Cellulose

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-019-02307-1 (0123456789().,-volV)
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REVIEW PAPER

Production of bacterial cellulose from industrial wastes:

a review
Zohaib Hussain . Wasim Sajjad . Taous Khan . Fazli Wahid

Received: 27 June 2018 / Accepted: 1 February 2019

Ó Springer Nature B.V. 2019

Abstract Economic, social and environmental fac-
tors have led many industries to find new and attractive
ways of waste management. Clean biotechnology is an
integrated platform for the conversion of wastes into
valuable and less toxic end products. Bacterial cellu-
lose (BC) has a long history of its use as an important
biomaterial for various applications. However, the
potential for its industrialization and commercializa-
tion at large scale is still a challenge due to high
fermentation cost, low productivity and expensive
culture media. To overcome this problem, low-cost
substrates and large waste biomass byproducts of
various industries have been evaluated for BC pro-
duction. Of these, tons of wastes produced from the
agro, food, brewery and sugar industries, lignocellu-
losic biorefineries, textile and pulp mills are ideal raw
materials for BC production. Recently, various studies
have reported the wastes from these industries as a
source of various nutrient for the low cost production
of BC. This review is centered on BC production from
low cost substrates with a major focus on the wastes
from agro, food, brewery, sugar industries, lignocel-
lulosic biorefineries, textile and pulp mills. Moreover,
recent research trends and commercial media avail-
able for BC production are also discussed. This review
also discuss briefly the properties and applications of
BC. This article would likely draw the attention of
researchers towards utilization of industrial wastes as
potential alternate media for the production of BC.

Electronic supplementary material The online version of

this article (https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-019-02307-1) con-
tains supplementary material, which is available to authorized
users.

Z. Hussain  W. Sajjad  F. Wahid (&)

Biotechnology Program, Department of Environmental
Sciences, COMSATS University Islamabad, Abbottabad
Campus, Abbottabad 22060, Pakistan
e-mail: fazliwahid@cuiatd.edu.pk

T. Khan
Department of Pharmacy, COMSATS University
Islamabad, Abbottabad Campus, Abbottabad 22060,
Pakistan

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Graphical abstract
Keywords Bacterial cellulose  Biomaterials  Clean
biotechnology  Industrial wastes  Waste management
Introduction
Bacterial cellulose (BC) is a natural biomaterial that
has recently gained attention for superior properties
and nature that allow the desired modifications. It has
extensive applications in the field of medicine, phar-
macy, food, chemistry, environment, engineering and
fashion (Iguchi et al. 2000; Cacicedo et al. 2016). The
detailed description of recent research trends and
patents on BC presenting the trend of annual publi-
cations and the number of patents granted and filed on
BC is given in Figure S1 and Table S1 (supplementary
file as ‘‘Research trends and patents.pdf’’).
The production and applications of BC have been
the subject of numerous reviews (Jozala et al. 2016;
Reiniati et al. 2017; Lee et al. 2014; Mohite and Patil
2014). The pellicle/sheet produced in static conditions
shows an ultrafine structure comprised of ribbons of
30–50 nm width and 4–5 nm thickness of cellulose
filaments. BC displays novel physico-chemical prop-
erties, that include high crystallinity, nanofibrous
network structure, purity, degree of polymerization,
higher water absorption and holding capacity, superior
tensile strength, good biocompatibility, resistance to
chemical and heat shock, lack of toxicity, easy
sterilization, selective porosity and renewable proper-
ties (Klemm et al. 2011; Moon et al. 2011; Klemm
et al. 2005; Nechyporchuk et al. 2016). These
properties of BC have been exploited for many
biomedical applications such as manufacturing
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Cellulose
artificial blood vessels, skin, cornea, cartilage and
bone (Moniri et al. 2017). Now the development of
multifunctional nanocomposite materials of BC is
being used in new areas of biomedical research, such
as antimicrobial and antiviral films, scaffolds for tissue
engineering, cardiovascular system, ophthalmic and
skeletal systems, cartilage and endodontics, wound
dressing systems, drug delivery systems and bioengi-
neering (Fu et al. 2013; Shah et al. 2013; Ullah et al.
2016; Khalid et al. 2017a, b; Naseri-Nosar and Ziora
2018). Some of the commercially available BC based
products are GengiflexÒ, Prima CelTM, SecurianTM,
MTATM, SuprasorbÒ, XylosÒ BiofillÒ (Abeer et al.
2014; Ludwicka et al. 2017).
The major challenges faced for the applications of
BC and its up-scale production are high cost of the
media and low productivity at industrial scale. The
viable possibility to overcome the situation is to
exploit the renewable carbon sources through biopro-
cess optimization, thus, minimizing the use of expen-
sive commercial media and low productivity (Jang
et al. 2017). The conversion of wastes and byproducts
to BC by the microbes on industrial scale will assist in
achieving one of the United Nations sustainable
development goals ‘‘responsible production and con-
sumption’’ (Akinsemolu 2018; Camere and Karana
2018). scientists are now using natural/waste
resources along with improved biological synthesis
methods to obtain important products aiming to
develop ‘‘zero waste’’ society and economy (Mateo
and Maicas 2015). Recently, a global campaign to
develop innovative technologies to transform the
wastes from industries into valuable material came
forth. One such approach is the clean-biotechnology
that makes the use of fermentation to recycle and reuse
Cellulose
tons of low-cost substrates and wastes from various
industries (agro, food, brewery) for the production of
BC. The low-cost production will promote industrial-
ization and commercialization of BC, which would
ultimately provide low cost end product (biomedical
material) to masses for health care improvement. The
scope of this review is to highlight the production of
BC from low cost substrates, mainly from the wastes
from industries. The data summarized will add new
dimensions to the research on biomaterials and would
be beneficial for readers from academia, as well from
agro, food, brewery, biotech and biomedical industry.
Properties and applications of bacterial cellulose
Microbial cellulose is an extracellular polysaccharide
produced by various microorganisms including algae,
fungi and different bacteria belonging to the genera
Fig. 1 Inherent properties of bacterial cellulose
Agrobacterium, Sarcina, Rhizobium and Glucoaceto-
bacter (Acetobacter) (Ullah et al. 2016; Römling and
Galperin 2015). Among these, Glucoacetobacter
xylinum is the most efficient producer of BC (Römling
and Galperin 2015). In 1886, Adrian J. Brown reported
the appearance of gelatinous mat during fermentation
of G. xylinum (Römling and Galperin 2015) that was
initially referred to as vinegar plant and later named as
‘‘bacterial cellulose’’ (Hestrin and Schramm 1954).
BC possesses inherent physical and mechanical
properties (Fig. 1), superior to plant cellulose (PC). It
is pure with the degree of polymerization in the range
of 4000–10,000 anhydroglucose units as compared to
PC that contains hemicellulose, lignin and pectin. It
also possesses higher crystallinity (80–90%), high
water holding capacity (up to 100 times of its own
weight), greater mechanical strength (100–160 GPa
for a single fiber, comparable to steel or Kevlar),
moldability and thermochemical stability (Klemm
123

et al. 2011; Ullah et al. 2016; Yu et al. 2016; Mohite
and Patil 2014; Lee 2018) Moreover, BC does not
trigger harsh inflammatory reactions and adverse
effects as well as no reproductive or embryo toxic-
ity and teratogenic effects in animal studies. The
primary eye and dermal irritation studies on animal
model showed that BC was non-irritating. Moreover,
studies showed that BC is not genotoxic. Furthermore,
it has longstanding history of human consumption as
food. All these properties of BC make it biocompatible
and ideal candidate for biomedical applications (He-
lenius et al. 2006; Shi et al. 2014; Dourado et al. 2017).
Several properties of BC have been improved by
surface, chemical, structural modifications and differ-
ent in situ and ex situ functionalization for higher
performance in various applications (Hu et al. 2014;
Ul-Islam et al. 2012; Badshah et al. 2018). Recent
studies reported the production of high performance
macrofibres of BC by wet-drawing and wet-twisting
process, which possessed high tensile strength
Fig. 2 Multidisciplinary applications of bacterial cellulose and modified bacterial cellulose
123
Cellulose
(826 MPa) and Young’s modulus (65.7 GPa). When
normalized by weight, the specific tensile strength of
the macrofibers is as high as 598 MPa g-1 cm3, which
is stronger than the lightweight steel of 227 MPa g-1
cm3 tensile strength (Wang et al. 2017).
The unique and superior physical and mechanical
properties of BC make it an ideal material for
application in different fields (Fig. 2). BC was clas-
sified as ‘‘generally recognized as safe’’ (GRAS) by
the USA Food and Drug Administration in 1992 and
thus is suitable for applications in food industry (Park
et al. 2009). It is used as food additive for thickening,
stabilizing, gelling, suspending and packaging (Shi
et al. 2014). BC based smart biosensors for pH
monitoring during storage of packaged food have also
been developed (Pourjavaher et al. 2017). It has been
applied in environment as biosensors for pollutants
like H2O2, thiosalicylic acid, 2,20 -dithiodipyridine,
trace organic chemicals 4-fluorobenzenethiol and
phenylacetic acid and glucose detection (Wei et al.
Cellulose
2014). The enzyme immobilization ability of BC has
been used for the development of enzyme based-
biosensors. In a study, BC was used as membrane
electrode assembly in fuel cell. Moreover, BC was
also employed as solar cell substrate for potential
photovoltaic applications and as substrate for micro-
bial cell culture (Wei et al. 2014; Yin et al. 2014;
Dugan et al. 2013; Fang et al. 2009; Klemm et al.
2001; Wippermann et al. 2009; Li et al. 2017; Kim
et al. 2013; Schumann et al. 2009). BC has been
widely used in skin regenerative medicine and wound
care industry due to its inherent wound healing
properties. Due to the plenty of empty spaces in the
fibril network of BC, it reinforces drugs and modifiers
like nanoparticles to enhance its antifungal, antibac-
terial, tissue regeneration and biocompatible proper-
ties. Recently, BC-zinc oxide and BC-titanium
dioxide nanocomposites showed excellent antibacte-
rial and wound healing activities (Khalid et al.
2017a, b). Similarly, BC matrices and BC-based
capsule shells were prepared for immediate and
sustained released oral and transdermal drug delivery
applications (Badshah et al. 2017; Ullah et al. 2017).
Similarly, the BC also showed potential as building
blocks for applications in aerospace, civil engineering,
geotextile, electronic areas, construction and protec-
tive apparel (Wang et al. 2017).
BC produced from microbial fermentation pro-
cesses possesses same physicochemical properties
irrespective of the type of medium used. Thus, the BC
produced from industrial wastes, discussed in detailed
in this review, can be used in several applications as
mentioned above.
Commercial media available for bacterial cellulose
production
Though various commercial media are available for
BC production, but it is important to identify the
suitable media and conditions to attain high produc-
tivity of fermentation products (Desai et al. 2006). The
media components are manipulated by the microbes in
several ways either by degradation or polymerization
to synthesize specific metabolites. Nutrient availabil-
ity to the microbe affects the production rate and
concentration of the specific metabolites (Atkinson
and Mavituna 1983). Microbes require carbon, hydro-
gen, oxygen, nitrogen and minor elements such as iron
and zinc for the biosynthesis of various metabolites.
Additionally, vitamins and hormones are also required
(Pirt 1975). Fermentation media are generally divided
into two categories, chemically defined or synthetic
media and undefined or complex media. Chemically
defined media consist of chemicals in known concen-
trations while undefined media consist of components
from natural sources in unknown concentration
(Zhang and Greasham 1999). HS medium is the most
commonly used chemically defined medium for BC
production (Hestrin and Schramm 1954). As the cost
of BC production is an important criterion for the
industrial applications, most of the studies on BC
production have been carried out in media containing
chemicals like sugar (glucose, sucrose, fructose,
mannitol, and arabitol) as carbon source, complex
nitrogen and vitamin sources such as yeast extract and
polypeptone. Various media have been proposed for
BC production, that include HS-ascorbic acid (HSA)
medium, Hassid-Barker (HB) medium, Yamanaka
medium, Zhou’s medium, Son medium, Park medium,
M1A05P5 medium, super optimal broth with catabo-
lite repression (SOC) medium, CSL-fructose (CSL-
Fru) medium, fermentation medium (FM), yeast
extract–peptone–dextrose (YPD) medium, acetate
buffered medium (AB), modified (MHS) HS media,
Joseph medium, fructose-corn steep solid solution
(fru-CSS) medium and altered HS (AHS) medium
(Keshk 2014; Lestari et al. 2014; Zhou et al. 2007;
Mohammadkazemi et al. 2015; Son et al. 2003; Park
et al. 2003; Cakar et al. 2014; Chandrasekaran et al.
2017; Chao et al. 2000; Uzyol and Saçan 2017; Kuo
et al. 2017; Costa et al. 2017; Joseph et al. 2003;
Reiniati 2017; De Lima et al. 2018). Jung et al. (2010)
reported molasses–corn steep liquor medium as com-
plex medium for the cost effective BC production
without supplementation with expensive nutrient
sources. The detailed compositions of these media
are listed in Table 1. However, the chemical compo-
nents of the aforementioned media are expensive,
therefore the use of these media for BC production at
industrial level is economically unfavorable (Son et al.
2003).
Industrial wastes for bacterial cellulose production
High cost of culture medium and low yield are the
principal challenges in BC production for industrial
123
123
Table 1 Chemically defined medium and their compositions used for bacterial cellulose production
Types of medium Composition

HS Glucose (20 g/L) Yeast extract (5 g/L) Peptone (5 g/L) Na2HPO4 (2.7 g/L) Citric acid (1.115 g/L)
HAS Glucose (20 g/L) Yeast extract (5 g/L) Peptone (5 g/L) Na2HPO4 (2.7 g/L) Citric acid (1.115 g/L) Vitamin-C (5 g/L)
HB Sucrose (100 g/L) Yeast extract (2.5 g/L) (NH4)2SO4 K2HPO4 (5 g/L) MgSO4 (2 g/L) CaSO4 (2.5 g/l)
(8.25 g/L)
Yamnaka Sucrose (50 g/L) Yeast extract (5 g/L) (NH4)2SO4 (5 g/L) KH2PO4 (3 g/L) MgSO47H2O (0.05 g/L)
Zhou Glucose (18 g/L) Sucrose (21 g/L) (NH4)2SO4 (4 g/L) Corn steep KH2PO4 (2 g/L) MgSO47H2O (0.4 g/L)
liquor (20 g/L)
SON** Glucose (15 g/L) Ethanol (6 ml/L) (NH4)2SO4 (2.0 g/L) KH2PO4 (3 g/L) Na2HPO412H2O (3 g/L) MgSO47H2O (0.8 g/L), Nicotinamide
(0.0005 g/
L)
Park Glucose (10 g/L) Yeast extract (7 g/L) Peptone (10 g/L) CH3COOH (1.5 ml/L) Succinic acid (2 g/L)
M1A05P5 Glucose (10 g/L) Yeast extract (10 g/L) Peptone (7 g/L) CH3COOH (1.5 ml/L) Ethanol (1.5 ml/L)
SOC5.5 Glucose (3.6 g/L) LB medium (20 g/L) NaCL (0.5 g/L) KCL (0.18 g/L) MgCl2 (0.95 g/L) MgSO4 (2.5 g/L)
CSL-Fru* Fructose (40 g/L) Corn steep liquor (20 ml/L) (NH4)2SO4 (3.3 g/L) KH2PO4 (1 g/L) MgSO4.7H20 (0.25 g/L) FeSO47H2O (0.0036 g/L) CaCl22H2O
(14.7 mg/L)
FM Glucose) (15 g/L Meat extract (3 g/L) Peptone (5 g/L) NaCl (5 g/L)
YPD Glucose (20 g/L) Yeast extract (5 g/L) Peptone (5 g/L)
GYB Glucose (20 g/L) Yeast extract (5 g/L)
AB Glucose (20–60 g/L) Yeast extract (5 g/L) Peptone (5 g/L) C2H3NaO2 (5.772 g/L) CH3COOH (1.778 g/L)
MHS Glucose (20 g/L) Corn steep liquor (10 g/L) Na2HPO4 (2.7 g/L) Citric acid (1.5 g/L)
Joseph Fructose (20 g/L) Corn steep liquor (80 ml/L) (NH4)2SO4 (3.3 g/L) KH2PO4 (1 g/L) MgSO47H2O (0.25 g/L) Polyacrylamide-coacrylic
acid (10 g/L)
fru-CSS Fructose (20 g/L) Corn steep solid (20 g/L) (NH4)2SO4 (3.3 g/L) KH2PO4 (1 g/L) MgSO47H2O (0.8 g/L) Na3C6H5O72H2O (2.4 g/L) Citric acid
(1.6 g/L)
AHS Glucose (50 g/L) Yeast extract (4 g/L) Ethanol (20 g/L) KH2PO4 (2 g/L) MgSO47H2O (0.73 g/L)

Hestrin and Schramm (HS); HS-ascorbic acid (HAS); Hassid-Barker (HB); super optimal broth with catabolite repression (SOC); CSL-fructose (CSL-Fru); fermentation medium
(FM); yeast extract–peptone–dextrose (YPD), acetate buffered medium (AB); modified-HS (MHS); fructose-corn steep solid solution (fru-CSS); altered HS (AHS); glucose yeast
extract broth (GYB). *CaCl22H2O 14.7 mg, NaMoO42H2O, 2.42 mg, ZnSO47H2O 1.73 mg, MnSO45H2O 1.39 mg, CuSO45H2O, 0.05 mg, inositol 2 mg, nicotinic acid
0.4 mg, pyridoxine hydrochloride 0.4 mg, thiamine hydrochloride 0.4 mg, D-pantothenic acid calcium 0.2 mg, riboflavin0.2 mg, p-aminobenzoic acid 0.2 mg, folic acid 0.2 mg
and D-biotin 2 mg. ** Nicotinamide (.00005 g/L), FeSO47H2O (0.005 g/L), H3BO3 (0.003 g/L)
Cellulose
Cellulose
scale applications. In fermentations process, the cost
of the medium accounts for 50–65% of the total
expenditure. Therefore, the development of a cost-
effective culture medium to obtain maximum product
yield is an important consideration in fermentation
process (Vazquez et al. 2013; Velásquez-Riaño and
Bojacá 2017). Several efforts have been made to
reduce the cost of BC production by utilizing alterna-
tive low cost, renewable and easily available nutrient
sources. In past decade, serious global economic,
environmental and energy issues raised the impor-
tance of sustainable use of industrial wastes. The
advancements in the biotechnological techniques and
clean technology approaches provide platform to
scientists and researchers to use renewable natural
sources like industrial wastes to obtain cellulosic
polymeric materials like BC. The utilization of these
wastes for BC production will also help in waste
management and environment cleaning and reduce the
cost of waste disposal for industries. Based on this
innovative approach, the industrial wastes used for BC
production can be divided into various categories.
Agro industrial wastes
The agricultural waste is considered for economic and
cultural significance all over the world. It is potential
source for renewable energy due to environmentally
friendly nature, easy availability, low cost and
sustainability. Agro-industries are producing tons of
biomass on daily basis and only 10% of it is used as
alternative raw materials for industries like biocom-
posites, biomedical and automotive component (Dun-
gani et al. 2016). The use of agro-biomass for BC
production will reduce the cost and thus will make it
more sustainable, green and marketable. Acetic acid
pre-hydrolysis liquor of agricultural corn stalk was
utilized as low-cost carbon source for green synthesis
of BC. The corn stalk hydrolysate contains glucose
(3.87 g/L), xylose (29.61 g/L), mannose (1.84 g/L),
furfural (2.95 g/L), lignin (4.01 g/L) and acetic acid
(18.73 g/L). From this medium, 2.86 g/L of BC was
produced under optimized detoxification and pretreat-
ment conditions. Structural analysis showed the
diameter of BC fibrils between 20 and 70 nm, while
the length of BC fibrils was ranged from 300 nm to
several lm (Cheng et al. 2017). The wheat straw
hydrolysates treated with calcium hydroxide con-
tained 40 mg/ml of total reducing sugar. The obtained
hydrolysates when used as a growth medium yielded
15.4 mg/ml BC, which was 60% higher as compared
to that obtained from glucose, sucrose and mannitol
(Hong et al. 2011). Another study reported 10.6 g/L of
BC production from enzymatically hydrolyzed (cel-
lulase, b-glucosidase, xylanase), chemically and ther-
mally pretreated wheat straw, which contained a total
sugar concentration of 52.12 g/L. BC production of
9.7 g/L was obtained when acid hydrolyzed wheat
straw having total sugar concentration of 43 g/L was
used as a fermentation medium (Al-Abdallah and
Dahman 2013). The coconut and pineapple juices,
which are discarded as waste by most of the agro-
industries, are rich in proteins, carbohydrates and trace
elements. These juices were evaluated as a medium for
BC production, which resulted in a higher BC
productivity for coconut juice as compared to pineap-
ple juice (Kongruang 2008). Rice bark from agricul-
tural residues were pretreated with enzymatic pool
(endo-1 ? 4-a-xylanase, endo-1, 3(4)-a-glucanase,
a-amylase, subtilisin, polygalacturonase). This enzy-
matic hydrolysate contained glucose up to 40 g/L and
was evaluated for BC production. The results showed
1.57 g/L and 2.42 g/L of BC production for aerated
and static conditions, respectively. The Fourier-trans-
form infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) spectra of BC
produced from waste media displayed characteristic
peaks of cellulose. Furthermore, the BC network
formed with rice bark as substrate is less crystalline,
while the crystal type shifts from cellulose I to
cellulose II under aerated conditions. The physico-
chemical studies showed the cross-linked three-di-
mensional networks, microspheres and nanospheres of
the obtained BC (Goelzer et al. 2009). Normally, peel
is an inedible portion of fruit and is discarded that
accounts for * 5–40% of the total weight of the fruit.
Peels are rich in reducing sugars, vitamins, proteins
and various acids. Keeping in view the nutritional
values, these peels can be utilized as substrate or
feedstock for microbial growth for the production of
various enzymes, biochemical, biofuels and metabo-
lites. Several studies reported the bioconversion of
fruit and vegetable peel wastes into BC. The banana
peel extract in different combination with glucose
concentration was investigated and the results sug-
gested that banana peel can partially replace the
conventional nitrogen and carbon sources for BC
production (Adnan 2015). Dried orange peel waste
generated by juice processing industries with 10%
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moisture contents consists of sugars (30–40%), pectin
(15–25%), cellulose (8–10%) and hemicellulose
(5–7%). To utilize orange peels as a substrate for BC
production, it was pre-treated with cellulase and
pectinase to increase the concentration of fer-
mentable sugars (60–80 g/L). The results demon-
strated that the BC production was 4.2–6.32 times
higher using pre-treated orange peel medium than
standard (HS) medium. Moreover, structural analysis
showed that BC produced from different wastes
exhibited thick and denser pack of nanofibrils while
no significant differences were observed in the FTIR
spectra (Kuo et al. 2017). Therefore, it can be
concluded that cheap, readily available and abundant
agricultural wastes resources all over the world can be
used as cost-effective feedstock for BC production.
This approach will simultaneously give environmental
and economic benefits. Moreover, it will ease the
large-scale production and commercialization of BC-
based products that will ultimately solve the waste
disposal problem. The lists of agro-wastes used for BC
production have been summarized in Table 2.
Brewery and beverages industries wastes
The brewery and beverages industries produce large
volumes of byproducts on daily basis that remains a
concern for management in an effort to keep disposal
costs low (Fillaudeau et al. 2006). The waste is rich in
various nutrients, therefore, these can be subjected to
biological treatments for cost effective and efficient
waste management. Several byproducts of brewery
and beverages industries have been evaluated for
production of BC (Table 3). A huge amount of
makgeolli sludge produced in traditional rice wine
distilleries are discarded. It was reported that makge-
olli sludge medium acts as a carbon source for the
growth of G. xylinus to produce BC. It contains total
nitrogen (0.81 g/L), glucose (10.24 g/L), organic
acids (1.15 g/L), alcohol (0.93% v/v) and metal ions
to support microbial growth. The structural analysis of
BC produced from makgeolli sludge medium showed
fibrous network, characteristic peaks of cellulose and
cellulose I polymorphic form (Hyun et al. 2014).
Waste beer yeasts (WBY), generated in tons of amount
in brewing industry, are either discarded or fed to
animals causing serious environmental problems.
After several physical and chemical treatments,
WBY hydrolysates were used as fermentation medium
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Cellulose
for G. hansenii CGMCC 3917 as carbon and nutrient
sources to produce BC. Results showed that BC
productivity increases 6 times with a thicker BC
membrane upon treatment. Water absorption, holding
and release capacity was also similar to the BC
produced from HS medium. The surface characteri-
zation showed that micro-fibrils of the BC membranes
produced were loosely and randomly arranged with
plenty of spaces (Lin et al. 2014). Grape bagasse, a
residue of wine production, was also evaluated for BC
production. The characterization studies of the pro-
duced BC showed microfibrils of several micrometers
length containing rectangular cross-sections with
widths range of 35–70 nm and thicknesses of
13–24 nm. The presence of cellulose I polymorph
characteristic peaks were also reported (Vazquez et al.
2013). The beverage industrial waste of citrus peel and
pomace were subjected to enzymatic hydrolysis and
then used as a medium for BC production as well. The
results demonstrated 46.15% higher BC production
than HS medium. BC produced from waste medium
showed no significant differences in its microstruc-
ture, characteristics, FTIR peaks, crystallinity index
and color parameter in relation to BC produced from
HS medium (Fan et al. 2016). The cost-free tons of
waste produced on daily basis in brewery industry can
be used as a whole or as a portion of HS medium for
BC production. The use of industrial by-products will
not only solve the major waste disposal problem of
brewery and beverages industry but can also help in
the upscale production and commercialization of BC
based products.
Sugar industries, pulp mills and lignocellulosic
biorefineries wastes
Sugarcane is believed to be one of the best converters
of solar energy into sugar and biomass. It is a rich
source of fiber (cellulose), food (sucrose, jaggery and
syrups), fodder (green leaves and tops of cane plant,
molasses, bagasse and press mud), fuel and chemicals
(molasses, bagasse and alcohol). The main byproducts
of sugar industry include molasses, bagasse and press
mud or press cake. Moreover, the wastes and other
byproducts (factory and distillery effluents) are also
generated during the manufacturing of sugar and
represent a high amount of pollution load. Keeping in
view the economic value and nutritive potential of
these biomass, byproducts and wastes; these can be
Cellulose

Table 2 Agro industrial wastes utilized as a feedstock for the production of bacterial cellulose
Agro industrial wastes Additional nutrients Microbe Maximum BC References
productivity

Waste as complex medium without any additional nutrients

Citrus peels (lemon, Nil Komagataeibacter hansenii 3.92 BC/100 g Güzel and Akpınar
mandarin, orange and GA2016 peel (2018)
grapefruit)
Sugar cane juice and Nil Gluconacetobacter 3.24 g/L Algar et al. (2015)
pineapple residues medellinensis
Discarded waste durian Nil Gluconacetobacter xylinus 2.67 g/L Luo et al. (2017a, b)
shell CH001
Waste as carbon source with additional nutrients
Enzymatic hydrolysate of Other components are Acetobacter xylinus ATCC 8.3 g/L Chen et al. (2013)
wheat straw same as of HS medium 23770
Coffee cherry husk Urea and corn steep Gluconacetobacter hansenii 8.2 g/L Rani and Appaiah
liquor UAC09 (2013)
Juice samples watermelon, Other components are Acetobacter pasteurianus PW1 7.7 g/L Adebayo-Tayo et al.
pineapple and paw paw same as that of HS (2014)
medium
Cashew tree exudates Other components are Komagataeibacter rhaeticus 6.0 g/L Pacheco et al. (2017)
same as of HS medium
Extracted date syrup Other components are Acetobacter xylinum 0416 5.8 g/L Lotfiman et al.
same as of HS medium MARDI (2016)
Pineapple waste medium Other components are Acetobacter pasteurianus PW1 3.9 g/L Adebayo-Tayo et al.
and Pawpaw waste same as of HS medium (2017)
medium
Orange peel fluid and Acetate buffer, peptone Gluconoacetobacter xylinus 3.40 g/L Kuo et al. (2017)
orange peel hydrolysate and yeast extract BCRC 12334
Cheap agricultural product Yeast extract and Acetobacter aceti ATCC 23770 2.12 g/L Hong and Qiu
konjac powder tryptone (2008)
Sago by-product Other components are Beijerinkia fluminensis 0.47 g/L and Voon et al. (2019)
same as of HS medium WAUPM53 and 1.55 g/L for
Gluconacetobacter xylinus reference
0416 (Reference strain) strain
Grape skins aqueous extract, Organic or inorganic Gluconacetobacter sacchari 0.1 g/L Carreira et al. (2011)
cheese whey, crude nitrogen
glycerol and sulfite
pulping liquor
Waste as nitrogen source
Pineapple peel and sugar Glucose, fructose and Gluconacetobacter swingsii 2.8 g/L Castro et al. (2011)
cane juice sucrose
Others
Poor quality apple residues Apple glucose Acetobacter xylinum DSMZ- 8.6 g/L Casarica et al.
in combination with equivalents, glycerol, 2004 (2013)
glycerol ammonium sulfate and
citric acid
Pineapple and watermelon Sucrose, ammonium Komagataeibacter hansenii 125 g/L (on a Kumbhar et al.
peels sulfate and MCM B-967 wet weight (2015)
cycloheximide basis)

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 Cellulose

Table 3 Brewery/beverages industrial wastes utilized as a feedstock for the production of bacterial cellulose
Brewery/beverages Additional nutrients Microbe Maximum BC References
industrial wastes productivity

Waste as complex medium without any additional nutrients

Distillery effluent Nil Gluconacetobacter 8.5 g/L Jahan et al. (2017)
oboediens
Waste from beer Nil Gluconacetobacter 8.46 g/L Ha et al. (2008)
fermentation broth hansenii PJK KCTC
10505BP
Grape pomace/corn Nil Acetobacter xylinum 6.7 g/L Cerrutti et al. (2016)
steep liquor NRRL B-42
Wheat thin stillage and Nil Gluconacetobacter 6.19 g/L Revin et al. (2018)
cheese whey sucrofermentans B-11267
Black strap molasses Nil Gluconoacetobacter 3.05 g/L Khattak et al. (2015a)
and brewery molasses xylinum ATCC 23768
Apple pomace mixed Nil Gluconacetobacter 2.5 g/L Urbina et al. (2017)
with sugar cane medellinensis ID13488
Waste as carbon source with additional nutrients
Grape bagasse Diammonium phosphate and Gluconacetobacter xylinus 8.0 g/L Vazquez et al. (2013)
corn steep liquor NRRL B-42
Thin stillage (TS) TS and HS medium were Gluconacetobacter xylinus 6.26 g/L Wu and Liu (2013)
wastewater mixed with different portions BCRC 12334
to prepare TS-HS medium
Citrus peel and pomace Yeast extract, ethanol and Komagataeibacter xylinus 5.7 g/L Fan et al. (2016)
enzymolysis medium peptone CICC No.10529
Makgeolli sludge filtrate Other components are same as Gluconacetobacter xylinus 1.6 g/L Hyun et al. (2014)
of HS medium ATCCÒ 10788TM

converted into value added products through clean
biotechnological approaches (Yadav and Solomon
2006; Poddar and Sahu 2017). Several studies reported
the use of molasses medium as a carbon source for BC
production. The sugar cane molasses with/without the
presence of lignosulfonate was used as a carbon source
in HS medium. The results showed the increased
production of BC as compared to HS medium.
Moreover, the physico-chemical properties of BC
produced from different media were similar to each
other revealing a typical cellulose pattern having
characteristics IR spectra and crystallinity. However,
the viscosity of BC produced from molasses medium
is low as compared to HS medium (Keshk and
Sameshima 2006). The heat treated and heat-H2SO4
pretreated molasses were evaluated as sole carbon
source for BC production. The BC produced form HS
medium and HS-H2SO4 heat pretreated molasses
media showed similar FTIR and XRD pattern. More-
over, the BC produced form molasses medium has
greater mechanical strength (102 ± 16.8 MPa) and
similar water holding capacity as compared to BC
produced from HS medium (mechanical strength
74 ± 4.7 MPa) (Tyagi and Suresh 2016). Another
study reported the acid and enzymatic hydrolysates of
bagasse as feedstock for production of BC. The
physico-chemical structural analysis (microscopic
morphology, functional groups, and crystallinity) of
the BC samples obtained from these hydrolysates
showed similar characteristics but had the high water
holding capacity and low mechanical strength (Qi
et al. 2017). BC obtained from sugarcane molasses
was not genotoxic, cytotoxic or acutely toxic describ-
ing its potential as promising biomaterial for many
biological and medical uses (Pinto et al. 2016). Several
other studies describing the utilization of sugar
industries, pulp and lignocellulosic wastes for the
production of BC are described in Table 4. Residual
materials of pulp mills and lignocellulosic biorefiner-
ies consist of large amount of waste fiber sludge, pulp
waste and hot water extract. Most of these residual
materials consist of cellulose and hemicellulose. Few

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Cellulose

Table 4 Sugar Industries, pulp mills and lignocellulosic biorefineries wastes utilized as feedstock for the production of bacterial
cellulose
Sugar industries, pulp mills Additional nutrients Microbe Maximum BC References
and lignocellulosic productivity
biorefineries wastes

Waste as complex medium without any additional nutrients

Sweet lime pulp waste
Scum of sugarcane jaggery or
gur
Hot water extract
Waste as carbon source with additional nutrients
Waste fiber sludge sulfate
and sulfite fiber sludges
Molasses
Sugarcane molasses
Water-soluble fraction from
pulping waste liquor
Sugar cane molasses
Nil Komagataeibacter 6.30 g/L Dubey et al. (2018)
europaeus SGP37
Nil Gluconoacetobacter 2.51 g/L Khattak et al. (2015a)
xylinum ATCC
23768
Nil Acetobacter xylinus 0.15 g/L Kiziltas et al. (2015)
23769
Yeast extract and tryptone Gluconacetobacter 11 g/L Cavka et al. (2013)
xylinus ATCC
23770
Corn steep liquor Acetobacter xylinum 5.30 g/L Bae and Shoda (2005)
BPR2001
Mixed with different Komagataeibacter 4.01 g/L Machado et al. (2018)
portions with glucose of rhaeticus
HS medium
Other components are Acetobacter xylinum High yield Uraki et al. (2002)
same as of HS medium ATCC 10245
Amino acids, vitamins, Acetobacter xylinum 223% as compared Premjet et al. (2007)
minerals and ATCC 10245 to 100% in HS
carbohydrates medium

are also rich in sugars, organic acids, vitamins and
minerals. These wastes can be converted into high-
value products that can be commercialized (Alonso
et al. 2017). Due to complex compositions and
structures, these waste products are pretreated using
various enzymatic and thermochemical process to
detoxify the inhibitory compounds and to potentially
yield hydrolysates with high concentrations of reduc-
ing sugars. The sweet lime pulp waste (SLPW) was
evaluated as a cost-effective feedstock for the pro-
duction of BC under static batch and static intermittent
fed-batch cultivation. The physicochemical properties
of BC produced from SLPW medium were similar to
the BC produced from HS medium. The FTIR spectral
profiles of BC showed characteristic bands of cellu-
lose, however, minor shifting and broadening in the
intensity of the peaks were observed due to structural
changes in BC produced from waste medium. More-
over, microstructure of BC consisted of randomly
oriented cellulose nanofibers with similar fiber size
and distribution among all samples. XRD results
showed characteristic peaks similar to typical crys-
talline form of cellulose I (Dubey et al. 2018). The
biocompatible nature of BC produced from wastes is
important to advocate its importance in medical
applications. The biocompatibility studies of BC
produced from JS medium with skin fibroblast cells
showed the attachment and growth of fibroblast cells
on BC surface indicating the biocompatible and non-
toxic nature of the BC (Khattak et al. 2015a, b). The
utilization of these byproducts or wastes will not only
generate value added biomedical materials but will
also lower the consumption of non-renewable energy
and environmental pollution.
Textile mills and other industrial wastes
The industrialization and increase in world population
has led increased consumption of textile and fiber, that
resulted in tons of waste production by textile

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 Cellulose

Table 5 Textile mills and other industrial wastes utilized as feedstock for the production of bacterial cellulose
Textile mills and other Additional nutrients Microbe Maximum References
industrial wastes BC
productivity

Waste as complex medium without any additional nutrients

Crude glycerol, flour-rich Nil Komagataeibacter 13.3 g/L Tsouko et al. (2015)
waste streams and sucrofermentans
sunflower meal DSM 15973
hydrolysates
Carob and haricot bean Nil Gluconacetobacter 3.2 g/L Bilgi et al. (2016)
medium xylinus ATCC
700178
Waste yeast biomass Nil Gluconacetobacter 2.9 g/L Luo et al. (2017a, b)
xylinus CH001
Wastewater after pullulan Nil Gluconacetobacter 1.177 g/L Zhao et al. (2018)
polysaccharide xylinum BC-11
fermentation
Lipid fermentation Nil Gluconacetobacter 0.659 g/L Huang et al. (2016)
wastewater xylinus CH001
Saccharogenic liquid food Nil Acetobacter 0.46 g Moon et al. 2006)
wastes xylinum KJ1 cellulose/
g-reducing
sugar
Waste as carbon source with additional nutrients
Waste dyed cotton fabrics Peptone and yeast extract Gluconacetobacter 12.8 g/L Guo et al. (2016)
hydrolysate xylinus
Non-detoxified crude Pineapple and in combination with Gluconaceter 12.31 g/L Soemphol et al. (2018)
glycerol HS medium components xylinus BNKC19
Waste glycerol Carboxymethyl Cellulose Gluconacetobacter 3.4 g/L Kose et al. (2013)
intermedius
NEDO-01
Glycerol from biodiesel Yeast extract, ammonium sulphate, Gluconacetobacter 2.87 g/L Adnan et al. (2015)
industry potassium hydrogen xylinus DSM
orthophosphate and magnesium 46604
sulphate
Chlorella vulgaris algae Meat extract, peptone, NaCl and Komagataeibacter 1.104 g/L Uzyol and Saçan
based glucose ethanol hansenii DSMZ (2017)
Dry olive mill residue Nitrogen and phosphorus Gluconacetobacter 0.85 g/L Gomes et al. (2013)
sacchari

industries and consumers. This highlights the demand
for sustainable textile/fiber waste utilization, recycling
and management. Mostly, the natural sources utilized
in fiber/textile industry are rich in cellulosic content
and therefore, the generated wastes can be utilized for
producing various value-added products such as BC
after detoxification and hydrolysis treatments (Pen-
supa et al. 2017; Wang 2010). The cotton-based textile
wastes were pre-treated with the ionic liquid 1-allyl-
3-methylimidazolium chloride followed by enzymatic
hydrolysis. This resulted in hydrolysate having
reducing sugar concentration of 17 g/L. This hydro-
lysate was used as growth medium for BC production
and the results showed 83% higher yield (10.8 g/L)
and 79% higher tensile strength (0.070 MPa) of BC as
compared to, the production by glucose-based HS
medium (Hong et al. 2012). Previous studies reported
the cellulose-based textile wastes pre-treatment and
dissolution with the 85% concentrated phosphoric
acid, N-methylmorpholine oxide monohydrate, ionic
liquid 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride and
NaOH/urea solution. After regeneration of cellulose,

123
Cellulose
the solids obtained were subjected to enzymatic
hydrolysis (cellulase). The resultant hydrolysate was
evaluated as medium for BC production, which
yielded 1.88 g/L for discolored hydrolysate and
1.59 g/L for colored hydrolysate (Kuo et al. 2010).
The studies describing the use of textile mills wastes
and wastes from other industries for BC production are
listed in Table 5.
Conclusion and future prospects
Large quantity of waste is produced by different
industrial sectors on daily basis. The examples
described in this review are a few examples among
the number of possibilities of valorization of more
brewery, sugar, lignocellulosic and other industrial
wastes as complex media without any additional
nutrient source or as carbon and nitrogen sources with
additional nutrient source for BC production. Among
these wastes, agro-industrial wastes can be widely
used for BC production due to large scale availability
and higher BC productivity. Municipal waste is likely
to become an increasingly important source of waste
biomass with higher organic content due to the rapid
urbanization across the world and particularly in
economically developing countries. There is a great
potential for the upscale production of BC on an
industrial scale by using all the low-cost waste media
of industries discussed here especially those which do
not require complex pre-treatments, detoxification and
supplementation. In most of the cases, BC produced
from waste media have similar physico-chemical
properties and higher yield as compared to standard
media. The availability of these wastes in large
quantity can give an opportunity to waste producing
industry to sell it to commercial BC producers or
academic institutes. The obtained BC could be used as
a raw material by number of biomedical industries for
commercial and by scientists for research purposes.
These wastes can also be evaluated for the growth of
other microbes to obtain valuable byproducts such as
exopolysaccharides. From an environmental view-
point, the elimination of these industrial byproducts
will allow proper waste management thus reducing
environment and health hazards associated with these
wastes. This will be a viable solution to pollution
problems. However, a genuine progress in these
directions will require a close partnership among
industrialists, biotechnologists, chemical engineers
and environmentalists so that new ideas at lab scale
can be quickly transformed at industrial scale to
benefit mankind.
Acknowledgments This study was partially supported by the
COMSATS Research Grant Program (CRGP) (Grant No. 16-27/
CRGP/CIIT/ATD/16/1125).
Compliance with ethical standards
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no
conflict of interest.
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