcoat
NX results in a heterogeneous TGO thickness since the
roughness can be realized through this technique. Further
TGO will be thinner at steeper slopes, as shown in Fig. 12.
work would be done in future to develop the used material
This is a limitation with this method since the induced
models and to incorporate the TGO growth as well as real
stresses will be lower at steep hills due to thinner TGO
microstructure morphology including defects.
than it might be in reality.
However, the 3D simulations enable the possibility to
capture a global field with better visualization of results.
The 2D simulations provide limited information since the Acknowledgements
results can vary significantly depending on the cross-sec- The authors would like to thank Kjell Niklasson at
tion analyzed, even across a distance of few micrometers. University West for the fruitful discussions and Stefan
Rosén at Toponova AB for performing the white light
interferometry and stripe projection measurements. Spe-
6. Conclusions cial thanks to Tobias Hansson, Chamara Kumara, and Sri
Surya Pulim at University West for their help with simu-
FEM was used in this work to study the residual stress lation work.
profile in the topcoat-bondcoat interface using real surface
topographies. Both 2D and 3D simulations were shown
to verify the previously formulated stress inversion the- References
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