Chapter 2 –

ACTIVE FILTERS
CONTENTS:
1. Introduction
2. Types of filters
3. Active-RC filters: first- and second-order functions
4. Two-integrator loop biquads
5. The second-order parallel LCR resonator: a review
6. Introduction to switched-capacitor filters
Appendix
Problems

Chapter II - EEL 7300 1

2.1 Introduction

inverse piezoelectric
effect piezoelectric effect
http://electronicsbus.com/surface-acoustic-wave-saw-filters-rf-frequency-filters/

http://www.edn.com/design/wireless-networking/4413442/SAW--BAW-and-the-future-of-wireless
2
Chapter II - EEL 7300
2.1 Introduction

Filter mask

http://www.vectron.com/products/saw/pdf_saw/TFS86E.pdf
3
Chapter II - EEL 7300
2.1 Introduction
Filters are frequency-selective networks

• linear (!)
• time-invariant (!)

• passive - R,L,C
Analog • active RC
Filters • MOSFET-C
• active - • Transconductance - C monolithic
• Switched-capacitor filters
(discrete time)

4
Chapter II - EEL 7300
2.1 Introduction
Why are filters needed? ▪ Noise attenuation

Anti aliasing and reconstruction filters

http://www.mathworks.com/help/hdlcoder/examples/lms-filter-noise-cancellation.html
5
Chapter II - EEL 7300
 2.1 Introduction
Why are filters needed?
▪Modification of the relative amounts of low frequency (bass) and high
frequency (treble) energies in audio recording systems.
▪In high fidelity audio systems, equalizing circuits are designed to compensate
for the frequency response of the speakers and the listening room.

Source: http://williamson-labs.com/basic-ele-pt-2.htm
6
Chapter II - EEL 7300
2.1 Introduction
Why are filters needed? ▪ Anti-aliasing and reconstruction filters

▪ Anti-aliasing filter

http://www.design-reuse.com/articles/20284/pipeline-sigma-delta-adc.html

7
Chapter II - EEL 7300
2.1 Introduction
Why are filters needed? ▪ Separation of channels of FDM systems

http://www.svengrahn.pp.se/sounds/
spectrgr/FMFMPAM.html

http://ecomputernotes.com/computernetworkingnotes/
network-technologies/what-is-fdm

8
Chapter II - EEL 7300
2.1 Introduction
Why are filters needed?

▪ Frequency selection

▪ Channel equalization to compensate for frequency

dependent channel response

▪ Noise removal

▪ Prediction of signals

▪ System identification

▪ …………………….
9
Chapter II - EEL 7300
2.1 Introduction
Image filtering

Original image Edge-enhanced image

Original (noisy) image Median-filtered image

10
http://lodev.org/cgtutor/filtering.html#Median Chapter II - EEL 7300
2.2 Types of filters
vi ( t ) → Vi (s)
+ +
Filter circuit v o ( t ) → Vo (s)
v (t) vo(t)
- i T(s) - V (s )
T (s ) = o
Vi (s)

T(s): filter transfer function (  Laplace transform of the filter impulse response)

T( j) = Re(T( j)) + j Im(T( j)) = T( j) e j()

magnitude phase

Gain: G () = 20 log T ( j) , dB

Phase: (), rad or degrees

11
Chapter II - EEL 7300
2.2 Types of filters
Distortionless transmission
vi(t) vo(t)
T(j)
vo (t ) = K  v i (t − t o )
vi(t)
Vi(j) Vo(j)
t2+to
t3 t3+to
t t
t1 t2 t1+to

vo (t)  K  Vi (jω)e-jωt o
v i (t )  Vi ( j)

T( j) = K T( j)
V ( j) K
( ) = − t o T( j) = o = K  Vi ( j)e − jto
Vi ( j)
delay = t o

0

Chapter II - EEL 7300

() = − t o 12
Magnitude characteristics – Ideal filters
Linear phase for all filters

13
Chapter II - EEL 7300
2.2 Types of filters
Specification of the magnitude characteristics – LP filter
T

14
Chapter II - EEL 7300
2.2 Types of filters
The filter transfer function
aM s M + aM −1s M −1 + ... + a1s + a0 N ( s )
T (s) = N −1
=
s + bN −1s + ...b1s + b0
N
D(s)
N: filter order

aM ( s − z1 )( s − z2 ) ... ( s − z M )
T (s) =
( s − p1 )( s − p2 ) ... ( s − pN )

z1,z2,...zM : transmission zeros/transfer-function zeros

p1,p2,...pN : transfer-function poles/natural modes

15
Chapter II - EEL 7300
Examples of pole-zero pattern
s-plane pole j
j zero



-a -a

s−0 s+a
T (s) = K  T (s) = K 
s+a ( s − p )( s − p )
 s+a
T ( j ) = K  T (s) = K 
 2 + a2 s
s 2 + o + o 2
 −1  Q
 ( ) = − tg
2 a BP filter
HP filter

16
Chapter II - EEL 7300
 Some basic building blocks of active-RC filters

R2
R1

v
Inverting amplifier
o
vs +

R1 1
sC
vo Integrator
vs +

Differentiator
1 v
o
vs sC +

17
Chapter II - EEL 7300
2.3. First- and second-order filter functions

Active-RC 18
Chapter II - EEL 7300
Magnitude and phase responses of the first-order low-pass filter (lossy integrator)

The Inverting Amplifier The Lossless Inverting Integrator

Gain (dB)
20log(1/R1C) The Lossy Inverting Integrator
20log(R2/R1)

 
R  
20log  
R2 / R1 -20dB/decade VO 1
 2  ( j ) = − 2  
1 + (  R C )
2
VS R1  1 + j R2C 
 2 
10-2 10-1 100 101 102 R2C
-3dB (normalized) frequency
Phase (o)

180

180 − arctan ( R2C ) 135

90
10-2 10-1 100 101 102 R2C
19
2.3. First- and second-order filter functions

Active-RC

20
Chapter II - EEL 7300
2.3. First- and second-order filter functions

Chapter II - EEL 7300 21

2.4 Two-integrator-loop biquads
The synthesis of a high-pass filter using integrators
02 0
VX VX = KVi − 2 VX − VX 
VX
=
Ks 2
VX = Vhp
s Qs Vi s 2 + 0 s +  2
0
Q
VX

VX
Vhp 0 02
− Vhp Vhp
s s2

02
2
Vhp = V
s lp

0
Vhp − Vhp = V
s bp

Derivation of a block diagram realization of the two-

integrator-loop biquad.
Chapter II - EEL 7300 22
2.4 Two-integrator-loop biquads
Problem: (i) Determine the values of K, Q, and 0 shown in the block diagram in
terms of the resistances and capacitance of the KHN (Kerwin-Huelsman-Newcomb)
biquad filter shown below without deducing the transfer function. (ii) Derive the
transfer function Vlp(s)/Vi(s) of the KHN filter.

02
Vhp = Vlp
s2
0
Vhp − Vhp = V
s bp
Chapter II - EEL 7300 23
 2.5. The second-order parallel LCR resonator

(a),(b) and (c) have the same (poles) natural modes (same dead network)

N ( s)
T ( s) =
D( s )

Low pass: N(s)=o2 High pass: N(s)=s2

o 1
D( s ) = s 2 + s + o2 ; o = Q = oCR
Q LC

N(s)=s2+ o2
Band pass: N(s)= ( o Q) s Notch:
Chapter II - EEL 7300 24
 The Antoniou inductance-simulation circuit

Problem: Check the

correctness of the equations
shown in the schematic of
the Antoniou inductance-
simulation circuit

V1 RR R
Z in = = sC4 1 3 5
I1 R2

Figure 12.20 (a) The Antoniou inductance-simulation circuit. (b) Analysis of the circuit assuming ideal op amps. The order of the analysis steps is
indicated by the circled numbers.
Chapter II - EEL 7300 25
 Op amp–RC resonator obtained by replacing the inductor L in the LCR
resonator with a simulated inductance realized by the Antoniou circuit

Figure 12.21 (a) An LCR resonator. (b) An op amp–RC resonator obtained by replacing the inductor L in the LCR resonator of (a) with a
simulated inductance realized by the Antoniou circuit of Fig. 12.20(a). (c) Implementation of the buffer amplifier K.

Chapter II - EEL 7300 26

2.6 Introduction to switched-capacitor filters
Basic principle: charge conservation
Switched-capacitor (SC) The opamp inputs are gates
C1 is equivalent to R1 of MOSFETs → i+=i−=0

TC
R1 
C1

VG: virtual ground

Active-RC filters are

continuous-time processors If  is high → switch is ON
If  is low → switch is OFF
SC filters are discrete-
time processors

Switched-capacitor filter technique. (a) Active-RC integrator. (b) Switched-capacitor integrator.

(c) Two-phase (non-overlapping) clock

Chapter II - EEL 7300 27

 2.6 Introduction to switched-capacitor filters
−q2+

C2
+
q1
vo vo
vi
−

SC integrator
During 1, C1 charges up to During 2, C1
the current value of vi discharges into C2
n-1: q1 = q1 ( n − 1) ; q2 = q2 ( n − 1)
Charge conservation n-1/2: q1 ( n − 1/ 2 ) = 0; q2 ( n − 1/ 2 ) = q2 ( n − 1) − q1 ( n − 1)

n-1 n-1/2 n n: q2 ( n ) = q2 ( n − 1/ 2 ) = q2 ( n − 1) − q1 ( n − 1)
C2vo ( n ) = C2vo ( n − 1) − C1vi ( n − 1)

vo ( n ) = vo ( n − 1) − ( C1 / C2 ) vi ( n − 1)
VO ( z ) C /C
In the Z-domain = − 1 −12 z −1
VI ( z ) 1− z
n: discrete time
(normalized to TC) Chapter II - EEL 7300 28
 2.6 Introduction to switched-capacitor filters
−q2+

C2
+
q1
vo vo
vi
−

q1
10
Example C1=C2= 1 pF, TC= 1s, 00
1 2 3 4 t(s)
vi= 10 mV, q2(0)=0. -10

q (fC)
-20 q2
-30
Step response -40

Active-RC integrator q2 (t ) = − ( vi / R1 ) t -50 Continuous-time

(CT) integrator R1  TC / C1
SC integrator q2 (t )  −C1 ( t / TC ) vi

Chapter II - EEL 7300 29

2.6 Introduction to switched-capacitor filters
1 t
vo ( t ) = vo ( 0 ) − 0 vi ( t )dt vo ( n ) = vo ( n − 1) − ( C1 / C2 ) vi ( n − 1)
R1C2

C2T 1 C2
Time-constant=R1C2 Time-constant = C2 R1 = =
n-1 n-1/2 n C1 f ck C1
Accuracy of time constant is
dependent on:
• capacitive ratio
• clock frequency

If the clock frequency is much higher than the Accuracy is independent of:
maximum signal frequency, the CT model of the SC • absolute values of C´s
is an acceptable approximation of the DT model;
otherwise, an accurate time (frequency) domain
model of the switched circuit must be used.
Chapter II - EEL 7300 30
2.6 Introduction to switched-capacitor filters

(a)

(a) Parasitic-sensitive and (b) Parasitic-insensitive

switched-capacitor integrators.
Chapter II - EEL 7300 31
2.6 Introduction to switched-capacitor filters

~R equivalent

Inverting integrator Non-inverting integrator

(a) A two-integrator-loop active-RC biquad and
(b) its switched-capacitor counterpart.
Chapter II - EEL 7300 32
A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smith, Microelectronic Circuits, any
edition.
R. C. Jaeger and T. Blalock, Microelectronic Circuit Design,
McGraw-Hill, New York, any edition.
B. Razavi, Fundamentals of Microelectronics, Wiley, 2008.
S. Noceti Filho. Filtros seletores de sinais. Florianópolis, SC:
Editora da UFSC, 1998.

Chapter II - EEL 7300 33

Appendix 2.1 Introduction to OTA-C filters
OTA - Operational transconductance amplifier

+ + + io=Gmvi
vi Gmvi vi Gm
_ _ _

(a) (b)

ii
_
+ + + io
vi Gm vi Gm vo
_ _ _
+ C
(c) (d)

(a) Small-signal equivalent circuit of the ideal transconductor, (b) its symbol, (c) the use of
a transconductor as a resistor (ii/vi=Gm), and (d) the Gm-C integrator.
Gm can be tuned – Time constants (C/ Gm) can be adjusted
Chapter II - EEL 7300 34
Appendix 2.1 Introduction to OTA-C filters
A CMOS OTA (nonlinear block)
VDD
1:1

M3 M4 io Gmvi
iO

M1 M2
+ +
vin/2 -vin/2
- -
IT
(b)

Gm can be tuned by means of current IT

Chapter II - EEL 7300 35
Appendix 2.1 Introduction to OTA-C filters

vi R vo
_
vo
VO 1
C VO 1 Gm
(s) =
( )
s = + VI 1 + sC / Gm
VI 1 + sCR vi C
(a) (b)

vi +
Gm1 _
VO G /G
( s ) = m1 m 2
_ Gm2 vo
C
+ VI 1 + sC / Gm 2

(c)

Problem: Derive the transfer functions of

the low-pass filters shown in this slide

Chapter II - EEL 7300 36

The low pass Sallen-Key biquad: Derive the transfer functions
of the low pass filter given below.
Ideal op amp: A→ 
H (s ) =
ao i→ 0
b 2s 2 + b1s + bo

i3 C1
i1 = i 2 + i 3 →
i1 i2 i=0 V − V1 V1 − V+
1 → IN = + (V1 − Vo )sC1
vIN v1 3 R1 R2
R1 R2 A→
2
vO V1 − V+
C2 = V+ sC2
R2
V+ = Vo

Low pass filter 1

o2 =
R1R 2C1C 2
1
T(s ) = 2 C1 R 1R 2
s (R1R 2C1C2 ) + sC 2 (R1 + R 2 ) + 1 Q= 
C2 R1 + R 2

Chapter II - EEL 7300 37

The Sallen-Key biquad: Derive the transfer functions of the
high pass and band pass filters given below.

High pass filter

R1 s 2 R 1 R 2C1C2
T(s)= 2 →
s R 1 R 2C1C2 +sR 1 ( C1 +C2 ) +1
1

v1 3

vIN C1 C2 2

R2 vOUT R2 C1C2
→ Q= ×
R 1 C1 +C2

Bandpass filter
C1 R2 -sR 2C2
T(s)= →
R1 s 2 R 1 R 2C1C2 +sR 1 ( C1 +C2 ) +1
2
R2 C1C2
vIN C2 3
vOUT → Q= ×
1 R1 C1 +C2

Chapter II - EEL 7300 38

In the Tow-Thomas biquad circuit shown in (b), derive the equations
for the band pass and low pass outputs

(a) Derivation of an alternative two-integrator-loop biquad in which all op amps are used in a single-ended fashion.
(b) The resulting circuit, known as the Tow–Thomas biquad.
Chapter II - EEL 7300 39
Derive the transfer functions of the filters given below without writing the node
equations. Hint: Use the results of slide 25
1
n = o = ???
L1C1

Chapter II - EEL 7300 40

 The Antoniou inductance-simulation circuit

Problem: Check the

correctness of the equations
shown in the schematic of
the Antoniou inductance-
simulation circuit

V1 RR R
Z in = = sC4 1 3 5
I1 R2

Figure 12.20 (a) The Antoniou inductance-simulation circuit. (b) Analysis of the circuit assuming ideal op amps. The order of the analysis steps is
indicated by the circled numbers.
Chapter II - EEL 7300 41
Determine the transfer functions of the second-order filters below that use
the Antoniou inductance-simulation circuit

Figure 12.22 Realizations for the various second-order filter functions using the op amp–RC resonator of Fig. 12.21(b): (a) LP, (b) HP, (c) BP,

Chapter II - EEL 7300 42